This is python.info, produced by makeinfo version 7.1 from python.texi. Python 3.13.7, August 14, 2025 Author name not set Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation INFO-DIR-SECTION Miscellaneous START-INFO-DIR-ENTRY * python: (python.info). One line description of project END-INFO-DIR-ENTRY Generated by Sphinx 8.2.3.  File: python.info, Node: Top, Next: What’s New in Python, Up: (dir) Python ****** Python 3.13.7, August 14, 2025 Author name not set Copyright © 2001-2025, Python Software Foundation * Menu: * What’s New in Python:: * The Python Tutorial:: * Python Setup and Usage:: * The Python Language Reference:: * The Python Standard Library:: * Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter:: * Python/C API Reference Manual:: * Installing Python Modules:: * Python HOWTOs:: * Python Frequently Asked Questions:: * Deprecations:: * Glossary:: * About this documentation:: * Dealing with Bugs:: * Copyright:: * History and License:: * Python Module Index:: * Index:: -- The Detailed Node Listing -- What’s New in Python * What’s New In Python 3.13: What’s New In Python 3 13. * What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12. * What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11. * What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10. * What’s New In Python 3.9: What’s New In Python 3 9. * What’s New In Python 3.8: What’s New In Python 3 8. * What’s New In Python 3.7: What’s New In Python 3 7. * What’s New In Python 3.6: What’s New In Python 3 6. * What’s New In Python 3.5: What’s New In Python 3 5. * What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4. * What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3. * What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2. * What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1. * What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0. * What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7. * What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6. * What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5. * What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4. * What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3. * What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2. * What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1. * What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0. * Changelog:: What’s New In Python 3.13 * Summary – Release Highlights:: * New Features:: * Other Language Changes:: * New Modules:: * Improved Modules:: * Optimizations:: * Removed Modules And APIs:: * New Deprecations:: * CPython Bytecode Changes:: * C API Changes:: * Build Changes:: * Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13. * Regression Test Changes:: * Notable changes in 3.13.1: Notable changes in 3 13 1. * Notable changes in 3.13.4: Notable changes in 3 13 4. New Features * A better interactive interpreter:: * Improved error messages:: * Free-threaded CPython:: * An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. * Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals. * Support for mobile platforms:: Improved Modules * argparse:: * array:: * ast:: * asyncio:: * base64:: * compileall:: * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures. * configparser:: * copy:: * ctypes:: * dbm:: * dis:: * doctest:: * email:: * enum:: * fractions:: * glob:: * importlib:: * io:: * ipaddress:: * itertools:: * marshal:: * math:: * mimetypes:: * mmap:: * multiprocessing:: * os:: * os.path: os path. * pathlib:: * pdb:: * queue:: * random:: * re:: * shutil:: * site:: * sqlite3:: * ssl:: * statistics:: * subprocess:: * sys:: * tempfile:: * time:: * tkinter:: * traceback:: * types:: * typing:: * unicodedata:: * venv:: * warnings:: * xml:: * zipimport:: Removed Modules And APIs * PEP 594; Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library. * 2to3:: * builtins:: * configparser: configparser<2>. * importlib.metadata: importlib metadata. * locale:: * opcode:: * optparse:: * pathlib: pathlib<2>. * re: re<2>. * tkinter.tix: tkinter tix. * turtle:: * typing: typing<2>. * unittest:: * urllib:: * webbrowser:: New Deprecations * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16. * Pending Removal in Future Versions:: C API Changes * New Features: New Features<2>. * Changed C APIs:: * Limited C API Changes:: * Removed C APIs:: * Deprecated C APIs:: Deprecated C APIs * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>. Porting to Python 3.13 * Changes in the Python API:: * Changes in the C API:: Notable changes in 3.13.1 * sys: sys<2>. Notable changes in 3.13.4 * os.path: os path<2>. * tarfile:: What’s New In Python 3.12 * Summary – Release highlights:: * New Features: New Features<3>. * New Features Related to Type Hints:: * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>. * New Modules: New Modules<2>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<2>. * CPython bytecode changes:: * Demos and Tools:: * Deprecated:: * Removed:: * Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12. * Build Changes: Build Changes<2>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<2>. New Features * PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax. * PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings. * PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL. * PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython. * PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python. * PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining. * Improved Error Messages:: New Features Related to Type Hints * PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing. * PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing. Improved Modules * array: array<2>. * asyncio: asyncio<2>. * calendar:: * csv:: * dis: dis<2>. * fractions: fractions<2>. * importlib.resources: importlib resources. * inspect:: * itertools: itertools<2>. * math: math<2>. * os: os<2>. * os.path: os path<3>. * pathlib: pathlib<3>. * platform:: * pdb: pdb<2>. * random: random<2>. * shutil: shutil<2>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<2>. * statistics: statistics<2>. * sys: sys<3>. * tempfile: tempfile<2>. * threading:: * tkinter: tkinter<2>. * tokenize:: * types: types<2>. * typing: typing<3>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<2>. * unittest: unittest<2>. * uuid:: Deprecated * Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13. * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>. Removed * asynchat and asyncore:: * configparser: configparser<3>. * distutils:: * ensurepip:: * enum: enum<2>. * ftplib:: * gzip:: * hashlib:: * importlib: importlib<2>. * imp:: * io: io<2>. * locale: locale<2>. * smtpd:: * sqlite3: sqlite3<3>. * ssl: ssl<2>. * unittest: unittest<3>. * webbrowser: webbrowser<2>. * xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree. * zipimport: zipimport<2>. * Others:: Porting to Python 3.12 * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>. C API Changes * New Features: New Features<4>. * Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<2>. * Removed: Removed<2>. Deprecated * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>. What’s New In Python 3.11 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>. * New Features: New Features<5>. * New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>. * Other CPython Implementation Changes:: * New Modules: New Modules<3>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<3>. * Faster CPython:: * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<3>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12. * Removed: Removed<3>. * Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11. * Build Changes: Build Changes<3>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<3>. * Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4. * Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5. New Features * PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks. * PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*. * PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes. * Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements. New Features Related to Type Hints * PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics. * PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required. * PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type. * PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type. * PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms. * PEP 563 may not be the future:: Improved Modules * asyncio: asyncio<3>. * contextlib:: * dataclasses:: * datetime:: * enum: enum<3>. * fcntl:: * fractions: fractions<3>. * functools:: * gzip: gzip<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<2>. * IDLE and idlelib:: * inspect: inspect<2>. * locale: locale<3>. * logging:: * math: math<3>. * operator:: * os: os<3>. * pathlib: pathlib<4>. * re: re<3>. * shutil: shutil<3>. * socket:: * sqlite3: sqlite3<4>. * string:: * sys: sys<4>. * sysconfig:: * tempfile: tempfile<3>. * threading: threading<2>. * time: time<2>. * tkinter: tkinter<3>. * traceback: traceback<2>. * typing: typing<4>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<3>. * unittest: unittest<4>. * venv: venv<2>. * warnings: warnings<2>. * zipfile:: Faster CPython * Faster Startup:: * Faster Runtime:: * Misc:: * FAQ:: * About:: Faster Startup * Frozen imports / Static code objects:: Faster Runtime * Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames. * Inlined Python function calls:: * PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter. FAQ * How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?:: * Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?. * I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?. * Is there a JIT compiler?:: CPython bytecode changes * New opcodes:: * Replaced opcodes:: * Changed/removed opcodes:: Deprecated * Language/Builtins:: * Modules:: * Standard Library:: C API Changes * New Features: New Features<6>. * Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<4>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>. * Removed: Removed<4>. Notable changes in 3.11.4 * tarfile: tarfile<2>. Notable changes in 3.11.5 * OpenSSL:: What’s New In Python 3.10 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>. * New Features: New Features<7>. * New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>. * New Modules: New Modules<4>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<4>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<5>. * Removed: Removed<5>. * Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>. * Build Changes: Build Changes<4>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<4>. * Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7. * Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8. * Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12. New Features * Parenthesized context managers:: * Better error messages:: * PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. * PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching. * Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option:: Better error messages * SyntaxErrors:: * IndentationErrors:: * AttributeErrors:: * NameErrors:: PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching * Syntax and operations:: * Declarative approach:: * Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal. * Patterns with a literal and variable:: * Patterns and classes:: * Nested patterns:: * Complex patterns and the wildcard:: * Guard:: * Other Key Features:: Simple pattern: match to a literal * Behavior without the wildcard:: Patterns and classes * Patterns with positional parameters:: New Features Related to Type Hints * PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator. * PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables. * PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias. * PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards. Improved Modules * asyncio: asyncio<4>. * argparse: argparse<2>. * array: array<3>. * asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd. * base64: base64<2>. * bdb:: * bisect:: * codecs:: * collections.abc: collections abc. * contextlib: contextlib<2>. * curses:: * dataclasses: dataclasses<2>. * distutils: distutils<2>. * doctest: doctest<2>. * encodings:: * enum: enum<4>. * fileinput:: * faulthandler:: * gc:: * glob: glob<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<3>. * hmac:: * IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>. * importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>. * inspect: inspect<3>. * itertools: itertools<3>. * linecache:: * os: os<4>. * os.path: os path<4>. * pathlib: pathlib<5>. * platform: platform<2>. * pprint:: * py_compile:: * pyclbr:: * shelve:: * statistics: statistics<3>. * site: site<2>. * socket: socket<2>. * ssl: ssl<3>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<5>. * sys: sys<5>. * _thread:: * threading: threading<3>. * traceback: traceback<3>. * types: types<3>. * typing: typing<5>. * unittest: unittest<5>. * urllib.parse: urllib parse. * xml: xml<2>. * zipimport: zipimport<3>. dataclasses * __slots__:: * Keyword-only fields:: Porting to Python 3.10 * Changes in the Python syntax:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>. C API Changes * PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI. * New Features: New Features<8>. * Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<6>. * Removed: Removed<6>. Notable changes in 3.10.12 * tarfile: tarfile<3>. What’s New In Python 3.9 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>. * You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code:: * New Features: New Features<9>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>. * New Modules: New Modules<5>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<5>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<7>. * Removed: Removed<7>. * Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9. * Build Changes: Build Changes<5>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<5>. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.1: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.2: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5. * Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14. * Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17. New Features * Dictionary Merge & Update Operators:: * New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes:: * Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections:: * New Parser:: New Modules * zoneinfo:: * graphlib:: Improved Modules * ast: ast<2>. * asyncio: asyncio<5>. * compileall: compileall<2>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>. * curses: curses<2>. * datetime: datetime<2>. * distutils: distutils<3>. * fcntl: fcntl<2>. * ftplib: ftplib<2>. * gc: gc<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<4>. * http:: * IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<3>. * imaplib:: * importlib: importlib<3>. * inspect: inspect<4>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<2>. * math: math<4>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>. * nntplib:: * os: os<5>. * pathlib: pathlib<6>. * pdb: pdb<3>. * poplib:: * pprint: pprint<2>. * pydoc:: * random: random<3>. * signal:: * smtplib:: * socket: socket<3>. * time: time<3>. * sys: sys<6>. * tracemalloc:: * typing: typing<6>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<4>. * venv: venv<3>. * xml: xml<3>. Porting to Python 3.9 * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<4>. C API Changes * New Features: New Features<10>. * Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9<2>. * Removed: Removed<8>. Notable changes in Python 3.9.1 * typing: typing<7>. * macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support. Notable changes in Python 3.9.2 * collections.abc: collections abc<2>. * urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>. Notable changes in Python 3.9.5 * urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>. Notable changes in 3.9.17 * tarfile: tarfile<4>. What’s New In Python 3.8 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<5>. * New Features: New Features<11>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>. * New Modules: New Modules<6>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<6>. * Build and C API Changes:: * Deprecated: Deprecated<8>. * API and Feature Removals:: * Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.1: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.8: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.12: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12. * Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14. * Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17. New Features * Assignment expressions:: * Positional-only parameters:: * Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files:: * Debug build uses the same ABI as release build:: * f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging:: * PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks. * PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration. * PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython. * Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers:: Improved Modules * ast: ast<3>. * asyncio: asyncio<6>. * builtins: builtins<2>. * collections:: * cProfile:: * csv: csv<2>. * curses: curses<3>. * ctypes: ctypes<2>. * datetime: datetime<3>. * functools: functools<2>. * gc: gc<3>. * gettext:: * gzip: gzip<3>. * IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<4>. * inspect: inspect<5>. * io: io<3>. * itertools: itertools<4>. * json.tool: json tool. * logging: logging<2>. * math: math<5>. * mmap: mmap<2>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>. * os: os<6>. * os.path: os path<5>. * pathlib: pathlib<7>. * pickle:: * plistlib:: * pprint: pprint<3>. * py_compile: py_compile<2>. * shlex:: * shutil: shutil<4>. * socket: socket<4>. * ssl: ssl<4>. * statistics: statistics<4>. * sys: sys<7>. * tarfile: tarfile<5>. * threading: threading<4>. * tokenize: tokenize<2>. * tkinter: tkinter<4>. * time: time<4>. * typing: typing<8>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<5>. * unittest: unittest<6>. * venv: venv<4>. * weakref:: * xml: xml<4>. * xmlrpc:: Porting to Python 3.8 * Changes in Python behavior:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<4>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<5>. * Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>. Notable changes in Python 3.8.10 * macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>. Notable changes in Python 3.8.10 * urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>. Notable changes in Python 3.8.12 * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>. Notable changes in 3.8.17 * tarfile: tarfile<6>. What’s New In Python 3.7 * Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>. * New Features: New Features<12>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>. * New Modules: New Modules<7>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<7>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<6>. * Build Changes: Build Changes<6>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<7>. * Other CPython Implementation Changes: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>. * Deprecated Python Behavior:: * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods. * Deprecated functions and types of the C API:: * Platform Support Removals:: * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>. * Module Removals:: * Windows-only Changes:: * Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11. * Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14. New Features * PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations. * PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. * PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. * PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint. * PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage. * PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes. * PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution. * PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__. * PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types. * PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files. * PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations. * Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev. New Modules * contextvars:: * dataclasses: dataclasses<3>. * importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>. Improved Modules * argparse: argparse<3>. * asyncio: asyncio<7>. * binascii:: * calendar: calendar<2>. * collections: collections<2>. * compileall: compileall<3>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>. * contextlib: contextlib<3>. * cProfile: cProfile<2>. * crypt:: * datetime: datetime<4>. * dbm: dbm<2>. * decimal:: * dis: dis<3>. * distutils: distutils<4>. * enum: enum<5>. * functools: functools<3>. * gc: gc<4>. * hmac: hmac<2>. * http.client: http client. * http.server: http server. * idlelib and IDLE:: * importlib: importlib<4>. * io: io<4>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<3>. * itertools: itertools<5>. * locale: locale<4>. * logging: logging<3>. * math: math<6>. * mimetypes: mimetypes<2>. * msilib:: * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>. * os: os<7>. * pathlib: pathlib<8>. * pdb: pdb<4>. * py_compile: py_compile<3>. * pydoc: pydoc<2>. * queue: queue<2>. * re: re<4>. * signal: signal<2>. * socket: socket<5>. * socketserver:: * sqlite3: sqlite3<6>. * ssl: ssl<5>. * string: string<2>. * subprocess: subprocess<2>. * sys: sys<8>. * time: time<5>. * tkinter: tkinter<5>. * tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>. * types: types<4>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<6>. * unittest: unittest<7>. * unittest.mock: unittest mock. * urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>. * uu:: * uuid: uuid<2>. * warnings: warnings<3>. * xml: xml<5>. * xml.etree: xml etree. * xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server. * zipapp:: * zipfile: zipfile<2>. Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods * aifc:: * asyncio: asyncio<8>. * collections: collections<3>. * dbm: dbm<3>. * enum: enum<6>. * gettext: gettext<2>. * importlib: importlib<5>. * locale: locale<5>. * macpath:: * threading: threading<5>. * socket: socket<6>. * ssl: ssl<6>. * sunau:: * sys: sys<9>. * wave:: Porting to Python 3.7 * Changes in Python Behavior:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<7>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<5>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<6>. * Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>. * Other CPython implementation changes:: What’s New In Python 3.6 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<6>. * New Features: New Features<13>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>. * New Modules: New Modules<8>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<8>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<8>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>. * Other Improvements:: * Deprecated: Deprecated<9>. * Removed: Removed<9>. * Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14. New Features * PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals. * PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations. * PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals. * PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators. * PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions. * PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation. * PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements. * PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol. * PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation. * PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8. * PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8. * PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order. * PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order. * New dict implementation:: * PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython. * PYTHONMALLOC environment variable:: * DTrace and SystemTap probing support:: New Modules * secrets:: Improved Modules * array: array<4>. * ast: ast<4>. * asyncio: asyncio<9>. * binascii: binascii<2>. * cmath:: * collections: collections<4>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>. * contextlib: contextlib<4>. * datetime: datetime<5>. * decimal: decimal<2>. * distutils: distutils<5>. * email: email<2>. * encodings: encodings<2>. * enum: enum<7>. * faulthandler: faulthandler<2>. * fileinput: fileinput<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<5>. * http.client: http client<2>. * idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>. * importlib: importlib<6>. * inspect: inspect<6>. * json:: * logging: logging<4>. * math: math<7>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>. * os: os<8>. * pathlib: pathlib<9>. * pdb: pdb<5>. * pickle: pickle<2>. * pickletools:: * pydoc: pydoc<3>. * random: random<4>. * re: re<5>. * readline:: * rlcompleter:: * shlex: shlex<2>. * site: site<3>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<7>. * socket: socket<7>. * socketserver: socketserver<2>. * ssl: ssl<7>. * statistics: statistics<5>. * struct:: * subprocess: subprocess<3>. * sys: sys<10>. * telnetlib:: * time: time<6>. * timeit:: * tkinter: tkinter<6>. * traceback: traceback<4>. * tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>. * typing: typing<9>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<7>. * unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>. * urllib.request: urllib request. * urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser. * venv: venv<5>. * warnings: warnings<4>. * winreg:: * winsound:: * xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client. * zipfile: zipfile<3>. * zlib:: Deprecated * New Keywords:: * Deprecated Python behavior:: * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>. * xml: xml<6>. * Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>. * Deprecated Build Options:: Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods * asynchat:: * asyncore:: * dbm: dbm<4>. * distutils: distutils<6>. * grp:: * importlib: importlib<7>. * os: os<9>. * re: re<6>. * ssl: ssl<8>. * tkinter: tkinter<7>. * venv: venv<6>. Removed * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>. Porting to Python 3.6 * Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<8>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<6>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<7>. Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 * New make regen-all build target:: * Removal of make touch build target:: What’s New In Python 3.5 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<7>. * New Features: New Features<14>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>. * New Modules: New Modules<9>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<9>. * Other module-level changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<9>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<10>. * Removed: Removed<10>. * Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5. * Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4. New Features * PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax:: * PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication:: * PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations:: * PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray:: * PEP 484 - Type Hints:: * PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator. * PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR. * PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators. * PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality. * PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments. * PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files. * PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization. New Modules * typing: typing<10>. * zipapp: zipapp<2>. Improved Modules * argparse: argparse<4>. * asyncio: asyncio<10>. * bz2:: * cgi:: * cmath: cmath<2>. * code:: * collections: collections<5>. * collections.abc: collections abc<3>. * compileall: compileall<4>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>. * configparser: configparser<4>. * contextlib: contextlib<5>. * csv: csv<3>. * curses: curses<4>. * dbm: dbm<5>. * difflib:: * distutils: distutils<7>. * doctest: doctest<3>. * email: email<3>. * enum: enum<8>. * faulthandler: faulthandler<3>. * functools: functools<4>. * glob: glob<3>. * gzip: gzip<4>. * heapq:: * http: http<2>. * http.client: http client<3>. * idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>. * imaplib: imaplib<2>. * imghdr:: * importlib: importlib<8>. * inspect: inspect<7>. * io: io<5>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<4>. * json: json<2>. * linecache: linecache<2>. * locale: locale<6>. * logging: logging<5>. * lzma:: * math: math<8>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>. * operator: operator<2>. * os: os<10>. * pathlib: pathlib<10>. * pickle: pickle<3>. * poplib: poplib<2>. * re: re<7>. * readline: readline<2>. * selectors:: * shutil: shutil<5>. * signal: signal<3>. * smtpd: smtpd<2>. * smtplib: smtplib<2>. * sndhdr:: * socket: socket<8>. * ssl: ssl<9>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<8>. * subprocess: subprocess<4>. * sys: sys<11>. * sysconfig: sysconfig<2>. * tarfile: tarfile<7>. * threading: threading<6>. * time: time<7>. * timeit: timeit<2>. * tkinter: tkinter<8>. * traceback: traceback<5>. * types: types<5>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<8>. * unittest: unittest<8>. * unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>. * urllib: urllib<2>. * wsgiref:: * xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>. * xml.sax: xml sax. * zipfile: zipfile<4>. ssl * Memory BIO Support:: * Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support:: * Other Changes:: Deprecated * New Keywords: New Keywords<2>. * Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>. * Unsupported Operating Systems:: * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>. Removed * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>. Porting to Python 3.5 * Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>. * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<9>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<7>. Notable changes in Python 3.5.4 * New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>. * Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>. What’s New In Python 3.4 * Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. * New Features: New Features<15>. * New Modules: New Modules<10>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<10>. * CPython Implementation Changes:: * Deprecated: Deprecated<11>. * Removed: Removed<11>. * Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4. * Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3. New Features * PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations. * PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable. * Improvements to Codec Handling:: * PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>. PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations * Bootstrapping pip By Default:: * Documentation Changes:: New Modules * asyncio: asyncio<11>. * ensurepip: ensurepip<2>. * enum: enum<9>. * pathlib: pathlib<11>. * selectors: selectors<2>. * statistics: statistics<6>. * tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>. Improved Modules * abc:: * aifc: aifc<2>. * argparse: argparse<5>. * audioop:: * base64: base64<3>. * collections: collections<6>. * colorsys:: * contextlib: contextlib<6>. * dbm: dbm<6>. * dis: dis<4>. * doctest: doctest<4>. * email: email<4>. * filecmp:: * functools: functools<5>. * gc: gc<5>. * glob: glob<4>. * hashlib: hashlib<6>. * hmac: hmac<3>. * html:: * http: http<3>. * idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>. * importlib: importlib<9>. * inspect: inspect<8>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<5>. * logging: logging<6>. * marshal: marshal<2>. * mmap: mmap<3>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>. * operator: operator<3>. * os: os<11>. * pdb: pdb<6>. * pickle: pickle<4>. * plistlib: plistlib<2>. * poplib: poplib<3>. * pprint: pprint<4>. * pty:: * pydoc: pydoc<4>. * re: re<8>. * resource:: * select:: * shelve: shelve<2>. * shutil: shutil<6>. * smtpd: smtpd<3>. * smtplib: smtplib<3>. * socket: socket<9>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<9>. * ssl: ssl<10>. * stat:: * struct: struct<2>. * subprocess: subprocess<5>. * sunau: sunau<2>. * sys: sys<12>. * tarfile: tarfile<8>. * textwrap:: * threading: threading<7>. * traceback: traceback<6>. * types: types<6>. * urllib: urllib<3>. * unittest: unittest<9>. * venv: venv<7>. * wave: wave<2>. * weakref: weakref<2>. * xml.etree: xml etree<2>. * zipfile: zipfile<5>. CPython Implementation Changes * PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators. * PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization. * PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm. * PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic. * Other Build and C API Changes:: * Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>. * Significant Optimizations:: Deprecated * Deprecations in the Python API:: * Deprecated Features:: Removed * Operating Systems No Longer Supported:: * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<5>. * Code Cleanups:: Porting to Python 3.4 * Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<10>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<8>. Changed in 3.4.3 * PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients. What’s New In Python 3.3 * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<8>. * PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments. * PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages. * PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation. * PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation. * PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows. * PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy. * PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator. * PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context. * PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals. * PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions. * PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary. * PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object. * PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation. * Using importlib as the Implementation of Import:: * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>. * A Finer-Grained Import Lock:: * Builtin functions and types:: * New Modules: New Modules<11>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<11>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<10>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<12>. * Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3. PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation * Features:: * API changes:: PEP 393: Flexible String Representation * Functionality:: * Performance and resource usage:: PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation * SimpleNamespace:: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import * New APIs:: * Visible Changes:: New Modules * faulthandler: faulthandler<4>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<6>. * lzma: lzma<2>. Improved Modules * abc: abc<2>. * array: array<5>. * base64: base64<4>. * binascii: binascii<3>. * bz2: bz2<2>. * codecs: codecs<2>. * collections: collections<7>. * contextlib: contextlib<7>. * crypt: crypt<2>. * curses: curses<5>. * datetime: datetime<6>. * decimal: decimal<3>. * email: email<5>. * ftplib: ftplib<3>. * functools: functools<6>. * gc: gc<6>. * hmac: hmac<4>. * http: http<4>. * html: html<2>. * imaplib: imaplib<3>. * inspect: inspect<9>. * io: io<6>. * itertools: itertools<6>. * logging: logging<7>. * math: math<9>. * mmap: mmap<4>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>. * nntplib: nntplib<2>. * os: os<12>. * pdb: pdb<7>. * pickle: pickle<5>. * pydoc: pydoc<5>. * re: re<9>. * sched:: * select: select<2>. * shlex: shlex<3>. * shutil: shutil<7>. * signal: signal<4>. * smtpd: smtpd<4>. * smtplib: smtplib<4>. * socket: socket<10>. * socketserver: socketserver<3>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<10>. * ssl: ssl<11>. * stat: stat<2>. * struct: struct<3>. * subprocess: subprocess<6>. * sys: sys<13>. * tarfile: tarfile<9>. * tempfile: tempfile<4>. * textwrap: textwrap<2>. * threading: threading<8>. * time: time<8>. * types: types<7>. * unittest: unittest<10>. * urllib: urllib<4>. * webbrowser: webbrowser<3>. * xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>. * zlib: zlib<2>. decimal * Features: Features<2>. * API changes: API changes<2>. email * Policy Framework:: * Provisional Policy with New Header API:: * Other API Changes:: Deprecated * Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>. * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>. * Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>. * Deprecated features:: Porting to Python 3.3 * Porting Python code:: * Porting C code:: * Building C extensions:: * Command Line Switch Changes:: What’s New In Python 3.2 * PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI. * PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module. * PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging. * PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module. * PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories. * PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files. * PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules. * Multi-threading:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<11>. * Unicode:: * Codecs:: * Documentation:: * IDLE:: * Code Repository:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>. * Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2. New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules * email: email<6>. * elementtree:: * functools: functools<7>. * itertools: itertools<7>. * collections: collections<8>. * threading: threading<9>. * datetime and time:: * math: math<10>. * abc: abc<3>. * io: io<7>. * reprlib:: * logging: logging<8>. * csv: csv<4>. * contextlib: contextlib<8>. * decimal and fractions:: * ftp:: * popen:: * select: select<3>. * gzip and zipfile:: * tarfile: tarfile<10>. * hashlib: hashlib<7>. * ast: ast<5>. * os: os<13>. * shutil: shutil<8>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<11>. * html: html<3>. * socket: socket<11>. * ssl: ssl<12>. * nntp:: * certificates:: * imaplib: imaplib<4>. * http.client: http client<4>. * unittest: unittest<11>. * random: random<5>. * poplib: poplib<4>. * asyncore: asyncore<2>. * tempfile: tempfile<5>. * inspect: inspect<10>. * pydoc: pydoc<6>. * dis: dis<5>. * dbm: dbm<7>. * ctypes: ctypes<3>. * site: site<4>. * sysconfig: sysconfig<3>. * pdb: pdb<8>. * configparser: configparser<5>. * urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>. * mailbox:: * turtledemo:: What’s New In Python 3.1 * PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries. * PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<12>. * IDLE: IDLE<2>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>. * Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1. What’s New In Python 3.0 * Common Stumbling Blocks:: * Overview Of Syntax Changes:: * Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6. * Library Changes:: * PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting. * Changes To Exceptions:: * Miscellaneous Other Changes:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>. * Performance:: * Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0. Common Stumbling Blocks * Print Is A Function:: * Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists:: * Ordering Comparisons:: * Integers:: * Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit. Overview Of Syntax Changes * New Syntax:: * Changed Syntax:: * Removed Syntax:: Miscellaneous Other Changes * Operators And Special Methods:: * Builtins:: What’s New in Python 2.7 * The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x. * Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings:: * Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features. * PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections. * PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>. * PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines. * PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging. * PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views. * PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<14>. * New and Improved Modules:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>. * Other Changes and Fixes:: * Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7. * New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases. * Acknowledgements:: Other Language Changes * Interpreter Changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<13>. New and Improved Modules * New module; importlib: New module importlib. * New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig. * ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk. * Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest. * Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3. Build and C API Changes * Capsules:: * Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows. * Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X. * Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD. New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases * Two new environment variables for debug mode:: * PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches. * PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. * PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7. * PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>. * PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7. * New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>. * Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>. PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 * Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>. * Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>. What’s New in Python 2.6 * Python 3.0: Python 3 0. * Changes to the Development Process:: * PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement. * PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module. * PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. * PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package. * PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting. * PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function. * PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes. * PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals. * PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library. * PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol. * PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes. * PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax. * PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators. * PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<15>. * New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>. * Deprecations and Removals:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>. * Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>. Changes to the Development Process * New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup. * New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx. PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement * Writing Context Managers:: * The contextlib module:: PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers * The fractions Module:: Other Language Changes * Optimizations: Optimizations<14>. * Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>. New and Improved Modules * The ast module:: * The future_builtins module:: * The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation. * The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser. * ctypes Enhancements:: * Improved SSL Support:: Build and C API Changes * Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>. * Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>. * Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX. What’s New in Python 2.5 * PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions. * PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application. * PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1. * PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports. * PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts. * PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally. * PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features. * PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>. * PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes. * PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type. * PEP 357; The ‘__index__’ method: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<16>. * New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>. * Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>. PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement * Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>. * The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>. Other Language Changes * Interactive Interpreter Changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<15>. New, Improved, and Removed Modules * The ctypes package:: * The ElementTree package:: * The hashlib package:: * The sqlite3 package:: * The wsgiref package:: Build and C API Changes * Port-Specific Changes:: What’s New in Python 2.4 * PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects. * PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers. * PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions. * PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions. * PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods. * PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration. * PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module. * PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type. * PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports. * PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<17>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>. * Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>. PEP 327: Decimal Data Type * Why is Decimal needed?:: * The Decimal type:: * The Context type:: Other Language Changes * Optimizations: Optimizations<16>. New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules * cookielib:: * doctest: doctest<5>. Build and C API Changes * Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>. What’s New in Python 2.3 * PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype. * PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators. * PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings. * PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives. * PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT. * PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support. * PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate. * PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package. * PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type. * PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks. * PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils. * PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks. * PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files. * PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements. * Extended Slices:: * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<18>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. * Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<12>. * Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>. * Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>. Other Language Changes * String Changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<17>. New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules * Date/Time Type:: * The optparse Module:: Build and C API Changes * Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>. What’s New in Python 2.2 * Introduction:: * PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes. * PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators. * PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>. * PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>. * PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator. * Unicode Changes:: * PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes. * New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>. * Interpreter Changes and Fixes:: * Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>. PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes * Old and New Classes:: * Descriptors:: * Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule. * Attribute Access:: * Related Links:: What’s New in Python 2.1 * Introduction: Introduction<2>. * PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>. * PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives. * PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons. * PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework. * PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System. * PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References. * PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes. * PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms. * PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook. * PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model. * PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages. * New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>. * Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>. What’s New in Python 2.0 * Introduction: Introduction<3>. * What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?. * New Development Process:: * Unicode: Unicode<2>. * List Comprehensions:: * Augmented Assignment:: * String Methods:: * Garbage Collection of Cycles:: * Other Core Changes:: * Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0. * Extending/Embedding Changes:: * Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install. * XML Modules:: * Module changes:: * New modules:: * IDLE Improvements:: * Deleted and Deprecated Modules:: * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>. Other Core Changes * Minor Language Changes:: * Changes to Built-in Functions:: XML Modules * SAX2 Support:: * DOM Support:: * Relationship to PyXML:: Changelog * Python 3.13.7 final: Python 3 13 7 final. * Python 3.13.6 final: Python 3 13 6 final. * Python 3.13.5 final: Python 3 13 5 final. * Python 3.13.4 final: Python 3 13 4 final. * Python 3.13.3 final: Python 3 13 3 final. * Python 3.13.2 final: Python 3 13 2 final. * Python 3.13.1 final: Python 3 13 1 final. * Python 3.13.0 final: Python 3 13 0 final. * Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3. * Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2. * Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.13.0 beta 4: Python 3 13 0 beta 4. * Python 3.13.0 beta 3: Python 3 13 0 beta 3. * Python 3.13.0 beta 2: Python 3 13 0 beta 2. * Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final. * Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5. * Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4. * Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3. * Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2. * Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final. * Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final. * Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final. * Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final. * Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final. * Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2. * Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final. * Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final. * Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2. * Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4. * Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3. * Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2. * Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final. * Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final. * Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final. * Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final. * Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final. * Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4. * Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3. * Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2. * Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1. Python 3.13.7 final * Library:: * Documentation: Documentation<2>. * Core and Builtins:: Python 3.13.6 final * macOS:: * Windows:: * Tools/Demos:: * Tests:: * Security:: * Library: Library<2>. * Documentation: Documentation<3>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>. * Build:: Python 3.13.5 final * Windows: Windows<2>. * Tests: Tests<2>. * Library: Library<3>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>. * C API:: Python 3.13.4 final * Windows: Windows<3>. * Tests: Tests<3>. * Security: Security<2>. * Library: Library<4>. * IDLE: IDLE<3>. * Documentation: Documentation<4>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>. * C API: C API<2>. * Build: Build<2>. Python 3.13.3 final * macOS: macOS<2>. * Windows: Windows<4>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<2>. * Tests: Tests<4>. * Security: Security<3>. * Library: Library<5>. * IDLE: IDLE<4>. * Documentation: Documentation<5>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<5>. * C API: C API<3>. * Build: Build<3>. Python 3.13.2 final * macOS: macOS<3>. * Windows: Windows<5>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<3>. * Tests: Tests<5>. * Security: Security<4>. * Library: Library<6>. * Documentation: Documentation<6>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<6>. * C API: C API<4>. * Build: Build<4>. Python 3.13.1 final * macOS: macOS<4>. * Windows: Windows<6>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<4>. * Tests: Tests<6>. * Security: Security<5>. * Library: Library<7>. * IDLE: IDLE<5>. * Documentation: Documentation<7>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<7>. * C API: C API<5>. * Build: Build<5>. Python 3.13.0 final * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<8>. Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3 * macOS: macOS<5>. * Windows: Windows<7>. * Tests: Tests<7>. * Library: Library<8>. * IDLE: IDLE<6>. * Documentation: Documentation<8>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<9>. * C API: C API<6>. * Build: Build<6>. Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2 * macOS: macOS<6>. * Windows: Windows<8>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<5>. * Tests: Tests<8>. * Security: Security<6>. * Library: Library<9>. * IDLE: IDLE<7>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<10>. * C API: C API<7>. * Build: Build<7>. Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1 * Tests: Tests<9>. * Security: Security<7>. * Library: Library<10>. * IDLE: IDLE<8>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<11>. * C API: C API<8>. * Build: Build<8>. Python 3.13.0 beta 4 * Tests: Tests<10>. * Library: Library<11>. * IDLE: IDLE<9>. * Documentation: Documentation<9>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<12>. * C API: C API<9>. * Build: Build<9>. Python 3.13.0 beta 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<13>. * Library: Library<12>. * Build: Build<10>. * C API: C API<10>. Python 3.13.0 beta 2 * Security: Security<8>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<14>. * Library: Library<13>. * Tests: Tests<11>. * Build: Build<11>. * Windows: Windows<9>. * C API: C API<11>. Python 3.13.0 beta 1 * Security: Security<9>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<15>. * Library: Library<14>. * Documentation: Documentation<10>. * Build: Build<12>. * Windows: Windows<10>. * macOS: macOS<7>. * IDLE: IDLE<10>. * C API: C API<12>. Python 3.13.0 alpha 6 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<16>. * Library: Library<15>. * Documentation: Documentation<11>. * Tests: Tests<12>. * Build: Build<13>. * Windows: Windows<11>. * C API: C API<13>. Python 3.13.0 alpha 5 * Security: Security<10>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<17>. * Library: Library<16>. * Documentation: Documentation<12>. * Tests: Tests<13>. * Build: Build<14>. * Windows: Windows<12>. * macOS: macOS<8>. * IDLE: IDLE<11>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<6>. * C API: C API<14>. Python 3.13.0 alpha 4 * Security: Security<11>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<18>. * Library: Library<17>. * Documentation: Documentation<13>. * Tests: Tests<14>. * Build: Build<15>. * Windows: Windows<13>. * macOS: macOS<9>. * IDLE: IDLE<12>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<7>. * C API: C API<15>. Python 3.13.0 alpha 3 * Security: Security<12>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<19>. * Library: Library<18>. * Documentation: Documentation<14>. * Tests: Tests<15>. * Build: Build<16>. * Windows: Windows<14>. * macOS: macOS<10>. * IDLE: IDLE<13>. * C API: C API<16>. Python 3.13.0 alpha 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<20>. * Library: Library<19>. * Tests: Tests<16>. * Build: Build<17>. * Windows: Windows<15>. * macOS: macOS<11>. * IDLE: IDLE<14>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<8>. * C API: C API<17>. Python 3.13.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<13>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<21>. * Library: Library<20>. * Documentation: Documentation<15>. * Tests: Tests<17>. * Build: Build<18>. * Windows: Windows<16>. * macOS: macOS<12>. * IDLE: IDLE<15>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<9>. * C API: C API<18>. Python 3.12.0 beta 1 * Security: Security<14>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<22>. * Library: Library<21>. * Documentation: Documentation<16>. * Tests: Tests<18>. * Build: Build<19>. * Windows: Windows<17>. * macOS: macOS<13>. * IDLE: IDLE<16>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<10>. * C API: C API<19>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 7 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<23>. * Library: Library<22>. * Documentation: Documentation<17>. * Tests: Tests<19>. * Build: Build<20>. * Windows: Windows<18>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<11>. * C API: C API<20>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 6 * Security: Security<15>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<24>. * Library: Library<23>. * Documentation: Documentation<18>. * Tests: Tests<20>. * Build: Build<21>. * Windows: Windows<19>. * macOS: macOS<14>. * C API: C API<21>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 5 * Security: Security<16>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<25>. * Library: Library<24>. * Documentation: Documentation<19>. * Tests: Tests<21>. * Build: Build<22>. * Windows: Windows<20>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<26>. * Library: Library<25>. * Documentation: Documentation<20>. * Tests: Tests<22>. * Build: Build<23>. * Windows: Windows<21>. * macOS: macOS<15>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<12>. * C API: C API<22>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 3 * Security: Security<17>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<27>. * Library: Library<26>. * Documentation: Documentation<21>. * Tests: Tests<23>. * Build: Build<24>. * Windows: Windows<22>. * macOS: macOS<16>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<13>. * C API: C API<23>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 2 * Security: Security<18>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<28>. * Library: Library<27>. * Documentation: Documentation<22>. * Tests: Tests<24>. * Build: Build<25>. * Windows: Windows<23>. * macOS: macOS<17>. * C API: C API<24>. Python 3.12.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<19>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<29>. * Library: Library<28>. * Documentation: Documentation<23>. * Tests: Tests<25>. * Build: Build<26>. * Windows: Windows<24>. * macOS: macOS<18>. * IDLE: IDLE<17>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<14>. * C API: C API<25>. Python 3.11.0 beta 1 * Security: Security<20>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<30>. * Library: Library<29>. * Documentation: Documentation<24>. * Tests: Tests<26>. * Build: Build<27>. * Windows: Windows<25>. * macOS: macOS<19>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<15>. * C API: C API<26>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 7 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<31>. * Library: Library<30>. * Documentation: Documentation<25>. * Tests: Tests<27>. * Build: Build<28>. * Windows: Windows<26>. * macOS: macOS<20>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<16>. * C API: C API<27>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 6 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<32>. * Library: Library<31>. * Documentation: Documentation<26>. * Tests: Tests<28>. * Build: Build<29>. * Windows: Windows<27>. * IDLE: IDLE<18>. * C API: C API<28>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 5 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<33>. * Library: Library<32>. * Documentation: Documentation<27>. * Tests: Tests<29>. * Build: Build<30>. * Windows: Windows<28>. * macOS: macOS<21>. * IDLE: IDLE<19>. * C API: C API<29>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<34>. * Library: Library<33>. * Documentation: Documentation<28>. * Tests: Tests<30>. * Build: Build<31>. * Windows: Windows<29>. * macOS: macOS<22>. * C API: C API<30>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<35>. * Library: Library<34>. * Documentation: Documentation<29>. * Tests: Tests<31>. * Build: Build<32>. * Windows: Windows<30>. * macOS: macOS<23>. * C API: C API<31>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<36>. * Library: Library<35>. * Documentation: Documentation<30>. * Tests: Tests<32>. * Build: Build<33>. * Windows: Windows<31>. * macOS: macOS<24>. * IDLE: IDLE<20>. * C API: C API<32>. Python 3.11.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<21>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<37>. * Library: Library<36>. * Documentation: Documentation<31>. * Tests: Tests<33>. * Build: Build<34>. * Windows: Windows<32>. * macOS: macOS<25>. * IDLE: IDLE<21>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<17>. * C API: C API<33>. Python 3.10.0 beta 1 * Security: Security<22>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<38>. * Library: Library<37>. * Documentation: Documentation<32>. * Tests: Tests<34>. * Build: Build<35>. * Windows: Windows<33>. * macOS: macOS<26>. * IDLE: IDLE<22>. * C API: C API<34>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 7 * Security: Security<23>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<39>. * Library: Library<38>. * Documentation: Documentation<33>. * Tests: Tests<35>. * Build: Build<36>. * Windows: Windows<34>. * IDLE: IDLE<23>. * C API: C API<35>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 6 * Security: Security<24>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<40>. * Library: Library<39>. * Documentation: Documentation<34>. * Tests: Tests<36>. * Build: Build<37>. * Windows: Windows<35>. * macOS: macOS<27>. * IDLE: IDLE<24>. * C API: C API<36>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 5 * Security: Security<25>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<41>. * Library: Library<40>. * Documentation: Documentation<35>. * Tests: Tests<37>. * Build: Build<38>. * Windows: Windows<36>. * macOS: macOS<28>. * IDLE: IDLE<25>. * C API: C API<37>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<42>. * Library: Library<41>. * Documentation: Documentation<36>. * Tests: Tests<38>. * Build: Build<39>. * macOS: macOS<29>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<18>. * C API: C API<38>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 3 * Security: Security<26>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<43>. * Library: Library<42>. * Documentation: Documentation<37>. * Tests: Tests<39>. * Build: Build<40>. * Windows: Windows<37>. * macOS: macOS<30>. * IDLE: IDLE<26>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<19>. * C API: C API<39>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 2 * Security: Security<27>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<44>. * Library: Library<43>. * Documentation: Documentation<38>. * Tests: Tests<40>. * Build: Build<41>. * Windows: Windows<38>. * macOS: macOS<31>. * IDLE: IDLE<27>. * C API: C API<40>. Python 3.10.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<28>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<45>. * Library: Library<44>. * Documentation: Documentation<39>. * Tests: Tests<41>. * Build: Build<42>. * Windows: Windows<39>. * macOS: macOS<32>. * IDLE: IDLE<28>. * C API: C API<41>. Python 3.9.0 beta 1 * Security: Security<29>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<46>. * Library: Library<45>. * Documentation: Documentation<40>. * Tests: Tests<42>. * Build: Build<43>. * Windows: Windows<40>. * macOS: macOS<33>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<20>. * C API: C API<42>. Python 3.9.0 alpha 6 * Security: Security<30>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<47>. * Library: Library<46>. * Documentation: Documentation<41>. * Tests: Tests<43>. * Build: Build<44>. * Windows: Windows<41>. * macOS: macOS<34>. * IDLE: IDLE<29>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<21>. * C API: C API<43>. Python 3.9.0 alpha 5 * Security: Security<31>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<48>. * Library: Library<47>. * Documentation: Documentation<42>. * Tests: Tests<44>. * Build: Build<45>. * Windows: Windows<42>. * macOS: macOS<35>. * IDLE: IDLE<30>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<22>. * C API: C API<44>. Python 3.9.0 alpha 4 * Security: Security<32>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<49>. * Library: Library<48>. * Documentation: Documentation<43>. * Tests: Tests<45>. * Build: Build<46>. * Windows: Windows<43>. * IDLE: IDLE<31>. * C API: C API<45>. Python 3.9.0 alpha 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<50>. * Library: Library<49>. * Documentation: Documentation<44>. * Build: Build<47>. * IDLE: IDLE<32>. * C API: C API<46>. Python 3.9.0 alpha 2 * Security: Security<33>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<51>. * Library: Library<50>. * Documentation: Documentation<45>. * Tests: Tests<46>. * Build: Build<48>. * Windows: Windows<44>. * macOS: macOS<36>. * IDLE: IDLE<33>. * C API: C API<47>. Python 3.9.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<34>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<52>. * Library: Library<51>. * Documentation: Documentation<46>. * Tests: Tests<47>. * Build: Build<49>. * Windows: Windows<45>. * macOS: macOS<37>. * IDLE: IDLE<34>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<23>. * C API: C API<48>. Python 3.8.0 beta 1 * Security: Security<35>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<53>. * Library: Library<52>. * Documentation: Documentation<47>. * Tests: Tests<48>. * Build: Build<50>. * Windows: Windows<46>. * macOS: macOS<38>. * IDLE: IDLE<35>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<24>. * C API: C API<49>. Python 3.8.0 alpha 4 * Security: Security<36>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<54>. * Library: Library<53>. * Documentation: Documentation<48>. * Tests: Tests<49>. * Build: Build<51>. * Windows: Windows<47>. * macOS: macOS<39>. * IDLE: IDLE<36>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<25>. * C API: C API<50>. Python 3.8.0 alpha 3 * Security: Security<37>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<55>. * Library: Library<54>. * Documentation: Documentation<49>. * Tests: Tests<50>. * Build: Build<52>. * Windows: Windows<48>. * IDLE: IDLE<37>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<26>. * C API: C API<51>. Python 3.8.0 alpha 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<56>. * Library: Library<55>. * Documentation: Documentation<50>. * Tests: Tests<51>. * Windows: Windows<49>. * IDLE: IDLE<38>. Python 3.8.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<38>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<57>. * Library: Library<56>. * Documentation: Documentation<51>. * Tests: Tests<52>. * Build: Build<53>. * Windows: Windows<50>. * macOS: macOS<40>. * IDLE: IDLE<39>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<27>. * C API: C API<52>. Python 3.7.0 final * Library: Library<57>. * C API: C API<53>. Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<58>. * Library: Library<58>. * Documentation: Documentation<52>. * Build: Build<54>. * Windows: Windows<51>. * IDLE: IDLE<40>. Python 3.7.0 beta 5 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<59>. * Library: Library<59>. * Documentation: Documentation<53>. * Tests: Tests<53>. * Build: Build<55>. * macOS: macOS<41>. * IDLE: IDLE<41>. Python 3.7.0 beta 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<60>. * Library: Library<60>. * Documentation: Documentation<54>. * Tests: Tests<54>. * Build: Build<56>. * Windows: Windows<52>. * macOS: macOS<42>. * IDLE: IDLE<42>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<28>. Python 3.7.0 beta 3 * Security: Security<39>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<61>. * Library: Library<61>. * Documentation: Documentation<55>. * Tests: Tests<55>. * Build: Build<57>. * Windows: Windows<53>. * macOS: macOS<43>. * IDLE: IDLE<43>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<29>. * C API: C API<54>. Python 3.7.0 beta 2 * Security: Security<40>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<62>. * Library: Library<62>. * Documentation: Documentation<56>. * Tests: Tests<56>. * Build: Build<58>. * Windows: Windows<54>. * macOS: macOS<44>. * IDLE: IDLE<44>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<30>. Python 3.7.0 beta 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<63>. * Library: Library<63>. * Documentation: Documentation<57>. * Tests: Tests<57>. * Build: Build<59>. * Windows: Windows<55>. * macOS: macOS<45>. * C API: C API<55>. Python 3.7.0 alpha 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<64>. * Library: Library<64>. * Documentation: Documentation<58>. * Tests: Tests<58>. * Windows: Windows<56>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<31>. * C API: C API<56>. Python 3.7.0 alpha 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<65>. * Library: Library<65>. * Documentation: Documentation<59>. * Tests: Tests<59>. * Build: Build<60>. * Windows: Windows<57>. * macOS: macOS<46>. * IDLE: IDLE<45>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<32>. * C API: C API<57>. Python 3.7.0 alpha 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<66>. * Library: Library<66>. * Documentation: Documentation<60>. * Build: Build<61>. * IDLE: IDLE<46>. * C API: C API<58>. Python 3.7.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<41>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<67>. * Library: Library<67>. * Documentation: Documentation<61>. * Tests: Tests<60>. * Build: Build<62>. * Windows: Windows<58>. * IDLE: IDLE<47>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<33>. * C API: C API<59>. Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<68>. * Library: Library<68>. * Documentation: Documentation<62>. * Tests: Tests<61>. * Build: Build<63>. * Windows: Windows<59>. * macOS: macOS<47>. * IDLE: IDLE<48>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<34>. * C API: C API<60>. Python 3.6.5 final * Tests: Tests<62>. * Build: Build<64>. Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<42>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<69>. * Library: Library<69>. * Documentation: Documentation<63>. * Tests: Tests<63>. * Build: Build<65>. * Windows: Windows<60>. * macOS: macOS<48>. * IDLE: IDLE<49>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<35>. * C API: C API<61>. Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<70>. * Library: Library<70>. * Documentation: Documentation<64>. * Tests: Tests<64>. * Build: Build<66>. * Windows: Windows<61>. * macOS: macOS<49>. * IDLE: IDLE<50>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<36>. * C API: C API<62>. Python 3.6.3 final * Library: Library<71>. * Build: Build<67>. Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<43>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<71>. * Library: Library<72>. * Documentation: Documentation<65>. * Tests: Tests<65>. * Build: Build<68>. * Windows: Windows<62>. * IDLE: IDLE<51>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<37>. Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2 * Security: Security<44>. Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<45>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<72>. * Library: Library<73>. * IDLE: IDLE<52>. * C API: C API<63>. * Build: Build<69>. * Documentation: Documentation<66>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<38>. * Tests: Tests<66>. * Windows: Windows<63>. Python 3.6.1 final * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<73>. * Build: Build<70>. Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<74>. * Library: Library<74>. * IDLE: IDLE<53>. * Windows: Windows<64>. * C API: C API<64>. * Documentation: Documentation<67>. * Tests: Tests<67>. * Build: Build<71>. Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<75>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<39>. * Windows: Windows<65>. * Build: Build<72>. Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<76>. * Library: Library<75>. * C API: C API<65>. * Documentation: Documentation<68>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<40>. Python 3.6.0 beta 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<77>. * Library: Library<76>. * Documentation: Documentation<69>. * Tests: Tests<68>. * Build: Build<73>. Python 3.6.0 beta 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<78>. * Library: Library<77>. * Windows: Windows<66>. * Build: Build<74>. * Tests: Tests<69>. Python 3.6.0 beta 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<79>. * Library: Library<78>. * Windows: Windows<67>. * C API: C API<66>. * Build: Build<75>. * Tests: Tests<70>. Python 3.6.0 beta 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<80>. * Library: Library<79>. * IDLE: IDLE<54>. * C API: C API<67>. * Tests: Tests<71>. * Build: Build<76>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<41>. * Windows: Windows<68>. Python 3.6.0 alpha 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<81>. * Library: Library<80>. * IDLE: IDLE<55>. * Tests: Tests<72>. * Windows: Windows<69>. * Build: Build<77>. Python 3.6.0 alpha 3 * Security: Security<46>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<82>. * Library: Library<81>. * IDLE: IDLE<56>. * C API: C API<68>. * Build: Build<78>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<42>. * Documentation: Documentation<70>. * Tests: Tests<73>. Python 3.6.0 alpha 2 * Security: Security<47>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<83>. * Library: Library<82>. * IDLE: IDLE<57>. * Documentation: Documentation<71>. * Tests: Tests<74>. * Windows: Windows<70>. * Build: Build<79>. * C API: C API<69>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<43>. Python 3.6.0 alpha 1 * Security: Security<48>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<84>. * Library: Library<83>. * IDLE: IDLE<58>. * Documentation: Documentation<72>. * Tests: Tests<75>. * Build: Build<80>. * Windows: Windows<71>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<44>. * C API: C API<70>. Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<49>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<85>. * Library: Library<84>. Python 3.5.4 final * Library: Library<85>. Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<50>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<86>. * Library: Library<86>. * Documentation: Documentation<73>. * Tests: Tests<76>. * Build: Build<81>. * Windows: Windows<72>. * C API: C API<71>. Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<51>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<87>. * Library: Library<87>. * IDLE: IDLE<59>. * C API: C API<72>. * Documentation: Documentation<74>. * Tests: Tests<77>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<45>. * Windows: Windows<73>. * Build: Build<82>. Python 3.5.2 final * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<88>. * Tests: Tests<78>. * IDLE: IDLE<60>. Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1 * Security: Security<52>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<89>. * Library: Library<88>. * IDLE: IDLE<61>. * Documentation: Documentation<75>. * Tests: Tests<79>. * Build: Build<83>. * Windows: Windows<74>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<46>. Python 3.5.1 final * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<90>. * Windows: Windows<75>. Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<91>. * Library: Library<89>. * IDLE: IDLE<62>. * Documentation: Documentation<76>. * Tests: Tests<80>. * Build: Build<84>. * Windows: Windows<76>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<47>. Python 3.5.0 final * Build: Build<85>. Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4 * Library: Library<90>. * Build: Build<86>. Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<92>. * Library: Library<91>. Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<93>. * Library: Library<92>. Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<94>. * Library: Library<93>. * IDLE: IDLE<63>. * Documentation: Documentation<77>. * Tests: Tests<81>. Python 3.5.0 beta 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<95>. * Library: Library<94>. * Build: Build<87>. Python 3.5.0 beta 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<96>. * Library: Library<95>. * Tests: Tests<82>. * Documentation: Documentation<78>. * Build: Build<88>. Python 3.5.0 beta 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<97>. * Library: Library<96>. Python 3.5.0 beta 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<98>. * Library: Library<97>. * IDLE: IDLE<64>. * Tests: Tests<83>. * Documentation: Documentation<79>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<48>. Python 3.5.0 alpha 4 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<99>. * Library: Library<98>. * Build: Build<89>. * Tests: Tests<84>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<49>. * C API: C API<73>. Python 3.5.0 alpha 3 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<100>. * Library: Library<99>. * Build: Build<90>. * Tests: Tests<85>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<50>. Python 3.5.0 alpha 2 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<101>. * Library: Library<100>. * Build: Build<91>. * C API: C API<74>. * Windows: Windows<77>. Python 3.5.0 alpha 1 * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<102>. * Library: Library<101>. * IDLE: IDLE<65>. * Build: Build<92>. * C API: C API<75>. * Documentation: Documentation<80>. * Tests: Tests<86>. * Tools/Demos: Tools/Demos<51>. * Windows: Windows<78>. The Python Tutorial * Whetting Your Appetite:: * Using the Python Interpreter:: * An Informal Introduction to Python:: * More Control Flow Tools:: * Data Structures:: * Modules: Modules<2>. * Input and Output:: * Errors and Exceptions:: * Classes:: * Brief Tour of the Standard Library:: * Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II:: * Virtual Environments and Packages:: * What Now?:: * Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution:: * Floating-Point Arithmetic; Issues and Limitations: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations. * Appendix:: Using the Python Interpreter * Invoking the Interpreter:: * The Interpreter and Its Environment:: Invoking the Interpreter * Argument Passing:: * Interactive Mode:: The Interpreter and Its Environment * Source Code Encoding:: An Informal Introduction to Python * Using Python as a Calculator:: * First Steps Towards Programming:: Using Python as a Calculator * Numbers:: * Text:: * Lists:: More Control Flow Tools * if Statements:: * for Statements:: * The range() Function: The range Function. * break and continue Statements:: * else Clauses on Loops:: * pass Statements:: * match Statements:: * Defining Functions:: * More on Defining Functions:: * Intermezzo; Coding Style: Intermezzo Coding Style. More on Defining Functions * Default Argument Values:: * Keyword Arguments:: * Special parameters:: * Arbitrary Argument Lists:: * Unpacking Argument Lists:: * Lambda Expressions:: * Documentation Strings:: * Function Annotations:: Special parameters * Positional-or-Keyword Arguments:: * Positional-Only Parameters:: * Keyword-Only Arguments:: * Function Examples:: * Recap:: Data Structures * More on Lists:: * The del statement:: * Tuples and Sequences:: * Sets:: * Dictionaries:: * Looping Techniques:: * More on Conditions:: * Comparing Sequences and Other Types:: More on Lists * Using Lists as Stacks:: * Using Lists as Queues:: * List Comprehensions: List Comprehensions<2>. * Nested List Comprehensions:: Modules * More on Modules:: * Standard Modules:: * The dir() Function: The dir Function. * Packages:: More on Modules * Executing modules as scripts:: * The Module Search Path:: * “Compiled” Python files:: Packages * Importing * From a Package:: * Intra-package References:: * Packages in Multiple Directories:: Input and Output * Fancier Output Formatting:: * Reading and Writing Files:: Fancier Output Formatting * Formatted String Literals:: * The String format() Method: The String format Method. * Manual String Formatting:: * Old string formatting:: Reading and Writing Files * Methods of File Objects:: * Saving structured data with json:: Errors and Exceptions * Syntax Errors:: * Exceptions:: * Handling Exceptions:: * Raising Exceptions:: * Exception Chaining:: * User-defined Exceptions:: * Defining Clean-up Actions:: * Predefined Clean-up Actions:: * Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions:: * Enriching Exceptions with Notes:: Classes * A Word About Names and Objects:: * Python Scopes and Namespaces:: * A First Look at Classes:: * Random Remarks:: * Inheritance:: * Private Variables:: * Odds and Ends:: * Iterators:: * Generators:: * Generator Expressions:: Python Scopes and Namespaces * Scopes and Namespaces Example:: A First Look at Classes * Class Definition Syntax:: * Class Objects:: * Instance Objects:: * Method Objects:: * Class and Instance Variables:: Inheritance * Multiple Inheritance:: Brief Tour of the Standard Library * Operating System Interface:: * File Wildcards:: * Command Line Arguments:: * Error Output Redirection and Program Termination:: * String Pattern Matching:: * Mathematics:: * Internet Access:: * Dates and Times:: * Data Compression:: * Performance Measurement:: * Quality Control:: * Batteries Included:: Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II * Output Formatting:: * Templating:: * Working with Binary Data Record Layouts:: * Multi-threading: Multi-threading<2>. * Logging:: * Weak References:: * Tools for Working with Lists:: * Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic:: Virtual Environments and Packages * Introduction: Introduction<4>. * Creating Virtual Environments:: * Managing Packages with pip:: Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution * Tab Completion and History Editing:: * Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter:: Floating-Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations * Representation Error:: Appendix * Interactive Mode: Interactive Mode<2>. Interactive Mode * Error Handling:: * Executable Python Scripts:: * The Interactive Startup File:: * The Customization Modules:: Python Setup and Usage * Command line and environment:: * Using Python on Unix platforms:: * Configure Python:: * Using Python on Windows:: * Using Python on macOS:: * Using Python on Android:: * Using Python on iOS:: * Editors and IDEs:: Command line and environment * Command line:: * Environment variables:: Command line * Interface options:: * Generic options:: * Miscellaneous options:: * Controlling color:: * Options you shouldn’t use:: Environment variables * Debug-mode variables:: Using Python on Unix platforms * Getting and installing the latest version of Python:: * Building Python:: * Python-related paths and files:: * Miscellaneous:: * Custom OpenSSL:: Getting and installing the latest version of Python * On Linux:: * On FreeBSD and OpenBSD:: On Linux * Installing IDLE:: Configure Python * Build Requirements:: * Generated files:: * Configure Options:: * Python Build System:: * Compiler and linker flags:: Generated files * configure script:: Configure Options * General Options:: * C compiler options:: * Linker options:: * Options for third-party dependencies:: * WebAssembly Options:: * Install Options:: * Performance options:: * Python Debug Build:: * Debug options:: * Linker options: Linker options<2>. * Libraries options:: * Security Options:: * macOS Options:: * iOS Options:: * Cross Compiling Options:: Python Build System * Main files of the build system:: * Main build steps:: * Main Makefile targets:: * C extensions:: Main Makefile targets * make:: * make platform:: * make profile-opt:: * make clean:: * make distclean:: * make install:: * make test:: * make buildbottest:: * make regen-all:: Compiler and linker flags * Preprocessor flags:: * Compiler flags:: * Linker flags:: Using Python on Windows * The full installer:: * The Microsoft Store package:: * The nuget.org packages: The nuget org packages. * The embeddable package:: * Alternative bundles:: * Configuring Python:: * UTF-8 mode:: * Python Launcher for Windows:: * Finding modules:: * Additional modules:: * Compiling Python on Windows:: * Other Platforms:: The full installer * Installation steps:: * Removing the MAX_PATH Limitation:: * Installing Without UI:: * Installing Without Downloading:: * Modifying an install:: * Installing Free-threaded Binaries:: The Microsoft Store package * Known issues:: Known issues * Redirection of local data, registry, and temporary paths: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths. The nuget.org packages * Free-threaded packages:: The embeddable package * Python Application:: * Embedding Python:: Configuring Python * Excursus; Setting environment variables: Excursus Setting environment variables. * Finding the Python executable:: Python Launcher for Windows * Getting started:: * Shebang Lines:: * Arguments in shebang lines:: * Customization:: * Diagnostics:: * Dry Run:: * Install on demand:: * Return codes:: Getting started * From the command-line:: * Virtual environments:: * From a script:: * From file associations:: Customization * Customization via INI files:: * Customizing default Python versions:: Additional modules * PyWin32:: * cx_Freeze:: Using Python on macOS * Using Python for macOS from python.org: Using Python for macOS from python org. * Alternative Distributions:: * Installing Additional Python Packages:: * GUI Programming:: * Advanced Topics:: * Other Resources:: Using Python for macOS from python.org * Installation steps: Installation steps<2>. * How to run a Python script:: Advanced Topics * Installing Free-threaded Binaries: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>. * Installing using the command line:: * Distributing Python Applications:: * App Store Compliance:: Using Python on Android * Adding Python to an Android app:: * Building a Python package for Android:: Using Python on iOS * Python at runtime on iOS:: * Installing Python on iOS:: * App Store Compliance: App Store Compliance<2>. Python at runtime on iOS * iOS version compatibility:: * Platform identification:: * Standard library availability:: * Binary extension modules:: * Compiler stub binaries:: Installing Python on iOS * Tools for building iOS apps:: * Adding Python to an iOS project:: * Testing a Python package:: Editors and IDEs * IDLE — Python editor and shell:: * Other Editors and IDEs:: The Python Language Reference * Introduction: Introduction<5>. * Lexical analysis:: * Data model:: * Execution model:: * The import system:: * Expressions:: * Simple statements:: * Compound statements:: * Top-level components:: * Full Grammar specification:: Introduction * Alternate Implementations:: * Notation:: Lexical analysis * Line structure:: * Other tokens:: * Identifiers and keywords:: * Literals:: * Operators:: * Delimiters:: Line structure * Logical lines:: * Physical lines:: * Comments:: * Encoding declarations:: * Explicit line joining:: * Implicit line joining:: * Blank lines:: * Indentation:: * Whitespace between tokens:: Identifiers and keywords * Keywords:: * Soft Keywords:: * Reserved classes of identifiers:: Literals * String and Bytes literals:: * String literal concatenation:: * f-strings:: * Numeric literals:: * Integer literals:: * Floating-point literals:: * Imaginary literals:: String and Bytes literals * Escape sequences:: Data model * Objects, values and types: Objects values and types. * The standard type hierarchy:: * Special method names:: * Coroutines:: The standard type hierarchy * None:: * NotImplemented:: * Ellipsis:: * numbers.Number: numbers Number. * Sequences:: * Set types:: * Mappings:: * Callable types:: * Modules: Modules<3>. * Custom classes:: * Class instances:: * I/O objects (also known as file objects): I/O objects also known as file objects. * Internal types:: numbers.Number * numbers.Integral: numbers Integral. * numbers.Real (float): numbers Real float. * numbers.Complex (complex): numbers Complex complex. Sequences * Immutable sequences:: * Mutable sequences:: Mappings * Dictionaries: Dictionaries<2>. Callable types * User-defined functions:: * Instance methods:: * Generator functions:: * Coroutine functions:: * Asynchronous generator functions:: * Built-in functions:: * Built-in methods:: * Classes: Classes<2>. * Class Instances:: User-defined functions * Special read-only attributes:: * Special writable attributes:: Modules * Import-related attributes on module objects:: * Other writable attributes on module objects:: * Module dictionaries:: Custom classes * Special attributes:: * Special methods:: Class instances * Special attributes: Special attributes<2>. Internal types * Code objects:: * Frame objects:: * Traceback objects:: * Slice objects:: * Static method objects:: * Class method objects:: Code objects * Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<2>. * Methods on code objects:: Frame objects * Special read-only attributes: Special read-only attributes<3>. * Special writable attributes: Special writable attributes<2>. * Frame object methods:: Special method names * Basic customization:: * Customizing attribute access:: * Customizing class creation:: * Customizing instance and subclass checks:: * Emulating generic types:: * Emulating callable objects:: * Emulating container types:: * Emulating numeric types:: * With Statement Context Managers:: * Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching:: * Emulating buffer types:: * Special method lookup:: Customizing attribute access * Customizing module attribute access:: * Implementing Descriptors:: * Invoking Descriptors:: * __slots__: __slots__<2>. Customizing class creation * Metaclasses:: * Resolving MRO entries:: * Determining the appropriate metaclass:: * Preparing the class namespace:: * Executing the class body:: * Creating the class object:: * Uses for metaclasses:: Emulating generic types * The purpose of __class_getitem__:: * __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__:: Coroutines * Awaitable Objects:: * Coroutine Objects:: * Asynchronous Iterators:: * Asynchronous Context Managers:: Execution model * Structure of a program:: * Naming and binding:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<2>. Naming and binding * Binding of names:: * Resolution of names:: * Annotation scopes:: * Lazy evaluation:: * Builtins and restricted execution:: * Interaction with dynamic features:: The import system * importlib: importlib<10>. * Packages: Packages<2>. * Searching:: * Loading:: * The Path Based Finder:: * Replacing the standard import system:: * Package Relative Imports:: * Special considerations for __main__:: * References:: Packages * Regular packages:: * Namespace packages:: Searching * The module cache:: * Finders and loaders:: * Import hooks:: * The meta path:: Loading * Loaders:: * Submodules:: * Module specs:: * __path__ attributes on modules:: * Module reprs:: * Cached bytecode invalidation:: The Path Based Finder * Path entry finders:: * Path entry finder protocol:: Special considerations for __main__ * __main__.__spec__: __main__ __spec__. Expressions * Arithmetic conversions:: * Atoms:: * Primaries:: * Await expression:: * The power operator:: * Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations:: * Binary arithmetic operations:: * Shifting operations:: * Binary bitwise operations:: * Comparisons:: * Boolean operations:: * Assignment expressions: Assignment expressions<2>. * Conditional expressions:: * Lambdas:: * Expression lists:: * Evaluation order:: * Operator precedence:: Atoms * Identifiers (Names): Identifiers Names. * Literals: Literals<2>. * Parenthesized forms:: * Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. * List displays:: * Set displays:: * Dictionary displays:: * Generator expressions:: * Yield expressions:: Identifiers (Names) * Private name mangling:: Yield expressions * Generator-iterator methods:: * Examples:: * Asynchronous generator functions: Asynchronous generator functions<2>. * Asynchronous generator-iterator methods:: Primaries * Attribute references:: * Subscriptions:: * Slicings:: * Calls:: Comparisons * Value comparisons:: * Membership test operations:: * Identity comparisons:: Simple statements * Expression statements:: * Assignment statements:: * The assert statement:: * The pass statement:: * The del statement: The del statement<2>. * The return statement:: * The yield statement:: * The raise statement:: * The break statement:: * The continue statement:: * The import statement:: * The global statement:: * The nonlocal statement:: * The type statement:: Assignment statements * Augmented assignment statements:: * Annotated assignment statements:: The import statement * Future statements:: Compound statements * The if statement:: * The while statement:: * The for statement:: * The try statement:: * The with statement:: * The match statement:: * Function definitions:: * Class definitions:: * Coroutines: Coroutines<2>. * Type parameter lists:: The try statement * except clause:: * except* clause:: * else clause:: * finally clause:: The match statement * Overview:: * Guards:: * Irrefutable Case Blocks:: * Patterns:: Patterns * OR Patterns:: * AS Patterns:: * Literal Patterns:: * Capture Patterns:: * Wildcard Patterns:: * Value Patterns:: * Group Patterns:: * Sequence Patterns:: * Mapping Patterns:: * Class Patterns:: Coroutines * Coroutine function definition:: * The async for statement:: * The async with statement:: Type parameter lists * Generic functions:: * Generic classes:: * Generic type aliases:: Top-level components * Complete Python programs:: * File input:: * Interactive input:: * Expression input:: The Python Standard Library * Introduction: Introduction<6>. * Built-in Functions:: * Built-in Constants:: * Built-in Types:: * Built-in Exceptions:: * Text Processing Services:: * Binary Data Services:: * Data Types:: * Numeric and Mathematical Modules:: * Functional Programming Modules:: * File and Directory Access:: * Data Persistence:: * Data Compression and Archiving:: * File Formats:: * Cryptographic Services:: * Generic Operating System Services:: * Command Line Interface Libraries:: * Concurrent Execution:: * Networking and Interprocess Communication:: * Internet Data Handling:: * Structured Markup Processing Tools:: * Internet Protocols and Support:: * Multimedia Services:: * Internationalization:: * Program Frameworks:: * Graphical User Interfaces with Tk:: * Development Tools:: * Debugging and Profiling:: * Software Packaging and Distribution:: * Python Runtime Services:: * Custom Python Interpreters:: * Importing Modules:: * Python Language Services:: * MS Windows Specific Services:: * Unix Specific Services:: * Modules command-line interface (CLI): Modules command-line interface CLI. * Superseded Modules:: * Removed Modules:: * Security Considerations: Security Considerations<3>. Introduction * Notes on availability:: Notes on availability * WebAssembly platforms:: * Mobile platforms:: Built-in Constants * Constants added by the site module:: Built-in Types * Truth Value Testing:: * Boolean Operations — and, or, not: Boolean Operations — and or not. * Comparisons: Comparisons<2>. * Numeric Types — int, float, complex: Numeric Types — int float complex. * Boolean Type - bool:: * Iterator Types:: * Sequence Types — list, tuple, range: Sequence Types — list tuple range. * Text Sequence Type — str:: * Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview. * Set Types — set, frozenset: Set Types — set frozenset. * Mapping Types — dict:: * Context Manager Types:: * Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union. * Other Built-in Types:: * Special Attributes:: * Integer string conversion length limitation:: Numeric Types — int, float, complex * Bitwise Operations on Integer Types:: * Additional Methods on Integer Types:: * Additional Methods on Float:: * Hashing of numeric types:: Iterator Types * Generator Types:: Sequence Types — list, tuple, range * Common Sequence Operations:: * Immutable Sequence Types:: * Mutable Sequence Types:: * Lists: Lists<2>. * Tuples:: * Ranges:: Text Sequence Type — str * String Methods: String Methods<2>. * Formatted String Literals (f-strings): Formatted String Literals f-strings. * printf-style String Formatting:: Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview * Bytes Objects:: * Bytearray Objects:: * Bytes and Bytearray Operations:: * printf-style Bytes Formatting:: * Memory Views:: Mapping Types — dict * Dictionary view objects:: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias, Union * Generic Alias Type:: * Union Type:: Generic Alias Type * Standard Generic Classes:: * Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects:: Other Built-in Types * Modules: Modules<4>. * Classes and Class Instances:: * Functions:: * Methods:: * Code Objects:: * Type Objects:: * The Null Object:: * The Ellipsis Object:: * The NotImplemented Object:: * Internal Objects:: Integer string conversion length limitation * Affected APIs:: * Configuring the limit:: * Recommended configuration:: Built-in Exceptions * Exception context:: * Inheriting from built-in exceptions:: * Base classes:: * Concrete exceptions:: * Warnings:: * Exception groups:: * Exception hierarchy:: Concrete exceptions * OS exceptions:: Text Processing Services * string — Common string operations:: * re — Regular expression operations:: * difflib — Helpers for computing deltas:: * textwrap — Text wrapping and filling:: * unicodedata — Unicode Database:: * stringprep — Internet String Preparation:: * readline — GNU readline interface:: * rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline:: string — Common string operations * String constants:: * Custom String Formatting:: * Format String Syntax:: * Template strings:: * Helper functions:: Format String Syntax * Format Specification Mini-Language:: * Format examples:: re — Regular expression operations * Regular Expression Syntax:: * Module Contents:: * Regular Expression Objects:: * Match Objects:: * Regular Expression Examples:: Module Contents * Flags:: * Functions: Functions<2>. * Exceptions: Exceptions<3>. Regular Expression Examples * Checking for a Pair:: * Simulating scanf(): Simulating scanf. * search() vs. match(): search vs match. * Making a Phonebook:: * Text Munging:: * Finding all Adverbs:: * Finding all Adverbs and their Positions:: * Raw String Notation:: * Writing a Tokenizer:: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas * SequenceMatcher Objects:: * SequenceMatcher Examples:: * Differ Objects:: * Differ Example:: * A command-line interface to difflib:: * ndiff example:: readline — GNU readline interface * Init file:: * Line buffer:: * History file:: * History list:: * Startup hooks:: * Completion:: * Example:: Binary Data Services * struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data:: * codecs — Codec registry and base classes:: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data * Functions and Exceptions:: * Format Strings:: * Applications:: * Classes: Classes<3>. Format Strings * Byte Order, Size, and Alignment: Byte Order Size and Alignment. * Format Characters:: * Examples: Examples<2>. Applications * Native Formats:: * Standard Formats:: codecs — Codec registry and base classes * Codec Base Classes:: * Encodings and Unicode:: * Standard Encodings:: * Python Specific Encodings:: * encodings — Encodings package:: * encodings.idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. * encodings.mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage. * encodings.utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature. Codec Base Classes * Error Handlers:: * Stateless Encoding and Decoding:: * Incremental Encoding and Decoding:: * Stream Encoding and Decoding:: Incremental Encoding and Decoding * IncrementalEncoder Objects:: * IncrementalDecoder Objects:: Stream Encoding and Decoding * StreamWriter Objects:: * StreamReader Objects:: * StreamReaderWriter Objects:: * StreamRecoder Objects:: Python Specific Encodings * Text Encodings:: * Binary Transforms:: * Standalone Codec Functions:: * Text Transforms:: Data Types * datetime — Basic date and time types:: * zoneinfo — IANA time zone support:: * calendar — General calendar-related functions:: * collections — Container datatypes:: * collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers. * heapq — Heap queue algorithm:: * bisect — Array bisection algorithm:: * array — Efficient arrays of numeric values:: * weakref — Weak references:: * types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types:: * copy — Shallow and deep copy operations:: * pprint — Data pretty printer:: * reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. * enum — Support for enumerations:: * graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures:: datetime — Basic date and time types * Aware and Naive Objects:: * Constants:: * Available Types:: * timedelta Objects:: * date Objects:: * datetime Objects:: * time Objects:: * tzinfo Objects:: * timezone Objects:: * strftime() and strptime() Behavior: strftime and strptime Behavior. Available Types * Common Properties:: * Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive:: timedelta Objects * Examples of usage; timedelta: Examples of usage timedelta. date Objects * Examples of Usage; date: Examples of Usage date. datetime Objects * Examples of Usage; datetime: Examples of Usage datetime. time Objects * Examples of Usage; time: Examples of Usage time. strftime() and strptime() Behavior * strftime() and strptime() Format Codes: strftime and strptime Format Codes. * Technical Detail:: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support * Using ZoneInfo:: * Data sources:: * The ZoneInfo class:: * Functions: Functions<3>. * Globals:: * Exceptions and warnings:: Data sources * Configuring the data sources:: Configuring the data sources * Compile-time configuration:: * Environment configuration:: * Runtime configuration:: The ZoneInfo class * String representations:: * Pickle serialization:: calendar — General calendar-related functions * Command-Line Usage:: collections — Container datatypes * ChainMap objects:: * Counter objects:: * deque objects:: * defaultdict objects:: * namedtuple() Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. * OrderedDict objects:: * UserDict objects:: * UserList objects:: * UserString objects:: ChainMap objects * ChainMap Examples and Recipes:: deque objects * deque Recipes:: defaultdict objects * defaultdict Examples:: OrderedDict objects * OrderedDict Examples and Recipes:: collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers * Collections Abstract Base Classes:: * Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions:: * Examples and Recipes:: heapq — Heap queue algorithm * Basic Examples:: * Priority Queue Implementation Notes:: * Theory:: bisect — Array bisection algorithm * Performance Notes:: * Searching Sorted Lists:: * Examples: Examples<3>. weakref — Weak references * Weak Reference Objects:: * Example: Example<2>. * Finalizer Objects:: * Comparing finalizers with __del__() methods: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods. types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types * Dynamic Type Creation:: * Standard Interpreter Types:: * Additional Utility Classes and Functions:: * Coroutine Utility Functions:: pprint — Data pretty printer * Functions: Functions<4>. * PrettyPrinter Objects:: * Example: Example<3>. reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation * Repr Objects:: * Subclassing Repr Objects:: enum — Support for enumerations * Module Contents: Module Contents<2>. * Data Types: Data Types<2>. * Utilities and Decorators:: * Notes:: Data Types * Supported __dunder__ names:: * Supported _sunder_ names:: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures * Exceptions: Exceptions<4>. Numeric and Mathematical Modules * numbers — Numeric abstract base classes:: * math — Mathematical functions:: * cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers:: * decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic:: * fractions — Rational numbers:: * random — Generate pseudo-random numbers:: * statistics — Mathematical statistics functions:: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes * The numeric tower:: * Notes for type implementers:: Notes for type implementers * Adding More Numeric ABCs:: * Implementing the arithmetic operations:: math — Mathematical functions * Number-theoretic functions:: * Floating point arithmetic:: * Floating point manipulation functions:: * Power, exponential and logarithmic functions: Power exponential and logarithmic functions. * Summation and product functions:: * Angular conversion:: * Trigonometric functions:: * Hyperbolic functions:: * Special functions:: * Constants: Constants<2>. cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers * Conversions to and from polar coordinates:: * Power and logarithmic functions:: * Trigonometric functions: Trigonometric functions<2>. * Hyperbolic functions: Hyperbolic functions<2>. * Classification functions:: * Constants: Constants<3>. decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic * Quick-start tutorial:: * Decimal objects:: * Context objects:: * Constants: Constants<4>. * Rounding modes:: * Signals:: * Floating-point notes:: * Working with threads:: * Recipes:: * Decimal FAQ:: Decimal objects * Logical operands:: Floating-point notes * Mitigating round-off error with increased precision:: * Special values:: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers * Bookkeeping functions:: * Functions for bytes:: * Functions for integers:: * Functions for sequences:: * Discrete distributions:: * Real-valued distributions:: * Alternative Generator:: * Notes on Reproducibility:: * Examples: Examples<4>. * Recipes: Recipes<2>. * Command-line usage:: * Command-line example:: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions * Averages and measures of central location:: * Measures of spread:: * Statistics for relations between two inputs:: * Function details:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<5>. * NormalDist objects:: * Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<2>. Examples and Recipes * Classic probability problems:: * Monte Carlo inputs for simulations:: * Approximating binomial distributions:: * Naive bayesian classifier:: Functional Programming Modules * itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping:: * functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects:: * operator — Standard operators as functions:: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping * Itertool Functions:: * Itertools Recipes:: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects * partial Objects:: operator — Standard operators as functions * Mapping Operators to Functions:: * In-place Operators:: File and Directory Access * pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths:: * os.path — Common pathname manipulations: os path — Common pathname manipulations. * stat — Interpreting stat() results: stat — Interpreting stat results. * filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons:: * tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories:: * glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion:: * fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching:: * linecache — Random access to text lines:: * shutil — High-level file operations:: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths * Basic use:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<6>. * Pure paths:: * Concrete paths:: * Pattern language:: * Comparison to the glob module:: * Comparison to the os and os.path modules: Comparison to the os and os path modules. Pure paths * General properties:: * Operators: Operators<2>. * Accessing individual parts:: * Methods and properties:: Concrete paths * Parsing and generating URIs:: * Expanding and resolving paths:: * Querying file type and status:: * Reading and writing files:: * Reading directories:: * Creating files and directories:: * Renaming and deleting:: * Permissions and ownership:: Comparison to the os and os.path modules * Corresponding tools:: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons * The dircmp class:: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories * Examples: Examples<5>. * Deprecated functions and variables:: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion * Examples: Examples<6>. shutil — High-level file operations * Directory and files operations:: * Archiving operations:: * Querying the size of the output terminal:: Directory and files operations * Platform-dependent efficient copy operations:: * copytree example:: * rmtree example:: Archiving operations * Archiving example:: * Archiving example with base_dir:: Data Persistence * pickle — Python object serialization:: * copyreg — Register pickle support functions:: * shelve — Python object persistence:: * marshal — Internal Python object serialization:: * dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”:: * sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases. pickle — Python object serialization * Relationship to other Python modules:: * Data stream format:: * Module Interface:: * What can be pickled and unpickled?:: * Pickling Class Instances:: * Custom Reduction for Types, Functions, and Other Objects: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects. * Out-of-band Buffers:: * Restricting Globals:: * Performance: Performance<2>. * Examples: Examples<7>. Relationship to other Python modules * Comparison with marshal:: * Comparison with json:: Pickling Class Instances * Persistence of External Objects:: * Dispatch Tables:: * Handling Stateful Objects:: Out-of-band Buffers * Provider API:: * Consumer API:: * Example: Example<4>. copyreg — Register pickle support functions * Example: Example<5>. shelve — Python object persistence * Restrictions:: * Example: Example<6>. dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” * dbm.sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm. * dbm.gnu — GNU database manager: dbm gnu — GNU database manager. * dbm.ndbm — New Database Manager: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. * dbm.dumb — Portable DBM implementation: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases * Tutorial:: * Reference:: * How-to guides:: * Explanation:: Reference * Module functions:: * Module constants:: * Connection objects:: * Cursor objects:: * Row objects:: * Blob objects:: * PrepareProtocol objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<7>. * SQLite and Python types:: * Default adapters and converters (deprecated): Default adapters and converters deprecated. * Command-line interface:: How-to guides * How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries:: * How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values:: * How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types:: * Adapter and converter recipes:: * How to use connection shortcut methods:: * How to use the connection context manager:: * How to work with SQLite URIs:: * How to create and use row factories:: * How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings:: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values * How to write adaptable objects:: * How to register adapter callables:: Explanation * Transaction control:: Transaction control * Transaction control via the autocommit attribute:: * Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute:: Data Compression and Archiving * zlib — Compression compatible with gzip:: * gzip — Support for gzip files:: * bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression:: * lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm:: * zipfile — Work with ZIP archives:: * tarfile — Read and write tar archive files:: gzip — Support for gzip files * Examples of usage:: * Command Line Interface:: Command Line Interface * Command line options:: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression * (De)compression of files: De compression of files. * Incremental (de)compression: Incremental de compression. * One-shot (de)compression: One-shot de compression. * Examples of usage: Examples of usage<2>. lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm * Reading and writing compressed files:: * Compressing and decompressing data in memory:: * Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<2>. * Specifying custom filter chains:: * Examples: Examples<8>. zipfile — Work with ZIP archives * ZipFile Objects:: * Path Objects:: * PyZipFile Objects:: * ZipInfo Objects:: * Command-Line Interface:: * Decompression pitfalls:: Command-Line Interface * Command-line options:: Decompression pitfalls * From file itself:: * File System limitations:: * Resources limitations:: * Interruption:: * Default behaviors of extraction:: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files * TarFile Objects:: * TarInfo Objects:: * Extraction filters:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<2>. * Examples: Examples<9>. * Supported tar formats:: * Unicode issues:: Extraction filters * Default named filters:: * Filter errors:: * Hints for further verification:: * Supporting older Python versions:: * Stateful extraction filter example:: Command-Line Interface * Command-line options: Command-line options<2>. Examples * Reading examples:: * Writing examples:: File Formats * csv — CSV File Reading and Writing:: * configparser — Configuration file parser:: * tomllib — Parse TOML files:: * netrc — netrc file processing:: * plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. csv — CSV File Reading and Writing * Module Contents: Module Contents<3>. * Dialects and Formatting Parameters:: * Reader Objects:: * Writer Objects:: * Examples: Examples<10>. configparser — Configuration file parser * Quick Start:: * Supported Datatypes:: * Fallback Values:: * Supported INI File Structure:: * Unnamed Sections:: * Interpolation of values:: * Mapping Protocol Access:: * Customizing Parser Behaviour:: * Legacy API Examples:: * ConfigParser Objects:: * RawConfigParser Objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<8>. tomllib — Parse TOML files * Examples: Examples<11>. * Conversion Table:: netrc — netrc file processing * netrc Objects:: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple .plist files * Examples: Examples<12>. Cryptographic Services * hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests:: * hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication:: * secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets:: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests * Hash algorithms:: * Usage:: * Constructors:: * Attributes:: * Hash Objects:: * SHAKE variable length digests:: * File hashing:: * Key derivation:: * BLAKE2:: BLAKE2 * Creating hash objects:: * Constants: Constants<5>. * Examples: Examples<13>. * Credits:: Examples * Simple hashing:: * Using different digest sizes:: * Keyed hashing:: * Randomized hashing:: * Personalization:: * Tree mode:: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets * Random numbers:: * Generating tokens:: * Other functions:: * Recipes and best practices:: Generating tokens * How many bytes should tokens use?:: Generic Operating System Services * os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces:: * io — Core tools for working with streams:: * time — Time access and conversions:: * logging — Logging facility for Python:: * logging.config — Logging configuration: logging config — Logging configuration. * logging.handlers — Logging handlers: logging handlers — Logging handlers. * platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data:: * errno — Standard errno system symbols:: * ctypes — A foreign function library for Python:: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces * File Names, Command Line Arguments, and Environment Variables: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables. * Python UTF-8 Mode:: * Process Parameters:: * File Object Creation:: * File Descriptor Operations:: * Files and Directories:: * Process Management:: * Interface to the scheduler:: * Miscellaneous System Information:: * Random numbers: Random numbers<2>. File Descriptor Operations * Querying the size of a terminal:: * Inheritance of File Descriptors:: Files and Directories * Timer File Descriptors:: * Linux extended attributes:: io — Core tools for working with streams * Overview: Overview<2>. * Text Encoding:: * High-level Module Interface:: * Class hierarchy:: * Performance: Performance<3>. Overview * Text I/O:: * Binary I/O:: * Raw I/O:: Text Encoding * Opt-in EncodingWarning:: Class hierarchy * I/O Base Classes:: * Raw File I/O:: * Buffered Streams:: * Text I/O: Text I/O<2>. Performance * Binary I/O: Binary I/O<2>. * Text I/O: Text I/O<3>. * Multi-threading: Multi-threading<3>. * Reentrancy:: time — Time access and conversions * Functions: Functions<5>. * Clock ID Constants:: * Timezone Constants:: logging — Logging facility for Python * Logger Objects:: * Logging Levels:: * Handler Objects:: * Formatter Objects:: * Filter Objects:: * LogRecord Objects:: * LogRecord attributes:: * LoggerAdapter Objects:: * Thread Safety:: * Module-Level Functions:: * Module-Level Attributes:: * Integration with the warnings module:: logging.config — Logging configuration * Configuration functions:: * Security considerations:: * Configuration dictionary schema:: * Configuration file format:: Configuration dictionary schema * Dictionary Schema Details:: * Incremental Configuration:: * Object connections:: * User-defined objects:: * Handler configuration order:: * Access to external objects:: * Access to internal objects:: * Import resolution and custom importers:: * Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener:: logging.handlers — Logging handlers * StreamHandler:: * FileHandler:: * NullHandler:: * WatchedFileHandler:: * BaseRotatingHandler:: * RotatingFileHandler:: * TimedRotatingFileHandler:: * SocketHandler:: * DatagramHandler:: * SysLogHandler:: * NTEventLogHandler:: * SMTPHandler:: * MemoryHandler:: * HTTPHandler:: * QueueHandler:: * QueueListener:: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data * Cross platform:: * Java platform:: * Windows platform:: * macOS platform:: * iOS platform:: * Unix platforms:: * Linux platforms:: * Android platform:: * Command-line usage: Command-line usage<2>. ctypes — A foreign function library for Python * ctypes tutorial:: * ctypes reference:: ctypes tutorial * Loading dynamic link libraries:: * Accessing functions from loaded dlls:: * Calling functions:: * Fundamental data types:: * Calling functions, continued: Calling functions continued. * Calling variadic functions:: * Calling functions with your own custom data types:: * Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes): Specifying the required argument types function prototypes. * Return types:: * Passing pointers (or; passing parameters by reference): Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference. * Structures and unions:: * Structure/union alignment and byte order:: * Bit fields in structures and unions:: * Arrays:: * Pointers:: * Type conversions:: * Incomplete Types:: * Callback functions:: * Accessing values exported from dlls:: * Surprises:: * Variable-sized data types:: ctypes reference * Finding shared libraries:: * Loading shared libraries:: * Foreign functions:: * Function prototypes:: * Utility functions:: * Data types:: * Fundamental data types: Fundamental data types<2>. * Structured data types:: * Arrays and pointers:: Command Line Interface Libraries * argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands. * optparse — Parser for command line options:: * getpass — Portable password input:: * fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams:: * curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays:: * curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs. * curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. * curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses. argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and subcommands * ArgumentParser objects:: * The add_argument() method: The add_argument method. * The parse_args() method: The parse_args method. * Other utilities:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<9>. ArgumentParser objects * prog:: * usage:: * description:: * epilog:: * parents:: * formatter_class:: * prefix_chars:: * fromfile_prefix_chars:: * argument_default:: * allow_abbrev:: * conflict_handler:: * add_help:: * exit_on_error:: The add_argument() method * name or flags:: * action:: * nargs:: * const:: * default:: * type:: * choices:: * required:: * help:: * metavar:: * dest:: * deprecated:: * Action classes:: The parse_args() method * Option value syntax:: * Invalid arguments:: * Arguments containing -:: * Argument abbreviations (prefix matching): Argument abbreviations prefix matching. * Beyond sys.argv: Beyond sys argv. * The Namespace object:: Other utilities * Sub-commands:: * FileType objects:: * Argument groups:: * Mutual exclusion:: * Parser defaults:: * Printing help:: * Partial parsing:: * Customizing file parsing:: * Exiting methods:: * Intermixed parsing:: * Registering custom types or actions:: Exceptions * Argparse Tutorial:: * Migrating optparse code to argparse:: Argparse Tutorial * Concepts:: * The basics:: * Introducing Positional arguments:: * Introducing Optional arguments:: * Combining Positional and Optional arguments:: * Getting a little more advanced:: * How to translate the argparse output:: * Custom type converters:: * Conclusion:: Introducing Optional arguments * Short options:: Getting a little more advanced * Specifying ambiguous arguments:: * Conflicting options:: optparse — Parser for command line options * Choosing an argument parsing library:: * Introduction: Introduction<7>. * Background:: * Tutorial: Tutorial<2>. * Reference Guide:: * Option Callbacks:: * Extending optparse:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<10>. Background * Terminology:: * What are options for?:: * What are positional arguments for?:: Tutorial * Understanding option actions:: * The store action:: * Handling boolean (flag) options: Handling boolean flag options. * Other actions:: * Default values:: * Generating help:: * Printing a version string:: * How optparse handles errors:: * Putting it all together:: Generating help * Grouping Options:: Reference Guide * Creating the parser:: * Populating the parser:: * Defining options:: * Option attributes:: * Standard option actions:: * Standard option types:: * Parsing arguments:: * Querying and manipulating your option parser:: * Conflicts between options:: * Cleanup:: * Other methods:: Option Callbacks * Defining a callback option:: * How callbacks are called:: * Raising errors in a callback:: * Callback example 1; trivial callback: Callback example 1 trivial callback. * Callback example 2; check option order: Callback example 2 check option order. * Callback example 3; check option order (generalized): Callback example 3 check option order generalized. * Callback example 4; check arbitrary condition: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition. * Callback example 5; fixed arguments: Callback example 5 fixed arguments. * Callback example 6; variable arguments: Callback example 6 variable arguments. Extending optparse * Adding new types:: * Adding new actions:: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays * Functions: Functions<6>. * Window Objects:: * Constants: Constants<6>. curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs * Textbox objects:: curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses * Functions: Functions<7>. * Panel Objects:: Concurrent Execution * threading — Thread-based parallelism:: * multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism:: * multiprocessing.shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. * The concurrent package:: * concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks. * subprocess — Subprocess management:: * sched — Event scheduler:: * queue — A synchronized queue class:: * contextvars — Context Variables:: * _thread — Low-level threading API:: threading — Thread-based parallelism * Introduction: Introduction<8>. * GIL and performance considerations:: * Reference: Reference<2>. * Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the with statement: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement. Reference * Thread-local data:: * Thread objects:: * Lock objects:: * RLock objects:: * Condition objects:: * Semaphore objects:: * Semaphore example:: * Event objects:: * Timer objects:: * Barrier objects:: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism * Introduction: Introduction<9>. * Reference: Reference<3>. * Programming guidelines:: * Examples: Examples<14>. Introduction * The Process class:: * Contexts and start methods:: * Exchanging objects between processes:: * Synchronization between processes:: * Sharing state between processes:: * Using a pool of workers:: Reference * Process and exceptions:: * Pipes and Queues:: * Miscellaneous: Miscellaneous<3>. * Connection Objects:: * Synchronization primitives:: * Shared ctypes Objects:: * Managers:: * Proxy Objects:: * Process Pools:: * Listeners and Clients:: * Authentication keys:: * Logging: Logging<2>. * The multiprocessing.dummy module: The multiprocessing dummy module. Shared ctypes Objects * The multiprocessing.sharedctypes module: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. Managers * Customized managers:: * Using a remote manager:: Proxy Objects * Cleanup: Cleanup<2>. Listeners and Clients * Address Formats:: Programming guidelines * All start methods:: * The spawn and forkserver start methods:: concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks * Executor Objects:: * ThreadPoolExecutor:: * ProcessPoolExecutor:: * Future Objects:: * Module Functions:: * Exception classes:: ThreadPoolExecutor * ThreadPoolExecutor Example:: ProcessPoolExecutor * ProcessPoolExecutor Example:: subprocess — Subprocess management * Using the subprocess Module:: * Security Considerations:: * Popen Objects:: * Windows Popen Helpers:: * Older high-level API:: * Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module:: * Legacy Shell Invocation Functions:: * Notes: Notes<2>. Using the subprocess Module * Frequently Used Arguments:: * Popen Constructor:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<11>. Windows Popen Helpers * Windows Constants:: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module * Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution:: * Replacing shell pipeline:: * Replacing os.system(): Replacing os system. * Replacing the os.spawn family: Replacing the os spawn family. * Replacing os.popen(), os.popen2(), os.popen3(): Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen3. * Replacing functions from the popen2 module:: Notes * Timeout Behavior:: * Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows:: * Disabling use of vfork() or posix_spawn(): Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn. sched — Event scheduler * Scheduler Objects:: queue — A synchronized queue class * Queue Objects:: * SimpleQueue Objects:: Queue Objects * Waiting for task completion:: * Terminating queues:: contextvars — Context Variables * Context Variables:: * Manual Context Management:: * asyncio support:: Networking and Interprocess Communication * asyncio — Asynchronous I/O:: * socket — Low-level networking interface:: * ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects:: * select — Waiting for I/O completion:: * selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing:: * signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events:: * mmap — Memory-mapped file support:: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O * Runners:: * Coroutines and Tasks:: * Streams:: * Synchronization Primitives:: * Subprocesses:: * Queues:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<13>. * Event Loop:: * Futures:: * Transports and Protocols:: * Policies:: * Platform Support:: * Extending:: * High-level API Index:: * Low-level API Index:: * Developing with asyncio:: Runners * Running an asyncio Program:: * Runner context manager:: * Handling Keyboard Interruption:: Coroutines and Tasks * Coroutines: Coroutines<3>. * Awaitables:: * Creating Tasks:: * Task Cancellation:: * Task Groups:: * Sleeping:: * Running Tasks Concurrently:: * Eager Task Factory:: * Shielding From Cancellation:: * Timeouts:: * Waiting Primitives:: * Running in Threads:: * Scheduling From Other Threads:: * Introspection:: * Task Object:: Task Groups * Terminating a Task Group:: Streams * StreamReader:: * StreamWriter:: * Examples: Examples<15>. Examples * TCP echo client using streams:: * TCP echo server using streams:: * Get HTTP headers:: * Register an open socket to wait for data using streams:: Synchronization Primitives * Lock:: * Event:: * Condition:: * Semaphore:: * BoundedSemaphore:: * Barrier:: Subprocesses * Creating Subprocesses:: * Constants: Constants<7>. * Interacting with Subprocesses:: Interacting with Subprocesses * Subprocess and Threads:: * Examples: Examples<16>. Queues * Queue:: * Priority Queue:: * LIFO Queue:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<12>. * Examples: Examples<17>. Event Loop * Event Loop Methods:: * Callback Handles:: * Server Objects:: * Event Loop Implementations:: * Examples: Examples<18>. Event Loop Methods * Running and stopping the loop:: * Scheduling callbacks:: * Scheduling delayed callbacks:: * Creating Futures and Tasks:: * Opening network connections:: * Creating network servers:: * Transferring files:: * TLS Upgrade:: * Watching file descriptors:: * Working with socket objects directly:: * DNS:: * Working with pipes:: * Unix signals:: * Executing code in thread or process pools:: * Error Handling API:: * Enabling debug mode:: * Running Subprocesses:: Examples * Hello World with call_soon(): Hello World with call_soon. * Display the current date with call_later(): Display the current date with call_later. * Watch a file descriptor for read events:: * Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM:: Futures * Future Functions:: * Future Object:: Transports and Protocols * Transports:: * Protocols:: * Examples: Examples<19>. Transports * Transports Hierarchy:: * Base Transport:: * Read-only Transports:: * Write-only Transports:: * Datagram Transports:: * Subprocess Transports:: Protocols * Base Protocols:: * Base Protocol:: * Streaming Protocols:: * Buffered Streaming Protocols:: * Datagram Protocols:: * Subprocess Protocols:: Examples * TCP Echo Server:: * TCP Echo Client:: * UDP Echo Server:: * UDP Echo Client:: * Connecting Existing Sockets:: * loop.subprocess_exec() and SubprocessProtocol: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol. Policies * Getting and Setting the Policy:: * Policy Objects:: * Process Watchers:: * Custom Policies:: Platform Support * All Platforms:: * Windows: Windows<79>. * macOS: macOS<50>. Windows * Subprocess Support on Windows:: Extending * Writing a Custom Event Loop:: * Future and Task private constructors:: * Task lifetime support:: High-level API Index * Tasks:: * Queues: Queues<2>. * Subprocesses: Subprocesses<2>. * Streams: Streams<2>. * Synchronization:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<14>. Low-level API Index * Obtaining the Event Loop:: * Event Loop Methods: Event Loop Methods<2>. * Transports: Transports<2>. * Protocols: Protocols<2>. * Event Loop Policies:: Developing with asyncio * Debug Mode:: * Concurrency and Multithreading:: * Running Blocking Code:: * Logging: Logging<3>. * Detect never-awaited coroutines:: * Detect never-retrieved exceptions:: socket — Low-level networking interface * Socket families:: * Module contents:: * Socket Objects:: * Notes on socket timeouts:: * Example: Example<7>. Module contents * Exceptions: Exceptions<15>. * Constants: Constants<8>. * Functions: Functions<8>. Functions * Creating sockets:: * Other functions: Other functions<2>. Notes on socket timeouts * Timeouts and the connect method:: * Timeouts and the accept method:: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects * Functions, Constants, and Exceptions: Functions Constants and Exceptions. * SSL Sockets:: * SSL Contexts:: * Certificates:: * Examples: Examples<20>. * Notes on non-blocking sockets:: * Memory BIO Support: Memory BIO Support<2>. * SSL session:: * Security considerations: Security considerations<2>. * TLS 1.3: TLS 1 3. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions * Socket creation:: * Context creation:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<16>. * Random generation:: * Certificate handling:: * Constants: Constants<9>. Certificates * Certificate chains:: * CA certificates:: * Combined key and certificate:: * Self-signed certificates:: Examples * Testing for SSL support:: * Client-side operation:: * Server-side operation:: Security considerations * Best defaults:: * Manual settings:: * Multi-processing:: Manual settings * Verifying certificates:: * Protocol versions:: * Cipher selection:: select — Waiting for I/O completion * /dev/poll Polling Objects:: * Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. * Polling Objects:: * Kqueue Objects:: * Kevent Objects:: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing * Introduction: Introduction<10>. * Classes: Classes<4>. * Examples: Examples<21>. signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events * General rules:: * Module contents: Module contents<2>. * Examples: Examples<22>. * Note on SIGPIPE:: * Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions:: General rules * Execution of Python signal handlers:: * Signals and threads:: mmap — Memory-mapped file support * MADV_* Constants:: * MAP_* Constants:: Internet Data Handling * email — An email and MIME handling package:: * json — JSON encoder and decoder:: * mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats:: * mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types:: * base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. * binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII:: * quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data:: email — An email and MIME handling package * email.message; Representing an email message: email message Representing an email message. * email.parser; Parsing email messages: email parser Parsing email messages. * email.generator; Generating MIME documents: email generator Generating MIME documents. * email.policy; Policy Objects: email policy Policy Objects. * email.errors; Exception and Defect classes: email errors Exception and Defect classes. * email.headerregistry; Custom Header Objects: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. * email.contentmanager; Managing MIME Content: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. * email; Examples: email Examples. * email.message.Message; Representing an email message using the compat32 API: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. * email.mime; Creating email and MIME objects from scratch: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. * email.header; Internationalized headers: email header Internationalized headers. * email.charset; Representing character sets: email charset Representing character sets. * email.encoders; Encoders: email encoders Encoders. * email.utils; Miscellaneous utilities: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. * email.iterators; Iterators: email iterators Iterators. email.parser: Parsing email messages * FeedParser API:: * Parser API:: * Additional notes:: email.contentmanager: Managing MIME Content * Content Manager Instances:: json — JSON encoder and decoder * Basic Usage:: * Encoders and Decoders:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<17>. * Standard Compliance and Interoperability:: * Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<2>. Standard Compliance and Interoperability * Character Encodings:: * Infinite and NaN Number Values:: * Repeated Names Within an Object:: * Top-level Non-Object, Non-Array Values: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values. * Implementation Limitations:: Command Line Interface * Command line options: Command line options<2>. mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats * Mailbox objects:: * Message objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<18>. * Examples: Examples<23>. Mailbox objects * Maildir objects:: * mbox objects:: * MH objects:: * Babyl objects:: * MMDF objects:: Message objects * MaildirMessage objects:: * mboxMessage objects:: * MHMessage objects:: * BabylMessage objects:: * MMDFMessage objects:: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types * MimeTypes Objects:: base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings * RFC 4648 Encodings:: * Base85 Encodings:: * Legacy Interface:: * Security Considerations: Security Considerations<2>. Structured Markup Processing Tools * html — HyperText Markup Language support:: * html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser. * html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities. * XML Processing Modules:: * xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API. * xml.dom — The Document Object Model API: xml dom — The Document Object Model API. * xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation. * xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. * xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. * xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. * xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. * xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. * xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser * Example HTML Parser Application:: * HTMLParser Methods:: * Examples: Examples<24>. XML Processing Modules * XML security:: xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API * Tutorial: Tutorial<3>. * XPath support:: * Reference: Reference<4>. * XInclude support:: * Reference: Reference<5>. Tutorial * XML tree and elements:: * Parsing XML:: * Pull API for non-blocking parsing:: * Finding interesting elements:: * Modifying an XML File:: * Building XML documents:: * Parsing XML with Namespaces:: XPath support * Example: Example<8>. * Supported XPath syntax:: Reference * Functions: Functions<9>. XInclude support * Example: Example<9>. Reference * Functions: Functions<10>. * Element Objects:: * ElementTree Objects:: * QName Objects:: * TreeBuilder Objects:: * XMLParser Objects:: * XMLPullParser Objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<19>. xml.dom — The Document Object Model API * Module Contents: Module Contents<4>. * Objects in the DOM:: * Conformance:: Objects in the DOM * DOMImplementation Objects:: * Node Objects:: * NodeList Objects:: * DocumentType Objects:: * Document Objects:: * Element Objects: Element Objects<2>. * Attr Objects:: * NamedNodeMap Objects:: * Comment Objects:: * Text and CDATASection Objects:: * ProcessingInstruction Objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<20>. Conformance * Type Mapping:: * Accessor Methods:: xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation * DOM Objects:: * DOM Example:: * minidom and the DOM standard:: xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees * DOMEventStream Objects:: xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers * SAXException Objects:: xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers * ContentHandler Objects:: * DTDHandler Objects:: * EntityResolver Objects:: * ErrorHandler Objects:: * LexicalHandler Objects:: xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers * XMLReader Objects:: * IncrementalParser Objects:: * Locator Objects:: * InputSource Objects:: * The Attributes Interface:: * The AttributesNS Interface:: xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat * XMLParser Objects: XMLParser Objects<2>. * ExpatError Exceptions:: * Example: Example<10>. * Content Model Descriptions:: * Expat error constants:: Internet Protocols and Support * webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller:: * wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation:: * urllib — URL handling modules:: * urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. * urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. * urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. * urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. * urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. * http — HTTP modules:: * http.client — HTTP protocol client: http client — HTTP protocol client. * ftplib — FTP protocol client:: * poplib — POP3 protocol client:: * imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client:: * smtplib — SMTP protocol client:: * uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122:: * socketserver — A framework for network servers:: * http.server — HTTP servers: http server — HTTP servers. * http.cookies — HTTP state management: http cookies — HTTP state management. * http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. * xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules:: * xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access. * xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers. * ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library:: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller * Browser Controller Objects:: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation * wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. * wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. * wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. * wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. * wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. * wsgiref.types – WSGI types for static type checking: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. * Examples: Examples<25>. urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs * Request Objects:: * OpenerDirector Objects:: * BaseHandler Objects:: * HTTPRedirectHandler Objects:: * HTTPCookieProcessor Objects:: * ProxyHandler Objects:: * HTTPPasswordMgr Objects:: * HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects:: * AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects:: * HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects:: * ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects:: * AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects:: * HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects:: * ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects:: * HTTPHandler Objects:: * HTTPSHandler Objects:: * FileHandler Objects:: * DataHandler Objects:: * FTPHandler Objects:: * CacheFTPHandler Objects:: * UnknownHandler Objects:: * HTTPErrorProcessor Objects:: * Examples: Examples<26>. * Legacy interface:: * urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions. urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components * URL Parsing:: * URL parsing security:: * Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes:: * Structured Parse Results:: * URL Quoting:: http — HTTP modules * HTTP status codes:: * HTTP status category:: * HTTP methods:: http.client — HTTP protocol client * HTTPConnection Objects:: * HTTPResponse Objects:: * Examples: Examples<27>. * HTTPMessage Objects:: ftplib — FTP protocol client * Reference: Reference<6>. Reference * FTP objects:: * FTP_TLS objects:: * Module variables:: poplib — POP3 protocol client * POP3 Objects:: * POP3 Example:: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client * IMAP4 Objects:: * IMAP4 Example:: smtplib — SMTP protocol client * SMTP Objects:: * SMTP Example:: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<2>. * Example: Example<11>. * Command-Line Example:: socketserver — A framework for network servers * Server Creation Notes:: * Server Objects: Server Objects<2>. * Request Handler Objects:: * Examples: Examples<28>. Examples * socketserver.TCPServer Example: socketserver TCPServer Example. * socketserver.UDPServer Example: socketserver UDPServer Example. * Asynchronous Mixins:: http.server — HTTP servers * Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>. * Security considerations: Security considerations<3>. http.cookies — HTTP state management * Cookie Objects:: * Morsel Objects:: * Example: Example<12>. http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients * CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects:: * FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers:: * CookiePolicy Objects:: * DefaultCookiePolicy Objects:: * Cookie Objects: Cookie Objects<2>. * Examples: Examples<29>. xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access * ServerProxy Objects:: * DateTime Objects:: * Binary Objects:: * Fault Objects:: * ProtocolError Objects:: * MultiCall Objects:: * Convenience Functions:: * Example of Client Usage:: * Example of Client and Server Usage:: xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers * SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects:: * CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler:: * Documenting XMLRPC server:: * DocXMLRPCServer Objects:: * DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler:: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects * SimpleXMLRPCServer Example:: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library * Convenience factory functions:: * IP Addresses:: * IP Network definitions:: * Interface objects:: * Other Module Level Functions:: * Custom Exceptions:: IP Addresses * Address objects:: * Conversion to Strings and Integers:: * Operators: Operators<3>. Operators * Comparison operators:: * Arithmetic operators:: IP Network definitions * Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask. * Network objects:: * Operators: Operators<4>. Operators * Logical operators:: * Iteration:: * Networks as containers of addresses:: Interface objects * Operators: Operators<5>. Operators * Logical operators: Logical operators<2>. Multimedia Services * wave — Read and write WAV files:: * colorsys — Conversions between color systems:: wave — Read and write WAV files * Wave_read Objects:: * Wave_write Objects:: Internationalization * gettext — Multilingual internationalization services:: * locale — Internationalization services:: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services * GNU gettext API:: * Class-based API:: * Internationalizing your programs and modules:: * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<9>. Class-based API * The NullTranslations class:: * The GNUTranslations class:: * Solaris message catalog support:: * The Catalog constructor:: Internationalizing your programs and modules * Localizing your module:: * Localizing your application:: * Changing languages on the fly:: * Deferred translations:: locale — Internationalization services * Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats. * Locale names:: * For extension writers and programs that embed Python:: * Access to message catalogs:: Program Frameworks * turtle — Turtle graphics:: * cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters:: * shlex — Simple lexical analysis:: turtle — Turtle graphics * Introduction: Introduction<11>. * Get started:: * Tutorial: Tutorial<4>. * How to…:: * Turtle graphics reference:: * Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions:: * Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions:: * Public classes:: * Explanation: Explanation<2>. * Help and configuration:: * turtledemo — Demo scripts:: * Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6. * Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0. Tutorial * Starting a turtle environment:: * Basic drawing:: * Making algorithmic patterns:: Basic drawing * Pen control:: * The turtle’s position:: How to… * Get started as quickly as possible:: * Use the turtle module namespace:: * Use turtle graphics in a script:: * Use object-oriented turtle graphics:: Turtle graphics reference * Turtle methods:: * Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen:: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions * Turtle motion:: * Tell Turtle’s state:: * Settings for measurement:: * Pen control: Pen control<2>. * Turtle state:: * Using events:: * Special Turtle methods:: * Compound shapes:: Pen control * Drawing state:: * Color control:: * Filling:: * More drawing control:: Turtle state * Visibility:: * Appearance:: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions * Window control:: * Animation control:: * Using screen events:: * Input methods:: * Settings and special methods:: * Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen. Help and configuration * How to use help:: * Translation of docstrings into different languages:: * How to configure Screen and Turtles:: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters * Cmd Objects:: * Cmd Example:: shlex — Simple lexical analysis * shlex Objects:: * Parsing Rules:: * Improved Compatibility with Shells:: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk * tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk:: * tkinter.colorchooser — Color choosing dialog: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog. * tkinter.font — Tkinter font wrapper: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. * Tkinter Dialogs:: * tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter message prompts: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. * tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget. * tkinter.dnd — Drag and drop support: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. * tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets. * IDLE — Python editor and shell: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>. tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk * Architecture:: * Tkinter Modules:: * Tkinter Life Preserver:: * Threading model:: * Handy Reference:: * File Handlers:: Tkinter Life Preserver * A Hello World Program:: * Important Tk Concepts:: * Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk:: * How do I…? What option does…?:: * Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual:: Handy Reference * Setting Options:: * The Packer:: * Packer Options:: * Coupling Widget Variables:: * The Window Manager:: * Tk Option Data Types:: * Bindings and Events:: * The index Parameter:: * Images:: Tkinter Dialogs * tkinter.simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. * tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs. * tkinter.commondialog — Dialog window templates: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates. tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs * Native Load/Save Dialogs:: tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets * Using Ttk:: * Ttk Widgets:: * Widget:: * Combobox:: * Spinbox:: * Notebook:: * Progressbar:: * Separator:: * Sizegrip:: * Treeview:: * Ttk Styling:: Widget * Standard Options:: * Scrollable Widget Options:: * Label Options:: * Compatibility Options:: * Widget States:: * ttk.Widget: ttk Widget. Combobox * Options:: * Virtual events:: * ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox. Spinbox * Options: Options<2>. * Virtual events: Virtual events<2>. * ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox. Notebook * Options: Options<3>. * Tab Options:: * Tab Identifiers:: * Virtual Events:: * ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook. Progressbar * Options: Options<4>. * ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar. Separator * Options: Options<5>. Sizegrip * Platform-specific notes:: * Bugs:: Treeview * Options: Options<6>. * Item Options:: * Tag Options:: * Column Identifiers:: * Virtual Events: Virtual Events<2>. * ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview. Ttk Styling * Layouts:: IDLE — Python editor and shell * Menus:: * Editing and Navigation:: * Startup and Code Execution:: * Help and Preferences:: * idlelib — implementation of IDLE application:: Menus * File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor. * Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor. * Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only. * Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only. * Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only. * Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only. * Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor. * Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor. * Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor. * Context menus:: Editing and Navigation * Editor windows:: * Key bindings:: * Automatic indentation:: * Search and Replace:: * Completions:: * Calltips:: * Code Context:: * Shell window:: * Text colors:: Startup and Code Execution * Command line usage:: * Startup failure:: * Running user code:: * User output in Shell:: * Developing tkinter applications:: * Running without a subprocess:: Help and Preferences * Help sources:: * Setting preferences:: * IDLE on macOS:: * Extensions:: Development Tools * typing — Support for type hints:: * pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system:: * Python Development Mode:: * doctest — Test interactive Python examples:: * unittest — Unit testing framework:: * unittest.mock — mock object library: unittest mock — mock object library. * unittest.mock — getting started: unittest mock — getting started. * test — Regression tests package for Python:: * test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. * test.support.socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. * test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. * test.support.bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. * test.support.threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. * test.support.os_helper — Utilities for os tests: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. * test.support.import_helper — Utilities for import tests: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. * test.support.warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. typing — Support for type hints * Specification for the Python Type System:: * Type aliases:: * NewType:: * Annotating callable objects:: * Generics:: * Annotating tuples:: * The type of class objects:: * Annotating generators and coroutines:: * User-defined generic types:: * The Any type:: * Nominal vs structural subtyping:: * Module contents: Module contents<3>. * Deprecation Timeline of Major Features:: Module contents * Special typing primitives:: * Protocols: Protocols<3>. * ABCs for working with IO:: * Functions and decorators:: * Introspection helpers:: * Constant:: * Deprecated aliases:: Special typing primitives * Special types:: * Special forms:: * Building generic types and type aliases:: * Other special directives:: Deprecated aliases * Aliases to built-in types:: * Aliases to types in collections:: * Aliases to other concrete types:: * Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. * Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. * Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. * Aliases to contextlib ABCs:: Python Development Mode * Effects of the Python Development Mode:: * ResourceWarning Example:: * Bad file descriptor error example:: doctest — Test interactive Python examples * Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings. * Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File. * Command-line Usage:: * How It Works:: * Basic API:: * Unittest API:: * Advanced API:: * Debugging:: * Soapbox:: How It Works * Which Docstrings Are Examined?:: * How are Docstring Examples Recognized?:: * What’s the Execution Context?:: * What About Exceptions?:: * Option Flags:: * Directives:: * Warnings: Warnings<2>. Advanced API * DocTest Objects:: * Example Objects:: * DocTestFinder objects:: * DocTestParser objects:: * TestResults objects:: * DocTestRunner objects:: * OutputChecker objects:: unittest — Unit testing framework * Basic example:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>. * Test Discovery:: * Organizing test code:: * Re-using old test code:: * Skipping tests and expected failures:: * Distinguishing test iterations using subtests:: * Classes and functions:: * Class and Module Fixtures:: * Signal Handling:: Command-Line Interface * Command-line options: Command-line options<3>. Classes and functions * Test cases:: * Grouping tests:: * Loading and running tests:: Loading and running tests * load_tests Protocol:: Class and Module Fixtures * setUpClass and tearDownClass:: * setUpModule and tearDownModule:: unittest.mock — mock object library * Quick Guide:: * The Mock Class:: * The patchers:: * MagicMock and magic method support:: * Helpers:: * Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps. The Mock Class * Calling:: * Deleting Attributes:: * Mock names and the name attribute:: * Attaching Mocks as Attributes:: The patchers * patch:: * patch.object: patch object. * patch.dict: patch dict. * patch.multiple: patch multiple. * patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop. * patch builtins:: * TEST_PREFIX:: * Nesting Patch Decorators:: * Where to patch:: * Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects:: MagicMock and magic method support * Mocking Magic Methods:: * Magic Mock:: Helpers * sentinel:: * DEFAULT:: * call:: * create_autospec:: * ANY:: * FILTER_DIR:: * mock_open:: * Autospeccing:: * Sealing mocks:: unittest.mock — getting started * Using Mock:: * Patch Decorators:: * Further Examples:: Using Mock * Mock Patching Methods:: * Mock for Method Calls on an Object:: * Mocking Classes:: * Naming your mocks:: * Tracking all Calls:: * Setting Return Values and Attributes:: * Raising exceptions with mocks:: * Side effect functions and iterables:: * Mocking asynchronous iterators:: * Mocking asynchronous context manager:: * Creating a Mock from an Existing Object:: * Using side_effect to return per file content:: Further Examples * Mocking chained calls:: * Partial mocking:: * Mocking a Generator Method:: * Applying the same patch to every test method:: * Mocking Unbound Methods:: * Checking multiple calls with mock:: * Coping with mutable arguments:: * Nesting Patches:: * Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock:: * Mock subclasses and their attributes:: * Mocking imports with patch.dict: Mocking imports with patch dict. * Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions:: * More complex argument matching:: test — Regression tests package for Python * Writing Unit Tests for the test package:: * Running tests using the command-line interface:: Debugging and Profiling * Audit events table:: * bdb — Debugger framework:: * faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback:: * pdb — The Python Debugger:: * The Python Profilers:: * timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets:: * trace — Trace or track Python statement execution:: * tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations:: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback * Dumping the traceback:: * Fault handler state:: * Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout:: * Dumping the traceback on a user signal:: * Issue with file descriptors:: * Example: Example<13>. pdb — The Python Debugger * Debugger Commands:: The Python Profilers * Introduction to the profilers:: * Instant User’s Manual:: * profile and cProfile Module Reference:: * The Stats Class:: * What Is Deterministic Profiling?:: * Limitations:: * Calibration:: * Using a custom timer:: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets * Basic Examples: Basic Examples<2>. * Python Interface:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<4>. * Examples: Examples<30>. trace — Trace or track Python statement execution * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<3>. * Programmatic Interface:: Command-Line Usage * Main options:: * Modifiers:: * Filters:: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations * Examples: Examples<31>. * API:: Examples * Display the top 10:: * Compute differences:: * Get the traceback of a memory block:: * Pretty top:: Pretty top * Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks:: API * Functions: Functions<11>. * DomainFilter:: * Filter:: * Frame:: * Snapshot:: * Statistic:: * StatisticDiff:: * Trace:: * Traceback:: Software Packaging and Distribution * ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer:: * venv — Creation of virtual environments:: * zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives:: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer * Command line interface:: * Module API:: venv — Creation of virtual environments * Creating virtual environments:: * How venvs work:: * API: API<2>. * An example of extending EnvBuilder:: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives * Basic Example:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<5>. * Python API:: * Examples: Examples<32>. * Specifying the Interpreter:: * Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp:: * The Python Zip Application Archive Format:: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp * Caveats:: Python Runtime Services * sys — System-specific parameters and functions:: * sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring. * sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information:: * builtins — Built-in objects:: * __main__ — Top-level code environment:: * warnings — Warning control:: * dataclasses — Data Classes:: * contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts:: * abc — Abstract Base Classes:: * atexit — Exit handlers:: * traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback:: * __future__ — Future statement definitions:: * gc — Garbage Collector interface:: * inspect — Inspect live objects:: * site — Site-specific configuration hook:: sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring * Tool identifiers:: * Events:: * Turning events on and off:: * Registering callback functions:: Tool identifiers * Registering and using tools:: Events * Local events:: * Ancillary events:: * Other events:: * The STOP_ITERATION event:: Turning events on and off * Setting events globally:: * Per code object events:: * Disabling events:: Registering callback functions * Callback function arguments:: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information * Configuration variables:: * Installation paths:: * User scheme:: * Home scheme:: * Prefix scheme:: * Installation path functions:: * Other functions: Other functions<3>. * Command-line usage: Command-line usage<3>. User scheme * posix_user:: * nt_user:: * osx_framework_user:: Home scheme * posix_home:: Prefix scheme * posix_prefix:: * nt:: __main__ — Top-level code environment * __name__ == '__main__':: * __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages. * import __main__:: __name__ == '__main__' * What is the “top-level code environment”?:: * Idiomatic Usage:: * Packaging Considerations:: __main__.py in Python Packages * Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>. warnings — Warning control * Warning Categories:: * The Warnings Filter:: * Temporarily Suppressing Warnings:: * Testing Warnings:: * Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies:: * Available Functions:: * Available Context Managers:: The Warnings Filter * Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria:: * Describing Warning Filters:: * Default Warning Filter:: * Overriding the default filter:: dataclasses — Data Classes * Module contents: Module contents<4>. * Post-init processing:: * Class variables:: * Init-only variables:: * Frozen instances:: * Inheritance: Inheritance<2>. * Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__. * Default factory functions:: * Mutable default values:: * Descriptor-typed fields:: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts * Utilities:: * Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<3>. * Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers. Examples and Recipes * Supporting a variable number of context managers:: * Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods:: * Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation:: * Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables:: * Using a context manager as a function decorator:: Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers * Reentrant context managers:: * Reusable context managers:: atexit — Exit handlers * atexit Example:: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback * Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>. * TracebackException Objects:: * StackSummary Objects:: * FrameSummary Objects:: * Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions:: * Examples of Using TracebackException:: __future__ — Future statement definitions * Module Contents: Module Contents<5>. inspect — Inspect live objects * Types and members:: * Retrieving source code:: * Introspecting callables with the Signature object:: * Classes and functions: Classes and functions<2>. * The interpreter stack:: * Fetching attributes statically:: * Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. * Code Objects Bit Flags:: * Buffer flags:: * Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<3>. site — Site-specific configuration hook * sitecustomize:: * usercustomize:: * Readline configuration:: * Module contents: Module contents<5>. * Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<4>. Custom Python Interpreters * code — Interpreter base classes:: * codeop — Compile Python code:: code — Interpreter base classes * Interactive Interpreter Objects:: * Interactive Console Objects:: Importing Modules * zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives:: * pkgutil — Package extension utility:: * modulefinder — Find modules used by a script:: * runpy — Locating and executing Python modules:: * importlib — The implementation of import:: * importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access. * importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. * importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata. * The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path. zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives * zipimporter Objects:: * Examples: Examples<33>. modulefinder — Find modules used by a script * Example usage of ModuleFinder:: importlib — The implementation of import * Introduction: Introduction<12>. * Functions: Functions<12>. * importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. * importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. * importlib.util – Utility code for importers: importlib util – Utility code for importers. * Examples: Examples<34>. Examples * Importing programmatically:: * Checking if a module can be imported:: * Importing a source file directly:: * Implementing lazy imports:: * Setting up an importer:: * Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module. importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access * Functional API:: importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata * Overview: Overview<3>. * Functional API: Functional API<2>. * Distributions:: * Distribution Discovery:: * Extending the search algorithm:: Functional API * Entry points:: * Distribution metadata:: * Distribution versions:: * Distribution files:: * Distribution requirements:: * Mapping import to distribution packages:: Extending the search algorithm * Example: Example<14>. The initialization of the sys.path module search path * Virtual environments: Virtual environments<2>. * _pth files:: * Embedded Python:: Python Language Services * ast — Abstract Syntax Trees:: * symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables:: * token — Constants used with Python parse trees:: * keyword — Testing for Python keywords:: * tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source:: * tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation:: * pyclbr — Python module browser support:: * py_compile — Compile Python source files:: * compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries:: * dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode:: * pickletools — Tools for pickle developers:: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees * Abstract Grammar:: * Node classes:: * ast Helpers:: * Compiler Flags:: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<4>. Node classes * Root nodes:: * Literals: Literals<3>. * Variables:: * Expressions: Expressions<2>. * Statements:: * Control flow:: * Pattern matching:: * Type annotations:: * Type parameters:: * Function and class definitions:: * Async and await:: Expressions * Subscripting:: * Comprehensions:: Statements * Imports:: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables * Generating Symbol Tables:: * Examining Symbol Tables:: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<5>. tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source * Tokenizing Input:: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<6>. * Examples: Examples<35>. pyclbr — Python module browser support * Function Objects:: * Class Objects: Class Objects<2>. py_compile — Compile Python source files * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<6>. compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries * Command-line use:: * Public functions:: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode * Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>. * Bytecode analysis:: * Analysis functions:: * Python Bytecode Instructions:: * Opcode collections:: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers * Command line usage: Command line usage<2>. * Programmatic Interface: Programmatic Interface<2>. Command line usage * Command line options: Command line options<3>. MS Windows Specific Services * msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime:: * winreg — Windows registry access:: * winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows:: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime * File Operations:: * Console I/O:: * Other Functions:: winreg — Windows registry access * Functions: Functions<13>. * Constants: Constants<10>. * Registry Handle Objects:: Constants * HKEY_* Constants:: * Access Rights:: * Value Types:: Access Rights * 64-bit Specific:: Unix Specific Services * posix — The most common POSIX system calls:: * pwd — The password database:: * grp — The group database:: * termios — POSIX style tty control:: * tty — Terminal control functions:: * pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities:: * fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls:: * resource — Resource usage information:: * syslog — Unix syslog library routines:: posix — The most common POSIX system calls * Large File Support:: * Notable Module Contents:: termios — POSIX style tty control * Example: Example<15>. pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities * Example: Example<16>. resource — Resource usage information * Resource Limits:: * Resource Usage:: syslog — Unix syslog library routines * Examples: Examples<36>. Examples * Simple example:: Superseded Modules * getopt — C-style parser for command line options:: Removed Modules * aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files:: * asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler:: * asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler:: * audioop — Manipulate raw audio data:: * cgi — Common Gateway Interface support:: * cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts:: * chunk — Read IFF chunked data:: * crypt — Function to check Unix passwords:: * distutils — Building and installing Python modules:: * imghdr — Determine the type of an image:: * imp — Access the import internals:: * mailcap — Mailcap file handling:: * msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files:: * nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages. * nntplib — NNTP protocol client:: * ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices:: * pipes — Interface to shell pipelines:: * smtpd — SMTP Server:: * sndhdr — Determine type of sound file:: * spwd — The shadow password database:: * sunau — Read and write Sun AU files:: * telnetlib — Telnet client:: * uu — Encode and decode uuencode files:: * xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data:: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter * Recommended third party tools:: * Creating extensions without third party tools:: * Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application:: Creating extensions without third party tools * Extending Python with C or C++:: * Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial. * Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics. * Building C and C++ Extensions:: * Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows:: Extending Python with C or C++ * A Simple Example:: * Intermezzo; Errors and Exceptions: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions. * Back to the Example:: * The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function:: * Compilation and Linkage:: * Calling Python Functions from C:: * Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions:: * Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions:: * Building Arbitrary Values:: * Reference Counts:: * Writing Extensions in C++:: * Providing a C API for an Extension Module:: Reference Counts * Reference Counting in Python:: * Ownership Rules:: * Thin Ice:: * NULL Pointers:: Defining Extension Types: Tutorial * The Basics:: * Adding data and methods to the Basic example:: * Providing finer control over data attributes:: * Supporting cyclic garbage collection:: * Subclassing other types:: Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics * Finalization and De-allocation:: * Object Presentation:: * Attribute Management:: * Object Comparison:: * Abstract Protocol Support:: * Weak Reference Support:: * More Suggestions:: Attribute Management * Generic Attribute Management:: * Type-specific Attribute Management:: Building C and C++ Extensions * Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools:: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows * A Cookbook Approach:: * Differences Between Unix and Windows:: * Using DLLs in Practice:: Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application * Embedding Python in Another Application:: Embedding Python in Another Application * Very High Level Embedding:: * Beyond Very High Level Embedding; An overview: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview. * Pure Embedding:: * Extending Embedded Python:: * Embedding Python in C++:: * Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems:: Python/C API Reference Manual * Introduction: Introduction<13>. * C API Stability:: * The Very High Level Layer:: * Reference Counting:: * Exception Handling:: * Utilities: Utilities<2>. * Abstract Objects Layer:: * Concrete Objects Layer:: * Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads. * Python Initialization Configuration:: * Memory Management:: * Object Implementation Support:: * API and ABI Versioning:: * Monitoring C API:: * Generating Execution Events:: Introduction * Coding standards:: * Include Files:: * Useful macros:: * Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts. * Exceptions: Exceptions<21>. * Embedding Python: Embedding Python<2>. * Debugging Builds:: * Recommended third party tools: Recommended third party tools<2>. Objects, Types and Reference Counts * Reference Counts: Reference Counts<2>. * Types:: Reference Counts * Reference Count Details:: C API Stability * Unstable C API:: * Stable Application Binary Interface:: * Platform Considerations:: * Contents of Limited API:: Stable Application Binary Interface * Limited C API:: * Stable ABI:: * Limited API Scope and Performance:: * Limited API Caveats:: Exception Handling * Printing and clearing:: * Raising exceptions:: * Issuing warnings:: * Querying the error indicator:: * Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>. * Exception Classes:: * Exception Objects:: * Unicode Exception Objects:: * Recursion Control:: * Exception and warning types:: Exception and warning types * Exception types:: * OSError aliases:: * Warning types:: Utilities * Operating System Utilities:: * System Functions:: * Process Control:: * Importing Modules: Importing Modules<2>. * Data marshalling support:: * Parsing arguments and building values:: * String conversion and formatting:: * PyHash API:: * Reflection:: * Codec registry and support functions:: * PyTime C API:: * Support for Perf Maps:: Parsing arguments and building values * Parsing arguments: Parsing arguments<2>. * Building values:: Parsing arguments * Strings and buffers:: * Numbers: Numbers<2>. * Other objects:: * API Functions:: Codec registry and support functions * Codec lookup API:: * Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers:: PyTime C API * Types: Types<2>. * Clock Functions:: * Raw Clock Functions:: * Conversion functions:: Abstract Objects Layer * Object Protocol:: * Call Protocol:: * Number Protocol:: * Sequence Protocol:: * Mapping Protocol:: * Iterator Protocol:: * Buffer Protocol:: Call Protocol * The tp_call Protocol:: * The Vectorcall Protocol:: * Object Calling API:: * Call Support API:: The Vectorcall Protocol * Recursion Control: Recursion Control<2>. * Vectorcall Support API:: Buffer Protocol * Buffer structure:: * Buffer request types:: * Complex arrays:: * Buffer-related functions:: Buffer request types * request-independent fields:: * readonly, format: readonly format. * shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets. * contiguity requests:: * compound requests:: Complex arrays * NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides. * PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets. Concrete Objects Layer * Fundamental Objects:: * Numeric Objects:: * Sequence Objects:: * Container Objects:: * Function Objects: Function Objects<2>. * Other Objects:: Fundamental Objects * Type Objects: Type Objects<2>. * The None Object:: Type Objects * Creating Heap-Allocated Types:: Numeric Objects * Integer Objects:: * Boolean Objects:: * Floating-Point Objects:: * Complex Number Objects:: Floating-Point Objects * Pack and Unpack functions:: Pack and Unpack functions * Pack functions:: * Unpack functions:: Complex Number Objects * Complex Numbers as C Structures:: * Complex Numbers as Python Objects:: Sequence Objects * Bytes Objects: Bytes Objects<2>. * Byte Array Objects:: * Unicode Objects and Codecs:: * Tuple Objects:: * Struct Sequence Objects:: * List Objects:: Byte Array Objects * Type check macros:: * Direct API functions:: * Macros:: Unicode Objects and Codecs * Unicode Objects:: * Built-in Codecs:: * Methods and Slot Functions:: Unicode Objects * Unicode Type:: * Unicode Character Properties:: * Creating and accessing Unicode strings:: * Locale Encoding:: * File System Encoding:: * wchar_t Support:: Built-in Codecs * Generic Codecs:: * UTF-8 Codecs:: * UTF-32 Codecs:: * UTF-16 Codecs:: * UTF-7 Codecs:: * Unicode-Escape Codecs:: * Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs:: * Latin-1 Codecs:: * ASCII Codecs:: * Character Map Codecs:: * MBCS codecs for Windows:: Container Objects * Dictionary Objects:: * Set Objects:: Function Objects * Function Objects: Function Objects<3>. * Instance Method Objects:: * Method Objects: Method Objects<2>. * Cell Objects:: * Code Objects: Code Objects<2>. * Code Object Flags:: * Extra information:: Other Objects * File Objects:: * Module Objects:: * Iterator Objects:: * Descriptor Objects:: * Slice Objects:: * MemoryView objects:: * Weak Reference Objects: Weak Reference Objects<2>. * Capsules: Capsules<2>. * Frame Objects:: * Generator Objects:: * Coroutine Objects: Coroutine Objects<2>. * Context Variables Objects:: * DateTime Objects: DateTime Objects<2>. * Objects for Type Hinting:: Module Objects * Initializing C modules:: * Module lookup:: Initializing C modules * Single-phase initialization:: * Multi-phase initialization:: * Low-level module creation functions:: * Support functions:: Slice Objects * Ellipsis Object:: Frame Objects * Frame Locals Proxies:: * Internal Frames:: Initialization, Finalization, and Threads * Before Python Initialization:: * Global configuration variables:: * Initializing and finalizing the interpreter:: * Process-wide parameters:: * Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock:: * Sub-interpreter support:: * Asynchronous Notifications:: * Profiling and Tracing:: * Reference tracing:: * Advanced Debugger Support:: * Thread Local Storage Support:: * Synchronization Primitives: Synchronization Primitives<2>. Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock * Releasing the GIL from extension code:: * Non-Python created threads:: * Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork. * High-level API:: * Low-level API:: Sub-interpreter support * A Per-Interpreter GIL:: * Bugs and caveats:: Thread Local Storage Support * Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API. * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: Thread Local Storage TLS API. Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API * Dynamic Allocation:: * Methods: Methods<2>. Synchronization Primitives * Python Critical Section API:: Python Initialization Configuration * Example: Example<17>. * PyWideStringList:: * PyStatus:: * PyPreConfig:: * Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig:: * PyConfig:: * Initialization with PyConfig:: * Isolated Configuration:: * Python Configuration:: * Python Path Configuration:: * Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv. * Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API:: Memory Management * Overview: Overview<4>. * Allocator Domains:: * Raw Memory Interface:: * Memory Interface:: * Object allocators:: * Default Memory Allocators:: * Customize Memory Allocators:: * Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators:: * The pymalloc allocator:: * The mimalloc allocator:: * tracemalloc C API:: * Examples: Examples<37>. The pymalloc allocator * Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator:: Object Implementation Support * Allocating Objects on the Heap:: * Common Object Structures:: * Type Object Structures:: * Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection:: Common Object Structures * Base object types and macros:: * Implementing functions and methods:: * Accessing attributes of extension types:: Accessing attributes of extension types * Member flags:: * Member types:: * Defining Getters and Setters:: Type Object Structures * Quick Reference:: * PyTypeObject Definition:: * PyObject Slots:: * PyVarObject Slots:: * PyTypeObject Slots:: * Static Types:: * Heap Types:: * Number Object Structures:: * Mapping Object Structures:: * Sequence Object Structures:: * Buffer Object Structures:: * Async Object Structures:: * Slot Type typedefs:: * Examples: Examples<38>. Quick Reference * “tp slots”:: * sub-slots:: * slot typedefs:: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection * Controlling the Garbage Collector State:: * Querying Garbage Collector State:: Generating Execution Events * Managing the Monitoring State:: Installing Python Modules * Key terms:: * Basic usage:: * How do I …?:: * Common installation issues:: How do I …? * … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?: … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3 4?. * … install packages just for the current user?:: * … install scientific Python packages?:: * … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?:: Common installation issues * Installing into the system Python on Linux:: * Pip not installed:: * Installing binary extensions:: Python HOWTOs * A Conceptual Overview of asyncio:: * Porting Extension Modules to Python 3:: * Curses Programming with Python:: * Descriptor Guide:: * Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB:: * Enum HOWTO:: * Functional Programming HOWTO:: * Logging HOWTO:: * Logging Cookbook:: * Regular Expression HOWTO:: * Socket Programming HOWTO:: * Sorting Techniques:: * Unicode HOWTO:: * HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package:: * An introduction to the ipaddress module:: * Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap:: * Python support for the Linux perf profiler:: * Annotations Best Practices:: * Isolating Extension Modules:: * timer file descriptor HOWTO:: * The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order. * Python experimental support for free threading:: * C API Extension Support for Free Threading:: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio * A conceptual overview part 1; the high-level: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level. * A conceptual overview part 2; the nuts and bolts: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts. A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level * Event Loop: Event Loop<2>. * Asynchronous functions and coroutines:: * Tasks: Tasks<2>. * await:: A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts * The inner workings of coroutines:: * Futures: Futures<2>. * A homemade asyncio.sleep: A homemade asyncio sleep. Curses Programming with Python * What is curses?:: * Starting and ending a curses application:: * Windows and Pads:: * Displaying Text:: * User Input:: * For More Information:: What is curses? * The Python curses module:: Displaying Text * Attributes and Color:: Descriptor Guide * Primer:: * Complete Practical Example:: * Technical Tutorial:: * Pure Python Equivalents:: Primer * Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant. * Dynamic lookups:: * Managed attributes:: * Customized names:: * Closing thoughts:: Complete Practical Example * Validator class:: * Custom validators:: * Practical application:: Technical Tutorial * Abstract:: * Definition and introduction:: * Descriptor protocol:: * Overview of descriptor invocation:: * Invocation from an instance:: * Invocation from a class:: * Invocation from super:: * Summary of invocation logic:: * Automatic name notification:: * ORM example:: Pure Python Equivalents * Properties:: * Functions and methods:: * Kinds of methods:: * Static methods:: * Class methods:: * Member objects and __slots__:: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB * Prerequisites:: * Using the Debug build and Development mode:: * Using the python-gdb extension:: * Use with GDB commands:: Prerequisites * Setup with Python built from source:: * Setup for Python from a Linux distro:: Using the python-gdb extension * Pretty-printers:: * py-list:: * py-up and py-down:: * py-bt:: * py-print:: * py-locals:: Enum HOWTO * Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes:: * Duplicating enum members and values:: * Ensuring unique enumeration values:: * Using automatic values:: * Iteration: Iteration<2>. * Comparisons: Comparisons<3>. * Allowed members and attributes of enumerations:: * Restricted Enum subclassing:: * Dataclass support:: * Pickling:: * Functional API: Functional API<3>. * Derived Enumerations:: * When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__. * How are Enums and Flags different?:: * Enum Cookbook:: * Subclassing EnumType:: Derived Enumerations * IntEnum:: * StrEnum:: * IntFlag:: * Flag:: * Others: Others<2>. When to use __new__() vs. __init__() * Finer Points:: Finer Points * Supported __dunder__ names: Supported __dunder__ names<2>. * Supported _sunder_ names: Supported _sunder_ names<2>. * _Private__names:: * Enum member type:: * Creating members that are mixed with other data types:: * Boolean value of Enum classes and members:: * Enum classes with methods:: * Combining members of Flag:: * Flag and IntFlag minutia:: How are Enums and Flags different? * Enum Classes:: * Flag Classes:: * Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances. * Flag Members:: Enum Cookbook * Omitting values:: * OrderedEnum:: * DuplicateFreeEnum:: * MultiValueEnum:: * Planet:: * TimePeriod:: Omitting values * Using auto:: * Using object:: * Using a descriptive string:: * Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__. Functional Programming HOWTO * Introduction: Introduction<14>. * Iterators: Iterators<2>. * Generator expressions and list comprehensions:: * Generators: Generators<2>. * Built-in functions: Built-in functions<2>. * The itertools module:: * The functools module:: * Small functions and the lambda expression:: * Revision History and Acknowledgements:: * References: References<2>. Introduction * Formal provability:: * Modularity:: * Ease of debugging and testing:: * Composability:: Iterators * Data Types That Support Iterators:: Generators * Passing values into a generator:: The itertools module * Creating new iterators:: * Calling functions on elements:: * Selecting elements:: * Combinatoric functions:: * Grouping elements:: The functools module * The operator module:: References * General:: * Python-specific:: * Python documentation:: Logging HOWTO * Basic Logging Tutorial:: * Advanced Logging Tutorial:: * Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>. * Useful Handlers:: * Exceptions raised during logging:: * Using arbitrary objects as messages:: * Optimization:: * Other resources:: Basic Logging Tutorial * When to use logging:: * A simple example:: * Logging to a file:: * Logging variable data:: * Changing the format of displayed messages:: * Displaying the date/time in messages:: * Next Steps:: Advanced Logging Tutorial * Logging Flow:: * Loggers:: * Handlers:: * Formatters:: * Configuring Logging:: * What happens if no configuration is provided:: * Configuring Logging for a Library:: Logging Levels * Custom Levels:: Logging Cookbook * Using logging in multiple modules:: * Logging from multiple threads:: * Multiple handlers and formatters:: * Logging to multiple destinations:: * Custom handling of levels:: * Configuration server example:: * Dealing with handlers that block:: * Sending and receiving logging events across a network:: * Adding contextual information to your logging output:: * Use of contextvars:: * Imparting contextual information in handlers:: * Logging to a single file from multiple processes:: * Using file rotation:: * Use of alternative formatting styles:: * Customizing LogRecord:: * Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example:: * Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example:: * An example dictionary-based configuration:: * Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing:: * A more elaborate multiprocessing example:: * Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler:: * Implementing structured logging:: * Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig. * Using particular formatting styles throughout your application:: * Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig. * Customized exception formatting:: * Speaking logging messages:: * Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally:: * Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering. * Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration. * Using a context manager for selective logging:: * A CLI application starter template:: * A Qt GUI for logging:: * Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support:: * How to treat a logger like an output stream:: * How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output:: * Patterns to avoid:: * Other resources: Other resources<2>. Sending and receiving logging events across a network * Running a logging socket listener in production:: Adding contextual information to your logging output * Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information:: * Using Filters to impart contextual information:: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information * Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information:: Logging to a single file from multiple processes * Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor. * Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI:: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example * Subclass QueueHandler:: * Subclass QueueListener:: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example * Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>. * Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>. Using particular formatting styles throughout your application * Using LogRecord factories:: * Using custom message objects:: Patterns to avoid * Opening the same log file multiple times:: * Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters:: * Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library:: * Creating a lot of loggers:: Regular Expression HOWTO * Introduction: Introduction<15>. * Simple Patterns:: * Using Regular Expressions:: * More Pattern Power:: * Modifying Strings:: * Common Problems:: * Feedback:: Simple Patterns * Matching Characters:: * Repeating Things:: Using Regular Expressions * Compiling Regular Expressions:: * The Backslash Plague:: * Performing Matches:: * Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<3>. * Compilation Flags:: More Pattern Power * More Metacharacters:: * Grouping:: * Non-capturing and Named Groups:: * Lookahead Assertions:: Modifying Strings * Splitting Strings:: * Search and Replace: Search and Replace<2>. Common Problems * Use String Methods:: * match() versus search(): match versus search. * Greedy versus Non-Greedy:: * Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE. Socket Programming HOWTO * Sockets:: * Creating a Socket:: * Using a Socket:: * Disconnecting:: * Non-blocking Sockets:: Sockets * History:: Creating a Socket * IPC:: Using a Socket * Binary Data:: Disconnecting * When Sockets Die:: Sorting Techniques * Sorting Basics:: * Key Functions:: * Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation:: * Ascending and Descending:: * Sort Stability and Complex Sorts:: * Decorate-Sort-Undecorate:: * Comparison Functions:: * Odds and Ends: Odds and Ends<2>. * Partial Sorts:: Unicode HOWTO * Introduction to Unicode:: * Python’s Unicode Support:: * Reading and Writing Unicode Data:: * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<10>. Introduction to Unicode * Definitions:: * Encodings:: * References: References<3>. Python’s Unicode Support * The String Type:: * Converting to Bytes:: * Unicode Literals in Python Source Code:: * Unicode Properties:: * Comparing Strings:: * Unicode Regular Expressions:: * References: References<4>. Reading and Writing Unicode Data * Unicode filenames:: * Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs:: * References: References<5>. Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs * Converting Between File Encodings:: * Files in an Unknown Encoding:: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package * Introduction: Introduction<16>. * Fetching URLs:: * Handling Exceptions: Handling Exceptions<2>. * info and geturl:: * Openers and Handlers:: * Basic Authentication:: * Proxies:: * Sockets and Layers:: * Footnotes:: Fetching URLs * Data:: * Headers:: Handling Exceptions * URLError:: * HTTPError:: * Wrapping it Up:: HTTPError * Error Codes:: Wrapping it Up * Number 1:: * Number 2:: An introduction to the ipaddress module * Creating Address/Network/Interface objects:: * Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects:: * Networks as lists of Addresses:: * Comparisons: Comparisons<4>. * Using IP Addresses with other modules:: * Getting more detail when instance creation fails:: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects * A Note on IP Versions:: * IP Host Addresses:: * Defining Networks:: * Host Interfaces:: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap * Enabling the static markers:: * Static DTrace probes:: * Static SystemTap markers:: * Available static markers:: * SystemTap Tapsets:: * Examples: Examples<39>. Python support for the Linux perf profiler * How to enable perf profiling support:: * How to obtain the best results:: * How to work without frame pointers:: Annotations Best Practices * Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer. * Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older. * Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations:: * Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version:: * __annotations__ Quirks:: Isolating Extension Modules * Who should read this:: * Background: Background<2>. * Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters:: * Heap Types: Heap Types<2>. * Open Issues:: Background * Enter Per-Module State:: * Isolated Module Objects:: * Surprising Edge Cases:: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters * Managing Global State:: * Managing Per-Module State:: * Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process. * Module State Access from Functions:: Heap Types * Changing Static Types to Heap Types:: * Defining Heap Types:: * Garbage-Collection Protocol:: * Module State Access from Classes:: * Module State Access from Regular Methods:: * Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters. * Lifetime of the Module State:: Garbage-Collection Protocol * tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower. * Delegating tp_traverse:: * Defining tp_dealloc:: * Not overriding tp_free:: * Avoiding PyObject_New:: Open Issues * Per-Class Scope:: * Lossless Conversion to Heap Types:: timer file descriptor HOWTO * Examples: Examples<40>. The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order * The beginning:: * The C3 Method Resolution Order:: * Examples: Examples<41>. * Bad Method Resolution Orders:: * The end:: * Resources:: Python experimental support for free threading * Installation:: * Identifying free-threaded Python:: * The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python:: * Thread safety:: * Known limitations:: Known limitations * Immortalization:: * Frame objects: Frame objects<2>. * Iterators: Iterators<3>. * Single-threaded performance:: C API Extension Support for Free Threading * Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C:: * Module Initialization:: * General API Guidelines:: * Borrowed References:: * Memory Allocation APIs:: * Thread State and GIL APIs:: * Protecting Internal Extension State:: * Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build:: Module Initialization * Multi-Phase Initialization:: * Single-Phase Initialization:: General API Guidelines * Container Thread Safety:: Container Thread Safety * PyDict_Next:: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build * Limited C API and Stable ABI:: * Windows: Windows<80>. Python Frequently Asked Questions * General Python FAQ:: * Programming FAQ:: * Design and History FAQ:: * Library and Extension FAQ:: * Extending/Embedding FAQ:: * Python on Windows FAQ:: * Graphic User Interface FAQ:: * “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ:: General Python FAQ * General Information:: * Python in the real world:: General Information * What is Python?:: * What is the Python Software Foundation?:: * Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?:: * Why was Python created in the first place?:: * What is Python good for?:: * How does the Python version numbering scheme work?:: * How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?:: * How do I get documentation on Python?:: * I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?. * Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?:: * How do I get a beta test version of Python?:: * How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?:: * Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?:: * Are there any books on Python?:: * Where in the world is www.python.org located?: Where in the world is www python org located?. * Why is it called Python?:: * Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?:: Python in the real world * How stable is Python?:: * How many people are using Python?:: * Have any significant projects been done in Python?:: * What new developments are expected for Python in the future?:: * Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?:: * Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?:: Programming FAQ * General Questions:: * Core Language:: * Numbers and strings:: * Performance: Performance<4>. * Sequences (Tuples/Lists): Sequences Tuples/Lists. * Objects:: * Modules: Modules<5>. General Questions * Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?. * Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?:: * How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?:: * Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?:: Core Language * Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?:: * What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?:: * Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?:: * How do I share global variables across modules?:: * What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?:: * Why are default values shared between objects?:: * How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?:: * What is the difference between arguments and parameters?:: * Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?:: * How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?. * How do you make a higher order function in Python?:: * How do I copy an object in Python?:: * How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?:: * How can my code discover the name of an object?:: * What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?:: * Is there an equivalent of C’s “?;” ternary operator?: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?. * Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?:: * What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?. Numbers and strings * How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?:: * Why does -22 // 10 return -3?:: * How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?:: * How do I convert a string to a number?:: * How do I convert a number to a string?:: * How do I modify a string in place?:: * How do I use strings to call functions/methods?:: * Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?. * Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?. * What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?:: * Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?:: Performance * My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?. * What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?:: Sequences (Tuples/Lists) * How do I convert between tuples and lists?:: * What’s a negative index?:: * How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?:: * How do you remove duplicates from a list?:: * How do you remove multiple items from a list:: * How do you make an array in Python?:: * How do I create a multidimensional list?:: * How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?:: * Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?:: * I want to do a complicated sort; can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?. * How can I sort one list by values from another list?:: Objects * What is a class?:: * What is a method?:: * What is self?:: * How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?:: * What is delegation?:: * How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?:: * How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?:: * How do I create static class data and static class methods?:: * How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?. * I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam. * My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object. * How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?:: * Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?. * When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?:: * How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?:: * How do I cache method calls?:: Modules * How do I create a .pyc file?: How do I create a pyc file?. * How do I find the current module name?:: * How can I have modules that mutually import each other?:: * __import__(‘x.y.z’) returns ; how do I get z?: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns ; how do I get z?. * When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?. Design and History FAQ * Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?:: * Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?:: * Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?:: * Why are Python strings immutable?:: * Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?:: * Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?:: * Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?. * Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?. * How fast are exceptions?:: * Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?:: * Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?:: * Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?:: * Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?. * How does Python manage memory?:: * Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?:: * Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?:: * Why are there separate tuple and list data types?:: * How are lists implemented in CPython?:: * How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?:: * Why must dictionary keys be immutable?:: * Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?. * How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?:: * Why is there no goto?:: * Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?. * Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?:: * Why don’t generators support the with statement?:: * Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?:: * Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?:: Library and Extension FAQ * General Library Questions:: * Common tasks:: * Threads:: * Input and Output: Input and Output<2>. * Network/Internet Programming:: * Databases:: * Mathematics and Numerics:: General Library Questions * How do I find a module or application to perform task X?:: * Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?. * How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?:: * Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?:: * Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?. * Why don’t my signal handlers work?:: Common tasks * How do I test a Python program or component?:: * How do I create documentation from doc strings?:: * How do I get a single keypress at a time?:: Threads * How do I program using threads?:: * None of my threads seem to run; why?: None of my threads seem to run why?. * How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?:: * What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?:: * Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?:: Input and Output * How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…): How do I delete a file? And other file questions…. * How do I copy a file?:: * How do I read (or write) binary data?: How do I read or write binary data?. * I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?. * How do I access the serial (RS232) port?: How do I access the serial RS232 port?. * Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?. Network/Internet Programming * What WWW tools are there for Python?:: * What module should I use to help with generating HTML?:: * How do I send mail from a Python script?:: * How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?. Databases * Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?:: * How do you implement persistent objects in Python?:: Mathematics and Numerics * How do I generate random numbers in Python?:: Extending/Embedding FAQ * Can I create my own functions in C?:: * Can I create my own functions in C++?:: * Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?:: * How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?:: * How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?:: * How do I extract C values from a Python object?:: * How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?: How do I use Py_BuildValue to create a tuple of arbitrary length?. * How do I call an object’s method from C?:: * How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?: How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print or anything that prints to stdout/stderr ?. * How do I access a module written in Python from C?:: * How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?:: * I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?:: * How do I debug an extension?:: * I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?: I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system but some files are missing Why?. * How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?:: * How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?:: * Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?. Python on Windows FAQ * How do I run a Python program under Windows?:: * How do I make Python scripts executable?:: * Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?:: * How do I make an executable from a Python script?:: * Is a *.pyd file the same as a DLL?: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?. * How can I embed Python into a Windows application?:: * How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?:: * How do I check for a keypress without blocking?:: * How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?. Graphic User Interface FAQ * General GUI Questions:: * What GUI toolkits exist for Python?:: * Tkinter questions:: Tkinter questions * How do I freeze Tkinter applications?:: * Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?:: * I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter; why?: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?. “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ * What is Python?: What is Python?<2>. * Why is Python installed on my machine?:: * Can I delete Python?:: Deprecations * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>. * C API Deprecations:: C API Deprecations * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>. About this documentation * Contributors to the Python documentation:: Dealing with Bugs * Documentation bugs:: * Using the Python issue tracker:: * Getting started contributing to Python yourself:: History and License * History of the software:: * Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python:: * Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software:: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python * PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2:: * BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0: BEOPEN COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2 0. * CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1: CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1 6 1. * CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 2. * ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION:: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software * Mersenne Twister:: * Sockets: Sockets<2>. * Asynchronous socket services:: * Cookie management:: * Execution tracing:: * UUencode and UUdecode functions:: * XML Remote Procedure Calls:: * test_epoll:: * Select kqueue:: * SipHash24:: * strtod and dtoa:: * OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>. * expat:: * libffi:: * zlib: zlib<3>. * cfuhash:: * libmpdec:: * W3C C14N test suite:: * mimalloc:: * asyncio: asyncio<12>. * Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS): Global Unbounded Sequences GUS.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python, Next: The Python Tutorial, Prev: Top, Up: Top 1 What’s New in Python ********************** The “What’s New in Python” series of essays takes tours through the most important changes between major Python versions. They are a “must read” for anyone wishing to stay up-to-date after a new release. * Menu: * What’s New In Python 3.13: What’s New In Python 3 13. * What’s New In Python 3.12: What’s New In Python 3 12. * What’s New In Python 3.11: What’s New In Python 3 11. * What’s New In Python 3.10: What’s New In Python 3 10. * What’s New In Python 3.9: What’s New In Python 3 9. * What’s New In Python 3.8: What’s New In Python 3 8. * What’s New In Python 3.7: What’s New In Python 3 7. * What’s New In Python 3.6: What’s New In Python 3 6. * What’s New In Python 3.5: What’s New In Python 3 5. * What’s New In Python 3.4: What’s New In Python 3 4. * What’s New In Python 3.3: What’s New In Python 3 3. * What’s New In Python 3.2: What’s New In Python 3 2. * What’s New In Python 3.1: What’s New In Python 3 1. * What’s New In Python 3.0: What’s New In Python 3 0. * What’s New in Python 2.7: What’s New in Python 2 7. * What’s New in Python 2.6: What’s New in Python 2 6. * What’s New in Python 2.5: What’s New in Python 2 5. * What’s New in Python 2.4: What’s New in Python 2 4. * What’s New in Python 2.3: What’s New in Python 2 3. * What’s New in Python 2.2: What’s New in Python 2 2. * What’s New in Python 2.1: What’s New in Python 2 1. * What’s New in Python 2.0: What’s New in Python 2 0. * Changelog::  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 13, Next: What’s New In Python 3 12, Up: What’s New in Python 1.1 What’s New In Python 3.13 ============================= Editors: Adam Turner and Thomas Wouters This article explains the new features in Python 3.13, compared to 3.12. Python 3.13 was released on October 7, 2024. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. See also ........ PEP 719(1) – Python 3.13 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release Highlights:: * New Features:: * Other Language Changes:: * New Modules:: * Improved Modules:: * Optimizations:: * Removed Modules And APIs:: * New Deprecations:: * CPython Bytecode Changes:: * C API Changes:: * Build Changes:: * Porting to Python 3.13: Porting to Python 3 13. * Regression Test Changes:: * Notable changes in 3.13.1: Notable changes in 3 13 1. * Notable changes in 3.13.4: Notable changes in 3 13 4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0719/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release Highlights, Next: New Features, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.1 Summary – Release Highlights ---------------------------------- Python 3.13 is the latest stable release of the Python programming language, with a mix of changes to the language, the implementation and the standard library. The biggest changes include a new *note interactive interpreter: 13e., experimental support for running in a *note free-threaded mode: 13f.( PEP 703(1)), and a *note Just-In-Time compiler: 140.( PEP 744(2)). Error messages continue to improve, with tracebacks now highlighted in color by default. The *note locals(): 141. builtin now has *note defined semantics: 142. for changing the returned mapping, and type parameters now support default values. The library changes contain removal of deprecated APIs and modules, as well as the usual improvements in user-friendliness and correctness. Several legacy standard library modules have now *note been removed: 143.following their deprecation in Python 3.11 ( PEP 594(3)). This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead gives a convenient overview. For full details refer to the documentation, such as the *note Library Reference: 144. and *note Language Reference: 145. To understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented. See *note Porting to Python 3.13: 146. for guidance on upgrading from earlier versions of Python. __________________________________________________________________ Interpreter improvements: * A greatly improved *note interactive interpreter: 13e. and *note improved error messages: 147. * PEP 667(4): The *note locals(): 141. builtin now has *note defined semantics: 142. when mutating the returned mapping. Python debuggers and similar tools may now more reliably update local variables in optimized scopes even during concurrent code execution. * PEP 703(5): CPython 3.13 has experimental support for running with the *note global interpreter lock: 148. disabled. See *note Free-threaded CPython: 13f. for more details. * PEP 744(6): A basic *note JIT compiler: 140. was added. It is currently disabled by default (though we may turn it on later). Performance improvements are modest – we expect to improve this over the next few releases. * Color support in the new *note interactive interpreter: 13e, as well as in *note tracebacks: 147. and *note doctest: 149. output. This can be disabled through the *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. and NO_COLOR(7) environment variables. Python data model improvements: * *note __static_attributes__: 14b. stores the names of attributes accessed through ‘self.X’ in any function in a class body. * *note __firstlineno__: 14c. records the first line number of a class definition. Significant improvements in the standard library: * Add a new *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d. exception, raised when an operation is blocked during *note finalization: 14e. * The *note argparse: 6. module now supports deprecating command-line options, positional arguments, and subcommands. * The new functions *note base64.z85encode(): 14f. and *note base64.z85decode(): 150. support encoding and decoding Z85 data(8). * The *note copy: 25. module now has a *note copy.replace(): 151. function, with support for many builtin types and any class defining the *note __replace__(): 152. method. * The new *note dbm.sqlite3: 35. module is now the default *note dbm: 31. backend. * The *note os: a1. module has a *note suite of new functions: 153. for working with Linux’s timer notification file descriptors. * The *note random: b8. module now has a *note command-line interface: 154. Security improvements: * *note ssl.create_default_context(): 155. sets *note ssl.VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and *note ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. as default flags. C API improvements: * The *note Py_mod_gil: 158. slot is now used to indicate that an extension module supports running with the *note GIL: 159. disabled. * The *note PyTime C API: 15a. has been added, providing access to system clocks. * *note PyMutex: 15b. is a new lightweight mutex that occupies a single byte. * There is a new *note suite of functions: 15c. for generating PEP 669(9) monitoring events in the C API. New typing features: * PEP 696(10): Type parameters (*note typing.TypeVar: 15d, *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e, and *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f.) now support defaults. * PEP 702(11): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 160. decorator adds support for marking deprecations in the type system and at runtime. * PEP 705(12): *note typing.ReadOnly: 161. can be used to mark an item of a *note typing.TypedDict: 162. as read-only for type checkers. * PEP 742(13): *note typing.TypeIs: 163. provides more intuitive type narrowing behavior, as an alternative to *note typing.TypeGuard: 164. Platform support: * PEP 730(14): Apple’s iOS is now an *note officially supported platform: 165, at tier 3(15). * PEP 738(16): Android is now an *note officially supported platform: 165, at tier 3(17). * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now supported as a tier 2(18) platform. * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer an officially supported platform. Important removals: * *note PEP 594: 143.: The remaining 19 “dead batteries” (legacy stdlib modules) have been removed from the standard library: ‘aifc’, ‘audioop’, ‘cgi’, ‘cgitb’, ‘chunk’, ‘crypt’, ‘imghdr’, ‘mailcap’, ‘msilib’, ‘nis’, ‘nntplib’, ‘ossaudiodev’, ‘pipes’, ‘sndhdr’, ‘spwd’, ‘sunau’, ‘telnetlib’, ‘uu’ and ‘xdrlib’. * Remove the ‘2to3’ tool and ‘lib2to3’ module (deprecated in Python 3.11). * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module (deprecated in Python 3.6). * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function. * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces. * Remove chained *note classmethod: 166. descriptors. Release schedule changes: PEP 602(19) (“Annual Release Cycle for Python”) has been updated to extend the full support (‘bugfix’) period for new releases to two years. This updated policy means that: * Python 3.9–3.12 have one and a half years of full support, followed by three and a half years of security fixes. * Python 3.13 and later have two years of full support, followed by three years of security fixes. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/ (7) https://no-color.org/ (8) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0696/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/ (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/ (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/ (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3 (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/ (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3 (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-2 (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/  File: python.info, Node: New Features, Next: Other Language Changes, Prev: Summary – Release Highlights, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * A better interactive interpreter:: * Improved error messages:: * Free-threaded CPython:: * An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. * Defined mutation semantics for locals(): Defined mutation semantics for locals. * Support for mobile platforms::  File: python.info, Node: A better interactive interpreter, Next: Improved error messages, Up: New Features 1.1.2.1 A better interactive interpreter ........................................ Python now uses a new *note interactive: 169. shell by default, based on code from the PyPy project(1). When the user starts the *note REPL: 16a. from an interactive terminal, the following new features are now supported: * Multiline editing with history preservation. * Direct support for REPL-specific commands like ‘help’, ‘exit’, and ‘quit’, without the need to call them as functions. * Prompts and tracebacks with *note color enabled by default: 16b. * Interactive help browsing using ‘F1’ with a separate command history. * History browsing using ‘F2’ that skips output as well as the *note >>>: 16c. and *note …: 16d. prompts. * “Paste mode” with ‘F3’ that makes pasting larger blocks of code easier (press ‘F3’ again to return to the regular prompt). To disable the new interactive shell, set the *note PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: 16e. environment variable. For more on interactive mode, see *note Interactive Mode: 16f. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado, Łukasz Langa, and Lysandros Nikolaou in gh-111201(2) based on code from the PyPy project. Windows support contributed by Dino Viehland and Anthony Shaw.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypy.org/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111201  File: python.info, Node: Improved error messages, Next: Free-threaded CPython, Prev: A better interactive interpreter, Up: New Features 1.1.2.2 Improved error messages ............................... * The interpreter now uses color by default when displaying tracebacks in the terminal. This feature *note can be controlled: 16b. via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. environment variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2) environment variables. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in gh-112730(3).) * A common mistake is to write a script with the same name as a standard library module. When this results in errors, we now display a more helpful error message: $ python random.py Traceback (most recent call last): File "/home/me/random.py", line 1, in import random File "/home/me/random.py", line 3, in print(random.randint(5)) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ AttributeError: module 'random' has no attribute 'randint' (consider renaming '/home/me/random.py' since it has the same name as the standard library module named 'random' and prevents importing that standard library module) Similarly, if a script has the same name as a third-party module that it attempts to import and this results in errors, we also display a more helpful error message: $ python numpy.py Traceback (most recent call last): File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 1, in import numpy as np File "/home/me/numpy.py", line 3, in np.array([1, 2, 3]) ^^^^^^^^ AttributeError: module 'numpy' has no attribute 'array' (consider renaming '/home/me/numpy.py' if it has the same name as a library you intended to import) (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-95754(4).) * The error message now tries to suggest the correct keyword argument when an incorrect keyword argument is passed to a function. >>> "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in "Better error messages!".split(max_split=1) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^^^^^^^^^ TypeError: split() got an unexpected keyword argument 'max_split'. Did you mean 'maxsplit'? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado and Shantanu Jain in gh-107944(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://no-color.org/ (2) https://force-color.org/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112730 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95754 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107944  File: python.info, Node: Free-threaded CPython, Next: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler, Prev: Improved error messages, Up: New Features 1.1.2.3 Free-threaded CPython ............................. CPython now has experimental support for running in a free-threaded mode, with the *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) disabled. This is an experimental feature and therefore is not enabled by default. The free-threaded mode requires a different executable, usually called ‘python3.13t’ or ‘python3.13t.exe’. Pre-built binaries marked as 'free-threaded' can be installed as part of the official *note Windows: 172. and *note macOS: 173. installers, or CPython can be built from source with the *note -disable-gil: 174. option. Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores. While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware. 'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit. Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 175. or the command-line option *note -X gil=1: 176. To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note python -VV: 177. and *note sys.version: 178. contain “experimental free-threading build”. The new ‘sys._is_gil_enabled()’ function can be used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running process. C-API extension modules need to be built specifically for the free-threaded build. Extensions that support running with the *note GIL: 159. disabled should use the *note Py_mod_gil: 158. slot. Extensions using single-phase init should use *note PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(): 179. to indicate whether they support running with the GIL disabled. Importing C extensions that don’t use these mechanisms will cause the GIL to be enabled, unless the GIL was explicitly disabled with the *note PYTHON_GIL: 175. environment variable or the *note -X gil=0: 176. option. pip 24.1 or newer is required to install packages with C extensions in the free-threaded build. This work was made possible thanks to many individuals and organizations, including the large community of contributors to Python and third-party projects to test and enable free-threading support. Notable contributors include: Sam Gross, Ken Jin, Donghee Na, Itamar Oren, Matt Page, Brett Simmers, Dino Viehland, Carl Meyer, Nathan Goldbaum, Ralf Gommers, Lysandros Nikolaou, and many others. Many of these contributors are employed by Meta, which has provided significant engineering resources to support this project. See also ........ PEP 703(1) “Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython” contains rationale and information surrounding this work. Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(2): A community-maintained porting guide for extension authors. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/ (2) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/  File: python.info, Node: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler, Next: Defined mutation semantics for locals, Prev: Free-threaded CPython, Up: New Features 1.1.2.4 An experimental just-in-time (JIT) compiler ................................................... When CPython is configured and built using the ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option, a just-in-time (JIT) compiler is added which may speed up some Python programs. On Windows, use ‘PCbuild/build.bat --experimental-jit’ to enable the JIT or ‘--experimental-jit-interpreter’ to enable the Tier 2 interpreter. Build requirements and further supporting information are contained at(1) ‘Tools/jit/README.md’. The ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ option takes these (optional) values, defaulting to ‘yes’ if ‘--enable-experimental-jit’ is present without the optional value. * ‘no’: Disable the entire Tier 2 and JIT pipeline. * ‘yes’: Enable the JIT. To disable the JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable *note PYTHON_JIT=0: 17b. * ‘yes-off’: Build the JIT but disable it by default. To enable the JIT at runtime, pass the environment variable *note PYTHON_JIT=1: 17b. * ‘interpreter’: Enable the Tier 2 interpreter but disable the JIT. The interpreter can be disabled by running with *note PYTHON_JIT=0: 17b. The internal architecture is roughly as follows: * We start with specialized 'Tier 1 bytecode'. See *note What’s new in 3.11: 17c. for details. * When the Tier 1 bytecode gets hot enough, it gets translated to a new purely internal intermediate representation (IR), called the 'Tier 2 IR', and sometimes referred to as micro-ops (“uops”). * The Tier 2 IR uses the same stack-based virtual machine as Tier 1, but the instruction format is better suited to translation to machine code. * We have several optimization passes for Tier 2 IR, which are applied before it is interpreted or translated to machine code. * There is a Tier 2 interpreter, but it is mostly intended for debugging the earlier stages of the optimization pipeline. The Tier 2 interpreter can be enabled by configuring Python with ‘--enable-experimental-jit=interpreter’. * When the JIT is enabled, the optimized Tier 2 IR is translated to machine code, which is then executed. * The machine code translation process uses a technique called 'copy-and-patch'. It has no runtime dependencies, but there is a new build-time dependency on LLVM. See also ........ PEP 744(2) (JIT by Brandt Bucher, inspired by a paper by Haoran Xu and Fredrik Kjolstad. Tier 2 IR by Mark Shannon and Guido van Rossum. Tier 2 optimizer by Ken Jin.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/jit/README.md (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0744/  File: python.info, Node: Defined mutation semantics for locals, Next: Support for mobile platforms, Prev: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler, Up: New Features 1.1.2.5 Defined mutation semantics for ‘locals()’ ................................................. Historically, the expected result of mutating the return value of *note locals(): 141. has been left to individual Python implementations to define. Starting from Python 3.13, PEP 667(1) standardises the historical behavior of CPython for most code execution scopes, but changes *note optimized scopes: 17e. (functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions) to explicitly return independent snapshots of the currently assigned local variables, including locally referenced nonlocal variables captured in closures. This change to the semantics of *note locals(): 141. in optimized scopes also affects the default behavior of code execution functions that implicitly target ‘locals()’ if no explicit namespace is provided (such as *note exec(): 17f. and *note eval(): 180.). In previous versions, whether or not changes could be accessed by calling ‘locals()’ after calling the code execution function was implementation-dependent. In CPython specifically, such code would typically appear to work as desired, but could sometimes fail in optimized scopes based on other code (including debuggers and code execution tracing tools) potentially resetting the shared snapshot in that scope. Now, the code will always run against an independent snapshot of the local variables in optimized scopes, and hence the changes will never be visible in subsequent calls to ‘locals()’. To access the changes made in these cases, an explicit namespace reference must now be passed to the relevant function. Alternatively, it may make sense to update affected code to use a higher level code execution API that returns the resulting code execution namespace (e.g. *note runpy.run_path(): 181. when executing Python files from disk). To ensure debuggers and similar tools can reliably update local variables in scopes affected by this change, *note FrameType.f_locals: 182. now returns a write-through proxy to the frame’s local and locally referenced nonlocal variables in these scopes, rather than returning an inconsistently updated shared ‘dict’ instance with undefined runtime semantics. See PEP 667(2) for more details, including related C API changes and deprecations. Porting notes are also provided below for the affected *note Python APIs: 183. and *note C APIs: 184. (PEP and implementation contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929(3). Documentation updates provided by Guido van Rossum and Alyssa Coghlan.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929  File: python.info, Node: Support for mobile platforms, Prev: Defined mutation semantics for locals, Up: New Features 1.1.2.6 Support for mobile platforms .................................... PEP 730(1): iOS is now a PEP 11(2) supported platform, with the ‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ targets at tier 3 (iPhone and iPad devices released after 2013 and the Xcode iOS simulator running on Apple silicon hardware, respectively). ‘x86_64-apple-ios-simulator’ (the Xcode iOS simulator running on older ‘x86_64’ hardware) is not a tier 3 supported platform, but will have best-effort support. (PEP written and implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(3).) PEP 738(4): Android is now a PEP 11(5) supported platform, with the ‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ targets at tier 3. The 32-bit targets ‘arm-linux-androideabi’ and ‘i686-linux-android’ are not tier 3 supported platforms, but will have best-effort support. (PEP written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622(6).) See also ........ PEP 730(7), PEP 738(8) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622 (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0730/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0738/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes, Next: New Modules, Prev: New Features, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.3 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * The compiler now strips common leading whitespace from every line in a docstring. This reduces the size of the *note bytecode cache: 187. (such as ‘.pyc’ files), with reductions in file size of around 5%, for example in ‘sqlalchemy.orm.session’ from SQLAlchemy 2.0. This change affects tools that use docstrings, such as *note doctest: 3a. >>> def spam(): ... """ ... This is a docstring with ... leading whitespace. ... ... It even has multiple paragraphs! ... """ ... >>> spam.__doc__ '\nThis is a docstring with\n leading whitespace.\n\nIt even has multiple paragraphs!\n' (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-81283(1).) * *note Annotation scopes: 188. within class scopes can now contain lambdas and comprehensions. Comprehensions that are located within class scopes are not inlined into their parent scope. class C[T]: type Alias = lambda: T (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-109118(2) and gh-118160(3).) * *note Future statements: 189. are no longer triggered by relative imports of the *note __future__: 0. module, meaning that statements of the form ‘from .__future__ import ...’ are now simply standard relative imports, with no special features activated. (Contributed by Jeremiah Gabriel Pascual in gh-118216(4).) * *note global: 18a. declarations are now permitted in *note except: 18b. blocks when that global is used in the *note else: 18c. block. Previously this raised an erroneous *note SyntaxError: 18d. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111123(5).) * Add *note PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: 18e, a new environment variable that determines whether frozen modules are ignored by the import machinery, equivalent to the *note -X frozen_modules: 176. command-line option. (Contributed by Yilei Yang in gh-111374(6).) * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 18f. working without frame pointers(7) through the new environment variable *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. and command-line option *note -X perf_jit: 176. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-118518(8).) * The location of a ‘.python_history’ file can be changed via the new *note PYTHON_HISTORY: 191. environment variable. (Contributed by Levi Sabah, Zackery Spytz and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-73965(9).) * Classes have a new *note __static_attributes__: 14b. attribute. This is populated by the compiler with a tuple of the class’s attribute names which are assigned through ‘self.’ from any function in its body. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-115775(10).) * The compiler now creates a ‘__firstlineno__’ attribute on classes with the line number of the first line of the class definition. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118465(11).) * The *note exec(): 17f. and *note eval(): 180. builtins now accept the 'globals' and 'locals' arguments as keywords. (Contributed by Raphael Gaschignard in gh-105879(12)) * The *note compile(): 192. builtin now accepts a new flag, ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’, which is similar to ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ except that the returned AST is optimized according to the value of the 'optimize' argument. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-108113(13)). * Add a *note __name__: 193. attribute on *note property: 194. objects. (Contributed by Eugene Toder in gh-101860(14).) * Add *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d, a new exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 195. and used to signal when operations are blocked during *note finalization: 14e. The following callables now raise ‘PythonFinalizationError’, instead of *note RuntimeError: 195.: * *note _thread.start_new_thread(): 196. * *note os.fork(): 197. * *note os.forkpty(): 198. * *note subprocess.Popen: 199. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-114570(15).) * Allow the 'count' argument of *note str.replace(): 19a. to be a keyword. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-106487(16).) * Many functions now emit a warning if a boolean value is passed as a file descriptor argument. This can help catch some errors earlier. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-82626(17).) * Added ‘name’ and ‘mode’ attributes for compressed and archived file-like objects in the *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 8a, *note tarfile: de, and *note zipfile: 131. modules. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961(18).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81283 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109118 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118160 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118216 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111123 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111374 (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118518 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73965 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115775 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118465 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105879 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101860 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114570 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106487 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82626 (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961  File: python.info, Node: New Modules, Next: Improved Modules, Prev: Other Language Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.4 New Modules ----------------- * *note dbm.sqlite3: 35.: An SQLite backend for *note dbm: 31. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules, Next: Optimizations, Prev: New Modules, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.5 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * argparse:: * array:: * ast:: * asyncio:: * base64:: * compileall:: * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures. * configparser:: * copy:: * ctypes:: * dbm:: * dis:: * doctest:: * email:: * enum:: * fractions:: * glob:: * importlib:: * io:: * ipaddress:: * itertools:: * marshal:: * math:: * mimetypes:: * mmap:: * multiprocessing:: * os:: * os.path: os path. * pathlib:: * pdb:: * queue:: * random:: * re:: * shutil:: * site:: * sqlite3:: * ssl:: * statistics:: * subprocess:: * sys:: * tempfile:: * time:: * tkinter:: * traceback:: * types:: * typing:: * unicodedata:: * venv:: * warnings:: * xml:: * zipimport::  File: python.info, Node: argparse, Next: array, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.1 argparse ................ * Add the 'deprecated' parameter to the *note add_argument(): 19e. and ‘add_parser()’ methods, to enable deprecating command-line options, positional arguments, and subcommands. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-83648(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83648  File: python.info, Node: array, Next: ast, Prev: argparse, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.2 array ............. * Add the ‘'w'’ type code (‘Py_UCS4’) for Unicode characters. It should be used instead of the deprecated ‘'u'’ type code. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-80480(1).) * Register *note array.array: 1a0. as a *note MutableSequence: 1a1. by implementing the *note clear(): 1a2. method. (Contributed by Mike Zimin in gh-114894(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114894  File: python.info, Node: ast, Next: asyncio, Prev: array, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.3 ast ........... * The constructors of node types in the *note ast: 8. module are now stricter in the arguments they accept, with more intuitive behavior when arguments are omitted. If an optional field on an AST node is not included as an argument when constructing an instance, the field will now be set to ‘None’. Similarly, if a list field is omitted, that field will now be set to an empty list, and if an ‘expr_context’ field is omitted, it defaults to *note Load(): 1a4. (Previously, in all cases, the attribute would be missing on the newly constructed AST node instance.) In all other cases, where a required argument is omitted, the node constructor will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. This will raise an exception in Python 3.15. Similarly, passing a keyword argument to the constructor that does not map to a field on the AST node is now deprecated, and will raise an exception in Python 3.15. These changes do not apply to user-defined subclasses of *note ast.AST: 1a6. unless the class opts in to the new behavior by defining the *note AST._field_types: 1a7. mapping. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-105858(1), gh-117486(2), and gh-118851(3).) * *note ast.parse(): 1a8. now accepts an optional argument 'optimize' which is passed on to *note compile(): 192. This makes it possible to obtain an optimized AST. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-108113(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105858 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117486 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118851 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108113  File: python.info, Node: asyncio, Next: base64, Prev: ast, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.4 asyncio ............... * *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa. now returns an object that is both an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. and a plain *note iterator: 1ac. of *note awaitables: 1ad. The awaitables yielded by asynchronous iteration include original task or future objects that were passed in, making it easier to associate results with the tasks being completed. (Contributed by Justin Arthur in gh-77714(1).) * *note asyncio.loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae. will now automatically remove the Unix socket when the server is closed. (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-111246(2).) * *note DatagramTransport.sendto(): 1af. will now send zero-length datagrams if called with an empty bytes object. The transport flow control also now accounts for the datagram header when calculating the buffer size. (Contributed by Jamie Phan in gh-115199(3).) * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 1b0. and *note QueueShutDown: 1b1. to manage queue termination. (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat in gh-104228(4).) * Add the *note Server.close_clients(): 1b2. and *note Server.abort_clients(): 1b3. methods, which more forcefully close an asyncio server. (Contributed by Pierre Ossman in gh-113538(5).) * Accept a tuple of separators in *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4, stopping when any one of them is encountered. (Contributed by Bruce Merry in gh-81322(6).) * Improve the behavior of *note TaskGroup: 1b5. when an external cancellation collides with an internal cancellation. For example, when two task groups are nested and both experience an exception in a child task simultaneously, it was possible that the outer task group would hang, because its internal cancellation was swallowed by the inner task group. In the case where a task group is cancelled externally and also must raise an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, it will now call the parent task’s *note cancel(): 1b7. method. This ensures that a *note CancelledError: 1b8. will be raised at the next *note await: 1b9, so the cancellation is not lost. An added benefit of these changes is that task groups now preserve the cancellation count (*note cancelling(): 1ba.). In order to handle some corner cases, *note uncancel(): 1bb. may now reset the undocumented ‘_must_cancel’ flag when the cancellation count reaches zero. (Inspired by an issue reported by Arthur Tacca in gh-116720(7).) * When *note TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc. is called on an inactive *note TaskGroup: 1b5, the given coroutine will be closed (which prevents a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. about the given coroutine being never awaited). (Contributed by Arthur Tacca and Jason Zhang in gh-115957(8).) * The function and methods named ‘create_task’ have received a new ‘**kwargs’ argument that is passed through to the task constructor. This change was accidentally added in 3.13.3, and broke the API contract for custom task factories. Several third-party task factories implemented workarounds for this. In 3.13.4 and later releases the old factory contract is honored once again (until 3.14). To keep the workarounds working, the extra ‘**kwargs’ argument still allows passing additional keyword arguments to *note Task: 1be. and to custom task factories. This affects the following function and methods: *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf, *note asyncio.loop.create_task(): 1c0, *note asyncio.TaskGroup.create_task(): 1bc. (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-128307(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77714 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111246 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115199 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104228 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113538 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81322 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116720 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115957 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128307  File: python.info, Node: base64, Next: compileall, Prev: asyncio, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.5 base64 .............. * Add *note z85encode(): 14f. and *note z85decode(): 150. functions for encoding *note bytes: 1c2. as Z85 data(1) and decoding Z85-encoded data to ‘bytes’. (Contributed by Matan Perelman in gh-75299(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://rfc.zeromq.org/spec/32/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75299  File: python.info, Node: compileall, Next: concurrent futures, Prev: base64, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.6 compileall .................. * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. instead of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649  File: python.info, Node: concurrent futures, Next: configparser, Prev: compileall, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.7 concurrent.futures .......................... * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. instead of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649  File: python.info, Node: configparser, Next: copy, Prev: concurrent futures, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.8 configparser .................... * *note ConfigParser: 1c8. now has support for unnamed sections, which allows for top-level key-value pairs. This can be enabled with the new 'allow_unnamed_section' parameter. (Contributed by Pedro Sousa Lacerda in gh-66449(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66449  File: python.info, Node: copy, Next: ctypes, Prev: configparser, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.9 copy ............ * The new *note replace(): 151. function and the *note replace protocol: 152. make creating modified copies of objects much simpler. This is especially useful when working with immutable objects. The following types support the *note replace(): 151. function and implement the replace protocol: * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. * *note dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb. * *note datetime.datetime: 1cc, *note datetime.date: 1cd, *note datetime.time: 1ce. * *note inspect.Signature: 1cf, *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0. * *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. * *note code objects: 1d2. Any user-defined class can also support *note copy.replace(): 151. by defining the *note __replace__(): 152. method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108751(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108751  File: python.info, Node: ctypes, Next: dbm, Prev: copy, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.10 ctypes ............... * As a consequence of necessary internal refactoring, initialization of internal metaclasses now happens in ‘__init__’ rather than in ‘__new__’. This affects projects that subclass these internal metaclasses to provide custom initialization. Generally: - Custom logic that was done in ‘__new__’ after calling ‘super().__new__’ should be moved to ‘__init__’. - To create a class, call the metaclass, not only the metaclass’s ‘__new__’ method. See gh-124520(1) for discussion and links to changes in some affected projects. * *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4. objects have a new *note _align_: 1d5. attribute which allows the alignment of the structure being packed to/from memory to be specified explicitly. (Contributed by Matt Sanderson in gh-112433(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/124520 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112433  File: python.info, Node: dbm, Next: dis, Prev: ctypes, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.11 dbm ............ * Add *note dbm.sqlite3: 35, a new module which implements an SQLite backend, and make it the default ‘dbm’ backend. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-100414(1).) * Allow removing all items from the database through the new *note gdbm.clear(): 1d7. and *note ndbm.clear(): 1d8. methods. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-107122(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100414 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107122  File: python.info, Node: dis, Next: doctest, Prev: dbm, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.12 dis ............ * Change the output of *note dis: 38. module functions to show logical labels for jump targets and exception handlers, rather than offsets. The offsets can be added with the new *note -O: 1da. command-line option or the 'show_offsets' argument. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112137(1).) * *note get_instructions(): 1db. no longer represents cache entries as separate instructions. Instead, it returns them as part of the *note Instruction: 1dc, in the new 'cache_info' field. The 'show_caches' argument to *note get_instructions(): 1db. is deprecated and no longer has any effect. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112962(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112137 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112962  File: python.info, Node: doctest, Next: email, Prev: dis, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.13 doctest ................ * *note doctest: 3a. output is now colored by default. This can be controlled via the new *note PYTHON_COLORS: 14a. environment variable as well as the canonical NO_COLOR(1) and FORCE_COLOR(2) environment variables. See also *note Controlling color: 16b. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-117225(3).) * The *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1de. method now counts the number of skipped tests. Add the *note DocTestRunner.skips: 1df. and *note TestResults.skipped: 1e0. attributes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108794(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://no-color.org/ (2) https://force-color.org/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117225 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108794  File: python.info, Node: email, Next: enum, Prev: doctest, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.14 email .............. * Headers with embedded newlines are now quoted on output. The *note generator: 40. will now refuse to serialize (write) headers that are improperly folded or delimited, such that they would be parsed as multiple headers or joined with adjacent data. If you need to turn this safety feature off, set *note verify_generated_headers: 1e2. (Contributed by Bas Bloemsaat and Petr Viktorin in gh-121650(1).) * *note getaddresses(): 1e3. and *note parseaddr(): 1e4. now return ‘('', '')’ pairs in more situations where invalid email addresses are encountered instead of potentially inaccurate values. The two functions have a new optional 'strict' parameter (default ‘True’). To get the old behavior (accepting malformed input), use ‘strict=False’. ‘getattr(email.utils, 'supports_strict_parsing', False)’ can be used to check if the 'strict' parameter is available. (Contributed by Thomas Dwyer and Victor Stinner for gh-102988(2) to improve the CVE 2023-27043(3) fix.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121650 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102988 (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-27043  File: python.info, Node: enum, Next: fractions, Prev: email, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.15 enum ............. * *note EnumDict: 1e6. has been made public to better support subclassing *note EnumType: 1e7.  File: python.info, Node: fractions, Next: glob, Prev: enum, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.16 fractions .................. * *note Fraction: 1e9. objects now support the standard *note format specification mini-language: 1ea. rules for fill, alignment, sign handling, minimum width, and grouping. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in gh-111320(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111320  File: python.info, Node: glob, Next: importlib, Prev: fractions, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.17 glob ............. * Add *note translate(): 1ec, a function to convert a path specification with shell-style wildcards to a regular expression. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-72904(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72904  File: python.info, Node: importlib, Next: io, Prev: glob, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.18 importlib .................. * The following functions in *note importlib.resources: 7b. now allow accessing a directory (or tree) of resources, using multiple positional arguments (the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments in the text-reading functions are now keyword-only): * *note is_resource(): 1ee. * *note open_binary(): 1ef. * *note open_text(): 1f0. * *note path(): 1f1. * *note read_binary(): 1f2. * *note read_text(): 1f3. These functions are no longer deprecated and are not scheduled for removal. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608(1).) * *note contents(): 1f4. remains deprecated in favor of the fully-featured *note Traversable: 1f5. API. However, there is now no plan to remove it. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-116608(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116608  File: python.info, Node: io, Next: ipaddress, Prev: importlib, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.19 io ........... * The *note IOBase: 1f7. finalizer now logs any errors raised by the *note close(): 1f8. method with *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f9. Previously, errors were ignored silently by default, and only logged in *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. or when using a *note Python debug build: 1fb. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-62948(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62948  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress, Next: itertools, Prev: io, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.20 ipaddress .................. * Add the *note IPv4Address.ipv6_mapped: 1fd. property, which returns the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-109466(1).) * Fix ‘is_global’ and ‘is_private’ behavior in *note IPv4Address: 1fe, *note IPv6Address: 1ff, *note IPv4Network: 200, and *note IPv6Network: 201. (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in gh-113171(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109466 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113171  File: python.info, Node: itertools, Next: marshal, Prev: ipaddress, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.21 itertools .................. * *note batched(): 203. has a new 'strict' parameter, which raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the final batch is shorter than the specified batch size. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-113202(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113202  File: python.info, Node: marshal, Next: math, Prev: itertools, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.22 marshal ................ * Add the 'allow_code' parameter in module functions. Passing ‘allow_code=False’ prevents serialization and de-serialization of code objects which are incompatible between Python versions. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113626(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113626  File: python.info, Node: math, Next: mimetypes, Prev: marshal, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.23 math ............. * The new function *note fma(): 207. performs fused multiply-add operations. This computes ‘x * y + z’ with only a single round, and so avoids any intermediate loss of precision. It wraps the ‘fma()’ function provided by C99, and follows the specification of the IEEE 754 “fusedMultiplyAdd” operation for special cases. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Victor Stinner in gh-73468(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73468  File: python.info, Node: mimetypes, Next: mmap, Prev: math, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.24 mimetypes .................. * Add the *note guess_file_type(): 209. function to guess a MIME type from a filesystem path. Using paths with *note guess_type(): 20a. is now *note soft deprecated: 20b. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543  File: python.info, Node: mmap, Next: multiprocessing, Prev: mimetypes, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.25 mmap ............. * *note mmap: 20d. is now protected from crashing on Windows when the mapped memory is inaccessible due to file system errors or access violations. (Contributed by Jannis Weigend in gh-118209(1).) * *note mmap: 20d. has a new *note seekable(): 20e. method that can be used when a seekable file-like object is required. The *note seek(): 20f. method now returns the new absolute position. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Sylvie Liberman in gh-111835(2).) * The new UNIX-only 'trackfd' parameter for *note mmap: 20d. controls file descriptor duplication; if false, the file descriptor specified by 'fileno' will not be duplicated. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Petr Viktorin in gh-78502(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118209 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111835 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78502  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing, Next: os, Prev: mmap, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.26 multiprocessing ........................ * The default number of worker threads and processes is now selected using *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. instead of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649  File: python.info, Node: os, Next: os path, Prev: multiprocessing, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.27 os ........... * Add *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. function to get the number of logical CPU cores usable by the calling thread of the current process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-109649(1).) * *note cpu_count(): 1c5. and *note process_cpu_count(): 1c4. can be overridden through the new environment variable *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 212. or the new command-line option *note -X cpu_count: 176. This option is useful for users who need to limit CPU resources of a container system without having to modify application code or the container itself. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-109595(2).) * Add a *note low level interface: 153. to Linux’s ‘timer file descriptors(3)’ via *note timerfd_create(): 213, *note timerfd_settime(): 214, *note timerfd_settime_ns(): 215, *note timerfd_gettime(): 216, *note timerfd_gettime_ns(): 217, *note TFD_NONBLOCK: 218, *note TFD_CLOEXEC: 219, *note TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME: 21a, and *note TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET: 21b. (Contributed by Masaru Tsuchiyama in gh-108277(4).) * *note lchmod(): 21c. and the 'follow_symlinks' argument of *note chmod(): 21d. are both now available on Windows. Note that the default value of 'follow_symlinks' in ‘lchmod()’ is ‘False’ on Windows. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-59616(5).) * *note fchmod(): 21e. and support for file descriptors in *note chmod(): 21d. are both now available on Windows. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113191(6).) * On Windows, *note mkdir(): 21f. and *note makedirs(): 220. now support passing a 'mode' value of ‘0o700’ to apply access control to the new directory. This implicitly affects *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 221. and is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(7). Other values for 'mode' continue to be ignored. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(8).) * *note posix_spawn(): 222. now accepts ‘None’ for the 'env' argument, which makes the newly spawned process use the current process environment. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113119(9).) * *note posix_spawn(): 222. can now use the *note POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM: 223. attribute in the 'file_actions' parameter on platforms that support ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(10).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109649 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109595 (3) https://manpages.debian.org/timerfd_create(2) (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108277 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/59616 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113191 (7) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113119 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117  File: python.info, Node: os path, Next: pathlib, Prev: os, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.28 os.path ................ * Add *note isreserved(): 225. to check if a path is reserved on the current system. This function is only available on Windows. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569(1).) * On Windows, *note isabs(): 226. no longer considers paths starting with exactly one slash (‘\’ or ‘/’) to be absolute. (Contributed by Barney Gale and Jon Foster in gh-44626(2).) * *note realpath(): 227. now resolves MS-DOS style file names even if the file is not accessible. (Contributed by Moonsik Park in gh-82367(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/44626 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/82367  File: python.info, Node: pathlib, Next: pdb, Prev: os path, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.29 pathlib ................ * Add *note UnsupportedOperation: 229, which is raised instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. when a path operation isn’t supported. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-89812(1).) * Add a new constructor for creating *note Path: 22b. objects from ‘file’ URIs (‘file:///’), *note Path.from_uri(): 22c. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-107465(2).) * Add *note PurePath.full_match(): 22d. for matching paths with shell-style wildcards, including the recursive wildcard “‘**’”. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-73435(3).) * Add the *note PurePath.parser: 22e. class attribute to store the implementation of *note os.path: a2. used for low-level path parsing and joining. This will be either ‘posixpath’ or ‘ntpath’. * Add 'recurse_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note Path.glob(): 22f. and *note rglob(): 230. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-77609(4).) * *note Path.glob(): 22f. and *note rglob(): 230. now return files and directories when given a pattern that ends with “‘**’”. Previously, only directories were returned. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-70303(5).) * Add the 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument to *note Path.is_file: 231, *note Path.is_dir: 232, *note Path.owner(): 233, and *note Path.group(): 234. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-105793(6) and Kamil Turek in gh-107962(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89812 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107465 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73435 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77609 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70303 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105793 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107962  File: python.info, Node: pdb, Next: queue, Prev: pathlib, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.30 pdb ............ * *note breakpoint(): 236. and *note set_trace(): 237. now enter the debugger immediately rather than on the next line of code to be executed. This change prevents the debugger from breaking outside of the context when ‘breakpoint()’ is positioned at the end of the context. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118579(1).) * ‘sys.path[0]’ is no longer replaced by the directory of the script being debugged when *note sys.flags.safe_path: 238. is set. (Contributed by Tian Gao and Christian Walther in gh-111762(2).) * *note zipapp: 130. is now supported as a debugging target. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-118501(3).) * Add ability to move between chained exceptions during post-mortem debugging in *note pm(): 239. using the new *note exceptions [exc_number]: 23a. command for Pdb. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in gh-106676(4).) * Expressions and statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now correctly identified and executed. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-108464(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118579 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111762 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118501 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106676 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108464  File: python.info, Node: queue, Next: random, Prev: pdb, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.31 queue .............. * Add *note Queue.shutdown: 23c. and *note ShutDown: 23d. to manage queue termination. (Contributed by Laurie Opperman and Yves Duprat in gh-104750(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104750  File: python.info, Node: random, Next: re, Prev: queue, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.32 random ............... * Add a *note command-line interface: 154. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-118131(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118131  File: python.info, Node: re, Next: shutil, Prev: random, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.33 re ........... * Rename ‘re.error’ to *note PatternError: 240. for improved clarity. ‘re.error’ is kept for backward compatibility.  File: python.info, Node: shutil, Next: site, Prev: re, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.34 shutil ............... * Support the 'dir_fd' and 'follow_symlinks' keyword arguments in *note chown(): 242. (Contributed by Berker Peksag and Tahia K in gh-62308(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/62308  File: python.info, Node: site, Next: sqlite3, Prev: shutil, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.35 site ............. * ‘.pth’ files are now decoded using UTF-8 first, and then with the *note locale encoding: 244. if UTF-8 decoding fails. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-117802(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117802  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3, Next: ssl, Prev: site, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.36 sqlite3 ................ * A *note ResourceWarning: 246. is now emitted if a *note Connection: 247. object is not *note closed: 248. explicitly. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-105539(1).) * Add the 'filter' keyword-only parameter to *note Connection.iterdump(): 249. for filtering database objects to dump. (Contributed by Mariusz Felisiak in gh-91602(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105539 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91602  File: python.info, Node: ssl, Next: statistics, Prev: sqlite3, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.37 ssl ............ * The *note create_default_context(): 155. API now includes *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. and *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. in its default flags. Note: *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. may reject pre- RFC 5280(1) or malformed certificates that the underlying OpenSSL implementation might otherwise accept. Whilst disabling this is not recommended, you can do so using: import ssl ctx = ssl.create_default_context() ctx.verify_flags &= ~ssl.VERIFY_X509_STRICT (Contributed by William Woodruff in gh-112389(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112389  File: python.info, Node: statistics, Next: subprocess, Prev: ssl, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.38 statistics ................... * Add *note kde(): 24c. for kernel density estimation. This makes it possible to estimate a continuous probability density function from a fixed number of discrete samples. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863(1).) * Add *note kde_random(): 24d. for sampling from an estimated probability density function created by *note kde(): 24c. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-115863(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115863  File: python.info, Node: subprocess, Next: sys, Prev: statistics, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.39 subprocess ................... * The *note subprocess: d6. module now uses the *note posix_spawn(): 222. function in more situations. Notably, when 'close_fds' is ‘True’ (the default), *note posix_spawn(): 222. will be used when the C library provides ‘posix_spawn_file_actions_addclosefrom_np()’, which includes recent versions of Linux, FreeBSD, and Solaris. On Linux, this should perform similarly to the existing Linux ‘vfork()’ based code. A private control knob ‘subprocess._USE_POSIX_SPAWN’ can be set to ‘False’ if you need to force *note subprocess: d6. to never use *note posix_spawn(): 222. Please report your reason and platform details in the *note issue tracker: 250. if you set this so that we can improve our API selection logic for everyone. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117  File: python.info, Node: sys, Next: tempfile, Prev: subprocess, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.40 sys ............ * Add the *note _is_interned(): 252. function to test if a string was interned. This function is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-78573(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78573  File: python.info, Node: tempfile, Next: time, Prev: sys, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.41 tempfile ................. * On Windows, the default mode ‘0o700’ used by *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 221. now limits access to the new directory due to changes to *note os.mkdir(): 21f. This is a mitigation for CVE 2024-4030(1). (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-118486(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-4030 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118486  File: python.info, Node: time, Next: tkinter, Prev: tempfile, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.42 time ............. * On Windows, *note monotonic(): 255. now uses the ‘QueryPerformanceCounter()’ clock for a resolution of 1 microsecond, instead of the ‘GetTickCount64()’ clock which has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88494(1).) * On Windows, *note time(): 256. now uses the ‘GetSystemTimePreciseAsFileTime()’ clock for a resolution of 1 microsecond, instead of the ‘GetSystemTimeAsFileTime()’ clock which has a resolution of 15.6 milliseconds. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-63207(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88494 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63207  File: python.info, Node: tkinter, Next: traceback, Prev: time, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.43 tkinter ................ * Add *note tkinter: f0. widget methods: ‘tk_busy_hold()’, ‘tk_busy_configure()’, ‘tk_busy_cget()’, ‘tk_busy_forget()’, ‘tk_busy_current()’, and ‘tk_busy_status()’. (Contributed by Miguel, klappnase and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-72684(1).) * The *note tkinter: f0. widget method ‘wm_attributes()’ now accepts the attribute name without the minus prefix to get window attributes, for example ‘w.wm_attributes('alpha')’ and allows specifying attributes and values to set as keyword arguments, for example ‘w.wm_attributes(alpha=0.5)’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-43457(2).) * ‘wm_attributes()’ can now return attributes as a *note dict: 258, by using the new optional keyword-only parameter 'return_python_dict'. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-43457(3).) * ‘Text.count()’ can now return a simple *note int: 259. when the new optional keyword-only parameter 'return_ints' is used. Otherwise, the single count is returned as a 1-tuple or ‘None’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-97928(4).) * Support the “vsapi” element type in the *note element_create(): 25a. method of *note tkinter.ttk.Style: 25b. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-68166(5).) * Add the ‘after_info()’ method for Tkinter widgets. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella in gh-77020(6).) * Add a new ‘copy_replace()’ method to ‘PhotoImage’ to copy a region from one image to another, possibly with pixel zooming, subsampling, or both. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118225(7).) * Add 'from_coords' parameter to the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’. Add 'zoom' and 'subsample' parameters to the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118225(8).) * Add the ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘read()’ to read an image from a file and ‘data()’ to get the image data. Add 'background' and 'grayscale' parameters to the ‘write()’ method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-118271(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72684 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/43457 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97928 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68166 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77020 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118225 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118271  File: python.info, Node: traceback, Next: types, Prev: tkinter, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.44 traceback .................. * Add the *note exc_type_str: 25d. attribute to *note TracebackException: 25e, which holds a string display of the 'exc_type'. Deprecate the *note exc_type: 25f. attribute, which holds the type object itself. Add parameter 'save_exc_type' (default ‘True’) to indicate whether ‘exc_type’ should be saved. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(1).) * Add a new 'show_group' keyword-only parameter to *note TracebackException.format_exception_only(): 260. to (recursively) format the nested exceptions of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261. instance. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105292(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105292  File: python.info, Node: types, Next: typing, Prev: traceback, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.45 types .............. * *note SimpleNamespace: 1d1. can now take a single positional argument to initialise the namespace’s arguments. This argument must either be a mapping or an iterable of key-value pairs. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108191(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108191  File: python.info, Node: typing, Next: unicodedata, Prev: types, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.46 typing ............... * PEP 705(1): Add *note ReadOnly: 161, a special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 162. item as read-only for type checkers. * PEP 742(2): Add *note TypeIs: 163, a typing construct that can be used to instruct a type checker how to narrow a type. * Add *note NoDefault: 264, a sentinel object used to represent the defaults of some parameters in the *note typing: 104. module. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-116126(3).) * Add *note get_protocol_members(): 265. to return the set of members defining a *note typing.Protocol: 266. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873(4).) * Add *note is_protocol(): 267. to check whether a class is a *note Protocol: 266. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104873(5).) * *note ClassVar: 268. can now be nested in *note Final: 269, and vice versa. (Contributed by Mehdi Drissi in gh-89547(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116126 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104873 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89547  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata, Next: venv, Prev: typing, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.47 unicodedata .................... * Update the Unicode database to version 15.1.0(1). (Contributed by James Gerity in gh-109559(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode15.1.0/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109559  File: python.info, Node: venv, Next: warnings, Prev: unicodedata, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.48 venv ............. * Add support for creating source control management (SCM) ignore files in a virtual environment’s directory. By default, Git is supported. This is implemented as opt-in via the API, which can be extended to support other SCMs (*note EnvBuilder: 26c. and *note create(): 26d.), and opt-out via the CLI, using ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-108125(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108125  File: python.info, Node: warnings, Next: xml, Prev: venv, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.49 warnings ................. * PEP 702(1): The new *note warnings.deprecated(): 160. decorator provides a way to communicate deprecations to a *note static type checker: 26f. and to warn on usage of deprecated classes and functions. A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. may also be emitted when a decorated function or class is used at runtime. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-104003(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104003  File: python.info, Node: xml, Next: zipimport, Prev: warnings, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.50 xml ............ * Allow controlling Expat >=2.6.0 reparse deferral ( CVE 2023-52425(1)) by adding five new methods: * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser.flush(): 271. * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser.flush(): 272. * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 273. * *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 274. * ‘xml.sax.expatreader.ExpatParser.flush()’ (Contributed by Sebastian Pipping in gh-115623(2).) * Add the ‘close()’ method for the iterator returned by *note iterparse(): 275. for explicit cleanup. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-69893(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115623 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/69893  File: python.info, Node: zipimport, Prev: xml, Up: Improved Modules 1.1.5.51 zipimport .................. * Add support for ZIP64(1) format files. Everybody loves huge data, right? (Contributed by Tim Hatch in gh-94146(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_(file_format)#ZIP64 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94146  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations, Next: Removed Modules And APIs, Prev: Improved Modules, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.6 Optimizations ------------------- * Several standard library modules have had their import times significantly improved. For example, the import time of the *note typing: 104. module has been reduced by around a third by removing dependencies on *note re: b9. and *note contextlib: 23. Other modules to enjoy import-time speedups include *note email.utils: 50, *note enum: 56, *note functools: 5f, *note importlib.metadata: 7a, and *note threading: ed. (Contributed by Alex Waygood, Shantanu Jain, Adam Turner, Daniel Hollas, and others in gh-109653(1).) * *note textwrap.indent(): 278. is now around 30% faster than before for large input. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-107369(2).) * The *note subprocess: d6. module now uses the *note posix_spawn(): 222. function in more situations, including when 'close_fds' is ‘True’ (the default) on many modern platforms. This should provide a notable performance increase when launching processes on FreeBSD and Solaris. See the *note subprocess: 24f. section above for details. (Contributed by Jakub Kulik in gh-113117(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109653 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107369 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113117  File: python.info, Node: Removed Modules And APIs, Next: New Deprecations, Prev: Optimizations, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.7 Removed Modules And APIs ------------------------------ * Menu: * PEP 594; Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library. * 2to3:: * builtins:: * configparser: configparser<2>. * importlib.metadata: importlib metadata. * locale:: * opcode:: * optparse:: * pathlib: pathlib<2>. * re: re<2>. * tkinter.tix: tkinter tix. * turtle:: * typing: typing<2>. * unittest:: * urllib:: * webbrowser::  File: python.info, Node: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library, Next: 2to3, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.1 PEP 594: Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library .................................................................. PEP 594(1) proposed removing 19 modules from the standard library, colloquially referred to as ‘dead batteries’ due to their historic, obsolete, or insecure status. All of the following modules were deprecated in Python 3.11, and are now removed: * ‘aifc’ * standard-aifc(2): Use the redistribution of ‘aifc’ library from PyPI. * ‘audioop’ * audioop-lts(3): Use ‘audioop-lts’ library from PyPI. * ‘chunk’ * standard-chunk(4): Use the redistribution of ‘chunk’ library from PyPI. * ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ * ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ can typically be replaced with *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 27b. for ‘GET’ and ‘HEAD’ requests, and the *note email.message: 44. module or the multipart(5) library for ‘POST’ and ‘PUT’ requests. * ‘cgi.parse()’ can be replaced by calling *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27c. directly on the desired query string, unless the input is ‘multipart/form-data’, which should be replaced as described below for ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’. * ‘cgi.parse_header()’ can be replaced with the functionality in the *note email: 3b. package, which implements the same MIME RFCs. For example, with *note email.message.EmailMessage: 27d.: from email.message import EmailMessage msg = EmailMessage() msg['content-type'] = 'application/json; charset="utf8"' main, params = msg.get_content_type(), msg['content-type'].params * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ can be replaced with the functionality in the *note email: 3b. package, which implements the same MIME RFCs, or with the multipart(6) library. For example, the *note email.message.EmailMessage: 27d. and *note email.message.Message: 27e. classes. * standard-cgi(7): and standard-cgitb(8): Use the redistribution of ‘cgi’ and ‘cgitb’ library from PyPI. * ‘crypt’ and the private ‘_crypt’ extension. The *note hashlib: 68. module may be an appropriate replacement when simply hashing a value is required. Otherwise, various third-party libraries on PyPI are available: * bcrypt(9): Modern password hashing for your software and your servers. * passlib(10): Comprehensive password hashing framework supporting over 30 schemes. * argon2-cffi(11): The secure Argon2 password hashing algorithm. * legacycrypt(12): *note ctypes: 2a. wrapper to the POSIX crypt library call and associated functionality. * crypt_r(13): Fork of the ‘crypt’ module, wrapper to the ‘crypt_r(3)(14)’ library call and associated functionality. * standard-crypt(15) and deprecated-crypt-alternative(16): Use the redistribution of ‘crypt’ and reimplementation of ‘_crypt’ libraries from PyPI. * ‘imghdr’: The filetype(17), puremagic(18), or python-magic(19) libraries should be used as replacements. For example, the ‘puremagic.what()’ function can be used to replace the ‘imghdr.what()’ function for all file formats that were supported by ‘imghdr’. * standard-imghdr(20): Use the redistribution of ‘imghdr’ library from PyPI. * ‘mailcap’: Use the *note mimetypes: 8f. module instead. * standard-mailcap(21): Use the redistribution of ‘mailcap’ library from PyPI. * ‘msilib’ * ‘nis’ * ‘nntplib’: Use the pynntp(22) library from PyPI instead. * standard-nntplib(23): Use the redistribution of ‘nntplib’ library from PyPI. * ‘ossaudiodev’: For audio playback, use the pygame(24) library from PyPI instead. * ‘pipes’: Use the *note subprocess: d6. module instead. Use *note shlex.quote(): 27f. to replace the undocumented ‘pipes.quote’ function. * standard-pipes(25): Use the redistribution of ‘pipes’ library from PyPI. * ‘sndhdr’: The filetype(26), puremagic(27), or python-magic(28) libraries should be used as replacements. * standard-sndhdr(29): Use the redistribution of ‘sndhdr’ library from PyPI. * ‘spwd’: Use the python-pam(30) library from PyPI instead. * ‘sunau’ * standard-sunau(31): Use the redistribution of ‘sunau’ library from PyPI. * ‘telnetlib’, Use the telnetlib3(32) or Exscript(33) libraries from PyPI instead. * standard-telnetlib(34): Use the redistribution of ‘telnetlib’ library from PyPI. * ‘uu’: Use the *note base64: e. module instead, as a modern alternative. * standard-uu(35): Use the redistribution of ‘uu’ library from PyPI. * ‘xdrlib’ * standard-xdrlib(36): Use the redistribution of ‘xdrlib’ library from PyPI. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Zachary Ware in gh-104773(37) and gh-104780(38).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/standard-aifc/ (3) https://pypi.org/project/audioop-lts/ (4) https://pypi.org/project/standard-chunk/ (5) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/ (6) https://pypi.org/project/multipart/ (7) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgi/ (8) https://pypi.org/project/standard-cgitb/ (9) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/ (10) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/ (11) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/ (12) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/ (13) https://pypi.org/project/crypt_r/ (14) https://manpages.debian.org/crypt_r(3) (15) https://pypi.org/project/standard-crypt/ (16) https://pypi.org/project/deprecated-crypt-alternative/ (17) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/ (18) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/ (19) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/ (20) https://pypi.org/project/standard-imghdr/ (21) https://pypi.org/project/standard-mailcap/ (22) https://pypi.org/project/pynntp/ (23) https://pypi.org/project/standard-nntplib/ (24) https://pypi.org/project/pygame/ (25) https://pypi.org/project/standard-pipes/ (26) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/ (27) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/ (28) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/ (29) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sndhdr/ (30) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/ (31) https://pypi.org/project/standard-sunau/ (32) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/ (33) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/ (34) https://pypi.org/project/standard-telnetlib/ (35) https://pypi.org/project/standard-uu/ (36) https://pypi.org/project/standard-xdrlib/ (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104773 (38) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780  File: python.info, Node: 2to3, Next: builtins, Prev: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.2 2to3 ............ * Remove the ‘2to3’ program and the ‘lib2to3’ module, previously deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104780(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104780  File: python.info, Node: builtins, Next: configparser<2>, Prev: 2to3, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.3 builtins ................ * Remove support for chained *note classmethod: 166. descriptors (introduced in gh-63272(1)). These can no longer be used to wrap other descriptors, such as *note property: 194. The core design of this feature was flawed and led to several problems. To “pass-through” a *note classmethod: 166, consider using the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).) * Raise a *note RuntimeError: 195. when calling *note frame.clear(): 282. on a suspended frame (as has always been the case for an executing frame). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-79932(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/63272 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79932  File: python.info, Node: configparser<2>, Next: importlib metadata, Prev: builtins, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.4 configparser .................... * Remove the undocumented ‘LegacyInterpolation’ class, deprecated in the docstring since Python 3.2, and at runtime since Python 3.11. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104886(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104886  File: python.info, Node: importlib metadata, Next: locale, Prev: configparser<2>, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.5 importlib.metadata .......................... * Remove deprecated subscript (*note __getitem__(): 285.) access for *note EntryPoint: 286. objects. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-113175(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113175  File: python.info, Node: locale, Next: opcode, Prev: importlib metadata, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.6 locale .............. * Remove the ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.11. Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-104783(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104783  File: python.info, Node: opcode, Next: optparse, Prev: locale, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.7 opcode .............. * Move ‘opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’ to ‘_opcode.ENABLE_SPECIALIZATION’. This field was added in 3.12, it was never documented, and is not intended for external use. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481(1).) * Remove ‘opcode.is_pseudo()’, ‘opcode.MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, and ‘opcode.MAX_PSEUDO_OPCODE’, which were added in Python 3.12, but were neither documented nor exposed through *note dis: 38, and were not intended to be used externally. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105481(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105481  File: python.info, Node: optparse, Next: pathlib<2>, Prev: opcode, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.8 optparse ................ * This module is no longer considered *note soft deprecated: 20b. While *note argparse: 6. remains preferred for new projects that aren’t using a third party command line argument processing library, there are aspects of the way ‘argparse’ works that mean the lower level ‘optparse’ module may provide a better foundation for 'writing' argument processing libraries, and for implementing command line applications which adhere more strictly than ‘argparse’ does to various Unix command line processing conventions that originate in the behaviour of the C ‘getopt()’ function . (Contributed by Alyssa Coghlan and Serhiy Storchaka in gh-126180(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/126180  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<2>, Next: re<2>, Prev: optparse, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.9 pathlib ............... * Remove the ability to use *note Path: 22b. objects as context managers. This functionality was deprecated and has had no effect since Python 3.9. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-83863(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83863  File: python.info, Node: re<2>, Next: tkinter tix, Prev: pathlib<2>, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.10 re ........... * Remove the undocumented, deprecated, and broken ‘re.template()’ function and ‘re.TEMPLATE’ / ‘re.T’ flag. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nikita Sobolev in gh-105687(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105687  File: python.info, Node: tkinter tix, Next: turtle, Prev: re<2>, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.11 tkinter.tix .................... * Remove the ‘tkinter.tix’ module, deprecated in Python 3.6. The third-party Tix library which the module wrapped is unmaintained. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in gh-75552(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/75552  File: python.info, Node: turtle, Next: typing<2>, Prev: tkinter tix, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.12 turtle ............... * Remove the ‘RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ method, deprecated in the documentation since Python 3.1 and at runtime since Python 3.11. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104876(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104876  File: python.info, Node: typing<2>, Next: unittest, Prev: turtle, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.13 typing ............... * Remove the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ namespaces, deprecated since Python 3.8. The items in those namespaces can be imported directly from the *note typing: 104. module. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in gh-92871(1).) * Remove the keyword-argument method of creating *note TypedDict: 162. types, deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Tomas Roun in gh-104786(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92871 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104786  File: python.info, Node: unittest, Next: urllib, Prev: typing<2>, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.14 unittest ................. * Remove the following *note unittest: 106. functions, deprecated in Python 3.11: * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ Use *note TestLoader: 290. methods instead: * *note loadTestsFromModule(): 291. * *note loadTestsFromTestCase(): 292. * *note getTestCaseNames(): 293. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104835(1).) * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘TestProgram.usageExit()’ method, deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104992(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104835 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104992  File: python.info, Node: urllib, Next: webbrowser, Prev: unittest, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.15 urllib ............... * Remove the 'cafile', 'capath', and 'cadefault' parameters of the *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 295. function, deprecated in Python 3.6. Use the 'context' parameter instead with an *note SSLContext: 296. instance. The *note ssl.SSLContext.load_cert_chain(): 297. function can be used to load specific certificates, or let *note ssl.create_default_context(): 155. select the operating system’s trusted certificate authority (CA) certificates. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105382(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105382  File: python.info, Node: webbrowser, Prev: urllib, Up: Removed Modules And APIs 1.1.7.16 webbrowser ................... * Remove the untested and undocumented ‘MacOSX’ class, deprecated in Python 3.11. Use the ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class (introduced in Python 3.2) instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-104804(1).) * Remove the deprecated ‘MacOSXOSAScript._name’ attribute. Use the *note MacOSXOSAScript.name: 299. attribute instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-105546(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104804 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105546  File: python.info, Node: New Deprecations, Next: CPython Bytecode Changes, Prev: Removed Modules And APIs, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.8 New Deprecations ---------------------- * *note User-defined functions: 29b.: * Deprecate assignment to a function’s *note __code__: 29c. attribute, where the new code object’s type does not match the function’s type. The different types are: plain function, generator, async generator, and coroutine. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-81137(1).) * *note array: 7.: * Deprecate the ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) at runtime. This format code has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3, and will be removed in Python 3.16. Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29d.) for Unicode characters instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-80480(2).) * *note ctypes: 2a.: * Deprecate the undocumented ‘SetPointerType()’ function, to be removed in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105733(3).) * *note Soft-deprecate: 20b. the *note ARRAY(): 29e. function in favour of ‘type * length’ multiplication. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105733(4).) * *note decimal: 36.: * Deprecate the non-standard and undocumented *note Decimal: 29f. format specifier ‘'N'’, which is only supported in the ‘decimal’ module’s C implementation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89902(5).) * *note dis: 38.: * Deprecate the ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ separator. Check membership in *note hasarg: 2a0. instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-109319(6).) * *note gettext: 63.: * Deprecate non-integer numbers as arguments to functions and methods that consider plural forms in the ‘gettext’ module, even if no translation was found. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-88434(7).) * *note glob: 64.: * Deprecate the undocumented ‘glob0()’ and ‘glob1()’ functions. Use *note glob(): 2a1. and pass a *note path-like object: 2a2. specifying the root directory to the 'root_dir' parameter instead. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-117337(8).) * *note http.server: 72.: * Deprecate *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3, to be removed in Python 3.15. Process-based CGI HTTP servers have been out of favor for a very long time. This code was outdated, unmaintained, and rarely used. It has a high potential for both security and functionality bugs. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096(9).) * Deprecate the ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line interface, to be removed in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-109096(10).) * *note mimetypes: 8f.: * *note Soft-deprecate: 20b. file path arguments to *note guess_type(): 20a, use *note guess_file_type(): 209. instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-66543(11).) * *note re: b9.: * Deprecate passing the optional 'maxsplit', 'count', or 'flags' arguments as positional arguments to the module-level *note split(): 2a4, *note sub(): 2a5, and *note subn(): 2a6. functions. These parameters will become *note keyword-only: 2a7. in a future version of Python. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-56166(12).) * *note pathlib: a4.: * Deprecate *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a8, to be removed in Python 3.15. Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 225. to detect reserved paths on Windows. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-88569(13).) * *note platform: aa.: * Deprecate *note java_ver(): 2a9, to be removed in Python 3.15. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-116349(14).) * *note pydoc: b5.: * Deprecate the undocumented ‘ispackage()’ function. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-64020(15).) * *note sqlite3: cf.: * Deprecate passing more than one positional argument to the *note connect(): 2aa. function and the *note Connection: 247. constructor. The remaining parameters will become keyword-only in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-107948(16).) * Deprecate passing name, number of arguments, and the callable as keyword arguments for *note Connection.create_function(): 2ab. and *note Connection.create_aggregate(): 2ac. These parameters will become positional-only in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278(17).) * Deprecate passing the callback callable by keyword for the *note set_authorizer(): 2ad, *note set_progress_handler(): 2ae, and *note set_trace_callback(): 2af. *note Connection: 247. methods. The callback callables will become positional-only in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-108278(18).) * *note sys: d9.: * Deprecate the *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2b0. function, to be removed in Python 3.16. Use the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable instead. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-73427(19).) * *note tarfile: de.: * Deprecate the undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute, to be removed in Python 3.16. (Contributed in gh-115256(20).) * *note traceback: fe.: * Deprecate the *note TracebackException.exc_type: 25f. attribute. Use *note TracebackException.exc_type_str: 25d. instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-112332(21).) * *note typing: 104.: * Deprecate the undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note NamedTuple: 2b2. classes (e.g. ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’), to be removed in Python 3.15. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566(22).) * Deprecate omitting the 'fields' parameter when creating a *note NamedTuple: 2b2. or *note typing.TypedDict: 162. class, and deprecate passing ‘None’ to the 'fields' parameter of both types. Python 3.15 will require a valid sequence for the 'fields' parameter. To create a NamedTuple class with zero fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", ())’. To create a TypedDict class with zero fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-105566(23) and gh-105570(24).) * Deprecate the *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b3. decorator function, to be removed in Python 3.15. After eight years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-106309(25).) * Deprecate *note typing.AnyStr: 2b4. In Python 3.16, it will be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. will be emitted at runtime when it is imported or accessed. It will be removed entirely in Python 3.18. Use the new *note type parameter syntax: 2b5. instead. (Contributed by Michael The in gh-107116(26).) * *note wave: 113.: * Deprecate the *note getmark(): 2b6, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers(): 2b7. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b8. and *note Wave_write: 2b9. classes, to be removed in Python 3.15. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105096(27).) * Menu: * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16. * Pending Removal in Future Versions:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81137 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80480 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105733 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89902 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109319 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88434 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/117337 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109096 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/66543 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/56166 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88569 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116349 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/64020 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107948 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278 (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108278 (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/73427 (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115256 (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112332 (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566 (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105566 (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105570 (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309 (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107116 (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105096  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15, Up: New Deprecations 1.1.8.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14 ...................................... * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).) * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14: * ‘ast.Num’ * ‘ast.Str’ * ‘ast.Bytes’ * ‘ast.NameConstant’ * ‘ast.Ellipsis’ Use *note ast.Constant: 2bb. instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953(2).) * *note asyncio: a.: * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2bc, *note FastChildWatcher: 2bd, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2be. and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bf. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).) * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2c0, *note asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2c1, *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c2. and *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 2c3. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).) * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c4. method of the default event loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160(5).) * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c5. Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c6. For use in typing, prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).) * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note email.utils.localtime(): 2c7. (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346(7).) * *note importlib.abc: 78. deprecated classes: * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’ * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’ Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead: * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963(8).) * *note itertools: 81. had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).) * *note multiprocessing: 94.: The default start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the *note get_context(): 2c9. or *note set_start_method(): 2ca. APIs to explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’. See *note Contexts and start methods: 2cb. * *note pathlib: a4.: *note is_relative_to(): 2cc. and *note relative_to(): 2cd.: passing additional arguments is deprecated. * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note find_loader(): 2ce. and *note get_loader(): 2cf. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).) * *note pty: b1.: * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2d1. * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2d1. * *note sqlite3: cf.: * *note version: 2d2. and *note version_info: 2d3. * *note execute(): 2d4. and *note executemany(): 2d5. if *note named placeholders: 2d6. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence instead of a *note dict: 258. * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 2d7, deprecated since Python 3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when it is used. * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-88168(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15, Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14, Up: New Deprecations 1.1.8.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15 ...................................... * The import system: * Setting *note __cached__: 2d9. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.cached: 2da. is deprecated. In Python 3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879(1)) * Setting *note __package__: 2db. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.parent: 2dc. is deprecated. In Python 3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879(2)) * *note ctypes: 2a.: * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. * *note http.server: 72.: * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. 'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler. * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13. * *note importlib: 77.: * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead. * *note locale: 86.: * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2dd. function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use *note getlocale(): 2de, *note setlocale(): 2df, and *note getencoding(): 2e0. instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).) * *note pathlib: a4.: * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a8. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 225. to detect reserved paths on Windows. * *note platform: aa.: * *note java_ver(): 2a9. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested. * *note sysconfig: db.: * The 'check_home' argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2e1. has been deprecated since Python 3.12. * *note threading: ed.: * *note RLock(): 2e2. will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument. * *note types: 103.: * *note types.CodeType: 2e3.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e4. was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).) * *note typing: 104.: * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note NamedTuple: 2b2. classes (e.g. ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead. * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 162.s, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a TypedDict with zero field. * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b3. decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker. * *note wave: 113.: * The *note getmark(): 2b6, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers(): 2b7. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b8. and *note Wave_write: 2b9. classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866  File: python.info, Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16, Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15, Up: New Deprecations 1.1.8.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16 ...................................... * The import system: * Setting *note __loader__: 2e6. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.loader: 2e7. is deprecated. In Python 3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library. * *note array: 7.: * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29d.) for Unicode characters instead. * *note asyncio: a.: * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16, use *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8. instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).) * *note builtins: 12.: * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’). Use ‘not x’ instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’). * *note shutil: c5.: * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 195. * *note symtable: d8.: * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e9. method has been deprecated since Python 3.14. * *note sys: d9.: * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2b0. function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable instead. * *note tarfile: de.: * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions, Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16, Up: New Deprecations 1.1.8.4 Pending Removal in Future Versions .......................................... The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal. * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated. * *note builtins: 12.: * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’. * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’ signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’ instead, the single argument signature. * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and: 2eb, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ec, *note if: 2ed, *note in: 2ee, *note is: 2ef. and *note or: 2f0. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999(1)) * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 259. * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass of *note float: 2f1.: these methods will be required to return an instance of *note float: 2f1. * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass of *note complex: 2f2.: these methods will be required to return an instance of *note complex: 2f2. * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method. * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in the *note complex(): 2f2. constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).) * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’ constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY: 2f3. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f4. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636(3).) * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2e4.: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 2f5. method instead. * *note datetime: 30.: * *note utcnow(): 2f6.: use ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’. * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f7.: use ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’. * *note gettext: 63.: Plural value must be an integer. * *note importlib: 77.: * *note cache_from_source(): 2f8. 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead. * *note importlib.metadata: 7a.: * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface. * Implicit ‘None’ on return values. * *note logging: 87.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f9. instead. * *note mailbox: 8b.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead. * *note os: a1.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2fa. in multi-threaded process. * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance. * *note re: b9.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(4).) * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules. * *note shutil: c5.: *note rmtree(): 2fb.’s 'onerror' parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead. * *note ssl: d0. options and protocols: * *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. without protocol argument is deprecated. * *note ssl.SSLContext: 296.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2fc. and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN instead. * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’ * *note threading: ed. methods: * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all(): 2fd. * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2fe. * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2ff.: use *note threading.Thread.daemon: 300. attribute. * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note threading.Thread.setName(): 301.: use *note threading.Thread.name: 302. attribute. * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note threading.current_thread(): 303. * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count(): 304. * *note typing.Text: 305. (gh-92332(5)). * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 306.: it is deprecated to return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case. * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse(): 307. instead * ‘splitattr()’ * ‘splithost()’ * ‘splitnport()’ * ‘splitpasswd()’ * ‘splitport()’ * ‘splitquery()’ * ‘splittag()’ * ‘splittype()’ * ‘splituser()’ * ‘splitvalue()’ * ‘to_bytes()’ * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 308. and *note FancyURLopener: 309. style of invoking requests is deprecated. Use newer *note urlopen(): 295. functions and methods. * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do partial writes. * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an *note Element: 30a. is deprecated. In a future release it will always return ‘True’. Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests instead. * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 30b. is deprecated: use *note exec_module(): 30c. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332  File: python.info, Node: CPython Bytecode Changes, Next: C API Changes, Prev: New Deprecations, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.9 CPython Bytecode Changes ------------------------------ * The oparg of *note YIELD_VALUE: 30e. is now ‘1’ if the yield is part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise. The oparg of *note RESUME: 30f. was changed to add a bit indicating if the except-depth is 1, which is needed to optimize closing of generators. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111354(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111354  File: python.info, Node: C API Changes, Next: Build Changes, Prev: CPython Bytecode Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.10 C API Changes -------------------- * Menu: * New Features: New Features<2>. * Changed C APIs:: * Limited C API Changes:: * Removed C APIs:: * Deprecated C APIs::  File: python.info, Node: New Features<2>, Next: Changed C APIs, Up: C API Changes 1.1.10.1 New Features ..................... * Add the *note PyMonitoring C API: 15c. for generating PEP 669(1) monitoring events: * *note PyMonitoringState: 312. * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent(): 313. * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent(): 314. * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent(): 315. * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent(): 316. * *note PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent(): 317. * *note PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent(): 318. * *note PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent(): 319. * *note PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent(): 31a. * *note PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent(): 31b. * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent(): 31c. * *note PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent(): 31d. * *note PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent(): 31e. * *note PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent(): 31f. * *note PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent(): 320. * *note PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent(): 321. * *note PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent(): 322. * *note PyMonitoring_EnterScope(): 323. * *note PyMonitoring_ExitScope(): 324. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-111997(2)). * Add *note PyMutex: 15b, a lightweight mutex that occupies a single byte, and the new *note PyMutex_Lock(): 325. and *note PyMutex_Unlock(): 326. functions. ‘PyMutex_Lock()’ will release the *note GIL: 159. (if currently held) if the operation needs to block. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-108724(3).) * Add the *note PyTime C API: 327. to provide access to system clocks: * *note PyTime_t: 328. * *note PyTime_MIN: 329. and *note PyTime_MAX: 32a. * *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 32b. * *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 32c. * *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 32d. * *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32e. * *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32f. * *note PyTime_Time(): 330. * *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 331. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Petr Viktorin in gh-110850(4).) * Add the *note PyDict_ContainsString(): 332. function with the same behavior as *note PyDict_Contains(): 333, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108314(5).) * Add the *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 335. and *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 336. functions, which behave similarly to *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 337, but return a *note strong reference: 338. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 339. Moreover, these functions return ‘-1’ on error, removing the need to check ‘PyErr_Occurred()’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106004(6).) * Add the *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 33a. function, which behaves similarly to *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 33b, but returns a *note strong reference: 338. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 339. This function returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ on insertion, and ‘1’ if the key was already present in the dictionary. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-112066(7).) * Add the *note PyDict_Pop(): 33c. and *note PyDict_PopString(): 33d. functions to remove a key from a dictionary and optionally return the removed value. This is similar to *note dict.pop(): 33e, though there is no default value, and *note KeyError: 33f. is not raised for missing keys. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Victor Stinner in gh-111262(8).) * Add the *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 340. and *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 341. functions as alternatives to *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. and *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 343. respectively. The new functions do not raise *note KeyError: 33f. if the requested key is missing from the mapping. These variants are more convenient and faster if a missing key should not be treated as a failure. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106307(9).) * Add the *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 344. and *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 345. functions as alternatives to *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. and *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 347. respectively. The new functions do not raise *note AttributeError: 348. if the requested attribute is not found on the object. These variants are more convenient and faster if the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106521(10).) * Add the *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 349. function as an extension to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 34a. that allows customizing the warning message. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108082(11).) * Add new functions that return a *note strong reference: 338. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 339. for frame locals, globals, and builtins, as part of *note PEP 667: 142.: * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 34b. replaces *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 34c. * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 34d. replaces *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 34e. * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34f. replaces *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 350. (Contributed by Mark Shannon and Tian Gao in gh-74929(12).) * Add the *note Py_GetConstant(): 351. and *note Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 352. functions to get *note strong: 338. or *note borrowed: 339. references to constants. For example, ‘Py_GetConstant(Py_CONSTANT_ZERO)’ returns a strong reference to the constant zero. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-115754(13).) * Add the *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 353. function as a replacement for *note PyImport_AddModule(): 354. that returns a *note strong reference: 338. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 339. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105922(14).) * Add the *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 355. function to check whether the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14e. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108014(15).) * Add the *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 356. function as a replacement for *note PyList_GetItem(): 357. that returns a *note strong reference: 338. instead of a *note borrowed reference: 339. (Contributed by Sam Gross in gh-114329(16).) * Add the *note PyList_Extend(): 358. and *note PyList_Clear(): 359. functions, mirroring the Python ‘list.extend()’ and ‘list.clear()’ methods. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111138(17).) * Add the *note PyLong_AsInt(): 35a. function. It behaves similarly to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 35b, but stores the result in a C int instead of a C long. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108014(18).) * Add the *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35c, *note PyLong_FromNativeBytes(): 35d, and *note PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 35e. functions to simplify converting between native integer types and Python *note int: 259. objects. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-111140(19).) * Add *note PyModule_Add(): 35f. function, which is similar to *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360. and *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361, but always steals a reference to the value. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-86493(20).) * Add the *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 362. function that implements the default hashing function of a Python object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-113024(21).) * Add the *note Py_HashPointer(): 363. function to hash a raw pointer. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111545(22).) * Add the *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 364. and *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 365. functions. which must be called by the traverse and clear functions of a type using the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. flag. The pythoncapi-compat project(23) can be used to use these functions with Python 3.11 and 3.12. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-107073(24).) * Add the *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 367. and *note PyRefTracer_GetTracer(): 368. functions, which enable tracking object creation and destruction in the same way that the *note tracemalloc: ff. module does. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93502(25).) * Add the *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 369. function as an alternative to *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. that takes event arguments as a Python *note tuple: 36b. object. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(26).) * Add the *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36c. function as an alternative to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36d. that doesn’t kill the process with a fatal error if it is ‘NULL’. The caller is responsible for checking if the result is ‘NULL’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108867(27).) * Add the *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36e. function to get the type’s fully qualified name. The module name is prepended if *note type.__module__: 36f. is a string and is not equal to either ‘'builtins'’ or ‘'__main__'’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111696(28).) * Add the *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 370. function to get the type’s module name. This is equivalent to getting the *note type.__module__: 36f. attribute. (Contributed by Eric Snow and Victor Stinner in gh-111696(29).) * Add the *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 371. and *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 372. functions to compare a Unicode object with a const char* UTF-8 encoded string and ‘1’ if they are equal or ‘0’ otherwise. These functions do not raise exceptions. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110289(30).) * Add the *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. function as an alternative to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. that returns a *note strong reference: 338. or ‘NULL’ if the referent is no longer live. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(31).) * Add fixed variants of functions which silently ignore errors: * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 375. replaces *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 376. * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 377. replaces *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 378. * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 379. replaces *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 37a. * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 37b. replaces *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37c. The new functions return ‘-1’ for errors and the standard ‘1’ for true and ‘0’ for false. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-108511(32).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111997 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108724 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110850 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108314 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106004 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112066 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111262 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106307 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106521 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108082 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74929 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115754 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105922 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114329 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111138 (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108014 (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111140 (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493 (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113024 (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111545 (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/ (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/107073 (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93502 (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283 (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108867 (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696 (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696 (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110289 (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927 (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108511  File: python.info, Node: Changed C APIs, Next: Limited C API Changes, Prev: New Features<2>, Up: C API Changes 1.1.10.2 Changed C APIs ....................... * The 'keywords' parameter of *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. and *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37f. now has type char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**. In C++, this makes these functions compatible with arguments of type const char *const*, const char**, or char *const* without an explicit type cast. In C, the functions only support arguments of type char *const*. This can be overridden with the *note PY_CXX_CONST: 380. macro. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-65210(1).) * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. now supports non-ASCII keyword parameter names. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-110815(2).) * The ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree()’ function is now unstable API and is now named *note PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree(): 381. (Contributed by Bogdan Romanyuk in gh-115781(3).) * The *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382, *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 383, *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 37a, *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37c, *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 376, *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 378, and *note PySys_GetObject(): 384. functions, each of which clears all errors which occurred when calling them now reports these errors using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. You may replace them with other functions as recommended in the documentation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-106672(4).) * Add support for the ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and ‘%#N’ formats to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385.: * ‘%T’: Get the fully qualified name of an object type * ‘%#T’: As above, but use a colon as the separator * ‘%N’: Get the fully qualified name of a type * ‘%#N’: As above, but use a colon as the separator See PEP 737(5) for more information. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-111696(6).) * You no longer have to define the ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro before including ‘Python.h’ when using ‘#’ formats in *note format codes: 386. APIs accepting the format codes always use ‘Py_ssize_t’ for ‘#’ formats. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-104922(7).) * If Python is built in *note debug mode: 1fb. or *note with assertions: 387, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 388. and *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 389. now check the index argument with an assertion. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106168(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65210 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110815 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115781 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106672 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0737/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111696 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104922 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106168  File: python.info, Node: Limited C API Changes, Next: Removed C APIs, Prev: Changed C APIs, Up: C API Changes 1.1.10.3 Limited C API Changes .............................. * The following functions are now included in the Limited C API: * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c. * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38e. * *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 369. * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38f. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(1), gh-85283(2), and gh-116936(3).) * Python built with *note -with-trace-refs: 390. (tracing references) now supports the *note Limited API: 391. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108634(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116936 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634  File: python.info, Node: Removed C APIs, Next: Deprecated C APIs, Prev: Limited C API Changes, Up: C API Changes 1.1.10.4 Removed C APIs ....................... * Remove several functions, macros, variables, etc with names prefixed by ‘_Py’ or ‘_PY’ (which are considered private). If your project is affected by one of these removals and you believe that the removed API should remain available, please *note open a new issue: 250. to request a public C API and add ‘cc: @vstinner’ to the issue to notify Victor Stinner. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320(1).) * Remove old buffer protocols deprecated in Python 3.0. Use *note Buffer Protocol: 393. instead. * ‘PyObject_CheckReadBuffer()’: Use *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 394. to test whether the object supports the buffer protocol. Note that *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 394. doesn’t guarantee that *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. will succeed. To test if the object is actually readable, see the next example of *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. * ‘PyObject_AsCharBuffer()’, ‘PyObject_AsReadBuffer()’: Use *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. instead: Py_buffer view; if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_SIMPLE) < 0) { return NULL; } // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to read from the buffer. // You may need to cast buf as `(const char*)view.buf`. PyBuffer_Release(&view); * ‘PyObject_AsWriteBuffer()’: Use *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. instead: Py_buffer view; if (PyObject_GetBuffer(obj, &view, PyBUF_WRITABLE) < 0) { return NULL; } // Use `view.buf` and `view.len` to write to the buffer. PyBuffer_Release(&view); (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-85275(2).) * Remove various functions deprecated in Python 3.9: * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’, ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords()’: Use *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 397. or *note PyObject_Call(): 398. instead. Warning: In *note PyObject_Call(): 398, positional arguments must be a *note tuple: 36b. and must not be ‘NULL’, and keyword arguments must be a *note dict: 258. or ‘NULL’, whereas the removed functions checked argument types and accepted ‘NULL’ positional and keyword arguments. To replace ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords(func, NULL, kwargs)’ with *note PyObject_Call(): 398, pass an empty tuple as positional arguments using *note PyTuple_New(0): 399. * ‘PyEval_CallFunction()’: Use *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 39a. instead. * ‘PyEval_CallMethod()’: Use *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b. instead. * ‘PyCFunction_Call()’: Use *note PyObject_Call(): 398. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105107(3).) * Remove the following old functions to configure the Python initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11: * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’: Use *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 39c. instead. * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 39c. instead. * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 39d. instead. * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’: Use *note PyConfig.xoptions: 39d. instead. * ‘PySys_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39e. instead. * ‘Py_SetPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39e. instead. * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’: Set *note PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 39f. instead, and set also maybe *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. (on Windows). * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’: Set *note PyConfig.executable: 3a1. instead. Use the new *note PyConfig: 3a2. API of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. instead ( PEP 587(4)), added to Python 3.8. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(5).) * Remove ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ functions, deprecated in Python 3.2. They didn’t update the current thread state. They can be replaced with: * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5.; * low-level *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a6. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5.; * or *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(6).) * Remove the ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.9. Since Python 3.7, ‘Py_Initialize()’ always creates the GIL: calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ does nothing and ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ always returns non-zero. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105182(7).) * Remove the ‘_PyInterpreterState_Get()’ alias to *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a9. which was kept for backward compatibility with Python 3.8. The pythoncapi-compat project(8) can be used to get *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a9. on Python 3.8 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106320(9).) * Remove the private ‘_PyObject_FastCall()’ function: use ‘PyObject_Vectorcall()’ which is available since Python 3.8 ( PEP 590(10)). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106023(11).) * Remove the ‘cpython/pytime.h’ header file, which only contained private functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-106316(12).) * Remove the undocumented ‘PY_TIMEOUT_MAX’ constant from the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-110014(13).) * Remove the old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’. Replace both with the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111(14).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85275 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105107 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/ (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105182 (8) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/ (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106320 (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/ (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106023 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106316 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110014 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated C APIs, Prev: Removed C APIs, Up: C API Changes 1.1.10.5 Deprecated C APIs .......................... * Deprecate old Python initialization functions: * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3ab.: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead. * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. instead. * *note Py_GetPath(): 3af.: Get *note sys.path: 3b0. instead. * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.prefix: 3b2. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105145(1).) * *note Soft deprecate: 20b. the *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 34c, *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 34e, and *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 350. functions, which return a *note borrowed reference: 339. (Soft deprecated as part of PEP 667(2).) * Deprecate the *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9. function, which is just an alias to *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. since Python 3.3. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105396(3).) * *note Soft deprecate: 20b. the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361. function. It should be replaced with *note PyModule_Add(): 35f. or *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-86493(4).) * Deprecate the old ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ types and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ define. Use the ‘wchar_t’ type directly instead. Since Python 3.3, ‘Py_UNICODE’ and ‘PY_UNICODE_TYPE’ are just aliases to ‘wchar_t’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105156(5).) * Deprecate the *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3bb. functions, which return a *note borrowed reference: 339. Replace them with the new *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. function, which returns a *note strong reference: 338. The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to get *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. on Python 3.12 and older. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105927(7).) * Menu: * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105145 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105396 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86493 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105156 (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/ (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105927  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>, Up: Deprecated C APIs 1.1.10.6 Pending Removal in Python 3.14 ....................................... * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bd. for extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)). * Creating *note immutable types: 3be. with mutable bases (gh-95388(3)). * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11: * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. instead. * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. instead. * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. instead. * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. instead. The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. * Global configuration variables: * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c2.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug: 3c3. instead. * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c4.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c5. instead. * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c6.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c7. instead. * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c8.: Use *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c9. instead. * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3ca.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. instead. * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3cc.: Use *note PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cd. instead. * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3ce.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import: 3cf. instead. * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0.: Use *note PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3d1. instead. * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d2.: Use *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. instead. * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d4.: Use *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. instead. * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d6.: Use *note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d7. instead. * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d8.: Use *note PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d9. instead. * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3da.: Use *note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3db. instead. * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3dc.: Use *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3dd. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed: 3de. instead. * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3df.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. instead. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3e1.: Use *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. instead. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e3.: Use *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. instead. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. instead. * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. instead. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e5. instead. * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. instead. (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7.) The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>, Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>, Up: Deprecated C APIs 1.1.10.7 Pending Removal in Python 3.15 ....................................... * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9.: Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. instead. * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3bb.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. instead. * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use ‘wchar_t’ instead. * Python initialization functions: * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3ab.: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead. * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3ea. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. instead. * *note Py_GetPath(): 3af.: Get *note sys.path: 3b0. instead. * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb. and *note sys.prefix: 3b2. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable instead.  File: python.info, Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>, Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>, Up: Deprecated C APIs 1.1.10.8 Pending removal in Python 3.16 ....................................... * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>, Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>, Up: Deprecated C APIs 1.1.10.9 Pending Removal in Future Versions ........................................... The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal. * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ee.: Unneeded since Python 3.8. * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3f1.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. instead. * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f4.: Use *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f5. instead. * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f6.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. instead. * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f8.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. instead. * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fd.: Unneeded since Python 3.12 * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fe. instead. * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’ instead. * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff. instead. * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member. * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: * *note PyThread_create_key(): 400.: Use *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 401. instead. * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 402.: Use *note PyThread_tss_free(): 403. instead. * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 404.: Use *note PyThread_tss_set(): 405. instead. * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 406.: Use *note PyThread_tss_get(): 407. instead. * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 408.: Use *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 409. instead. * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 40a.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.  File: python.info, Node: Build Changes, Next: Porting to Python 3 13, Prev: C API Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.11 Build Changes -------------------- * ‘arm64-apple-ios’ and ‘arm64-apple-ios-simulator’ are both now PEP 11(1) tier 3 platforms. (*note PEP 730: 165. written and implementation contributed by Russell Keith-Magee in gh-114099(2).) * ‘aarch64-linux-android’ and ‘x86_64-linux-android’ are both now PEP 11(3) tier 3 platforms. (*note PEP 738: 165. written and implementation contributed by Malcolm Smith in gh-116622(4).) * ‘wasm32-wasi’ is now a PEP 11(5) tier 2 platform. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192(6).) * ‘wasm32-emscripten’ is no longer a PEP 11(7) supported platform. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-115192(8).) * Building CPython now requires a compiler with support for the C11 atomic library, GCC built-in atomic functions, or MSVC interlocked intrinsics. * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.5 are now required to regenerate the ‘configure’ script. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(9) and by Victor Stinner in gh-112090(10).) * SQLite 3.15.2 or newer is required to build the *note sqlite3: cf. extension module. (Contributed by Erlend Aasland in gh-105875(11).) * CPython now bundles the mimalloc library(12) by default. It is licensed under the MIT license; see *note mimalloc license: 40d. The bundled mimalloc has custom changes, see gh-113141(13) for details. (Contributed by Dino Viehland in gh-109914(14).) * The ‘configure’ option *note -with-system-libmpdec: 40e. now defaults to ‘yes’. The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’ will be removed in Python 3.16. * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-trace-refs: 390. (tracing references) is now ABI compatible with the Python release build and *note debug build: 1fb. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108634(15).) * On POSIX systems, the pkg-config (‘.pc’) filenames now include the ABI flags. For example, the free-threaded build generates ‘python-3.13t.pc’ and the debug build generates ‘python-3.13d.pc’. * The ‘errno’, ‘fcntl’, ‘grp’, ‘md5’, ‘pwd’, ‘resource’, ‘termios’, ‘winsound’, ‘_ctypes_test’, ‘_multiprocessing.posixshmem’, ‘_scproxy’, ‘_stat’, ‘_statistics’, ‘_testconsole’, ‘_testimportmultiple’ and ‘_uuid’ C extensions are now built with the *note limited C API: 391. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(16).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/114099 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/116622 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192 (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115192 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112090 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105875 (12) https://github.com/microsoft/mimalloc/ (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/113141 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109914 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108634 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 13, Next: Regression Test Changes, Prev: Build Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.12 Porting to Python 3.13 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in the Python API:: * Changes in the C API::  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API, Next: Changes in the C API, Up: Porting to Python 3 13 1.1.12.1 Changes in the Python API .................................. * *note PEP 667: 142. introduces several changes to the semantics of *note locals(): 141. and *note f_locals: 182.: * Calling *note locals(): 141. in an *note optimized scope: 17e. now produces an independent snapshot on each call, and hence no longer implicitly updates previously returned references. Obtaining the legacy CPython behavior now requires explicit calls to update the initially returned dictionary with the results of subsequent calls to ‘locals()’. Code execution functions that implicitly target ‘locals()’ (such as ‘exec’ and ‘eval’) must be passed an explicit namespace to access their results in an optimized scope. (Changed as part of PEP 667(1).) * Calling *note locals(): 141. from a comprehension at module or class scope (including via ‘exec’ or ‘eval’) once more behaves as if the comprehension were running as an independent nested function (i.e. the local variables from the containing scope are not included). In Python 3.12, this had changed to include the local variables from the containing scope when implementing PEP 709(2). (Changed as part of PEP 667(3).) * Accessing *note FrameType.f_locals: 182. in an *note optimized scope: 17e. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times. If a snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly with ‘dict’ or the proxy’s ‘.copy()’ method. (Changed as part of PEP 667(4).) * *note functools.partial: 410. now emits a *note FutureWarning: 411. when used as a method. The behavior will change in future Python versions. Wrap it in *note staticmethod(): 412. if you want to preserve the old behavior. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-121027(5).) * An *note OSError: 413. is now raised by *note getpass.getuser(): 414. for any failure to retrieve a username, instead of *note ImportError: 415. on non-Unix platforms or *note KeyError: 33f. on Unix platforms where the password database is empty. * The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of *note gzip.GzipFile: 416. is now a string (‘'rb'’ or ‘'wb'’) instead of an integer (‘1’ or ‘2’). The value of the ‘mode’ attribute of the readable file-like object returned by *note zipfile.ZipFile.open(): 417. is now ‘'rb'’ instead of ‘'r'’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-115961(6).) * *note mailbox.Maildir: 418. now ignores files with a leading dot (‘.’). (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in gh-65559(7).) * *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22f. and *note rglob(): 230. now return both files and directories if a pattern that ends with “‘**’” is given, rather than directories only. Add a trailing slash to keep the previous behavior and only match directories. * The *note threading: ed. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to have an ‘_is_main_interpreter()’ function. This function takes no arguments and returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the main interpreter. Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module must provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’, just like the module’s other “private” attributes. (gh-112826(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/121027 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/115961 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65559 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API, Prev: Changes in the Python API, Up: Porting to Python 3 13 1.1.12.2 Changes in the C API ............................. * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘’ standard header. It was included for the ‘finite()’ function which is now provided by the ‘’ header. It should now be included explicitly if needed. Remove also the ‘HAVE_IEEEFP_H’ macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765(1).) * ‘Python.h’ no longer includes these standard header files: ‘’, ‘’ and ‘’. If needed, they should now be included explicitly. For example, ‘’ provides the ‘clock()’ and ‘gmtime()’ functions, ‘’ provides the ‘select()’ function, and ‘’ provides the ‘futimes()’, ‘gettimeofday()’ and ‘setitimer()’ functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765(2).) * On Windows, ‘Python.h’ no longer includes the ‘’ standard header file. If needed, it should now be included explicitly. For example, it provides ‘offsetof()’ function, and ‘size_t’ and ‘ptrdiff_t’ types. Including ‘’ explicitly was already needed by all other platforms, the ‘HAVE_STDDEF_H’ macro is only defined on Windows. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-108765(3).) * If the *note Py_LIMITED_API: 41a. macro is defined, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’, ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_BUILTIN’ and ‘Py_BUILD_CORE_MODULE’ macros are now undefined by ‘’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85283(4).) * The old trashcan macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’ were removed. They should be replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’. A ‘tp_dealloc’ function that has the old macros, such as: static void mytype_dealloc(mytype *p) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p); Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p); ... Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END } should migrate to the new macros as follows: static void mytype_dealloc(mytype *p) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p); Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc) ... Py_TRASHCAN_END } Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be the deallocation function it is in. The new macros were added in Python 3.8 and the old macros were deprecated in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-105111(5).) * *note PEP 667: 142. introduces several changes to frame-related functions: * The effects of mutating the dictionary returned from *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 350. in an *note optimized scope: 17e. have changed. New dict entries added this way will now 'only' be visible to subsequent *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 350. calls in that frame, as *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b, *note locals(): 141, and *note FrameType.f_locals: 182. no longer access the same underlying cached dictionary. Changes made to entries for actual variable names and names added via the write-through proxy interfaces will be overwritten on subsequent calls to *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 350. in that frame. The recommended code update depends on how the function was being used, so refer to the deprecation notice on the function for details. * Calling *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. in an *note optimized scope: 17e. now returns a write-through proxy rather than a snapshot that gets updated at ill-specified times. If a snapshot is desired, it must be created explicitly (e.g. with *note PyDict_Copy(): 41c.), or by calling the new *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34f. API. * ‘PyFrame_FastToLocals()’ and ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ no longer have any effect. Calling these functions has been redundant since Python 3.11, when *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. was first introduced. * ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’ no longer has any effect. Calling this function is redundant now that *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. returns a write-through proxy for *note optimized scopes: 17e. * Python 3.13 removed many private functions. Some of them can be replaced using these alternatives: * ‘_PyDict_Pop()’: *note PyDict_Pop(): 33c. or *note PyDict_PopString(): 33d.; * ‘_PyDict_GetItemWithError()’: *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 335.; * ‘_PyErr_WriteUnraisableMsg()’: *note PyErr_FormatUnraisable(): 349.; * ‘_PyEval_SetTrace()’: *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d. or *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41e.; * ‘_PyList_Extend()’: *note PyList_Extend(): 358.; * ‘_PyLong_AsInt()’: *note PyLong_AsInt(): 35a.; * ‘_PyMem_RawStrdup()’: ‘strdup()’; * ‘_PyMem_Strdup()’: ‘strdup()’; * ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’: *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 365.; * ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’: *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 364.; * ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’: *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36c.; * ‘_PyTime_AsSecondsDouble()’: *note PyTime_AsSecondsDouble(): 32b.; * ‘_PyTime_GetMonotonicClock()’: *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 32c. or *note PyTime_MonotonicRaw(): 32d.; * ‘_PyTime_GetPerfCounter()’: *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32e. or *note PyTime_PerfCounterRaw(): 32f.; * ‘_PyTime_GetSystemClock()’: *note PyTime_Time(): 330. or *note PyTime_TimeRaw(): 331.; * ‘_PyTime_MAX’: *note PyTime_MAX: 32a.; * ‘_PyTime_MIN’: *note PyTime_MIN: 329.; * ‘_PyTime_t’: *note PyTime_t: 328.; * ‘_Py_HashPointer()’: *note Py_HashPointer(): 363.; * ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’: *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 355. The pythoncapi-compat project(6) can be used to get most of these new functions on Python 3.12 and older. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/108765 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85283 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105111 (6) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat/  File: python.info, Node: Regression Test Changes, Next: Notable changes in 3 13 1, Prev: Porting to Python 3 13, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.13 Regression Test Changes ------------------------------ * Python built with ‘configure’ *note -with-pydebug: 420. now supports a *note -X presite=package.module: 176. command-line option. If used, it specifies a module that should be imported early in the lifecycle of the interpreter, before ‘site.py’ is executed. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in gh-110769(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/110769  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 13 1, Next: Notable changes in 3 13 4, Prev: Regression Test Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.14 Notable changes in 3.13.1 -------------------------------- * Menu: * sys: sys<2>.  File: python.info, Node: sys<2>, Up: Notable changes in 3 13 1 1.1.14.1 sys ............ * The previously undocumented special function *note sys.getobjects(): 423, which only exists in specialized builds of Python, may now return objects from other interpreters than the one it’s called in.  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 13 4, Prev: Notable changes in 3 13 1, Up: What’s New In Python 3 13 1.1.15 Notable changes in 3.13.4 -------------------------------- * Menu: * os.path: os path<2>. * tarfile::  File: python.info, Node: os path<2>, Next: tarfile, Up: Notable changes in 3 13 4 1.1.15.1 os.path ................ * The 'strict' parameter to *note os.path.realpath(): 227. accepts a new value, *note os.path.ALLOW_MISSING: 426. If used, errors other than *note FileNotFoundError: 427. will be re-raised; the resulting path can be missing but it will be free of symlinks. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4517(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517  File: python.info, Node: tarfile, Prev: os path<2>, Up: Notable changes in 3 13 4 1.1.15.2 tarfile ................ * *note data_filter(): 429. now normalizes symbolic link targets in order to avoid path traversal attacks.Add commentMore actions (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(1) and CVE 2025-4138(2).) * *note extractall(): 42a. now skips fixing up directory attributes when a directory was removed or replaced by another kind of file. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-127987(3) and CVE 2024-12718(4).) * *note extract(): 42b. and *note extractall(): 42a. now (re-)apply the extraction filter when substituting a link (hard or symbolic) with a copy of another archive member, and when fixing up directory attributes. The former raises a new exception, *note LinkFallbackError: 42c. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin for CVE 2025-4330(5) and CVE 2024-12718(6).) * *note extract(): 42b. and *note extractall(): 42a. no longer extract rejected members when *note errorlevel(): 42d. is zero. (Contributed by Matt Prodani and Petr Viktorin in gh-112887(7) and CVE 2025-4435(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987 (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127987 (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718 (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330 (6) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112887 (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4435  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 12, Next: What’s New In Python 3 11, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 13, Up: What’s New in Python 1.2 What’s New In Python 3.12 ============================= Editor: Adam Turner This article explains the new features in Python 3.12, compared to 3.11. Python 3.12 was released on October 2, 2023. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. See also ........ PEP 693(1) – Python 3.12 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights:: * New Features: New Features<3>. * New Features Related to Type Hints:: * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<2>. * New Modules: New Modules<2>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<2>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<2>. * CPython bytecode changes:: * Demos and Tools:: * Deprecated:: * Removed:: * Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12. * Build Changes: Build Changes<2>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0693/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights, Next: New Features<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.1 Summary – Release highlights ---------------------------------- Python 3.12 is a stable release of the Python programming language, with a mix of changes to the language and the standard library. The library changes focus on cleaning up deprecated APIs, usability, and correctness. Of note, the ‘distutils’ package has been removed from the standard library. Filesystem support in *note os: a1. and *note pathlib: a4. has seen a number of improvements, and several modules have better performance. The language changes focus on usability, as *note f-strings: 431. have had many limitations removed and ‘Did you mean …’ suggestions continue to improve. The new *note type parameter syntax: 432. and *note type: 433. statement improve ergonomics for using *note generic types: 434. and *note type aliases: 435. with static type checkers. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead gives a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation, such as the *note Library Reference: 144. and *note Language Reference: 145. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented. __________________________________________________________________ New syntax features: * *note PEP 695: 432, type parameter syntax and the *note type: 433. statement New grammar features: * *note PEP 701: 436, *note f-strings: 431. in the grammar Interpreter improvements: * *note PEP 684: 437, a unique per-interpreter *note GIL: 148. * *note PEP 669: 438, low impact monitoring * *note Improved 'Did you mean ...' suggestions: 439.for *note NameError: 43a, *note ImportError: 415, and *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions Python data model improvements: * *note PEP 688: 43b, using the *note buffer protocol: 393. from Python Significant improvements in the standard library: * The *note pathlib.Path: 22b. class now supports subclassing * The *note os: a1. module received several improvements for Windows support * A *note command-line interface: 43c. has been added to the *note sqlite3: cf. module * *note isinstance(): 43d. checks against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43e. enjoy a speed up of between two and 20 times * The *note asyncio: a. package has had a number of performance improvements, with some benchmarks showing a 75% speed up. * A *note command-line interface: 43f. has been added to the *note uuid: 110. module * Due to the changes in *note PEP 701: 436, producing tokens via the *note tokenize: fb. module is up to 64% faster. Security improvements: * Replace the builtin *note hashlib: 68. implementations of SHA1, SHA3, SHA2-384, SHA2-512, and MD5 with formally verified code from the HACL*(1) project. These builtin implementations remain as fallbacks that are only used when OpenSSL does not provide them. C API improvements: * *note PEP 697: 440, unstable C API tier * *note PEP 683: 441, immortal objects CPython implementation improvements: * *note PEP 709: 442, comprehension inlining * *note CPython support: 18f. for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler * Implement stack overflow protection on supported platforms New typing features: * *note PEP 692: 443, using *note TypedDict: 162. to annotate *note **kwargs: 444. * *note PEP 698: 445, *note typing.override(): 446. decorator Important deprecations, removals or restrictions: * PEP 623(2): Remove ‘wstr’ from Unicode objects in Python’s C API, reducing the size of every *note str: 447. object by at least 8 bytes. * PEP 632(3): Remove the ‘distutils’ package. See the migration guide(4) for advice replacing the APIs it provided. The third-party Setuptools(5) package continues to provide ‘distutils’, if you still require it in Python 3.12 and beyond. * gh-95299(6): Do not pre-install ‘setuptools’ in virtual environments created with *note venv: 111. This means that ‘distutils’, ‘setuptools’, ‘pkg_resources’, and ‘easy_install’ will no longer available by default; to access these run ‘pip install setuptools’ in the *note activated: 448. virtual environment. * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’, and ‘imp’ modules have been removed, along with several *note unittest.TestCase: 449. *note method aliases: 44a.. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/hacl-star/hacl-star/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice (5) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/deprecated/distutils-legacy.html (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299  File: python.info, Node: New Features<3>, Next: New Features Related to Type Hints, Prev: Summary – Release highlights, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * PEP 695; Type Parameter Syntax: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax. * PEP 701; Syntactic formalization of f-strings: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings. * PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL. * PEP 669; Low impact monitoring for CPython: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython. * PEP 688; Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python. * PEP 709; Comprehension inlining: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining. * Improved Error Messages::  File: python.info, Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax, Next: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.1 PEP 695: Type Parameter Syntax ...................................... Generic classes and functions under PEP 484(1) were declared using a verbose syntax that left the scope of type parameters unclear and required explicit declarations of variance. PEP 695(2) introduces a new, more compact and explicit way to create *note generic classes: 44d. and *note functions: 44e.: def max[T](args: Iterable[T]) -> T: ... class list[T]: def __getitem__(self, index: int, /) -> T: ... def append(self, element: T) -> None: ... In addition, the PEP introduces a new way to declare *note type aliases: 44f. using the *note type: 433. statement, which creates an instance of *note TypeAliasType: 450.: type Point = tuple[float, float] Type aliases can also be *note generic: 451.: type Point[T] = tuple[T, T] The new syntax allows declaring *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. and *note ParamSpec: 15e. parameters, as well as *note TypeVar: 15d. parameters with bounds or constraints: type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int] # ParamSpec type LabeledTuple[*Ts] = tuple[str, *Ts] # TypeVarTuple type HashableSequence[T: Hashable] = Sequence[T] # TypeVar with bound type IntOrStrSequence[T: (int, str)] = Sequence[T] # TypeVar with constraints The value of type aliases and the bound and constraints of type variables created through this syntax are evaluated only on demand (see *note lazy evaluation: 452.). This means type aliases are able to refer to other types defined later in the file. Type parameters declared through a type parameter list are visible within the scope of the declaration and any nested scopes, but not in the outer scope. For example, they can be used in the type annotations for the methods of a generic class or in the class body. However, they cannot be used in the module scope after the class is defined. See *note Type parameter lists: 2b5. for a detailed description of the runtime semantics of type parameters. In order to support these scoping semantics, a new kind of scope is introduced, the *note annotation scope: 188. Annotation scopes behave for the most part like function scopes, but interact differently with enclosing class scopes. In Python 3.13, *note annotations: 453. will also be evaluated in annotation scopes. See PEP 695(3) for more details. (PEP written by Eric Traut. Implementation by Jelle Zijlstra, Eric Traut, and others in gh-103764(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764  File: python.info, Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings, Next: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL, Prev: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.2 PEP 701: Syntactic formalization of f-strings ..................................................... PEP 701(1) lifts some restrictions on the usage of *note f-strings: 431. Expression components inside f-strings can now be any valid Python expression, including strings reusing the same quote as the containing f-string, multi-line expressions, comments, backslashes, and unicode escape sequences. Let’s cover these in detail: * Quote reuse: in Python 3.11, reusing the same quotes as the enclosing f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 18d, forcing the user to either use other available quotes (like using double quotes or triple quotes if the f-string uses single quotes). In Python 3.12, you can now do things like this: >>> songs = ['Take me back to Eden', 'Alkaline', 'Ascensionism'] >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join(songs)}" 'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism' Note that before this change there was no explicit limit in how f-strings can be nested, but the fact that string quotes cannot be reused inside the expression component of f-strings made it impossible to nest f-strings arbitrarily. In fact, this is the most nested f-string that could be written: >>> f"""{f'''{f'{f"{1+1}"}'}'''}""" '2' As now f-strings can contain any valid Python expression inside expression components, it is now possible to nest f-strings arbitrarily: >>> f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{f"{1+1}"}"}"}"}"}" '2' * Multi-line expressions and comments: In Python 3.11, f-string expressions must be defined in a single line, even if the expression within the f-string could normally span multiple lines (like literal lists being defined over multiple lines), making them harder to read. In Python 3.12 you can now define f-strings spanning multiple lines, and add inline comments: >>> f"This is the playlist: {", ".join([ ... 'Take me back to Eden', # My, my, those eyes like fire ... 'Alkaline', # Not acid nor alkaline ... 'Ascensionism' # Take to the broken skies at last ... ])}" 'This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden, Alkaline, Ascensionism' * Backslashes and unicode characters: before Python 3.12 f-string expressions couldn’t contain any ‘\’ character. This also affected unicode *note escape sequences: 455. (such as ‘\N{snowman}’) as these contain the ‘\N’ part that previously could not be part of expression components of f-strings. Now, you can define expressions like this: >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\n".join(songs)}") This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden Alkaline Ascensionism >>> print(f"This is the playlist: {"\N{BLACK HEART SUIT}".join(songs)}") This is the playlist: Take me back to Eden♥Alkaline♥Ascensionism See PEP 701(2) for more details. As a positive side-effect of how this feature has been implemented (by parsing f-strings with the PEG parser(3)), now error messages for f-strings are more precise and include the exact location of the error. For example, in Python 3.11, the following f-string raises a *note SyntaxError: 18d.: >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}" File "", line 1 (x z y) ^^^ SyntaxError: f-string: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma? but the error message doesn’t include the exact location of the error within the line and also has the expression artificially surrounded by parentheses. In Python 3.12, as f-strings are parsed with the PEG parser, error messages can be more precise and show the entire line: >>> my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}" File "", line 1 my_string = f"{x z y}" + f"{1 + 1}" ^^^ SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou, Cristián Maureira-Fredes and Marta Gómez in gh-102856(4). PEP written by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya, Lysandros Nikolaou and Marta Gómez). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/ (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856  File: python.info, Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL, Next: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython, Prev: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.3 PEP 684: A Per-Interpreter GIL ...................................... PEP 684(1) introduces a per-interpreter *note GIL: 148, so that sub-interpreters may now be created with a unique GIL per interpreter. This allows Python programs to take full advantage of multiple CPU cores. This is currently only available through the C-API, though a Python API is anticipated for 3.13(2). Use the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 457. function to create an interpreter with its own GIL: PyInterpreterConfig config = { .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1, .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL, }; PyThreadState *tstate = NULL; PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { return -1; } /* The new interpreter is now active in the current thread. */ For further examples how to use the C-API for sub-interpreters with a per-interpreter GIL, see ‘Modules/_xxsubinterpretersmodule.c’. (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104210(3), etc.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104210  File: python.info, Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython, Next: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python, Prev: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.4 PEP 669: Low impact monitoring for CPython .................................................. PEP 669(1) defines a new *note API: da. for profilers, debuggers, and other tools to monitor events in CPython. It covers a wide range of events, including calls, returns, lines, exceptions, jumps, and more. This means that you only pay for what you use, providing support for near-zero overhead debuggers and coverage tools. See *note sys.monitoring: da. for details. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0669/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082  File: python.info, Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python, Next: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining, Prev: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.5 PEP 688: Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python ................................................................ PEP 688(1) introduces a way to use the *note buffer protocol: 393. from Python code. Classes that implement the *note __buffer__(): 45a. method are now usable as buffer types. The new *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6. ABC provides a standard way to represent buffer objects, for example in type annotations. The new *note inspect.BufferFlags: 45b. enum represents the flags that can be used to customize buffer creation. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-102500(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0688/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102500  File: python.info, Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining, Next: Improved Error Messages, Prev: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.6 PEP 709: Comprehension inlining ....................................... Dictionary, list, and set comprehensions are now inlined, rather than creating a new single-use function object for each execution of the comprehension. This speeds up execution of a comprehension by up to two times. See PEP 709(1) for further details. Comprehension iteration variables remain isolated and don’t overwrite a variable of the same name in the outer scope, nor are they visible after the comprehension. Inlining does result in a few visible behavior changes: * There is no longer a separate frame for the comprehension in tracebacks, and tracing/profiling no longer shows the comprehension as a function call. * The *note symtable: d8. module will no longer produce child symbol tables for each comprehension; instead, the comprehension’s locals will be included in the parent function’s symbol table. * Calling *note locals(): 141. inside a comprehension now includes variables from outside the comprehension, and no longer includes the synthetic ‘.0’ variable for the comprehension “argument”. * A comprehension iterating directly over ‘locals()’ (e.g. ‘[k for k in locals()]’) may see “RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration” when run under tracing (e.g. code coverage measurement). This is the same behavior already seen in e.g. ‘for k in locals():’. To avoid the error, first create a list of keys to iterate over: ‘keys = list(locals()); [k for k in keys]’. (Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in PEP 709(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/  File: python.info, Node: Improved Error Messages, Prev: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining, Up: New Features<3> 1.2.2.7 Improved Error Messages ............................... * Modules from the standard library are now potentially suggested as part of the error messages displayed by the interpreter when a *note NameError: 43a. is raised to the top level. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-98254(1).) >>> sys.version_info Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in NameError: name 'sys' is not defined. Did you forget to import 'sys'? * Improve the error suggestion for *note NameError: 43a. exceptions for instances. Now if a *note NameError: 43a. is raised in a method and the instance has an attribute that’s exactly equal to the name in the exception, the suggestion will include ‘self.’ instead of the closest match in the method scope. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-99139(2).) >>> class A: ... def __init__(self): ... self.blech = 1 ... ... def foo(self): ... somethin = blech ... >>> A().foo() Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1 somethin = blech ^^^^^ NameError: name 'blech' is not defined. Did you mean: 'self.blech'? * Improve the *note SyntaxError: 18d. error message when the user types ‘import x from y’ instead of ‘from y import x’. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-98931(3).) >>> import a.y.z from b.y.z Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1 import a.y.z from b.y.z ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ SyntaxError: Did you mean to use 'from ... import ...' instead? * *note ImportError: 415. exceptions raised from failed ‘from import ’ statements now include suggestions for the value of ‘’ based on the available names in ‘’. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-91058(4).) >>> from collections import chainmap Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ImportError: cannot import name 'chainmap' from 'collections'. Did you mean: 'ChainMap'? ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98254 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99139 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98931 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91058  File: python.info, Node: New Features Related to Type Hints, Next: Other Language Changes<2>, Prev: New Features<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.3 New Features Related to Type Hints ---------------------------------------- This section covers major changes affecting type hints(1) and the *note typing: 104. module. * Menu: * PEP 692; Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing. * PEP 698; Override Decorator for Static Typing: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing, Next: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints 1.2.3.1 PEP 692: Using ‘TypedDict’ for more precise ‘**kwargs’ typing ..................................................................... Typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature as introduced by PEP 484(1) allowed for valid annotations only in cases where all of the ‘**kwargs’ were of the same type. PEP 692(2) specifies a more precise way of typing ‘**kwargs’ by relying on typed dictionaries: from typing import TypedDict, Unpack class Movie(TypedDict): name: str year: int def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ... See PEP 692(3) for more details. (Contributed by Franek Magiera in gh-103629(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/ (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103629  File: python.info, Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing, Prev: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints 1.2.3.2 PEP 698: Override Decorator for Static Typing ..................................................... A new decorator *note typing.override(): 446. has been added to the *note typing: 104. module. It indicates to type checkers that the method is intended to override a method in a superclass. This allows type checkers to catch mistakes where a method that is intended to override something in a base class does not in fact do so. Example: from typing import override class Base: def get_color(self) -> str: return "blue" class GoodChild(Base): @override # ok: overrides Base.get_color def get_color(self) -> str: return "yellow" class BadChild(Base): @override # type checker error: does not override Base.get_color def get_colour(self) -> str: return "red" See PEP 698(1) for more details. (Contributed by Steven Troxler in gh-101561(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101561  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<2>, Next: New Modules<2>, Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.4 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * The parser now raises *note SyntaxError: 18d. when parsing source code containing null bytes. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(1).) * A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates a *note SyntaxWarning: 461, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. For example, ‘re.compile("\d+\.\d+")’ now emits a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. (‘"\d"’ is an invalid escape sequence, use raw strings for regular expression: ‘re.compile(r"\d+\.\d+")’). In a future Python version, *note SyntaxError: 18d. will eventually be raised, instead of *note SyntaxWarning: 461. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(2).) * Octal escapes with value larger than ‘0o377’ (ex: ‘"\477"’), deprecated in Python 3.11, now produce a *note SyntaxWarning: 461, instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. In a future Python version they will be eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18d. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98401(3).) * Variables used in the target part of comprehensions that are not stored to can now be used in assignment expressions (‘:=’). For example, in ‘[(b := 1) for a, b.prop in some_iter]’, the assignment to ‘b’ is now allowed. Note that assigning to variables stored to in the target part of comprehensions (like ‘a’) is still disallowed, as per PEP 572(4). (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-100581(5).) * Exceptions raised in a class or type’s ‘__set_name__’ method are no longer wrapped by a *note RuntimeError: 195. Context information is added to the exception as a PEP 678(6) note. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-77757(7).) * When a ‘try-except*’ construct handles the entire *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. and raises one other exception, that exception is no longer wrapped in an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. Also changed in version 3.11.4. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103590(8).) * The Garbage Collector now runs only on the eval breaker mechanism of the Python bytecode evaluation loop instead of object allocations. The GC can also run when *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 462. is called so C extensions that need to run for a long time without executing any Python code also have a chance to execute the GC periodically. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-97922(9).) * All builtin and extension callables expecting boolean parameters now accept arguments of any type instead of just *note bool: 463. and *note int: 259. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-60203(10).) * *note memoryview: 464. now supports the half-float type (the “e” format code). (Contributed by Donghee Na and Antoine Pitrou in gh-90751(11).) * *note slice: 465. objects are now hashable, allowing them to be used as dict keys and set items. (Contributed by Will Bradshaw, Furkan Onder, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-101264(12).) * *note sum(): 466. now uses Neumaier summation to improve accuracy and commutativity when summing floats or mixed ints and floats. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100425(13).) * *note ast.parse(): 1a8. now raises *note SyntaxError: 18d. instead of *note ValueError: 204. when parsing source code containing null bytes. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-96670(14).) * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 467, have a new a 'filter' argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See *note tarfile extraction filters: 468. for details. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(15).) * *note types.MappingProxyType: 469. instances are now hashable if the underlying mapping is hashable. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-87995(16).) * Add *note support for the perf profiler: 18f. through the new environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 46a. and command-line option *note -X perf: 176, as well as the new *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 46b, *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46c, and *note sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 46d. functions. (Design by Pablo Galindo. Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(17).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98401 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/ (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100581 (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/ (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77757 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103590 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97922 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/60203 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90751 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101264 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100425 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96670 (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/ (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87995 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<2>, Next: Improved Modules<2>, Prev: Other Language Changes<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.5 New Modules ----------------- * None.  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<2>, Next: Optimizations<2>, Prev: New Modules<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.6 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * array: array<2>. * asyncio: asyncio<2>. * calendar:: * csv:: * dis: dis<2>. * fractions: fractions<2>. * importlib.resources: importlib resources. * inspect:: * itertools: itertools<2>. * math: math<2>. * os: os<2>. * os.path: os path<3>. * pathlib: pathlib<3>. * platform:: * pdb: pdb<2>. * random: random<2>. * shutil: shutil<2>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<2>. * statistics: statistics<2>. * sys: sys<3>. * tempfile: tempfile<2>. * threading:: * tkinter: tkinter<2>. * tokenize:: * types: types<2>. * typing: typing<3>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<2>. * unittest: unittest<2>. * uuid::  File: python.info, Node: array<2>, Next: asyncio<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.1 array ............. * The *note array.array: 1a0. class now supports subscripting, making it a *note generic type: 434. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-98658(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98658  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<2>, Next: calendar, Prev: array<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.2 asyncio ............... * The performance of writing to sockets in *note asyncio: a. has been significantly improved. ‘asyncio’ now avoids unnecessary copying when writing to sockets and uses *note sendmsg(): 472. if the platform supports it. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-91166(1).) * Add *note asyncio.eager_task_factory(): 473. and *note asyncio.create_eager_task_factory(): 474. functions to allow opting an event loop in to eager task execution, making some use-cases 2x to 5x faster. (Contributed by Jacob Bower & Itamar Oren in gh-102853(2), gh-104140(3), and gh-104138(4)) * On Linux, *note asyncio: a. uses *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 475. by default if *note os.pidfd_open(): 476. is available and functional instead of *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 477. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-98024(5).) * The event loop now uses the best available child watcher for each platform (*note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 475. if supported and *note asyncio.ThreadedChildWatcher: 477. otherwise), so manually configuring a child watcher is not recommended. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(6).) * Add 'loop_factory' parameter to *note asyncio.run(): 478. to allow specifying a custom event loop factory. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-99388(7).) * Add C implementation of *note asyncio.current_task(): 479. for 4x-6x speedup. (Contributed by Itamar Oren and Pranav Thulasiram Bhat in gh-100344(8).) * *note asyncio.iscoroutine(): 47a. now returns ‘False’ for generators as *note asyncio: a. does not support legacy generator-based coroutines. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-102748(9).) * *note asyncio.wait(): 47b. and *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa. now accepts generators yielding tasks. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-78530(10).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91166 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102853 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104140 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104138 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98024 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99388 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100344 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102748 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78530  File: python.info, Node: calendar, Next: csv, Prev: asyncio<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.3 calendar ................ * Add enums *note calendar.Month: 47d. and *note calendar.Day: 47e. defining months of the year and days of the week. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636  File: python.info, Node: csv, Next: dis<2>, Prev: calendar, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.4 csv ........... * Add *note csv.QUOTE_NOTNULL: 480. and *note csv.QUOTE_STRINGS: 481. flags to provide finer grained control of ‘None’ and empty strings by *note reader: 482. and *note writer: 483. objects.  File: python.info, Node: dis<2>, Next: fractions<2>, Prev: csv, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.5 dis ........... * Pseudo instruction opcodes (which are used by the compiler but do not appear in executable bytecode) are now exposed in the *note dis: 38. module. *note HAVE_ARGUMENT: 485. is still relevant to real opcodes, but it is not useful for pseudo instructions. Use the new *note dis.hasarg: 2a0. collection instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-94216(1).) * Add the *note dis.hasexc: 486. collection to signify instructions that set an exception handler. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-94216(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94216  File: python.info, Node: fractions<2>, Next: importlib resources, Prev: dis<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.6 fractions ................. * Objects of type *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. now support float-style formatting. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in gh-100161(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100161  File: python.info, Node: importlib resources, Next: inspect, Prev: fractions<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.7 importlib.resources ........................... * *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 489. now supports resource directories. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-97930(1).) * Rename first parameter of *note importlib.resources.files(): 48a. to 'anchor'. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in gh-100598(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97930 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100598  File: python.info, Node: inspect, Next: itertools<2>, Prev: importlib resources, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.8 inspect ............... * Add *note inspect.markcoroutinefunction(): 48c. to mark sync functions that return a *note coroutine: 48d. for use with *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8. (Contributed by Carlton Gibson in gh-99247(1).) * Add *note inspect.getasyncgenstate(): 48e. and *note inspect.getasyncgenlocals(): 48f. for determining the current state of asynchronous generators. (Contributed by Thomas Krennwallner in gh-79940(2).) * The performance of *note inspect.getattr_static(): 490. has been considerably improved. Most calls to the function should be at least 2x faster than they were in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-103193(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99247 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/79940 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193  File: python.info, Node: itertools<2>, Next: math<2>, Prev: inspect, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.9 itertools ................. * Add *note itertools.batched(): 203. for collecting into even-sized tuples where the last batch may be shorter than the rest. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-98363(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98363  File: python.info, Node: math<2>, Next: os<2>, Prev: itertools<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.10 math ............. * Add *note math.sumprod(): 493. for computing a sum of products. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100485(1).) * Extend *note math.nextafter(): 494. to include a 'steps' argument for moving up or down multiple steps at a time. (Contributed by Matthias Goergens, Mark Dickinson, and Raymond Hettinger in gh-94906(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100485 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94906  File: python.info, Node: os<2>, Next: os path<3>, Prev: math<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.11 os ........... * Add *note os.PIDFD_NONBLOCK: 496. to open a file descriptor for a process with *note os.pidfd_open(): 476. in non-blocking mode. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93312(1).) * *note os.DirEntry: 497. now includes an *note os.DirEntry.is_junction(): 498. method to check if the entry is a junction. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(2).) * Add *note os.listdrives(): 499, *note os.listvolumes(): 49a. and *note os.listmounts(): 49b. functions on Windows for enumerating drives, volumes and mount points. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-102519(3).) * *note os.stat(): 49c. and *note os.lstat(): 49d. are now more accurate on Windows. The ‘st_birthtime’ field will now be filled with the creation time of the file, and ‘st_ctime’ is deprecated but still contains the creation time (but in the future will return the last metadata change, for consistency with other platforms). ‘st_dev’ may be up to 64 bits and ‘st_ino’ up to 128 bits depending on your file system, and ‘st_rdev’ is always set to zero rather than incorrect values. Both functions may be significantly faster on newer releases of Windows. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-99726(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93312 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102519 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726  File: python.info, Node: os path<3>, Next: pathlib<3>, Prev: os<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.12 os.path ................ * Add *note os.path.isjunction(): 49f. to check if a given path is a junction. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(1).) * Add *note os.path.splitroot(): 4a0. to split a path into a triad ‘(drive, root, tail)’. (Contributed by Barney Gale in gh-101000(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101000  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<3>, Next: platform, Prev: os path<3>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.13 pathlib ................ * Add support for subclassing *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a2. and *note pathlib.Path: 22b, plus their Posix- and Windows-specific variants. Subclasses may override the *note pathlib.PurePath.with_segments(): 4a3. method to pass information between path instances. * Add *note pathlib.Path.walk(): 4a4. for walking the directory trees and generating all file or directory names within them, similar to *note os.walk(): 4a5. (Contributed by Stanislav Zmiev in gh-90385(1).) * Add 'walk_up' optional parameter to *note pathlib.PurePath.relative_to(): 2cd. to allow the insertion of ‘..’ entries in the result; this behavior is more consistent with *note os.path.relpath(): 4a6. (Contributed by Domenico Ragusa in gh-84538(2).) * Add *note pathlib.Path.is_junction(): 4a7. as a proxy to *note os.path.isjunction(): 49f. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-99547(3).) * Add 'case_sensitive' optional parameter to *note pathlib.Path.glob(): 22f, *note pathlib.Path.rglob(): 230. and *note pathlib.PurePath.match(): 4a8. for matching the path’s case sensitivity, allowing for more precise control over the matching process. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90385 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84538 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99547  File: python.info, Node: platform, Next: pdb<2>, Prev: pathlib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.14 platform ................. * Add support for detecting Windows 11 and Windows Server releases past 2012. Previously, lookups on Windows Server platforms newer than Windows Server 2012 and on Windows 11 would return ‘Windows-10’. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-89545(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89545  File: python.info, Node: pdb<2>, Next: random<2>, Prev: platform, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.15 pdb ............ * Add convenience variables to hold values temporarily for debug session and provide quick access to values like the current frame or the return value. (Contributed by Tian Gao in gh-103693(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103693  File: python.info, Node: random<2>, Next: shutil<2>, Prev: pdb<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.16 random ............... * Add *note random.binomialvariate(): 4ac. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-81620(1).) * Add a default of ‘lambd=1.0’ to *note random.expovariate(): 4ad. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-100234(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81620 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100234  File: python.info, Node: shutil<2>, Next: sqlite3<2>, Prev: random<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.17 shutil ............... * *note shutil.make_archive(): 4af. now passes the 'root_dir' argument to custom archivers which support it. In this case it no longer temporarily changes the current working directory of the process to 'root_dir' to perform archiving. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-74696(1).) * *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. now accepts a new argument 'onexc' which is an error handler like 'onerror' but which expects an exception instance rather than a '(typ, val, tb)' triplet. 'onerror' is deprecated. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102828(2).) * *note shutil.which(): 4b0. now consults the 'PATHEXT' environment variable to find matches within 'PATH' on Windows even when the given 'cmd' includes a directory component. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-103179(3).) *note shutil.which(): 4b0. will call ‘NeedCurrentDirectoryForExePathW’ when querying for executables on Windows to determine if the current working directory should be prepended to the search path. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-103179(4).) *note shutil.which(): 4b0. will return a path matching the 'cmd' with a component from ‘PATHEXT’ prior to a direct match elsewhere in the search path on Windows. (Contributed by Charles Machalow in gh-103179(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74696 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103179  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<2>, Next: statistics<2>, Prev: shutil<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.18 sqlite3 ................ * Add a *note command-line interface: 43c. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-77617(1).) * Add the *note sqlite3.Connection.autocommit: 4b2. attribute to *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. and the 'autocommit' parameter to *note sqlite3.connect(): 2aa. to control PEP 249(2)-compliant *note transaction handling: 4b3. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-83638(3).) * Add 'entrypoint' keyword-only parameter to *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4b4, for overriding the SQLite extension entry point. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103015(4).) * Add *note sqlite3.Connection.getconfig(): 4b5. and *note sqlite3.Connection.setconfig(): 4b6. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. to make configuration changes to a database connection. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-103489(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77617 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83638 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103015 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103489  File: python.info, Node: statistics<2>, Next: sys<3>, Prev: sqlite3<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.19 statistics ................... * Extend *note statistics.correlation(): 4b8. to include as a ‘ranked’ method for computing the Spearman correlation of ranked data. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-95861(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95861  File: python.info, Node: sys<3>, Next: tempfile<2>, Prev: statistics<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.20 sys ............ * Add the *note sys.monitoring: da. namespace to expose the new *note PEP 669: 438. monitoring API. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(1).) * Add *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 46b. and *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46c. for activating and deactivating stack profiler trampolines, and *note sys.is_stack_trampoline_active(): 46d. for querying if stack profiler trampolines are active. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Christian Heimes with contributions from Gregory P. Smith [Google] and Mark Shannon in gh-96123(2).) * Add *note sys.last_exc: 4ba. which holds the last unhandled exception that was raised (for post-mortem debugging use cases). Deprecate the three fields that have the same information in its legacy form: *note sys.last_type: 4bb, *note sys.last_value: 4bc. and *note sys.last_traceback: 4bd. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102778(3).) * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4be. now returns a mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(4).) * *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bf. and *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4c0. The recursion limit now applies only to Python code. Builtin functions do not use the recursion limit, but are protected by a different mechanism that prevents recursion from causing a virtual machine crash. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96123 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176  File: python.info, Node: tempfile<2>, Next: threading, Prev: sys<3>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.21 tempfile ................. * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4c2. function has a new optional parameter 'delete_on_close' (Contributed by Evgeny Zorin in gh-58451(1).) * *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 221. now always returns an absolute path, even if the argument provided to the 'dir' parameter is a relative path. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58451  File: python.info, Node: threading, Next: tkinter<2>, Prev: tempfile<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.22 threading .................. * Add *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4c4. and *note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4c5. that allow to set tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the calling one. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<2>, Next: tokenize, Prev: threading, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.23 tkinter ................ * ‘tkinter.Canvas.coords()’ now flattens its arguments. It now accepts not only coordinates as separate arguments (‘x1, y1, x2, y2, ...’) and a sequence of coordinates (‘[x1, y1, x2, y2, ...]’), but also coordinates grouped in pairs (‘(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...’ and ‘[(x1, y1), (x2, y2), ...]’), like ‘create_*()’ methods. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-94473(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94473  File: python.info, Node: tokenize, Next: types<2>, Prev: tkinter<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.24 tokenize ................. * The *note tokenize: fb. module includes the changes introduced in PEP 701(1). (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(2).) See *note Porting to Python 3.12: 4c8. for more information on the changes to the *note tokenize: fb. module. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856  File: python.info, Node: types<2>, Next: typing<3>, Prev: tokenize, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.25 types .............. * Add *note types.get_original_bases(): 4ca. to allow for further introspection of *note User-defined generic types: 4cb. when subclassed. (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe and Alex Waygood in gh-101827(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101827  File: python.info, Node: typing<3>, Next: unicodedata<2>, Prev: types<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.26 typing ............... * *note isinstance(): 43d. checks against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43e. now use *note inspect.getattr_static(): 490. rather than *note hasattr(): 4ce. to lookup whether attributes exist. This means that descriptors and *note __getattr__(): 4cf. methods are no longer unexpectedly evaluated during ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable protocols. However, it may also mean that some objects which used to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa. Most users are unlikely to be affected by this change. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-102433(1).) * The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been created. Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 43d. checks comparing objects to the protocol. For example: >>> from typing import Protocol, runtime_checkable >>> @runtime_checkable ... class HasX(Protocol): ... x = 1 ... >>> class Foo: ... ... >>> f = Foo() >>> isinstance(f, HasX) False >>> f.x = 1 >>> isinstance(f, HasX) True >>> HasX.y = 2 >>> isinstance(f, HasX) # unchanged, even though HasX now also has a "y" attribute True This change was made in order to speed up ‘isinstance()’ checks against runtime-checkable protocols. * The performance profile of *note isinstance(): 43d. checks against *note runtime-checkable protocols: 43e. has changed significantly. Most ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with only a few members should be at least 2x faster than in 3.11, and some may be 20x faster or more. However, ‘isinstance()’ checks against protocols with many members may be slower than in Python 3.11. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-74690(2) and gh-103193(3).) * All *note typing.TypedDict: 162. and *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b2. classes now have the ‘__orig_bases__’ attribute. (Contributed by Adrian Garcia Badaracco in gh-103699(4).) * Add ‘frozen_default’ parameter to *note typing.dataclass_transform(): 4d0. (Contributed by Erik De Bonte in gh-99957(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102433 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/74690 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103193 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103699 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99957  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<2>, Next: unittest<2>, Prev: typing<3>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.27 unicodedata .................... * The Unicode database has been updated to version 15.0.0. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in gh-96734(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96734  File: python.info, Node: unittest<2>, Next: uuid, Prev: unicodedata<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.28 unittest ................. Add a ‘--durations’ command line option, showing the N slowest test cases: python3 -m unittest --durations=3 lib.tests.test_threading ..... Slowest test durations ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 1.210s test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests) 1.003s test_default_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.BarrierTests) 0.518s test_timeout (Lib.test.test_threading.EventTests) (0.000 durations hidden. Use -v to show these durations.) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Ran 158 tests in 9.869s OK (skipped=3) (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in gh-48330(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/48330  File: python.info, Node: uuid, Prev: unittest<2>, Up: Improved Modules<2> 1.2.6.29 uuid ............. * Add a *note command-line interface: 43f. (Contributed by Adam Chhina in gh-88597(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88597  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<2>, Next: CPython bytecode changes, Prev: Improved Modules<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.7 Optimizations ------------------- * Remove ‘wstr’ and ‘wstr_length’ members from Unicode objects. It reduces object size by 8 or 16 bytes on 64bit platform. ( PEP 623(1)) (Contributed by Inada Naoki in gh-92536(2).) * Add experimental support for using the BOLT binary optimizer in the build process, which improves performance by 1-5%. (Contributed by Kevin Modzelewski in gh-90536(3) and tuned by Donghee Na in gh-101525(4)) * Speed up the regular expression substitution (functions *note re.sub(): 2a5. and *note re.subn(): 2a6. and corresponding ‘re.Pattern’ methods) for replacement strings containing group references by 2–3 times. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91524(5).) * Speed up *note asyncio.Task: 1be. creation by deferring expensive string formatting. (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-103793(6).) * The *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d5. and *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4d6. functions are up to 64% faster as a side effect of the changes required to cover PEP 701(7) in the *note tokenize: fb. module. (Contributed by Marta Gómez Macías and Pablo Galindo in gh-102856(8).) * Speed up *note super(): 4d7. method calls and attribute loads via the new *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4d8. instruction. (Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92536 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90536 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101525 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91524 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103793 (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102856 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes, Next: Demos and Tools, Prev: Optimizations<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.8 CPython bytecode changes ------------------------------ * Remove the ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction. It has been merged into *note LOAD_ATTR: 4da. *note LOAD_ATTR: 4da. will now behave like the old ‘LOAD_METHOD’ instruction if the low bit of its oparg is set. (Contributed by Ken Jin in gh-93429(1).) * Remove the ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ instructions. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102859(2).) * Remove the ‘PRECALL’ instruction. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-92925(3).) * Add the *note BINARY_SLICE: 4db. and *note STORE_SLICE: 4dc. instructions. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-94163(4).) * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_1: 4dd. instructions. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-99005(5).) * Add the *note CALL_INTRINSIC_2: 4de. instruction. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-101799(6).) * Add the *note CLEANUP_THROW: 4df. instruction. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-90997(7).) * Add the ‘END_SEND’ instruction. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-103082(8).) * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR: 4e0. instruction as part of the implementation of PEP 709(9). (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-101441(10).) * Add the *note LOAD_FAST_CHECK: 4e1. instruction. (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-93143(11).) * Add the *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4e2, *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 4e3, and *note LOAD_LOCALS: 4e4. opcodes as part of the implementation of PEP 695(12). Remove the ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’ opcode, which can be replaced with *note LOAD_LOCALS: 4e4. plus *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4e2. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-103764(13).) * Add the *note LOAD_SUPER_ATTR: 4d8. instruction. (Contributed by Carl Meyer and Vladimir Matveev in gh-103497(14).) * Add the *note RETURN_CONST: 4e5. instruction. (Contributed by Wenyang Wang in gh-101632(15).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93429 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102859 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92925 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94163 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99005 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101799 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90997 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103082 (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0709/ (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101441 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93143 (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103764 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103497 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101632  File: python.info, Node: Demos and Tools, Next: Deprecated, Prev: CPython bytecode changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.9 Demos and Tools --------------------- * Remove the ‘Tools/demo/’ directory which contained old demo scripts. A copy can be found in the old-demos project(1). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97681(2).) * Remove outdated example scripts of the ‘Tools/scripts/’ directory. A copy can be found in the old-demos project(3). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-97669(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97681 (3) https://github.com/gvanrossum/old-demos (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97669  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated, Next: Removed, Prev: Demos and Tools, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.10 Deprecated ----------------- * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).) * *note ast: 8.: The following *note ast: 8. features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14: * ‘ast.Num’ * ‘ast.Str’ * ‘ast.Bytes’ * ‘ast.NameConstant’ * ‘ast.Ellipsis’ Use *note ast.Constant: 2bb. instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953(2).) * *note asyncio: a.: * The child watcher classes *note asyncio.MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2bc, *note asyncio.FastChildWatcher: 2bd, *note asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher: 2be. and *note asyncio.SafeChildWatcher: 2bf. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).) * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2c0, *note asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2c1, *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c2. and *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 2c3. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).) * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c4. method of the default event loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160(5).) * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’ constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY: 2f3. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f4. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636(6).) * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note collections.abc.ByteString: 2c5. Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6. For use in typing, prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(7).) * *note datetime: 30.: *note datetime.datetime: 1cc.’s *note utcnow(): 2f6. and *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f7. are deprecated and will be removed in a future version. Instead, use timezone-aware objects to represent datetimes in UTC: respectively, call *note now(): 4e8. and *note fromtimestamp(): 4e9. with the 'tz' parameter set to *note datetime.UTC: 4ea. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-103857(8).) * *note email: 3b.: Deprecate the 'isdst' parameter in *note email.utils.localtime(): 2c7. (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346(9).) * *note importlib.abc: 78.: Deprecated the following classes, scheduled for removal in Python 3.14: * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’ * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’ Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead: * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963(10).) * *note itertools: 81.: Deprecate the support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations, which is undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(11).) * *note multiprocessing: 94.: In Python 3.14, the default *note multiprocessing: 94. start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(12)). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the *note get_context(): 2c9. or *note set_start_method(): 2ca. APIs to explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’. See *note contexts and start methods: 2cb. * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note pkgutil.find_loader(): 2ce. and *note pkgutil.get_loader(): 2cf. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(13).) * *note pty: b1.: The module has two undocumented ‘master_open()’ and ‘slave_open()’ functions that have been deprecated since Python 2 but only gained a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12. Remove them in 3.14. (Contributed by Soumendra Ganguly and Gregory P. Smith in gh-85984(14).) * *note os: a1.: * The ‘st_ctime’ fields return by *note os.stat(): 49c. and *note os.lstat(): 49d. on Windows are deprecated. In a future release, they will contain the last metadata change time, consistent with other platforms. For now, they still contain the creation time, which is also available in the new ‘st_birthtime’ field. (Contributed by Steve Dower in gh-99726(15).) * On POSIX platforms, *note os.fork(): 197. can now raise a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when it can detect being called from a multithreaded process. There has always been a fundamental incompatibility with the POSIX platform when doing so. Even if such code 'appeared' to work. We added the warning to raise awareness as issues encountered by code doing this are becoming more frequent. See the *note os.fork(): 197. documentation for more details along with this discussion on fork being incompatible with threads(16) for 'why' we’re now surfacing this longstanding platform compatibility problem to developers. When this warning appears due to usage of *note multiprocessing: 94. or *note concurrent.futures: 21. the fix is to use a different *note multiprocessing: 94. start method such as ‘"spawn"’ or ‘"forkserver"’. * *note shutil: c5.: The 'onerror' argument of *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. is deprecated; use 'onexc' instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102828(17).) * *note sqlite3: cf.: * *note default adapters and converters: 4eb. are now deprecated. Instead, use the *note Adapter and converter recipes: 4ec. and tailor them to your needs. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-90016(18).) * In *note execute(): 2d4, *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now emitted when *note named placeholders: 2d6. are used together with parameters supplied as a *note sequence: 4ed. instead of as a *note dict: 258. Starting from Python 3.14, using named placeholders with parameters supplied as a sequence will raise a *note ProgrammingError: 4ee. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-101698(19).) * *note sys: d9.: The *note sys.last_type: 4bb, *note sys.last_value: 4bc. and *note sys.last_traceback: 4bd. fields are deprecated. Use *note sys.last_exc: 4ba. instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102778(20).) * *note tarfile: de.: Extracting tar archives without specifying 'filter' is deprecated until Python 3.14, when ‘'data'’ filter will become the default. See *note Extraction filters: 468. for details. * *note typing: 104.: * *note typing.Hashable: 4ef. and *note typing.Sized: 4f0, aliases for *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4f1. and *note collections.abc.Sized: 4f2. respectively, are deprecated. (gh-94309(21).) * *note typing.ByteString: 2d7, deprecated since Python 3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when it is used. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-91896(22).) * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: The module now emits *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when testing the truth value of an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element: 30a. Before, the Python implementation emitted *note FutureWarning: 411, and the C implementation emitted nothing. (Contributed by Jacob Walls in gh-83122(23).) * The 3-arg signatures (type, value, traceback) of *note coroutine throw(): 4f3, *note generator throw(): 4f4. and *note async generator throw(): 4f5. are deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python. Use the single-arg versions of these functions instead. (Contributed by Ofey Chan in gh-89874(24).) * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now raised when *note __package__: 2db. on a module differs from *note __spec__.parent: 2dc. (previously it was *note ImportWarning: 4f6.). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(25).) * Setting *note __package__: 2db. or *note __cached__: 2d9. on a module is deprecated, and will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in gh-65961(26).) * The bitwise inversion operator (‘~’) on bool is deprecated. It will throw an error in Python 3.16. Use ‘not’ for logical negation of bools instead. In the rare case that you really need the bitwise inversion of the underlying ‘int’, convert to int explicitly: ‘~int(x)’. (Contributed by Tim Hoffmann in gh-103487(27).) * Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e4. on code objects was deprecated in Python 3.10 via PEP 626(28), but it only got a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(29).) * Menu: * Pending Removal in Python 3.13: Pending Removal in Python 3 13. * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103857 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85984 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99726 (16) https://discuss.python.org/t/concerns-regarding-deprecation-of-fork-with-alive-threads/33555 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102828 (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90016 (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101698 (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102778 (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309 (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896 (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83122 (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874 (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961 (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961 (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103487 (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/ (29) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 13, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>, Up: Deprecated 1.2.10.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.13 ....................................... Modules (see PEP 594(1)): * ‘aifc’ * ‘audioop’ * ‘cgi’ * ‘cgitb’ * ‘chunk’ * ‘crypt’ * ‘imghdr’ * ‘mailcap’ * ‘msilib’ * ‘nis’ * ‘nntplib’ * ‘ossaudiodev’ * ‘pipes’ * ‘sndhdr’ * ‘spwd’ * ‘sunau’ * ‘telnetlib’ * ‘uu’ * ‘xdrlib’ Other modules: * ‘lib2to3’, and the ‘2to3’ program (gh-84540(2)) APIs: * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ (gh-90765(3)) * ‘locale.resetlocale()’ (gh-90817(4)) * ‘turtle.RawTurtle.settiltangle()’ (gh-50096(5)) * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ (gh-50096(6)) * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ (gh-50096(7)) * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ (gh-50096(8)) * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ (gh-67048(9)) * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ (gh-86421(10)) * *note classmethod: 166. descriptor chaining (gh-89519(11)) * *note importlib.resources: 7b. deprecated methods: * ‘contents()’ * ‘is_resource()’ * ‘open_binary()’ * ‘open_text()’ * ‘path()’ * ‘read_binary()’ * ‘read_text()’ Use *note importlib.resources.files(): 48a. instead. Refer to importlib-resources: Migrating from Legacy(12) (gh-106531(13)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84540 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90765 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50096 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86421 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519 (12) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html#migrating-from-legacy (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106531  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 13, Up: Deprecated 1.2.10.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.14 ....................................... * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).) * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14: * ‘ast.Num’ * ‘ast.Str’ * ‘ast.Bytes’ * ‘ast.NameConstant’ * ‘ast.Ellipsis’ Use *note ast.Constant: 2bb. instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953(2).) * *note asyncio: a.: * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2bc, *note FastChildWatcher: 2bd, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2be. and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bf. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).) * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2c0, *note asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2c1, *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c2. and *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 2c3. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).) * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c4. method of the default event loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160(5).) * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c5. Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c6. For use in typing, prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).) * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note email.utils.localtime(): 2c7. (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346(7).) * *note importlib.abc: 78. deprecated classes: * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’ * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’ Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead: * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963(8).) * *note itertools: 81. had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).) * *note multiprocessing: 94.: The default start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the *note get_context(): 2c9. or *note set_start_method(): 2ca. APIs to explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’. See *note Contexts and start methods: 2cb. * *note pathlib: a4.: *note is_relative_to(): 2cc. and *note relative_to(): 2cd.: passing additional arguments is deprecated. * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note find_loader(): 2ce. and *note get_loader(): 2cf. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).) * *note pty: b1.: * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2d1. * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2d1. * *note sqlite3: cf.: * *note version: 2d2. and *note version_info: 2d3. * *note execute(): 2d4. and *note executemany(): 2d5. if *note named placeholders: 2d6. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence instead of a *note dict: 258. * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 2d7, deprecated since Python 3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when it is used. * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-88168(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>, Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<3>, Up: Deprecated 1.2.10.3 Pending Removal in Python 3.15 ....................................... * The import system: * Setting *note __cached__: 2d9. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.cached: 2da. is deprecated. In Python 3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879(1)) * Setting *note __package__: 2db. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.parent: 2dc. is deprecated. In Python 3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879(2)) * *note ctypes: 2a.: * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. * *note http.server: 72.: * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. 'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler. * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13. * *note importlib: 77.: * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead. * *note locale: 86.: * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2dd. function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use *note getlocale(): 2de, *note setlocale(): 2df, and *note getencoding(): 2e0. instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).) * *note pathlib: a4.: * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a8. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 225. to detect reserved paths on Windows. * *note platform: aa.: * *note java_ver(): 2a9. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested. * *note sysconfig: db.: * The 'check_home' argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2e1. has been deprecated since Python 3.12. * *note threading: ed.: * *note RLock(): 2e2. will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument. * *note types: 103.: * *note types.CodeType: 2e3.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e4. was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).) * *note typing: 104.: * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note NamedTuple: 2b2. classes (e.g. ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead. * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 162.s, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a TypedDict with zero field. * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b3. decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker. * *note wave: 113.: * The *note getmark(): 2b6, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers(): 2b7. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b8. and *note Wave_write: 2b9. classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866  File: python.info, Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>, Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>, Up: Deprecated 1.2.10.4 Pending removal in Python 3.16 ....................................... * The import system: * Setting *note __loader__: 2e6. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.loader: 2e7. is deprecated. In Python 3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library. * *note array: 7.: * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29d.) for Unicode characters instead. * *note asyncio: a.: * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16, use *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8. instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).) * *note builtins: 12.: * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’). Use ‘not x’ instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’). * *note shutil: c5.: * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 195. * *note symtable: d8.: * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e9. method has been deprecated since Python 3.14. * *note sys: d9.: * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2b0. function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable instead. * *note tarfile: de.: * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<3>, Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>, Up: Deprecated 1.2.10.5 Pending Removal in Future Versions ........................................... The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal. * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated. * *note builtins: 12.: * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’. * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’ signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’ instead, the single argument signature. * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and: 2eb, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ec, *note if: 2ed, *note in: 2ee, *note is: 2ef. and *note or: 2f0. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999(1)) * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 259. * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass of *note float: 2f1.: these methods will be required to return an instance of *note float: 2f1. * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass of *note complex: 2f2.: these methods will be required to return an instance of *note complex: 2f2. * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method. * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in the *note complex(): 2f2. constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).) * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’ constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY: 2f3. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f4. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636(3).) * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2e4.: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 2f5. method instead. * *note datetime: 30.: * *note utcnow(): 2f6.: use ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’. * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f7.: use ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’. * *note gettext: 63.: Plural value must be an integer. * *note importlib: 77.: * *note cache_from_source(): 2f8. 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead. * *note importlib.metadata: 7a.: * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface. * Implicit ‘None’ on return values. * *note logging: 87.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f9. instead. * *note mailbox: 8b.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead. * *note os: a1.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2fa. in multi-threaded process. * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance. * *note re: b9.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(4).) * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules. * *note shutil: c5.: *note rmtree(): 2fb.’s 'onerror' parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead. * *note ssl: d0. options and protocols: * *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. without protocol argument is deprecated. * *note ssl.SSLContext: 296.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2fc. and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN instead. * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’ * *note threading: ed. methods: * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all(): 2fd. * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2fe. * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2ff.: use *note threading.Thread.daemon: 300. attribute. * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note threading.Thread.setName(): 301.: use *note threading.Thread.name: 302. attribute. * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note threading.current_thread(): 303. * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count(): 304. * *note typing.Text: 305. (gh-92332(5)). * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 306.: it is deprecated to return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case. * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse(): 307. instead * ‘splitattr()’ * ‘splithost()’ * ‘splitnport()’ * ‘splitpasswd()’ * ‘splitport()’ * ‘splitquery()’ * ‘splittag()’ * ‘splittype()’ * ‘splituser()’ * ‘splitvalue()’ * ‘to_bytes()’ * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 308. and *note FancyURLopener: 309. style of invoking requests is deprecated. Use newer *note urlopen(): 295. functions and methods. * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do partial writes. * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an *note Element: 30a. is deprecated. In a future release it will always return ‘True’. Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests instead. * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 30b. is deprecated: use *note exec_module(): 30c. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332  File: python.info, Node: Removed, Next: Porting to Python 3 12, Prev: Deprecated, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.11 Removed -------------- * Menu: * asynchat and asyncore:: * configparser: configparser<3>. * distutils:: * ensurepip:: * enum: enum<2>. * ftplib:: * gzip:: * hashlib:: * importlib: importlib<2>. * imp:: * io: io<2>. * locale: locale<2>. * smtpd:: * sqlite3: sqlite3<3>. * ssl: ssl<2>. * unittest: unittest<3>. * webbrowser: webbrowser<2>. * xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree. * zipimport: zipimport<2>. * Others::  File: python.info, Node: asynchat and asyncore, Next: configparser<3>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.1 asynchat and asyncore .............................. * These two modules have been removed according to the schedule in PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.6. Use *note asyncio: a. instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-96580(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/96580  File: python.info, Node: configparser<3>, Next: distutils, Prev: asynchat and asyncore, Up: Removed 1.2.11.2 configparser ..................... * Several names deprecated in the *note configparser: 22. way back in 3.2 have been removed per gh-89336(1): * *note configparser.ParsingError: 500. no longer has a ‘filename’ attribute or argument. Use the ‘source’ attribute and argument instead. * *note configparser: 22. no longer has a ‘SafeConfigParser’ class. Use the shorter *note ConfigParser: 1c8. name instead. * *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. no longer has a ‘readfp’ method. Use *note read_file(): 501. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89336  File: python.info, Node: distutils, Next: ensurepip, Prev: configparser<3>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.3 distutils .................. * Remove the ‘distutils’ package. It was deprecated in Python 3.10 by PEP 632(1) “Deprecate distutils module”. For projects still using ‘distutils’ and cannot be updated to something else, the ‘setuptools’ project can be installed: it still provides ‘distutils’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92584(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92584  File: python.info, Node: ensurepip, Next: enum<2>, Prev: distutils, Up: Removed 1.2.11.4 ensurepip .................. * Remove the bundled setuptools wheel from *note ensurepip: 55, and stop installing setuptools in environments created by *note venv: 111. ‘pip (>= 22.1)’ does not require setuptools to be installed in the environment. ‘setuptools’-based (and ‘distutils’-based) packages can still be used with ‘pip install’, since pip will provide ‘setuptools’ in the build environment it uses for building a package. ‘easy_install’, ‘pkg_resources’, ‘setuptools’ and ‘distutils’ are no longer provided by default in environments created with ‘venv’ or bootstrapped with ‘ensurepip’, since they are part of the ‘setuptools’ package. For projects relying on these at runtime, the ‘setuptools’ project should be declared as a dependency and installed separately (typically, using pip). (Contributed by Pradyun Gedam in gh-95299(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95299  File: python.info, Node: enum<2>, Next: ftplib, Prev: ensurepip, Up: Removed 1.2.11.5 enum ............. * Remove *note enum: 56.’s ‘EnumMeta.__getattr__’, which is no longer needed for enum attribute access. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in gh-95083(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95083  File: python.info, Node: ftplib, Next: gzip, Prev: enum<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.6 ftplib ............... * Remove *note ftplib: 5e.’s ‘FTP_TLS.ssl_version’ class attribute: use the 'context' parameter instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94172(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172  File: python.info, Node: gzip, Next: hashlib, Prev: ftplib, Up: Removed 1.2.11.7 gzip ............. * Remove the ‘filename’ attribute of *note gzip: 67.’s *note gzip.GzipFile: 416, deprecated since Python 2.6, use the *note name: 508. attribute instead. In write mode, the ‘filename’ attribute added ‘'.gz'’ file extension if it was not present. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94196(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94196  File: python.info, Node: hashlib, Next: importlib<2>, Prev: gzip, Up: Removed 1.2.11.8 hashlib ................ * Remove the pure Python implementation of *note hashlib: 68.’s *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 50a, deprecated in Python 3.10. Python 3.10 and newer requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 ( PEP 644(1)): this OpenSSL version provides a C implementation of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 50a. which is faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199  File: python.info, Node: importlib<2>, Next: imp, Prev: hashlib, Up: Removed 1.2.11.9 importlib .................. * Many previously deprecated cleanups in *note importlib: 77. have now been completed: * References to, and support for ‘module_repr()’ has been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-97850(1).) * ‘importlib.util.set_package’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader’ and ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader’ have all been removed. (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Nikita Sobolev in gh-65961(2) and gh-97850(3).) * Support for ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ APIs have been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(4).) * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/65961 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040  File: python.info, Node: imp, Next: io<2>, Prev: importlib<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.10 imp ............. * The ‘imp’ module has been removed. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in gh-98040(1).) To migrate, consult the following correspondence table: imp importlib -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘imp.NullImporter’ Insert ‘None’ into ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ ‘imp.cache_from_source()’ *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f8. ‘imp.find_module()’ *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. ‘imp.get_magic()’ *note importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER: 50e. ‘imp.get_suffixes()’ *note importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES: 50f, *note importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 510, and *note importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 511. ‘imp.get_tag()’ *note sys.implementation.cache_tag: 512. ‘imp.load_module()’ *note importlib.import_module(): 513. ‘imp.new_module(name)’ ‘types.ModuleType(name)’ ‘imp.reload()’ *note importlib.reload(): 514. ‘imp.source_from_cache()’ *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 515. ‘imp.load_source()’ 'See below' Replace ‘imp.load_source()’ with: import importlib.util import importlib.machinery def load_source(modname, filename): loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader(modname, filename) spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(modname, filename, loader=loader) module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec) # The module is always executed and not cached in sys.modules. # Uncomment the following line to cache the module. # sys.modules[module.__name__] = module loader.exec_module(module) return module * Remove ‘imp’ functions and attributes with no replacements: * Undocumented functions: * ‘imp.init_builtin()’ * ‘imp.load_compiled()’ * ‘imp.load_dynamic()’ * ‘imp.load_package()’ * ‘imp.lock_held()’, ‘imp.acquire_lock()’, ‘imp.release_lock()’: the locking scheme has changed in Python 3.3 to per-module locks. * ‘imp.find_module()’ constants: ‘SEARCH_ERROR’, ‘PY_SOURCE’, ‘PY_COMPILED’, ‘C_EXTENSION’, ‘PY_RESOURCE’, ‘PKG_DIRECTORY’, ‘C_BUILTIN’, ‘PY_FROZEN’, ‘PY_CODERESOURCE’, ‘IMP_HOOK’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98040  File: python.info, Node: io<2>, Next: locale<2>, Prev: imp, Up: Removed 1.2.11.11 io ............ * Remove *note io: 7f.’s ‘io.OpenWrapper’ and ‘_pyio.OpenWrapper’, deprecated in Python 3.10: just use *note open(): 517. instead. The *note open(): 517. (*note io.open(): 518.) function is a built-in function. Since Python 3.10, ‘_pyio.open()’ is also a static method. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94169(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94169  File: python.info, Node: locale<2>, Next: smtpd, Prev: io<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.12 locale ................ * Remove *note locale: 86.’s ‘locale.format()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7: use *note locale.format_string(): 51a. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94226(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94226  File: python.info, Node: smtpd, Next: sqlite3<3>, Prev: locale<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.13 smtpd ............... * The ‘smtpd’ module has been removed according to the schedule in PEP 594(1), having been deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4. Use the aiosmtpd(2) PyPI module or any other *note asyncio: a.-based server instead. (Contributed by Oleg Iarygin in gh-93243(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93243  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<3>, Next: ssl<2>, Prev: smtpd, Up: Removed 1.2.11.14 sqlite3 ................. * The following undocumented *note sqlite3: cf. features, deprecated in Python 3.10, are now removed: * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’ * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter. The ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ text factory has been an alias for *note str: 447. since Python 3.3. Code that previously set the text factory to ‘OptimizedUnicode’ can either use ‘str’ explicitly, or rely on the default value which is also ‘str’. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in gh-92548(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92548  File: python.info, Node: ssl<2>, Next: unittest<3>, Prev: sqlite3<3>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.15 ssl ............. * Remove *note ssl: d0.’s ‘ssl.RAND_pseudo_bytes()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.6: use *note os.urandom(): 51e. or *note ssl.RAND_bytes(): 51f. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(1).) * Remove the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function. It was deprecated in Python 3.7. OpenSSL performs hostname matching since Python 3.7, Python no longer uses the ‘ssl.match_hostname()’ function. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(2).) * Remove the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function, deprecated in Python 3.7: instead, create a *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. object and call its *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket: 520. method. Any package that still uses ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is broken and insecure. The function neither sends a SNI TLS extension nor validates the server hostname. Code is subject to CWE 295(3) (Improper Certificate Validation). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94199(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199 (3) https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/295.html (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94199  File: python.info, Node: unittest<3>, Next: webbrowser<2>, Prev: ssl<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.16 unittest .................. * Remove many long-deprecated *note unittest: 106. features: * A number of *note TestCase: 449. method aliases: Deprecated alias Method Name Deprecated in ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘failUnless’ *note assertTrue(): 522. 3.1 ‘failIf’ *note assertFalse(): 523. 3.1 ‘failUnlessEqual’ *note assertEqual(): 524. 3.1 ‘failIfEqual’ *note assertNotEqual(): 525. 3.1 ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’ *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. 3.1 ‘failIfAlmostEqual’ *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. 3.1 ‘failUnlessRaises’ *note assertRaises(): 528. 3.1 ‘assert_’ *note assertTrue(): 522. 3.2 ‘assertEquals’ *note assertEqual(): 524. 3.2 ‘assertNotEquals’ *note assertNotEqual(): 525. 3.2 ‘assertAlmostEquals’ *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. 3.2 ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’ *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. 3.2 ‘assertRegexpMatches’ *note assertRegex(): 529. 3.2 ‘assertRaisesRegexp’ *note assertRaisesRegex(): 52a. 3.2 ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’ *note assertNotRegex(): 52b. 3.5 You can use ‘https://github.com/isidentical/teyit’ to automatically modernise your unit tests. * Undocumented and broken *note TestCase: 449. method ‘assertDictContainsSubset’ (deprecated in Python 3.2). * Undocumented *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule: 291. parameter 'use_load_tests' (deprecated and ignored since Python 3.5). * An alias of the *note TextTestResult: 52c. class: ‘_TextTestResult’ (deprecated in Python 3.2). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-89325(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89325  File: python.info, Node: webbrowser<2>, Next: xml etree ElementTree, Prev: unittest<3>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.17 webbrowser .................... * Remove support for obsolete browsers from *note webbrowser: 115. The removed browsers include: Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, Firebird, and Firefox versions 35 and below (gh-102871(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102871  File: python.info, Node: xml etree ElementTree, Next: zipimport<2>, Prev: webbrowser<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.18 xml.etree.ElementTree ............................... * Remove the ‘ElementTree.Element.copy()’ method of the pure Python implementation, deprecated in Python 3.10, use the *note copy.copy(): 52f. function instead. The C implementation of *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. has no ‘copy()’ method, only a ‘__copy__()’ method. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94383(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94383  File: python.info, Node: zipimport<2>, Next: Others, Prev: xml etree ElementTree, Up: Removed 1.2.11.19 zipimport ................... * Remove *note zipimport: 132.’s ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ methods, deprecated in Python 3.10: use the ‘find_spec()’ method instead. See PEP 451(1) for the rationale. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94379(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94379  File: python.info, Node: Others, Prev: zipimport<2>, Up: Removed 1.2.11.20 Others ................ * Remove the ‘suspicious’ rule from the documentation ‘Makefile’ and ‘Doc/tools/rstlint.py’, both in favor of sphinx-lint(1). (Contributed by Julien Palard in gh-98179(2).) * Remove the 'keyfile' and 'certfile' parameters from the *note ftplib: 5e, *note imaplib: 74, *note poplib: ac. and *note smtplib: ca. modules, and the 'key_file', 'cert_file' and 'check_hostname' parameters from the *note http.client: 6f. module, all deprecated since Python 3.6. Use the 'context' parameter ('ssl_context' in *note imaplib: 74.) instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94172(3).) * Remove ‘Jython’ compatibility hacks from several stdlib modules and tests. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99482(4).) * Remove ‘_use_broken_old_ctypes_structure_semantics_’ flag from *note ctypes: 2a. module. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-99285(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/sphinx-contrib/sphinx-lint (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98179 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94172 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99482 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99285  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 12, Next: Build Changes<2>, Prev: Removed, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.12 Porting to Python 3.12 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<2>, Up: Porting to Python 3 12 1.2.12.1 Changes in the Python API .................................. * More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(1).) * Remove ‘randrange()’ functionality deprecated since Python 3.10. Formerly, ‘randrange(10.0)’ losslessly converted to ‘randrange(10)’. Now, it raises a *note TypeError: 534. Also, the exception raised for non-integer values such as ‘randrange(10.5)’ or ‘randrange('10')’ has been changed from *note ValueError: 204. to *note TypeError: 534. This also prevents bugs where ‘randrange(1e25)’ would silently select from a larger range than ‘randrange(10**25)’. (Originally suggested by Serhiy Storchaka gh-86388(2).) * *note argparse.ArgumentParser: 535. changed encoding and error handler for reading arguments from file (e.g. ‘fromfile_prefix_chars’ option) from default text encoding (e.g. *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 536.) to *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Argument files should be encoded in UTF-8 instead of ANSI Codepage on Windows. * Remove the ‘asyncore’-based ‘smtpd’ module deprecated in Python 3.4.7 and 3.5.4. A recommended replacement is the *note asyncio: a.-based aiosmtpd(3) PyPI module. * *note shlex.split(): 538.: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 539. The feature was deprecated in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-94352(4).) * The *note os: a1. module no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 53a. and *note memoryview: 464. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1c2. type is accepted for bytes strings. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).) * *note syslog.openlog(): 53b. and *note syslog.closelog(): 53c. now fail if used in subinterpreters. *note syslog.syslog(): 53d. may still be used in subinterpreters, but now only if *note syslog.openlog(): 53b. has already been called in the main interpreter. These new restrictions do not apply to the main interpreter, so only a very small set of users might be affected. This change helps with interpreter isolation. Furthermore, *note syslog: dc. is a wrapper around process-global resources, which are best managed from the main interpreter. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-99127(6).) * The undocumented locking behavior of *note cached_property(): 53e. is removed, because it locked across all instances of the class, leading to high lock contention. This means that a cached property getter function could now run more than once for a single instance, if two threads race. For most simple cached properties (e.g. those that are idempotent and simply calculate a value based on other attributes of the instance) this will be fine. If synchronization is needed, implement locking within the cached property getter function or around multi-threaded access points. * *note sys._current_exceptions(): 4be. now returns a mapping from thread-id to an exception instance, rather than to a ‘(typ, exc, tb)’ tuple. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-103176(7).) * When extracting tar files using *note tarfile: de. or *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 467, pass the 'filter' argument to limit features that may be surprising or dangerous. See *note Extraction filters: 468. for details. * The output of the *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d5. and *note tokenize.generate_tokens(): 4d6. functions is now changed due to the changes introduced in PEP 701(8). This means that ‘STRING’ tokens are not emitted any more for f-strings and the tokens described in PEP 701(9) are now produced instead: ‘FSTRING_START’, ‘FSTRING_MIDDLE’ and ‘FSTRING_END’ are now emitted for f-string “string” parts in addition to the appropriate tokens for the tokenization in the expression components. For example for the f-string ‘f"start {1+1} end"’ the old version of the tokenizer emitted: 1,0-1,18: STRING 'f"start {1+1} end"' while the new version emits: 1,0-1,2: FSTRING_START 'f"' 1,2-1,8: FSTRING_MIDDLE 'start ' 1,8-1,9: OP '{' 1,9-1,10: NUMBER '1' 1,10-1,11: OP '+' 1,11-1,12: NUMBER '1' 1,12-1,13: OP '}' 1,13-1,17: FSTRING_MIDDLE ' end' 1,17-1,18: FSTRING_END '"' Additionally, there may be some minor behavioral changes as a consequence of the changes required to support PEP 701(10). Some of these changes include: * The ‘type’ attribute of the tokens emitted when tokenizing some invalid Python characters such as ‘!’ has changed from ‘ERRORTOKEN’ to ‘OP’. * Incomplete single-line strings now also raise *note tokenize.TokenError: 53f. as incomplete multiline strings do. * Some incomplete or invalid Python code now raises *note tokenize.TokenError: 53f. instead of returning arbitrary ‘ERRORTOKEN’ tokens when tokenizing it. * Mixing tabs and spaces as indentation in the same file is not supported anymore and will raise a *note TabError: 540. * The *note threading: ed. module now expects the ‘_thread’ module to have an ‘_is_main_interpreter’ attribute. It is a function with no arguments that returns ‘True’ if the current interpreter is the main interpreter. Any library or application that provides a custom ‘_thread’ module should provide ‘_is_main_interpreter()’. (See gh-112826(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/86388 (3) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/ (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94352 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99127 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103176 (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0701/ (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112826  File: python.info, Node: Build Changes<2>, Next: C API Changes<2>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 12, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.13 Build Changes -------------------- * Python no longer uses ‘setup.py’ to build shared C extension modules. Build parameters like headers and libraries are detected in ‘configure’ script. Extensions are built by ‘Makefile’. Most extensions use ‘pkg-config’ and fall back to manual detection. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-93939(1).) * ‘va_start()’ with two parameters, like ‘va_start(args, format),’ is now required to build Python. ‘va_start()’ is no longer called with a single parameter. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-93207(2).) * CPython now uses the ThinLTO option as the default link time optimization policy if the Clang compiler accepts the flag. (Contributed by Donghee Na in gh-89536(3).) * Add ‘COMPILEALL_OPTS’ variable in ‘Makefile’ to override *note compileall: 20. options (default: ‘-j0’) in ‘make install’. Also merged the 3 ‘compileall’ commands into a single command to build .pyc files for all optimization levels (0, 1, 2) at once. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-99289(4).) * Add platform triplets for 64-bit LoongArch: * loongarch64-linux-gnusf * loongarch64-linux-gnuf32 * loongarch64-linux-gnu (Contributed by Zhang Na in gh-90656(5).) * ‘PYTHON_FOR_REGEN’ now require Python 3.10 or newer. * Autoconf 2.71 and aclocal 1.16.4 is now required to regenerate ‘!configure’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89886(6).) * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL 3.0. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93939 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93207 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89536 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/99289 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90656 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89886  File: python.info, Node: C API Changes<2>, Prev: Build Changes<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 12 1.2.14 C API Changes -------------------- * Menu: * New Features: New Features<4>. * Porting to Python 3.12: Porting to Python 3 12<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<2>. * Removed: Removed<2>.  File: python.info, Node: New Features<4>, Next: Porting to Python 3 12<2>, Up: C API Changes<2> 1.2.14.1 New Features ..................... * PEP 697(1): Introduce the *note Unstable C API tier: 544, intended for low-level tools like debuggers and JIT compilers. This API may change in each minor release of CPython without deprecation warnings. Its contents are marked by the ‘PyUnstable_’ prefix in names. Code object constructors: - ‘PyUnstable_Code_New()’ (renamed from ‘PyCode_New’) - ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ (renamed from ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’) Extra storage for code objects ( PEP 523(2)): - ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex()’ (renamed from ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’) - ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’) - ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra()’ (renamed from ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’) The original names will continue to be available until the respective API changes. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-101101(3).) * PEP 697(4): Add an API for extending types whose instance memory layout is opaque: - *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545. can be zero or negative to specify inheriting or extending the base class size. - *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 546. and *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 547. added to allow access to subclass-specific instance data. - *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 548. and *note PyObject_GetItemData(): 549. added to allow safely extending certain variable-sized types, including *note PyType_Type: 54a. - *note Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET: 54b. added to allow defining *note members: 54c. in terms of a subclass-specific struct. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-103509(5).) * Add the new *note limited C API: 391. function *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54d, which generalizes the existing *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. using an additional metaclass argument. (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-93012(6).) * API for creating objects that can be called using *note the vectorcall protocol: 54f. was added to the *note Limited API: 550.: * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 552. * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 553. * *note vectorcallfunc: 554. The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. flag is now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 555. method is reassigned. This makes vectorcall safe to use with mutable types (i.e. heap types without the immutable flag, *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be.). Mutable types that do not override *note tp_call: 556. now inherit the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ flag. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-93274(7).) The *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. flags have been added. This allows extensions classes to support object *note __dict__: 558. and weakrefs with less bookkeeping, using less memory and with faster access. * API for performing calls using *note the vectorcall protocol: 54f. was added to the *note Limited API: 550.: * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 559. * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 55a. * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 55b. This means that both the incoming and outgoing ends of the vector call protocol are now available in the *note Limited API: 550. (Contributed by Wenzel Jakob in gh-98586(8).) * Add two new public functions, *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 55c. and *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41e, that allow to set tracing and profiling functions in all running threads in addition to the calling one. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93503(9).) * Add new function *note PyFunction_SetVectorcall(): 55d. to the C API which sets the vectorcall field of a given *note PyFunctionObject: 55e. (Contributed by Andrew Frost in gh-92257(10).) * The C API now permits registering callbacks via *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55f, *note PyDict_Watch(): 560. and related APIs to be called whenever a dictionary is modified. This is intended for use by optimizing interpreters, JIT compilers, or debuggers. (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91052(11).) * Add *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 561. and *note PyType_Watch(): 562. API to register callbacks to receive notification on changes to a type. (Contributed by Carl Meyer in gh-91051(12).) * Add *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 563. and *note PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 564. APIs to register callbacks to receive notification on creation and destruction of code objects. (Contributed by Itamar Oren in gh-91054(13).) * Add *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 565. and *note PyFrame_GetVarString(): 566. functions to get a frame variable by its name. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-91248(14).) * Add *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. and *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. for saving and restoring the current exception. These functions return and accept a single exception object, rather than the triple arguments of the now-deprecated *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2. This is less error prone and a bit more efficient. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(15).) * Add ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’, which takes an exception instance, to replace the legacy-API ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’, which is now deprecated. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(16).) * Add *note PyException_GetArgs(): 567. and *note PyException_SetArgs(): 568. as convenience functions for retrieving and modifying the *note args: 569. passed to the exception’s constructor. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(17).) * Add *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fe, which takes an exception instance, to replace the legacy-api ‘PyErr_Display()’. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(18)). * PEP 683(19): Introduce 'Immortal Objects', which allows objects to bypass reference counts, and related changes to the C-API: - ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’: The reference count that defines an object as immortal. - ‘_Py_IsImmortal’ Checks if an object has the immortal reference count. - ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ This will now initialize reference count to ‘_Py_IMMORTAL_REFCNT’ when used with ‘Py_BUILD_CORE’. - ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL’ An identifier for interned unicode objects that are immortal. - ‘SSTATE_INTERNED_IMMORTAL_STATIC’ An identifier for interned unicode objects that are immortal and static - ‘sys.getunicodeinternedsize’ This returns the total number of unicode objects that have been interned. This is now needed for ‘refleak.py’ to correctly track reference counts and allocated blocks (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in gh-84436(20).) * PEP 684(21): Add the new *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 457. function and *note PyInterpreterConfig: 56a, which may be used to create sub-interpreters with their own GILs. (See *note PEP 684; A Per-Interpreter GIL: 437. for more info.) (Contributed by Eric Snow in gh-104110(22).) * In the limited C API version 3.12, *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. and *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. functions are now implemented as opaque function calls to hide implementation details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-105387(23).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101101 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0697/ (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103509 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93012 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93274 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98586 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93503 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92257 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91052 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91051 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91054 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91248 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578 (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755 (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/ (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84436 (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0684/ (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104110 (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105387  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 12<2>, Next: Deprecated<2>, Prev: New Features<4>, Up: C API Changes<2> 1.2.14.2 Porting to Python 3.12 ............................... * Legacy Unicode APIs based on ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation has been removed. Please migrate to APIs based on UTF-8 or ‘wchar_t*’. * Argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. doesn’t support ‘Py_UNICODE*’ based format (e.g. ‘u’, ‘Z’) anymore. Please migrate to other formats for Unicode like ‘s’, ‘z’, ‘es’, and ‘U’. * ‘tp_weaklist’ for all static builtin types is always ‘NULL’. This is an internal-only field on ‘PyTypeObject’ but we’re pointing out the change in case someone happens to be accessing the field directly anyway. To avoid breakage, consider using the existing public C-API instead, or, if necessary, the (internal-only) ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro. * This internal-only *note PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses: 56f. may now not be a valid object pointer. Its type was changed to void* to reflect this. We mention this in case someone happens to be accessing the internal-only field directly. To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note __subclasses__(): 570. (using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b, for example). * Add support of more formatting options (left aligning, octals, uppercase hexadecimals, ‘intmax_t’, ‘ptrdiff_t’, ‘wchar_t’ C strings, variable width and precision) in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 571. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-98836(1).) * An unrecognized format character in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 571. now sets a *note SystemError: 572. In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-95781(2).) * Fix wrong sign placement in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. and *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 571. (Contributed by Philip Georgi in gh-95504(3).) * Extension classes wanting to add a *note __dict__: 558. or weak reference slot should use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. instead of ‘tp_dictoffset’ and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’, respectively. The use of ‘tp_dictoffset’ and ‘tp_weaklistoffset’ is still supported, but does not fully support multiple inheritance (gh-95589(4)), and performance may be worse. Classes declaring *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. must call ‘_PyObject_VisitManagedDict()’ and ‘_PyObject_ClearManagedDict()’ to traverse and clear their instance’s dictionaries. To clear weakrefs, call *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 573, as before. * The *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 574. function no longer accepts bytes-like paths, like *note bytearray: 53a. and *note memoryview: 464. types: only the exact *note bytes: 1c2. type is accepted for bytes strings. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98393(5).) * The *note Py_CLEAR: 575, *note Py_SETREF: 576. and *note Py_XSETREF: 577. macros now only evaluate their arguments once. If an argument has side effects, these side effects are no longer duplicated. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-98724(6).) * The interpreter’s error indicator is now always normalized. This means that *note PyErr_SetObject(): 578, *note PyErr_SetString(): 579. and the other functions that set the error indicator now normalize the exception before storing it. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(7).) * ‘_Py_RefTotal’ is no longer authoritative and only kept around for ABI compatibility. Note that it is an internal global and only available on debug builds. If you happen to be using it then you’ll need to start using ‘_Py_GetGlobalRefTotal()’. * The following functions now select an appropriate metaclass for the newly created type: * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57c. is deprecated, and in Python 3.14+ it will be disallowed. Note that these functions ignore ‘tp_new’ of the metaclass, possibly allowing incomplete initialization. Note that *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54d. (added in Python 3.12) already disallows creating classes whose metaclass overrides ‘tp_new’ (*note __new__(): 57d. in Python). Since ‘tp_new’ overrides almost everything ‘PyType_From*’ functions do, the two are incompatible with each other. The existing behavior – ignoring the metaclass for several steps of type creation – is unsafe in general, since (meta)classes assume that ‘tp_new’ was called. There is no simple general workaround. One of the following may work for you: - If you control the metaclass, avoid using ‘tp_new’ in it: - If initialization can be skipped, it can be done in *note tp_init: 57e. instead. - If the metaclass doesn’t need to be instantiated from Python, set its ‘tp_new’ to ‘NULL’ using the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57f. flag. This makes it acceptable for ‘PyType_From*’ functions. - Avoid ‘PyType_From*’ functions: if you don’t need C-specific features (slots or setting the instance size), create types by *note calling: 580. the metaclass. - If you 'know' the ‘tp_new’ can be skipped safely, filter the deprecation warning out using *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 581. from Python. * *note PyOS_InputHook: 582. and *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 583. are no longer called in *note subinterpreters: 584. This is because clients generally rely on process-wide global state (since these callbacks have no way of recovering extension module state). This also avoids situations where extensions may find themselves running in a subinterpreter that they don’t support (or haven’t yet been loaded in). See gh-104668(8) for more info. * *note PyLongObject: 585. has had its internals changed for better performance. Although the internals of *note PyLongObject: 585. are private, they are used by some extension modules. The internal fields should no longer be accessed directly, instead the API functions beginning ‘PyLong_...’ should be used instead. Two new 'unstable' API functions are provided for efficient access to the value of *note PyLongObject: 585.s which fit into a single machine word: * *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 586. * *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 587. * Custom allocators, set via *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 588, are now required to be thread-safe, regardless of memory domain. Allocators that don’t have their own state, including “hooks”, are not affected. If your custom allocator is not already thread-safe and you need guidance then please create a new GitHub issue and CC ‘@ericsnowcurrently’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98836 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95781 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95504 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95589 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98393 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98724 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/104668  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<2>, Next: Removed<2>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 12<2>, Up: C API Changes<2> 1.2.14.3 Deprecated ................... * In accordance with PEP 699(1), the ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bd. is deprecated for extension modules. Accessing this field will generate a compiler warning at compile time. This field will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Ramvikrams and Kumar Aditya in gh-101193(2). PEP by Ken Jin.) * Deprecate global configuration variable: * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c2.: use *note PyConfig.parser_debug: 3c3. * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c4.: use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c5. * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c6.: use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c7. * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c8.: use *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c9. * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3ca.: use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3cc.: use *note PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cd. * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3ce.: use *note PyConfig.site_import: 3cf. * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0.: use *note PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3d1. * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d2.: use *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d4.: use *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d6.: use *note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d7. * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d8.: use *note PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d9. * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3da.: use *note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3db. * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3dc.: use *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3dd. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed: 3de. * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3df.: use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3e1.: use *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e3.: use *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: use *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e5. * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7.) The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-77782(3).) * Creating *note immutable types: 3be. with mutable bases is deprecated and will be disabled in Python 3.14. (gh-95388(4)) * The ‘structmember.h’ header is deprecated, though it continues to be available and there are no plans to remove it. Its contents are now available just by including ‘Python.h’, with a ‘Py’ prefix added if it was missing: - *note PyMemberDef: 54c, *note PyMember_GetOne(): 58a. and *note PyMember_SetOne(): 58b. - Type macros like *note Py_T_INT: 58c, *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 58d, etc. (previously ‘T_INT’, ‘T_DOUBLE’, etc.) - The flags *note Py_READONLY: 58e. (previously ‘READONLY’) and *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 58f. (previously all uppercase) Several items are not exposed from ‘Python.h’: - *note T_OBJECT: 590. (use *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 591.) - *note T_NONE: 592. (previously undocumented, and pretty quirky) - The macro ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ which does nothing. - The macros ‘RESTRICTED’ and ‘READ_RESTRICTED’, equivalents of *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 58f. - In some configurations, ‘’ is not included from ‘Python.h’. It should be included manually when using ‘offsetof()’. The deprecated header continues to provide its original contents under the original names. Your old code can stay unchanged, unless the extra include and non-namespaced macros bother you greatly. (Contributed in gh-47146(5) by Petr Viktorin, based on earlier work by Alexander Belopolsky and Matthias Braun.) * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2. are deprecated. Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. and *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. instead. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in gh-101578(6).) * ‘PyErr_Display()’ is deprecated. Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fe. instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102755(7)). * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions’ is deprecated. Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1’ instead. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in gh-102192(8).) * Using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. or *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. to create a class whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57c. is deprecated. Call the metaclass instead. * Menu: * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/77782 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/47146 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101578 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102755 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102192  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>, Up: Deprecated<2> 1.2.14.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.14 ....................................... * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bd. for extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)). * Creating *note immutable types: 3be. with mutable bases (gh-95388(3)). * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11: * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. instead. * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. instead. * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. instead. * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. instead. The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. * Global configuration variables: * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c2.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug: 3c3. instead. * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c4.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c5. instead. * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c6.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c7. instead. * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c8.: Use *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c9. instead. * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3ca.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. instead. * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3cc.: Use *note PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cd. instead. * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3ce.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import: 3cf. instead. * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0.: Use *note PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3d1. instead. * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d2.: Use *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. instead. * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d4.: Use *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. instead. * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d6.: Use *note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d7. instead. * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d8.: Use *note PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d9. instead. * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3da.: Use *note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3db. instead. * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3dc.: Use *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3dd. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed: 3de. instead. * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3df.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. instead. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3e1.: Use *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. instead. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e3.: Use *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. instead. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. instead. * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. instead. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e5. instead. * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. instead. (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7.) The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>, Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>, Up: Deprecated<2> 1.2.14.5 Pending Removal in Python 3.15 ....................................... * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9.: Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. instead. * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3bb.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. instead. * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use ‘wchar_t’ instead. * Python initialization functions: * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3ab.: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead. * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3ea. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. instead. * *note Py_GetPath(): 3af.: Get *note sys.path: 3b0. instead. * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb. and *note sys.prefix: 3b2. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable instead.  File: python.info, Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>, Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>, Up: Deprecated<2> 1.2.14.6 Pending removal in Python 3.16 ....................................... * The bundled copy of ‘libmpdec’.  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<4>, Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<4>, Up: Deprecated<2> 1.2.14.7 Pending Removal in Future Versions ........................................... The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal. * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ee.: Unneeded since Python 3.8. * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3f1.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. instead. * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f4.: Use *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f5. instead. * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f6.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. instead. * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f8.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. instead. * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fd.: Unneeded since Python 3.12 * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fe. instead. * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’ instead. * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff. instead. * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member. * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: * *note PyThread_create_key(): 400.: Use *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 401. instead. * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 402.: Use *note PyThread_tss_free(): 403. instead. * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 404.: Use *note PyThread_tss_set(): 405. instead. * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 406.: Use *note PyThread_tss_get(): 407. instead. * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 408.: Use *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 409. instead. * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 40a.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.  File: python.info, Node: Removed<2>, Prev: Deprecated<2>, Up: C API Changes<2> 1.2.14.8 Removed ................ * Remove the ‘token.h’ header file. There was never any public tokenizer C API. The ‘token.h’ header file was only designed to be used by Python internals. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-92651(1).) * Legacy Unicode APIs have been removed. See PEP 623(2) for detail. * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’ * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’ * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’ * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’ * Remove the ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-85858(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92651 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85858  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 11, Next: What’s New In Python 3 10, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 12, Up: What’s New in Python 1.3 What’s New In Python 3.11 ============================= Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado This article explains the new features in Python 3.11, compared to 3.10. Python 3.11 was released on October 24, 2022. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<2>. * New Features: New Features<5>. * New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<3>. * Other CPython Implementation Changes:: * New Modules: New Modules<3>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<3>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<3>. * Faster CPython:: * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<3>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12. * Removed: Removed<3>. * Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11. * Build Changes: Build Changes<3>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<3>. * Notable changes in 3.11.4: Notable changes in 3 11 4. * Notable changes in 3.11.5: Notable changes in 3 11 5.  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<2>, Next: New Features<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.1 Summary – Release highlights ---------------------------------- * Python 3.11 is between 10-60% faster than Python 3.10. On average, we measured a 1.25x speedup on the standard benchmark suite. See *note Faster CPython: 59c. for details. New syntax features: * *note PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: 59d. New built-in features: * *note PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: 59e. New standard library modules: * PEP 680(1): *note tomllib: fc. — Support for parsing TOML(2) in the Standard Library Interpreter improvements: * *note PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: 59f. * New *note -P: 5a0. command line option and *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 5a1. environment variable to *note disable automatically prepending potentially unsafe paths: 5a2. to *note sys.path: 3b0. New typing features: * *note PEP 646; Variadic generics: 5a3. * *note PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: 5a4. * *note PEP 673; Self type: 5a5. * *note PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: 5a6. * *note PEP 681; Data class transforms: 5a7. Important deprecations, removals and restrictions: * PEP 594(3): *note Many legacy standard library modules have been deprecated: 5a8. and will be removed in Python 3.13 * PEP 624(4): *note Py_UNICODE encoder APIs have been removed: 5a9. * PEP 670(5): *note Macros converted to static inline functions: 5aa. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/ (2) https://toml.io/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/  File: python.info, Node: New Features<5>, Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * PEP 657; Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks. * PEP 654; Exception Groups and except*: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*. * PEP 678; Exceptions can be enriched with notes: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes. * Windows py.exe launcher improvements: Windows py exe launcher improvements.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks, Next: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*, Up: New Features<5> 1.3.2.1 PEP 657: Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks ........................................................... When printing tracebacks, the interpreter will now point to the exact expression that caused the error, instead of just the line. For example: Traceback (most recent call last): File "distance.py", line 11, in print(manhattan_distance(p1, p2)) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ File "distance.py", line 6, in manhattan_distance return abs(point_1.x - point_2.x) + abs(point_1.y - point_2.y) ^^^^^^^^^ AttributeError: 'NoneType' object has no attribute 'x' Previous versions of the interpreter would point to just the line, making it ambiguous which object was ‘None’. These enhanced errors can also be helpful when dealing with deeply nested *note dict: 258. objects and multiple function calls: Traceback (most recent call last): File "query.py", line 37, in magic_arithmetic('foo') File "query.py", line 18, in magic_arithmetic return add_counts(x) / 25 ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ File "query.py", line 24, in add_counts return 25 + query_user(user1) + query_user(user2) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ File "query.py", line 32, in query_user return 1 + query_count(db, response['a']['b']['c']['user'], retry=True) ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^^^^ TypeError: 'NoneType' object is not subscriptable As well as complex arithmetic expressions: Traceback (most recent call last): File "calculation.py", line 54, in result = (x / y / z) * (a / b / c) ~~~~~~^~~ ZeroDivisionError: division by zero Additionally, the information used by the enhanced traceback feature is made available via a general API, that can be used to correlate *note bytecode: 187. *note instructions: 5ae. with source code location. This information can be retrieved using: - The *note codeobject.co_positions(): 5af. method in Python. - The *note PyCode_Addr2Location(): 5b0. function in the C API. See PEP 657(1) for more details. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Batuhan Taskaya and Ammar Askar in bpo-43950(2).) Note: This feature requires storing column positions in *note Code Objects: 5b1, which may result in a small increase in interpreter memory usage and disk usage for compiled Python files. To avoid storing the extra information and deactivate printing the extra traceback information, use the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 176. command line option or the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5b2. environment variable. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43950  File: python.info, Node: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*, Next: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes, Prev: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks, Up: New Features<5> 1.3.2.2 PEP 654: Exception Groups and ‘except*’ ............................................... PEP 654(1) introduces language features that enable a program to raise and handle multiple unrelated exceptions simultaneously. The builtin types *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. and *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261. make it possible to group exceptions and raise them together, and the new *note except*: 5b4. syntax generalizes *note except: 18b. to match subgroups of exception groups. See PEP 654(2) for more details. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45292(3). PEP written by Irit Katriel, Yury Selivanov and Guido van Rossum.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45292  File: python.info, Node: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes, Next: Windows py exe launcher improvements, Prev: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*, Up: New Features<5> 1.3.2.3 PEP 678: Exceptions can be enriched with notes ...................................................... The *note add_note(): 5b6. method is added to *note BaseException: 5b7. It can be used to enrich exceptions with context information that is not available at the time when the exception is raised. The added notes appear in the default traceback. See PEP 678(1) for more details. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45607(2). PEP written by Zac Hatfield-Dodds.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0678/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45607  File: python.info, Node: Windows py exe launcher improvements, Prev: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes, Up: New Features<5> 1.3.2.4 Windows ‘py.exe’ launcher improvements .............................................. The copy of the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 5ba. included with Python 3.11 has been significantly updated. It now supports company/tag syntax as defined in PEP 514(1) using the ‘-V:/’ argument instead of the limited ‘-.’. This allows launching distributions other than ‘PythonCore’, the one hosted on python.org(2). When using ‘-V:’ selectors, either company or tag can be omitted, but all installs will be searched. For example, ‘-V:OtherPython/’ will select the “best” tag registered for ‘OtherPython’, while ‘-V:3.11’ or ‘-V:/3.11’ will select the “best” distribution with tag ‘3.11’. When using the legacy ‘-’, ‘-.’, ‘--’ or ‘-.-’ arguments, all existing behaviour should be preserved from past versions, and only releases from ‘PythonCore’ will be selected. However, the ‘-64’ suffix now implies “not 32-bit” (not necessarily x86-64), as there are multiple supported 64-bit platforms. 32-bit runtimes are detected by checking the runtime’s tag for a ‘-32’ suffix. All releases of Python since 3.5 have included this in their 32-bit builds. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0514/ (2) https://www.python.org  File: python.info, Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>, Next: Other Language Changes<3>, Prev: New Features<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.3 New Features Related to Type Hints ---------------------------------------- This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and the *note typing: 104. module. * Menu: * PEP 646; Variadic generics: PEP 646 Variadic generics. * PEP 655; Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required. * PEP 673; Self type: PEP 673 Self type. * PEP 675; Arbitrary literal string type: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type. * PEP 681; Data class transforms: PEP 681 Data class transforms. * PEP 563 may not be the future:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 646 Variadic generics, Next: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2> 1.3.3.1 PEP 646: Variadic generics .................................. PEP 484(1) previously introduced *note TypeVar: 15d, enabling creation of generics parameterised with a single type. PEP 646(2) adds *note TypeVarTuple: 15f, enabling parameterisation with an 'arbitrary' number of types. In other words, a *note TypeVarTuple: 15f. is a 'variadic' type variable, enabling 'variadic' generics. This enables a wide variety of use cases. In particular, it allows the type of array-like structures in numerical computing libraries such as NumPy and TensorFlow to be parameterised with the array 'shape'. Static type checkers will now be able to catch shape-related bugs in code that uses these libraries. See PEP 646(3) for more details. (Contributed by Matthew Rahtz in bpo-43224(4), with contributions by Serhiy Storchaka and Jelle Zijlstra. PEP written by Mark Mendoza, Matthew Rahtz, Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan, and Vincent Siles.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43224  File: python.info, Node: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required, Next: PEP 673 Self type, Prev: PEP 646 Variadic generics, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2> 1.3.3.2 PEP 655: Marking individual ‘TypedDict’ items as required or not-required ................................................................................. *note Required: 5c0. and *note NotRequired: 5c1. provide a straightforward way to mark whether individual items in a *note TypedDict: 162. must be present. Previously, this was only possible using inheritance. All fields are still required by default, unless the 'total' parameter is set to ‘False’, in which case all fields are still not-required by default. For example, the following specifies a ‘TypedDict’ with one required and one not-required key: class Movie(TypedDict): title: str year: NotRequired[int] m1: Movie = {"title": "Black Panther", "year": 2018} # OK m2: Movie = {"title": "Star Wars"} # OK (year is not required) m3: Movie = {"year": 2022} # ERROR (missing required field title) The following definition is equivalent: class Movie(TypedDict, total=False): title: Required[str] year: int See PEP 655(1) for more details. (Contributed by David Foster and Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47087(2). PEP written by David Foster.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47087  File: python.info, Node: PEP 673 Self type, Next: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type, Prev: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2> 1.3.3.3 PEP 673: ‘Self’ type ............................ The new *note Self: 5c3. annotation provides a simple and intuitive way to annotate methods that return an instance of their class. This behaves the same as the *note TypeVar: 15d.-based approach specified in PEP 484(1), but is more concise and easier to follow. Common use cases include alternative constructors provided as *note classmethod: 166.s, and *note __enter__(): 5c4. methods that return ‘self’: class MyLock: def __enter__(self) -> Self: self.lock() return self ... class MyInt: @classmethod def fromhex(cls, s: str) -> Self: return cls(int(s, 16)) ... *note Self: 5c3. can also be used to annotate method parameters or attributes of the same type as their enclosing class. See PEP 673(2) for more details. (Contributed by James Hilton-Balfe in bpo-46534(3). PEP written by Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and James Hilton-Balfe.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/#annotating-instance-and-class-methods (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46534  File: python.info, Node: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type, Next: PEP 681 Data class transforms, Prev: PEP 673 Self type, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2> 1.3.3.4 PEP 675: Arbitrary literal string type .............................................. The new *note LiteralString: 5c6. annotation may be used to indicate that a function parameter can be of any literal string type. This allows a function to accept arbitrary literal string types, as well as strings created from other literal strings. Type checkers can then enforce that sensitive functions, such as those that execute SQL statements or shell commands, are called only with static arguments, providing protection against injection attacks. For example, a SQL query function could be annotated as follows: def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> ... ... def caller( arbitrary_string: str, query_string: LiteralString, table_name: LiteralString, ) -> None: run_query("SELECT * FROM students") # ok run_query(query_string) # ok run_query("SELECT * FROM " + table_name) # ok run_query(arbitrary_string) # type checker error run_query( # type checker error f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}" ) See PEP 675(1) for more details. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-47088(2). PEP written by Pradeep Kumar Srinivasan and Graham Bleaney.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47088  File: python.info, Node: PEP 681 Data class transforms, Next: PEP 563 may not be the future, Prev: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2> 1.3.3.5 PEP 681: Data class transforms ...................................... *note dataclass_transform: 4d0. may be used to decorate a class, metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator. The presence of ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the decorated object performs runtime “magic” that transforms a class, giving it *note dataclass: 1cb.-like behaviors. For example: # The create_model decorator is defined by a library. @typing.dataclass_transform() def create_model(cls: Type[T]) -> Type[T]: cls.__init__ = ... cls.__eq__ = ... cls.__ne__ = ... return cls # The create_model decorator can now be used to create new model classes: @create_model class CustomerModel: id: int name: str c = CustomerModel(id=327, name="Eric Idle") See PEP 681(1) for more details. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-91860(2). PEP written by Erik De Bonte and Eric Traut.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91860  File: python.info, Node: PEP 563 may not be the future, Prev: PEP 681 Data class transforms, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<2> 1.3.3.6 PEP 563 may not be the future ..................................... PEP 563(1) Postponed Evaluation of Annotations (the ‘from __future__ import annotations’ *note future statement: 189.) that was originally planned for release in Python 3.10 has been put on hold indefinitely. See this message from the Steering Council(2) for more information. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/ (2) https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<3>, Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes, Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.4 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * Starred unpacking expressions can now be used in *note for: 2ec. statements. (See bpo-46725(1) for more details.) * Asynchronous *note comprehensions: 5cc. are now allowed inside comprehensions in *note asynchronous functions: 5cd. Outer comprehensions implicitly become asynchronous in this case. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33346(2).) * A *note TypeError: 534. is now raised instead of an *note AttributeError: 348. in *note with: 5ce. statements and *note contextlib.ExitStack.enter_context(): 5cf. for objects that do not support the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol, and in *note async with: 5d1. statements and *note contextlib.AsyncExitStack.enter_async_context(): 5d2. for objects not supporting the *note asynchronous context manager: 5d3. protocol. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12022(3) and bpo-44471(4).) * Added *note object.__getstate__(): 5d4, which provides the default implementation of the ‘__getstate__()’ method. *note copy: 25.ing and *note pickle: a6.ing instances of subclasses of builtin types *note bytearray: 53a, *note set: 5d5, *note frozenset: 5d6, *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7, *note collections.deque: 5d8, *note weakref.WeakSet: 5d9, and *note datetime.tzinfo: 5da. now copies and pickles instance attributes implemented as *note slots: 5db. This change has an unintended side effect: It trips up a small minority of existing Python projects not expecting *note object.__getstate__(): 5d4. to exist. See the later comments on gh-70766(5) for discussions of what workarounds such code may need. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26579(6).) * Added a *note -P: 5a0. command line option and a *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 5a1. environment variable, which disable the automatic prepending to *note sys.path: 3b0. of the script’s directory when running a script, or the current directory when using *note -c: 5dc. and *note -m: 5dd. This ensures only stdlib and installed modules are picked up by *note import: 5de, and avoids unintentionally or maliciously shadowing modules with those in a local (and typically user-writable) directory. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(7).) * A ‘"z"’ option was added to the *note Format Specification Mini-Language: 1ea. that coerces negative to positive zero after rounding to the format precision. See PEP 682(8) for more details. (Contributed by John Belmonte in gh-90153(9).) * Bytes are no longer accepted on *note sys.path: 3b0. Support broke sometime between Python 3.2 and 3.6, with no one noticing until after Python 3.10.0 was released. In addition, bringing back support would be problematic due to interactions between *note -b: 5df. and *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. when there is a mixture of *note str: 447. and *note bytes: 1c2. keys. (Contributed by Thomas Grainger in gh-91181(10).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46725 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33346 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12022 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44471 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70766 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26579 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684 (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0682/ (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90153 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91181  File: python.info, Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes, Next: New Modules<3>, Prev: Other Language Changes<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.5 Other CPython Implementation Changes ------------------------------------------ * The special methods *note __complex__(): 5e3. for *note complex: 2f2. and *note __bytes__(): 5e4. for *note bytes: 1c2. are implemented to support the *note typing.SupportsComplex: 5e5. and *note typing.SupportsBytes: 5e6. protocols. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Donghee Na in bpo-24234(1).) * ‘siphash13’ is added as a new internal hashing algorithm. It has similar security properties as ‘siphash24’, but it is slightly faster for long inputs. *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2, and some other types now use it as the default algorithm for *note hash(): 5e7. PEP 552(2) *note hash-based .pyc files: 5e8. now use ‘siphash13’ too. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-29410(3).) * When an active exception is re-raised by a *note raise: 5e9. statement with no parameters, the traceback attached to this exception is now always ‘sys.exc_info()[1].__traceback__’. This means that changes made to the traceback in the current *note except: 18b. clause are reflected in the re-raised exception. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).) * The interpreter state’s representation of handled exceptions (aka ‘exc_info’ or ‘_PyErr_StackItem’) now only has the ‘exc_value’ field; ‘exc_type’ and ‘exc_traceback’ have been removed, as they can be derived from ‘exc_value’. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(5).) * A new *note command line option: 5ea, ‘AppendPath’, has been added for the Windows installer. It behaves similarly to ‘PrependPath’, but appends the install and scripts directories instead of prepending them. (Contributed by Bastian Neuburger in bpo-44934(6).) * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5eb. field must now be set to ‘1’ for initialization to use *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39e. to initialize *note sys.path: 3b0. Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’. * The output of the *note -help: 5ec. option now fits in 50 lines/80 columns. Information about *note Python environment variables: 5ed. and *note -X: 176. options is now available using the respective *note -help-env: 5ee. and *note -help-xoptions: 5ef. flags, and with the new *note -help-all: 5f0. (Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-46142(7).) * Converting between *note int: 259. and *note str: 447. in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(8). This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs. See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24234 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29410 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44934 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46142 (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<3>, Next: Improved Modules<3>, Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.6 New Modules ----------------- * *note tomllib: fc.: For parsing TOML(1). See PEP 680(2) for more details. (Contributed by Taneli Hukkinen in bpo-40059(3).) * *note wsgiref.types: 11c.: WSGI(4)-specific types for static type checking. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-42012(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://toml.io/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0680/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40059 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42012  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<3>, Next: Optimizations<3>, Prev: New Modules<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.7 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * asyncio: asyncio<3>. * contextlib:: * dataclasses:: * datetime:: * enum: enum<3>. * fcntl:: * fractions: fractions<3>. * functools:: * gzip: gzip<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<2>. * IDLE and idlelib:: * inspect: inspect<2>. * locale: locale<3>. * logging:: * math: math<3>. * operator:: * os: os<3>. * pathlib: pathlib<4>. * re: re<3>. * shutil: shutil<3>. * socket:: * sqlite3: sqlite3<4>. * string:: * sys: sys<4>. * sysconfig:: * tempfile: tempfile<3>. * threading: threading<2>. * time: time<2>. * tkinter: tkinter<3>. * traceback: traceback<2>. * typing: typing<4>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<3>. * unittest: unittest<4>. * venv: venv<2>. * warnings: warnings<2>. * zipfile::  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<3>, Next: contextlib, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.1 asyncio ............... * Added the *note TaskGroup: 1b5. class, an *note asynchronous context manager: 5f8. holding a group of tasks that will wait for all of them upon exit. For new code this is recommended over using *note create_task(): 1bf. and *note gather(): 5f9. directly. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and others in gh-90908(1).) * Added *note timeout(): 5fa, an asynchronous context manager for setting a timeout on asynchronous operations. For new code this is recommended over using *note wait_for(): 5fb. directly. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-90927(2).) * Added the *note Runner: 5fc. class, which exposes the machinery used by *note run(): 478. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in gh-91218(3).) * Added the *note Barrier: 5fd. class to the synchronization primitives in the asyncio library, and the related *note BrokenBarrierError: 5fe. exception. (Contributed by Yves Duprat and Andrew Svetlov in gh-87518(4).) * Added keyword argument 'all_errors' to *note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5ff. so that multiple connection errors can be raised as an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. * Added the *note asyncio.StreamWriter.start_tls(): 600. method for upgrading existing stream-based connections to TLS. (Contributed by Ian Good in bpo-34975(5).) * Added raw datagram socket functions to the event loop: *note sock_sendto(): 601, *note sock_recvfrom(): 602. and *note sock_recvfrom_into(): 603. These have implementations in *note SelectorEventLoop: 604. and *note ProactorEventLoop: 605. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-46805(6).) * Added *note cancelling(): 1ba. and *note uncancel(): 1bb. methods to *note Task: 1be. These are primarily intended for internal use, notably by *note TaskGroup: 1b5. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90908 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90927 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91218 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87518 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34975 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46805  File: python.info, Node: contextlib, Next: dataclasses, Prev: asyncio<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.2 contextlib .................. * Added non parallel-safe *note chdir(): 608. context manager to change the current working directory and then restore it on exit. Simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 609. (Contributed by Filipe Laíns in bpo-25625(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25625  File: python.info, Node: dataclasses, Next: datetime, Prev: contextlib, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.3 dataclasses ................... * Change field default mutability check, allowing only defaults which are *note hashable: 60c. instead of any object which is not an instance of *note dict: 258, *note list: 60d. or *note set: 5d5. (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-44674(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44674  File: python.info, Node: datetime, Next: enum<3>, Prev: dataclasses, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.4 datetime ................ * Add *note datetime.UTC: 4ea, a convenience alias for *note datetime.timezone.utc: 610. (Contributed by Kabir Kwatra in gh-91973(1).) * *note datetime.date.fromisoformat(): 611, *note datetime.time.fromisoformat(): 612. and *note datetime.datetime.fromisoformat(): 613. can now be used to parse most ISO 8601 formats (barring only those that support fractional hours and minutes). (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in gh-80010(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91973 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/80010  File: python.info, Node: enum<3>, Next: fcntl, Prev: datetime, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.5 enum ............ * Renamed ‘EnumMeta’ to *note EnumType: 1e7. (‘EnumMeta’ kept as an alias). * Added *note StrEnum: 616, with members that can be used as (and must be) strings. * Added *note ReprEnum: 617, which only modifies the *note __repr__(): 618. of members while returning their literal values (rather than names) for *note __str__(): 619. and *note __format__(): 61a. (used by *note str(): 447, *note format(): 61b. and *note f-string: 431.s). * Changed *note Enum.__format__(): 61c. (the default for *note format(): 61b, *note str.format(): 61d. and *note f-string: 431.s) to always produce the same result as *note Enum.__str__(): 61e.: for enums inheriting from *note ReprEnum: 617. it will be the member’s value; for all other enums it will be the enum and member name (e.g. ‘Color.RED’). * Added a new 'boundary' class parameter to *note Flag: 61f. enums and the *note FlagBoundary: 620. enum with its options, to control how to handle out-of-range flag values. * Added the *note verify(): 621. enum decorator and the *note EnumCheck: 622. enum with its options, to check enum classes against several specific constraints. * Added the *note member(): 623. and *note nonmember(): 624. decorators, to ensure the decorated object is/is not converted to an enum member. * Added the *note property(): 625. decorator, which works like *note property(): 194. except for enums. Use this instead of *note types.DynamicClassAttribute(): 626. * Added the *note global_enum(): 627. enum decorator, which adjusts *note __repr__(): 618. and *note __str__(): 619. to show values as members of their module rather than the enum class. For example, ‘'re.ASCII'’ for the *note ASCII: 628. member of *note re.RegexFlag: 629. rather than ‘'RegexFlag.ASCII'’. * Enhanced *note Flag: 61f. to support *note len(): 62a, iteration and *note in: 2ee./*note not in: 62b. on its members. For example, the following now works: ‘len(AFlag(3)) == 2 and list(AFlag(3)) == (AFlag.ONE, AFlag.TWO)’ * Changed *note Enum: 62c. and *note Flag: 61f. so that members are now defined before *note __init_subclass__(): 62d. is called; *note dir(): 62e. now includes methods, etc., from mixed-in data types. * Changed *note Flag: 61f. to only consider primary values (power of two) canonical while composite values (‘3’, ‘6’, ‘10’, etc.) are considered aliases; inverted flags are coerced to their positive equivalent.  File: python.info, Node: fcntl, Next: fractions<3>, Prev: enum<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.6 fcntl ............. * On FreeBSD, the ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ flags respectively are supported, the former equals to ‘dup2’ usage while the latter set the ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition.  File: python.info, Node: fractions<3>, Next: functools, Prev: fcntl, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.7 fractions ................. * Support PEP 515(1)-style initialization of *note Fraction: 1e9. from string. (Contributed by Sergey B Kirpichev in bpo-44258(2).) * *note Fraction: 1e9. now implements an ‘__int__’ method, so that an ‘isinstance(some_fraction, typing.SupportsInt)’ check passes. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44547(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44258 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44547  File: python.info, Node: functools, Next: gzip<2>, Prev: fractions<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.8 functools ................. * *note functools.singledispatch(): 635. now supports *note types.UnionType: 636. and *note typing.Union: 637. as annotations to the dispatch argument.: >>> from functools import singledispatch >>> @singledispatch ... def fun(arg, verbose=False): ... if verbose: ... print("Let me just say,", end=" ") ... print(arg) ... >>> @fun.register ... def _(arg: int | float, verbose=False): ... if verbose: ... print("Strength in numbers, eh?", end=" ") ... print(arg) ... >>> from typing import Union >>> @fun.register ... def _(arg: Union[list, set], verbose=False): ... if verbose: ... print("Enumerate this:") ... for i, elem in enumerate(arg): ... print(i, elem) ... (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-46014(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46014  File: python.info, Node: gzip<2>, Next: hashlib<2>, Prev: functools, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.9 gzip ............ * The *note gzip.compress(): 63a. function is now faster when used with the 'mtime=0' argument as it delegates the compression entirely to a single *note zlib.compress(): 63b. operation. There is one side effect of this change: The gzip file header contains an “OS” byte in its header. That was traditionally always set to a value of 255 representing “unknown” by the *note gzip: 67. module. Now, when using *note compress(): 63a. with 'mtime=0', it may be set to a different value by the underlying zlib C library Python was linked against. (See gh-112346(1) for details on the side effect.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/112346  File: python.info, Node: hashlib<2>, Next: IDLE and idlelib, Prev: gzip<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.10 hashlib ................ * *note hashlib.blake2b(): 63e. and *note hashlib.blake2s(): 63f. now prefer libb2(1) over Python’s vendored copy. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-47095(2).) * The internal ‘_sha3’ module with SHA3 and SHAKE algorithms now uses 'tiny_sha3' instead of the 'Keccak Code Package' to reduce code and binary size. The *note hashlib: 68. module prefers optimized SHA3 and SHAKE implementations from OpenSSL. The change affects only installations without OpenSSL support. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-47098(3).) * Add *note hashlib.file_digest(): 640, a helper function for efficient hashing of files or file-like objects. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-89313(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.blake2.net/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47095 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47098 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89313  File: python.info, Node: IDLE and idlelib, Next: inspect<2>, Prev: hashlib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.11 IDLE and idlelib ......................... * Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files. (Contributed by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(1).) * Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191  File: python.info, Node: inspect<2>, Next: locale<3>, Prev: IDLE and idlelib, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.12 inspect ................ * Add *note getmembers_static(): 645. to return all members without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol. (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-30533(1).) * Add *note ismethodwrapper(): 646. for checking if the type of an object is a *note MethodWrapperType: 647. (Contributed by Hakan Çelik in bpo-29418(2).) * Change the frame-related functions in the *note inspect: 7e. module to return new *note FrameInfo: 648. and *note Traceback: 649. class instances (backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 64a.-like interfaces) that includes the extended PEP 657(3) position information (end line number, column and end column). The affected functions are: * *note inspect.getframeinfo(): 64b. * *note inspect.getouterframes(): 64c. * *note inspect.getinnerframes(): 64d, * *note inspect.stack(): 64e. * *note inspect.trace(): 64f. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-88116(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30533 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29418 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0657/ (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88116  File: python.info, Node: locale<3>, Next: logging, Prev: inspect<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.13 locale ............... * Add *note locale.getencoding(): 2e0. to get the current locale encoding. It is similar to ‘locale.getpreferredencoding(False)’ but ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652.  File: python.info, Node: logging, Next: math<3>, Prev: locale<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.14 logging ................ * Added *note getLevelNamesMapping(): 655. to return a mapping from logging level names (e.g. ‘'CRITICAL'’) to the values of their corresponding *note Logging Levels: 656. (e.g. ‘50’, by default). (Contributed by Andrei Kulakovin in gh-88024(1).) * Added a *note createSocket(): 657. method to *note SysLogHandler: 658, to match *note SocketHandler.createSocket(): 659. It is called automatically during handler initialization and when emitting an event, if there is no active socket. (Contributed by Kirill Pinchuk in gh-88457(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88024 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88457  File: python.info, Node: math<3>, Next: operator, Prev: logging, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.15 math ............. * Add *note math.exp2(): 65c.: return 2 raised to the power of x. (Contributed by Gideon Mitchell in bpo-45917(1).) * Add *note math.cbrt(): 65d.: return the cube root of x. (Contributed by Ajith Ramachandran in bpo-44357(2).) * The behaviour of two *note math.pow(): 65e. corner cases was changed, for consistency with the IEEE 754 specification. The operations ‘math.pow(0.0, -math.inf)’ and ‘math.pow(-0.0, -math.inf)’ now return ‘inf’. Previously they raised *note ValueError: 204. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-44339(3).) * The *note math.nan: 65f. value is now always available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45917 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44357 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44339 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917  File: python.info, Node: operator, Next: os<3>, Prev: math<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.16 operator ................. * A new function ‘operator.call’ has been added, such that ‘operator.call(obj, *args, **kwargs) == obj(*args, **kwargs)’. (Contributed by Antony Lee in bpo-44019(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44019  File: python.info, Node: os<3>, Next: pathlib<4>, Prev: operator, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.17 os ........... * On Windows, *note os.urandom(): 51e. now uses ‘BCryptGenRandom()’, instead of ‘CryptGenRandom()’ which is deprecated. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-44611(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44611  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<4>, Next: re<3>, Prev: os<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.18 pathlib ................ * *note glob(): 22f. and *note rglob(): 230. return only directories if 'pattern' ends with a pathname components separator: *note sep: 666. or *note altsep: 667. (Contributed by Eisuke Kawasima in bpo-22276(1) and bpo-33392(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22276 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33392  File: python.info, Node: re<3>, Next: shutil<3>, Prev: pathlib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.19 re ........... * Atomic grouping (‘(?>...)’) and possessive quantifiers (‘*+’, ‘++’, ‘?+’, ‘{m,n}+’) are now supported in regular expressions. (Contributed by Jeffrey C. Jacobs and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433030(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433030  File: python.info, Node: shutil<3>, Next: socket, Prev: re<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.20 shutil ............... * Add optional parameter 'dir_fd' in *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-46245(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46245  File: python.info, Node: socket, Next: sqlite3<4>, Prev: shutil<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.21 socket ............... * Add CAN Socket support for NetBSD. (Contributed by Thomas Klausner in bpo-30512(1).) * *note create_connection(): 66e. has an option to raise, in case of failure to connect, an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. containing all errors instead of only raising the last error. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-29980(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30512 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29980  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<4>, Next: string, Prev: socket, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.22 sqlite3 ................ * You can now disable the authorizer by passing *note None: 671. to *note set_authorizer(): 2ad. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44491(1).) * Collation name *note create_collation(): 672. can now contain any Unicode character. Collation names with invalid characters now raise *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. instead of *note sqlite3.ProgrammingError: 4ee. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44688(2).) * *note sqlite3: cf. exceptions now include the SQLite extended error code as *note sqlite_errorcode: 674. and the SQLite error name as *note sqlite_errorname: 675. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda, Daniel Shahaf, and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-16379(3) and bpo-24139(4).) * Add *note setlimit(): 676. and *note getlimit(): 677. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. for setting and getting SQLite limits by connection basis. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45243(5).) * *note sqlite3: cf. now sets *note sqlite3.threadsafety: 678. based on the default threading mode the underlying SQLite library has been compiled with. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45613(6).) * *note sqlite3: cf. C callbacks now use unraisable exceptions if callback tracebacks are enabled. Users can now register an *note unraisable hook handler: 1f9. to improve their debug experience. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-45828(7).) * Fetch across rollback no longer raises *note InterfaceError: 679. Instead we leave it to the SQLite library to handle these cases. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-44092(8).) * Add *note serialize(): 67a. and *note deserialize(): 67b. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. for serializing and deserializing databases. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-41930(9).) * Add *note create_window_function(): 67c. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. for creating aggregate window functions. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-34916(10).) * Add *note blobopen(): 67d. to *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. *note sqlite3.Blob: 67e. allows incremental I/O operations on blobs. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-24905(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44491 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44688 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16379 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24139 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45243 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45613 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45828 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44092 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41930 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34916 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24905  File: python.info, Node: string, Next: sys<4>, Prev: sqlite3<4>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.23 string ............... * Add *note get_identifiers(): 681. and *note is_valid(): 682. to *note string.Template: 683, which respectively return all valid placeholders, and whether any invalid placeholders are present. (Contributed by Ben Kehoe in gh-90465(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90465  File: python.info, Node: sys<4>, Next: sysconfig, Prev: string, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.24 sys ............ * *note sys.exc_info(): 686. now derives the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are reflected in the results of subsequent calls to ‘exc_info()’. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(1).) * Add *note sys.exception(): 687. which returns the active exception instance (equivalent to ‘sys.exc_info()[1]’). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46328(2).) * Add the *note sys.flags.safe_path: 688. flag. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46328 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684  File: python.info, Node: sysconfig, Next: tempfile<3>, Prev: sys<4>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.25 sysconfig .................. * Three new *note installation schemes: 68b. ('posix_venv', 'nt_venv' and 'venv') were added and are used when Python creates new virtual environments or when it is running from a virtual environment. The first two schemes ('posix_venv' and 'nt_venv') are OS-specific for non-Windows and Windows, the 'venv' is essentially an alias to one of them according to the OS Python runs on. This is useful for downstream distributors who modify *note sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme(): 68c. Third party code that creates new virtual environments should use the new 'venv' installation scheme to determine the paths, as does *note venv: 111. (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413  File: python.info, Node: tempfile<3>, Next: threading<2>, Prev: sysconfig, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.26 tempfile ................. * *note SpooledTemporaryFile: 68f. objects now fully implement the methods of *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. or *note io.TextIOBase: 691. (depending on file mode). This lets them work correctly with APIs that expect file-like objects, such as compression modules. (Contributed by Carey Metcalfe in gh-70363(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/70363  File: python.info, Node: threading<2>, Next: time<2>, Prev: tempfile<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.27 threading .................. * On Unix, if the ‘sem_clockwait()’ function is available in the C library (glibc 2.30 and newer), the *note threading.Lock.acquire(): 694. method now uses the monotonic clock (*note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 695.) for the timeout, rather than using the system clock (*note time.CLOCK_REALTIME: 696.), to not be affected by system clock changes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41710(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41710  File: python.info, Node: time<2>, Next: tkinter<3>, Prev: threading<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.28 time ............. * On Unix, *note time.sleep(): 699. now uses the ‘clock_nanosleep()’ or ‘nanosleep()’ function, if available, which has a resolution of 1 nanosecond (10^-9 seconds), rather than using ‘select()’ which has a resolution of 1 microsecond (10^-6 seconds). (Contributed by Benjamin Szőke and Victor Stinner in bpo-21302(1).) * On Windows 8.1 and newer, *note time.sleep(): 699. now uses a waitable timer based on high-resolution timers(2) which has a resolution of 100 nanoseconds (10^-7 seconds). Previously, it had a resolution of 1 millisecond (10^-3 seconds). (Contributed by Benjamin Szőke, Donghee Na, Eryk Sun and Victor Stinner in bpo-21302(3) and bpo-45429(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302 (2) https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/windows-hardware/drivers/kernel/high-resolution-timers (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21302 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45429  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<3>, Next: traceback<2>, Prev: time<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.29 tkinter ................ * Added method ‘info_patchlevel()’ which returns the exact version of the Tcl library as a named tuple similar to *note sys.version_info: 69c. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91827(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91827  File: python.info, Node: traceback<2>, Next: typing<4>, Prev: tkinter<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.30 traceback .................. * Add *note traceback.StackSummary.format_frame_summary(): 69f. to allow users to override which frames appear in the traceback, and how they are formatted. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-44569(1).) * Add *note traceback.TracebackException.print(): 6a0, which prints the formatted *note TracebackException: 25e. instance to a file. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-33809(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44569 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33809  File: python.info, Node: typing<4>, Next: unicodedata<3>, Prev: traceback<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.31 typing ............... For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 5bb. * Add *note typing.assert_never(): 6a3. and *note typing.Never: 6a4. *note typing.assert_never(): 6a3. is useful for asking a type checker to confirm that a line of code is not reachable. At runtime, it raises an *note AssertionError: 6a5. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90633(1).) * Add *note typing.reveal_type(): 6a6. This is useful for asking a type checker what type it has inferred for a given expression. At runtime it prints the type of the received value. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90572(2).) * Add *note typing.assert_type(): 6a7. This is useful for asking a type checker to confirm that the type it has inferred for a given expression matches the given type. At runtime it simply returns the received value. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90638(3).) * *note typing.TypedDict: 162. types can now be generic. (Contributed by Samodya Abeysiriwardane in gh-89026(4).) * *note NamedTuple: 2b2. types can now be generic. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43923(5).) * Allow subclassing of *note typing.Any: 6a8. This is useful for avoiding type checker errors related to highly dynamic class, such as mocks. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91154(6).) * The *note typing.final(): 6a9. decorator now sets the ‘__final__’ attributed on the decorated object. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-90500(7).) * The *note typing.get_overloads(): 6aa. function can be used for introspecting the overloads of a function. *note typing.clear_overloads(): 6ab. can be used to clear all registered overloads of a function. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-89263(8).) * The *note __init__(): 6ac. method of *note Protocol: 266. subclasses is now preserved. (Contributed by Adrian Garcia Badarasco in gh-88970(9).) * The representation of empty tuple types (‘Tuple[()]’) is simplified. This affects introspection, e.g. ‘get_args(Tuple[()])’ now evaluates to ‘()’ instead of ‘((),)’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91137(10).) * Loosen runtime requirements for type annotations by removing the callable check in the private ‘typing._type_check’ function. (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90802(11).) * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ad. now supports evaluating strings as forward references in *note PEP 585 generic aliases: 6ae. (Contributed by Niklas Rosenstein in gh-85542(12).) * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ad. no longer adds *note Optional: 6af. to parameters with ‘None’ as a default. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-90353(13).) * *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ad. now supports evaluating bare stringified *note ClassVar: 268. annotations. (Contributed by Gregory Beauregard in gh-90711(14).) * *note typing.no_type_check(): 6b0. no longer modifies external classes and functions. It also now correctly marks classmethods as not to be type checked. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-90729(15).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90633 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90572 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90638 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89026 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43923 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91154 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90500 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89263 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88970 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91137 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90802 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85542 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90353 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90711 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90729  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<3>, Next: unittest<4>, Prev: typing<4>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.32 unicodedata .................... * The Unicode database has been updated to version 14.0.0. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-45190(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45190  File: python.info, Node: unittest<4>, Next: venv<2>, Prev: unicodedata<3>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.33 unittest ................. * Added methods *note enterContext(): 6b5. and *note enterClassContext(): 6b6. of class *note TestCase: 449, method *note enterAsyncContext(): 6b7. of class *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 306. and function *note unittest.enterModuleContext(): 6b8. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-45046(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45046  File: python.info, Node: venv<2>, Next: warnings<2>, Prev: unittest<4>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.34 venv ............. * When new Python virtual environments are created, the 'venv' *note sysconfig installation scheme: 68b. is used to determine the paths inside the environment. When Python runs in a virtual environment, the same installation scheme is the default. That means that downstream distributors can change the default sysconfig install scheme without changing behavior of virtual environments. Third party code that also creates new virtual environments should do the same. (Contributed by Miro Hrončok in bpo-45413(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45413  File: python.info, Node: warnings<2>, Next: zipfile, Prev: venv<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.35 warnings ................. * *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 581. now accepts arguments for *note warnings.simplefilter(): 6bd, providing a more concise way to locally ignore warnings or convert them to errors. (Contributed by Zac Hatfield-Dodds in bpo-47074(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47074  File: python.info, Node: zipfile, Prev: warnings<2>, Up: Improved Modules<3> 1.3.7.36 zipfile ................ * Added support for specifying member name encoding for reading metadata in a *note ZipFile: 6c0.’s directory and file headers. (Contributed by Stephen J. Turnbull and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28080(1).) * Added *note ZipFile.mkdir(): 6c1. for creating new directories inside ZIP archives. (Contributed by Sam Ezeh in gh-49083(2).) * Added *note stem: 6c2, *note suffix: 6c3. and *note suffixes: 6c4. to *note zipfile.Path: 6c5. (Contributed by Miguel Brito in gh-88261(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28080 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/49083 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88261  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<3>, Next: Faster CPython, Prev: Improved Modules<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.8 Optimizations ------------------- This section covers specific optimizations independent of the *note Faster CPython: 59c. project, which is covered in its own section. * The compiler now optimizes simple *note printf-style % formatting: 6c8. on string literals containing only the format codes ‘%s’, ‘%r’ and ‘%a’ and makes it as fast as a corresponding *note f-string: 431. expression. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28307(1).) * Integer division (‘//’) is better tuned for optimization by compilers. It is now around 20% faster on x86-64 when dividing an *note int: 259. by a value smaller than ‘2**30’. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith and Tim Peters in gh-90564(2).) * *note sum(): 466. is now nearly 30% faster for integers smaller than ‘2**30’. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in gh-68264(3).) * Resizing lists is streamlined for the common case, speeding up ‘list.append()’ by ≈15% and simple *note list comprehension: 6c9.s by up to 20-30% (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in gh-91165(4).) * Dictionaries don’t store hash values when all keys are Unicode objects, decreasing *note dict: 258. size. For example, ‘sys.getsizeof(dict.fromkeys("abcdefg"))’ is reduced from 352 bytes to 272 bytes (23% smaller) on 64-bit platforms. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-46845(5).) * Using *note asyncio.DatagramProtocol: 6ca. is now orders of magnitude faster when transferring large files over UDP, with speeds over 100 times higher for a ≈60 MiB file. (Contributed by msoxzw in gh-91487(6).) * *note math: 8e. functions *note comb(): 6cb. and *note perm(): 6cc. are now ≈10 times faster for large arguments (with a larger speedup for larger 'k'). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-37295(7).) * The *note statistics: d2. functions *note mean(): 6cd, *note variance(): 6ce. and *note stdev(): 6cf. now consume iterators in one pass rather than converting them to a *note list: 60d. first. This is twice as fast and can save substantial memory. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-90415(8).) * *note unicodedata.normalize(): 6d0. now normalizes pure-ASCII strings in constant time. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-44987(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28307 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90564 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68264 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91165 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46845 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91487 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37295 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90415 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44987  File: python.info, Node: Faster CPython, Next: CPython bytecode changes<2>, Prev: Optimizations<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.9 Faster CPython -------------------- CPython 3.11 is an average of 25% faster(1) than CPython 3.10 as measured with the pyperformance(2) benchmark suite, when compiled with GCC on Ubuntu Linux. Depending on your workload, the overall speedup could be 10-60%. This project focuses on two major areas in Python: *note Faster Startup: 6d2. and *note Faster Runtime: 6d3. Optimizations not covered by this project are listed separately under *note Optimizations: 6c7. * Menu: * Faster Startup:: * Faster Runtime:: * Misc:: * FAQ:: * About:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/faster-cpython/ideas#published-results (2) https://github.com/python/pyperformance  File: python.info, Node: Faster Startup, Next: Faster Runtime, Up: Faster CPython 1.3.9.1 Faster Startup ...................... * Menu: * Frozen imports / Static code objects::  File: python.info, Node: Frozen imports / Static code objects, Up: Faster Startup 1.3.9.2 Frozen imports / Static code objects ............................................ Python caches *note bytecode: 187. in the *note __pycache__: 6d7. directory to speed up module loading. Previously in 3.10, Python module execution looked like this: Read __pycache__ -> Unmarshal -> Heap allocated code object -> Evaluate In Python 3.11, the core modules essential for Python startup are “frozen”. This means that their *note Code Objects: 5b1. (and bytecode) are statically allocated by the interpreter. This reduces the steps in module execution process to: Statically allocated code object -> Evaluate Interpreter startup is now 10-15% faster in Python 3.11. This has a big impact for short-running programs using Python. (Contributed by Eric Snow, Guido van Rossum and Kumar Aditya in many issues.)  File: python.info, Node: Faster Runtime, Next: Misc, Prev: Faster Startup, Up: Faster CPython 1.3.9.3 Faster Runtime ...................... * Menu: * Cheaper, lazy Python frames: Cheaper lazy Python frames. * Inlined Python function calls:: * PEP 659; Specializing Adaptive Interpreter: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter.  File: python.info, Node: Cheaper lazy Python frames, Next: Inlined Python function calls, Up: Faster Runtime 1.3.9.4 Cheaper, lazy Python frames ................................... Python frames, holding execution information, are created whenever Python calls a Python function. The following are new frame optimizations: - Streamlined the frame creation process. - Avoided memory allocation by generously re-using frame space on the C stack. - Streamlined the internal frame struct to contain only essential information. Frames previously held extra debugging and memory management information. Old-style *note frame objects: 6db. are now created only when requested by debuggers or by Python introspection functions such as *note sys._getframe(): 6dc. and *note inspect.currentframe(): 6dd. For most user code, no frame objects are created at all. As a result, nearly all Python functions calls have sped up significantly. We measured a 3-7% speedup in pyperformance. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-44590(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44590  File: python.info, Node: Inlined Python function calls, Next: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter, Prev: Cheaper lazy Python frames, Up: Faster Runtime 1.3.9.5 Inlined Python function calls ..................................... During a Python function call, Python will call an evaluating C function to interpret that function’s code. This effectively limits pure Python recursion to what’s safe for the C stack. In 3.11, when CPython detects Python code calling another Python function, it sets up a new frame, and “jumps” to the new code inside the new frame. This avoids calling the C interpreting function altogether. Most Python function calls now consume no C stack space, speeding them up. In simple recursive functions like fibonacci or factorial, we observed a 1.7x speedup. This also means recursive functions can recurse significantly deeper (if the user increases the recursion limit with *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bf.). We measured a 1-3% improvement in pyperformance. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Mark Shannon in bpo-45256(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45256  File: python.info, Node: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter, Prev: Inlined Python function calls, Up: Faster Runtime 1.3.9.6 PEP 659: Specializing Adaptive Interpreter .................................................. PEP 659(1) is one of the key parts of the Faster CPython project. The general idea is that while Python is a dynamic language, most code has regions where objects and types rarely change. This concept is known as 'type stability'. At runtime, Python will try to look for common patterns and type stability in the executing code. Python will then replace the current operation with a more specialized one. This specialized operation uses fast paths available only to those use cases/types, which generally outperform their generic counterparts. This also brings in another concept called 'inline caching', where Python caches the results of expensive operations directly in the *note bytecode: 187. The specializer will also combine certain common instruction pairs into one superinstruction, reducing the overhead during execution. Python will only specialize when it sees code that is “hot” (executed multiple times). This prevents Python from wasting time on run-once code. Python can also de-specialize when code is too dynamic or when the use changes. Specialization is attempted periodically, and specialization attempts are not too expensive, allowing specialization to adapt to new circumstances. (PEP written by Mark Shannon, with ideas inspired by Stefan Brunthaler. See PEP 659(2) for more information. Implementation by Mark Shannon and Brandt Bucher, with additional help from Irit Katriel and Dennis Sweeney.) Operation Form Specialization Operation speedup (up Contributor(s) to) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Binary operations ‘x + x’ Binary add, multiply and subtract for common types such 10% Mark Shannon, Donghee as *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1. and *note str: 447. Na, Brandt Bucher, ‘x - x’ take custom fast paths for their underlying types. Dennis Sweeney ‘x * x’ Subscript ‘a[i]’ Subscripting container types such as *note list: 60d, 10-25% Irit Katriel, Mark *note tuple: 36b. and *note dict: 258. directly index the Shannon underlying data structures. Subscripting custom *note __getitem__(): 285. is also inlined similar to *note Inlined Python function calls: 6de. Store subscript ‘a[i] = z’ Similar to subscripting specialization above. 10-25% Dennis Sweeney Calls ‘f(arg)’ Calls to common builtin (C) functions and types such as 20% Mark Shannon, Ken Jin *note len(): 62a. and *note str: 447. directly call their ‘C(arg)’ underlying C version. This avoids going through the internal calling convention. Load global ‘print’ The object’s index in the globals/builtins namespace is (3) Mark Shannon variable cached. Loading globals and builtins require zero ‘len’ namespace lookups. Load attribute ‘o.attr’ Similar to loading global variables. The attribute’s (4) Mark Shannon index inside the class/object’s namespace is cached. In most cases, attribute loading will require zero namespace lookups. Load methods for ‘o.meth()’ The actual address of the method is cached. Method 10-20% Ken Jin, Mark Shannon call loading now has no namespace lookups – even for classes with long inheritance chains. Store attribute ‘o.attr = z’ Similar to load attribute optimization. 2% in pyperformance Mark Shannon Unpack Sequence ‘*seq’ Specialized for common containers such as 8% Brandt Bucher *note list: 60d. and *note tuple: 36b. Avoids internal calling convention. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/ (3) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.8. 3.11 specializes for more forms and reduces some overhead. (4) A similar optimization already existed since Python 3.10. 3.11 specializes for more forms. Furthermore, all attribute loads should be sped up by bpo-45947 (https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45947).  File: python.info, Node: Misc, Next: FAQ, Prev: Faster Runtime, Up: Faster CPython 1.3.9.7 Misc ............ * Objects now require less memory due to lazily created object namespaces. Their namespace dictionaries now also share keys more freely. (Contributed Mark Shannon in bpo-45340(1) and bpo-40116(2).) * “Zero-cost” exceptions are implemented, eliminating the cost of *note try: 6e4. statements when no exception is raised. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(3).) * A more concise representation of exceptions in the interpreter reduced the time required for catching an exception by about 10%. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).) * *note re: b9.’s regular expression matching engine has been partially refactored, and now uses computed gotos (or “threaded code”) on supported platforms. As a result, Python 3.11 executes the pyperformance regular expression benchmarks(5) up to 10% faster than Python 3.10. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in gh-91404(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45340 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40116 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711 (5) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/benchmarks.html#regex-dna (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91404  File: python.info, Node: FAQ, Next: About, Prev: Misc, Up: Faster CPython 1.3.9.8 FAQ ........... * Menu: * How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?:: * Will CPython 3.11 use more memory?: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?. * I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why?: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?. * Is there a JIT compiler?::  File: python.info, Node: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?, Next: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?, Up: FAQ 1.3.9.9 How should I write my code to utilize these speedups? ............................................................. Write Pythonic code that follows common best practices; you don’t have to change your code. The Faster CPython project optimizes for common code patterns we observe.  File: python.info, Node: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?, Next: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?, Prev: How should I write my code to utilize these speedups?, Up: FAQ 1.3.9.10 Will CPython 3.11 use more memory? ........................................... Maybe not; we don’t expect memory use to exceed 20% higher than 3.10. This is offset by memory optimizations for frame objects and object dictionaries as mentioned above.  File: python.info, Node: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?, Next: Is there a JIT compiler?, Prev: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?, Up: FAQ 1.3.9.11 I don’t see any speedups in my workload. Why? ...................................................... Certain code won’t have noticeable benefits. If your code spends most of its time on I/O operations, or already does most of its computation in a C extension library like NumPy, there won’t be significant speedups. This project currently benefits pure-Python workloads the most. Furthermore, the pyperformance figures are a geometric mean. Even within the pyperformance benchmarks, certain benchmarks have slowed down slightly, while others have sped up by nearly 2x!  File: python.info, Node: Is there a JIT compiler?, Prev: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?, Up: FAQ 1.3.9.12 Is there a JIT compiler? ................................. No. We’re still exploring other optimizations.  File: python.info, Node: About, Prev: FAQ, Up: Faster CPython 1.3.9.13 About .............. Faster CPython explores optimizations for *note CPython: 6f1. The main team is funded by Microsoft to work on this full-time. Pablo Galindo Salgado is also funded by Bloomberg LP to work on the project part-time. Finally, many contributors are volunteers from the community.  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes<2>, Next: Deprecated<3>, Prev: Faster CPython, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.10 CPython bytecode changes ------------------------------- The bytecode now contains inline cache entries, which take the form of the newly-added *note CACHE: 6f4. instructions. Many opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime. Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data. * Menu: * New opcodes:: * Replaced opcodes:: * Changed/removed opcodes::  File: python.info, Node: New opcodes, Next: Replaced opcodes, Up: CPython bytecode changes<2> 1.3.10.1 New opcodes .................... * ‘ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’, *note RETURN_GENERATOR: 6f7. and *note SEND: 6f8, used in generators and co-routines. * *note COPY_FREE_VARS: 6f9, which avoids needing special caller-side code for closures. * *note JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT: 6fa, for use in certain loops where handling interrupts is undesirable. * *note MAKE_CELL: 6fb, to create *note Cell Objects: 6fc. * *note CHECK_EG_MATCH: 6fd. and ‘PREP_RERAISE_STAR’, to handle the *note new exception groups and except*: 59d. added in PEP 654(1). * *note PUSH_EXC_INFO: 6fe, for use in exception handlers. * *note RESUME: 30f, a no-op, for internal tracing, debugging and optimization checks. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0654/  File: python.info, Node: Replaced opcodes, Next: Changed/removed opcodes, Prev: New opcodes, Up: CPython bytecode changes<2> 1.3.10.2 Replaced opcodes ......................... Replaced Opcode(s) New Opcode(s) Notes -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘BINARY_*’ *note BINARY_OP: 701. Replaced all numeric binary/in-place ‘INPLACE_*’ opcodes with a single opcode ‘CALL_FUNCTION’ *note CALL: 702. Decouples argument shifting for methods ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ ‘KW_NAMES’ from handling of keyword arguments; allows ‘CALL_METHOD’ ‘PRECALL’ better specialization of calls *note PUSH_NULL: 703. ‘DUP_TOP’ *note COPY: 704. Stack manipulation instructions ‘DUP_TOP_TWO’ *note SWAP: 705. ‘ROT_TWO’ ‘ROT_THREE’ ‘ROT_FOUR’ ‘ROT_N’ ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ *note CHECK_EXC_MATCH: 706. Now performs check but doesn’t jump ‘JUMP_ABSOLUTE’ *note JUMP_BACKWARD: 707. See (1); ‘TRUE’, ‘FALSE’, ‘NONE’ and ‘POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE’ ‘POP_JUMP_BACKWARD_IF_*’ ‘NOT_NONE’ variants for each direction ‘POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE’ ‘POP_JUMP_FORWARD_IF_*’ ‘SETUP_WITH’ *note BEFORE_WITH: 708. *note with: 5ce. block setup ‘SETUP_ASYNC_WITH’ ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) All jump opcodes are now relative, including the existing ‘JUMP_IF_TRUE_OR_POP’ and ‘JUMP_IF_FALSE_OR_POP’. The argument is now an offset from the current instruction rather than an absolute location.  File: python.info, Node: Changed/removed opcodes, Prev: Replaced opcodes, Up: CPython bytecode changes<2> 1.3.10.3 Changed/removed opcodes ................................ * Changed *note MATCH_CLASS: 70d. and *note MATCH_KEYS: 70e. to no longer push an additional boolean value to indicate success/failure. Instead, ‘None’ is pushed on failure in place of the tuple of extracted values. * Changed opcodes that work with exceptions to reflect them now being represented as one item on the stack instead of three (see gh-89874(1)). * Removed ‘COPY_DICT_WITHOUT_KEYS’, ‘GEN_START’, ‘POP_BLOCK’, ‘SETUP_FINALLY’ and ‘YIELD_FROM’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89874  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<3>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12, Prev: CPython bytecode changes<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.11 Deprecated ----------------- This section lists Python APIs that have been deprecated in Python 3.11. Deprecated C APIs are *note listed separately: 712. * Menu: * Language/Builtins:: * Modules:: * Standard Library::  File: python.info, Node: Language/Builtins, Next: Modules, Up: Deprecated<3> 1.3.11.1 Language/Builtins .......................... * Chaining *note classmethod: 166. descriptors (introduced in bpo-19072(1)) is now deprecated. It can no longer be used to wrap other descriptors such as *note property: 194. The core design of this feature was flawed and caused a number of downstream problems. To “pass-through” a *note classmethod: 166, consider using the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that was added in Python 3.10. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-89519(2).) * Octal escapes in string and bytes literals with values larger than ‘0o377’ (255 in decimal) now produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. In a future Python version, they will raise a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. and eventually a *note SyntaxError: 18d. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-81548(3).) * The delegation of *note int(): 259. to *note __trunc__(): 716. is now deprecated. Calling ‘int(a)’ when ‘type(a)’ implements ‘__trunc__()’ but not *note __int__(): 717. or *note __index__(): 718. now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-44977(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19072 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89519 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81548 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44977  File: python.info, Node: Modules, Next: Standard Library, Prev: Language/Builtins, Up: Deprecated<3> 1.3.11.2 Modules ................ * PEP 594(1) led to the deprecations of the following modules slated for removal in Python 3.13: ‘aifc’ ‘chunk’ ‘msilib’ ‘pipes’ ‘telnetlib’ ‘audioop’ ‘crypt’ ‘nis’ ‘sndhdr’ ‘uu’ ‘cgi’ ‘imghdr’ ‘nntplib’ ‘spwd’ ‘xdrlib’ ‘cgitb’ ‘mailcap’ ‘ossaudiodev’ ‘sunau’ (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-47061(2) and Victor Stinner in gh-68966(3).) * The ‘asynchat’, ‘asyncore’ and ‘smtpd’ modules have been deprecated since at least Python 3.6. Their documentation and deprecation warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in Python 3.12. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-47022(4).) * The ‘lib2to3’ package and ‘2to3’ tool are now deprecated and may not be able to parse Python 3.10 or newer. See PEP 617(5), introducing the new PEG parser, for details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40360(6).) * Undocumented modules ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ are now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-47152(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47061 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/68966 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47022 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/ (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47152  File: python.info, Node: Standard Library, Prev: Modules, Up: Deprecated<3> 1.3.11.3 Standard Library ......................... * The following have been deprecated in *note configparser: 22. since Python 3.2. Their deprecation warnings have now been updated to note they will be removed in Python 3.12: * the ‘configparser.SafeConfigParser’ class * the ‘configparser.ParsingError.filename’ property * the ‘configparser.RawConfigParser.readfp()’ method (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45173(1).) * ‘configparser.LegacyInterpolation’ has been deprecated in the docstring since Python 3.2, and is not listed in the *note configparser: 22. documentation. It now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use *note configparser.BasicInterpolation: 71d. or *note configparser.ExtendedInterpolation: 71e. instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-46607(2).) * The older set of *note importlib.resources: 7b. functions were deprecated in favor of the replacements added in Python 3.9 and will be removed in a future Python version, due to not supporting resources located within package subdirectories: * ‘importlib.resources.contents()’ * ‘importlib.resources.is_resource()’ * ‘importlib.resources.open_binary()’ * ‘importlib.resources.open_text()’ * ‘importlib.resources.read_binary()’ * ‘importlib.resources.read_text()’ * ‘importlib.resources.path()’ * The *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2dd. function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.15. Use *note locale.setlocale(): 2df, *note locale.getpreferredencoding(False): 536. and *note locale.getlocale(): 2de. functions instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817(3).) * The ‘locale.resetlocale()’ function is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use ‘locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, "")’ instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-90817(4).) * Stricter rules will now be applied for numerical group references and group names in *note regular expressions: 71f. Only sequences of ASCII digits will now be accepted as a numerical reference, and the group name in *note bytes: 1c2. patterns and replacement strings can only contain ASCII letters, digits and underscores. For now, a deprecation warning is raised for syntax violating these rules. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(5).) * In the *note re: b9. module, the ‘re.template()’ function and the corresponding ‘re.TEMPLATE’ and ‘re.T’ flags are deprecated, as they were undocumented and lacked an obvious purpose. They will be removed in Python 3.13. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Miro Hrončok in gh-92728(6).) * ‘turtle.settiltangle()’ has been deprecated since Python 3.1; it now emits a deprecation warning and will be removed in Python 3.13. Use *note turtle.tiltangle(): 720. instead (it was earlier incorrectly marked as deprecated, and its docstring is now corrected). (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45837(7).) * *note typing.Text: 305, which exists solely to provide compatibility support between Python 2 and Python 3 code, is now deprecated. Its removal is currently unplanned, but users are encouraged to use *note str: 447. instead wherever possible. (Contributed by Alex Waygood in gh-92332(8).) * The keyword argument syntax for constructing *note typing.TypedDict: 162. types is now deprecated. Support will be removed in Python 3.13. (Contributed by Jingchen Ye in gh-90224(9).) * ‘webbrowser.MacOSX’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.13. It is untested, undocumented, and not used by *note webbrowser: 115. itself. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-42255(10).) * The behavior of returning a value from a *note TestCase: 449. and *note IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 306. test methods (other than the default ‘None’ value) is now deprecated. * Deprecated the following not-formally-documented *note unittest: 106. functions, scheduled for removal in Python 3.13: * ‘unittest.findTestCases()’ * ‘unittest.makeSuite()’ * ‘unittest.getTestCaseNames()’ Use *note TestLoader: 290. methods instead: * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 291. * *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromTestCase(): 292. * *note unittest.TestLoader.getTestCaseNames(): 293. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-5846(11).) * ‘unittest.TestProgram.usageExit()’ is marked deprecated, to be removed in 3.13. (Contributed by Carlos Damázio in gh-67048(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45173 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46607 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92728 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45837 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90224 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42255 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5846 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/67048  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12, Next: Removed<3>, Prev: Deprecated<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.12 Pending Removal in Python 3.12 ------------------------------------- The following Python APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases, and will be removed in Python 3.12. C APIs pending removal are *note listed separately: 724. * The ‘asynchat’ module * The ‘asyncore’ module * The *note entire distutils package: 725. * The ‘imp’ module * The *note typing.io: 726. namespace * The *note typing.re: 727. namespace * ‘cgi.log()’ * ‘importlib.find_loader()’ * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’ * ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ * ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’ * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ * ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’ * ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’ * ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’ * ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ * ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache()’ * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode()’ * ‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable * The following deprecated aliases in *note unittest: 106.: Deprecated alias Method Name Deprecated in ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘failUnless’ *note assertTrue(): 522. 3.1 ‘failIf’ *note assertFalse(): 523. 3.1 ‘failUnlessEqual’ *note assertEqual(): 524. 3.1 ‘failIfEqual’ *note assertNotEqual(): 525. 3.1 ‘failUnlessAlmostEqual’ *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. 3.1 ‘failIfAlmostEqual’ *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. 3.1 ‘failUnlessRaises’ *note assertRaises(): 528. 3.1 ‘assert_’ *note assertTrue(): 522. 3.2 ‘assertEquals’ *note assertEqual(): 524. 3.2 ‘assertNotEquals’ *note assertNotEqual(): 525. 3.2 ‘assertAlmostEquals’ *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. 3.2 ‘assertNotAlmostEquals’ *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. 3.2 ‘assertRegexpMatches’ *note assertRegex(): 529. 3.2 ‘assertRaisesRegexp’ *note assertRaisesRegex(): 52a. 3.2 ‘assertNotRegexpMatches’ *note assertNotRegex(): 52b. 3.5  File: python.info, Node: Removed<3>, Next: Porting to Python 3 11, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.13 Removed -------------- This section lists Python APIs that have been removed in Python 3.11. Removed C APIs are *note listed separately: 72b. * Removed the ‘@asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 72c. enabling legacy generator-based coroutines to be compatible with *note async: 72d. / *note await: 1b9. code. The function has been deprecated since Python 3.8 and the removal was initially scheduled for Python 3.10. Use *note async def: 5cd. instead. (Contributed by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(1).) * Removed ‘asyncio.coroutines.CoroWrapper’ used for wrapping legacy generator-based coroutine objects in the debug mode. (Contributed by Illia Volochii in bpo-43216(2).) * Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72e, disabled in Python 3.9, is now entirely removed. This is because of the behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45129(3).) * Removed the ‘binhex’ module, deprecated in Python 3.9. Also removed the related, similarly-deprecated *note binascii: 10. functions: * ‘binascii.a2b_hqx()’ * ‘binascii.b2a_hqx()’ * ‘binascii.rlecode_hqx()’ * ‘binascii.rldecode_hqx()’ The *note binascii.crc_hqx(): 72f. function remains available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45085(4).) * Removed the ‘distutils’ ‘bdist_msi’ command deprecated in Python 3.9. Use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45124(5).) * Removed the *note __getitem__(): 285. methods of *note xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 730, *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 731. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 732, deprecated since Python 3.9. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45132(6).) * Removed the deprecated *note gettext: 63. functions ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and ‘ldngettext()’. Also removed the ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ function, the ‘NullTranslations.output_charset()’ and ‘NullTranslations.set_output_charset()’ methods, and the 'codeset' parameter of ‘translation()’ and ‘install()’, since they are only used for the ‘l*gettext()’ functions. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44235(7).) * Removed from the *note inspect: 7e. module: * The ‘getargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.0; use *note inspect.signature(): 733. or *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 734. instead. * The ‘formatargspec()’ function, deprecated since Python 3.5; use the *note inspect.signature(): 733. function or the *note inspect.Signature: 1cf. object directly. * The undocumented ‘Signature.from_builtin()’ and ‘Signature.from_function()’ methods, deprecated since Python 3.5; use the *note Signature.from_callable(): 735. method instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-45320(8).) * Removed the *note __class_getitem__(): 736. method from *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a2, because it was not used and added by mistake in previous versions. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in bpo-46483(9).) * Removed the ‘MailmanProxy’ class in the ‘smtpd’ module, as it is unusable without the external ‘mailman’ package. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35800(10).) * Removed the deprecated ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-38371(11).) * Removed namespace package support from *note unittest: 106. discovery. It was introduced in Python 3.4 but has been broken since Python 3.7. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-23882(12).) * Removed the undocumented private ‘float.__set_format__()’ method, previously known as ‘float.__setformat__()’ in Python 3.7. Its docstring said: “You probably don’t want to use this function. It exists mainly to be used in Python’s test suite.” (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46852(13).) * The ‘--experimental-isolated-subinterpreters’ configure flag (and corresponding ‘EXPERIMENTAL_ISOLATED_SUBINTERPRETERS’ macro) have been removed. * Pynche(14) — The Pythonically Natural Color and Hue Editor — has been moved out of ‘Tools/scripts’ and is being developed independently(15) from the Python source tree. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43216 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45129 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45085 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45124 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45132 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44235 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45320 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46483 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23882 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46852 (14) https://pypi.org/project/Pynche/ (15) https://gitlab.com/warsaw/pynche/-/tree/main  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 11, Next: Build Changes<3>, Prev: Removed<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.14 Porting to Python 3.11 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes in the Python API that may require changes to your Python code. Porting notes for the C API are *note listed separately: 73a. * *note open(): 517, *note io.open(): 518, *note codecs.open(): 73b. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 732. no longer accept ‘'U'’ (“universal newline”) in the file mode. In Python 3, “universal newline” mode is used by default whenever a file is opened in text mode, and the ‘'U'’ flag has been deprecated since Python 3.3. The *note newline parameter: 73c. to these functions controls how universal newlines work. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37330(1).) * *note ast.AST: 1a6. node positions are now validated when provided to *note compile(): 192. and other related functions. If invalid positions are detected, a *note ValueError: 204. will be raised. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in gh-93351(2)) * Prohibited passing non-*note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. executors to *note asyncio.loop.set_default_executor(): 73e. following a deprecation in Python 3.8. (Contributed by Illia Volochii in bpo-43234(3).) * *note calendar: 14.: The *note calendar.LocaleTextCalendar: 73f. and *note calendar.LocaleHTMLCalendar: 740. classes now use *note locale.getlocale(): 2de, instead of using *note locale.getdefaultlocale(): 2dd, if no locale is specified. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46659(4).) * The *note pdb: a5. module now reads the ‘.pdbrc’ configuration file with the ‘'UTF-8'’ encoding. (Contributed by Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy (శ్రీనివాస్ రెడ్డి తాటిపర్తి) in bpo-41137(5).) * The 'population' parameter of *note random.sample(): 741. must be a sequence, and automatic conversion of *note set: 5d5.s to *note list: 60d.s is no longer supported. Also, if the sample size is larger than the population size, a *note ValueError: 204. is raised. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(6).) * The 'random' optional parameter of *note random.shuffle(): 742. was removed. It was previously an arbitrary random function to use for the shuffle; now, *note random.random(): 743. (its previous default) will always be used. * In *note re: b9. *note Regular Expression Syntax: 71f, global inline flags (e.g. ‘(?i)’) can now only be used at the start of regular expressions. Using them elsewhere has been deprecated since Python 3.6. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-47066(7).) * In the *note re: b9. module, several long-standing bugs where fixed that, in rare cases, could cause capture groups to get the wrong result. Therefore, this could change the captured output in these cases. (Contributed by Ma Lin in bpo-35859(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37330 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93351 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43234 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46659 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41137 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=47066 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35859  File: python.info, Node: Build Changes<3>, Next: C API Changes<3>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 11, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.15 Build Changes -------------------- * CPython now has PEP 11(1) Tier 3 support(2) for cross compiling to the WebAssembly(3) platforms Emscripten(4) (‘wasm32-unknown-emscripten’, i.e. Python in the browser) and WebAssembly System Interface (WASI)(5) (‘wasm32-unknown-wasi’). The effort is inspired by previous work like Pyodide(6). These platforms provide a limited subset of POSIX APIs; Python standard libraries features and modules related to networking, processes, threading, signals, mmap, and users/groups are not available or don’t work. (Emscripten contributed by Christian Heimes and Ethan Smith in gh-84461(7) and WASI contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-90473(8); platforms promoted in gh-95085(9)) * Building CPython now requires: * A C11(10) compiler and standard library. Optional C11 features(11) are not required. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46656(12), bpo-45440(13) and bpo-46640(14).) * Support for IEEE 754(15) floating-point numbers. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46917(16).) * The ‘Py_NO_NAN’ macro has been removed. Since CPython now requires IEEE 754 floats, NaN values are always available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46656(17).) * The *note tkinter: f0. package now requires Tcl/Tk(18) version 8.5.12 or newer. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-46996(19).) * Build dependencies, compiler flags, and linker flags for most stdlib extension modules are now detected by ‘configure’. libffi, libnsl, libsqlite3, zlib, bzip2, liblzma, libcrypt, Tcl/Tk, and uuid flags are detected by pkg-config(20) (when available). *note tkinter: f0. now requires a pkg-config command to detect development settings for Tcl/Tk(21) headers and libraries. (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Erlend Egeberg Aasland in bpo-45847(22), bpo-45747(23), and bpo-45763(24).) * libpython is no longer linked against libcrypt. (Contributed by Mike Gilbert in bpo-45433(25).) * CPython can now be built with the ThinLTO(26) option via passing ‘thin’ to *note -with-lto: 746, i.e. ‘--with-lto=thin’. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Brett Holman in bpo-44340(27).) * Freelists for object structs can now be disabled. A new ‘configure’ option *note -without-freelists: 747. can be used to disable all freelists except empty tuple singleton. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45522(28).) * ‘Modules/Setup’ and ‘Modules/makesetup’ have been improved and tied up. Extension modules can now be built through ‘makesetup’. All except some test modules can be linked statically into a main binary or library. (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Christian Heimes in bpo-45548(29), bpo-45570(30), bpo-45571(31), and bpo-43974(32).) Note: Use the environment variables ‘TCLTK_CFLAGS’ and ‘TCLTK_LIBS’ to manually specify the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries. The ‘configure’ options ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ have been removed. On RHEL 7 and CentOS 7 the development packages do not provide ‘tcl.pc’ and ‘tk.pc’; use ‘TCLTK_LIBS="-ltk8.5 -ltkstub8.5 -ltcl8.5"’. The directory ‘Misc/rhel7’ contains ‘.pc’ files and instructions on how to build Python with RHEL 7’s and CentOS 7’s Tcl/Tk and OpenSSL. * CPython will now use 30-bit digits by default for the Python *note int: 259. implementation. Previously, the default was to use 30-bit digits on platforms with ‘SIZEOF_VOID_P >= 8’, and 15-bit digits otherwise. It’s still possible to explicitly request use of 15-bit digits via either the *note -enable-big-digits: 748. option to the configure script or (for Windows) the ‘PYLONG_BITS_IN_DIGIT’ variable in ‘PC/pyconfig.h’, but this option may be removed at some point in the future. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-45569(33).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/#tier-3 (3) https://webassembly.org/ (4) https://emscripten.org/ (5) https://wasi.dev/ (6) https://pyodide.org/ (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84461 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90473 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95085 (10) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/11 (11) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C11_(C_standard_revision)#Optional_features (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46640 (15) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_754 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46917 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46656 (18) https://www.tcl.tk (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46996 (20) https://www.freedesktop.org/wiki/Software/pkg-config/ (21) https://www.tcl.tk (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45847 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45747 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45763 (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45433 (26) https://clang.llvm.org/docs/ThinLTO.html (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44340 (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45522 (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45548 (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45570 (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45571 (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43974 (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45569  File: python.info, Node: C API Changes<3>, Next: Notable changes in 3 11 4, Prev: Build Changes<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.16 C API Changes -------------------- * Menu: * New Features: New Features<6>. * Porting to Python 3.11: Porting to Python 3 11<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<4>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.12: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>. * Removed: Removed<4>.  File: python.info, Node: New Features<6>, Next: Porting to Python 3 11<2>, Up: C API Changes<3> 1.3.16.1 New Features ..................... * Add a new *note PyType_GetName(): 74d. function to get type’s short name. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(1).) * Add a new *note PyType_GetQualName(): 74e. function to get type’s qualified name. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42035(2).) * Add new *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 74f. and *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 750. functions to the limited C API to suspend and resume tracing and profiling. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43760(3).) * Added the *note Py_Version: 751. constant which bears the same value as *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 752. (Contributed by Gabriele N. Tornetta in bpo-43931(4).) * *note Py_buffer: 753. and APIs are now part of the limited API and the stable ABI: * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 394. * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 754. * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 755. * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 756. * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 757. * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 758. * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 759. * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 75a. * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 75b. * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75c. * *note bf_getbuffer: 75d. and *note bf_releasebuffer: 75e. type slots (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-45459(5).) * Added the *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38f. function, used to get the module in which a method was defined, in cases where this information is not available directly (via *note PyCMethod: 75f.). (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-46613(6).) * Add new functions to pack and unpack C double (serialize and deserialize): *note PyFloat_Pack2(): 760, *note PyFloat_Pack4(): 761, *note PyFloat_Pack8(): 762, *note PyFloat_Unpack2(): 763, *note PyFloat_Unpack4(): 764. and *note PyFloat_Unpack8(): 765. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46906(7).) * Add new functions to get frame object attributes: *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 766, *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 767, *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 768, *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 769. * Added two new functions to get and set the active exception instance: *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 76a. and *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 76b. These are alternatives to *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76c. and *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76d. which work with the legacy 3-tuple representation of exceptions. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-46343(8).) * Added the *note PyConfig.safe_path: 76e. member. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-57684(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42035 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43931 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45459 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46613 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46906 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46343 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/57684  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 11<2>, Next: Deprecated<4>, Prev: New Features<6>, Up: C API Changes<3> 1.3.16.2 Porting to Python 3.11 ............................... * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions to avoid macro pitfalls(1). The change should be mostly transparent to users, as the replacement functions will cast their arguments to the expected types to avoid compiler warnings due to static type checks. However, when the limited C API is set to >=3.11, these casts are not done, and callers will need to cast arguments to their expected types. See PEP 670(2) for more details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in gh-89653(3).) * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76c. no longer uses the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments, the interpreter now derives those values from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument). The function still steals references of all three arguments. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(4).) * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76d. now derives the ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields of the result from the exception instance (the ‘value’ field). (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-45711(5).) * *note _frozen: 770. has a new ‘is_package’ field to indicate whether or not the frozen module is a package. Previously, a negative value in the ‘size’ field was the indicator. Now only non-negative values be used for ‘size’. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in bpo-46608(6).) * *note _PyFrameEvalFunction(): 771. now takes ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’ as its second parameter, instead of ‘PyFrameObject*’. See PEP 523(7) for more details of how to use this function pointer type. * ‘PyCode_New()’ and ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ now take an additional ‘exception_table’ argument. Using these functions should be avoided, if at all possible. To get a custom code object: create a code object using the compiler, then get a modified version with the ‘replace’ method. * *note PyCodeObject: 772. no longer has the ‘co_code’, ‘co_varnames’, ‘co_cellvars’ and ‘co_freevars’ fields. Instead, use *note PyCode_GetCode(): 773, *note PyCode_GetVarnames(): 774, *note PyCode_GetCellvars(): 775. and *note PyCode_GetFreevars(): 776. respectively to access them via the C API. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in bpo-46841(8) and Ken Jin in gh-92154(9) and gh-94936(10).) * The old trashcan macros (‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’/‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’) are now deprecated. They should be replaced by the new macros ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ and ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’. A tp_dealloc function that has the old macros, such as: static void mytype_dealloc(mytype *p) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p); Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(p); ... Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END } should migrate to the new macros as follows: static void mytype_dealloc(mytype *p) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(p); Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(p, mytype_dealloc) ... Py_TRASHCAN_END } Note that ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ has a second argument which should be the deallocation function it is in. To support older Python versions in the same codebase, you can define the following macros and use them throughout the code (credit: these were copied from the ‘mypy’ codebase): #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000 # define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) # define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_END #else # define CPy_TRASHCAN_BEGIN(op, dealloc) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN(op) # define CPy_TRASHCAN_END(op) Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END(op) #endif * The *note PyType_Ready(): 777. function now raises an error if a type is defined with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag set but has no traverse function (*note PyTypeObject.tp_traverse: 779.). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44263(11).) * Heap types with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be. flag can now inherit the PEP 590(12) vectorcall protocol. Previously, this was only possible for *note static types: 77a. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(13)) * Since *note Py_TYPE(): 77b. is changed to a inline static function, ‘Py_TYPE(obj) = new_type’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_TYPE(obj, new_type)’: see the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 77c. function (available since Python 3.9). For backward compatibility, this macro can be used: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_TYPE) static inline void _Py_SET_TYPE(PyObject *ob, PyTypeObject *type) { ob->ob_type = type; } #define Py_SET_TYPE(ob, type) _Py_SET_TYPE((PyObject*)(ob), type) #endif (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(14).) * Since *note Py_SIZE(): 77d. is changed to a inline static function, ‘Py_SIZE(obj) = new_size’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_SIZE(obj, new_size)’: see the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77e. function (available since Python 3.9). For backward compatibility, this macro can be used: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 && !defined(Py_SET_SIZE) static inline void _Py_SET_SIZE(PyVarObject *ob, Py_ssize_t size) { ob->ob_size = size; } #define Py_SET_SIZE(ob, size) _Py_SET_SIZE((PyVarObject*)(ob), size) #endif (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(15).) * ‘’ no longer includes the header files ‘’, ‘’, ‘’ and ‘’ when the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is set to ‘0x030b0000’ (Python 3.11) or higher. C extensions should explicitly include the header files after ‘#include ’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(16).) * The non-limited API files ‘cellobject.h’, ‘classobject.h’, ‘code.h’, ‘context.h’, ‘funcobject.h’, ‘genobject.h’ and ‘longintrepr.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory. Moreover, the ‘eval.h’ header file was removed. These files must not be included directly, as they are already included in ‘Python.h’: *note Include Files: 77f. If they have been included directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(17).) * The ‘PyUnicode_CHECK_INTERNED()’ macro has been excluded from the limited C API. It was never usable there, because it used internal structures which are not available in the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-46007(18).) * The following frame functions and type are now directly available with ‘#include ’, it’s no longer needed to add ‘#include ’: * *note PyFrame_Check(): 780. * *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 781. * *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 766. * *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 767. * *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 768. * *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 769. * *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. * *note PyFrame_Type: 782. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-93937(19).) * The *note PyFrameObject: 784. structure members have been removed from the public C API. While the documentation notes that the *note PyFrameObject: 784. fields are subject to change at any time, they have been stable for a long time and were used in several popular extensions. In Python 3.11, the frame struct was reorganized to allow performance optimizations. Some fields were removed entirely, as they were details of the old implementation. *note PyFrameObject: 784. fields: * ‘f_back’: use *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 781. * ‘f_blockstack’: removed. * ‘f_builtins’: use *note PyFrame_GetBuiltins(): 766. * ‘f_code’: use *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 785. * ‘f_gen’: use *note PyFrame_GetGenerator(): 767. * ‘f_globals’: use *note PyFrame_GetGlobals(): 768. * ‘f_iblock’: removed. * ‘f_lasti’: use *note PyFrame_GetLasti(): 769. Code using ‘f_lasti’ with ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ should use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. instead; it may be faster. * ‘f_lineno’: use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. * ‘f_locals’: use *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. * ‘f_stackdepth’: removed. * ‘f_state’: no public API (renamed to ‘f_frame.f_state’). * ‘f_trace’: no public API. * ‘f_trace_lines’: use ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_lines")’. * ‘f_trace_opcodes’: use ‘PyObject_GetAttrString((PyObject*)frame, "f_trace_opcodes")’. * ‘f_localsplus’: no public API (renamed to ‘f_frame.localsplus’). * ‘f_valuestack’: removed. The Python frame object is now created lazily. A side effect is that the *note f_back: 787. member must not be accessed directly, since its value is now also computed lazily. The *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 781. function must be called instead. Debuggers that accessed the *note f_locals: 182. directly 'must' call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. instead. They no longer need to call ‘PyFrame_FastToLocalsWithError()’ or ‘PyFrame_LocalsToFast()’, in fact they should not call those functions. The necessary updating of the frame is now managed by the virtual machine. Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetCode()’ on Python 3.8 and older: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1 static inline PyCodeObject* PyFrame_GetCode(PyFrameObject *frame) { Py_INCREF(frame->f_code); return frame->f_code; } #endif Code defining ‘PyFrame_GetBack()’ on Python 3.8 and older: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1 static inline PyFrameObject* PyFrame_GetBack(PyFrameObject *frame) { Py_XINCREF(frame->f_back); return frame->f_back; } #endif Or use the pythoncapi_compat project(20) to get these two functions on older Python versions. * Changes of the *note PyThreadState: 788. structure members: * ‘frame’: removed, use *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 789. (function added to Python 3.9 by bpo-40429(21)). Warning: the function returns a *note strong reference: 338, need to call *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. * ‘tracing’: changed, use *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 74f. and *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 750. (functions added to Python 3.11 by bpo-43760(22)). * ‘recursion_depth’: removed, use ‘(tstate->recursion_limit - tstate->recursion_remaining)’ instead. * ‘stackcheck_counter’: removed. Code defining ‘PyThreadState_GetFrame()’ on Python 3.8 and older: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900B1 static inline PyFrameObject* PyThreadState_GetFrame(PyThreadState *tstate) { Py_XINCREF(tstate->frame); return tstate->frame; } #endif Code defining ‘PyThreadState_EnterTracing()’ and ‘PyThreadState_LeaveTracing()’ on Python 3.10 and older: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030B00A2 static inline void PyThreadState_EnterTracing(PyThreadState *tstate) { tstate->tracing++; #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1 tstate->cframe->use_tracing = 0; #else tstate->use_tracing = 0; #endif } static inline void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(PyThreadState *tstate) { int use_tracing = (tstate->c_tracefunc != NULL || tstate->c_profilefunc != NULL); tstate->tracing--; #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030A00A1 tstate->cframe->use_tracing = use_tracing; #else tstate->use_tracing = use_tracing; #endif } #endif Or use the pythoncapi-compat project(23) to get these functions on old Python functions. * Distributors are encouraged to build Python with the optimized Blake2 library libb2(24). * The *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5eb. field must now be set to 1 for initialization to use *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39e. to initialize *note sys.path: 3b0. Otherwise, initialization will recalculate the path and replace any values added to ‘module_search_paths’. * *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. no longer calculates the initial search path, and will not fill any values into *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39e. To calculate default paths and then modify them, finish initialization and use *note PySys_GetObject(): 384. to retrieve *note sys.path: 3b0. as a Python list object and modify it directly. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://gcc.gnu.org/onlinedocs/cpp/Macro-Pitfalls.html (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0670/ (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/89653 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45711 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46608 (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/ (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46841 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92154 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94936 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44263 (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/ (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46007 (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93937 (20) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40429 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760 (23) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat (24) https://www.blake2.net/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<4>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 11<2>, Up: C API Changes<3> 1.3.16.3 Deprecated ................... * Deprecate the following functions to configure the Python initialization: * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’ * ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’ * ‘PySys_AddXOption()’ * ‘PySys_HasWarnOptions()’ * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ * ‘PySys_SetPath()’ * ‘Py_SetPath()’ * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’ * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’ * ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’ * ‘_Py_SetProgramFullPath()’ Use the new *note PyConfig: 3a2. API of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. instead ( PEP 587(1)). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in gh-88279(2).) * Deprecate the ‘ob_shash’ member of the *note PyBytesObject: 78d. Use *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff. instead. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-46864(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88279 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=46864  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>, Next: Removed<4>, Prev: Deprecated<4>, Up: C API Changes<3> 1.3.16.4 Pending Removal in Python 3.12 ....................................... The following C APIs have been deprecated in earlier Python releases, and will be removed in Python 3.12. * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE()’ * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE()’ * ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’ * ‘PyUnicode_IS_COMPACT()’ * ‘PyUnicode_IS_READY()’ * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fd. * ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH()’ * ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ * *note PyUnicodeObject: 78f. * ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’  File: python.info, Node: Removed<4>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>, Up: C API Changes<3> 1.3.16.5 Removed ................ * ‘PyFrame_BlockSetup()’ and ‘PyFrame_BlockPop()’ have been removed. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-40222(1).) * Remove the following math macros using the ‘errno’ variable: * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE1()’ * ‘Py_ADJUST_ERANGE2()’ * ‘Py_OVERFLOWED()’ * ‘Py_SET_ERANGE_IF_OVERFLOW()’ * ‘Py_SET_ERRNO_ON_MATH_ERROR()’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(2).) * Remove ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’ and ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’ macros, deprecated since Python 3.3. Use ‘PyUnicode_CopyCharacters()’ or ‘memcpy()’ (‘wchar_t*’ string), and ‘PyUnicode_Fill()’ functions instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41123(3).) * Remove the ‘pystrhex.h’ header file. It only contains private functions. C extensions should only include the main ‘’ header file. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45434(4).) * Remove the ‘Py_FORCE_DOUBLE()’ macro. It was used by the ‘Py_IS_INFINITY()’ macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45440(5).) * The following items are no longer available when *note Py_LIMITED_API: 41a. is defined: * *note PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile(): 791. * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile(): 792. * *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString(): 793. * *note PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString(): 794. * the ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ macro These are not part of the *note limited API: 795. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45474(6).) * Exclude *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3bb. from the limited C API. It never worked since the ‘PyWeakReference’ structure is opaque in the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(7).) * Remove the ‘PyHeapType_GET_MEMBERS()’ macro. It was exposed in the public C API by mistake, it must only be used by Python internally. Use the ‘PyTypeObject.tp_members’ member instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40170(8).) * Remove the ‘HAVE_PY_SET_53BIT_PRECISION’ macro (moved to the internal C API). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-45412(9).) * Remove the *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. encoder APIs, as they have been deprecated since Python 3.3, are little used and are inefficient relative to the recommended alternatives. The removed functions are: * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’ * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’ * ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’ See PEP 624(10) for details and migration guidance(11). (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-44029(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40222 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45434 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45440 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45474 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45412 (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/#alternative-apis (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44029  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4, Next: Notable changes in 3 11 5, Prev: C API Changes<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.17 Notable changes in 3.11.4 -------------------------------- * Menu: * tarfile: tarfile<2>.  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<2>, Up: Notable changes in 3 11 4 1.3.17.1 tarfile ................ * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 467, have a new a 'filter' argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See *note Extraction filters: 468. for details. In Python 3.12, use without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5, Prev: Notable changes in 3 11 4, Up: What’s New In Python 3 11 1.3.18 Notable changes in 3.11.5 -------------------------------- * Menu: * OpenSSL::  File: python.info, Node: OpenSSL, Up: Notable changes in 3 11 5 1.3.18.1 OpenSSL ................ * Windows builds and macOS installers from python.org now use OpenSSL 3.0.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 10, Next: What’s New In Python 3 9, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 11, Up: What’s New in Python 1.4 What’s New In Python 3.10 ============================= Editor: Pablo Galindo Salgado This article explains the new features in Python 3.10, compared to 3.9. Python 3.10 was released on October 4, 2021. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<3>. * New Features: New Features<7>. * New Features Related to Type Hints: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<4>. * New Modules: New Modules<4>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<4>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<4>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<5>. * Removed: Removed<5>. * Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<3>. * Build Changes: Build Changes<4>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<4>. * Notable security feature in 3.10.7: Notable security feature in 3 10 7. * Notable security feature in 3.10.8: Notable security feature in 3 10 8. * Notable changes in 3.10.12: Notable changes in 3 10 12.  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<3>, Next: New Features<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.1 Summary – Release highlights ---------------------------------- New syntax features: * PEP 634(1), Structural Pattern Matching: Specification * PEP 635(2), Structural Pattern Matching: Motivation and Rationale * PEP 636(3), Structural Pattern Matching: Tutorial * bpo-12782(4), Parenthesized context managers are now officially allowed. New features in the standard library: * PEP 618(5), Add Optional Length-Checking To zip. Interpreter improvements: * PEP 626(6), Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. New typing features: * PEP 604(7), Allow writing union types as X | Y * PEP 612(8), Parameter Specification Variables * PEP 613(9), Explicit Type Aliases * PEP 647(10), User-Defined Type Guards Important deprecations, removals or restrictions: * PEP 644(11), Require OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer * PEP 632(12), Deprecate distutils module. * PEP 623(13), Deprecate and prepare for the removal of the wstr member in PyUnicodeObject. * PEP 624(14), Remove Py_UNICODE encoder APIs * PEP 597(15), Add optional EncodingWarning ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/ (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/ (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0624/ (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0597/  File: python.info, Node: New Features<7>, Next: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * Parenthesized context managers:: * Better error messages:: * PEP 626; Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools. * PEP 634; Structural Pattern Matching: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching. * Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option::  File: python.info, Node: Parenthesized context managers, Next: Better error messages, Up: New Features<7> 1.4.2.1 Parenthesized context managers ...................................... Using enclosing parentheses for continuation across multiple lines in context managers is now supported. This allows formatting a long collection of context managers in multiple lines in a similar way as it was previously possible with import statements. For instance, all these examples are now valid: with (CtxManager() as example): ... with ( CtxManager1(), CtxManager2() ): ... with (CtxManager1() as example, CtxManager2()): ... with (CtxManager1(), CtxManager2() as example): ... with ( CtxManager1() as example1, CtxManager2() as example2 ): ... it is also possible to use a trailing comma at the end of the enclosed group: with ( CtxManager1() as example1, CtxManager2() as example2, CtxManager3() as example3, ): ... This new syntax uses the non LL(1) capacities of the new parser. Check PEP 617(1) for more details. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou in bpo-12782(2) and bpo-40334(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12782 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334  File: python.info, Node: Better error messages, Next: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools, Prev: Parenthesized context managers, Up: New Features<7> 1.4.2.2 Better error messages ............................. * Menu: * SyntaxErrors:: * IndentationErrors:: * AttributeErrors:: * NameErrors::  File: python.info, Node: SyntaxErrors, Next: IndentationErrors, Up: Better error messages 1.4.2.3 SyntaxErrors .................... When parsing code that contains unclosed parentheses or brackets the interpreter now includes the location of the unclosed bracket of parentheses instead of displaying 'SyntaxError: unexpected EOF while parsing' or pointing to some incorrect location. For instance, consider the following code (notice the unclosed ‘{‘): expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4, 38: 4, 39: 4, 45: 5, 46: 5, 47: 5, 48: 5, 49: 5, 54: 6, some_other_code = foo() Previous versions of the interpreter reported confusing places as the location of the syntax error: File "example.py", line 3 some_other_code = foo() ^ SyntaxError: invalid syntax but in Python 3.10 a more informative error is emitted: File "example.py", line 1 expected = {9: 1, 18: 2, 19: 2, 27: 3, 28: 3, 29: 3, 36: 4, 37: 4, ^ SyntaxError: '{' was never closed In a similar way, errors involving unclosed string literals (single and triple quoted) now point to the start of the string instead of reporting EOF/EOL. These improvements are inspired by previous work in the PyPy interpreter. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42864(1) and Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40176(2).) *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions raised by the interpreter will now highlight the full error range of the expression that constitutes the syntax error itself, instead of just where the problem is detected. In this way, instead of displaying (before Python 3.10): >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w) File "", line 1 foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w) ^ SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized now Python 3.10 will display the exception as: >>> foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w) File "", line 1 foo(x, z for z in range(10), t, w) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ SyntaxError: Generator expression must be parenthesized This improvement was contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(3). A considerable amount of new specialized messages for *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions have been incorporated. Some of the most notable ones are as follows: * Missing ‘:’ before blocks: >>> if rocket.position > event_horizon File "", line 1 if rocket.position > event_horizon ^ SyntaxError: expected ':' (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-42997(4).) * Unparenthesised tuples in comprehensions targets: >>> {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')} File "", line 1 {x,y for x,y in zip('abcd', '1234')} ^ SyntaxError: did you forget parentheses around the comprehension target? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43017(5).) * Missing commas in collection literals and between expressions: >>> items = { ... x: 1, ... y: 2 ... z: 3, File "", line 3 y: 2 ^ SyntaxError: invalid syntax. Perhaps you forgot a comma? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43822(6).) * Multiple Exception types without parentheses: >>> try: ... build_dyson_sphere() ... except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError: File "", line 3 except NotEnoughScienceError, NotEnoughResourcesError: ^ SyntaxError: multiple exception types must be parenthesized (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43149(7).) * Missing ‘:’ and values in dictionary literals: >>> values = { ... x: 1, ... y: 2, ... z: ... } File "", line 4 z: ^ SyntaxError: expression expected after dictionary key and ':' >>> values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3} File "", line 1 values = {x:1, y:2, z w:3} ^ SyntaxError: ':' expected after dictionary key (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43823(8).) * ‘try’ blocks without ‘except’ or ‘finally’ blocks: >>> try: ... x = 2 ... something = 3 File "", line 3 something = 3 ^^^^^^^^^ SyntaxError: expected 'except' or 'finally' block (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-44305(9).) * Usage of ‘=’ instead of ‘==’ in comparisons: >>> if rocket.position = event_horizon: File "", line 1 if rocket.position = event_horizon: ^ SyntaxError: cannot assign to attribute here. Maybe you meant '==' instead of '='? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43797(10).) * Usage of ‘*’ in f-strings: >>> f"Black holes {*all_black_holes} and revelations" File "", line 1 (*all_black_holes) ^ SyntaxError: f-string: cannot use starred expression here (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41064(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42864 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40176 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42997 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43017 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43822 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43149 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43823 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44305 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43797 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41064  File: python.info, Node: IndentationErrors, Next: AttributeErrors, Prev: SyntaxErrors, Up: Better error messages 1.4.2.4 IndentationErrors ......................... Many *note IndentationError: 7a3. exceptions now have more context regarding what kind of block was expecting an indentation, including the location of the statement: >>> def foo(): ... if lel: ... x = 2 File "", line 3 x = 2 ^ IndentationError: expected an indented block after 'if' statement in line 2  File: python.info, Node: AttributeErrors, Next: NameErrors, Prev: IndentationErrors, Up: Better error messages 1.4.2.5 AttributeErrors ....................... When printing *note AttributeError: 348, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar attribute names in the object that the exception was raised from: >>> collections.namedtoplo Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in AttributeError: module 'collections' has no attribute 'namedtoplo'. Did you mean: namedtuple? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).) Warning: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not called to display the error which can happen if some other custom error display function is used. This is a common scenario in some REPLs like IPython. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530  File: python.info, Node: NameErrors, Prev: AttributeErrors, Up: Better error messages 1.4.2.6 NameErrors .................. When printing *note NameError: 43a. raised by the interpreter, ‘PyErr_Display()’ will offer suggestions of similar variable names in the function that the exception was raised from: >>> schwarzschild_black_hole = None >>> schwarschild_black_hole Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in NameError: name 'schwarschild_black_hole' is not defined. Did you mean: schwarzschild_black_hole? (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-38530(1).) Warning: Notice this won’t work if ‘PyErr_Display()’ is not called to display the error, which can happen if some other custom error display function is used. This is a common scenario in some REPLs like IPython. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38530  File: python.info, Node: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools, Next: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching, Prev: Better error messages, Up: New Features<7> 1.4.2.7 PEP 626: Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools ................................................................... PEP 626 brings more precise and reliable line numbers for debugging, profiling and coverage tools. Tracing events, with the correct line number, are generated for all lines of code executed and only for lines of code that are executed. The *note f_lineno: 7a7. attribute of frame objects will always contain the expected line number. The *note co_lnotab: 2e4. attribute of *note code objects: 1d2. is deprecated and will be removed in 3.12. Code that needs to convert from offset to line number should use the new *note co_lines(): 2f5. method instead.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching, Next: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option, Prev: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools, Up: New Features<7> 1.4.2.8 PEP 634: Structural Pattern Matching ............................................ Structural pattern matching has been added in the form of a 'match statement' and 'case statements' of patterns with associated actions. Patterns consist of sequences, mappings, primitive data types as well as class instances. Pattern matching enables programs to extract information from complex data types, branch on the structure of data, and apply specific actions based on different forms of data. * Menu: * Syntax and operations:: * Declarative approach:: * Simple pattern; match to a literal: Simple pattern match to a literal. * Patterns with a literal and variable:: * Patterns and classes:: * Nested patterns:: * Complex patterns and the wildcard:: * Guard:: * Other Key Features::  File: python.info, Node: Syntax and operations, Next: Declarative approach, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.9 Syntax and operations ............................. The generic syntax of pattern matching is: match subject: case : case : case : case _: A match statement takes an expression and compares its value to successive patterns given as one or more case blocks. Specifically, pattern matching operates by: 1. using data with type and shape (the ‘subject’) 2. evaluating the ‘subject’ in the ‘match’ statement 3. comparing the subject with each pattern in a ‘case’ statement from top to bottom until a match is confirmed. 4. executing the action associated with the pattern of the confirmed match 5. If an exact match is not confirmed, the last case, a wildcard ‘_’, if provided, will be used as the matching case. If an exact match is not confirmed and a wildcard case does not exist, the entire match block is a no-op.  File: python.info, Node: Declarative approach, Next: Simple pattern match to a literal, Prev: Syntax and operations, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.10 Declarative approach ............................. Readers may be aware of pattern matching through the simple example of matching a subject (data object) to a literal (pattern) with the switch statement found in C, Java or JavaScript (and many other languages). Often the switch statement is used for comparison of an object/expression with case statements containing literals. More powerful examples of pattern matching can be found in languages such as Scala and Elixir. With structural pattern matching, the approach is “declarative” and explicitly states the conditions (the patterns) for data to match. While an “imperative” series of instructions using nested “if” statements could be used to accomplish something similar to structural pattern matching, it is less clear than the “declarative” approach. Instead the “declarative” approach states the conditions to meet for a match and is more readable through its explicit patterns. While structural pattern matching can be used in its simplest form comparing a variable to a literal in a case statement, its true value for Python lies in its handling of the subject’s type and shape.  File: python.info, Node: Simple pattern match to a literal, Next: Patterns with a literal and variable, Prev: Declarative approach, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.11 Simple pattern: match to a literal ........................................... Let’s look at this example as pattern matching in its simplest form: a value, the subject, being matched to several literals, the patterns. In the example below, ‘status’ is the subject of the match statement. The patterns are each of the case statements, where literals represent request status codes. The associated action to the case is executed after a match: def http_error(status): match status: case 400: return "Bad request" case 404: return "Not found" case 418: return "I'm a teapot" case _: return "Something's wrong with the internet" If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 418, “I’m a teapot” is returned. If the above function is passed a ‘status’ of 500, the case statement with ‘_’ will match as a wildcard, and “Something’s wrong with the internet” is returned. Note the last block: the variable name, ‘_’, acts as a 'wildcard' and insures the subject will always match. The use of ‘_’ is optional. You can combine several literals in a single pattern using ‘|’ (“or”): case 401 | 403 | 404: return "Not allowed" * Menu: * Behavior without the wildcard::  File: python.info, Node: Behavior without the wildcard, Up: Simple pattern match to a literal 1.4.2.12 Behavior without the wildcard ...................................... If we modify the above example by removing the last case block, the example becomes: def http_error(status): match status: case 400: return "Bad request" case 404: return "Not found" case 418: return "I'm a teapot" Without the use of ‘_’ in a case statement, a match may not exist. If no match exists, the behavior is a no-op. For example, if ‘status’ of 500 is passed, a no-op occurs.  File: python.info, Node: Patterns with a literal and variable, Next: Patterns and classes, Prev: Simple pattern match to a literal, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.13 Patterns with a literal and variable ............................................. Patterns can look like unpacking assignments, and a pattern may be used to bind variables. In this example, a data point can be unpacked to its x-coordinate and y-coordinate: # point is an (x, y) tuple match point: case (0, 0): print("Origin") case (0, y): print(f"Y={y}") case (x, 0): print(f"X={x}") case (x, y): print(f"X={x}, Y={y}") case _: raise ValueError("Not a point") The first pattern has two literals, ‘(0, 0)’, and may be thought of as an extension of the literal pattern shown above. The next two patterns combine a literal and a variable, and the variable 'binds' a value from the subject (‘point’). The fourth pattern captures two values, which makes it conceptually similar to the unpacking assignment ‘(x, y) = point’.  File: python.info, Node: Patterns and classes, Next: Nested patterns, Prev: Patterns with a literal and variable, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.14 Patterns and classes ............................. If you are using classes to structure your data, you can use as a pattern the class name followed by an argument list resembling a constructor. This pattern has the ability to capture instance attributes into variables: class Point: def __init__(self, x, y): self.x = x self.y = y def location(point): match point: case Point(x=0, y=0): print("Origin is the point's location.") case Point(x=0, y=y): print(f"Y={y} and the point is on the y-axis.") case Point(x=x, y=0): print(f"X={x} and the point is on the x-axis.") case Point(): print("The point is located somewhere else on the plane.") case _: print("Not a point") * Menu: * Patterns with positional parameters::  File: python.info, Node: Patterns with positional parameters, Up: Patterns and classes 1.4.2.15 Patterns with positional parameters ............................................ You can use positional parameters with some builtin classes that provide an ordering for their attributes (e.g. dataclasses). You can also define a specific position for attributes in patterns by setting the ‘__match_args__’ special attribute in your classes. If it’s set to (“x”, “y”), the following patterns are all equivalent (and all bind the ‘y’ attribute to the ‘var’ variable): Point(1, var) Point(1, y=var) Point(x=1, y=var) Point(y=var, x=1)  File: python.info, Node: Nested patterns, Next: Complex patterns and the wildcard, Prev: Patterns and classes, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.16 Nested patterns ........................ Patterns can be arbitrarily nested. For example, if our data is a short list of points, it could be matched like this: match points: case []: print("No points in the list.") case [Point(0, 0)]: print("The origin is the only point in the list.") case [Point(x, y)]: print(f"A single point {x}, {y} is in the list.") case [Point(0, y1), Point(0, y2)]: print(f"Two points on the Y axis at {y1}, {y2} are in the list.") case _: print("Something else is found in the list.")  File: python.info, Node: Complex patterns and the wildcard, Next: Guard, Prev: Nested patterns, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.17 Complex patterns and the wildcard .......................................... To this point, the examples have used ‘_’ alone in the last case statement. A wildcard can be used in more complex patterns, such as ‘('error', code, _)’. For example: match test_variable: case ('warning', code, 40): print("A warning has been received.") case ('error', code, _): print(f"An error {code} occurred.") In the above case, ‘test_variable’ will match for (‘error’, code, 100) and (‘error’, code, 800).  File: python.info, Node: Guard, Next: Other Key Features, Prev: Complex patterns and the wildcard, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.18 Guard .............. We can add an ‘if’ clause to a pattern, known as a “guard”. If the guard is false, ‘match’ goes on to try the next case block. Note that value capture happens before the guard is evaluated: match point: case Point(x, y) if x == y: print(f"The point is located on the diagonal Y=X at {x}.") case Point(x, y): print(f"Point is not on the diagonal.")  File: python.info, Node: Other Key Features, Prev: Guard, Up: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching 1.4.2.19 Other Key Features ........................... Several other key features: - Like unpacking assignments, tuple and list patterns have exactly the same meaning and actually match arbitrary sequences. Technically, the subject must be a sequence. Therefore, an important exception is that patterns don’t match iterators. Also, to prevent a common mistake, sequence patterns don’t match strings. - Sequence patterns support wildcards: ‘[x, y, *rest]’ and ‘(x, y, *rest)’ work similar to wildcards in unpacking assignments. The name after ‘*’ may also be ‘_’, so ‘(x, y, *_)’ matches a sequence of at least two items without binding the remaining items. - Mapping patterns: ‘{"bandwidth": b, "latency": l}’ captures the ‘"bandwidth"’ and ‘"latency"’ values from a dict. Unlike sequence patterns, extra keys are ignored. A wildcard ‘**rest’ is also supported. (But ‘**_’ would be redundant, so is not allowed.) - Subpatterns may be captured using the ‘as’ keyword: case (Point(x1, y1), Point(x2, y2) as p2): ... This binds x1, y1, x2, y2 like you would expect without the ‘as’ clause, and p2 to the entire second item of the subject. - Most literals are compared by equality. However, the singletons ‘True’, ‘False’ and ‘None’ are compared by identity. - Named constants may be used in patterns. These named constants must be dotted names to prevent the constant from being interpreted as a capture variable: from enum import Enum class Color(Enum): RED = 0 GREEN = 1 BLUE = 2 color = Color.GREEN match color: case Color.RED: print("I see red!") case Color.GREEN: print("Grass is green") case Color.BLUE: print("I'm feeling the blues :(") For the full specification see PEP 634(1). Motivation and rationale are in PEP 635(2), and a longer tutorial is in PEP 636(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0635/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0636/  File: python.info, Node: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option, Prev: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching, Up: New Features<7> 1.4.2.20 Optional ‘EncodingWarning’ and ‘encoding="locale"’ option .................................................................. The default encoding of *note TextIOWrapper: 7b6. and *note open(): 517. is platform and locale dependent. Since UTF-8 is used on most Unix platforms, omitting ‘encoding’ option when opening UTF-8 files (e.g. JSON, YAML, TOML, Markdown) is a very common bug. For example: # BUG: "rb" mode or encoding="utf-8" should be used. with open("data.json") as f: data = json.load(f) To find this type of bug, an optional ‘EncodingWarning’ is added. It is emitted when *note sys.flags.warn_default_encoding: 688. is true and locale-specific default encoding is used. ‘-X warn_default_encoding’ option and *note PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: 7b7. are added to enable the warning. See *note Text Encoding: 7b8. for more information.  File: python.info, Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>, Next: Other Language Changes<4>, Prev: New Features<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.3 New Features Related to Type Hints ---------------------------------------- This section covers major changes affecting PEP 484(1) type hints and the *note typing: 104. module. * Menu: * PEP 604; New Type Union Operator: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator. * PEP 612; Parameter Specification Variables: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables. * PEP 613; TypeAlias: PEP 613 TypeAlias. * PEP 647; User-Defined Type Guards: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator, Next: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3> 1.4.3.1 PEP 604: New Type Union Operator ........................................ A new type union operator was introduced which enables the syntax ‘X | Y’. This provides a cleaner way of expressing ‘either type X or type Y’ instead of using *note typing.Union: 637, especially in type hints. In previous versions of Python, to apply a type hint for functions accepting arguments of multiple types, *note typing.Union: 637. was used: def square(number: Union[int, float]) -> Union[int, float]: return number ** 2 Type hints can now be written in a more succinct manner: def square(number: int | float) -> int | float: return number ** 2 This new syntax is also accepted as the second argument to *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc.: >>> isinstance(1, int | str) True See *note Union Type: 7bd. and PEP 604(1) for more details. (Contributed by Maggie Moss and Philippe Prados in bpo-41428(2), with additions by Yurii Karabas and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-44490(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41428 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44490  File: python.info, Node: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables, Next: PEP 613 TypeAlias, Prev: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3> 1.4.3.2 PEP 612: Parameter Specification Variables .................................................. Two new options to improve the information provided to static type checkers for PEP 484(1)‘s ‘Callable’ have been added to the *note typing: 104. module. The first is the parameter specification variable. They are used to forward the parameter types of one callable to another callable – a pattern commonly found in higher order functions and decorators. Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e. Previously, there was no easy way to type annotate dependency of parameter types in such a precise manner. The second option is the new ‘Concatenate’ operator. It’s used in conjunction with parameter specification variables to type annotate a higher order callable which adds or removes parameters of another callable. Examples of usage can be found in *note typing.Concatenate: 7bf. See *note typing.Callable: 7c0, *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e, *note typing.Concatenate: 7bf, *note typing.ParamSpecArgs: 7c1, *note typing.ParamSpecKwargs: 7c2, and PEP 612(2) for more details. (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-41559(3), with minor enhancements by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-43783(4). PEP written by Mark Mendoza.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41559 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43783  File: python.info, Node: PEP 613 TypeAlias, Next: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards, Prev: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3> 1.4.3.3 PEP 613: TypeAlias .......................... PEP 484(1) introduced the concept of type aliases, only requiring them to be top-level unannotated assignments. This simplicity sometimes made it difficult for type checkers to distinguish between type aliases and ordinary assignments, especially when forward references or invalid types were involved. Compare: StrCache = 'Cache[str]' # a type alias LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]' # a module constant Now the *note typing: 104. module has a special value *note TypeAlias: 7c4. which lets you declare type aliases more explicitly: StrCache: TypeAlias = 'Cache[str]' # a type alias LOG_PREFIX = 'LOG[DEBUG]' # a module constant See PEP 613(2) for more details. (Contributed by Mikhail Golubev in bpo-41923(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41923  File: python.info, Node: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards, Prev: PEP 613 TypeAlias, Up: New Features Related to Type Hints<3> 1.4.3.4 PEP 647: User-Defined Type Guards ......................................... *note TypeGuard: 164. has been added to the *note typing: 104. module to annotate type guard functions and improve information provided to static type checkers during type narrowing. For more information, please see *note TypeGuard: 164.‘s documentation, and PEP 647(1). (Contributed by Ken Jin and Guido van Rossum in bpo-43766(2). PEP written by Eric Traut.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43766  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<4>, Next: New Modules<4>, Prev: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.4 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * The *note int: 259. type has a new method *note int.bit_count(): 7c7, returning the number of ones in the binary expansion of a given integer, also known as the population count. (Contributed by Niklas Fiekas in bpo-29882(1).) * The views returned by *note dict.keys(): 7c8, *note dict.values(): 7c9. and *note dict.items(): 7ca. now all have a ‘mapping’ attribute that gives a *note types.MappingProxyType: 469. object wrapping the original dictionary. (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-40890(2).) * PEP 618(3): The *note zip(): 7cb. function now has an optional ‘strict’ flag, used to require that all the iterables have an equal length. * Builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments no longer accept *note Decimal: 29f.s, *note Fraction: 1e9.s and other objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g. that have the *note __int__(): 717. method but do not have the *note __index__(): 718. method). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-37999(4).) * If *note object.__ipow__(): 7cc. returns *note NotImplemented: 7cd, the operator will correctly fall back to *note object.__pow__(): 7ce. and *note object.__rpow__(): 7cf. as expected. (Contributed by Alex Shkop in bpo-38302(5).) * Assignment expressions can now be used unparenthesized within set literals and set comprehensions, as well as in sequence indexes (but not slices). * Functions have a new ‘__builtins__’ attribute which is used to look for builtin symbols when a function is executed, instead of looking into ‘__globals__['__builtins__']’. The attribute is initialized from ‘__globals__["__builtins__"]’ if it exists, else from the current builtins. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-42990(6).) * Two new builtin functions – *note aiter(): 7d0. and *note anext(): 7d1. have been added to provide asynchronous counterparts to *note iter(): 7d2. and *note next(): 7d3, respectively. (Contributed by Joshua Bronson, Daniel Pope, and Justin Wang in bpo-31861(7).) * Static methods (*note @staticmethod: 412.) and class methods (*note @classmethod: 166.) now inherit the method attributes (‘__module__’, ‘__name__’, ‘__qualname__’, ‘__doc__’, ‘__annotations__’) and have a new ‘__wrapped__’ attribute. Moreover, static methods are now callable as regular functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43682(8).) * Annotations for complex targets (everything beside ‘simple name’ targets defined by PEP 526(9)) no longer cause any runtime effects with ‘from __future__ import annotations’. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-42737(10).) * Class and module objects now lazy-create empty annotations dicts on demand. The annotations dicts are stored in the object’s ‘__dict__’ for backwards compatibility. This improves the best practices for working with ‘__annotations__’; for more information, please see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-43901(11).) * Annotations consist of ‘yield’, ‘yield from’, ‘await’ or named expressions are now forbidden under ‘from __future__ import annotations’ due to their side effects. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-42725(12).) * Usage of unbound variables, ‘super()’ and other expressions that might alter the processing of symbol table as annotations are now rendered effectless under ‘from __future__ import annotations’. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-42725(13).) * Hashes of NaN values of both *note float: 2f1. type and *note decimal.Decimal: 29f. type now depend on object identity. Formerly, they always hashed to ‘0’ even though NaN values are not equal to one another. This caused potentially quadratic runtime behavior due to excessive hash collisions when creating dictionaries and sets containing multiple NaNs. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-43475(14).) * A *note SyntaxError: 18d. (instead of a *note NameError: 43a.) will be raised when deleting the *note __debug__: 7d5. constant. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-45000(15).) * *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions now have ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_offset’ attributes. They will be ‘None’ if not determined. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43914(16).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29882 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40890 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0618/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37999 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38302 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31861 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43682 (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42737 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43901 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42725 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43475 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45000 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43914  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<4>, Next: Improved Modules<4>, Prev: Other Language Changes<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.5 New Modules ----------------- * None.  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<4>, Next: Optimizations<4>, Prev: New Modules<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.6 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * asyncio: asyncio<4>. * argparse: argparse<2>. * array: array<3>. * asynchat, asyncore, smtpd: asynchat asyncore smtpd. * base64: base64<2>. * bdb:: * bisect:: * codecs:: * collections.abc: collections abc. * contextlib: contextlib<2>. * curses:: * dataclasses: dataclasses<2>. * distutils: distutils<2>. * doctest: doctest<2>. * encodings:: * enum: enum<4>. * fileinput:: * faulthandler:: * gc:: * glob: glob<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<3>. * hmac:: * IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<2>. * importlib.metadata: importlib metadata<2>. * inspect: inspect<3>. * itertools: itertools<3>. * linecache:: * os: os<4>. * os.path: os path<4>. * pathlib: pathlib<5>. * platform: platform<2>. * pprint:: * py_compile:: * pyclbr:: * shelve:: * statistics: statistics<3>. * site: site<2>. * socket: socket<2>. * ssl: ssl<3>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<5>. * sys: sys<5>. * _thread:: * threading: threading<3>. * traceback: traceback<3>. * types: types<3>. * typing: typing<5>. * unittest: unittest<5>. * urllib.parse: urllib parse. * xml: xml<2>. * zipimport: zipimport<3>.  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<4>, Next: argparse<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.1 asyncio ............... Add missing ‘connect_accepted_socket()’ method. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-41332(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41332  File: python.info, Node: argparse<2>, Next: array<3>, Prev: asyncio<4>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.2 argparse ................ Misleading phrase “optional arguments” was replaced with “options” in argparse help. Some tests might require adaptation if they rely on exact output match. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9694(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9694  File: python.info, Node: array<3>, Next: asynchat asyncore smtpd, Prev: argparse<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.3 array ............. The *note index(): 7db. method of *note array.array: 1a0. now has optional 'start' and 'stop' parameters. (Contributed by Anders Lorentsen and Zackery Spytz in bpo-31956(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31956  File: python.info, Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd, Next: base64<2>, Prev: array<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.4 asynchat, asyncore, smtpd ................................. These modules have been marked as deprecated in their module documentation since Python 3.6. An import-time *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. has now been added to all three of these modules.  File: python.info, Node: base64<2>, Next: bdb, Prev: asynchat asyncore smtpd, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.5 base64 .............. Add *note base64.b32hexencode(): 7de. and *note base64.b32hexdecode(): 7df. to support the Base32 Encoding with Extended Hex Alphabet.  File: python.info, Node: bdb, Next: bisect, Prev: base64<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.6 bdb ........... Add ‘clearBreakpoints()’ to reset all set breakpoints. (Contributed by Irit Katriel in bpo-24160(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24160  File: python.info, Node: bisect, Next: codecs, Prev: bdb, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.7 bisect .............. Added the possibility of providing a 'key' function to the APIs in the *note bisect: 11. module. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-4356(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4356  File: python.info, Node: codecs, Next: collections abc, Prev: bisect, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.8 codecs .............. Add a *note codecs.unregister(): 7e3. function to unregister a codec search function. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842  File: python.info, Node: collections abc, Next: contextlib<2>, Prev: codecs, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.9 collections.abc ....................... The ‘__args__’ of the *note parameterized generic: 6ae. for *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. are now consistent with *note typing.Callable: 7c0. *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. generic now flattens type parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 7c0. currently does. This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str], str)’. To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias: 7e6. can now be subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. type. Note that a *note TypeError: 534. may be raised for invalid forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. which may have passed silently in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<2>, Next: curses, Prev: collections abc, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.10 contextlib ................... Add a *note contextlib.aclosing(): 7e8. context manager to safely close async generators and objects representing asynchronously released resources. (Contributed by Joongi Kim and John Belmonte in bpo-41229(1).) Add asynchronous context manager support to *note contextlib.nullcontext(): 7e9. (Contributed by Tom Gringauz in bpo-41543(2).) Add *note AsyncContextDecorator: 7ea, for supporting usage of async context managers as decorators. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41229 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41543  File: python.info, Node: curses, Next: dataclasses<2>, Prev: contextlib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.11 curses ............... The extended color functions added in ncurses 6.1 will be used transparently by *note curses.color_content(): 7ec, *note curses.init_color(): 7ed, *note curses.init_pair(): 7ee, and *note curses.pair_content(): 7ef. A new function, *note curses.has_extended_color_support(): 7f0, indicates whether extended color support is provided by the underlying ncurses library. (Contributed by Jeffrey Kintscher and Hans Petter Jansson in bpo-36982(1).) The ‘BUTTON5_*’ constants are now exposed in the *note curses: 2b. module if they are provided by the underlying curses library. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-39273(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36982 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39273  File: python.info, Node: dataclasses<2>, Next: distutils<2>, Prev: curses, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.12 dataclasses .................... * Menu: * __slots__:: * Keyword-only fields::  File: python.info, Node: __slots__, Next: Keyword-only fields, Up: dataclasses<2> 1.4.6.13 __slots__ .................. Added ‘slots’ parameter in *note dataclasses.dataclass(): 1cb. decorator. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42269(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42269  File: python.info, Node: Keyword-only fields, Prev: __slots__, Up: dataclasses<2> 1.4.6.14 Keyword-only fields ............................ dataclasses now supports fields that are keyword-only in the generated __init__ method. There are a number of ways of specifying keyword-only fields. You can say that every field is keyword-only: from dataclasses import dataclass @dataclass(kw_only=True) class Birthday: name: str birthday: datetime.date Both ‘name’ and ‘birthday’ are keyword-only parameters to the generated __init__ method. You can specify keyword-only on a per-field basis: from dataclasses import dataclass, field @dataclass class Birthday: name: str birthday: datetime.date = field(kw_only=True) Here only ‘birthday’ is keyword-only. If you set ‘kw_only’ on individual fields, be aware that there are rules about re-ordering fields due to keyword-only fields needing to follow non-keyword-only fields. See the full dataclasses documentation for details. You can also specify that all fields following a KW_ONLY marker are keyword-only. This will probably be the most common usage: from dataclasses import dataclass, KW_ONLY @dataclass class Point: x: float y: float _: KW_ONLY z: float = 0.0 t: float = 0.0 Here, ‘z’ and ‘t’ are keyword-only parameters, while ‘x’ and ‘y’ are not. (Contributed by Eric V. Smith in bpo-43532(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43532  File: python.info, Node: distutils<2>, Next: doctest<2>, Prev: dataclasses<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.15 distutils .................. The entire ‘distutils’ package is deprecated, to be removed in Python 3.12. Its functionality for specifying package builds has already been completely replaced by third-party packages ‘setuptools’ and ‘packaging’, and most other commonly used APIs are available elsewhere in the standard library (such as *note platform: aa, *note shutil: c5, *note subprocess: d6. or *note sysconfig: db.). There are no plans to migrate any other functionality from ‘distutils’, and applications that are using other functions should plan to make private copies of the code. Refer to PEP 632(1) for discussion. The ‘bdist_wininst’ command deprecated in Python 3.8 has been removed. The ‘bdist_wheel’ command is now recommended to distribute binary packages on Windows. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42802(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42802  File: python.info, Node: doctest<2>, Next: encodings, Prev: distutils<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.16 doctest ................ When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to ‘__spec__.loader’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133  File: python.info, Node: encodings, Next: enum<4>, Prev: doctest<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.17 encodings .................. *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 7f7. now ignores non-ASCII characters. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-39337(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39337  File: python.info, Node: enum<4>, Next: fileinput, Prev: encodings, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.18 enum ............. *note Enum: 62c. *note __repr__(): 618. now returns ‘enum_name.member_name’ and *note __str__(): 619. now returns ‘member_name’. Stdlib enums available as module constants have a *note repr(): 7f9. of ‘module_name.member_name’. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-40066(1).) Add *note enum.StrEnum: 616. for enums where all members are strings. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-41816(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40066 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41816  File: python.info, Node: fileinput, Next: faulthandler, Prev: enum<4>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.19 fileinput .................. Add 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters in *note fileinput.input(): 7fb. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 732. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43712(1).) *note fileinput.hook_compressed(): 7fc. now returns *note TextIOWrapper: 7b6. object when 'mode' is “r” and file is compressed, like uncompressed files. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-5758(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43712 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5758  File: python.info, Node: faulthandler, Next: gc, Prev: fileinput, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.20 faulthandler ..................... The *note faulthandler: 58. module now detects if a fatal error occurs during a garbage collector collection. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44466(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44466  File: python.info, Node: gc, Next: glob<2>, Prev: faulthandler, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.21 gc ........... Add audit hooks for *note gc.get_objects(): 7ff, *note gc.get_referrers(): 800. and *note gc.get_referents(): 801. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43439(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43439  File: python.info, Node: glob<2>, Next: hashlib<3>, Prev: gc, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.22 glob ............. Add the 'root_dir' and 'dir_fd' parameters in *note glob(): 2a1. and *note iglob(): 803. which allow to specify the root directory for searching. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38144(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38144  File: python.info, Node: hashlib<3>, Next: hmac, Prev: glob<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.23 hashlib ................ The hashlib module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).) The hashlib module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-38820(3) and other issues.) The pure-Python fallback of *note pbkdf2_hmac(): 50a. is deprecated. In the future PBKDF2-HMAC will only be available when Python has been built with OpenSSL support. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43880(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880  File: python.info, Node: hmac, Next: IDLE and idlelib<2>, Prev: hashlib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.24 hmac ............. The hmac module now uses OpenSSL’s HMAC implementation internally. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40645(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40645  File: python.info, Node: IDLE and idlelib<2>, Next: importlib metadata<2>, Prev: hmac, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.25 IDLE and idlelib ......................... Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 807. (when started without ‘-n’). User hooks were previously ignored. (Contributed by Ken Hilton in bpo-43008(1).) Rearrange the settings dialog. Split the General tab into Windows and Shell/Ed tabs. Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the Extensions tab. Make space for new options and shorten the dialog. The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(2).) Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to the new Windows tab. (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33962(3).) The changes above were backported to a 3.9 maintenance release. Add a Shell sidebar. Move the primary prompt (‘>>>’) to the sidebar. Add secondary prompts (’…’) to the sidebar. Left click and optional drag selects one or more lines of text, as with the editor line number sidebar. Right click after selecting text lines displays a context menu with ‘copy with prompts’. This zips together prompts from the sidebar with lines from the selected text. This option also appears on the context menu for the text. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-37903(4).) Use spaces instead of tabs to indent interactive code. This makes interactive code entries ‘look right’. Making this feasible was a major motivation for adding the shell sidebar. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-37892(5).) Highlight the new *note soft keywords: 808. *note match: 809, *note case: 809, and *note _: 80a. in pattern-matching statements. However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-44010(6).) New in 3.10 maintenance releases. Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files. (Contributed by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).) Include prompts when saving Shell with inputs and outputs. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in gh-95191(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37903 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37892 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44010 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95191  File: python.info, Node: importlib metadata<2>, Next: inspect<3>, Prev: IDLE and idlelib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.26 importlib.metadata ........................... Feature parity with ‘importlib_metadata’ 4.6 (history(1)). *note importlib.metadata entry points: 286. now provide a nicer experience for selecting entry points by group and name through a new *note importlib.metadata.EntryPoints: 286. class. See the Compatibility Note in the docs for more info on the deprecation and usage. Added *note importlib.metadata.packages_distributions(): 80c. for resolving top-level Python modules and packages to their *note importlib.metadata.Distribution: 80d. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/history.html  File: python.info, Node: inspect<3>, Next: itertools<3>, Prev: importlib metadata<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.27 inspect ................ When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to ‘__spec__.loader’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).) Add *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f, which safely computes the annotations defined on an object. It works around the quirks of accessing the annotations on various types of objects, and makes very few assumptions about the object it examines. *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. can also correctly un-stringize stringized annotations. *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. is now considered best practice for accessing the annotations dict defined on any Python object; for more information on best practices for working with annotations, please see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. Relatedly, *note inspect.signature(): 733, *note inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 735, and ‘inspect.Signature.from_function()’ now call *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. to retrieve annotations. This means *note inspect.signature(): 733. and *note inspect.Signature.from_callable(): 735. can also now un-stringize stringized annotations. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-43817(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43817  File: python.info, Node: itertools<3>, Next: linecache, Prev: inspect<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.28 itertools .................. Add *note itertools.pairwise(): 811. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-38200(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38200  File: python.info, Node: linecache, Next: os<4>, Prev: itertools<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.29 linecache .................. When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to ‘__spec__.loader’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133  File: python.info, Node: os<4>, Next: os path<4>, Prev: linecache, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.30 os ........... Add *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5. support for VxWorks RTOS. (Contributed by Peixing Xin in bpo-41440(1).) Add a new function *note os.eventfd(): 814. and related helpers to wrap the ‘eventfd2’ syscall on Linux. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-41001(2).) Add *note os.splice(): 815. that allows to move data between two file descriptors without copying between kernel address space and user address space, where one of the file descriptors must refer to a pipe. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-41625(3).) Add *note O_EVTONLY: 816, *note O_FSYNC: 817, *note O_SYMLINK: 818. and *note O_NOFOLLOW_ANY: 819. for macOS. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-43106(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41440 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41001 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41625 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43106  File: python.info, Node: os path<4>, Next: pathlib<5>, Prev: os<4>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.31 os.path ................ *note os.path.realpath(): 227. now accepts a 'strict' keyword-only argument. When set to ‘True’, *note OSError: 413. is raised if a path doesn’t exist or a symlink loop is encountered. (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-43757(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43757  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<5>, Next: platform<2>, Prev: os path<4>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.32 pathlib ................ Add slice support to *note PurePath.parents: 81c. (Contributed by Joshua Cannon in bpo-35498(1).) Add negative indexing support to *note PurePath.parents: 81c. (Contributed by Yaroslav Pankovych in bpo-21041(2).) Add *note Path.hardlink_to: 81d. method that supersedes ‘link_to()’. The new method has the same argument order as *note symlink_to(): 81e. (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(3).) *note pathlib.Path.stat(): 81f. and *note chmod(): 820. now accept a 'follow_symlinks' keyword-only argument for consistency with corresponding functions in the *note os: a1. module. (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39906(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35498 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21041 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39906  File: python.info, Node: platform<2>, Next: pprint, Prev: pathlib<5>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.33 platform ................. Add *note platform.freedesktop_os_release(): 822. to retrieve operation system identification from freedesktop.org os-release(1) standard file. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28468(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.freedesktop.org/software/systemd/man/os-release.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28468  File: python.info, Node: pprint, Next: py_compile, Prev: platform<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.34 pprint ............... *note pprint.pprint(): 824. now accepts a new ‘underscore_numbers’ keyword argument. (Contributed by sblondon in bpo-42914(1).) *note pprint: ae. can now pretty-print *note dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb. instances. (Contributed by Lewis Gaul in bpo-43080(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42914 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43080  File: python.info, Node: py_compile, Next: pyclbr, Prev: pprint, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.35 py_compile ................... Add ‘--quiet’ option to command-line interface of *note py_compile: b3. (Contributed by Gregory Schevchenko in bpo-38731(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38731  File: python.info, Node: pyclbr, Next: shelve, Prev: py_compile, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.36 pyclbr ............... Add an ‘end_lineno’ attribute to the ‘Function’ and ‘Class’ objects in the tree returned by *note pyclbr.readmodule(): 827. and *note pyclbr.readmodule_ex(): 828. It matches the existing (start) ‘lineno’. (Contributed by Aviral Srivastava in bpo-38307(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38307  File: python.info, Node: shelve, Next: statistics<3>, Prev: pyclbr, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.37 shelve ............... The *note shelve: c3. module now uses *note pickle.DEFAULT_PROTOCOL: 82a. by default instead of *note pickle: a6. protocol ‘3’ when creating shelves. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34204(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34204  File: python.info, Node: statistics<3>, Next: site<2>, Prev: shelve, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.38 statistics ................... Add *note covariance(): 82c, Pearson’s *note correlation(): 4b8, and simple *note linear_regression(): 82d. functions. (Contributed by Tymoteusz Wołodźko in bpo-38490(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38490  File: python.info, Node: site<2>, Next: socket<2>, Prev: statistics<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.39 site ............. When a module does not define ‘__loader__’, fall back to ‘__spec__.loader’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42133(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42133  File: python.info, Node: socket<2>, Next: ssl<3>, Prev: site<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.40 socket ............... The exception *note socket.timeout: 830. is now an alias of *note TimeoutError: 831. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42413(1).) Add option to create MPTCP sockets with ‘IPPROTO_MPTCP’ (Contributed by Rui Cunha in bpo-43571(2).) Add ‘IP_RECVTOS’ option to receive the type of service (ToS) or DSCP/ECN fields (Contributed by Georg Sauthoff in bpo-44077(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42413 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43571 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44077  File: python.info, Node: ssl<3>, Next: sqlite3<5>, Prev: socket<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.41 ssl ............ The ssl module requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in PEP 644(1) and bpo-43669(2).) The ssl module has preliminary support for OpenSSL 3.0.0 and new option *note OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF: 833. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-38820(3), bpo-43794(4), bpo-43788(5), bpo-43791(6), bpo-43799(7), bpo-43920(8), bpo-43789(9), and bpo-43811(10).) Deprecated function and use of deprecated constants now result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. *note ssl.SSLContext.options: 834. has *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 835. and *note OP_NO_SSLv3: 836. set by default and therefore cannot warn about setting the flag again. The *note deprecation section: 837. has a list of deprecated features. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43880(11).) The ssl module now has more secure default settings. Ciphers without forward secrecy or SHA-1 MAC are disabled by default. Security level 2 prohibits weak RSA, DH, and ECC keys with less than 112 bits of security. *note SSLContext: 296. defaults to minimum protocol version TLS 1.2. Settings are based on Hynek Schlawack’s research. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43998(12).) The deprecated protocols SSL 3.0, TLS 1.0, and TLS 1.1 are no longer officially supported. Python does not block them actively. However OpenSSL build options, distro configurations, vendor patches, and cipher suites may prevent a successful handshake. Add a 'timeout' parameter to the *note ssl.get_server_certificate(): 838. function. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-31870(13).) The ssl module uses heap-types and multi-phase initialization. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-42333(14).) A new verify flag *note VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN: 156. has been added. (Contributed by l0x in bpo-40849(15).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38820 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43794 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43788 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43791 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43799 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43920 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43789 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43811 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43880 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43998 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31870 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42333 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40849  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<5>, Next: sys<5>, Prev: ssl<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.42 sqlite3 ................ Add audit events for ‘connect/handle()’, *note enable_load_extension(): 83a, and *note load_extension(): 4b4. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43762(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43762  File: python.info, Node: sys<5>, Next: _thread, Prev: sqlite3<5>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.43 sys ............ Add *note sys.orig_argv: 83c. attribute: the list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23427(1).) Add *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83d, containing the list of the standard library module names. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42955(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42955  File: python.info, Node: _thread, Next: threading<3>, Prev: sys<5>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.44 _thread ................ *note _thread.interrupt_main(): 83f. now takes an optional signal number to simulate (the default is still *note signal.SIGINT: 840.). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356  File: python.info, Node: threading<3>, Next: traceback<3>, Prev: _thread, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.45 threading .................. Add *note threading.gettrace(): 842. and *note threading.getprofile(): 843. to retrieve the functions set by *note threading.settrace(): 844. and *note threading.setprofile(): 845. respectively. (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-42251(1).) Add *note threading.__excepthook__: 846. to allow retrieving the original value of *note threading.excepthook(): 847. in case it is set to a broken or a different value. (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-42308(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42251 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42308  File: python.info, Node: traceback<3>, Next: types<3>, Prev: threading<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.46 traceback .................. The *note format_exception(): 849, *note format_exception_only(): 84a, and *note print_exception(): 84b. functions can now take an exception object as a positional-only argument. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-26389(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389  File: python.info, Node: types<3>, Next: typing<5>, Prev: traceback<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.47 types .............. Reintroduce the *note types.EllipsisType: 84d, *note types.NoneType: 84e. and *note types.NotImplementedType: 84f. classes, providing a new set of types readily interpretable by type checkers. (Contributed by Bas van Beek in bpo-41810(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41810  File: python.info, Node: typing<5>, Next: unittest<5>, Prev: types<3>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.48 typing ............... For major changes, see *note New Features Related to Type Hints: 7b9. The behavior of *note typing.Literal: 851. was changed to conform with PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified in the PEP. 1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters. 2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order independent. 3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types. For example, ‘Literal[0] == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’. It is now ‘False’. To support this change, the internally used type cache now supports differentiating types. 4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 534. exception during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not *note hashable: 60c. Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with unhashable parameters will not throw an error: >>> from typing import Literal >>> Literal[{0}] >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}] Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: unhashable type: 'set' (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).) Add new function *note typing.is_typeddict(): 852. to introspect if an annotation is a *note typing.TypedDict: 162. (Contributed by Patrick Reader in bpo-41792(3).) Subclasses of ‘typing.Protocol’ which only have data variables declared will now raise a ‘TypeError’ when checked with ‘isinstance’ unless they are decorated with *note runtime_checkable(): 43e. Previously, these checks passed silently. Users should decorate their subclasses with the ‘runtime_checkable()’ decorator if they want runtime protocols. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-38908(4).) Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. These submodules have been deprecated since Python 3.8 and will be removed in a future version of Python. Anything belonging to those submodules should be imported directly from *note typing: 104. instead. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41792 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38908 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291  File: python.info, Node: unittest<5>, Next: urllib parse, Prev: typing<5>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.49 unittest ................. Add new method *note assertNoLogs(): 854. to complement the existing *note assertLogs(): 855. (Contributed by Kit Yan Choi in bpo-39385(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39385  File: python.info, Node: urllib parse, Next: xml<2>, Prev: unittest<5>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.50 urllib.parse ..................... Python versions earlier than Python 3.10 allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27c. and *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 27b. Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default. This change also affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).) The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986(2), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a. preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’. (See gh-88048(3)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967 (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048  File: python.info, Node: xml<2>, Next: zipimport<3>, Prev: urllib parse, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.51 xml ............ Add a *note LexicalHandler: 858. class to the *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. module. (Contributed by Jonathan Gossage and Zackery Spytz in bpo-35018(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35018  File: python.info, Node: zipimport<3>, Prev: xml<2>, Up: Improved Modules<4> 1.4.6.52 zipimport .................. Add methods related to PEP 451(1): *note find_spec(): 85a, *note zipimport.zipimporter.create_module(): 85b, and *note zipimport.zipimporter.exec_module(): 30c. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42131(2).) Add *note invalidate_caches(): 85c. method. (Contributed by Desmond Cheong in bpo-14678(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42131 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14678  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<4>, Next: Deprecated<5>, Prev: Improved Modules<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.7 Optimizations ------------------- * Constructors *note str(): 447, *note bytes(): 1c2. and *note bytearray(): 53a. are now faster (around 30–40% for small objects). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-41334(1).) * The *note runpy: be. module now imports fewer modules. The ‘python3 -m module-name’ command startup time is 1.4x faster in average. On Linux, ‘python3 -I -m module-name’ imports 69 modules on Python 3.9, whereas it only imports 51 modules (-18) on Python 3.10. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41006(2) and bpo-41718(3).) * The ‘LOAD_ATTR’ instruction now uses new “per opcode cache” mechanism. It is about 36% faster now for regular attributes and 44% faster for slots. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Yury Selivanov in bpo-42093(4) and Guido van Rossum in bpo-42927(5), based on ideas implemented originally in PyPy and MicroPython.) * When building Python with *note -enable-optimizations: 85e. now ‘-fno-semantic-interposition’ is added to both the compile and link line. This speeds builds of the Python interpreter created with *note -enable-shared: 85f. with ‘gcc’ by up to 30%. See this article(6) for more details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Pablo Galindo in bpo-38980(7).) * Use a new output buffer management code for *note bz2: 13. / *note lzma: 8a. / *note zlib: 133. modules, and add ‘.readall()’ function to ‘_compression.DecompressReader’ class. bz2 decompression is now 1.09x ~ 1.17x faster, lzma decompression 1.20x ~ 1.32x faster, ‘GzipFile.read(-1)’ 1.11x ~ 1.18x faster. (Contributed by Ma Lin, reviewed by Gregory P. Smith, in bpo-41486(8)) * When using stringized annotations, annotations dicts for functions are no longer created when the function is created. Instead, they are stored as a tuple of strings, and the function object lazily converts this into the annotations dict on demand. This optimization cuts the CPU time needed to define an annotated function by half. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202(9).) * Substring search functions such as ‘str1 in str2’ and ‘str2.find(str1)’ now sometimes use Crochemore & Perrin’s “Two-Way” string searching algorithm to avoid quadratic behavior on long strings. (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-41972(10)) * Add micro-optimizations to ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ to improve type attribute cache lookup performance in the common case of cache hits. This makes the interpreter 1.04 times faster on average. (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-43452(11).) * The following built-in functions now support the faster PEP 590(12) vectorcall calling convention: *note map(): 860, *note filter(): 861, *note reversed(): 862, *note bool(): 463. and *note float(): 2f1. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-43575(13), bpo-43287(14), bpo-41922(15), bpo-41873(16) and bpo-41870(17).) * *note BZ2File: 863. performance is improved by removing internal ‘RLock’. This makes ‘BZ2File’ thread unsafe in the face of multiple simultaneous readers or writers, just like its equivalent classes in *note gzip: 67. and *note lzma: 8a. have always been. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-43785(18).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41334 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41006 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41718 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42093 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42927 (6) https://developers.redhat.com/blog/2020/06/25/red-hat-enterprise-linux-8-2-brings-faster-python-3-8-run-speeds/ (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38980 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41486 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41972 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43452 (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/ (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43575 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43287 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41922 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41873 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41870 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43785  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<5>, Next: Removed<5>, Prev: Optimizations<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.8 Deprecated ---------------- * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’). Starting in this release, a deprecation warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and: 2eb, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ec, *note if: 2ed, *note in: 2ee, *note is: 2ef. and *note or: 2f0. In future releases it will be changed to syntax warning, and finally to syntax error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).) * Starting in this release, there will be a concerted effort to begin cleaning up old import semantics that were kept for Python 2.7 compatibility. Specifically, ‘find_loader()’/‘find_module()’ (superseded by *note find_spec(): 865.), *note load_module(): 866. (superseded by *note exec_module(): 867.), ‘module_repr()’ (which the import system takes care of for you), the ‘__package__’ attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.parent’), the ‘__loader__’ attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.loader’), and the ‘__cached__’ attribute (superseded by ‘__spec__.cached’) will slowly be removed (as well as other classes and methods in *note importlib: 77.). *note ImportWarning: 4f6. and/or *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. will be raised as appropriate to help identify code which needs updating during this transition. * The entire ‘distutils’ namespace is deprecated, to be removed in Python 3.12. Refer to the *note module changes: 725. section for more information. * Non-integer arguments to *note random.randrange(): 868. are deprecated. The *note ValueError: 204. is deprecated in favor of a *note TypeError: 534. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37319(2).) * The various ‘load_module()’ methods of *note importlib: 77. have been documented as deprecated since Python 3.6, but will now also trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Use *note exec_module(): 867. instead. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(3).) * ‘zimport.zipimporter.load_module()’ has been deprecated in preference for *note exec_module(): 30c. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(4).) * The use of *note load_module(): 866. by the import system now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 4f6. as *note exec_module(): 867. is preferred. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-26131(5).) * The use of ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ and ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ by the import system now trigger an *note ImportWarning: 4f6. as *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 865. and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 869. are preferred, respectively. You can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 86a. to help in porting. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42134(6).) * The use of ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ by the import system now triggers an *note ImportWarning: 4f6. as *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 869. is preferred. You can use *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 86a. to help in porting. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43672(7).) * The various implementations of ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ ( ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter.find_module()’, ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter.find_module()’, ‘importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder.find_module()’, ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ ), ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_module()’ ( ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_module()’ ), and ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ ( ‘importlib.machinery.FileFinder.find_loader()’ ) now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and are slated for removal in Python 3.12 (previously they were documented as deprecated in Python 3.4). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135(8).) * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is deprecated (including its sole method, ‘find_module()’). Both *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86c. no longer inherit from the class. Users should inherit from one of these two classes as appropriate instead. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42135(9).) * The deprecations of ‘imp’, ‘importlib.find_loader()’, ‘importlib.util.set_package_wrapper()’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader_wrapper()’, ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’, ‘pkgutil.ImpImporter’, and ‘pkgutil.ImpLoader’ have all been updated to list Python 3.12 as the slated version of removal (they began raising *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in previous versions of Python). (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-43720(10).) * The import system now uses the ‘__spec__’ attribute on modules before falling back on ‘module_repr()’ for a module’s ‘__repr__()’ method. Removal of the use of ‘module_repr()’ is scheduled for Python 3.12. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42137(11).) * ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’, ‘importlib.machinery.FrozenLoader.module_repr()’, and ‘importlib.machinery.BuiltinLoader.module_repr()’ are deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-42136(12).) * ‘sqlite3.OptimizedUnicode’ has been undocumented and obsolete since Python 3.3, when it was made an alias to *note str: 447. It is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42264(13).) * The undocumented built-in function ‘sqlite3.enable_shared_cache’ is now deprecated, scheduled for removal in Python 3.12. Its use is strongly discouraged by the SQLite3 documentation. See the SQLite3 docs(14) for more details. If a shared cache must be used, open the database in URI mode using the ‘cache=shared’ query parameter. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-24464(15).) * The following ‘threading’ methods are now deprecated: * ‘threading.currentThread’ => *note threading.current_thread(): 303. * ‘threading.activeCount’ => *note threading.active_count(): 304. * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll’ => *note threading.Condition.notify_all(): 2fd. * ‘threading.Event.isSet’ => *note threading.Event.is_set(): 2fe. * ‘threading.Thread.setName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 302. * ‘threading.thread.getName’ => *note threading.Thread.name: 302. * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 300. * ‘threading.Thread.setDaemon’ => *note threading.Thread.daemon: 300. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in gh-87889(16).) * ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12. Use *note pathlib.Path.hardlink_to(): 81d. instead. (Contributed by Barney Gale in bpo-39950(17).) * ‘cgi.log()’ is deprecated and slated for removal in Python 3.12. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41139(18).) * The following *note ssl: d0. features have been deprecated since Python 3.6, Python 3.7, or OpenSSL 1.1.0 and will be removed in 3.11: * ‘OP_NO_SSLv2’, ‘OP_NO_SSLv3’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_1’, ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_2’, and ‘OP_NO_TLSv1_3’ are replaced by *note minimum_version: 86d. and *note maximum_version: 86e. * ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv2’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv3’, ‘PROTOCOL_SSLv23’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’, ‘PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’, and ‘PROTOCOL_TLS’ are deprecated in favor of *note PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT: 86f. and *note PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER: 870. * ‘wrap_socket()’ is replaced by *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 520. * ‘match_hostname()’ * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’, ‘RAND_egd()’ * NPN features like *note ssl.SSLSocket.selected_npn_protocol(): 871. and *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2fc. are replaced by ALPN. * The threading debug (‘PYTHONTHREADDEBUG’ environment variable) is deprecated in Python 3.10 and will be removed in Python 3.12. This feature requires a *note debug build of Python: 1fb. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-44584(19).) * Importing from the ‘typing.io’ and ‘typing.re’ submodules will now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. These submodules will be removed in a future version of Python. Anything belonging to these submodules should be imported directly from *note typing: 104. instead. (Contributed by Sebastian Rittau in bpo-38291(20).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37319 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26131 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42134 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43672 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42135 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43720 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42137 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42136 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42264 (14) https://sqlite.org/c3ref/enable_shared_cache.html (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24464 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87889 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39950 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41139 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=44584 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38291  File: python.info, Node: Removed<5>, Next: Porting to Python 3 10, Prev: Deprecated<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.9 Removed ------------- * Removed special methods ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’, ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__rfloordiv__’, ‘__rmod__’ and ‘__rdivmod__’ of the *note complex: 2f2. class. They always raised a *note TypeError: 534. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-41974(1).) * The ‘ParserBase.error()’ method from the private and undocumented ‘_markupbase’ module has been removed. *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. is the only subclass of ‘ParserBase’ and its ‘error()’ implementation was already removed in Python 3.5. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-31844(2).) * Removed the ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ attribute which was an internal PyCapsule object. The related private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure was moved to the internal C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(3).) * Removed the ‘parser’ module, which was deprecated in 3.9 due to the switch to the new PEG parser, as well as all the C source and header files that were only being used by the old parser, including ‘node.h’, ‘parser.h’, ‘graminit.h’ and ‘grammar.h’. * Removed the Public C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’, ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’, ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’ and ‘PyNode_Compile’ that were deprecated in 3.9 due to the switch to the new PEG parser. * Removed the ‘formatter’ module, which was deprecated in Python 3.4. It is somewhat obsolete, little used, and not tested. It was originally scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6, but such removals were delayed until after Python 2.7 EOL. Existing users should copy whatever classes they use into their code. (Contributed by Donghee Na and Terry J. Reedy in bpo-42299(4).) * Removed the ‘PyModule_GetWarningsModule()’ function that was useless now due to the ‘_warnings’ module was converted to a builtin module in 2.6. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-42599(5).) * Remove deprecated aliases to *note Collections Abstract Base Classes: 875. from the *note collections: 1d. module. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37324(6).) * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio: a.‘s *note high-level API: 876. following deprecation in Python 3.8. The motivation behind this change is multifold: 1. This simplifies the high-level API. 2. The functions in the high-level API have been implicitly getting the current thread’s running event loop since Python 3.7. There isn’t a need to pass the event loop to the API in most normal use cases. 3. Event loop passing is error-prone especially when dealing with loops running in different threads. Note that the low-level API will still accept ‘loop’. See *note Changes in the Python API: 877. for examples of how to replace existing code. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41974 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31844 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42299 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42599 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37324 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 10, Next: CPython bytecode changes<3>, Prev: Removed<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.10 Porting to Python 3.10 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in the Python syntax:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<3>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python syntax, Next: Changes in the Python API<3>, Up: Porting to Python 3 10 1.4.10.1 Changes in the Python syntax ..................................... * Deprecation warning is now emitted when compiling previously valid syntax if the numeric literal is immediately followed by a keyword (like in ‘0in x’). In future releases it will be changed to syntax warning, and finally to a syntax error. To get rid of the warning and make the code compatible with future releases just add a space between the numeric literal and the following keyword. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-43833(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43833  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<3>, Next: Changes in the C API<2>, Prev: Changes in the Python syntax, Up: Porting to Python 3 10 1.4.10.2 Changes in the Python API .................................. * The 'etype' parameters of the *note format_exception(): 849, *note format_exception_only(): 84a, and *note print_exception(): 84b. functions in the *note traceback: fe. module have been renamed to 'exc'. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-26389(1).) * *note atexit: c.: At Python exit, if a callback registered with *note atexit.register(): 87b. fails, its exception is now logged. Previously, only some exceptions were logged, and the last exception was always silently ignored. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42639(2).) * *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. generic now flattens type parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 7c0. currently does. This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str], str)’. Code which accesses the arguments via *note typing.get_args(): 87c. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this change. Furthermore, *note TypeError: 534. may be raised for invalid forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. which may have passed silently in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(3).) * *note socket.htons(): 87d. and *note socket.ntohs(): 87e. now raise *note OverflowError: 87f. instead of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if the given parameter will not fit in a 16-bit unsigned integer. (Contributed by Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-42393(4).) * The ‘loop’ parameter has been removed from most of *note asyncio: a.‘s *note high-level API: 876. following deprecation in Python 3.8. A coroutine that currently looks like this: async def foo(loop): await asyncio.sleep(1, loop=loop) Should be replaced with this: async def foo(): await asyncio.sleep(1) If ‘foo()’ was specifically designed 'not' to run in the current thread’s running event loop (e.g. running in another thread’s event loop), consider using *note asyncio.run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 880. instead. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas, Andrew Svetlov, Yury Selivanov and Kyle Stanley in bpo-42392(5).) * The *note types.FunctionType: 881. constructor now inherits the current builtins if the 'globals' dictionary has no ‘"__builtins__"’ key, rather than using ‘{"None": None}’ as builtins: same behavior as *note eval(): 180. and *note exec(): 17f. functions. Defining a function with ‘def function(...): ...’ in Python is not affected, globals cannot be overridden with this syntax: it also inherits the current builtins. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42990(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26389 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42393 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42392 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42990  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<2>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<3>, Up: Porting to Python 3 10 1.4.10.3 Changes in the C API ............................. * The C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’, ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename’, ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’, ‘PyNode_Compile’ and the type used by these functions, ‘struct _node’, were removed due to the switch to the new PEG parser. Source should be now be compiled directly to a code object using, for example, *note Py_CompileString(): 883. The resulting code object can then be evaluated using, for example, *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 884. Specifically: * A call to ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags’ followed by ‘PyNode_Compile’ can be replaced by calling *note Py_CompileString(): 883. * There is no direct replacement for ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags’. To compile code from a ‘FILE *’ argument, you will need to read the file in C and pass the resulting buffer to *note Py_CompileString(): 883. * To compile a file given a ‘char *’ filename, explicitly open the file, read it and compile the result. One way to do this is using the *note io: 7f. module with *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba, *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b, *note PyBytes_AsString(): 885. and *note Py_CompileString(): 883, as sketched below. (Declarations and error handling are omitted.) io_module = Import_ImportModule("io"); fileobject = PyObject_CallMethod(io_module, "open", "ss", filename, "rb"); source_bytes_object = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "read", ""); result = PyObject_CallMethod(fileobject, "close", ""); source_buf = PyBytes_AsString(source_bytes_object); code = Py_CompileString(source_buf, filename, Py_file_input); * For ‘FrameObject’ objects, the *note f_lasti: 886. member now represents a wordcode offset instead of a simple offset into the bytecode string. This means that this number needs to be multiplied by 2 to be used with APIs that expect a byte offset instead (like *note PyCode_Addr2Line(): 887. for example). Notice as well that the ‘f_lasti’ member of ‘FrameObject’ objects is not considered stable: please use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. instead.  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes<3>, Next: Build Changes<4>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 10, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.11 CPython bytecode changes ------------------------------- * The ‘MAKE_FUNCTION’ instruction now accepts either a dict or a tuple of strings as the function’s annotations. (Contributed by Yurii Karabas and Inada Naoki in bpo-42202(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42202  File: python.info, Node: Build Changes<4>, Next: C API Changes<4>, Prev: CPython bytecode changes<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.12 Build Changes -------------------- * PEP 644(1): Python now requires OpenSSL 1.1.1 or newer. OpenSSL 1.0.2 is no longer supported. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43669(2).) * The C99 functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ are now required to build Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36020(3).) * *note sqlite3: cf. requires SQLite 3.7.15 or higher. (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-40744(4) and bpo-40810(5).) * The *note atexit: c. module must now always be built as a built-in module. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42639(6).) * Add *note -disable-test-modules: 88a. option to the ‘configure’ script: don’t build nor install test modules. (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye, Thomas Petazzoni and Peixing Xin in bpo-27640(7).) * Add *note -with-wheel-pkg-dir=PATH option: 88b. to the ‘./configure’ script. If specified, the *note ensurepip: 55. module looks for ‘setuptools’ and ‘pip’ wheel packages in this directory: if both are present, these wheel packages are used instead of ensurepip bundled wheel packages. Some Linux distribution packaging policies recommend against bundling dependencies. For example, Fedora installs wheel packages in the ‘/usr/share/python-wheels/’ directory and don’t install the ‘ensurepip._bundled’ package. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42856(8).) * Add a new *note configure -without-static-libpython option: 88c. to not build the ‘libpythonMAJOR.MINOR.a’ static library and not install the ‘python.o’ object file. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43103(9).) * The ‘configure’ script now uses the ‘pkg-config’ utility, if available, to detect the location of Tcl/Tk headers and libraries. As before, those locations can be explicitly specified with the ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’ configuration options. (Contributed by Manolis Stamatogiannakis in bpo-42603(10).) * Add *note -with-openssl-rpath: 88d. option to ‘configure’ script. The option simplifies building Python with a custom OpenSSL installation, e.g. ‘./configure --with-openssl=/path/to/openssl --with-openssl-rpath=auto’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-43466(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0644/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43669 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36020 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40744 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40810 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42639 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27640 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42856 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43103 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42603 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43466  File: python.info, Node: C API Changes<4>, Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 7, Prev: Build Changes<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.13 C API Changes -------------------- * Menu: * PEP 652; Maintaining the Stable ABI: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI. * New Features: New Features<8>. * Porting to Python 3.10: Porting to Python 3 10<2>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<6>. * Removed: Removed<6>.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI, Next: New Features<8>, Up: C API Changes<4> 1.4.13.1 PEP 652: Maintaining the Stable ABI ............................................ The Stable ABI (Application Binary Interface) for extension modules or embedding Python is now explicitly defined. *note C API Stability: 550. describes C API and ABI stability guarantees along with best practices for using the Stable ABI. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 652(1) and bpo-43795(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0652/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43795  File: python.info, Node: New Features<8>, Next: Porting to Python 3 10<2>, Prev: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI, Up: C API Changes<4> 1.4.13.2 New Features ..................... * The result of *note PyNumber_Index(): 891. now always has exact type *note int: 259. Previously, the result could have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40792(1).) * Add a new *note orig_argv: 892. member to the *note PyConfig: 3a2. structure: the list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23427(2).) * The *note PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO(): 893. and *note PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO(): 894. macros have been added for accessing the ‘tzinfo’ attributes of *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. and *note datetime.time: 1ce. objects. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-30155(3).) * Add a *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 895. function to unregister a codec search function. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41842(4).) * The *note PyIter_Send(): 896. function was added to allow sending value into iterator without raising ‘StopIteration’ exception. (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in bpo-41756(5).) * Add *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 897. to the limited C API. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-41784(6).) * Add *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360. function: similar to *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361. but don’t steal a reference to the value on success. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1635741(7).) * Add *note Py_NewRef(): 898. and *note Py_XNewRef(): 899. functions to increment the reference count of an object and return the object. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42262(8).) * The *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. and *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. functions now accept a single class as the 'bases' argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-42423(9).) * The *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. function now accepts NULL ‘tp_doc’ slot. (Contributed by Hai Shi in bpo-41832(10).) * The *note PyType_GetSlot(): 89a. function can accept *note static types: 77a. (Contributed by Hai Shi and Petr Viktorin in bpo-41073(11).) * Add a new *note PySet_CheckExact(): 89b. function to the C-API to check if an object is an instance of *note set: 5d5. but not an instance of a subtype. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-43277(12).) * Add *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 89c. which allows passing a signal number to simulate. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-43356(13).) * The limited C API is now supported if *note Python is built in debug mode: 1fb. (if the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro is defined). In the limited C API, the *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. and *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. functions are now implemented as opaque function calls, rather than accessing directly the *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 89d. member, if Python is built in debug mode and the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro targets Python 3.10 or newer. It became possible to support the limited C API in debug mode because the *note PyObject: 334. structure is the same in release and debug mode since Python 3.8 (see bpo-36465(14)). The limited C API is still not supported in the *note -with-trace-refs: 390. special build (‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43688(15).) * Add the *note Py_Is(x, y): 89e. function to test if the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python. Add also the *note Py_IsNone(): 89f, *note Py_IsTrue(): 8a0, *note Py_IsFalse(): 8a1. functions to test if an object is, respectively, the ‘None’ singleton, the ‘True’ singleton or the ‘False’ singleton. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43753(16).) * Add new functions to control the garbage collector from C code: *note PyGC_Enable(): 8a2, *note PyGC_Disable(): 8a3, *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 8a4. These functions allow to activate, deactivate and query the state of the garbage collector from C code without having to import the *note gc: 60. module. * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57f. type flag to disallow creating type instances. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43916(17).) * Add a new *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be. type flag for creating immutable type objects: type attributes cannot be set nor deleted. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(18).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40792 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23427 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30155 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41842 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41756 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41784 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635741 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42262 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42423 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41832 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41073 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43277 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43356 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43688 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43753 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43916 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 10<2>, Next: Deprecated<6>, Prev: New Features<8>, Up: C API Changes<4> 1.4.13.3 Porting to Python 3.10 ............................... * The ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ macro must now be defined to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. formats which use ‘#’: ‘es#’, ‘et#’, ‘s#’, ‘u#’, ‘y#’, ‘z#’, ‘U#’ and ‘Z#’. See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 8a7. and PEP 353(1). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40943(2).) * Since *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a8. is changed to the inline static function, ‘Py_REFCNT(obj) = new_refcnt’ must be replaced with ‘Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, new_refcnt)’: see *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a9. (available since Python 3.9). For backward compatibility, this macro can be used: #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x030900A4 # define Py_SET_REFCNT(obj, refcnt) ((Py_REFCNT(obj) = (refcnt)), (void)0) #endif (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39573(3).) * Calling *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382. without *note GIL: 159. held had been allowed for historical reason. It is no longer allowed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40839(4).) * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode(NULL, size)’ and ‘PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’ raise ‘DeprecationWarning’ now. Use *note PyUnicode_New(): 8aa. to allocate Unicode object without initial data. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(5).) * The private ‘_PyUnicode_Name_CAPI’ structure of the PyCapsule API ‘unicodedata.ucnhash_CAPI’ has been moved to the internal C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42157(6).) * *note Py_GetPath(): 3af, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1, *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3, *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6. and *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5. functions now return ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. (before Python is initialized). Use the new *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. API to get the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-42260(7).) * *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 389, *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 388. and *note PyCell_SET(): 8ad. macros can no longer be used as l-value or r-value. For example, ‘x = PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c)’ and ‘PyList_SET_ITEM(a, b, c) = x’ now fail with a compiler error. It prevents bugs like ‘if (PyList_SET_ITEM (a, b, c) < 0) ...’ test. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Victor Stinner in bpo-30459(8).) * The non-limited API files ‘odictobject.h’, ‘parser_interface.h’, ‘picklebufobject.h’, ‘pyarena.h’, ‘pyctype.h’, ‘pydebug.h’, ‘pyfpe.h’, and ‘pytime.h’ have been moved to the ‘Include/cpython’ directory. These files must not be included directly, as they are already included in ‘Python.h’; see *note Include Files: 77f. If they have been included directly, consider including ‘Python.h’ instead. (Contributed by Nicholas Sim in bpo-35134(9).) * Use the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be. type flag to create immutable type objects. Do not rely on *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ae. to decide if a type object is mutable or not; check if *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be. is set instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Erlend E. Aasland in bpo-43908(10).) * The undocumented function ‘Py_FrozenMain’ has been removed from the limited API. The function is mainly useful for custom builds of Python. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-26241(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40943 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39573 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40839 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42157 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42260 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30459 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43908 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26241  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<6>, Next: Removed<6>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 10<2>, Up: C API Changes<4> 1.4.13.4 Deprecated ................... * The ‘PyUnicode_InternImmortal()’ function is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.12: use *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8b0. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41692(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41692  File: python.info, Node: Removed<6>, Prev: Deprecated<6>, Up: C API Changes<4> 1.4.13.5 Removed ................ * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_str*’ functions manipulating ‘Py_UNICODE*’ strings. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41123(1).) * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b2. or *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b3. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b4. or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b4. or *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b5. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8b6. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b7. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr’: use *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b8. * Removed ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’. Please migrate to new ( PEP 393(2)) APIs. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(3).) * Removed ‘PyLong_FromUnicode()’. Please migrate to *note PyLong_FromUnicodeObject(): 8b9. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(4).) * Removed ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’. Please use *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8ba. or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8bb. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-41103(5).) * Removed ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ variable: it has been replaced by ‘ceval.recursion_limit’ of the *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. structure. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41834(6).) * Removed undocumented macros ‘Py_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and ‘Py_END_ALLOW_RECURSION’ and the ‘recursion_critical’ field of the *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. structure. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-41936(7).) * Removed the undocumented ‘PyOS_InitInterrupts()’ function. Initializing Python already implicitly installs signal handlers: see *note PyConfig.install_signal_handlers: 8bd. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-41713(8).) * Remove the ‘PyAST_Validate()’ function. It is no longer possible to build a AST object (‘mod_ty’ type) with the public C API. The function was already excluded from the limited C API ( PEP 384(9)). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(10).) * Remove the ‘symtable.h’ header file and the undocumented functions: * ‘PyST_GetScope()’ * ‘PySymtable_Build()’ * ‘PySymtable_BuildObject()’ * ‘PySymtable_Free()’ * ‘Py_SymtableString()’ * ‘Py_SymtableStringObject()’ The ‘Py_SymtableString()’ function was part the stable ABI by mistake but it could not be used, because the ‘symtable.h’ header file was excluded from the limited C API. Use Python *note symtable: d8. module instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(11).) * Remove *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 583. from the limited C API headers and from ‘python3.dll’, the library that provides the stable ABI on Windows. Since the function takes a ‘FILE*’ argument, its ABI stability cannot be guaranteed. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-43868(12).) * Remove ‘ast.h’, ‘asdl.h’, and ‘Python-ast.h’ header files. These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API. Most names defined by these header files were not prefixed by ‘Py’ and so could create names conflicts. For example, ‘Python-ast.h’ defined a ‘Yield’ macro which was conflict with the ‘Yield’ name used by the Windows ‘’ header. Use the Python *note ast: 8. module instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(13).) * Remove the compiler and parser functions using ‘struct _mod’ type, because the public AST C API was removed: * ‘PyAST_Compile()’ * ‘PyAST_CompileEx()’ * ‘PyAST_CompileObject()’ * ‘PyFuture_FromAST()’ * ‘PyFuture_FromASTObject()’ * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’ * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFileObject()’ * ‘PyParser_ASTFromFilename()’ * ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ * ‘PyParser_ASTFromStringObject()’ These functions were undocumented and excluded from the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(14).) * Remove the ‘pyarena.h’ header file with functions: * ‘PyArena_New()’ * ‘PyArena_Free()’ * ‘PyArena_Malloc()’ * ‘PyArena_AddPyObject()’ These functions were undocumented, excluded from the limited C API, and were only used internally by the compiler. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-43244(15).) * The ‘PyThreadState.use_tracing’ member has been removed to optimize Python. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-43760(16).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41123 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41103 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41834 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41936 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41713 (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/ (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43868 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43244 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43760  File: python.info, Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7, Next: Notable security feature in 3 10 8, Prev: C API Changes<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.14 Notable security feature in 3.10.7 ----------------------------------------- Converting between *note int: 259. and *note str: 447. in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(1). This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs. See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735  File: python.info, Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8, Next: Notable changes in 3 10 12, Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 7, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.15 Notable security feature in 3.10.8 ----------------------------------------- The deprecated ‘mailcap’ module now refuses to inject unsafe text (filenames, MIME types, parameters) into shell commands. Instead of using such text, it will warn and act as if a match was not found (or for test commands, as if the test failed). (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in gh-98966(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/98966  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12, Prev: Notable security feature in 3 10 8, Up: What’s New In Python 3 10 1.4.16 Notable changes in 3.10.12 --------------------------------- * Menu: * tarfile: tarfile<3>.  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<3>, Up: Notable changes in 3 10 12 1.4.16.1 tarfile ................ * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 467, have a new a 'filter' argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See *note Extraction filters: 468. for details. In Python 3.12, use without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 9, Next: What’s New In Python 3 8, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 10, Up: What’s New in Python 1.5 What’s New In Python 3.9 ============================ Editor: Łukasz Langa This article explains the new features in Python 3.9, compared to 3.8. Python 3.9 was released on October 5, 2020. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. See also ........ PEP 596(1) - Python 3.9 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<4>. * You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code:: * New Features: New Features<9>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<5>. * New Modules: New Modules<5>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<5>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<5>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<7>. * Removed: Removed<7>. * Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9. * Build Changes: Build Changes<5>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<5>. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.1: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.2: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.3: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3. * Notable changes in Python 3.9.5: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5. * Notable security feature in 3.9.14: Notable security feature in 3 9 14. * Notable changes in 3.9.17: Notable changes in 3 9 17. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0596/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<4>, Next: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.1 Summary – Release highlights ---------------------------------- New syntax features: * PEP 584(1), union operators added to ‘dict’; * PEP 585(2), type hinting generics in standard collections; * PEP 614(3), relaxed grammar restrictions on decorators. New built-in features: * PEP 616(4), string methods to remove prefixes and suffixes. New features in the standard library: * PEP 593(5), flexible function and variable annotations; * *note os.pidfd_open(): 476. added that allows process management without races and signals. Interpreter improvements: * PEP 573(6), fast access to module state from methods of C extension types; * PEP 617(7), CPython now uses a new parser based on PEG; * a number of Python builtins (range, tuple, set, frozenset, list, dict) are now sped up using PEP 590(8) vectorcall; * garbage collection does not block on resurrected objects; * a number of Python modules (‘_abc’, ‘audioop’, ‘_bz2’, ‘_codecs’, ‘_contextvars’, ‘_crypt’, ‘_functools’, ‘_json’, ‘_locale’, *note math: 8e, *note operator: 9f, *note resource: bc, *note time: ee, ‘_weakref’) now use multiphase initialization as defined by PEP 489; * a number of standard library modules (‘audioop’, *note ast: 8, *note grp: 66, ‘_hashlib’, *note pwd: b2, ‘_posixsubprocess’, *note random: b8, *note select: c1, *note struct: d5, *note termios: e1, *note zlib: 133.) are now using the stable ABI defined by PEP 384. New library modules: * PEP 615(9), the IANA Time Zone Database is now present in the standard library in the *note zoneinfo: 134. module; * an implementation of a topological sort of a graph is now provided in the new *note graphlib: 65. module. Release process changes: * PEP 602(10), CPython adopts an annual release cycle. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/  File: python.info, Node: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code, Next: New Features<9>, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.2 You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code ---------------------------------------------------------- When Python 2.7 was still supported, a lot of functionality in Python 3 was kept for backward compatibility with Python 2.7. With the end of Python 2 support, these backward compatibility layers have been removed, or will be removed soon. Most of them emitted a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. warning for several years. For example, using ‘collections.Mapping’ instead of ‘collections.abc.Mapping’ emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. since Python 3.3, released in 2012. Test your application with the *note -W: 8c6. ‘default’ command-line option to see *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7, or even with *note -W: 8c6. ‘error’ to treat them as errors. *note Warnings Filter: 8c8. can be used to ignore warnings from third-party code. Python 3.9 is the last version providing those Python 2 backward compatibility layers, to give more time to Python projects maintainers to organize the removal of the Python 2 support and add support for Python 3.9. Aliases to *note Abstract Base Classes: 875. in the *note collections: 1d. module, like ‘collections.Mapping’ alias to *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9, are kept for one last release for backward compatibility. They will be removed from Python 3.10. More generally, try to run your tests in the *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. which helps to prepare your code to make it compatible with the next Python version. Note: a number of pre-existing deprecations were removed in this version of Python as well. Consult the *note Removed: 8ca. section.  File: python.info, Node: New Features<9>, Next: Other Language Changes<5>, Prev: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.3 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * Dictionary Merge & Update Operators:: * New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes:: * Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections:: * New Parser::  File: python.info, Node: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators, Next: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes, Up: New Features<9> 1.5.3.1 Dictionary Merge & Update Operators ........................................... Merge (‘|’) and update (‘|=’) operators have been added to the built-in *note dict: 258. class. Those complement the existing ‘dict.update’ and ‘{**d1, **d2}’ methods of merging dictionaries. Example: >>> x = {"key1": "value1 from x", "key2": "value2 from x"} >>> y = {"key2": "value2 from y", "key3": "value3 from y"} >>> x | y {'key1': 'value1 from x', 'key2': 'value2 from y', 'key3': 'value3 from y'} >>> y | x {'key2': 'value2 from x', 'key3': 'value3 from y', 'key1': 'value1 from x'} See PEP 584(1) for a full description. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in bpo-36144(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0584/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36144  File: python.info, Node: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes, Next: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections, Prev: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators, Up: New Features<9> 1.5.3.2 New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes .......................................................... *note str.removeprefix(prefix): 8ce. and *note str.removesuffix(suffix): 8cf. have been added to easily remove an unneeded prefix or a suffix from a string. Corresponding ‘bytes’, ‘bytearray’, and ‘collections.UserString’ methods have also been added. See PEP 616(1) for a full description. (Contributed by Dennis Sweeney in bpo-39939(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0616/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39939  File: python.info, Node: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections, Next: New Parser, Prev: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes, Up: New Features<9> 1.5.3.3 Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections ..................................................... In type annotations you can now use built-in collection types such as ‘list’ and ‘dict’ as generic types instead of importing the corresponding capitalized types (e.g. ‘List’ or ‘Dict’) from ‘typing’. Some other types in the standard library are also now generic, for example ‘queue.Queue’. Example: def greet_all(names: list[str]) -> None: for name in names: print("Hello", name) See PEP 585(1) for more details. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, Ethan Smith, and Batuhan Taşkaya in bpo-39481(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39481  File: python.info, Node: New Parser, Prev: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections, Up: New Features<9> 1.5.3.4 New Parser .................. Python 3.9 uses a new parser, based on PEG(1) instead of LL(1)(2). The new parser’s performance is roughly comparable to that of the old parser, but the PEG formalism is more flexible than LL(1) when it comes to designing new language features. We’ll start using this flexibility in Python 3.10 and later. The *note ast: 8. module uses the new parser and produces the same AST as the old parser. In Python 3.10, the old parser will be deleted and so will all functionality that depends on it (primarily the ‘parser’ module, which has long been deprecated). In Python 3.9 'only', you can switch back to the LL(1) parser using a command line switch (‘-X oldparser’) or an environment variable (‘PYTHONOLDPARSER=1’). See PEP 617(3) for more details. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, Pablo Galindo and Lysandros Nikolaou in bpo-40334(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parsing_expression_grammar (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LL_parser (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40334  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<5>, Next: New Modules<5>, Prev: New Features<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.4 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * *note __import__(): 8d3. now raises *note ImportError: 415. instead of *note ValueError: 204, which used to occur when a relative import went past its top-level package. (Contributed by Ngalim Siregar in bpo-37444(1).) * Python now gets the absolute path of the script filename specified on the command line (ex: ‘python3 script.py’): the ‘__file__’ attribute of the *note __main__: 1. module became an absolute path, rather than a relative path. These paths now remain valid after the current directory is changed by *note os.chdir(): 609. As a side effect, the traceback also displays the absolute path for *note __main__: 1. module frames in this case. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-20443(2).) * In the *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. and in *note debug build: 1fb, the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are now checked for string encoding and decoding operations. Examples: *note open(): 517, *note str.encode(): 8d4. and *note bytes.decode(): 8d5. By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding' argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37388(3).) * ‘"".replace("", s, n)’ now returns ‘s’ instead of an empty string for all non-zero ‘n’. It is now consistent with ‘"".replace("", s)’. There are similar changes for *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. objects. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28029(4).) * Any valid expression can now be used as a *note decorator: 72c. Previously, the grammar was much more restrictive. See PEP 614(5) for details. (Contributed by Brandt Bucher in bpo-39702(6).) * Improved help for the *note typing: 104. module. Docstrings are now shown for all special forms and special generic aliases (like ‘Union’ and ‘List’). Using *note help(): 8d6. with generic alias like ‘List[int]’ will show the help for the correspondent concrete type (‘list’ in this case). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(7).) * Parallel running of *note aclose(): 8d7. / *note asend(): 8d8. / *note athrow(): 4f5. is now prohibited, and ‘ag_running’ now reflects the actual running status of the async generator. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30773(8).) * Unexpected errors in calling the ‘__iter__’ method are no longer masked by ‘TypeError’ in the *note in: 2ee. operator and functions *note contains(): 8d9, *note indexOf(): 8da. and *note countOf(): 8db. of the *note operator: 9f. module. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40824(9).) * Unparenthesized lambda expressions can no longer be the expression part in an ‘if’ clause in comprehensions and generator expressions. See bpo-41848(10) and bpo-43755(11) for details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20443 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37388 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28029 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0614/ (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39702 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30773 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40824 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41848 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43755  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<5>, Next: Improved Modules<5>, Prev: Other Language Changes<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.5 New Modules ----------------- * Menu: * zoneinfo:: * graphlib::  File: python.info, Node: zoneinfo, Next: graphlib, Up: New Modules<5> 1.5.5.1 zoneinfo ................ The *note zoneinfo: 134. module brings support for the IANA time zone database to the standard library. It adds *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfo: 8de, a concrete *note datetime.tzinfo: 5da. implementation backed by the system’s time zone data. Example: >>> from zoneinfo import ZoneInfo >>> from datetime import datetime, timedelta >>> # Daylight saving time >>> dt = datetime(2020, 10, 31, 12, tzinfo=ZoneInfo("America/Los_Angeles")) >>> print(dt) 2020-10-31 12:00:00-07:00 >>> dt.tzname() 'PDT' >>> # Standard time >>> dt += timedelta(days=7) >>> print(dt) 2020-11-07 12:00:00-08:00 >>> print(dt.tzname()) PST As a fall-back source of data for platforms that don’t ship the IANA database, the tzdata(1) module was released as a first-party package – distributed via PyPI and maintained by the CPython core team. See also ........ PEP 615(2) – Support for the IANA Time Zone Database in the Standard Library PEP written and implemented by Paul Ganssle ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/tzdata/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0615/  File: python.info, Node: graphlib, Prev: zoneinfo, Up: New Modules<5> 1.5.5.2 graphlib ................ A new module, *note graphlib: 65, was added that contains the *note graphlib.TopologicalSorter: 8e0. class to offer functionality to perform topological sorting of graphs. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo, Tim Peters and Larry Hastings in bpo-17005(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17005  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<5>, Next: Optimizations<5>, Prev: New Modules<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.6 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * ast: ast<2>. * asyncio: asyncio<5>. * compileall: compileall<2>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<2>. * curses: curses<2>. * datetime: datetime<2>. * distutils: distutils<3>. * fcntl: fcntl<2>. * ftplib: ftplib<2>. * gc: gc<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<4>. * http:: * IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<3>. * imaplib:: * importlib: importlib<3>. * inspect: inspect<4>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<2>. * math: math<4>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<2>. * nntplib:: * os: os<5>. * pathlib: pathlib<6>. * pdb: pdb<3>. * poplib:: * pprint: pprint<2>. * pydoc:: * random: random<3>. * signal:: * smtplib:: * socket: socket<3>. * time: time<3>. * sys: sys<6>. * tracemalloc:: * typing: typing<6>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<4>. * venv: venv<3>. * xml: xml<3>.  File: python.info, Node: ast<2>, Next: asyncio<5>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.1 ast ........... Added the 'indent' option to *note dump(): 8e3. which allows it to produce a multiline indented output. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-37995(1).) Added *note ast.unparse(): 8e4. as a function in the *note ast: 8. module that can be used to unparse an *note ast.AST: 1a6. object and produce a string with code that would produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 1a6. object when parsed. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-38870(2).) Added docstrings to AST nodes that contains the ASDL signature used to construct that node. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39638(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37995 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38870 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39638  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<5>, Next: compileall<2>, Prev: ast<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.2 asyncio ............... Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72e. is no longer supported. This is because of the behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).) Added a new *note coroutine: 48d. *note shutdown_default_executor(): 8e6. that schedules a shutdown for the default executor that waits on the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. to finish closing. Also, *note asyncio.run(): 478. has been updated to use the new *note coroutine: 48d. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(2).) Added *note asyncio.PidfdChildWatcher: 475, a Linux-specific child watcher implementation that polls process file descriptors. (bpo-38692(3)) Added a new *note coroutine: 48d. *note asyncio.to_thread(): 8e7. It is mainly used for running IO-bound functions in a separate thread to avoid blocking the event loop, and essentially works as a high-level version of *note run_in_executor(): 8e8. that can directly take keyword arguments. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley and Yury Selivanov in bpo-32309(4).) When cancelling the task due to a timeout, *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5fb. will now wait until the cancellation is complete also in the case when 'timeout' is <= 0, like it does with positive timeouts. (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751(5).) *note asyncio: a. now raises *note TypeError: 534. when calling incompatible methods with an *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e9. socket. (Contributed by Ido Michael in bpo-37404(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32309 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37404  File: python.info, Node: compileall<2>, Next: concurrent futures<2>, Prev: asyncio<5>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.3 compileall .................. Added new possibility to use hardlinks for duplicated ‘.pyc’ files: 'hardlink_dupes' parameter and –hardlink-dupes command line option. (Contributed by Lumír ‘Frenzy’ Balhar in bpo-40495(1).) Added new options for path manipulation in resulting ‘.pyc’ files: 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' parameters and -s, -p, -e command line options. Added the possibility to specify the option for an optimization level multiple times. (Contributed by Lumír ‘Frenzy’ Balhar in bpo-38112(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40495 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38112  File: python.info, Node: concurrent futures<2>, Next: curses<2>, Prev: compileall<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.4 concurrent.futures .......................... Added a new 'cancel_futures' parameter to *note concurrent.futures.Executor.shutdown(): 8ec. that cancels all pending futures which have not started running, instead of waiting for them to complete before shutting down the executor. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39349(1).) Removed daemon threads from *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. and *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. This improves compatibility with subinterpreters and predictability in their shutdown processes. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39812(2).) Workers in *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. are now spawned on demand, only when there are no available idle workers to reuse. This optimizes startup overhead and reduces the amount of lost CPU time to idle workers. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-39207(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39349 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39812 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39207  File: python.info, Node: curses<2>, Next: datetime<2>, Prev: concurrent futures<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.5 curses .............. Added *note curses.get_escdelay(): 8ef, *note curses.set_escdelay(): 8f0, *note curses.get_tabsize(): 8f1, and *note curses.set_tabsize(): 8f2. functions. (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-38312(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38312  File: python.info, Node: datetime<2>, Next: distutils<3>, Prev: curses<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.6 datetime ................ The *note isocalendar(): 8f4. of *note datetime.date: 1cd. and *note isocalendar(): 8f5. of *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. methods now returns a *note namedtuple(): 1ca. instead of a *note tuple: 36b. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-24416(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24416  File: python.info, Node: distutils<3>, Next: fcntl<2>, Prev: datetime<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.7 distutils ................. The ‘upload’ command now creates SHA2-256 and Blake2b-256 hash digests. It skips MD5 on platforms that block MD5 digest. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40698(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40698  File: python.info, Node: fcntl<2>, Next: ftplib<2>, Prev: distutils<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.8 fcntl ............. Added constants ‘fcntl.F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘fcntl.F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘fcntl.F_OFD_SETLKW’. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38602(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38602  File: python.info, Node: ftplib<2>, Next: gc<2>, Prev: fcntl<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.9 ftplib .............. *note FTP: 8f9. and *note FTP_TLS: 8fa. now raise a *note ValueError: 204. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259  File: python.info, Node: gc<2>, Next: hashlib<4>, Prev: ftplib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.10 gc ........... When the garbage collector makes a collection in which some objects resurrect (they are reachable from outside the isolated cycles after the finalizers have been executed), do not block the collection of all objects that are still unreachable. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo and Tim Peters in bpo-38379(1).) Added a new function *note gc.is_finalized(): 8fc. to check if an object has been finalized by the garbage collector. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-39322(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38379 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39322  File: python.info, Node: hashlib<4>, Next: http, Prev: gc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.11 hashlib ................ The *note hashlib: 68. module can now use SHA3 hashes and SHAKE XOF from OpenSSL when available. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-37630(1).) Builtin hash modules can now be disabled with ‘./configure --without-builtin-hashlib-hashes’ or selectively enabled with e.g. ‘./configure --with-builtin-hashlib-hashes=sha3,blake2’ to force use of OpenSSL based implementation. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-40479(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37630 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40479  File: python.info, Node: http, Next: IDLE and idlelib<3>, Prev: hashlib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.12 http ............. HTTP status codes ‘103 EARLY_HINTS’, ‘418 IM_A_TEAPOT’ and ‘425 TOO_EARLY’ are added to *note http.HTTPStatus: 8ff. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39509(1) and Ross Rhodes in bpo-39507(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39509 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39507  File: python.info, Node: IDLE and idlelib<3>, Next: imaplib, Prev: http, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.13 IDLE and idlelib ......................... Added option to toggle cursor blink off. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-4603(1).) Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows. (Contributed by Johnny Najera in bpo-38944(2).) Added keywords to module name completion list. (Contributed by Terry J. Reedy in bpo-37765(3).) New in 3.9 maintenance releases Make IDLE invoke *note sys.excepthook(): 807. (when started without ‘-n’). User hooks were previously ignored. (Contributed by Ken Hilton in bpo-43008(4).) The changes above have been backported to 3.8 maintenance releases. Rearrange the settings dialog. Split the General tab into Windows and Shell/Ed tabs. Move help sources, which extend the Help menu, to the Extensions tab. Make space for new options and shorten the dialog. The latter makes the dialog better fit small screens. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-40468(5).) Move the indent space setting from the Font tab to the new Windows tab. (Contributed by Mark Roseman and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33962(6).) Apply syntax highlighting to ‘.pyi’ files. (Contributed by Alex Waygood and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-45447(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43008 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40468 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33962 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=45447  File: python.info, Node: imaplib, Next: importlib<3>, Prev: IDLE and idlelib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.14 imaplib ................ *note IMAP4: 902. and *note IMAP4_SSL: 903. now have an optional 'timeout' parameter for their constructors. Also, the *note open(): 904. method now has an optional 'timeout' parameter with this change. The overridden methods of *note IMAP4_SSL: 903. and *note IMAP4_stream: 905. were applied to this change. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38615(1).) *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 906. is added. *note imaplib.IMAP4.unselect(): 906. frees server’s resources associated with the selected mailbox and returns the server to the authenticated state. This command performs the same actions as *note imaplib.IMAP4.close(): 907, except that no messages are permanently removed from the currently selected mailbox. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40375(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38615 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40375  File: python.info, Node: importlib<3>, Next: inspect<4>, Prev: imaplib, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.15 importlib .................. To improve consistency with import statements, *note importlib.util.resolve_name(): 909. now raises *note ImportError: 415. instead of *note ValueError: 204. for invalid relative import attempts. (Contributed by Ngalim Siregar in bpo-37444(1).) Import loaders which publish immutable module objects can now publish immutable packages in addition to individual modules. (Contributed by Dino Viehland in bpo-39336(2).) Added *note importlib.resources.files(): 48a. function with support for subdirectories in package data, matching backport in ‘importlib_resources’ version 1.5. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-39791(3).) Refreshed ‘importlib.metadata’ from ‘importlib_metadata’ version 1.6.1. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37444 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39336 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39791  File: python.info, Node: inspect<4>, Next: ipaddress<2>, Prev: importlib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.16 inspect ................ *note inspect.BoundArguments.arguments: 90b. is changed from ‘OrderedDict’ to regular dict. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36350(1) and bpo-39775(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36350 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39775  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress<2>, Next: math<4>, Prev: inspect<4>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.17 ipaddress .................. *note ipaddress: 80. now supports IPv6 Scoped Addresses (IPv6 address with suffix ‘%’). Scoped IPv6 addresses can be parsed using *note ipaddress.IPv6Address: 1ff. If present, scope zone ID is available through the *note scope_id: 90d. attribute. (Contributed by Oleksandr Pavliuk in bpo-34788(1).) Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 80. module no longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(2)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34788 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384  File: python.info, Node: math<4>, Next: multiprocessing<2>, Prev: ipaddress<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.18 math ............. Expanded the *note math.gcd(): 90f. function to handle multiple arguments. Formerly, it only supported two arguments. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39648(1).) Added *note math.lcm(): 910.: return the least common multiple of specified arguments. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson, Ananthakrishnan and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39479(2) and bpo-39648(3).) Added *note math.nextafter(): 494.: return the next floating-point value after 'x' towards 'y'. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39288(4).) Added *note math.ulp(): 911.: return the value of the least significant bit of a float. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39310(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39479 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39648 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39288 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39310  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<2>, Next: nntplib, Prev: math<4>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.19 multiprocessing ........................ The *note multiprocessing.SimpleQueue: 913. class has a new *note close(): 914. method to explicitly close the queue. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30966(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30966  File: python.info, Node: nntplib, Next: os<5>, Prev: multiprocessing<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.20 nntplib ................ ‘NNTP’ and ‘NNTP_SSL’ now raise a *note ValueError: 204. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259  File: python.info, Node: os<5>, Next: pathlib<6>, Prev: nntplib, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.21 os ........... Added *note CLD_KILLED: 917. and *note CLD_STOPPED: 918. for ‘si_code’. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-38493(1).) Exposed the Linux-specific *note os.pidfd_open(): 476. (bpo-38692(2)) and *note os.P_PIDFD: 919. (bpo-38713(3)) for process management with file descriptors. The *note os.unsetenv(): 91a. function is now also available on Windows. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39413(4).) The *note os.putenv(): 91b. and *note os.unsetenv(): 91a. functions are now always available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39395(5).) Added *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91c. function: convert a wait status to an exit code. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40094(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38493 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38692 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38713 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39413 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40094  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<6>, Next: pdb<3>, Prev: os<5>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.22 pathlib ................ Added *note pathlib.Path.readlink(): 91e. which acts similarly to *note os.readlink(): 91f. (Contributed by Girts Folkmanis in bpo-30618(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30618  File: python.info, Node: pdb<3>, Next: poplib, Prev: pathlib<6>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.23 pdb ............ On Windows now *note Pdb: 921. supports ‘~/.pdbrc’. (Contributed by Tim Hopper and Dan Lidral-Porter in bpo-20523(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20523  File: python.info, Node: poplib, Next: pprint<2>, Prev: pdb<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.24 poplib ............... *note POP3: 923. and *note POP3_SSL: 924. now raise a *note ValueError: 204. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259  File: python.info, Node: pprint<2>, Next: pydoc, Prev: poplib, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.25 pprint ............... *note pprint: ae. can now pretty-print *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. (Contributed by Carl Bordum Hansen in bpo-37376(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37376  File: python.info, Node: pydoc, Next: random<3>, Prev: pprint<2>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.26 pydoc .............. The documentation string is now shown not only for class, function, method etc, but for any object that has its own *note __doc__: 927. attribute. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40257(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40257  File: python.info, Node: random<3>, Next: signal, Prev: pydoc, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.27 random ............... Added a new *note random.Random.randbytes(): 929. method: generate random bytes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40286(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40286  File: python.info, Node: signal, Next: smtplib, Prev: random<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.28 signal ............... Exposed the Linux-specific *note signal.pidfd_send_signal(): 92b. for sending to signals to a process using a file descriptor instead of a pid. (bpo-38712(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38712  File: python.info, Node: smtplib, Next: socket<3>, Prev: signal, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.29 smtplib ................ *note SMTP: 92d. and *note SMTP_SSL: 92e. now raise a *note ValueError: 204. if the given timeout for their constructor is zero to prevent the creation of a non-blocking socket. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39259(1).) *note LMTP: 92f. constructor now has an optional 'timeout' parameter. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39329(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39259 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39329  File: python.info, Node: socket<3>, Next: time<3>, Prev: smtplib, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.30 socket ............... The *note socket: cc. module now exports the *note CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS: 931. constant on Linux 4.1 and greater. (Contributed by Stefan Tatschner and Zackery Spytz in bpo-25780(1).) The socket module now supports the *note CAN_J1939: 932. protocol on platforms that support it. (Contributed by Karl Ding in bpo-40291(2).) The socket module now has the *note socket.send_fds(): 933. and *note socket.recv_fds(): 934. functions. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye, Shinya Okano and Victor Stinner in bpo-28724(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25780 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40291 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28724  File: python.info, Node: time<3>, Next: sys<6>, Prev: socket<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.31 time ............. On AIX, *note thread_time(): 936. is now implemented with ‘thread_cputime()’ which has nanosecond resolution, rather than ‘clock_gettime(CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID)’ which has a resolution of 10 milliseconds. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40192(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40192  File: python.info, Node: sys<6>, Next: tracemalloc, Prev: time<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.32 sys ............ Added a new *note sys.platlibdir: 938. attribute: name of the platform-specific library directory. It is used to build the path of standard library and the paths of installed extension modules. It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms. On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms. (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).) Previously, *note sys.stderr: 939. was block-buffered when non-interactive. Now ‘stderr’ defaults to always being line-buffered. (Contributed by Jendrik Seipp in bpo-13601(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13601  File: python.info, Node: tracemalloc, Next: typing<6>, Prev: sys<6>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.33 tracemalloc .................... Added *note tracemalloc.reset_peak(): 93b. to set the peak size of traced memory blocks to the current size, to measure the peak of specific pieces of code. (Contributed by Huon Wilson in bpo-40630(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40630  File: python.info, Node: typing<6>, Next: unicodedata<4>, Prev: tracemalloc, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.34 typing ............... PEP 593(1) introduced an *note typing.Annotated: 93d. type to decorate existing types with context-specific metadata and new ‘include_extras’ parameter to *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ad. to access the metadata at runtime. (Contributed by Till Varoquaux and Konstantin Kashin.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<4>, Next: venv<3>, Prev: typing<6>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.35 unicodedata .................... The Unicode database has been updated to version 13.0.0. (bpo-39926(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39926  File: python.info, Node: venv<3>, Next: xml<3>, Prev: unicodedata<4>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.36 venv ............. The activation scripts provided by *note venv: 111. now all specify their prompt customization consistently by always using the value specified by ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’. Previously some scripts unconditionally used ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’, others only if it happened to be set (which was the default case), and one used ‘__VENV_NAME__’ instead. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-37663(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37663  File: python.info, Node: xml<3>, Prev: venv<3>, Up: Improved Modules<5> 1.5.6.37 xml ............ White space characters within attributes are now preserved when serializing *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. to XML file. EOLNs are no longer normalized to “n”. This is the result of discussion about how to interpret section 2.11 of XML spec. (Contributed by Mefistotelis in bpo-39011(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39011  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<5>, Next: Deprecated<7>, Prev: Improved Modules<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.7 Optimizations ------------------- * Optimized the idiom for assignment a temporary variable in comprehensions. Now ‘for y in [expr]’ in comprehensions is as fast as a simple assignment ‘y = expr’. For example: sums = [s for s in [0] for x in data for s in [s + x]] Unlike the ‘:=’ operator this idiom does not leak a variable to the outer scope. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32856(1).) * Optimized signal handling in multithreaded applications. If a thread different than the main thread gets a signal, the bytecode evaluation loop is no longer interrupted at each bytecode instruction to check for pending signals which cannot be handled. Only the main thread of the main interpreter can handle signals. Previously, the bytecode evaluation loop was interrupted at each instruction until the main thread handles signals. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40010(2).) * Optimized the *note subprocess: d6. module on FreeBSD using ‘closefrom()’. (Contributed by Ed Maste, Conrad Meyer, Kyle Evans, Kubilay Kocak and Victor Stinner in bpo-38061(3).) * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 942. is now up to 1.87x faster for values that fit into long. (Contributed by Sergey Fedoseev in bpo-37986(4).) * A number of Python builtins (*note range: 943, *note tuple: 36b, *note set: 5d5, *note frozenset: 5d6, *note list: 60d, *note dict: 258.) are now sped up by using PEP 590(5) vectorcall protocol. (Contributed by Donghee Na, Mark Shannon, Jeroen Demeyer and Petr Viktorin in bpo-37207(6).) * Optimized ‘set.difference_update()’ for the case when the other set is much larger than the base set. (Suggested by Evgeny Kapun with code contributed by Michele Orrù in bpo-8425(7).) * Python’s small object allocator (‘obmalloc.c’) now allows (no more than) one empty arena to remain available for immediate reuse, without returning it to the OS. This prevents thrashing in simple loops where an arena could be created and destroyed anew on each iteration. (Contributed by Tim Peters in bpo-37257(8).) * *note floor division: 944. of float operation now has a better performance. Also the message of *note ZeroDivisionError: 945. for this operation is updated. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39434(9).) * Decoding short ASCII strings with UTF-8 and ascii codecs is now about 15% faster. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-37348(10).) Here’s a summary of performance improvements from Python 3.4 through Python 3.9: Python version 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 -------------- --- --- --- --- --- --- Variable and attribute read access: read_local 7.1 7.1 5.4 5.1 3.9 3.9 read_nonlocal 7.1 8.1 5.8 5.4 4.4 4.5 read_global 15.5 19.0 14.3 13.6 7.6 7.8 read_builtin 21.1 21.6 18.5 19.0 7.5 7.8 read_classvar_from_class 25.6 26.5 20.7 19.5 18.4 17.9 read_classvar_from_instance 22.8 23.5 18.8 17.1 16.4 16.9 read_instancevar 32.4 33.1 28.0 26.3 25.4 25.3 read_instancevar_slots 27.8 31.3 20.8 20.8 20.2 20.5 read_namedtuple 73.8 57.5 45.0 46.8 18.4 18.7 read_boundmethod 37.6 37.9 29.6 26.9 27.7 41.1 Variable and attribute write access: write_local 8.7 9.3 5.5 5.3 4.3 4.3 write_nonlocal 10.5 11.1 5.6 5.5 4.7 4.8 write_global 19.7 21.2 18.0 18.0 15.8 16.7 write_classvar 92.9 96.0 104.6 102.1 39.2 39.8 write_instancevar 44.6 45.8 40.0 38.9 35.5 37.4 write_instancevar_slots 35.6 36.1 27.3 26.6 25.7 25.8 Data structure read access: read_list 24.2 24.5 20.8 20.8 19.0 19.5 read_deque 24.7 25.5 20.2 20.6 19.8 20.2 read_dict 24.3 25.7 22.3 23.0 21.0 22.4 read_strdict 22.6 24.3 19.5 21.2 18.9 21.5 Data structure write access: write_list 27.1 28.5 22.5 21.6 20.0 20.0 write_deque 28.7 30.1 22.7 21.8 23.5 21.7 write_dict 31.4 33.3 29.3 29.2 24.7 25.4 write_strdict 28.4 29.9 27.5 25.2 23.1 24.5 Stack (or queue) operations: list_append_pop 93.4 112.7 75.4 74.2 50.8 50.6 deque_append_pop 43.5 57.0 49.4 49.2 42.5 44.2 deque_append_popleft 43.7 57.3 49.7 49.7 42.8 46.4 Timing loop: loop_overhead 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 These results were generated from the variable access benchmark script at: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’. The benchmark script displays timings in nanoseconds. The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(11) running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org(12). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32856 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40010 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38061 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37986 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/ (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37207 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8425 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37257 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39434 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37348 (11) https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html (12) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<7>, Next: Removed<7>, Prev: Optimizations<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.8 Deprecated ---------------- * The distutils ‘bdist_msi’ command is now deprecated, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in bpo-39586(1).) * Currently *note math.factorial(): 947. accepts *note float: 2f1. instances with non-negative integer values (like ‘5.0’). It raises a *note ValueError: 204. for non-integral and negative floats. It is now deprecated. In future Python versions it will raise a *note TypeError: 534. for all floats. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-37315(2).) * The ‘parser’ and ‘symbol’ modules are deprecated and will be removed in future versions of Python. For the majority of use cases, users can leverage the Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) generation and compilation stage, using the *note ast: 8. module. * The Public C API functions ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlags()’, ‘PyParser_SimpleParseStringFlagsFilename()’, ‘PyParser_SimpleParseFileFlags()’ and ‘PyNode_Compile()’ are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.10 together with the old parser. * Using *note NotImplemented: 7cd. in a boolean context has been deprecated, as it is almost exclusively the result of incorrect rich comparator implementations. It will be made a *note TypeError: 534. in a future version of Python. (Contributed by Josh Rosenberg in bpo-35712(3).) * The *note random: b8. module currently accepts any hashable type as a possible seed value. Unfortunately, some of those types are not guaranteed to have a deterministic hash value. After Python 3.9, the module will restrict its seeds to *note None: 671, *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1, *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2, and *note bytearray: 53a. * Opening the *note GzipFile: 416. file for writing without specifying the 'mode' argument is deprecated. In future Python versions it will always be opened for reading by default. Specify the 'mode' argument for opening it for writing and silencing a warning. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28286(4).) * Deprecated the ‘split()’ method of ‘_tkinter.TkappType’ in favour of the ‘splitlist()’ method which has more consistent and predictable behavior. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38371(5).) * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait(): 47b. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Kyle Stanley in bpo-34790(6).) * binhex4 and hexbin4 standards are now deprecated. The ‘binhex’ module and the following *note binascii: 10. functions are now deprecated: * ‘b2a_hqx()’, ‘a2b_hqx()’ * ‘rlecode_hqx()’, ‘rledecode_hqx()’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39353(7).) * *note ast: 8. classes ‘slice’, ‘Index’ and ‘ExtSlice’ are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python versions. ‘value’ itself should be used instead of ‘Index(value)’. ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’ should be used instead of ‘ExtSlice(slices)’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34822(8).) * *note ast: 8. classes ‘Suite’, ‘Param’, ‘AugLoad’ and ‘AugStore’ are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python versions. They were not generated by the parser and not accepted by the code generator in Python 3. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39639(9) and bpo-39969(10) and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-39988(11).) * The ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ and ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ functions are now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.11. Calling ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ now does nothing. The *note GIL: 159. is initialized by *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. since Python 3.7. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39877(12).) * Passing ‘None’ as the first argument to the *note shlex.split(): 538. function has been deprecated. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-33262(13).) * ‘smtpd.MailmanProxy()’ is now deprecated as it is unusable without an external module, ‘mailman’. (Contributed by Samuel Colvin in bpo-35800(14).) * The ‘lib2to3’ module now emits a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. Python 3.9 switched to a PEG parser (see PEP 617(15)), and Python 3.10 may include new language syntax that is not parsable by lib2to3’s LL(1) parser. The ‘lib2to3’ module may be removed from the standard library in a future Python version. Consider third-party alternatives such as LibCST(16) or parso(17). (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-40360(18).) * The 'random' parameter of *note random.shuffle(): 742. has been deprecated. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-40465(19)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39586 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37315 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35712 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28286 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38371 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39353 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39639 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39969 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39988 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39877 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33262 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35800 (15) https://peps.python.org/pep-0617/ (16) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/ (17) https://parso.readthedocs.io/ (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40360 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40465  File: python.info, Node: Removed<7>, Next: Porting to Python 3 9, Prev: Deprecated<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.9 Removed ------------- * The erroneous version at ‘unittest.mock.__version__’ has been removed. * ‘nntplib.NNTP’: ‘xpath()’ and ‘xgtitle()’ methods have been removed. These methods are deprecated since Python 3.3. Generally, these extensions are not supported or not enabled by NNTP server administrators. For ‘xgtitle()’, please use ‘nntplib.NNTP.descriptions()’ or ‘nntplib.NNTP.description()’ instead. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-39366(1).) * *note array.array: 1a0.: ‘tostring()’ and ‘fromstring()’ methods have been removed. They were aliases to ‘tobytes()’ and ‘frombytes()’, deprecated since Python 3.2. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38916(2).) * The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been removed. Since Python 3.7, it was deprecated and always returned *note None: 671. It required a special build option ‘CALL_PROFILE’ which was already removed in Python 3.7. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37414(3).) * The ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ and ‘sys.setcheckinterval()’ functions have been removed. They were deprecated since Python 3.2. Use *note sys.getswitchinterval(): 949. and *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 94a. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37392(4).) * The C function ‘PyImport_Cleanup()’ has been removed. It was documented as: “Empty the module table. For internal use only.” (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36710(5).) * ‘_dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’ modules have been removed. These modules were deprecated since Python 3.7 which requires threading support. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37312(6).) * ‘aifc.openfp()’ alias to ‘aifc.open()’, ‘sunau.openfp()’ alias to ‘sunau.open()’, and ‘wave.openfp()’ alias to *note wave.open(): 94b. have been removed. They were deprecated since Python 3.7. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37320(7).) * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 94c. has been removed. It was deprecated since Python 3.8. Use *note is_alive(): 94d. instead. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-37804(8).) * Methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ of classes *note ElementTree: 94e. and *note Element: 30a. in the *note ElementTree: 125. module have been removed. They were deprecated in Python 3.2. Use ‘iter(x)’ or ‘list(x)’ instead of ‘x.getchildren()’ and ‘x.iter()’ or ‘list(x.iter())’ instead of ‘x.getiterator()’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36543(9).) * The old *note plistlib: ab. API has been removed, it was deprecated since Python 3.4. Use the *note load(): 94f, *note loads(): 950, *note dump(): 951, and *note dumps(): 952. functions. Additionally, the 'use_builtin_types' parameter was removed, standard *note bytes: 1c2. objects are always used instead. (Contributed by Jon Janzen in bpo-36409(10).) * The C function ‘PyGen_NeedsFinalizing’ has been removed. It was not documented, tested, or used anywhere within CPython after the implementation of PEP 442(11). Patch by Joannah Nanjekye. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-15088(12)) * ‘base64.encodestring()’ and ‘base64.decodestring()’, aliases deprecated since Python 3.1, have been removed: use *note base64.encodebytes(): 953. and *note base64.decodebytes(): 954. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39351(13).) * ‘fractions.gcd()’ function has been removed, it was deprecated since Python 3.5 (bpo-22486(14)): use *note math.gcd(): 90f. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39350(15).) * The 'buffering' parameter of *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. has been removed. Since Python 3.0, it was ignored and using it emitted a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Pass an open file object to control how the file is opened. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39357(16).) * The 'encoding' parameter of *note json.loads(): 955. has been removed. As of Python 3.1, it was deprecated and ignored; using it has emitted a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. since Python 3.8. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-39377(17)) * ‘with (await asyncio.lock):’ and ‘with (yield from asyncio.lock):’ statements are not longer supported, use ‘async with lock’ instead. The same is correct for ‘asyncio.Condition’ and ‘asyncio.Semaphore’. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-34793(18).) * The ‘sys.getcounts()’ function, the ‘-X showalloccount’ command line option and the ‘show_alloc_count’ field of the C structure *note PyConfig: 3a2. have been removed. They required a special Python build by defining ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ macro. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(19).) * The ‘_field_types’ attribute of the *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b2. class has been removed. It was deprecated since Python 3.8. Use the ‘__annotations__’ attribute instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-40182(20).) * The ‘symtable.SymbolTable.has_exec()’ method has been removed. It was deprecated since 2006, and only returning ‘False’ when it’s called. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-40208(21)) * The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ have been removed. They were deprecated since Python 3.7 and you can use *note asyncio.current_task(): 479. and *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 956. instead. (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-40967(22)) * The ‘unescape()’ method in the *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. class has been removed (it was deprecated since Python 3.4). *note html.unescape(): 957. should be used for converting character references to the corresponding unicode characters. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39366 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38916 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37414 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37392 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36710 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37312 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37320 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37804 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36543 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36409 (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/ (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15088 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39351 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39350 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39377 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34793 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40182 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40208 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40967  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 9, Next: Build Changes<5>, Prev: Removed<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.10 Porting to Python 3.9 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<4>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<3>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<4>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<4>, Next: Changes in the C API<3>, Up: Porting to Python 3 9 1.5.10.1 Changes in the Python API .................................. * *note __import__(): 8d3. and *note importlib.util.resolve_name(): 909. now raise *note ImportError: 415. where it previously raised *note ValueError: 204. Callers catching the specific exception type and supporting both Python 3.9 and earlier versions will need to catch both using ‘except (ImportError, ValueError):’. * The *note venv: 111. activation scripts no longer special-case when ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is set to ‘""’. * The *note select.epoll.unregister(): 95a. method no longer ignores the *note EBADF: 95b. error. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39239(1).) * The 'compresslevel' parameter of *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. became keyword-only, since the 'buffering' parameter has been removed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39357(2).) * Simplified AST for subscription. Simple indices will be represented by their value, extended slices will be represented as tuples. ‘Index(value)’ will return a ‘value’ itself, ‘ExtSlice(slices)’ will return ‘Tuple(slices, Load())’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34822(3).) * The *note importlib: 77. module now ignores the *note PYTHONCASEOK: 95c. environment variable when the *note -E: 95d. or *note -I: 95e. command line options are being used. * The 'encoding' parameter has been added to the classes *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. and *note ftplib.FTP_TLS: 8fa. as a keyword-only parameter, and the default encoding is changed from Latin-1 to UTF-8 to follow RFC 2640(4). * *note asyncio.loop.shutdown_default_executor(): 8e6. has been added to *note AbstractEventLoop: 95f, meaning alternative event loops that inherit from it should have this method defined. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley in bpo-34037(5).) * The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module is updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags. Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in bpo-39562(6)) * ‘array('u')’ now uses ‘wchar_t’ as C type instead of ‘Py_UNICODE’. This change doesn’t affect to its behavior because ‘Py_UNICODE’ is alias of ‘wchar_t’ since Python 3.3. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-34538(7).) * The *note logging.getLogger(): 960. API now returns the root logger when passed the name ‘'root'’, whereas previously it returned a non-root logger named ‘'root'’. This could affect cases where user code explicitly wants a non-root logger named ‘'root'’, or instantiates a logger using ‘logging.getLogger(__name__)’ in some top-level module called ‘'root.py'’. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-37742(8).) * Division handling of *note PurePath: 4a2. now returns *note NotImplemented: 7cd. instead of raising a *note TypeError: 534. when passed something other than an instance of ‘str’ or *note PurePath: 4a2. This allows creating compatible classes that don’t inherit from those mentioned types. (Contributed by Roger Aiudi in bpo-34775(9)). * Starting with Python 3.9.5 the *note ipaddress: 80. module no longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings. Leading zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries. For example the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 961. treats leading zeros as octal notatation. glibc implementation of modern *note inet_pton(): 962. does not accept any leading zeros. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(10)). * *note codecs.lookup(): 963. now normalizes the encoding name the same way as *note encodings.normalize_encoding(): 7f7, except that *note codecs.lookup(): 963. also converts the name to lower case. For example, ‘"latex+latin1"’ encoding name is now normalized to ‘"latex_latin1"’. (Contributed by Jordon Xu in bpo-37751(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39239 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39357 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34822 (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2640.html (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34037 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39562 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34538 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37742 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34775 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37751  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<3>, Next: CPython bytecode changes<4>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<4>, Up: Porting to Python 3 9 1.5.10.2 Changes in the C API ............................. * Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 965. (such as those created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. and similar APIs) hold a reference to their type object since Python 3.8. As indicated in the “Changes in the C API” of Python 3.8, for the vast majority of cases, there should be no side effect but for types that have a custom *note tp_traverse: 779. function, ensure that all custom ‘tp_traverse’ functions of heap-allocated types visit the object’s type. Example: int foo_traverse(foo_struct *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { // Rest of the traverse function #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000 // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (Python issue 35810 and 40217) Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self)); #endif } If your traverse function delegates to ‘tp_traverse’ of its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited only once. Note that only *note heap type: 965. are expected to visit the type in ‘tp_traverse’. For example, if your ‘tp_traverse’ function includes: base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg) then add: #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000 // This was not needed before Python 3.9 (bpo-35810 and bpo-40217) if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) { // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self) } else { Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self)); } #else (See bpo-35810(1) and bpo-40217(2) for more information.) * The functions ‘PyEval_CallObject’, ‘PyEval_CallFunction’, ‘PyEval_CallMethod’ and ‘PyEval_CallObjectWithKeywords’ are deprecated. Use *note PyObject_Call(): 398. and its variants instead. (See more details in bpo-29548(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40217 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29548  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes<4>, Prev: Changes in the C API<3>, Up: Porting to Python 3 9 1.5.10.3 CPython bytecode changes ................................. * The *note LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR: 967. opcode was added for handling the *note assert: 968. statement. Previously, the assert statement would not work correctly if the *note AssertionError: 6a5. exception was being shadowed. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-34880(1).) * The *note COMPARE_OP: 969. opcode was split into four distinct instructions: * ‘COMPARE_OP’ for rich comparisons * ‘IS_OP’ for ‘is’ and ‘is not’ tests * ‘CONTAINS_OP’ for ‘in’ and ‘not in’ tests * ‘JUMP_IF_NOT_EXC_MATCH’ for checking exceptions in ‘try-except’ statements. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-39156(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34880 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39156  File: python.info, Node: Build Changes<5>, Next: C API Changes<5>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 9, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.11 Build Changes -------------------- * Added ‘--with-platlibdir’ option to the ‘configure’ script: name of the platform-specific library directory, stored in the new *note sys.platlibdir: 938. attribute. See *note sys.platlibdir: 938. attribute for more information. (Contributed by Jan Matějek, Matěj Cepl, Charalampos Stratakis and Victor Stinner in bpo-1294959(1).) * The ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’ special build macro has been removed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39489(2).) * On non-Windows platforms, the ‘setenv()’ and ‘unsetenv()’ functions are now required to build Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39395(3).) * On non-Windows platforms, creating ‘bdist_wininst’ installers is now officially unsupported. (See bpo-10945(4) for more details.) * When building Python on macOS from source, ‘_tkinter’ now links with non-system Tcl and Tk frameworks if they are installed in ‘/Library/Frameworks’, as had been the case on older releases of macOS. If a macOS SDK is explicitly configured, by using *note -enable-universalsdk: 96b. or ‘-isysroot’, only the SDK itself is searched. The default behavior can still be overridden with ‘--with-tcltk-includes’ and ‘--with-tcltk-libs’. (Contributed by Ned Deily in bpo-34956(5).) * Python can now be built for Windows 10 ARM64. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-33125(6).) * Some individual tests are now skipped when ‘--pgo’ is used. The tests in question increased the PGO task time significantly and likely didn’t help improve optimization of the final executable. This speeds up the task by a factor of about 15x. Running the full unit test suite is slow. This change may result in a slightly less optimized build since not as many code branches will be executed. If you are willing to wait for the much slower build, the old behavior can be restored using ‘./configure [..] PROFILE_TASK="-m test --pgo-extended"’. We make no guarantees as to which PGO task set produces a faster build. Users who care should run their own relevant benchmarks as results can depend on the environment, workload, and compiler tool chain. (See bpo-36044(7) and bpo-37707(8) for more details.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1294959 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39489 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39395 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10945 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34956 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33125 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36044 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37707  File: python.info, Node: C API Changes<5>, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1, Prev: Build Changes<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.12 C API Changes -------------------- * Menu: * New Features: New Features<10>. * Porting to Python 3.9: Porting to Python 3 9<2>. * Removed: Removed<8>.  File: python.info, Node: New Features<10>, Next: Porting to Python 3 9<2>, Up: C API Changes<5> 1.5.12.1 New Features ..................... * PEP 573(1): Added *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. to associate a module with a class; *note PyType_GetModule(): 96e. and *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96f. to retrieve the module and its state; and *note PyCMethod: 75f. and *note METH_METHOD: 970. to allow a method to access the class it was defined in. (Contributed by Marcel Plch and Petr Viktorin in bpo-38787(2).) * Added *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 785. function: get a frame code. Added *note PyFrame_GetBack(): 781. function: get the frame next outer frame. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(3).) * Added *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. to the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40421(4).) * Added *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 971. and *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a9. functions to get the interpreter. Added *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 789. function to get the current frame of a Python thread state. Added *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 972. function: get the unique identifier of a Python thread state. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39947(5).) * Added a new public *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 397. function to the C API, which calls a callable Python object without any arguments. It is the most efficient way to call a callable Python object without any argument. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37194(6).) * Changes in the limited C API (if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined): * Provide *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 973. and *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 974. as regular functions for the limited API. Previously, there were defined as macros, but these macros didn’t compile with the limited C API which cannot access ‘PyThreadState.recursion_depth’ field (the structure is opaque in the limited C API). * ‘PyObject_INIT()’ and ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ become regular “opaque” function to hide implementation details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38644(7) and bpo-39542(8).) * The *note PyModule_AddType(): 975. function is added to help adding a type to a module. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-40024(9).) * Added the functions *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 976. and *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 977. to the public API to allow to query if Python objects are being currently tracked or have been already finalized by the garbage collector respectively. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in bpo-40241(10).) * Added ‘_PyObject_FunctionStr()’ to get a user-friendly string representation of a function-like object. (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-37645(11).) * Added *note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 978. for calling an object with one positional argument (Patch by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-37483(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0573/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38787 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40421 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39947 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37194 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40024 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37645 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37483  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 9<2>, Next: Removed<8>, Prev: New Features<10>, Up: C API Changes<5> 1.5.12.2 Porting to Python 3.9 .............................. * ‘PyInterpreterState.eval_frame’ ( PEP 523(1)) now requires a new mandatory 'tstate' parameter (‘PyThreadState*’). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38500(2).) * Extension modules: *note m_traverse: 97a, *note m_clear: 97b. and *note m_free: 97c. functions of *note PyModuleDef: 97d. are no longer called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (*note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function). More precisely, these functions are not called if *note m_size: 97f. is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 980.) is ‘NULL’. Extension modules without module state (‘m_size <= 0’) are not affected. * If *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 981. is called in a subinterpreter, the function is now scheduled to be called from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter. Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39984(3).) * The Windows registry is no longer used to initialize *note sys.path: 3b0. when the ‘-E’ option is used (if *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. is set to ‘0’). This is significant when embedding Python on Windows. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-8901(4).) * The global variable *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 982. is now a constant and refers to a constant string. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-38650(5).) * The ‘PyGC_Head’ structure is now opaque. It is only defined in the internal C API (‘pycore_gc.h’). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-40241(6).) * The ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY’, ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL’, ‘PyUnicode_WSTR_LENGTH’, ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’, ‘_PyUnicode_AsUnicode’, and ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’ are marked as deprecated in C. They have been deprecated by PEP 393(7) since Python 3.3. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(8).) * The *note Py_FatalError(): 983. function is replaced with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39882(9).) * The vectorcall protocol now requires that the caller passes only strings as keyword names. (See bpo-37540(10) for more information.) * Implementation details of a number of macros and functions are now hidden: * *note PyObject_IS_GC(): 984. macro was converted to a function. * The ‘PyObject_NEW()’ macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_New: 985. macro, and the ‘PyObject_NEW_VAR()’ macro becomes an alias to the *note PyObject_NewVar: 986. macro. They no longer access directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 987. member. * ‘PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro was converted to a function: the macro accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset: 988. member. * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 394. macro was converted to a function: the macro accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer: 989. member. * *note PyIndex_Check(): 98a. is now always declared as an opaque function to hide implementation details: removed the ‘PyIndex_Check()’ macro. The macro accessed directly the *note PyTypeObject.tp_as_number: 98b. member. (See bpo-40170(11) for more details.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38500 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39984 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8901 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38650 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40241 (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39882 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37540 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40170  File: python.info, Node: Removed<8>, Prev: Porting to Python 3 9<2>, Up: C API Changes<5> 1.5.12.3 Removed ................ * Excluded ‘PyFPE_START_PROTECT()’ and ‘PyFPE_END_PROTECT()’ macros of ‘pyfpe.h’ from the limited C API. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38835(1).) * The ‘tp_print’ slot of *note PyTypeObject: 98d. has been removed. It was used for printing objects to files in Python 2.7 and before. Since Python 3.0, it has been ignored and unused. (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer in bpo-36974(2).) * Changes in the limited C API (if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined): * Excluded the following functions from the limited C API: * ‘PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent()’ (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-37878(3).) * ‘_Py_CheckRecursionLimit’ * ‘_Py_NewReference()’ * ‘_Py_ForgetReference()’ * ‘_PyTraceMalloc_NewReference()’ * ‘_Py_GetRefTotal()’ * The trashcan mechanism which never worked in the limited C API. * ‘PyTrash_UNWIND_LEVEL’ * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN_CONDITION’ * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_BEGIN’ * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_END’ * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_BEGIN’ * ‘Py_TRASHCAN_SAFE_END’ * Moved following functions and definitions to the internal C API: * ‘_PyDebug_PrintTotalRefs()’ * ‘_Py_PrintReferences()’ * ‘_Py_PrintReferenceAddresses()’ * ‘_Py_tracemalloc_config’ * ‘_Py_AddToAllObjects()’ (specific to ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ build) (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38644(4) and bpo-39542(5).) * Removed ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’ hook and removed ‘_PyThreadState_GetFrame’ macro which was an alias to ‘_PyRuntime.getframe’. They were only exposed by the internal C API. Removed also ‘PyThreadFrameGetter’ type. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39946(6).) * Removed the following functions from the C API. Call *note PyGC_Collect(): 98e. explicitly to clear all free lists. (Contributed by Inada Naoki and Victor Stinner in bpo-37340(7), bpo-38896(8) and bpo-40428(9).) * ‘PyAsyncGen_ClearFreeLists()’ * ‘PyContext_ClearFreeList()’ * ‘PyDict_ClearFreeList()’ * ‘PyFloat_ClearFreeList()’ * ‘PyFrame_ClearFreeList()’ * ‘PyList_ClearFreeList()’ * ‘PyMethod_ClearFreeList()’ and ‘PyCFunction_ClearFreeList()’: the free lists of bound method objects have been removed. * ‘PySet_ClearFreeList()’: the set free list has been removed in Python 3.4. * ‘PyTuple_ClearFreeList()’ * ‘PyUnicode_ClearFreeList()’: the Unicode free list has been removed in Python 3.3. * Removed ‘_PyUnicode_ClearStaticStrings()’ function. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-39465(10).) * Removed ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’. It has been deprecated by PEP 393(11), and broken since Python 3.3. The *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b7. function can be used instead. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36346(12).) * Cleaned header files of interfaces defined but with no implementation. The public API symbols being removed are: ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGroupingLocale’, ‘_PyBytes_InsertThousandsGrouping’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromArgs’, ‘_Py_InitializeFromWideArgs’, ‘_PyFloat_Repr’, ‘_PyFloat_Digits’, ‘_PyFloat_DigitsInit’, ‘PyFrame_ExtendStack’, ‘_PyAIterWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNullImporter_Type’, ‘PyCmpWrapper_Type’, ‘PySortWrapper_Type’, ‘PyNoArgsFunction’. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo Salgado in bpo-39372(13).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38835 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37878 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38644 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39542 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39946 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37340 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38896 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=40428 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39465 (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36346 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=39372  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2, Prev: C API Changes<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.13 Notable changes in Python 3.9.1 -------------------------------------- * Menu: * typing: typing<7>. * macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support.  File: python.info, Node: typing<7>, Next: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1 1.5.13.1 typing ............... The behavior of *note typing.Literal: 851. was changed to conform with PEP 586(1) and to match the behavior of static type checkers specified in the PEP. 1. ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters. 2. Equality comparisons between ‘Literal’ objects are now order independent. 3. ‘Literal’ comparisons now respect types. For example, ‘Literal[0] == Literal[False]’ previously evaluated to ‘True’. It is now ‘False’. To support this change, the internally used type cache now supports differentiating types. 4. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 534. exception during equality comparisons if any of their parameters are not *note hashable: 60c. Note that declaring ‘Literal’ with mutable parameters will not throw an error: >>> from typing import Literal >>> Literal[{0}] >>> Literal[{0}] == Literal[{False}] Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: unhashable type: 'set' (Contributed by Yurii Karabas in bpo-42345(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42345  File: python.info, Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support, Prev: typing<7>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1 1.5.13.2 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support ........................................................... As of 3.9.1, Python now fully supports building and running on macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture). A new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables. Binaries can also now be built on current versions of macOS to be deployed on a range of older macOS versions (tested to 10.9) while making some newer OS functions and options conditionally available based on the operating system version in use at runtime (“weaklinking”). (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in bpo-41100(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=41100  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.14 Notable changes in Python 3.9.2 -------------------------------------- * Menu: * collections.abc: collections abc<2>. * urllib.parse: urllib parse<2>.  File: python.info, Node: collections abc<2>, Next: urllib parse<2>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2 1.5.14.1 collections.abc ........................ *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. generic now flattens type parameters, similar to what *note typing.Callable: 7c0. currently does. This means that ‘collections.abc.Callable[[int, str], str]’ will have ‘__args__’ of ‘(int, str, str)’; previously this was ‘([int, str], str)’. To allow this change, *note types.GenericAlias: 7e6. can now be subclassed, and a subclass will be returned when subscripting the *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. type. Code which accesses the arguments via *note typing.get_args(): 87c. or ‘__args__’ need to account for this change. A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. may be emitted for invalid forms of parameterizing *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. which may have passed silently in Python 3.9.1. This *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. will become a *note TypeError: 534. in Python 3.10. (Contributed by Ken Jin in bpo-42195(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42195  File: python.info, Node: urllib parse<2>, Prev: collections abc<2>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2 1.5.14.2 urllib.parse ..................... Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27c. and *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 27b. Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default. This change also affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.15 Notable changes in Python 3.9.3 -------------------------------------- A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’. (See gh-87451(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5, Next: Notable security feature in 3 9 14, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.16 Notable changes in Python 3.9.5 -------------------------------------- * Menu: * urllib.parse: urllib parse<3>.  File: python.info, Node: urllib parse<3>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5 1.5.16.1 urllib.parse ..................... The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a. preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’. (See gh-88048(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048  File: python.info, Node: Notable security feature in 3 9 14, Next: Notable changes in 3 9 17, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.17 Notable security feature in 3.9.14 ----------------------------------------- Converting between *note int: 259. and *note str: 447. in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(1). This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs. See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 9 17, Prev: Notable security feature in 3 9 14, Up: What’s New In Python 3 9 1.5.18 Notable changes in 3.9.17 -------------------------------- * Menu: * tarfile: tarfile<4>.  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<4>, Up: Notable changes in 3 9 17 1.5.18.1 tarfile ................ * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 467, have a new a 'filter' argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See *note Extraction filters: 468. for details. In Python 3.12, use without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 8, Next: What’s New In Python 3 7, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 9, Up: What’s New in Python 1.6 What’s New In Python 3.8 ============================ Editor: Raymond Hettinger This article explains the new features in Python 3.8, compared to 3.7. Python 3.8 was released on October 14, 2019. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<5>. * New Features: New Features<11>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<6>. * New Modules: New Modules<6>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<6>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<6>. * Build and C API Changes:: * Deprecated: Deprecated<8>. * API and Feature Removals:: * Porting to Python 3.8: Porting to Python 3 8. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.1: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.2: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.3: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.8: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.9: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.10: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>. * Notable changes in Python 3.8.12: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12. * Notable security feature in 3.8.14: Notable security feature in 3 8 14. * Notable changes in 3.8.17: Notable changes in 3 8 17.  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<5>, Next: New Features<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.1 Summary – Release highlights ----------------------------------  File: python.info, Node: New Features<11>, Next: Other Language Changes<6>, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * Assignment expressions:: * Positional-only parameters:: * Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files:: * Debug build uses the same ABI as release build:: * f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging:: * PEP 578; Python Runtime Audit Hooks: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks. * PEP 587; Python Initialization Configuration: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration. * PEP 590; Vectorcall; a fast calling protocol for CPython: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython. * Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers::  File: python.info, Node: Assignment expressions, Next: Positional-only parameters, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.1 Assignment expressions .............................. There is new syntax ‘:=’ that assigns values to variables as part of a larger expression. It is affectionately known as “the walrus operator” due to its resemblance to the eyes and tusks of a walrus(1). In this example, the assignment expression helps avoid calling *note len(): 62a. twice: if (n := len(a)) > 10: print(f"List is too long ({n} elements, expected <= 10)") A similar benefit arises during regular expression matching where match objects are needed twice, once to test whether a match occurred and another to extract a subgroup: discount = 0.0 if (mo := re.search(r'(\d+)% discount', advertisement)): discount = float(mo.group(1)) / 100.0 The operator is also useful with while-loops that compute a value to test loop termination and then need that same value again in the body of the loop: # Loop over fixed length blocks while (block := f.read(256)) != '': process(block) Another motivating use case arises in list comprehensions where a value computed in a filtering condition is also needed in the expression body: [clean_name.title() for name in names if (clean_name := normalize('NFC', name)) in allowed_names] Try to limit use of the walrus operator to clean cases that reduce complexity and improve readability. See PEP 572(2) for a full description. (Contributed by Emily Morehouse in bpo-35224(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walrus#/media/File:Pacific_Walrus_-_Bull_(8247646168).jpg (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224  File: python.info, Node: Positional-only parameters, Next: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files, Prev: Assignment expressions, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.2 Positional-only parameters .................................. There is a new function parameter syntax ‘/’ to indicate that some function parameters must be specified positionally and cannot be used as keyword arguments. This is the same notation shown by ‘help()’ for C functions annotated with Larry Hastings’ Argument Clinic(1) tool. In the following example, parameters 'a' and 'b' are positional-only, while 'c' or 'd' can be positional or keyword, and 'e' or 'f' are required to be keywords: def f(a, b, /, c, d, *, e, f): print(a, b, c, d, e, f) The following is a valid call: f(10, 20, 30, d=40, e=50, f=60) However, these are invalid calls: f(10, b=20, c=30, d=40, e=50, f=60) # b cannot be a keyword argument f(10, 20, 30, 40, 50, f=60) # e must be a keyword argument One use case for this notation is that it allows pure Python functions to fully emulate behaviors of existing C coded functions. For example, the built-in *note divmod(): 9a1. function does not accept keyword arguments: def divmod(a, b, /): "Emulate the built in divmod() function" return (a // b, a % b) Another use case is to preclude keyword arguments when the parameter name is not helpful. For example, the builtin *note len(): 62a. function has the signature ‘len(obj, /)’. This precludes awkward calls such as: len(obj='hello') # The "obj" keyword argument impairs readability A further benefit of marking a parameter as positional-only is that it allows the parameter name to be changed in the future without risk of breaking client code. For example, in the *note statistics: d2. module, the parameter name 'dist' may be changed in the future. This was made possible with the following function specification: def quantiles(dist, /, *, n=4, method='exclusive') ... Since the parameters to the left of ‘/’ are not exposed as possible keywords, the parameters names remain available for use in ‘**kwargs’: >>> def f(a, b, /, **kwargs): ... print(a, b, kwargs) ... >>> f(10, 20, a=1, b=2, c=3) # a and b are used in two ways 10 20 {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} This greatly simplifies the implementation of functions and methods that need to accept arbitrary keyword arguments. For example, here is an excerpt from code in the *note collections: 1d. module: class Counter(dict): def __init__(self, iterable=None, /, **kwds): # Note "iterable" is a possible keyword argument See PEP 570(2) for a full description. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36540(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/development-tools/clinic/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36540  File: python.info, Node: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files, Next: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build, Prev: Positional-only parameters, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.3 Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files ............................................................. The new *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a3. setting (also available as *note -X: 176. ‘pycache_prefix’) configures the implicit bytecode cache to use a separate parallel filesystem tree, rather than the default ‘__pycache__’ subdirectories within each source directory. The location of the cache is reported in *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a4. (*note None: 671. indicates the default location in ‘__pycache__’ subdirectories). (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-33499(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33499  File: python.info, Node: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build, Next: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging, Prev: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.4 Debug build uses the same ABI as release build ...................................................... Python now uses the same ABI whether it’s built in release or debug mode. On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, it is now possible to load C extensions built in release mode and C extensions built using the stable ABI. Release builds and *note debug builds: 1fb. are now ABI compatible: defining the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro no longer implies the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which introduces the only ABI incompatibility. The ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro, which adds the *note sys.getobjects(): 423. function and the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a6. environment variable, can be set using the new *note ./configure -with-trace-refs: 390. build option. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36465(1).) On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on Android and Cygwin. It is now possible for a statically linked Python to load a C extension built using a shared library Python. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536(2).) On Unix, when Python is built in debug mode, import now also looks for C extensions compiled in release mode and for C extensions compiled with the stable ABI. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36722(3).) To embed Python into an application, a new ‘--embed’ option must be passed to ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ to get ‘-lpython3.8’ (link the application to libpython). To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘python3-config --libs --embed’ first and fallback to ‘python3-config --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails. Add a pkg-config ‘python-3.8-embed’ module to embed Python into an application: ‘pkg-config python-3.8-embed --libs’ includes ‘-lpython3.8’. To support both 3.8 and older, try ‘pkg-config python-X.Y-embed --libs’ first and fallback to ‘pkg-config python-X.Y --libs’ (without ‘--embed’) if the previous command fails (replace ‘X.Y’ with the Python version). On the other hand, ‘pkg-config python3.8 --libs’ no longer contains ‘-lpython3.8’. C extensions must not be linked to libpython (except on Android and Cygwin, whose cases are handled by the script); this change is backward incompatible on purpose. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36721(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36465 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36722 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36721  File: python.info, Node: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging, Next: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks, Prev: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.5 f-strings support ‘=’ for self-documenting expressions and debugging ............................................................................ Added an ‘=’ specifier to *note f-string: 431.s. An f-string such as ‘f'{expr=}'’ will expand to the text of the expression, an equal sign, then the representation of the evaluated expression. For example: >>> user = 'eric_idle' >>> member_since = date(1975, 7, 31) >>> f'{user=} {member_since=}' "user='eric_idle' member_since=datetime.date(1975, 7, 31)" The usual *note f-string format specifiers: 9a9. allow more control over how the result of the expression is displayed: >>> delta = date.today() - member_since >>> f'{user=!s} {delta.days=:,d}' 'user=eric_idle delta.days=16,075' The ‘=’ specifier will display the whole expression so that calculations can be shown: >>> print(f'{theta=} {cos(radians(theta))=:.3f}') theta=30 cos(radians(theta))=0.866 (Contributed by Eric V. Smith and Larry Hastings in bpo-36817(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36817  File: python.info, Node: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks, Next: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration, Prev: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.6 PEP 578: Python Runtime Audit Hooks ........................................... The PEP adds an Audit Hook and Verified Open Hook. Both are available from Python and native code, allowing applications and frameworks written in pure Python code to take advantage of extra notifications, while also allowing embedders or system administrators to deploy builds of Python where auditing is always enabled. See PEP 578(1) for full details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration, Next: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython, Prev: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.7 PEP 587: Python Initialization Configuration .................................................... The PEP 587(1) adds a new C API to configure the Python Initialization providing finer control on the whole configuration and better error reporting. New structures: * *note PyConfig: 3a2. * *note PyPreConfig: 9ac. * *note PyStatus: 9ad. * *note PyWideStringList: 9ae. New functions: * *note PyConfig_Clear(): 9af. * *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9b0. * *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b1. * *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. * *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 9b2. * *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 9b3. * *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 9b4. * *note PyConfig_SetString(): 9b5. * *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9b6. * *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b7. * *note PyStatus_Error(): 9b8. * *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9b9. * *note PyStatus_Exit(): 9ba. * *note PyStatus_IsError(): 9bb. * *note PyStatus_IsExit(): 9bc. * *note PyStatus_NoMemory(): 9bd. * *note PyStatus_Ok(): 9be. * *note PyWideStringList_Append(): 9bf. * *note PyWideStringList_Insert(): 9c0. * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9c1. * *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9c2. * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. * *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. * *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 9c3. * *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 9c4. * *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. This PEP also adds ‘_PyRuntimeState.preconfig’ (*note PyPreConfig: 9ac. type) and ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ (*note PyConfig: 3a2. type) fields to these internal structures. ‘PyInterpreterState.config’ becomes the new reference configuration, replacing global configuration variables and other private variables. See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. for the documentation. See PEP 587(2) for a full description. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36763(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36763  File: python.info, Node: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython, Next: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers, Prev: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.8 PEP 590: Vectorcall: a fast calling protocol for CPython ................................................................ *note The Vectorcall Protocol: 54f. is added to the Python/C API. It is meant to formalize existing optimizations which were already done for various classes. Any *note static type: 77a. implementing a callable can use this protocol. This is currently provisional. The aim is to make it fully public in Python 3.9. See PEP 590(1) for a full description. (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer, Mark Shannon and Petr Viktorin in bpo-36974(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36974  File: python.info, Node: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers, Prev: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython, Up: New Features<11> 1.6.2.9 Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers ....................................................... When *note pickle: a6. is used to transfer large data between Python processes in order to take advantage of multi-core or multi-machine processing, it is important to optimize the transfer by reducing memory copies, and possibly by applying custom techniques such as data-dependent compression. The *note pickle: a6. protocol 5 introduces support for out-of-band buffers where PEP 3118(1)-compatible data can be transmitted separately from the main pickle stream, at the discretion of the communication layer. See PEP 574(2) for a full description. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-36785(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0574/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36785  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<6>, Next: New Modules<6>, Prev: New Features<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.3 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * A *note continue: 9c9. statement was illegal in the *note finally: 9ca. clause due to a problem with the implementation. In Python 3.8 this restriction was lifted. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32489(1).) * The *note bool: 463, *note int: 259, and *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. types now have an *note as_integer_ratio(): 9cb. method like that found in *note float: 2f1. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29f. This minor API extension makes it possible to write ‘numerator, denominator = x.as_integer_ratio()’ and have it work across multiple numeric types. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-33073(2) and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37819(3).) * Constructors of *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1. and *note complex: 2f2. will now use the *note __index__(): 718. special method, if available and the corresponding method *note __int__(): 717, *note __float__(): 9cc. or *note __complex__(): 5e3. is not available. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20092(4).) * Added support of ‘\N{NAME}’ escapes in *note regular expressions: b9.: >>> notice = 'Copyright © 2019' >>> copyright_year_pattern = re.compile(r'\N{copyright sign}\s*(\d{4})') >>> int(copyright_year_pattern.search(notice).group(1)) 2019 (Contributed by Jonathan Eunice and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30688(5).) * Dict and dictviews are now iterable in reversed insertion order using *note reversed(): 862. (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-33462(6).) * The syntax allowed for keyword names in function calls was further restricted. In particular, ‘f((keyword)=arg)’ is no longer allowed. It was never intended to permit more than a bare name on the left-hand side of a keyword argument assignment term. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-34641(7).) * Generalized iterable unpacking in *note yield: 9cd. and *note return: 9ce. statements no longer requires enclosing parentheses. This brings the 'yield' and 'return' syntax into better agreement with normal assignment syntax: >>> def parse(family): lastname, *members = family.split() return lastname.upper(), *members >>> parse('simpsons homer marge bart lisa maggie') ('SIMPSONS', 'homer', 'marge', 'bart', 'lisa', 'maggie') (Contributed by David Cuthbert and Jordan Chapman in bpo-32117(8).) * When a comma is missed in code such as ‘[(10, 20) (30, 40)]’, the compiler displays a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. with a helpful suggestion. This improves on just having a *note TypeError: 534. indicating that the first tuple was not callable. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15248(9).) * Arithmetic operations between subclasses of *note datetime.date: 1cd. or *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. and *note datetime.timedelta: 9cf. objects now return an instance of the subclass, rather than the base class. This also affects the return type of operations whose implementation (directly or indirectly) uses *note datetime.timedelta: 9cf. arithmetic, such as *note astimezone(): 9d0. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32417(10).) * When the Python interpreter is interrupted by Ctrl-C (SIGINT) and the resulting *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. exception is not caught, the Python process now exits via a SIGINT signal or with the correct exit code such that the calling process can detect that it died due to a Ctrl-C. Shells on POSIX and Windows use this to properly terminate scripts in interactive sessions. (Contributed by Google via Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1054041(11).) * Some advanced styles of programming require updating the *note types.CodeType: 2e3. object for an existing function. Since code objects are immutable, a new code object needs to be created, one that is modeled on the existing code object. With 19 parameters, this was somewhat tedious. Now, the new ‘replace()’ method makes it possible to create a clone with a few altered parameters. Here’s an example that alters the *note statistics.mean(): 6cd. function to prevent the 'data' parameter from being used as a keyword argument: >>> from statistics import mean >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90]) 40 >>> mean.__code__ = mean.__code__.replace(co_posonlyargcount=1) >>> mean(data=[10, 20, 90]) Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: mean() got some positional-only arguments passed as keyword arguments: 'data' (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37032(12).) * For integers, the three-argument form of the *note pow(): 9d2. function now permits the exponent to be negative in the case where the base is relatively prime to the modulus. It then computes a modular inverse to the base when the exponent is ‘-1’, and a suitable power of that inverse for other negative exponents. For example, to compute the modular multiplicative inverse(13) of 38 modulo 137, write: >>> pow(38, -1, 137) 119 >>> 119 * 38 % 137 1 Modular inverses arise in the solution of linear Diophantine equations(14). For example, to find integer solutions for ‘4258𝑥 + 147𝑦 = 369’, first rewrite as ‘4258𝑥 ≡ 369 (mod 147)’ then solve: >>> x = 369 * pow(4258, -1, 147) % 147 >>> y = (4258 * x - 369) // -147 >>> 4258 * x + 147 * y 369 (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36027(15).) * Dict comprehensions have been synced-up with dict literals so that the key is computed first and the value second: >>> # Dict comprehension >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ') for i in range(2)} role? King Arthur actor? Chapman role? Black Knight actor? Cleese >>> # Dict literal >>> cast = {input('role? '): input('actor? ')} role? Sir Robin actor? Eric Idle The guaranteed execution order is helpful with assignment expressions because variables assigned in the key expression will be available in the value expression: >>> names = ['Martin von Löwis', 'Łukasz Langa', 'Walter Dörwald'] >>> {(n := normalize('NFC', name)).casefold() : n for name in names} {'martin von löwis': 'Martin von Löwis', 'łukasz langa': 'Łukasz Langa', 'walter dörwald': 'Walter Dörwald'} (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224(16).) * The *note object.__reduce__(): 9d3. method can now return a tuple from two to six elements long. Formerly, five was the limit. The new, optional sixth element is a callable with a ‘(obj, state)’ signature. This allows the direct control over the state-updating behavior of a specific object. If not 'None', this callable will have priority over the object’s ‘__setstate__()’ method. (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(17).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32489 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33073 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37819 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30688 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33462 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34641 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32117 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15248 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32417 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1054041 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37032 (13) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_multiplicative_inverse (14) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diophantine_equation (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36027 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<6>, Next: Improved Modules<6>, Prev: Other Language Changes<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.4 New Modules ----------------- * The new *note importlib.metadata: 7a. module provides (provisional) support for reading metadata from third-party packages. For example, it can extract an installed package’s version number, list of entry points, and more: >>> # Note following example requires that the popular "requests" >>> # package has been installed. >>> >>> from importlib.metadata import version, requires, files >>> version('requests') '2.22.0' >>> list(requires('requests')) ['chardet (<3.1.0,>=3.0.2)'] >>> list(files('requests'))[:5] [PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/INSTALLER'), PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/LICENSE'), PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/METADATA'), PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/RECORD'), PackagePath('requests-2.22.0.dist-info/WHEEL')] (Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Jason R. Coombs in bpo-34632(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34632  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<6>, Next: Optimizations<6>, Prev: New Modules<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.5 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * ast: ast<3>. * asyncio: asyncio<6>. * builtins: builtins<2>. * collections:: * cProfile:: * csv: csv<2>. * curses: curses<3>. * ctypes: ctypes<2>. * datetime: datetime<3>. * functools: functools<2>. * gc: gc<3>. * gettext:: * gzip: gzip<3>. * IDLE and idlelib: IDLE and idlelib<4>. * inspect: inspect<5>. * io: io<3>. * itertools: itertools<4>. * json.tool: json tool. * logging: logging<2>. * math: math<5>. * mmap: mmap<2>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<3>. * os: os<6>. * os.path: os path<5>. * pathlib: pathlib<7>. * pickle:: * plistlib:: * pprint: pprint<3>. * py_compile: py_compile<2>. * shlex:: * shutil: shutil<4>. * socket: socket<4>. * ssl: ssl<4>. * statistics: statistics<4>. * sys: sys<7>. * tarfile: tarfile<5>. * threading: threading<4>. * tokenize: tokenize<2>. * tkinter: tkinter<4>. * time: time<4>. * typing: typing<8>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<5>. * unittest: unittest<6>. * venv: venv<4>. * weakref:: * xml: xml<4>. * xmlrpc::  File: python.info, Node: ast<3>, Next: asyncio<6>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.1 ast ........... AST nodes now have ‘end_lineno’ and ‘end_col_offset’ attributes, which give the precise location of the end of the node. (This only applies to nodes that have ‘lineno’ and ‘col_offset’ attributes.) New function *note ast.get_source_segment(): 9d7. returns the source code for a specific AST node. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-33416(1).) The *note ast.parse(): 1a8. function has some new flags: * ‘type_comments=True’ causes it to return the text of PEP 484(2) and PEP 526(3) type comments associated with certain AST nodes; * ‘mode='func_type'’ can be used to parse PEP 484(4) “signature type comments” (returned for function definition AST nodes); * ‘feature_version=(3, N)’ allows specifying an earlier Python 3 version. For example, ‘feature_version=(3, 4)’ will treat *note async: 72d. and *note await: 1b9. as non-reserved words. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33416 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<6>, Next: builtins<2>, Prev: ast<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.2 asyncio ............... *note asyncio.run(): 478. has graduated from the provisional to stable API. This function can be used to execute a *note coroutine: 48d. and return the result while automatically managing the event loop. For example: import asyncio async def main(): await asyncio.sleep(0) return 42 asyncio.run(main()) This is 'roughly' equivalent to: import asyncio async def main(): await asyncio.sleep(0) return 42 loop = asyncio.new_event_loop() asyncio.set_event_loop(loop) try: loop.run_until_complete(main()) finally: asyncio.set_event_loop(None) loop.close() The actual implementation is significantly more complex. Thus, *note asyncio.run(): 478. should be the preferred way of running asyncio programs. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).) Running ‘python -m asyncio’ launches a natively async REPL. This allows rapid experimentation with code that has a top-level *note await: 1b9. There is no longer a need to directly call ‘asyncio.run()’ which would spawn a new event loop on every invocation: $ python -m asyncio asyncio REPL 3.8.0 Use "await" directly instead of "asyncio.run()". Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information. >>> import asyncio >>> await asyncio.sleep(10, result='hello') hello (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37028(2).) The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. now inherits from *note BaseException: 5b7. rather than *note Exception: 9d9. and no longer inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 9da. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(3).) On Windows, the default event loop is now *note ProactorEventLoop: 605. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-34687(4).) *note ProactorEventLoop: 605. now also supports UDP. (Contributed by Adam Meily and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-29883(5).) *note ProactorEventLoop: 605. can now be interrupted by *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. (“CTRL+C”). (Contributed by Vladimir Matveev in bpo-23057(6).) Added *note asyncio.Task.get_coro(): 9db. for getting the wrapped coroutine within an *note asyncio.Task: 1be. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-36999(7).) Asyncio tasks can now be named, either by passing the ‘name’ keyword argument to *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. or the *note create_task(): 1c0. event loop method, or by calling the *note set_name(): 9dc. method on the task object. The task name is visible in the ‘repr()’ output of *note asyncio.Task: 1be. and can also be retrieved using the *note get_name(): 9dd. method. (Contributed by Alex Grönholm in bpo-34270(8).) Added support for Happy Eyeballs(9) to *note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5ff. To specify the behavior, two new parameters have been added: 'happy_eyeballs_delay' and 'interleave'. The Happy Eyeballs algorithm improves responsiveness in applications that support IPv4 and IPv6 by attempting to simultaneously connect using both. (Contributed by twisteroid ambassador in bpo-33530(10).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37028 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34687 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29883 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23057 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36999 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34270 (9) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy_Eyeballs (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33530  File: python.info, Node: builtins<2>, Next: collections, Prev: asyncio<6>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.3 builtins ................ The *note compile(): 192. built-in has been improved to accept the ‘ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ flag. With this new flag passed, *note compile(): 192. will allow top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’ and ‘async with’ constructs that are usually considered invalid syntax. Asynchronous code object marked with the ‘CO_COROUTINE’ flag may then be returned. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-34616(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34616  File: python.info, Node: collections, Next: cProfile, Prev: builtins<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.4 collections ................... The *note _asdict(): 9e0. method for *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now returns a *note dict: 258. instead of a *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. This works because regular dicts have guaranteed ordering since Python 3.7. If the extra features of ‘OrderedDict’ are required, the suggested remediation is to cast the result to the desired type: ‘OrderedDict(nt._asdict())’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35864(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35864  File: python.info, Node: cProfile, Next: csv<2>, Prev: collections, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.5 cProfile ................ The *note cProfile.Profile: 9e2. class can now be used as a context manager. Profile a block of code by running: import cProfile with cProfile.Profile() as profiler: # code to be profiled ... (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235  File: python.info, Node: csv<2>, Next: curses<3>, Prev: cProfile, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.6 csv ........... The *note csv.DictReader: 9e4. now returns instances of *note dict: 258. instead of a *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. The tool is now faster and uses less memory while still preserving the field order. (Contributed by Michael Selik in bpo-34003(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34003  File: python.info, Node: curses<3>, Next: ctypes<2>, Prev: csv<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.7 curses .............. Added a new variable holding structured version information for the underlying ncurses library: *note ncurses_version: 9e6. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31680(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31680  File: python.info, Node: ctypes<2>, Next: datetime<3>, Prev: curses<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.8 ctypes .............. On Windows, *note CDLL: 9e8. and subclasses now accept a 'winmode' parameter to specify flags for the underlying ‘LoadLibraryEx’ call. The default flags are set to only load DLL dependencies from trusted locations, including the path where the DLL is stored (if a full or partial path is used to load the initial DLL) and paths added by *note add_dll_directory(): 9e9. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085  File: python.info, Node: datetime<3>, Next: functools<2>, Prev: ctypes<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.9 datetime ................ Added new alternate constructors *note datetime.date.fromisocalendar(): 9eb. and *note datetime.datetime.fromisocalendar(): 9ec, which construct *note date: 1cd. and *note datetime: 1cc. objects respectively from ISO year, week number, and weekday; these are the inverse of each class’s ‘isocalendar’ method. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-36004(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36004  File: python.info, Node: functools<2>, Next: gc<3>, Prev: datetime<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.10 functools .................. *note functools.lru_cache(): 9ee. can now be used as a straight decorator rather than as a function returning a decorator. So both of these are now supported: @lru_cache def f(x): ... @lru_cache(maxsize=256) def f(x): ... (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36772(1).) Added a new *note functools.cached_property(): 53e. decorator, for computed properties cached for the life of the instance. import functools import statistics class Dataset: def __init__(self, sequence_of_numbers): self.data = sequence_of_numbers @functools.cached_property def variance(self): return statistics.variance(self.data) (Contributed by Carl Meyer in bpo-21145(2)) Added a new *note functools.singledispatchmethod(): 9ef. decorator that converts methods into *note generic functions: 9f0. using *note single dispatch: 9f1.: from functools import singledispatchmethod from contextlib import suppress class TaskManager: def __init__(self, tasks): self.tasks = list(tasks) @singledispatchmethod def discard(self, value): with suppress(ValueError): self.tasks.remove(value) @discard.register(list) def _(self, tasks): targets = set(tasks) self.tasks = [x for x in self.tasks if x not in targets] (Contributed by Ethan Smith in bpo-32380(3)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36772 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21145 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32380  File: python.info, Node: gc<3>, Next: gettext, Prev: functools<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.11 gc ........... *note get_objects(): 7ff. can now receive an optional 'generation' parameter indicating a generation to get objects from. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36016(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36016  File: python.info, Node: gettext, Next: gzip<3>, Prev: gc<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.12 gettext ................ Added *note pgettext(): 9f4. and its variants. (Contributed by Franz Glasner, Éric Araujo, and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-2504(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2504  File: python.info, Node: gzip<3>, Next: IDLE and idlelib<4>, Prev: gettext, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.13 gzip ............. Added the 'mtime' parameter to *note gzip.compress(): 63a. for reproducible output. (Contributed by Guo Ci Teo in bpo-34898(1).) A *note BadGzipFile: 9f6. exception is now raised instead of *note OSError: 413. for certain types of invalid or corrupt gzip files. (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński, Michele Orrù, and Zackery Spytz in bpo-6584(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34898 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6584  File: python.info, Node: IDLE and idlelib<4>, Next: inspect<5>, Prev: gzip<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.14 IDLE and idlelib ......................... Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button. N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. Squeezed output can be expanded in place by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by right-clicking the button. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353(1).) Add “Run Customized” to the Run menu to run a module with customized settings. Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv. They also re-appear in the box for the next customized run. One can also suppress the normal Shell main module restart. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(2) and bpo-37627(3).) Added optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows. Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the configuration dialog. Line numbers for an existing window are shown and hidden in the Options menu. (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav Heblikar in bpo-17535(4).) OS native encoding is now used for converting between Python strings and Tcl objects. This allows IDLE to work with emoji and other non-BMP characters. These characters can be displayed or copied and pasted to or from the clipboard. Converting strings from Tcl to Python and back now never fails. (Many people worked on this for eight years but the problem was finally solved by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13153(5).) New in 3.8.1: Add option to toggle cursor blink off. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-4603(6).) Escape key now closes IDLE completion windows. (Contributed by Johnny Najera in bpo-38944(7).) The changes above have been backported to 3.7 maintenance releases. Add keywords to module name completion list. (Contributed by Terry J. Reedy in bpo-37765(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13153 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4603 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38944 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37765  File: python.info, Node: inspect<5>, Next: io<3>, Prev: IDLE and idlelib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.15 inspect ................ The *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f9. function can now find docstrings for ‘__slots__’ if that attribute is a *note dict: 258. where the values are docstrings. This provides documentation options similar to what we already have for *note property(): 194, *note classmethod(): 166, and *note staticmethod(): 412.: class AudioClip: __slots__ = {'bit_rate': 'expressed in kilohertz to one decimal place', 'duration': 'in seconds, rounded up to an integer'} def __init__(self, bit_rate, duration): self.bit_rate = round(bit_rate / 1000.0, 1) self.duration = ceil(duration) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36326(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36326  File: python.info, Node: io<3>, Next: itertools<4>, Prev: inspect<5>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.16 io ........... In development mode (*note -X: 176. ‘env’) and in *note debug build: 1fb, the *note io.IOBase: 1f7. finalizer now logs the exception if the ‘close()’ method fails. The exception is ignored silently by default in release build. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18748(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748  File: python.info, Node: itertools<4>, Next: json tool, Prev: io<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.17 itertools .................. The *note itertools.accumulate(): 9fc. function added an option 'initial' keyword argument to specify an initial value: >>> from itertools import accumulate >>> list(accumulate([10, 5, 30, 15], initial=1000)) [1000, 1010, 1015, 1045, 1060] (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-34659(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34659  File: python.info, Node: json tool, Next: logging<2>, Prev: itertools<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.18 json.tool .................. Add option ‘--json-lines’ to parse every input line as a separate JSON object. (Contributed by Weipeng Hong in bpo-31553(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31553  File: python.info, Node: logging<2>, Next: math<5>, Prev: json tool, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.19 logging ................ Added a 'force' keyword argument to *note logging.basicConfig(): 9ff. When set to true, any existing handlers attached to the root logger are removed and closed before carrying out the configuration specified by the other arguments. This solves a long-standing problem. Once a logger or 'basicConfig()' had been called, subsequent calls to 'basicConfig()' were silently ignored. This made it difficult to update, experiment with, or teach the various logging configuration options using the interactive prompt or a Jupyter notebook. (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger, implemented by Donghee Na, and reviewed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-33897(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33897  File: python.info, Node: math<5>, Next: mmap<2>, Prev: logging<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.20 math ............. Added new function *note math.dist(): a01. for computing Euclidean distance between two points. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089(1).) Expanded the *note math.hypot(): a02. function to handle multiple dimensions. Formerly, it only supported the 2-D case. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-33089(2).) Added new function, *note math.prod(): a03, as analogous function to *note sum(): 466. that returns the product of a ‘start’ value (default: 1) times an iterable of numbers: >>> prior = 0.8 >>> likelihoods = [0.625, 0.84, 0.30] >>> math.prod(likelihoods, start=prior) 0.126 (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-35606(3).) Added two new combinatoric functions *note math.perm(): 6cc. and *note math.comb(): 6cb.: >>> math.perm(10, 3) # Permutations of 10 things taken 3 at a time 720 >>> math.comb(10, 3) # Combinations of 10 things taken 3 at a time 120 (Contributed by Yash Aggarwal, Keller Fuchs, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-37128(4), bpo-37178(5), and bpo-35431(6).) Added a new function *note math.isqrt(): a04. for computing accurate integer square roots without conversion to floating point. The new function supports arbitrarily large integers. It is faster than ‘floor(sqrt(n))’ but slower than *note math.sqrt(): a05.: >>> r = 650320427 >>> s = r ** 2 >>> isqrt(s - 1) # correct 650320426 >>> floor(sqrt(s - 1)) # incorrect 650320427 (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36887(7).) The function *note math.factorial(): 947. no longer accepts arguments that are not int-like. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-33083(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33089 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35606 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37128 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37178 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35431 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36887 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33083  File: python.info, Node: mmap<2>, Next: multiprocessing<3>, Prev: math<5>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.21 mmap ............. The *note mmap.mmap: 20d. class now has an *note madvise(): a07. method to access the ‘madvise()’ system call. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-32941(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32941  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<3>, Next: os<6>, Prev: mmap<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.22 multiprocessing ........................ Added new *note multiprocessing.shared_memory: 99. module. (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-35813(1).) On macOS, the 'spawn' start method is now used by default. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-33725(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35813 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33725  File: python.info, Node: os<6>, Next: os path<5>, Prev: multiprocessing<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.23 os ........... Added new function *note add_dll_directory(): 9e9. on Windows for providing additional search paths for native dependencies when importing extension modules or loading DLLs using *note ctypes: 2a. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(1).) A new *note os.memfd_create(): a0a. function was added to wrap the ‘memfd_create()’ syscall. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz and Christian Heimes in bpo-26836(2).) On Windows, much of the manual logic for handling reparse points (including symlinks and directory junctions) has been delegated to the operating system. Specifically, *note os.stat(): 49c. will now traverse anything supported by the operating system, while *note os.lstat(): 49d. will only open reparse points that identify as “name surrogates” while others are opened as for *note os.stat(): 49c. In all cases, ‘stat_result.st_mode’ will only have ‘S_IFLNK’ set for symbolic links and not other kinds of reparse points. To identify other kinds of reparse point, check the new ‘stat_result.st_reparse_tag’ attribute. On Windows, *note os.readlink(): 91f. is now able to read directory junctions. Note that *note islink(): a0b. will return ‘False’ for directory junctions, and so code that checks ‘islink’ first will continue to treat junctions as directories, while code that handles errors from *note os.readlink(): 91f. may now treat junctions as links. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26836 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834  File: python.info, Node: os path<5>, Next: pathlib<7>, Prev: os<6>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.24 os.path ................ *note os.path: a2. functions that return a boolean result like *note exists(): a0d, *note lexists(): a0e, *note isdir(): a0f, *note isfile(): a10, *note islink(): a0b, and *note ismount(): a11. now return ‘False’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 204. or its subclasses *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. and *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. for paths that contain characters or bytes unrepresentable at the OS level. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).) *note expanduser(): a13. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’ environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally set for regular user accounts. (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-36264(2).) *note isdir(): a0f. on Windows no longer returns ‘True’ for a link to a non-existent directory. *note realpath(): 227. on Windows now resolves reparse points, including symlinks and directory junctions. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<7>, Next: pickle, Prev: os path<5>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.25 pathlib ................ *note pathlib.Path: 22b. methods that return a boolean result like *note exists(): a15, *note is_dir(): 232, *note is_file(): 231, *note is_mount(): a16, *note is_symlink(): a17, *note is_block_device(): a18, *note is_char_device(): a19, *note is_fifo(): a1a, *note is_socket(): a1b. now return ‘False’ instead of raising *note ValueError: 204. or its subclass *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. for paths that contain characters unrepresentable at the OS level. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33721(1).) Added ‘pathlib.Path.link_to()’ which creates a hard link pointing to a path. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-26978(2)) Note that ‘link_to’ was deprecated in 3.10 and removed in 3.12 in favor of a ‘hardlink_to’ method added in 3.10 which matches the semantics of the existing ‘symlink_to’ method. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33721 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26978  File: python.info, Node: pickle, Next: plistlib, Prev: pathlib<7>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.26 pickle ............... *note pickle: a6. extensions subclassing the C-optimized *note Pickler: a1d. can now override the pickling logic of functions and classes by defining the special *note reducer_override(): a1e. method. (Contributed by Pierre Glaser and Olivier Grisel in bpo-35900(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35900  File: python.info, Node: plistlib, Next: pprint<3>, Prev: pickle, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.27 plistlib ................. Added new *note plistlib.UID: a20. and enabled support for reading and writing NSKeyedArchiver-encoded binary plists. (Contributed by Jon Janzen in bpo-26707(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26707  File: python.info, Node: pprint<3>, Next: py_compile<2>, Prev: plistlib, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.28 pprint ............... The *note pprint: ae. module added a 'sort_dicts' parameter to several functions. By default, those functions continue to sort dictionaries before rendering or printing. However, if 'sort_dicts' is set to false, the dictionaries retain the order that keys were inserted. This can be useful for comparison to JSON inputs during debugging. In addition, there is a convenience new function, *note pprint.pp(): a22. that is like *note pprint.pprint(): 824. but with 'sort_dicts' defaulting to ‘False’: >>> from pprint import pprint, pp >>> d = dict(source='input.txt', operation='filter', destination='output.txt') >>> pp(d, width=40) # Original order {'source': 'input.txt', 'operation': 'filter', 'destination': 'output.txt'} >>> pprint(d, width=40) # Keys sorted alphabetically {'destination': 'output.txt', 'operation': 'filter', 'source': 'input.txt'} (Contributed by Rémi Lapeyre in bpo-30670(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30670  File: python.info, Node: py_compile<2>, Next: shlex, Prev: pprint<3>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.29 py_compile ................... *note py_compile.compile(): a24. now supports silent mode. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-22640(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22640  File: python.info, Node: shlex, Next: shutil<4>, Prev: py_compile<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.30 shlex .............. The new *note shlex.join(): a26. function acts as the inverse of *note shlex.split(): 538. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102  File: python.info, Node: shutil<4>, Next: socket<4>, Prev: shlex, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.31 shutil ............... *note shutil.copytree(): a28. now accepts a new ‘dirs_exist_ok’ keyword argument. (Contributed by Josh Bronson in bpo-20849(1).) *note shutil.make_archive(): 4af. now defaults to the modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives to improve portability and standards conformance, inherited from the corresponding change to the *note tarfile: de. module. (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in bpo-30661(2).) *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. on Windows now removes directory junctions without recursively removing their contents first. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37834(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20849 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30661 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37834  File: python.info, Node: socket<4>, Next: ssl<4>, Prev: shutil<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.32 socket ............... Added *note create_server(): a2a. and *note has_dualstack_ipv6(): a2b. convenience functions to automate the necessary tasks usually involved when creating a server socket, including accepting both IPv4 and IPv6 connections on the same socket. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-17561(1).) The *note socket.if_nameindex(): a2c, *note socket.if_nametoindex(): a2d, and *note socket.if_indextoname(): a2e. functions have been implemented on Windows. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-37007(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17561 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37007  File: python.info, Node: ssl<4>, Next: statistics<4>, Prev: socket<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.33 ssl ............ Added *note post_handshake_auth: a30. to enable and *note verify_client_post_handshake(): a31. to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-34670(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34670  File: python.info, Node: statistics<4>, Next: sys<7>, Prev: ssl<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.34 statistics ................... Added *note statistics.fmean(): a33. as a faster, floating-point variant of *note statistics.mean(): 6cd. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Steven D’Aprano in bpo-35904(1).) Added *note statistics.geometric_mean(): a34. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-27181(2).) Added *note statistics.multimode(): a35. that returns a list of the most common values. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892(3).) Added *note statistics.quantiles(): a36. that divides data or a distribution in to equiprobable intervals (e.g. quartiles, deciles, or percentiles). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36546(4).) Added *note statistics.NormalDist: a37, a tool for creating and manipulating normal distributions of a random variable. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36018(5).) >>> temperature_feb = NormalDist.from_samples([4, 12, -3, 2, 7, 14]) >>> temperature_feb.mean 6.0 >>> temperature_feb.stdev 6.356099432828281 >>> temperature_feb.cdf(3) # Chance of being under 3 degrees 0.3184678262814532 >>> # Relative chance of being 7 degrees versus 10 degrees >>> temperature_feb.pdf(7) / temperature_feb.pdf(10) 1.2039930378537762 >>> el_niño = NormalDist(4, 2.5) >>> temperature_feb += el_niño # Add in a climate effect >>> temperature_feb NormalDist(mu=10.0, sigma=6.830080526611674) >>> temperature_feb * (9/5) + 32 # Convert to Fahrenheit NormalDist(mu=50.0, sigma=12.294144947901014) >>> temperature_feb.samples(3) # Generate random samples [7.672102882379219, 12.000027119750287, 4.647488369766392] ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35904 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36546 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36018  File: python.info, Node: sys<7>, Next: tarfile<5>, Prev: statistics<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.35 sys ............ Add new *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. function which can be overridden to control how “unraisable exceptions” are handled. It is called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to handle it. For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): a39.). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36829(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36829  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<5>, Next: threading<4>, Prev: sys<7>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.36 tarfile ................ The *note tarfile: de. module now defaults to the modern pax (POSIX.1-2001) format for new archives, instead of the previous GNU-specific one. This improves cross-platform portability with a consistent encoding (UTF-8) in a standardized and extensible format, and offers several other benefits. (Contributed by C.A.M. Gerlach in bpo-36268(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36268  File: python.info, Node: threading<4>, Next: tokenize<2>, Prev: tarfile<5>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.37 threading .................. Add a new *note threading.excepthook(): 847. function which handles uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): a3c. exception. It can be overridden to control how uncaught *note threading.Thread.run(): a3c. exceptions are handled. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-1230540(1).) Add a new *note threading.get_native_id(): a3d. function and a *note native_id: a3e. attribute to the *note threading.Thread: 94c. class. These return the native integral Thread ID of the current thread assigned by the kernel. This feature is only available on certain platforms, see *note get_native_id: a3d. for more information. (Contributed by Jake Tesler in bpo-36084(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1230540 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36084  File: python.info, Node: tokenize<2>, Next: tkinter<4>, Prev: threading<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.38 tokenize ................. The *note tokenize: fb. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’ token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<4>, Next: time<4>, Prev: tokenize<2>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.39 tkinter ................ Added methods ‘selection_from()’, ‘selection_present()’, ‘selection_range()’ and ‘selection_to()’ in the ‘tkinter.Spinbox’ class. (Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-34829(1).) Added method ‘moveto()’ in the ‘tkinter.Canvas’ class. (Contributed by Juliette Monsel in bpo-23831(2).) The ‘tkinter.PhotoImage’ class now has ‘transparency_get()’ and ‘transparency_set()’ methods. (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-25451(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34829 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23831 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25451  File: python.info, Node: time<4>, Next: typing<8>, Prev: tkinter<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.40 time ............. Added new clock *note CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW: a42. for macOS 10.12. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-35702(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35702  File: python.info, Node: typing<8>, Next: unicodedata<5>, Prev: time<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.41 typing ............... The *note typing: 104. module incorporates several new features: * A dictionary type with per-key types. See PEP 589(1) and *note typing.TypedDict: 162. TypedDict uses only string keys. By default, every key is required to be present. Specify “total=False” to allow keys to be optional: class Location(TypedDict, total=False): lat_long: tuple grid_square: str xy_coordinate: tuple * Literal types. See PEP 586(2) and *note typing.Literal: 851. Literal types indicate that a parameter or return value is constrained to one or more specific literal values: def get_status(port: int) -> Literal['connected', 'disconnected']: ... * “Final” variables, functions, methods and classes. See PEP 591(3), *note typing.Final: 269. and *note typing.final(): 6a9. The final qualifier instructs a static type checker to restrict subclassing, overriding, or reassignment: pi: Final[float] = 3.1415926536 * Protocol definitions. See PEP 544(4), *note typing.Protocol: 266. and *note typing.runtime_checkable(): 43e. Simple ABCs like *note typing.SupportsInt: a44. are now ‘Protocol’ subclasses. * New protocol class *note typing.SupportsIndex: a45. * New functions *note typing.get_origin(): a46. and *note typing.get_args(): 87c. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<5>, Next: unittest<6>, Prev: typing<8>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.42 unicodedata .................... The *note unicodedata: 105. module has been upgraded to use the Unicode 12.1.0(1) release. New function *note is_normalized(): a48. can be used to verify a string is in a specific normal form, often much faster than by actually normalizing the string. (Contributed by Max Belanger, David Euresti, and Greg Price in bpo-32285(2) and bpo-37966(3)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://blog.unicode.org/2019/05/unicode-12-1-en.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32285 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37966  File: python.info, Node: unittest<6>, Next: venv<4>, Prev: unicodedata<5>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.43 unittest ................. Added *note AsyncMock: a4a. to support an asynchronous version of *note Mock: a4b. Appropriate new assert functions for testing have been added as well. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-26467(1)). Added *note addModuleCleanup(): a4c. and *note addClassCleanup(): a4d. to unittest to support cleanups for ‘setUpModule()’ and *note setUpClass(): a4e. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-24412(2).) Several mock assert functions now also print a list of actual calls upon failure. (Contributed by Petter Strandmark in bpo-35047(3).) *note unittest: 106. module gained support for coroutines to be used as test cases with *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 306. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32972(4).) Example: import unittest class TestRequest(unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): async def asyncSetUp(self): self.connection = await AsyncConnection() async def test_get(self): response = await self.connection.get("https://example.com") self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200) async def asyncTearDown(self): await self.connection.close() if __name__ == "__main__": unittest.main() ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26467 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24412 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35047 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32972  File: python.info, Node: venv<4>, Next: weakref, Prev: unittest<6>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.44 venv ............. *note venv: 111. now includes an ‘Activate.ps1’ script on all platforms for activating virtual environments under PowerShell Core 6.1. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-32718(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32718  File: python.info, Node: weakref, Next: xml<4>, Prev: venv<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.45 weakref ................ The proxy objects returned by *note weakref.proxy(): a51. now support the matrix multiplication operators ‘@’ and ‘@=’ in addition to the other numeric operators. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-36669(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36669  File: python.info, Node: xml<4>, Next: xmlrpc, Prev: weakref, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.46 xml ............ As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17239(1).) The ‘.find*()’ methods in the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module support wildcard searches like ‘{*}tag’ which ignores the namespace and ‘{namespace}*’ which returns all tags in the given namespace. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-28238(2).) The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module provides a new function ‘–xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize()’ that implements C14N 2.0. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-13611(3).) The target object of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser: a53. can receive namespace declaration events through the new callback methods ‘start_ns()’ and ‘end_ns()’. Additionally, the *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder: a54. target can be configured to process events about comments and processing instructions to include them in the generated tree. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-36676(4) and bpo-36673(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28238 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13611 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36676 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36673  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc, Prev: xml<4>, Up: Improved Modules<6> 1.6.5.47 xmlrpc ............... *note xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy: a56. now supports an optional 'headers' keyword argument for a sequence of HTTP headers to be sent with each request. Among other things, this makes it possible to upgrade from default basic authentication to faster session authentication. (Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-35153(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35153  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<6>, Next: Build and C API Changes, Prev: Improved Modules<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.6 Optimizations ------------------- * The *note subprocess: d6. module can now use the *note os.posix_spawn(): 222. function in some cases for better performance. Currently, it is only used on macOS and Linux (using glibc 2.24 or newer) if all these conditions are met: * 'close_fds' is false; * 'preexec_fn', 'pass_fds', 'cwd' and 'start_new_session' parameters are not set; * the 'executable' path contains a directory. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in bpo-35537(1).) * *note shutil.copyfile(): a58, *note shutil.copy(): a59, *note shutil.copy2(): a5a, *note shutil.copytree(): a28. and *note shutil.move(): a5b. use platform-specific “fast-copy” syscalls on Linux and macOS in order to copy the file more efficiently. “fast-copy” means that the copying operation occurs within the kernel, avoiding the use of userspace buffers in Python as in “‘outfd.write(infd.read())’”. On Windows *note shutil.copyfile(): a58. uses a bigger default buffer size (1 MiB instead of 16 KiB) and a *note memoryview(): 464.-based variant of *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a5c. is used. The speedup for copying a 512 MiB file within the same partition is about +26% on Linux, +50% on macOS and +40% on Windows. Also, much less CPU cycles are consumed. See *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a5d. section. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33671(2).) * *note shutil.copytree(): a28. uses *note os.scandir(): a5e. function and all copy functions depending from it use cached *note os.stat(): 49c. values. The speedup for copying a directory with 8000 files is around +9% on Linux, +20% on Windows and +30% on a Windows SMB share. Also the number of *note os.stat(): 49c. syscalls is reduced by 38% making *note shutil.copytree(): a28. especially faster on network filesystems. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-33695(3).) * The default protocol in the *note pickle: a6. module is now Protocol 4, first introduced in Python 3.4. It offers better performance and smaller size compared to Protocol 3 available since Python 3.0. * Removed one *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. member from ‘PyGC_Head’. All GC tracked objects (e.g. tuple, list, dict) size is reduced 4 or 8 bytes. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-33597(4).) * *note uuid.UUID: a60. now uses ‘__slots__’ to reduce its memory footprint. (Contributed by Wouter Bolsterlee and Tal Einat in bpo-30977(5)) * Improved performance of *note operator.itemgetter(): a61. by 33%. Optimized argument handling and added a fast path for the common case of a single non-negative integer index into a tuple (which is the typical use case in the standard library). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35664(6).) * Sped-up field lookups in *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. They are now more than two times faster, making them the fastest form of instance variable lookup in Python. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, Pablo Galindo, and Joe Jevnik, Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32492(7).) * The *note list: 60d. constructor does not overallocate the internal item buffer if the input iterable has a known length (the input implements ‘__len__’). This makes the created list 12% smaller on average. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Pablo Galindo in bpo-33234(8).) * Doubled the speed of class variable writes. When a non-dunder attribute was updated, there was an unnecessary call to update slots. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel, Pablo Galindo Salgado, Raymond Hettinger, Neil Schemenauer, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36012(9).) * Reduced an overhead of converting arguments passed to many builtin functions and methods. This sped up calling some simple builtin functions and methods up to 20–50%. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23867(10), bpo-35582(11) and bpo-36127(12).) * ‘LOAD_GLOBAL’ instruction now uses new “per opcode cache” mechanism. It is about 40% faster now. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Inada Naoki in bpo-26219(13).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33671 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33695 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30977 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35664 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32492 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33234 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36012 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23867 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35582 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36127 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26219  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes, Next: Deprecated<8>, Prev: Optimizations<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.7 Build and C API Changes ----------------------------- * Default *note sys.abiflags: a63. became an empty string: the ‘m’ flag for pymalloc became useless (builds with and without pymalloc are ABI compatible) and so has been removed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36707(1).) Example of changes: * Only ‘python3.8’ program is installed, ‘python3.8m’ program is gone. * Only ‘python3.8-config’ script is installed, ‘python3.8m-config’ script is gone. * The ‘m’ flag has been removed from the suffix of dynamic library filenames: extension modules in the standard library as well as those produced and installed by third-party packages, like those downloaded from PyPI. On Linux, for example, the Python 3.7 suffix ‘.cpython-37m-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ became ‘.cpython-38-x86_64-linux-gnu.so’ in Python 3.8. * The header files have been reorganized to better separate the different kinds of APIs: * ‘Include/*.h’ should be the portable public stable C API. * ‘Include/cpython/*.h’ should be the unstable C API specific to CPython; public API, with some private API prefixed by ‘_Py’ or ‘_PY’. * ‘Include/internal/*.h’ is the private internal C API very specific to CPython. This API comes with no backward compatibility warranty and should not be used outside CPython. It is only exposed for very specific needs like debuggers and profiles which has to access to CPython internals without calling functions. This API is now installed by ‘make install’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35134(2) and bpo-35081(3), work initiated by Eric Snow in Python 3.7.) * Some macros have been converted to static inline functions: parameter types and return type are well defined, they don’t have issues specific to macros, variables have a local scopes. Examples: * *note Py_INCREF(): 56b, *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. * *note Py_XINCREF(): a64, *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. * ‘PyObject_INIT()’, ‘PyObject_INIT_VAR()’ * Private functions: ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’, ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’, ‘_Py_Dealloc()’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35059(4).) * The ‘PyByteArray_Init()’ and ‘PyByteArray_Fini()’ functions have been removed. They did nothing since Python 2.7.4 and Python 3.2.0, were excluded from the limited API (stable ABI), and were not documented. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35713(5).) * The result of *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a65. is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33818(6).) * The duality of ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ and ‘Modules/Setup’ has been removed. Previously, when updating the CPython source tree, one had to manually copy ‘Modules/Setup.dist’ (inside the source tree) to ‘Modules/Setup’ (inside the build tree) in order to reflect any changes upstream. This was of a small benefit to packagers at the expense of a frequent annoyance to developers following CPython development, as forgetting to copy the file could produce build failures. Now the build system always reads from ‘Modules/Setup’ inside the source tree. People who want to customize that file are encouraged to maintain their changes in a git fork of CPython or as patch files, as they would do for any other change to the source tree. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32430(7).) * Functions that convert Python number to C integer like *note PyLong_AsLong(): 35b. and argument parsing functions like *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. with integer converting format units like ‘'i'’ will now use the *note __index__(): 718. special method instead of *note __int__(): 717, if available. The deprecation warning will be emitted for objects with the ‘__int__()’ method but without the ‘__index__()’ method (like *note Decimal: 29f. and *note Fraction: 1e9.). *note PyNumber_Check(): a66. will now return ‘1’ for objects implementing ‘__index__()’. *note PyNumber_Long(): a67, *note PyNumber_Float(): a68. and *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a69. also now use the ‘__index__()’ method if available. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048(8) and bpo-20092(9).) * Heap-allocated type objects will now increase their reference count in *note PyObject_Init(): a6a. (and its parallel macro ‘PyObject_INIT’) instead of in *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a6b. Types that modify instance allocation or deallocation may need to be adjusted. (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(10).) * The new function ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs()’ allows to create code objects like ‘PyCode_New()’, but with an extra 'posonlyargcount' parameter for indicating the number of positional-only arguments. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-37221(11).) * ‘Py_SetPath()’ now sets *note sys.executable: 3b4. to the program full path (*note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3.) rather than to the program name (*note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5.). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-38234(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36707 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35134 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35081 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35059 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35713 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33818 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32430 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20092 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37221 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=38234  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<8>, Next: API and Feature Removals, Prev: Build and C API Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.8 Deprecated ---------------- * The distutils ‘bdist_wininst’ command is now deprecated, use ‘bdist_wheel’ (wheel packages) instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37481(1).) * Deprecated methods ‘getchildren()’ and ‘getiterator()’ in the *note ElementTree: 125. module now emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. They will be removed in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(2).) * Passing an object that is not an instance of *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. to *note loop.set_default_executor(): 73e. is deprecated and will be prohibited in Python 3.9. (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-34075(3).) * The *note __getitem__(): 285. methods of *note xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream: 730, *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 731. and *note fileinput.FileInput: 732. have been deprecated. Implementations of these methods have been ignoring their 'index' parameter, and returning the next item instead. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-9372(4).) * The *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b2. class has deprecated the ‘_field_types’ attribute in favor of the ‘__annotations__’ attribute which has the same information. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-36320(5).) * *note ast: 8. classes ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’ are considered deprecated and will be removed in future Python versions. *note Constant: 2bb. should be used instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(6).) * *note ast.NodeVisitor: a6d. methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’, ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions. Add the *note visit_Constant(): a6e. method to handle all constant nodes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36917(7).) * The ‘asyncio.coroutine()’ *note decorator: 72c. is deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10. Instead of ‘@asyncio.coroutine’, use *note async def: 5cd. instead. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-36921(8).) * In *note asyncio: a, the explicit passing of a 'loop' argument has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.10 for the following: *note asyncio.sleep(): a6f, *note asyncio.gather(): 5f9, *note asyncio.shield(): a70, *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5fb, *note asyncio.wait(): 47b, *note asyncio.as_completed(): 1aa, *note asyncio.Task: 1be, *note asyncio.Lock: a71, *note asyncio.Event: a72, *note asyncio.Condition: a73, *note asyncio.Semaphore: a74, *note asyncio.BoundedSemaphore: a75, *note asyncio.Queue: a76, *note asyncio.create_subprocess_exec(): a77, and *note asyncio.create_subprocess_shell(): a78. * The explicit passing of coroutine objects to *note asyncio.wait(): 47b. has been deprecated and will be removed in version 3.11. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-34790(9).) * The following functions and methods are deprecated in the *note gettext: 63. module: ‘lgettext()’, ‘ldgettext()’, ‘lngettext()’ and ‘ldngettext()’. They return encoded bytes, and it’s possible that you will get unexpected Unicode-related exceptions if there are encoding problems with the translated strings. It’s much better to use alternatives which return Unicode strings in Python 3. These functions have been broken for a long time. Function ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’, methods ‘output_charset()’ and ‘set_output_charset()’, and the 'codeset' parameter of functions *note translation(): a79. and *note install(): a7a. are also deprecated, since they are only used for the ‘l*gettext()’ functions. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33710(10).) * The ‘isAlive()’ method of *note threading.Thread: 94c. has been deprecated. (Contributed by Donghee Na in bpo-35283(11).) * Many builtin and extension functions that take integer arguments will now emit a deprecation warning for *note Decimal: 29f.s, *note Fraction: 1e9.s and any other objects that can be converted to integers only with a loss (e.g. that have the *note __int__(): 717. method but do not have the *note __index__(): 718. method). In future version they will be errors. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36048(12).) * Deprecated passing the following arguments as keyword arguments: - 'func' in *note functools.partialmethod(): a7b, *note weakref.finalize(): a7c, *note profile.Profile.runcall(): a7d, ‘cProfile.Profile.runcall()’, *note bdb.Bdb.runcall(): a7e, *note trace.Trace.runfunc(): a7f. and *note curses.wrapper(): a80. - 'function' in *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a81. - 'fn' in the *note submit(): a82. method of *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. and *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. - 'callback' in *note contextlib.ExitStack.callback(): a83, ‘contextlib.AsyncExitStack.callback()’ and *note contextlib.AsyncExitStack.push_async_callback(): a84. - 'c' and 'typeid' in the ‘create()’ method of ‘multiprocessing.managers.Server’ and ‘multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryServer’. - 'obj' in *note weakref.finalize(): a7c. In future releases of Python, they will be *note positional-only: a85. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36492(13).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37481 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34075 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9372 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36320 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36917 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36921 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34790 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33710 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35283 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36048 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36492  File: python.info, Node: API and Feature Removals, Next: Porting to Python 3 8, Prev: Deprecated<8>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.9 API and Feature Removals ------------------------------ The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.8: * Starting with Python 3.3, importing ABCs from *note collections: 1d. was deprecated, and importing should be done from *note collections.abc: 1e. Being able to import from collections was marked for removal in 3.8, but has been delayed to 3.9. (See gh-81134(1).) * The ‘macpath’ module, deprecated in Python 3.7, has been removed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35471(2).) * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): a87. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(3).) * The function ‘time.clock()’ has been removed, after having been deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note time.perf_counter(): a88. or *note time.process_time(): a89. instead, depending on your requirements, to have well-defined behavior. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-36895(4).) * The ‘pyvenv’ script has been removed in favor of ‘python3.8 -m venv’ to help eliminate confusion as to what Python interpreter the ‘pyvenv’ script is tied to. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25427(5).) * ‘parse_qs’, ‘parse_qsl’, and ‘escape’ are removed from the ‘cgi’ module. They are deprecated in Python 3.2 or older. They should be imported from the ‘urllib.parse’ and ‘html’ modules instead. * ‘filemode’ function is removed from the *note tarfile: de. module. It is not documented and deprecated since Python 3.3. * The *note XMLParser: a53. constructor no longer accepts the 'html' argument. It never had an effect and was deprecated in Python 3.4. All other parameters are now *note keyword-only: 2a7. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(6).) * Removed the ‘doctype()’ method of *note XMLParser: a53. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(7).) * “unicode_internal” codec is removed. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36297(8).) * The ‘Cache’ and ‘Statement’ objects of the *note sqlite3: cf. module are not exposed to the user. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-30262(9).) * The ‘bufsize’ keyword argument of *note fileinput.input(): 7fb. and *note fileinput.FileInput(): 732. which was ignored and deprecated since Python 3.6 has been removed. bpo-36952(10) (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.) * The functions ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’ deprecated in Python 3.7 have been removed; bpo-36933(11) (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81134 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35471 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36895 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25427 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36297 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30262 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36952 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36933  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 8, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1, Prev: API and Feature Removals, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.10 Porting to Python 3.8 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in Python behavior:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<5>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<4>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<5>. * Demos and Tools: Demos and Tools<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in Python behavior, Next: Changes in the Python API<5>, Up: Porting to Python 3 8 1.6.10.1 Changes in Python behavior ................................... * Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now disallowed in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).) * The compiler now produces a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. when identity checks (‘is’ and ‘is not’) are used with certain types of literals (e.g. strings, numbers). These can often work by accident in CPython, but are not guaranteed by the language spec. The warning advises users to use equality tests (‘==’ and ‘!=’) instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-34850(2).) * The CPython interpreter can swallow exceptions in some circumstances. In Python 3.8 this happens in fewer cases. In particular, exceptions raised when getting the attribute from the type dictionary are no longer ignored. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-35459(3).) * Removed ‘__str__’ implementations from builtin types *note bool: 463, *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1, *note complex: 2f2. and few classes from the standard library. They now inherit ‘__str__()’ from *note object: a8c. As result, defining the ‘__repr__()’ method in the subclass of these classes will affect their string representation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-36793(4).) * On AIX, *note sys.platform: a8d. doesn’t contain the major version anymore. It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix3'’ .. ‘'aix7'’. Since older Python versions include the version number, so it is recommended to always use ‘sys.platform.startswith('aix')’. (Contributed by M. Felt in bpo-36588(5).) * ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_AcquireThread()’ now terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing, making them consistent with *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a8e, and *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. If this behavior is not desired, guard the call by checking ‘_Py_IsFinalizing()’ or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8f. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye in bpo-36475(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34850 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35459 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36793 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36588 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36475  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<5>, Next: Changes in the C API<4>, Prev: Changes in Python behavior, Up: Porting to Python 3 8 1.6.10.2 Changes in the Python API .................................. * The *note os.getcwdb(): a91. function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows, rather than the ANSI code page: see PEP 529(1) for the rationale. The function is no longer deprecated on Windows. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-37412(2).) * *note subprocess.Popen: 199. can now use *note os.posix_spawn(): 222. in some cases for better performance. On Windows Subsystem for Linux and QEMU User Emulation, the ‘Popen’ constructor using *note os.posix_spawn(): 222. no longer raises an exception on errors like “missing program”. Instead the child process fails with a non-zero ‘returncode’. (Contributed by Joannah Nanjekye and Victor Stinner in bpo-35537(3).) * The 'preexec_fn' argument of * *note subprocess.Popen: 199. is no longer compatible with subinterpreters. The use of the parameter in a subinterpreter now raises *note RuntimeError: 195. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-34651(4), modified by Christian Heimes in bpo-37951(5).) * The ‘imap.IMAP4.logout()’ method no longer silently ignores arbitrary exceptions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36348(6).) * The function ‘platform.popen()’ has been removed, after having been deprecated since Python 3.3: use *note os.popen(): a87. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-35345(7).) * The *note statistics.mode(): a92. function no longer raises an exception when given multimodal data. Instead, it returns the first mode encountered in the input data. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35892(8).) * The *note selection(): a93. method of the *note tkinter.ttk.Treeview: a94. class no longer takes arguments. Using it with arguments for changing the selection was deprecated in Python 3.6. Use specialized methods like *note selection_set(): a95. for changing the selection. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31508(9).) * The ‘writexml()’, ‘toxml()’ and ‘toprettyxml()’ methods of *note xml.dom.minidom: 122, and the ‘write()’ method of ‘xml.etree’, now preserve the attribute order specified by the user. (Contributed by Diego Rojas and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-34160(10).) * A *note dbm.dumb: 32. database opened with flags ‘'r'’ is now read-only. *note dbm.dumb.open(): a96. with flags ‘'r'’ and ‘'w'’ no longer creates a database if it does not exist. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32749(11).) * The ‘doctype()’ method defined in a subclass of *note XMLParser: a53. will no longer be called and will emit a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. instead of a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Define the *note doctype(): a97. method on a target for handling an XML doctype declaration. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29209(12).) * A *note RuntimeError: 195. is now raised when the custom metaclass doesn’t provide the ‘__classcell__’ entry in the namespace passed to ‘type.__new__’. A *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. was emitted in Python 3.6–3.7. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23722(13).) * The ‘cProfile.Profile’ class can now be used as a context manager. (Contributed by Scott Sanderson in bpo-29235(14).) * *note shutil.copyfile(): a58, *note shutil.copy(): a59, *note shutil.copy2(): a5a, *note shutil.copytree(): a28. and *note shutil.move(): a5b. use platform-specific “fast-copy” syscalls (see *note Platform-dependent efficient copy operations: a5d. section). * *note shutil.copyfile(): a58. default buffer size on Windows was changed from 16 KiB to 1 MiB. * The ‘PyGC_Head’ struct has changed completely. All code that touched the struct member should be rewritten. (See bpo-33597(15).) * The *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. struct has been moved into the “internal” header files (specifically Include/internal/pycore_pystate.h). An opaque ‘PyInterpreterState’ is still available as part of the public API (and stable ABI). The docs indicate that none of the struct’s fields are public, so we hope no one has been using them. However, if you do rely on one or more of those private fields and have no alternative then please open a BPO issue. We’ll work on helping you adjust (possibly including adding accessor functions to the public API). (See bpo-35886(16).) * The *note mmap.flush(): a98. method now returns ‘None’ on success and raises an exception on error under all platforms. Previously, its behavior was platform-dependent: a nonzero value was returned on success; zero was returned on error under Windows. A zero value was returned on success; an exception was raised on error under Unix. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2122(17).) * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17239(18).) * Deleting a key from a read-only *note dbm: 31. database (*note dbm.dumb: 32, *note dbm.gnu: 33. or *note dbm.ndbm: 34.) raises ‘error’ (*note dbm.dumb.error: a99, *note dbm.gnu.error: a9a. or *note dbm.ndbm.error: a9b.) instead of *note KeyError: 33f. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-33106(19).) * Simplified AST for literals. All constants will be represented as *note ast.Constant: 2bb. instances. Instantiating old classes ‘Num’, ‘Str’, ‘Bytes’, ‘NameConstant’ and ‘Ellipsis’ will return an instance of ‘Constant’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32892(20).) * *note expanduser(): a13. on Windows now prefers the ‘USERPROFILE’ environment variable and does not use ‘HOME’, which is not normally set for regular user accounts. (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-36264(21).) * The exception *note asyncio.CancelledError: 1b8. now inherits from *note BaseException: 5b7. rather than *note Exception: 9d9. and no longer inherits from *note concurrent.futures.CancelledError: 9da. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32528(22).) * The function *note asyncio.wait_for(): 5fb. now correctly waits for cancellation when using an instance of *note asyncio.Task: 1be. Previously, upon reaching 'timeout', it was cancelled and immediately returned. (Contributed by Elvis Pranskevichus in bpo-32751(23).) * The function *note asyncio.BaseTransport.get_extra_info(): a9c. now returns a safe to use socket object when ‘socket’ is passed to the 'name' parameter. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-37027(24).) * *note asyncio.BufferedProtocol: a9d. has graduated to the stable API. * DLL dependencies for extension modules and DLLs loaded with *note ctypes: 2a. on Windows are now resolved more securely. Only the system paths, the directory containing the DLL or PYD file, and directories added with *note add_dll_directory(): 9e9. are searched for load-time dependencies. Specifically, ‘PATH’ and the current working directory are no longer used, and modifications to these will no longer have any effect on normal DLL resolution. If your application relies on these mechanisms, you should check for *note add_dll_directory(): 9e9. and if it exists, use it to add your DLLs directory while loading your library. Note that Windows 7 users will need to ensure that Windows Update KB2533623 has been installed (this is also verified by the installer). (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-36085(25).) * The header files and functions related to pgen have been removed after its replacement by a pure Python implementation. (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-36623(26).) * *note types.CodeType: 2e3. has a new parameter in the second position of the constructor ('posonlyargcount') to support positional-only arguments defined in PEP 570(27). The first argument ('argcount') now represents the total number of positional arguments (including positional-only arguments). The new ‘replace()’ method of *note types.CodeType: 2e3. can be used to make the code future-proof. * The parameter ‘digestmod’ for *note hmac.new(): a9f. no longer uses the MD5 digest by default. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37412 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35537 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34651 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37951 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36348 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35345 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35892 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31508 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34160 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32749 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29209 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29235 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33597 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35886 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2122 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17239 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33106 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32892 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36264 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32528 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32751 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37027 (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36085 (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36623 (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0570/  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<4>, Next: CPython bytecode changes<5>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<5>, Up: Porting to Python 3 8 1.6.10.3 Changes in the C API ............................. * The *note PyCompilerFlags: aa1. structure got a new 'cf_feature_version' field. It should be initialized to ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’. The field is ignored by default, and is used if and only if ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in 'cf_flags'. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-35766(1).) * The ‘PyEval_ReInitThreads()’ function has been removed from the C API. It should not be called explicitly: use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. instead. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-36728(2).) * On Unix, C extensions are no longer linked to libpython except on Android and Cygwin. When Python is embedded, ‘libpython’ must not be loaded with ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, but ‘RTLD_GLOBAL’ instead. Previously, using ‘RTLD_LOCAL’, it was already not possible to load C extensions which were not linked to ‘libpython’, like C extensions of the standard library built by the ‘*shared*’ section of ‘Modules/Setup’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21536(3).) * Use of ‘#’ variants of formats in parsing or building value (e.g. *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e, *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6, *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 39a, etc.) without ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ defined raises ‘DeprecationWarning’ now. It will be removed in 3.10 or 4.0. Read *note Parsing arguments and building values: 8a7. for detail. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-36381(4).) * Instances of heap-allocated types (such as those created with *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a.) hold a reference to their type object. Increasing the reference count of these type objects has been moved from *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a6b. to the more low-level functions, *note PyObject_Init(): a6a. and ‘PyObject_INIT()’. This makes types created through *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. behave like other classes in managed code. *note Statically allocated types: 77a. are not affected. For the vast majority of cases, there should be no side effect. However, types that manually increase the reference count after allocating an instance (perhaps to work around the bug) may now become immortal. To avoid this, these classes need to call Py_DECREF on the type object during instance deallocation. To correctly port these types into 3.8, please apply the following changes: * Remove *note Py_INCREF: 56b. on the type object after allocating an instance - if any. This may happen after calling *note PyObject_New: 985, *note PyObject_NewVar: 986, *note PyObject_GC_New(): aa2, *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa3, or any other custom allocator that uses *note PyObject_Init(): a6a. or ‘PyObject_INIT()’. Example: static foo_struct * foo_new(PyObject *type) { foo_struct *foo = PyObject_GC_New(foo_struct, (PyTypeObject *) type); if (foo == NULL) return NULL; #if PY_VERSION_HEX < 0x03080000 // Workaround for Python issue 35810; no longer necessary in Python 3.8 PY_INCREF(type) #endif return foo; } * Ensure that all custom ‘tp_dealloc’ functions of heap-allocated types decrease the type’s reference count. Example: static void foo_dealloc(foo_struct *instance) { PyObject *type = Py_TYPE(instance); PyObject_GC_Del(instance); #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03080000 // This was not needed before Python 3.8 (Python issue 35810) Py_DECREF(type); #endif } (Contributed by Eddie Elizondo in bpo-35810(5).) * The *note Py_DEPRECATED(): aa4. macro has been implemented for MSVC. The macro now must be placed before the symbol name. Example: Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void); (Contributed by Zackery Spytz in bpo-33407(6).) * The interpreter does not pretend to support binary compatibility of extension types across feature releases, anymore. A *note PyTypeObject: aa5. exported by a third-party extension module is supposed to have all the slots expected in the current Python version, including *note tp_finalize: aa6. (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ee. is not checked anymore before reading *note tp_finalize: aa6.). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32388(7).) * The functions ‘PyNode_AddChild()’ and ‘PyParser_AddToken()’ now accept two additional ‘int’ arguments 'end_lineno' and 'end_col_offset'. * The ‘libpython38.a’ file to allow MinGW tools to link directly against ‘python38.dll’ is no longer included in the regular Windows distribution. If you require this file, it may be generated with the ‘gendef’ and ‘dlltool’ tools, which are part of the MinGW binutils package: gendef - python38.dll > tmp.def dlltool --dllname python38.dll --def tmp.def --output-lib libpython38.a The location of an installed ‘pythonXY.dll’ will depend on the installation options and the version and language of Windows. See *note Using Python on Windows: aa7. for more information. The resulting library should be placed in the same directory as ‘pythonXY.lib’, which is generally the ‘libs’ directory under your Python installation. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-37351(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35766 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36728 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21536 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36381 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35810 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33407 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32388 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37351  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes<5>, Next: Demos and Tools<2>, Prev: Changes in the C API<4>, Up: Porting to Python 3 8 1.6.10.4 CPython bytecode changes ................................. * The interpreter loop has been simplified by moving the logic of unrolling the stack of blocks into the compiler. The compiler emits now explicit instructions for adjusting the stack of values and calling the cleaning-up code for *note break: aa9, *note continue: 9c9. and *note return: 9ce. Removed opcodes ‘BREAK_LOOP’, ‘CONTINUE_LOOP’, ‘SETUP_LOOP’ and ‘SETUP_EXCEPT’. Added new opcodes ‘ROT_FOUR’, ‘BEGIN_FINALLY’, ‘CALL_FINALLY’ and ‘POP_FINALLY’. Changed the behavior of ‘END_FINALLY’ and ‘WITH_CLEANUP_START’. (Contributed by Mark Shannon, Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17611(1).) * Added new opcode *note END_ASYNC_FOR: aaa. for handling exceptions raised when awaiting a next item in an *note async for: aab. loop. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-33041(2).) * The *note MAP_ADD: aac. now expects the value as the first element in the stack and the key as the second element. This change was made so the key is always evaluated before the value in dictionary comprehensions, as proposed by PEP 572(3). (Contributed by Jörn Heissler in bpo-35224(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17611 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33041 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35224  File: python.info, Node: Demos and Tools<2>, Prev: CPython bytecode changes<5>, Up: Porting to Python 3 8 1.6.10.5 Demos and Tools ........................ Added a benchmark script for timing various ways to access variables: ‘Tools/scripts/var_access_benchmark.py’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-35884(1).) Here’s a summary of performance improvements since Python 3.3: Python version 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 -------------- --- --- --- --- --- --- Variable and attribute read access: read_local 4.0 7.1 7.1 5.4 5.1 3.9 read_nonlocal 5.3 7.1 8.1 5.8 5.4 4.4 read_global 13.3 15.5 19.0 14.3 13.6 7.6 read_builtin 20.0 21.1 21.6 18.5 19.0 7.5 read_classvar_from_class 20.5 25.6 26.5 20.7 19.5 18.4 read_classvar_from_instance 18.5 22.8 23.5 18.8 17.1 16.4 read_instancevar 26.8 32.4 33.1 28.0 26.3 25.4 read_instancevar_slots 23.7 27.8 31.3 20.8 20.8 20.2 read_namedtuple 68.5 73.8 57.5 45.0 46.8 18.4 read_boundmethod 29.8 37.6 37.9 29.6 26.9 27.7 Variable and attribute write access: write_local 4.6 8.7 9.3 5.5 5.3 4.3 write_nonlocal 7.3 10.5 11.1 5.6 5.5 4.7 write_global 15.9 19.7 21.2 18.0 18.0 15.8 write_classvar 81.9 92.9 96.0 104.6 102.1 39.2 write_instancevar 36.4 44.6 45.8 40.0 38.9 35.5 write_instancevar_slots 28.7 35.6 36.1 27.3 26.6 25.7 Data structure read access: read_list 19.2 24.2 24.5 20.8 20.8 19.0 read_deque 19.9 24.7 25.5 20.2 20.6 19.8 read_dict 19.7 24.3 25.7 22.3 23.0 21.0 read_strdict 17.9 22.6 24.3 19.5 21.2 18.9 Data structure write access: write_list 21.2 27.1 28.5 22.5 21.6 20.0 write_deque 23.8 28.7 30.1 22.7 21.8 23.5 write_dict 25.9 31.4 33.3 29.3 29.2 24.7 write_strdict 22.9 28.4 29.9 27.5 25.2 23.1 Stack (or queue) operations: list_append_pop 144.2 93.4 112.7 75.4 74.2 50.8 deque_append_pop 30.4 43.5 57.0 49.4 49.2 42.5 deque_append_popleft 30.8 43.7 57.3 49.7 49.7 42.8 Timing loop: loop_overhead 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.3 The benchmarks were measured on an Intel® Core™ i7-4960HQ processor(2) running the macOS 64-bit builds found at python.org(3). The benchmark script displays timings in nanoseconds. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=35884 (2) https://ark.intel.com/content/www/us/en/ark/products/76088/intel-core-i7-4960hq-processor-6m-cache-up-to-3-80-ghz.html (3) https://www.python.org/downloads/macos/  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2, Prev: Porting to Python 3 8, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.11 Notable changes in Python 3.8.1 -------------------------------------- Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72e. is no longer supported. This is because of the behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 1, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.12 Notable changes in Python 3.8.2 -------------------------------------- Fixed a regression with the ‘ignore’ callback of *note shutil.copytree(): a28. The argument types are now str and List[str] again. (Contributed by Manuel Barkhau and Giampaolo Rodola in gh-83571(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83571  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 2, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.13 Notable changes in Python 3.8.3 -------------------------------------- The constant values of future flags in the *note __future__: 0. module are updated in order to prevent collision with compiler flags. Previously ‘PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT’ was clashing with ‘CO_FUTURE_DIVISION’. (Contributed by Batuhan Taskaya in gh-83743(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/83743  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 3, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.14 Notable changes in Python 3.8.8 -------------------------------------- Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27c. and *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 27b. Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default. This change also affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 8, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.15 Notable changes in Python 3.8.9 -------------------------------------- A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’. (See gh-87451(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 9, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.16 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10 --------------------------------------- * Menu: * macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>.  File: python.info, Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support<2>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10 1.6.16.1 macOS 11.0 (Big Sur) and Apple Silicon Mac support ........................................................... As of 3.8.10, Python now supports building and running on macOS 11 (Big Sur) and on Apple Silicon Macs (based on the ‘ARM64’ architecture). A new universal build variant, ‘universal2’, is now available to natively support both ‘ARM64’ and ‘Intel 64’ in one set of executables. Note that support for “weaklinking”, building binaries targeted for newer versions of macOS that will also run correctly on older versions by testing at runtime for missing features, is not included in this backport from Python 3.9; to support a range of macOS versions, continue to target for and build on the oldest version in the range. (Originally contributed by Ronald Oussoren and Lawrence D’Anna in gh-85272(1), with fixes by FX Coudert and Eli Rykoff, and backported to 3.8 by Maxime Bélanger and Ned Deily) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85272  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.17 Notable changes in Python 3.8.10 --------------------------------------- * Menu: * urllib.parse: urllib parse<4>.  File: python.info, Node: urllib parse<4>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2> 1.6.17.1 urllib.parse ..................... The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986(1), ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped from the URL by the parser in *note urllib.parse: 10a. preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’. (See bpo-43882(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=43882  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12, Next: Notable security feature in 3 8 14, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 10<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.18 Notable changes in Python 3.8.12 --------------------------------------- * Menu: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<6>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<6>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12 1.6.18.1 Changes in the Python API .................................. Starting with Python 3.8.12 the *note ipaddress: 80. module no longer accepts any leading zeros in IPv4 address strings. Leading zeros are ambiguous and interpreted as octal notation by some libraries. For example the legacy function *note socket.inet_aton(): 961. treats leading zeros as octal notation. glibc implementation of modern *note inet_pton(): 962. does not accept any leading zeros. (Originally contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-36384(1), and backported to 3.8 by Achraf Merzouki.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=36384  File: python.info, Node: Notable security feature in 3 8 14, Next: Notable changes in 3 8 17, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 8 12, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.19 Notable security feature in 3.8.14 ----------------------------------------- Converting between *note int: 259. and *note str: 447. in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(1). This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs. See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in 3 8 17, Prev: Notable security feature in 3 8 14, Up: What’s New In Python 3 8 1.6.20 Notable changes in 3.8.17 -------------------------------- * Menu: * tarfile: tarfile<6>.  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<6>, Up: Notable changes in 3 8 17 1.6.20.1 tarfile ................ * The extraction methods in *note tarfile: de, and *note shutil.unpack_archive(): 467, have a new a 'filter' argument that allows limiting tar features than may be surprising or dangerous, such as creating files outside the destination directory. See *note Extraction filters: 468. for details. In Python 3.12, use without the 'filter' argument will show a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. In Python 3.14, the default will switch to ‘'data'’. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in PEP 706(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0706/  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 7, Next: What’s New In Python 3 6, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 8, Up: What’s New in Python 1.7 What’s New In Python 3.7 ============================ Editor: Elvis Pranskevichus <> This article explains the new features in Python 3.7, compared to 3.6. Python 3.7 was released on June 27, 2018. For full details, see the *note changelog: 13c. * Menu: * Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<2>. * New Features: New Features<12>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<7>. * New Modules: New Modules<7>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<7>. * C API Changes: C API Changes<6>. * Build Changes: Build Changes<6>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<7>. * Other CPython Implementation Changes: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>. * Deprecated Python Behavior:: * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods. * Deprecated functions and types of the C API:: * Platform Support Removals:: * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<2>. * Module Removals:: * Windows-only Changes:: * Porting to Python 3.7: Porting to Python 3 7. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.1: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.2: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.6: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.10: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10. * Notable changes in Python 3.7.11: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11. * Notable security feature in 3.7.14: Notable security feature in 3 7 14.  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release Highlights<2>, Next: New Features<12>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.1 Summary – Release Highlights ---------------------------------- New syntax features: * *note PEP 563: abf, postponed evaluation of type annotations. Backwards incompatible syntax changes: * *note async: 72d. and *note await: 1b9. are now reserved keywords. New library modules: * *note contextvars: 24.: *note PEP 567 – Context Variables: ac0. * *note dataclasses: 2f.: *note PEP 557 – Data Classes: ac1. * *note importlib.resources: ac2. New built-in features: * *note PEP 553: ac3, the new *note breakpoint(): 236. function. Python data model improvements: * *note PEP 562: ac4, customization of access to module attributes. * *note PEP 560: ac5, core support for typing module and generic types. * the insertion-order preservation nature of *note dict: ac6. objects has been declared(1) to be an official part of the Python language spec. Significant improvements in the standard library: * The *note asyncio: a. module has received new features, significant *note usability and performance improvements: ac7. * The *note time: ee. module gained support for *note functions with nanosecond resolution: ac8. CPython implementation improvements: * Avoiding the use of ASCII as a default text encoding: * *note PEP 538: ac9, legacy C locale coercion * *note PEP 540: aca, forced UTF-8 runtime mode * *note PEP 552: acb, deterministic .pycs * *note New Python Development Mode: acc. * *note PEP 565: acd, improved *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. handling C API improvements: * *note PEP 539: ace, new C API for thread-local storage Documentation improvements: * *note PEP 545: acf, Python documentation translations * New documentation translations: Japanese(2), French(3), and Korean(4). This release features notable performance improvements in many areas. The *note Optimizations: ad0. section lists them in detail. For a list of changes that may affect compatibility with previous Python releases please refer to the *note Porting to Python 3.7: ad1. section. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2017-December/151283.html (2) https://docs.python.org/ja/ (3) https://docs.python.org/fr/ (4) https://docs.python.org/ko/  File: python.info, Node: New Features<12>, Next: Other Language Changes<7>, Prev: Summary – Release Highlights<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * PEP 563; Postponed Evaluation of Annotations: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations. * PEP 538; Legacy C Locale Coercion: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. * PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. * PEP 553; Built-in breakpoint(): PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint. * PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage. * PEP 562; Customization of Access to Module Attributes: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes. * PEP 564; New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution. * PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__. * PEP 560; Core Support for typing module and Generic Types: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types. * PEP 552; Hash-based .pyc Files: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files. * PEP 545; Python Documentation Translations: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations. * Python Development Mode (-X dev): Python Development Mode -X dev.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations, Next: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.1 PEP 563: Postponed Evaluation of Annotations .................................................... The advent of type hints in Python uncovered two glaring usability issues with the functionality of annotations added in PEP 3107(1) and refined further in PEP 526(2): * annotations could only use names which were already available in the current scope, in other words they didn’t support forward references of any kind; and * annotating source code had adverse effects on startup time of Python programs. Both of these issues are fixed by postponing the evaluation of annotations. Instead of compiling code which executes expressions in annotations at their definition time, the compiler stores the annotation in a string form equivalent to the AST of the expression in question. If needed, annotations can be resolved at runtime using *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ad. In the common case where this is not required, the annotations are cheaper to store (since short strings are interned by the interpreter) and make startup time faster. Usability-wise, annotations now support forward references, making the following syntax valid: class C: @classmethod def from_string(cls, source: str) -> C: ... def validate_b(self, obj: B) -> bool: ... class B: ... Since this change breaks compatibility, the new behavior needs to be enabled on a per-module basis in Python 3.7 using a *note __future__: 0. import: from __future__ import annotations It will become the default in Python 3.10. See also ........ PEP 563(3) – Postponed evaluation of annotations PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion, Next: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode, Prev: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.2 PEP 538: Legacy C Locale Coercion ......................................... An ongoing challenge within the Python 3 series has been determining a sensible default strategy for handling the “7-bit ASCII” text encoding assumption currently implied by the use of the default C or POSIX locale on non-Windows platforms. PEP 538(1) updates the default interpreter command line interface to automatically coerce that locale to an available UTF-8 based locale as described in the documentation of the new *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ad5. environment variable. Automatically setting ‘LC_CTYPE’ this way means that both the core interpreter and locale-aware C extensions (such as *note readline: ba.) will assume the use of UTF-8 as the default text encoding, rather than ASCII. The platform support definition in PEP 11(2) has also been updated to limit full text handling support to suitably configured non-ASCII based locales. As part of this change, the default error handler for *note stdin: 539. and *note stdout: ad6. is now ‘surrogateescape’ (rather than ‘strict’) when using any of the defined coercion target locales (currently ‘C.UTF-8’, ‘C.utf8’, and ‘UTF-8’). The default error handler for *note stderr: 939. continues to be ‘backslashreplace’, regardless of locale. Locale coercion is silent by default, but to assist in debugging potentially locale related integration problems, explicit warnings (emitted directly on *note stderr: 939.) can be requested by setting ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=warn’. This setting will also cause the Python runtime to emit a warning if the legacy C locale remains active when the core interpreter is initialized. While PEP 538(3)’s locale coercion has the benefit of also affecting extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), as well as child processes (including those running non-Python applications and older versions of Python), it has the downside of requiring that a suitable target locale be present on the running system. To better handle the case where no suitable target locale is available (as occurs on RHEL/CentOS 7, for example), Python 3.7 also implements *note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: aca. See also ........ PEP 538(4) – Coercing the legacy C locale to a UTF-8 based locale PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode, Next: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint, Prev: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.3 PEP 540: Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode .......................................... The new *note -X: 176. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8: ad8. environment variable can be used to enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. When in UTF-8 mode, CPython ignores the locale settings, and uses the UTF-8 encoding by default. The error handlers for *note sys.stdin: 539. and *note sys.stdout: ad6. streams are set to ‘surrogateescape’. The forced UTF-8 mode can be used to change the text handling behavior in an embedded Python interpreter without changing the locale settings of an embedding application. While PEP 540(1)’s UTF-8 mode has the benefit of working regardless of which locales are available on the running system, it has the downside of having no effect on extension modules (such as GNU ‘readline’), child processes running non-Python applications, and child processes running older versions of Python. To reduce the risk of corrupting text data when communicating with such components, Python 3.7 also implements *note PEP 540; Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode: aca.). The UTF-8 mode is enabled by default when the locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’, and the PEP 538(2) locale coercion feature fails to change it to a UTF-8 based alternative (whether that failure is due to ‘PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE=0’ being set, ‘LC_ALL’ being set, or the lack of a suitable target locale). See also ........ PEP 540(3) – Add a new UTF-8 mode PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint, Next: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage, Prev: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.4 PEP 553: Built-in ‘breakpoint()’ ........................................ Python 3.7 includes the new built-in *note breakpoint(): 236. function as an easy and consistent way to enter the Python debugger. Built-in ‘breakpoint()’ calls *note sys.breakpointhook(): ada. By default, the latter imports *note pdb: a5. and then calls ‘pdb.set_trace()’, but by binding ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ to the function of your choosing, ‘breakpoint()’ can enter any debugger. Additionally, the environment variable *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: adb. can be set to the callable of your debugger of choice. Set ‘PYTHONBREAKPOINT=0’ to completely disable built-in ‘breakpoint()’. See also ........ PEP 553(1) – Built-in breakpoint() PEP written and implemented by Barry Warsaw ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0553/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage, Next: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes, Prev: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.5 PEP 539: New C API for Thread-Local Storage ................................................... While Python provides a C API for thread-local storage support; the existing *note Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: add. has used int to represent TLS keys across all platforms. This has not generally been a problem for officially support platforms, but that is neither POSIX-compliant, nor portable in any practical sense. PEP 539(1) changes this by providing a new *note Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: ade. to CPython which supersedes use of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter, while deprecating the existing API. The TSS API uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: adf. instead of int to represent TSS keys–an opaque type the definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS implementation. Therefore, this will allow to build CPython on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to int. Note that on platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to int, all functions of the existing TLS API will be no-op and immediately return failure. This indicates clearly that the old API is not supported on platforms where it cannot be used reliably, and that no effort will be made to add such support. See also ........ PEP 539(2) – A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython PEP written by Erik M. Bray; implementation by Masayuki Yamamoto. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes, Next: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution, Prev: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.6 PEP 562: Customization of Access to Module Attributes ............................................................. Python 3.7 allows defining ‘__getattr__()’ on modules and will call it whenever a module attribute is otherwise not found. Defining ‘__dir__()’ on modules is now also allowed. A typical example of where this may be useful is module attribute deprecation and lazy loading. See also ........ PEP 562(1) – Module ‘__getattr__’ and ‘__dir__’ PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0562/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution, Next: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__, Prev: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.7 PEP 564: New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution .............................................................. The resolution of clocks in modern systems can exceed the limited precision of a floating-point number returned by the *note time.time(): 256. function and its variants. To avoid loss of precision, PEP 564(1) adds six new “nanosecond” variants of the existing timer functions to the *note time: ee. module: * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ae2. * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): ae3. * *note time.monotonic_ns(): ae4. * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): ae5. * *note time.process_time_ns(): ae6. * *note time.time_ns(): ae7. The new functions return the number of nanoseconds as an integer value. Measurements(2) show that on Linux and Windows the resolution of *note time.time_ns(): ae7. is approximately 3 times better than that of *note time.time(): 256. See also ........ PEP 564(3) – Add new time functions with nanosecond resolution PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__, Next: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types, Prev: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.8 PEP 565: Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’ ...................................................... The default handling of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. has been changed such that these warnings are once more shown by default, but only when the code triggering them is running directly in the *note __main__: 1. module. As a result, developers of single file scripts and those using Python interactively should once again start seeing deprecation warnings for the APIs they use, but deprecation warnings triggered by imported application, library and framework modules will continue to be hidden by default. As a result of this change, the standard library now allows developers to choose between three different deprecation warning behaviours: * *note FutureWarning: 411.: always displayed by default, recommended for warnings intended to be seen by application end users (e.g. for deprecated application configuration settings). * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.: displayed by default only in *note __main__: 1. and when running tests, recommended for warnings intended to be seen by other Python developers where a version upgrade may result in changed behaviour or an error. * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7.: displayed by default only when running tests, intended for cases where a future version upgrade will change the warning category to *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. or *note FutureWarning: 411. Previously both *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. were only visible when running tests, which meant that developers primarily writing single file scripts or using Python interactively could be surprised by breaking changes in the APIs they used. See also ........ PEP 565(1) – Show DeprecationWarning in ‘__main__’ PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0565/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types, Next: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files, Prev: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.9 PEP 560: Core Support for ‘typing’ module and Generic Types ................................................................... Initially PEP 484(1) was designed in such way that it would not introduce 'any' changes to the core CPython interpreter. Now type hints and the *note typing: 104. module are extensively used by the community, so this restriction is removed. The PEP introduces two special methods ‘__class_getitem__()’ and ‘__mro_entries__’, these methods are now used by most classes and special constructs in *note typing: 104. As a result, the speed of various operations with types increased up to 7 times, the generic types can be used without metaclass conflicts, and several long standing bugs in *note typing: 104. module are fixed. See also ........ PEP 560(2) – Core support for typing module and generic types PEP written and implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files, Next: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations, Prev: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.10 PEP 552: Hash-based .pyc Files ....................................... Python has traditionally checked the up-to-dateness of bytecode cache files (i.e., ‘.pyc’ files) by comparing the source metadata (last-modified timestamp and size) with source metadata saved in the cache file header when it was generated. While effective, this invalidation method has its drawbacks. When filesystem timestamps are too coarse, Python can miss source updates, leading to user confusion. Additionally, having a timestamp in the cache file is problematic for build reproducibility(1) and content-based build systems. PEP 552(2) extends the pyc format to allow the hash of the source file to be used for invalidation instead of the source timestamp. Such ‘.pyc’ files are called “hash-based”. By default, Python still uses timestamp-based invalidation and does not generate hash-based ‘.pyc’ files at runtime. Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files may be generated with *note py_compile: b3. or *note compileall: 20. Hash-based ‘.pyc’ files come in two variants: checked and unchecked. Python validates checked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files against the corresponding source files at runtime but doesn’t do so for unchecked hash-based pycs. Unchecked hash-based ‘.pyc’ files are a useful performance optimization for environments where a system external to Python (e.g., the build system) is responsible for keeping ‘.pyc’ files up-to-date. See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 5e8. for more information. See also ........ PEP 552(3) – Deterministic pycs PEP written and implemented by Benjamin Peterson ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations, Next: Python Development Mode -X dev, Prev: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.11 PEP 545: Python Documentation Translations ................................................... PEP 545(1) describes the process of creating and maintaining Python documentation translations. Three new translations have been added: - Japanese: ‘https://docs.python.org/ja/’ - French: ‘https://docs.python.org/fr/’ - Korean: ‘https://docs.python.org/ko/’ See also ........ PEP 545(2) – Python Documentation Translations PEP written and implemented by Julien Palard, Inada Naoki, and Victor Stinner. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0545/  File: python.info, Node: Python Development Mode -X dev, Prev: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations, Up: New Features<12> 1.7.2.12 Python Development Mode (-X dev) ......................................... The new *note -X: 176. ‘dev’ command line option or the new *note PYTHONDEVMODE: aed. environment variable can be used to enable *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. When in development mode, Python performs additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default. See *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. documentation for the full description.  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<7>, Next: New Modules<7>, Prev: New Features<12>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.3 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- * An *note await: 1b9. expression and comprehensions containing an *note async for: aab. clause were illegal in the expressions in *note formatted string literals: 9a9. due to a problem with the implementation. In Python 3.7 this restriction was lifted. * More than 255 arguments can now be passed to a function, and a function can now have more than 255 parameters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12844(1) and bpo-18896(2).) * *note bytes.fromhex(): aef. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): af0. now ignore all ASCII whitespace, not only spaces. (Contributed by Robert Xiao in bpo-28927(3).) * *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2, and *note bytearray: 53a. gained support for the new *note isascii(): af1. method, which can be used to test if a string or bytes contain only the ASCII characters. (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32677(4).) * *note ImportError: 415. now displays module name and module ‘__file__’ path when ‘from ... import ...’ fails. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29546(5).) * Circular imports involving absolute imports with binding a submodule to a name are now supported. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30024(6).) * ‘object.__format__(x, '')’ is now equivalent to ‘str(x)’ rather than ‘format(str(self), '')’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28974(7).) * In order to better support dynamic creation of stack traces, *note types.TracebackType: af2. can now be instantiated from Python code, and the *note tb_next: af3. attribute on *note tracebacks: af4. is now writable. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30579(8).) * When using the *note -m: 5dd. switch, ‘sys.path[0]’ is now eagerly expanded to the full starting directory path, rather than being left as the empty directory (which allows imports from the 'current' working directory at the time when an import occurs) (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-33053(9).) * The new *note -X: 176. ‘importtime’ option or the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: af5. environment variable can be used to show the timing of each module import. (Contributed by Inada Naoki in bpo-31415(10).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12844 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18896 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28927 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32677 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29546 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30024 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28974 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30579 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33053 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31415  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<7>, Next: Improved Modules<7>, Prev: Other Language Changes<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.4 New Modules ----------------- * Menu: * contextvars:: * dataclasses: dataclasses<3>. * importlib.resources: importlib resources<2>.  File: python.info, Node: contextvars, Next: dataclasses<3>, Up: New Modules<7> 1.7.4.1 contextvars ................... The new *note contextvars: 24. module and a set of *note new C APIs: af8. introduce support for 'context variables'. Context variables are conceptually similar to thread-local variables. Unlike TLS, context variables support asynchronous code correctly. The *note asyncio: a. and *note decimal: 36. modules have been updated to use and support context variables out of the box. Particularly the active decimal context is now stored in a context variable, which allows decimal operations to work with the correct context in asynchronous code. See also ........ PEP 567(1) – Context Variables PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/  File: python.info, Node: dataclasses<3>, Next: importlib resources<2>, Prev: contextvars, Up: New Modules<7> 1.7.4.2 dataclasses ................... The new *note dataclass(): 1cb. decorator provides a way to declare 'data classes'. A data class describes its attributes using class variable annotations. Its constructor and other magic methods, such as *note __repr__(): 618, *note __eq__(): afa, and *note __hash__(): afb. are generated automatically. Example: @dataclass class Point: x: float y: float z: float = 0.0 p = Point(1.5, 2.5) print(p) # produces "Point(x=1.5, y=2.5, z=0.0)" See also ........ PEP 557(1) – Data Classes PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/  File: python.info, Node: importlib resources<2>, Prev: dataclasses<3>, Up: New Modules<7> 1.7.4.3 importlib.resources ........................... The new *note importlib.resources: 7b. module provides several new APIs and one new ABC for access to, opening, and reading 'resources' inside packages. Resources are roughly similar to files inside packages, but they needn’t be actual files on the physical file system. Module loaders can provide a ‘get_resource_reader()’ function which returns a *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afd. instance to support this new API. Built-in file path loaders and zip file loaders both support this. Contributed by Barry Warsaw and Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1). See also ........ importlib_resources(2) – a PyPI backport for earlier Python versions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248 (2) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<7>, Next: C API Changes<6>, Prev: New Modules<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.5 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * argparse: argparse<3>. * asyncio: asyncio<7>. * binascii:: * calendar: calendar<2>. * collections: collections<2>. * compileall: compileall<3>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<3>. * contextlib: contextlib<3>. * cProfile: cProfile<2>. * crypt:: * datetime: datetime<4>. * dbm: dbm<2>. * decimal:: * dis: dis<3>. * distutils: distutils<4>. * enum: enum<5>. * functools: functools<3>. * gc: gc<4>. * hmac: hmac<2>. * http.client: http client. * http.server: http server. * idlelib and IDLE:: * importlib: importlib<4>. * io: io<4>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<3>. * itertools: itertools<5>. * locale: locale<4>. * logging: logging<3>. * math: math<6>. * mimetypes: mimetypes<2>. * msilib:: * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<4>. * os: os<7>. * pathlib: pathlib<8>. * pdb: pdb<4>. * py_compile: py_compile<3>. * pydoc: pydoc<2>. * queue: queue<2>. * re: re<4>. * signal: signal<2>. * socket: socket<5>. * socketserver:: * sqlite3: sqlite3<6>. * ssl: ssl<5>. * string: string<2>. * subprocess: subprocess<2>. * sys: sys<8>. * time: time<5>. * tkinter: tkinter<5>. * tracemalloc: tracemalloc<2>. * types: types<4>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<6>. * unittest: unittest<7>. * unittest.mock: unittest mock. * urllib.parse: urllib parse<5>. * uu:: * uuid: uuid<2>. * warnings: warnings<3>. * xml: xml<5>. * xml.etree: xml etree. * xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server. * zipapp:: * zipfile: zipfile<2>.  File: python.info, Node: argparse<3>, Next: asyncio<7>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.1 argparse ................ The new *note ArgumentParser.parse_intermixed_args(): b00. method allows intermixing options and positional arguments. (Contributed by paul.j3 in bpo-14191(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14191  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<7>, Next: binascii, Prev: argparse<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.2 asyncio ............... The *note asyncio: a. module has received many new features, usability and *note performance improvements: b02. Notable changes include: * The new *note provisional: b03. *note asyncio.run(): 478. function can be used to run a coroutine from synchronous code by automatically creating and destroying the event loop. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32314(1).) * asyncio gained support for *note contextvars: 24. *note loop.call_soon(): b04, *note loop.call_soon_threadsafe(): b05, *note loop.call_later(): b06, *note loop.call_at(): b07, and *note Future.add_done_callback(): b08. have a new optional keyword-only 'context' parameter. *note Tasks: 1be. now track their context automatically. See PEP 567(2) for more details. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32436(3).) * The new *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. function has been added as a shortcut to ‘asyncio.get_event_loop().create_task()’. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32311(4).) * The new *note loop.start_tls(): b09. method can be used to upgrade an existing connection to TLS. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-23749(5).) * The new *note loop.sock_recv_into(): b0a. method allows reading data from a socket directly into a provided buffer making it possible to reduce data copies. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31819(6).) * The new *note asyncio.current_task(): 479. function returns the currently running *note Task: 1be. instance, and the new *note asyncio.all_tasks(): 956. function returns a set of all existing ‘Task’ instances in a given loop. The ‘Task.current_task()’ and ‘Task.all_tasks()’ methods have been deprecated. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(7).) * The new 'provisional' *note BufferedProtocol: a9d. class allows implementing streaming protocols with manual control over the receive buffer. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32251(8).) * The new *note asyncio.get_running_loop(): b0b. function returns the currently running loop, and raises a *note RuntimeError: 195. if no loop is running. This is in contrast with *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c4, which will 'create' a new event loop if none is running. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32269(9).) * The new *note StreamWriter.wait_closed(): b0c. coroutine method allows waiting until the stream writer is closed. The new *note StreamWriter.is_closing(): b0d. method can be used to determine if the writer is closing. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32391(10).) * The new *note loop.sock_sendfile(): b0e. coroutine method allows sending files using *note os.sendfile: b0f. when possible. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32410(11).) * The new *note Future.get_loop(): b10. and ‘Task.get_loop()’ methods return the instance of the loop on which a task or a future were created. *note Server.get_loop(): b11. allows doing the same for *note asyncio.Server: b12. objects. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32415(12) and Srinivas Reddy Thatiparthy in bpo-32418(13).) * It is now possible to control how instances of *note asyncio.Server: b12. begin serving. Previously, the server would start serving immediately when created. The new 'start_serving' keyword argument to *note loop.create_server(): b13. and *note loop.create_unix_server(): 1ae, as well as *note Server.start_serving(): b14, and *note Server.serve_forever(): b15. can be used to decouple server instantiation and serving. The new *note Server.is_serving(): b16. method returns ‘True’ if the server is serving. *note Server: b12. objects are now asynchronous context managers: srv = await loop.create_server(...) async with srv: # some code # At this point, srv is closed and no longer accepts new connections. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(14).) * Callback objects returned by *note loop.call_later(): b06. gained the new *note when(): b17. method which returns an absolute scheduled callback timestamp. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32741(15).) * The *note loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72e. method gained support for Unix sockets. (Contributed by Quentin Dawans in bpo-31245(16).) * The *note asyncio.open_connection(): b18, *note asyncio.start_server(): b19. functions, *note loop.create_connection(): 5ff, *note loop.create_server(): b13, *note loop.create_accepted_socket(): b1a. methods and their corresponding UNIX socket variants now accept the 'ssl_handshake_timeout' keyword argument. (Contributed by Neil Aspinall in bpo-29970(17).) * The new *note Handle.cancelled(): b1b. method returns ‘True’ if the callback was cancelled. (Contributed by Marat Sharafutdinov in bpo-31943(18).) * The asyncio source has been converted to use the *note async: 72d./*note await: 1b9. syntax. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32193(19).) * The new *note ReadTransport.is_reading(): b1c. method can be used to determine the reading state of the transport. Additionally, calls to *note ReadTransport.resume_reading(): b1d. and *note ReadTransport.pause_reading(): b1e. are now idempotent. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32356(20).) * Loop methods which accept socket paths now support passing *note path-like objects: 2a2. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32066(21).) * In *note asyncio: a. TCP sockets on Linux are now created with ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag set by default. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Victor Stinner in bpo-27456(22).) * Exceptions occurring in cancelled tasks are no longer logged. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-30508(23).) * New ‘WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy’ and ‘WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy’ classes. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-33792(24).) Several ‘asyncio’ APIs have been *note deprecated: b1f. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32314 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0567/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32436 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32311 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23749 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31819 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32251 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32269 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32391 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32410 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32415 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32418 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32741 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31245 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29970 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31943 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32193 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32356 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32066 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30508 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33792  File: python.info, Node: binascii, Next: calendar<2>, Prev: asyncio<7>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.3 binascii ................ The *note b2a_uu(): b21. function now accepts an optional 'backtick' keyword argument. When it’s true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’ instead of spaces. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103  File: python.info, Node: calendar<2>, Next: collections<2>, Prev: binascii, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.4 calendar ................ The *note HTMLCalendar: b23. class has new class attributes which ease the customization of CSS classes in the produced HTML calendar. (Contributed by Oz Tiram in bpo-30095(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30095  File: python.info, Node: collections<2>, Next: compileall<3>, Prev: calendar<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.5 collections ................... ‘collections.namedtuple()’ now supports default values. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32320(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32320  File: python.info, Node: compileall<3>, Next: concurrent futures<3>, Prev: collections<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.6 compileall .................. *note compileall.compile_dir(): b26. learned the new 'invalidation_mode' parameter, which can be used to enable *note hash-based .pyc invalidation: acb. The invalidation mode can also be specified on the command line using the new ‘--invalidation-mode’ argument. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-31650(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31650  File: python.info, Node: concurrent futures<3>, Next: contextlib<3>, Prev: compileall<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.7 concurrent.futures .......................... *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. and *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. now support the new 'initializer' and 'initargs' constructor arguments. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-21423(1).) The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. can now take the multiprocessing context via the new 'mp_context' argument. (Contributed by Thomas Moreau in bpo-31540(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21423 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31540  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<3>, Next: cProfile<2>, Prev: concurrent futures<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.8 contextlib .................. The new *note nullcontext(): 7e9. is a simpler and faster no-op context manager than *note ExitStack: b29. (Contributed by Jesse-Bakker in bpo-10049(1).) The new *note asynccontextmanager(): b2a, *note AbstractAsyncContextManager: b2b, and *note AsyncExitStack: b2c. have been added to complement their synchronous counterparts. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-29679(2) and bpo-30241(3), and by Alexander Mohr and Ilya Kulakov in bpo-29302(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10049 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29679 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30241 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29302  File: python.info, Node: cProfile<2>, Next: crypt, Prev: contextlib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.9 cProfile ................ The *note cProfile: 27. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an alternative to script path. (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-21862(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21862  File: python.info, Node: crypt, Next: datetime<4>, Prev: cProfile<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.10 crypt .............. The ‘crypt’ module now supports the Blowfish hashing method. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31664(1).) The ‘mksalt()’ function now allows specifying the number of rounds for hashing. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31702(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31664 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31702  File: python.info, Node: datetime<4>, Next: dbm<2>, Prev: crypt, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.11 datetime ................. The new *note datetime.fromisoformat(): 613. method constructs a *note datetime: 1cc. object from a string in one of the formats output by *note datetime.isoformat(): b30. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-15873(1).) The *note tzinfo: 5da. class now supports sub-minute offsets. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-5288(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15873 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5288  File: python.info, Node: dbm<2>, Next: decimal, Prev: datetime<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.12 dbm ............ *note dbm.dumb: 32. now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed.  File: python.info, Node: decimal, Next: dis<3>, Prev: dbm<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.13 decimal ................ The *note decimal: 36. module now uses *note context variables: ac0. to store the decimal context. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32630(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32630  File: python.info, Node: dis<3>, Next: distutils<4>, Prev: decimal, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.14 dis ............ The *note dis(): b34. function is now able to disassemble nested code objects (the code of comprehensions, generator expressions and nested functions, and the code used for building nested classes). The maximum depth of disassembly recursion is controlled by the new 'depth' parameter. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-11822(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11822  File: python.info, Node: distutils<4>, Next: enum<5>, Prev: dis<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.15 distutils .................. ‘README.rst’ is now included in the list of distutils standard READMEs and therefore included in source distributions. (Contributed by Ryan Gonzalez in bpo-11913(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11913  File: python.info, Node: enum<5>, Next: functools<3>, Prev: distutils<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.16 enum ............. The *note Enum: 62c. learned the new ‘_ignore_’ class property, which allows listing the names of properties which should not become enum members. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-31801(1).) In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’ classes will raise a *note TypeError: 534. (e.g. ‘1 in Color’); similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member will raise *note TypeError: 534. (e.g. ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both operations return *note False: b37. instead and are deprecated. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31801 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217  File: python.info, Node: functools<3>, Next: gc<4>, Prev: enum<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.17 functools .................. *note functools.singledispatch(): 635. now supports registering implementations using type annotations. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-32227(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32227  File: python.info, Node: gc<4>, Next: hmac<2>, Prev: functools<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.18 gc ........... The new *note gc.freeze(): b3a. function allows freezing all objects tracked by the garbage collector and excluding them from future collections. This can be used before a POSIX ‘fork()’ call to make the GC copy-on-write friendly or to speed up collection. The new *note gc.unfreeze(): b3b. functions reverses this operation. Additionally, *note gc.get_freeze_count(): b3c. can be used to obtain the number of frozen objects. (Contributed by Li Zekun in bpo-31558(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31558  File: python.info, Node: hmac<2>, Next: http client, Prev: gc<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.19 hmac ............. The *note hmac: 6a. module now has an optimized one-shot *note digest(): b3e. function, which is up to three times faster than ‘HMAC()’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32433(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32433  File: python.info, Node: http client, Next: http server, Prev: hmac<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.20 http.client .................... *note HTTPConnection: b40. and *note HTTPSConnection: b41. now support the new 'blocksize' argument for improved upload throughput. (Contributed by Nir Soffer in bpo-31945(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31945  File: python.info, Node: http server, Next: idlelib and IDLE, Prev: http client, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.21 http.server .................... *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. now supports the HTTP ‘If-Modified-Since’ header. The server returns the 304 response status if the target file was not modified after the time specified in the header. (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29654(1).) *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. accepts the new 'directory' argument, in addition to the new ‘--directory’ command line argument. With this parameter, the server serves the specified directory, by default it uses the current working directory. (Contributed by Stéphane Wirtel and Julien Palard in bpo-28707(2).) The new *note ThreadingHTTPServer: b44. class uses threads to handle requests using ‘ThreadingMixin’. It is used when ‘http.server’ is run with ‘-m’. (Contributed by Julien Palard in bpo-31639(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29654 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28707 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31639  File: python.info, Node: idlelib and IDLE, Next: importlib<4>, Prev: http server, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.22 idlelib and IDLE ......................... Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in bpo-15786(1).) Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions and classes. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(2).) The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten to improve both appearance and function. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.) The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(3).) The sample can be edited to include other characters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31860(4).) The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented as normal features. Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs. (Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(5).) Editor code context option revised. Box displays all context lines up to maxlines. Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line. Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33642(6), bpo-33768(7), and bpo-33679(8).) On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(9).) New in 3.7.1: Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button. N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. Squeezed output can be expanded in place by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by right-clicking the button. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353(10).) The changes above have been backported to 3.6 maintenance releases. NEW in 3.7.4: Add “Run Customized” to the Run menu to run a module with customized settings. Any command line arguments entered are added to sys.argv. They re-appear in the box for the next customized run. One can also suppress the normal Shell main module restart. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella, Terry Jan Reedy, and others in bpo-5680(11) and bpo-37627(12).) New in 3.7.5: Add optional line numbers for IDLE editor windows. Windows open without line numbers unless set otherwise in the General tab of the configuration dialog. Line numbers for an existing window are shown and hidden in the Options menu. (Contributed by Tal Einat and Saimadhav Heblikar in bpo-17535(13).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5680 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37627 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17535  File: python.info, Node: importlib<4>, Next: io<4>, Prev: idlelib and IDLE, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.23 importlib .................. The *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afd. ABC was introduced to support the loading of resources from packages. See also *note importlib.resources: ac2. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, Brett Cannon in bpo-32248(1).) *note importlib.reload(): 514. now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. if the module lacks a spec. (Contributed by Garvit Khatri in bpo-29851(2).) ‘importlib.find_spec()’ now raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. instead of *note AttributeError: 348. if the specified parent module is not a package (i.e. lacks a ‘__path__’ attribute). (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-30436(3).) The new ‘importlib.source_hash()’ can be used to compute the hash of the passed source. A *note hash-based .pyc file: acb. embeds the value returned by this function. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32248 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29851 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30436  File: python.info, Node: io<4>, Next: ipaddress<3>, Prev: importlib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.24 io ........... The new *note TextIOWrapper.reconfigure(): b49. method can be used to reconfigure the text stream with the new settings. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30526(1) and INADA Naoki in bpo-15216(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30526 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15216  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress<3>, Next: itertools<5>, Prev: io<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.25 ipaddress .................. The new ‘subnet_of()’ and ‘supernet_of()’ methods of *note ipaddress.IPv6Network: 201. and *note ipaddress.IPv4Network: 200. can be used for network containment tests. (Contributed by Michel Albert and Cheryl Sabella in bpo-20825(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20825  File: python.info, Node: itertools<5>, Next: locale<4>, Prev: ipaddress<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.26 itertools .................. *note itertools.islice(): b4c. now accepts *note integer-like objects: 718. as start, stop, and slice arguments. (Contributed by Will Roberts in bpo-30537(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30537  File: python.info, Node: locale<4>, Next: logging<3>, Prev: itertools<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.27 locale ............... The new 'monetary' argument to *note locale.format_string(): 51a. can be used to make the conversion use monetary thousands separators and grouping strings. (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).) The *note locale.getpreferredencoding(): 536. function now always returns ‘'UTF-8'’ on Android or when in the *note forced UTF-8 mode: aca. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379  File: python.info, Node: logging<3>, Next: math<6>, Prev: locale<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.28 logging ................ *note Logger: b4f. instances can now be pickled. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-30520(1).) The new *note StreamHandler.setStream(): b50. method can be used to replace the logger stream after handler creation. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-30522(2).) It is now possible to specify keyword arguments to handler constructors in configuration passed to *note logging.config.fileConfig(): b51. (Contributed by Preston Landers in bpo-31080(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30520 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30522 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31080  File: python.info, Node: math<6>, Next: mimetypes<2>, Prev: logging<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.29 math ............. The new *note math.remainder(): b53. function implements the IEEE 754-style remainder operation. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-29962(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29962  File: python.info, Node: mimetypes<2>, Next: msilib, Prev: math<6>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.30 mimetypes .................. The MIME type of .bmp has been changed from ‘'image/x-ms-bmp'’ to ‘'image/bmp'’. (Contributed by Nitish Chandra in bpo-22589(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22589  File: python.info, Node: msilib, Next: multiprocessing<4>, Prev: mimetypes<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.31 msilib ............... The new ‘Database.Close()’ method can be used to close the MSI database. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20486(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20486  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<4>, Next: os<7>, Prev: msilib, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.32 multiprocessing ........................ The new *note Process.close(): b57. method explicitly closes the process object and releases all resources associated with it. *note ValueError: 204. is raised if the underlying process is still running. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-30596(1).) The new *note Process.kill(): b58. method can be used to terminate the process using the ‘SIGKILL’ signal on Unix. (Contributed by Vitor Pereira in bpo-30794(2).) Non-daemonic threads created by *note Process: b59. are now joined on process exit. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18966(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30596 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30794 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18966  File: python.info, Node: os<7>, Next: pathlib<8>, Prev: multiprocessing<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.33 os ........... *note os.fwalk(): b5b. now accepts the 'path' argument as *note bytes: 1c2. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28682(1).) *note os.scandir(): a5e. gained support for *note file descriptors: b5c. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(2).) The new *note register_at_fork(): 2fa. function allows registering Python callbacks to be executed at process fork. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(3).) Added *note os.preadv(): b5d. (combine the functionality of *note os.readv(): b5e. and *note os.pread(): b5f.) and *note os.pwritev(): b60. functions (combine the functionality of *note os.writev(): b61. and *note os.pwrite(): b62.). (Contributed by Pablo Galindo in bpo-31368(4).) The mode argument of *note os.makedirs(): 220. no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(5).) *note os.dup2(): b63. now returns the new file descriptor. Previously, ‘None’ was always returned. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-32441(6).) The structure returned by *note os.stat(): 49c. now contains the *note st_fstype: b64. attribute on Solaris and its derivatives. (Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-32659(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28682 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31368 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32441 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32659  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<8>, Next: pdb<4>, Prev: os<7>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.34 pathlib ................ The new *note Path.is_mount(): a16. method is now available on POSIX systems and can be used to determine whether a path is a mount point. (Contributed by Cooper Ry Lees in bpo-30897(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30897  File: python.info, Node: pdb<4>, Next: py_compile<3>, Prev: pathlib<8>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.35 pdb ............ *note pdb.set_trace(): 237. now takes an optional 'header' keyword-only argument. If given, it is printed to the console just before debugging begins. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31389(1).) *note pdb: a5. command line now accepts ‘-m module_name’ as an alternative to script file. (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-32206(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31389 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32206  File: python.info, Node: py_compile<3>, Next: pydoc<2>, Prev: pdb<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.36 py_compile ................... *note py_compile.compile(): a24. – and by extension, *note compileall: 20. – now respects the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable by unconditionally creating ‘.pyc’ files for hash-based validation. This allows for guaranteeing reproducible builds(1) of ‘.pyc’ files when they are created eagerly. (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in bpo-29708(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://reproducible-builds.org/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29708  File: python.info, Node: pydoc<2>, Next: queue<2>, Prev: py_compile<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.37 pydoc .............. The pydoc server can now bind to an arbitrary hostname specified by the new ‘-n’ command-line argument. (Contributed by Feanil Patel in bpo-31128(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31128  File: python.info, Node: queue<2>, Next: re<4>, Prev: pydoc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.38 queue .............. The new *note SimpleQueue: b6a. class is an unbounded FIFO queue. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14976(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14976  File: python.info, Node: re<4>, Next: signal<2>, Prev: queue<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.39 re ........... The flags *note re.ASCII: 628, *note re.LOCALE: b6c. and *note re.UNICODE: b6d. can be set within the scope of a group. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31690(1).) *note re.split(): 2a4. now supports splitting on a pattern like ‘r'\b'’, ‘'^$'’ or ‘(?=-)’ that matches an empty string. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054(2).) Regular expressions compiled with the *note re.LOCALE: b6c. flag no longer depend on the locale at compile time. Locale settings are applied only when the compiled regular expression is used. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30215(3).) *note FutureWarning: 411. is now emitted if a regular expression contains character set constructs that will change semantically in the future, such as nested sets and set operations. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(4).) Compiled regular expression and match objects can now be copied using *note copy.copy(): 52f. and *note copy.deepcopy(): b6e. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10076(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31690 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30215 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10076  File: python.info, Node: signal<2>, Next: socket<5>, Prev: re<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.40 signal ............... The new 'warn_on_full_buffer' argument to the *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): b70. function makes it possible to specify whether Python prints a warning on stderr when the wakeup buffer overflows. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-30050(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30050  File: python.info, Node: socket<5>, Next: socketserver, Prev: signal<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.41 socket ............... The new *note socket.getblocking(): b72. method returns ‘True’ if the socket is in blocking mode and ‘False’ otherwise. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32373(1).) The new *note socket.close(): b73. function closes the passed socket file descriptor. This function should be used instead of *note os.close(): b74. for better compatibility across platforms. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32454(2).) The *note socket: cc. module now exposes the ‘socket.TCP_CONGESTION’ (Linux 2.6.13), ‘socket.TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ (Linux 2.6.37), and ‘socket.TCP_NOTSENT_LOWAT’ (Linux 3.12) constants. (Contributed by Omar Sandoval in bpo-26273(3) and Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29728(4).) Support for *note socket.AF_VSOCK: b75. sockets has been added to allow communication between virtual machines and their hosts. (Contributed by Cathy Avery in bpo-27584(5).) Sockets now auto-detect family, type and protocol from file descriptor by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28134(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32373 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32454 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29728 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27584 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28134  File: python.info, Node: socketserver, Next: sqlite3<6>, Prev: socket<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.42 socketserver ..................... ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all non-daemon threads complete. ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all child processes complete. Add a new ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to *note socketserver.ForkingMixIn: b77. and *note socketserver.ThreadingMixIn: b78. classes. Set the class attribute to ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour.  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<6>, Next: ssl<5>, Prev: socketserver, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.43 sqlite3 ................ *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. now exposes the *note backup(): b7a. method when the underlying SQLite library is at version 3.6.11 or higher. (Contributed by Lele Gaifax in bpo-27645(1).) The 'database' argument of *note sqlite3.connect(): 2aa. now accepts any *note path-like object: 2a2, instead of just a string. (Contributed by Anders Lorentsen in bpo-31843(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27645 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31843  File: python.info, Node: ssl<5>, Next: string<2>, Prev: sqlite3<6>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.44 ssl ............ The *note ssl: d0. module now uses OpenSSL’s builtin API instead of ‘match_hostname()’ to check a host name or an IP address. Values are validated during TLS handshake. Any certificate validation error including failing the host name check now raises *note SSLCertVerificationError: b7c. and aborts the handshake with a proper TLS Alert message. The new exception contains additional information. Host name validation can be customized with *note SSLContext.hostname_checks_common_name: b7d. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(1).) Note: The improved host name check requires a 'libssl' implementation compatible with OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1. Consequently, OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported (see *note Platform Support Removals: b7e. for more details). The ssl module is mostly compatible with LibreSSL 2.7.2 and newer. The ‘ssl’ module no longer sends IP addresses in SNI TLS extension. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32185(2).) ‘match_hostname()’ no longer supports partial wildcards like ‘www*.example.org’. (Contributed by Mandeep Singh in bpo-23033(3) and Christian Heimes in bpo-31399(4).) The default cipher suite selection of the ‘ssl’ module now uses a blacklist approach rather than a hard-coded whitelist. Python no longer re-enables ciphers that have been blocked by OpenSSL security updates. Default cipher suite selection can be configured at compile time. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31429(5).) Validation of server certificates containing internationalized domain names (IDNs) is now supported. As part of this change, the *note SSLSocket.server_hostname: b7f. attribute now stores the expected hostname in A-label form (‘"xn--pythn-mua.org"’), rather than the U-label form (‘"pythön.org"’). (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith and Christian Heimes in bpo-28414(6).) The ‘ssl’ module has preliminary and experimental support for TLS 1.3 and OpenSSL 1.1.1. At the time of Python 3.7.0 release, OpenSSL 1.1.1 is still under development and TLS 1.3 hasn’t been finalized yet. The TLS 1.3 handshake and protocol behaves slightly differently than TLS 1.2 and earlier, see *note TLS 1.3: b80. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32947(7), bpo-20995(8), bpo-29136(9), bpo-30622(10) and bpo-33618(11)) *note SSLSocket: 8e9. and *note SSLObject: b81. no longer have a public constructor. Direct instantiation was never a documented and supported feature. Instances must be created with *note SSLContext: 296. methods *note wrap_socket(): 520. and *note wrap_bio(): b82. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(12)) OpenSSL 1.1 APIs for setting the minimum and maximum TLS protocol version are available as *note SSLContext.minimum_version: 86d. and *note SSLContext.maximum_version: 86e. Supported protocols are indicated by several new flags, such as *note HAS_TLSv1_1: b83. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32609(13).) Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a30. to enable and *note ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a31. to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-78851(14).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32185 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23033 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31399 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31429 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28414 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32947 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20995 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29136 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30622 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33618 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32609 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851  File: python.info, Node: string<2>, Next: subprocess<2>, Prev: ssl<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.45 string ............... *note string.Template: 683. now lets you to optionally modify the regular expression pattern for braced placeholders and non-braced placeholders separately. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-1198569(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1198569  File: python.info, Node: subprocess<2>, Next: sys<8>, Prev: string<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.46 subprocess ................... The *note subprocess.run(): b86. function accepts the new 'capture_output' keyword argument. When true, stdout and stderr will be captured. This is equivalent to passing *note subprocess.PIPE: b87. as 'stdout' and 'stderr' arguments. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32102(1).) The ‘subprocess.run’ function and the *note subprocess.Popen: 199. constructor now accept the 'text' keyword argument as an alias to 'universal_newlines'. (Contributed by Andrew Clegg in bpo-31756(2).) On Windows the default for 'close_fds' was changed from ‘False’ to ‘True’ when redirecting the standard handles. It’s now possible to set 'close_fds' to true when redirecting the standard handles. See *note subprocess.Popen: 199. This means that 'close_fds' now defaults to ‘True’ on all supported platforms. (Contributed by Segev Finer in bpo-19764(3).) The subprocess module is now more graceful when handling *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. during *note subprocess.call(): b88, *note subprocess.run(): b86, or in a *note Popen: 199. context manager. It now waits a short amount of time for the child to exit, before continuing the handling of the ‘KeyboardInterrupt’ exception. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-25942(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32102 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31756 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19764 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25942  File: python.info, Node: sys<8>, Next: time<5>, Prev: subprocess<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.47 sys ............ The new *note sys.breakpointhook(): ada. hook function is called by the built-in *note breakpoint(): 236. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31353(1).) On Android, the new *note sys.getandroidapilevel(): b8a. returns the build-time Android API version. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-28740(2).) The new *note sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b8b. function returns the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by the new *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b8c. *note asyncio: a. has been converted to use this new API instead of the deprecated ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-32591(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31353 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28740 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32591  File: python.info, Node: time<5>, Next: tkinter<5>, Prev: sys<8>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.48 time ............. PEP 564(1) adds six new functions with nanosecond resolution to the *note time: ee. module: * *note time.clock_gettime_ns(): ae2. * *note time.clock_settime_ns(): ae3. * *note time.monotonic_ns(): ae4. * *note time.perf_counter_ns(): ae5. * *note time.process_time_ns(): ae6. * *note time.time_ns(): ae7. New clock identifiers have been added: * *note time.CLOCK_BOOTTIME: b8e. (Linux): Identical to *note time.CLOCK_MONOTONIC: 695, except it also includes any time that the system is suspended. * *note time.CLOCK_PROF: b8f. (FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD): High-resolution per-process CPU timer. * *note time.CLOCK_UPTIME: b90. (FreeBSD, OpenBSD): Time whose absolute value is the time the system has been running and not suspended, providing accurate uptime measurement. The new *note time.thread_time(): 936. and *note time.thread_time_ns(): b91. functions can be used to get per-thread CPU time measurements. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-32025(2).) The new *note time.pthread_getcpuclockid(): b92. function returns the clock ID of the thread-specific CPU-time clock. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0564/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32025  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<5>, Next: tracemalloc<2>, Prev: time<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.49 tkinter ................ The new *note tkinter.ttk.Spinbox: b94. class is now available. (Contributed by Alan Moore in bpo-32585(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32585  File: python.info, Node: tracemalloc<2>, Next: types<4>, Prev: tkinter<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.50 tracemalloc .................... *note tracemalloc.Traceback: b96. behaves more like regular tracebacks, sorting the frames from oldest to most recent. *note Traceback.format(): b97. now accepts negative 'limit', truncating the result to the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames. To get the old behaviour, use the new 'most_recent_first' argument to ‘Traceback.format()’. (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121  File: python.info, Node: types<4>, Next: unicodedata<6>, Prev: tracemalloc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.51 types .............. The new *note WrapperDescriptorType: b99, *note MethodWrapperType: 647, *note MethodDescriptorType: b9a, and *note ClassMethodDescriptorType: b9b. classes are now available. (Contributed by Manuel Krebber and Guido van Rossum in bpo-29377(1), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32265(2).) The new *note types.resolve_bases(): b9c. function resolves MRO entries dynamically as specified by PEP 560(3). (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32717(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29377 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32265 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0560/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32717  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<6>, Next: unittest<7>, Prev: types<4>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.52 unicodedata .................... The internal *note unicodedata: 105. database has been upgraded to use Unicode 11(1). (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode11.0.0/  File: python.info, Node: unittest<7>, Next: unittest mock, Prev: unicodedata<6>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.53 unittest ................. The new ‘-k’ command-line option allows filtering tests by a name substring or a Unix shell-like pattern. For example, ‘python -m unittest -k foo’ runs ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’, ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’. (Contributed by Jonas Haag in bpo-32071(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32071  File: python.info, Node: unittest mock, Next: urllib parse<5>, Prev: unittest<7>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.54 unittest.mock ...................... The *note sentinel: ba0. attributes now preserve their identity when they are *note copied: 25. or *note pickled: a6. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20804(1).) The new *note seal(): ba1. function allows sealing *note Mock: a4b. instances, which will disallow further creation of attribute mocks. The seal is applied recursively to all attributes that are themselves mocks. (Contributed by Mario Corchero in bpo-30541(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20804 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30541  File: python.info, Node: urllib parse<5>, Next: uu, Prev: unittest mock, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.55 urllib.parse ..................... *note urllib.parse.quote(): ba3. has been updated from RFC 2396(1) to RFC 3986(2), adding ‘~’ to the set of characters that are never quoted by default. (Contributed by Christian Theune and Ratnadeep Debnath in bpo-16285(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16285  File: python.info, Node: uu, Next: uuid<2>, Prev: urllib parse<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.56 uu ........... The ‘uu.encode()’ function now accepts an optional 'backtick' keyword argument. When it’s true, zeros are represented by ‘'`'’ instead of spaces. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-30103(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30103  File: python.info, Node: uuid<2>, Next: warnings<3>, Prev: uu, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.57 uuid ............. The new *note UUID.is_safe: ba6. attribute relays information from the platform about whether generated UUIDs are generated with a multiprocessing-safe method. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-22807(1).) *note uuid.getnode(): ba7. now prefers universally administered MAC addresses over locally administered MAC addresses. This makes a better guarantee for global uniqueness of UUIDs returned from *note uuid.uuid1(): ba8. If only locally administered MAC addresses are available, the first such one found is returned. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-32107(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22807 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32107  File: python.info, Node: warnings<3>, Next: xml<5>, Prev: uuid<2>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.58 warnings ................. The initialization of the default warnings filters has changed as follows: * warnings enabled via command line options (including those for *note -b: 5df. and the new CPython-specific *note -X: 176. ‘dev’ option) are always passed to the warnings machinery via the *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. attribute. * warnings filters enabled via the command line or the environment now have the following order of precedence: * the ‘BytesWarning’ filter for *note -b: 5df. (or ‘-bb’) * any filters specified with the *note -W: 8c6. option * any filters specified with the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable * any other CPython specific filters (e.g. the ‘default’ filter added for the new ‘-X dev’ mode) * any implicit filters defined directly by the warnings machinery * in *note CPython debug builds: 1fb, all warnings are now displayed by default (the implicit filter list is empty) (Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Victor Stinner in bpo-20361(1), bpo-32043(2), and bpo-32230(3).) Deprecation warnings are once again shown by default in single-file scripts and at the interactive prompt. See *note PEP 565; Show DeprecationWarning in __main__: acd. for details. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31975(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20361 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32043 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32230 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31975  File: python.info, Node: xml<5>, Next: xml etree, Prev: warnings<3>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.59 xml ............ As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-61441(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441  File: python.info, Node: xml etree, Next: xmlrpc server, Prev: xml<5>, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.60 xml.etree .................. *note ElementPath: bad. predicates in the ‘find()’ methods can now compare text of the current node with ‘[. = "text"]’, not only text in children. Predicates also allow adding spaces for better readability. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-31648(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31648  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc server, Next: zipapp, Prev: xml etree, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.61 xmlrpc.server ...................... ‘SimpleXMLRPCDispatcher.register_function’ can now be used as a decorator. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-7769(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7769  File: python.info, Node: zipapp, Next: zipfile<2>, Prev: xmlrpc server, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.62 zipapp ............... Function *note create_archive(): bb0. now accepts an optional 'filter' argument to allow the user to select which files should be included in the archive. (Contributed by Irmen de Jong in bpo-31072(1).) Function *note create_archive(): bb0. now accepts an optional 'compressed' argument to generate a compressed archive. A command line option ‘--compress’ has also been added to support compression. (Contributed by Zhiming Wang in bpo-31638(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31072 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31638  File: python.info, Node: zipfile<2>, Prev: zipapp, Up: Improved Modules<7> 1.7.5.63 zipfile ................ *note ZipFile: 6c0. now accepts the new 'compresslevel' parameter to control the compression level. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-21417(1).) Subdirectories in archives created by ‘ZipFile’ are now stored in alphabetical order. (Contributed by Bernhard M. Wiedemann in bpo-30693(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21417 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30693  File: python.info, Node: C API Changes<6>, Next: Build Changes<6>, Prev: Improved Modules<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.6 C API Changes ------------------- A new API for thread-local storage has been implemented. See *note PEP 539; New C API for Thread-Local Storage: ace. for an overview and *note Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: ade. for a complete reference. (Contributed by Masayuki Yamamoto in bpo-25658(1).) The new *note context variables: ac0. functionality exposes a number of *note new C APIs: af8. The new *note PyImport_GetModule(): bb3. function returns the previously imported module with the given name. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-28411(2).) The new *note Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE: bb4. macro eases writing rich comparison functions. (Contributed by Petr Victorin in bpo-23699(3).) The new *note Py_UNREACHABLE: bb5. macro can be used to mark unreachable code paths. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw in bpo-31338(4).) The *note tracemalloc: ff. now exposes a C API through the new *note PyTraceMalloc_Track(): bb6. and *note PyTraceMalloc_Untrack(): bb7. functions. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-30054(5).) The new ‘import__find__load__start()’ and ‘import__find__load__done()’ static markers can be used to trace module imports. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-31574(6).) The fields ‘name’ and ‘doc’ of structures *note PyMemberDef: 54c, *note PyGetSetDef: bb8, *note PyStructSequence_Field: bb9, *note PyStructSequence_Desc: bba, and ‘wrapperbase’ are now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28761(7).) The result of *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 897. and *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bbb. is now of type ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28769(8).) The result of *note PyMapping_Keys(): bbc, *note PyMapping_Values(): bbd. and *note PyMapping_Items(): bbe. is now always a list, rather than a list or a tuple. (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28280(9).) Added functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867(10).) *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f6. is deprecated in favour of the new functions *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbf, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bc0. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(11).) The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter. Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in bpo-22898(12) and bpo-30697(13). Added C API support for timezones with timezone constructors *note PyTimeZone_FromOffset(): bc1. and *note PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName(): bc2, and access to the UTC singleton with *note PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC: bc3. Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-10381(14). The type of results of ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ and ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’, and the 'id' parameter of *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): bc4. changed from long to unsigned long. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-6532(15).) *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8bb. now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the second argument is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30708(16).) Changes to the startup sequence and the management of dynamic memory allocators mean that the long documented requirement to call *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. before calling most C API functions is now relied on more heavily, and failing to abide by it may lead to segfaults in embedding applications. See the *note Porting to Python 3.7: ad1. section in this document and the *note Before Python Initialization: bc5. section in the C API documentation for more details. The new *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): bc6. returns the unique ID for a given interpreter. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-29102(17).) *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. now use the UTF-8 encoding when the *note UTF-8 mode: aca. is enabled. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(18).) *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc9. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bca. now use the current locale encoding for ‘surrogateescape’ error handler. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29240(19).) The 'start' and 'end' parameters of *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b8. are now adjusted to behave like string slices. (Contributed by Xiang Zhang in bpo-28822(20).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25658 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28411 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23699 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31338 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30054 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31574 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28761 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28769 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28280 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10381 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6532 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30708 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29102 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29240 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28822  File: python.info, Node: Build Changes<6>, Next: Optimizations<7>, Prev: C API Changes<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.7 Build Changes ------------------- Support for building ‘--without-threads’ has been removed. The *note threading: ed. module is now always available. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31370(1).). A full copy of libffi is no longer bundled for use when building the *note _ctypes: 2a. module on non-OSX UNIX platforms. An installed copy of libffi is now required when building ‘_ctypes’ on such platforms. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-27979(2).) The Windows build process no longer depends on Subversion to pull in external sources, a Python script is used to download zipfiles from GitHub instead. If Python 3.6 is not found on the system (via ‘py -3.6’), NuGet is used to download a copy of 32-bit Python for this purpose. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-30450(3).) The *note ssl: d0. module requires OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1 compatible libssl. OpenSSL 1.0.1 has reached end of lifetime on 2016-12-31 and is no longer supported. LibreSSL is temporarily not supported as well. LibreSSL releases up to version 2.6.4 are missing required OpenSSL 1.0.2 APIs. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27979 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30450  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<7>, Next: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>, Prev: Build Changes<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.8 Optimizations ------------------- The overhead of calling many methods of various standard library classes implemented in C has been significantly reduced by porting more code to use the ‘METH_FASTCALL’ convention. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-29300(1), bpo-29507(2), bpo-29452(3), and bpo-29286(4).) Various optimizations have reduced Python startup time by 10% on Linux and up to 30% on macOS. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, INADA Naoki in bpo-29585(5), and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-31333(6).) Method calls are now up to 20% faster due to the bytecode changes which avoid creating bound method instances. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(7).) The *note asyncio: a. module received a number of notable optimizations for commonly used functions: * The *note asyncio.get_event_loop(): 2c4. function has been reimplemented in C to make it up to 15 times faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32296(8).) * *note asyncio.Future: bcd. callback management has been optimized. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32348(9).) * *note asyncio.gather(): 5f9. is now up to 15% faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32355(10).) * *note asyncio.sleep(): a6f. is now up to 2 times faster when the 'delay' argument is zero or negative. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32351(11).) * The performance overhead of asyncio debug mode has been reduced. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31970(12).) As a result of *note PEP 560 work: ac5, the import time of *note typing: 104. has been reduced by a factor of 7, and many typing operations are now faster. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-32226(13).) *note sorted(): bce. and *note list.sort(): bcf. have been optimized for common cases to be up to 40-75% faster. (Contributed by Elliot Gorokhovsky in bpo-28685(14).) *note dict.copy(): bd0. is now up to 5.5 times faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31179(15).) *note hasattr(): 4ce. and *note getattr(): bd1. are now about 4 times faster when 'name' is not found and 'obj' does not override *note object.__getattr__(): 4cf. or *note object.__getattribute__(): bd2. (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-32544(16).) Searching for certain Unicode characters (like Ukrainian capital “Є”) in a string was up to 25 times slower than searching for other characters. It is now only 3 times slower in the worst case. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24821(17).) The *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. factory has been reimplemented to make the creation of named tuples 4 to 6 times faster. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(18).) ‘date.fromordinal()’ and ‘date.fromtimestamp()’ are now up to 30% faster in the common case. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(19).) The *note os.fwalk(): b5b. function is now up to 2 times faster thanks to the use of *note os.scandir(): a5e. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25996(20).) The speed of the *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. function has been improved by 20–40% thanks to the use of the *note os.scandir(): a5e. function. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28564(21).) Optimized case-insensitive matching and searching of *note regular expressions: b9. Searching some patterns can now be up to 20 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30285(22).) *note re.compile(): bd3. now converts ‘flags’ parameter to int object if it is ‘RegexFlag’. It is now as fast as Python 3.5, and faster than Python 3.6 by about 10% depending on the pattern. (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-31671(23).) The *note modify(): bd4. methods of classes *note selectors.EpollSelector: bd5, *note selectors.PollSelector: bd6. and *note selectors.DevpollSelector: bd7. may be around 10% faster under heavy loads. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-30014(24)) Constant folding has been moved from the peephole optimizer to the new AST optimizer, which is able perform optimizations more consistently. (Contributed by Eugene Toder and INADA Naoki in bpo-29469(25) and bpo-11549(26).) Most functions and methods in *note abc: 4. have been rewritten in C. This makes creation of abstract base classes, and calling *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc. on them 1.5x faster. This also reduces Python start-up time by up to 10%. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi and INADA Naoki in bpo-31333(27)) Significant speed improvements to alternate constructors for *note datetime.date: 1cd. and *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. by using fast-path constructors when not constructing subclasses. (Contributed by Paul Ganssle in bpo-32403(28)) The speed of comparison of *note array.array: 1a0. instances has been improved considerably in certain cases. It is now from 10x to 70x faster when comparing arrays holding values of the same integer type. (Contributed by Adrian Wielgosik in bpo-24700(29).) The *note math.erf(): bd8. and *note math.erfc(): bd9. functions now use the (faster) C library implementation on most platforms. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26121(30).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29300 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29507 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29452 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29286 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29585 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32296 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32348 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32355 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32351 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31970 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32226 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28685 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31179 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32544 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24821 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25996 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28564 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30285 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31671 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30014 (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29469 (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11549 (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31333 (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32403 (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24700 (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26121  File: python.info, Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>, Next: Deprecated Python Behavior, Prev: Optimizations<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.9 Other CPython Implementation Changes ------------------------------------------ * Trace hooks may now opt out of receiving the ‘line’ and opt into receiving the ‘opcode’ events from the interpreter by setting the corresponding new *note f_trace_lines: bdb. and *note f_trace_opcodes: bdc. attributes on the frame being traced. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-31344(1).) * Fixed some consistency problems with namespace package module attributes. Namespace module objects now have an ‘__file__’ that is set to ‘None’ (previously unset), and their ‘__spec__.origin’ is also set to ‘None’ (previously the string ‘"namespace"’). See bpo-32305(2). Also, the namespace module object’s ‘__spec__.loader’ is set to the same value as ‘__loader__’ (previously, the former was set to ‘None’). See bpo-32303(3). * The *note locals(): 141. dictionary now displays in the lexical order that variables were defined. Previously, the order was undefined. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32690(4).) * The ‘distutils’ ‘upload’ command no longer tries to change CR end-of-line characters to CRLF. This fixes a corruption issue with sdists that ended with a byte equivalent to CR. (Contributed by Bo Bayles in bpo-32304(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31344 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32305 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32303 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32690 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32304  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python Behavior, Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods, Prev: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.10 Deprecated Python Behavior --------------------------------- Yield expressions (both ‘yield’ and ‘yield from’ clauses) are now deprecated in comprehensions and generator expressions (aside from the iterable expression in the leftmost ‘for’ clause). This ensures that comprehensions always immediately return a container of the appropriate type (rather than potentially returning a *note generator iterator: bde. object), while generator expressions won’t attempt to interleave their implicit output with the output from any explicit yield expressions. In Python 3.7, such expressions emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when compiled, in Python 3.8 this will be a *note SyntaxError: 18d. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10544(1).) Returning a subclass of *note complex: 2f2. from *note object.__complex__(): 5e3. is deprecated and will be an error in future Python versions. This makes ‘__complex__()’ consistent with *note object.__int__(): 717. and *note object.__float__(): 9cc. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28894(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10544 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28894  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods, Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API, Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.11 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods ------------------------------------------------------- * Menu: * aifc:: * asyncio: asyncio<8>. * collections: collections<3>. * dbm: dbm<3>. * enum: enum<6>. * gettext: gettext<2>. * importlib: importlib<5>. * locale: locale<5>. * macpath:: * threading: threading<5>. * socket: socket<6>. * ssl: ssl<6>. * sunau:: * sys: sys<9>. * wave::  File: python.info, Node: aifc, Next: asyncio<8>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.1 aifc ............. ‘aifc.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9. Use ‘aifc.open()’ instead. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-31985(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<8>, Next: collections<3>, Prev: aifc, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.2 asyncio ................ Support for directly ‘await’-ing instances of *note asyncio.Lock: a71. and other asyncio synchronization primitives has been deprecated. An asynchronous context manager must be used in order to acquire and release the synchronization resource. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32253(1).) The ‘asyncio.Task.current_task()’ and ‘asyncio.Task.all_tasks()’ methods have been deprecated. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-32250(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32253 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32250  File: python.info, Node: collections<3>, Next: dbm<3>, Prev: asyncio<8>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.3 collections .................... In Python 3.8, the abstract base classes in *note collections.abc: 1e. will no longer be exposed in the regular *note collections: 1d. module. This will help create a clearer distinction between the concrete classes and the abstract base classes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25988(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25988  File: python.info, Node: dbm<3>, Next: enum<6>, Prev: collections<3>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.4 dbm ............ *note dbm.dumb: 32. now supports reading read-only files and no longer writes the index file when it is not changed. A deprecation warning is now emitted if the index file is missing and recreated in the ‘'r'’ and ‘'w'’ modes (this will be an error in future Python releases). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28847(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28847  File: python.info, Node: enum<6>, Next: gettext<2>, Prev: dbm<3>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.5 enum ............. In Python 3.8, attempting to check for non-Enum objects in ‘Enum’ classes will raise a *note TypeError: 534. (e.g. ‘1 in Color’); similarly, attempting to check for non-Flag objects in a ‘Flag’ member will raise *note TypeError: 534. (e.g. ‘1 in Perm.RW’); currently, both operations return *note False: b37. instead. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-33217(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33217  File: python.info, Node: gettext<2>, Next: importlib<5>, Prev: enum<6>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.6 gettext ................ Using non-integer value for selecting a plural form in *note gettext: 63. is now deprecated. It never correctly worked. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-28692(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28692  File: python.info, Node: importlib<5>, Next: locale<5>, Prev: gettext<2>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.7 importlib .................. Methods ‘MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ (replaced by *note MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 865.) and ‘PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ (replaced by *note PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 869.) both deprecated in Python 3.4 now emit *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. (Contributed by Matthias Bussonnier in bpo-29576(1).) The *note importlib.abc.ResourceLoader: be7. ABC has been deprecated in favour of *note importlib.abc.ResourceReader: afd. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29576  File: python.info, Node: locale<5>, Next: macpath, Prev: importlib<5>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.8 locale ............... ‘locale.format()’ has been deprecated, use *note locale.format_string(): 51a. instead. (Contributed by Garvit in bpo-10379(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10379  File: python.info, Node: macpath, Next: threading<5>, Prev: locale<5>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.9 macpath ................ The ‘macpath’ is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.8. (Contributed by Chi Hsuan Yen in bpo-9850(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9850  File: python.info, Node: threading<5>, Next: socket<6>, Prev: macpath, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.10 threading ................... ‘dummy_threading’ and ‘_dummy_thread’ have been deprecated. It is no longer possible to build Python with threading disabled. Use *note threading: ed. instead. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-31370(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31370  File: python.info, Node: socket<6>, Next: ssl<6>, Prev: threading<5>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.11 socket ................ The silent argument value truncation in *note socket.htons(): 87d. and *note socket.ntohs(): 87e. has been deprecated. In future versions of Python, if the passed argument is larger than 16 bits, an exception will be raised. (Contributed by Oren Milman in bpo-28332(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28332  File: python.info, Node: ssl<6>, Next: sunau, Prev: socket<6>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.12 ssl ............. ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ is deprecated. Use *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 520. instead. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28124(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28124  File: python.info, Node: sunau, Next: sys<9>, Prev: ssl<6>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.13 sunau ............... ‘sunau.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9. Use ‘sunau.open()’ instead. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-31985(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985  File: python.info, Node: sys<9>, Next: wave, Prev: sunau, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.14 sys ............. Deprecated ‘sys.set_coroutine_wrapper()’ and ‘sys.get_coroutine_wrapper()’. The undocumented ‘sys.callstats()’ function has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python version. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-28799(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28799  File: python.info, Node: wave, Prev: sys<9>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods 1.7.11.15 wave .............. ‘wave.openfp()’ has been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.9. Use *note wave.open(): 94b. instead. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-31985(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31985  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API, Next: Platform Support Removals, Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.12 Deprecated functions and types of the C API -------------------------------------------------- Function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f8. is deprecated and replaced with a macro if ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to a value in the range between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not inclusive), or is ‘0x03060100’ or higher. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867(1).) *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f6. has been deprecated. Use *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbf, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bc0. or *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. instead. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16500(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16500  File: python.info, Node: Platform Support Removals, Next: API and Feature Removals<2>, Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.13 Platform Support Removals -------------------------------- * FreeBSD 9 and older are no longer officially supported. * For full Unicode support, including within extension modules, *nix platforms are now expected to provide at least one of ‘C.UTF-8’ (full locale), ‘C.utf8’ (full locale) or ‘UTF-8’ (‘LC_CTYPE’-only locale) as an alternative to the legacy ‘ASCII’-based ‘C’ locale. * OpenSSL 0.9.8 and 1.0.1 are no longer supported, which means building CPython 3.7 with SSL/TLS support on older platforms still using these versions requires custom build options that link to a more recent version of OpenSSL. Notably, this issue affects the Debian 8 (aka “jessie”) and Ubuntu 14.04 (aka “Trusty”) LTS Linux distributions, as they still use OpenSSL 1.0.1 by default. Debian 9 (“stretch”) and Ubuntu 16.04 (“xenial”), as well as recent releases of other LTS Linux releases (e.g. RHEL/CentOS 7.5, SLES 12-SP3), use OpenSSL 1.0.2 or later, and remain supported in the default build configuration. CPython’s own CI configuration file(1) provides an example of using the SSL compatibility testing infrastructure(2) in CPython’s test suite to build and link against OpenSSL 1.1.0 rather than an outdated system provided OpenSSL. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.7.13/.travis.yml (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Tools/ssl/multissltests.py  File: python.info, Node: API and Feature Removals<2>, Next: Module Removals, Prev: Platform Support Removals, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.14 API and Feature Removals ------------------------------- The following features and APIs have been removed from Python 3.7: * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function has been removed. It was introduced in Python 2.3 for backward compatibility with Python 2.2, and was deprecated since Python 3.1. * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in replacement templates for *note re.sub(): 2a5. were deprecated in Python 3.5, and will now cause an error. * Removed support of the 'exclude' argument in *note tarfile.TarFile.add(): bf3. It was deprecated in Python 2.7 and 3.2. Use the 'filter' argument instead. * The ‘ntpath.splitunc()’ function was deprecated in Python 3.1, and has now been removed. Use *note splitdrive(): bf4. instead. * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. no longer supports the 'verbose' parameter or ‘_source’ attribute which showed the generated source code for the named tuple class. This was part of an optimization designed to speed-up class creation. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra with further improvements by INADA Naoki, Serhiy Storchaka, and Raymond Hettinger in bpo-28638(1).) * Functions *note bool(): 463, *note float(): 2f1, *note list(): 60d. and *note tuple(): 36b. no longer take keyword arguments. The first argument of *note int(): 259. can now be passed only as positional argument. * Removed previously deprecated in Python 2.4 classes ‘Plist’, ‘Dict’ and ‘_InternalDict’ in the *note plistlib: ab. module. Dict values in the result of functions ‘readPlist()’ and ‘readPlistFromBytes()’ are now normal dicts. You no longer can use attribute access to access items of these dictionaries. * The ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair()’ function has been removed. Use the *note socket.socketpair(): bf5. function instead, it is available on all platforms since Python 3.5. ‘asyncio.windows_utils.socketpair’ was just an alias to ‘socket.socketpair’ on Python 3.5 and newer. * *note asyncio: a. no longer exports the *note selectors: c2. and ‘_overlapped’ modules as ‘asyncio.selectors’ and ‘asyncio._overlapped’. Replace ‘from asyncio import selectors’ with ‘import selectors’. * Direct instantiation of *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e9. and *note ssl.SSLObject: b81. objects is now prohibited. The constructors were never documented, tested, or designed as public constructors. Users were supposed to use ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ or *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-32951(2).) * The unused ‘distutils’ ‘install_misc’ command has been removed. (Contributed by Eric N. Vander Weele in bpo-29218(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28638 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32951 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29218  File: python.info, Node: Module Removals, Next: Windows-only Changes, Prev: API and Feature Removals<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.15 Module Removals ---------------------- The ‘fpectl’ module has been removed. It was never enabled by default, never worked correctly on x86-64, and it changed the Python ABI in ways that caused unexpected breakage of C extensions. (Contributed by Nathaniel J. Smith in bpo-29137(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29137  File: python.info, Node: Windows-only Changes, Next: Porting to Python 3 7, Prev: Module Removals, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.16 Windows-only Changes --------------------------- The python launcher, (py.exe), can accept 32 & 64 bit specifiers 'without' having to specify a minor version as well. So ‘py -3-32’ and ‘py -3-64’ become valid as well as ‘py -3.7-32’, also the -'m'-64 and -'m.n'-64 forms are now accepted to force 64 bit python even if 32 bit would have otherwise been used. If the specified version is not available py.exe will error exit. (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30291(1).) The launcher can be run as ‘py -0’ to produce a list of the installed pythons, 'with default marked with an asterisk'. Running ‘py -0p’ will include the paths. If py is run with a version specifier that cannot be matched it will also print the 'short form' list of available specifiers. (Contributed by Steve Barnes in bpo-30362(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30291 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30362  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 7, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1, Prev: Windows-only Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.17 Porting to Python 3.7 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in Python Behavior:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<7>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<5>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<6>. * Windows-only Changes: Windows-only Changes<2>. * Other CPython implementation changes::  File: python.info, Node: Changes in Python Behavior, Next: Changes in the Python API<7>, Up: Porting to Python 3 7 1.7.17.1 Changes in Python Behavior ................................... * *note async: 72d. and *note await: 1b9. names are now reserved keywords. Code using these names as identifiers will now raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-30406(1).) * PEP 479(2) is enabled for all code in Python 3.7, meaning that *note StopIteration: bfa. exceptions raised directly or indirectly in coroutines and generators are transformed into *note RuntimeError: 195. exceptions. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32670(3).) * *note object.__aiter__(): bfb. methods can no longer be declared as asynchronous. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-31709(4).) * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the following syntax: f(1 for x in [1],) class C(1 for x in [1]): pass Python 3.7 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 18d, as a generator expression always needs to be directly inside a set of parentheses and cannot have a comma on either side, and the duplication of the parentheses can be omitted only on calls. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-32012(5) and bpo-32023(6).) * When using the *note -m: 5dd. switch, the initial working directory is now added to *note sys.path: 3b0, rather than an empty string (which dynamically denoted the current working directory at the time of each import). Any programs that are checking for the empty string, or otherwise relying on the previous behaviour, will need to be updated accordingly (e.g. by also checking for ‘os.getcwd()’ or ‘os.path.dirname(__main__.__file__)’, depending on why the code was checking for the empty string in the first place). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30406 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32670 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31709 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32012 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32023  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<7>, Next: Changes in the C API<5>, Prev: Changes in Python Behavior, Up: Porting to Python 3 7 1.7.17.2 Changes in the Python API .................................. * ‘socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all non-daemon threads complete. Set the new *note socketserver.ThreadingMixIn.block_on_close: bfd. class attribute to ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31233(1) and bpo-33540(2).) * ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.server_close()’ now waits until all child processes complete. Set the new ‘socketserver.ForkingMixIn.block_on_close’ class attribute to ‘False’ to get the pre-3.7 behaviour. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31151(3) and bpo-33540(4).) * The *note locale.localeconv(): bfe. function now temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the value of ‘LC_NUMERIC’ in some cases. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(5).) * *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): bff. now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if 'path' is a string. Previously an empty list was returned. (Contributed by Sanyam Khurana in bpo-24744(6).) * A format string argument for *note string.Formatter.format(): c00. is now *note positional-only: a85. Passing it as a keyword argument was deprecated in Python 3.5. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29193(7).) * Attributes *note key: c01, *note value: c02. and *note coded_value: c03. of class *note http.cookies.Morsel: c04. are now read-only. Assigning to them was deprecated in Python 3.5. Use the *note set(): c05. method for setting them. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29192(8).) * The 'mode' argument of *note os.makedirs(): 220. no longer affects the file permission bits of newly created intermediate-level directories. To set their file permission bits you can set the umask before invoking ‘makedirs()’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19930(9).) * The *note struct.Struct.format: c06. type is now *note str: 447. instead of *note bytes: 1c2. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21071(10).) * ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ now accepts the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments and returns the same results as ‘FieldStorage’: for non-file fields, the value associated to a key is a list of strings, not bytes. (Contributed by Pierre Quentel in bpo-29979(11).) * Due to internal changes in *note socket: cc, calling *note socket.fromshare(): c07. on a socket created by *note socket.share: c08. in older Python versions is not supported. * ‘repr’ for *note BaseException: 5b7. has changed to not include the trailing comma. Most exceptions are affected by this change. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30399(12).) * ‘repr’ for *note datetime.timedelta: 9cf. has changed to include the keyword arguments in the output. (Contributed by Utkarsh Upadhyay in bpo-30302(13).) * Because *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. is now implemented using the *note os.scandir(): a5e. function, the user specified handler 'onerror' is now called with the first argument ‘os.scandir’ instead of ‘os.listdir’ when listing the directory is failed. * Support for nested sets and set operations in regular expressions as in Unicode Technical Standard #18(14) might be added in the future. This would change the syntax. To facilitate this future change a *note FutureWarning: 411. will be raised in ambiguous cases for the time being. That include sets starting with a literal ‘'['’ or containing literal character sequences ‘'--'’, ‘'&&'’, ‘'~~'’, and ‘'||'’. To avoid a warning, escape them with a backslash. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-30349(15).) * The result of splitting a string on a *note regular expression: b9. that could match an empty string has been changed. For example splitting on ‘r'\s*'’ will now split not only on whitespaces as it did previously, but also on empty strings before all non-whitespace characters and just before the end of the string. The previous behavior can be restored by changing the pattern to ‘r'\s+'’. A *note FutureWarning: 411. was emitted for such patterns since Python 3.5. For patterns that match both empty and non-empty strings, the result of searching for all matches may also be changed in other cases. For example in the string ‘'a\n\n'’, the pattern ‘r'(?m)^\s*?$'’ will not only match empty strings at positions 2 and 3, but also the string ‘'\n'’ at positions 2–3. To match only blank lines, the pattern should be rewritten as ‘r'(?m)^[^\S\n]*$'’. *note re.sub(): 2a5. now replaces empty matches adjacent to a previous non-empty match. For example ‘re.sub('x*', '-', 'abxd')’ returns now ‘'-a-b--d-'’ instead of ‘'-a-b-d-'’ (the first minus between ‘b’ and ‘d’ replaces ‘x’, and the second minus replaces an empty string between ‘x’ and ‘d’). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25054(16) and bpo-32308(17).) * Change *note re.escape(): c09. to only escape regex special characters instead of escaping all characters other than ASCII letters, numbers, and ‘'_'’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-29995(18).) * *note tracemalloc.Traceback: b96. frames are now sorted from oldest to most recent to be more consistent with *note traceback: fe. (Contributed by Jesse Bakker in bpo-32121(19).) * On OSes that support *note socket.SOCK_NONBLOCK: c0a. or *note socket.SOCK_CLOEXEC: c0b. bit flags, the *note socket.type: c0c. no longer has them applied. Therefore, checks like ‘if sock.type == socket.SOCK_STREAM’ work as expected on all platforms. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32331(20).) * On Windows the default for the 'close_fds' argument of *note subprocess.Popen: 199. was changed from *note False: b37. to *note True: c0d. when redirecting the standard handles. If you previously depended on handles being inherited when using *note subprocess.Popen: 199. with standard io redirection, you will have to pass ‘close_fds=False’ to preserve the previous behaviour, or use *note STARTUPINFO.lpAttributeList: c0e. * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): c0f. – which implicitly affects *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c10. – now deletes entries in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. which are set to ‘None’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-33169(21).) * In *note asyncio: a, *note loop.sock_recv(): c11, *note loop.sock_sendall(): c12, *note loop.sock_accept(): c13, *note loop.getaddrinfo(): c14, *note loop.getnameinfo(): c15. have been changed to be proper coroutine methods to match their documentation. Previously, these methods returned *note asyncio.Future: bcd. instances. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32327(22).) * *note asyncio.Server.sockets: c16. now returns a copy of the internal list of server sockets, instead of returning it directly. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-32662(23).) * *note Struct.format: c06. is now a *note str: 447. instance instead of a *note bytes: 1c2. instance. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21071(24).) * *note argparse: 6. subparsers can now be made mandatory by passing ‘required=True’ to *note ArgumentParser.add_subparsers(): c17. (Contributed by Anthony Sottile in bpo-26510(25).) * *note ast.literal_eval(): c18. is now stricter. Addition and subtraction of arbitrary numbers are no longer allowed. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31778(26).) * *note Calendar.itermonthdates: c19. will now consistently raise an exception when a date falls outside of the ‘0001-01-01’ through ‘9999-12-31’ range. To support applications that cannot tolerate such exceptions, the new *note Calendar.itermonthdays3: c1a. and *note Calendar.itermonthdays4: c1b. can be used. The new methods return tuples and are not restricted by the range supported by *note datetime.date: 1cd. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-28292(27).) * *note collections.ChainMap: c1c. now preserves the order of the underlying mappings. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-32792(28).) * The ‘submit()’ method of *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. and *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. now raises a *note RuntimeError: 195. if called during interpreter shutdown. (Contributed by Mark Nemec in bpo-33097(29).) * The *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. constructor now uses ‘read_dict()’ to process the default values, making its behavior consistent with the rest of the parser. Non-string keys and values in the defaults dictionary are now being implicitly converted to strings. (Contributed by James Tocknell in bpo-23835(30).) * Several undocumented internal imports were removed. One example is that ‘os.errno’ is no longer available; use ‘import errno’ directly instead. Note that such undocumented internal imports may be removed any time without notice, even in micro version releases. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31233 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31151 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33540 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24744 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29193 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29192 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19930 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29979 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30399 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30302 (14) https://unicode.org/reports/tr18/ (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30349 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25054 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32308 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=29995 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32121 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32331 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33169 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32327 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32662 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21071 (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26510 (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31778 (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28292 (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32792 (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33097 (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23835  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<5>, Next: CPython bytecode changes<6>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<7>, Up: Porting to Python 3 7 1.7.17.3 Changes in the C API ............................. The function *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f8. is considered unsafe for resizable sequences. If the slice indices are not instances of *note int: 259, but objects that implement the ‘__index__()’ method, the sequence can be resized after passing its length to ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’. This can lead to returning indices out of the length of the sequence. For avoiding possible problems use new functions *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27867(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27867  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes<6>, Next: Windows-only Changes<2>, Prev: Changes in the C API<5>, Up: Porting to Python 3 7 1.7.17.4 CPython bytecode changes ................................. There are two new opcodes: *note LOAD_METHOD: c1f. and ‘CALL_METHOD’. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26110(1).) The ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ opcode has been removed. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-32550(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26110 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=32550  File: python.info, Node: Windows-only Changes<2>, Next: Other CPython implementation changes, Prev: CPython bytecode changes<6>, Up: Porting to Python 3 7 1.7.17.5 Windows-only Changes ............................. The file used to override *note sys.path: 3b0. is now called ‘._pth’ instead of ‘'sys.path'’. See *note Finding modules: c21. for more information. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-28137(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28137  File: python.info, Node: Other CPython implementation changes, Prev: Windows-only Changes<2>, Up: Porting to Python 3 7 1.7.17.6 Other CPython implementation changes ............................................. In preparation for potential future changes to the public CPython runtime initialization API (see PEP 432(1) for an initial, but somewhat outdated, draft), CPython’s internal startup and configuration management logic has been significantly refactored. While these updates are intended to be entirely transparent to both embedding applications and users of the regular CPython CLI, they’re being mentioned here as the refactoring changes the internal order of various operations during interpreter startup, and hence may uncover previously latent defects, either in embedding applications, or in CPython itself. (Initially contributed by Nick Coghlan and Eric Snow as part of bpo-22257(2), and further updated by Nick, Eric, and Victor Stinner in a number of other issues). Some known details affected: * ‘PySys_AddWarnOptionUnicode()’ is not currently usable by embedding applications due to the requirement to create a Unicode object prior to calling ‘Py_Initialize’. Use ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’ instead. * warnings filters added by an embedding application with ‘PySys_AddWarnOption()’ should now more consistently take precedence over the default filters set by the interpreter Due to changes in the way the default warnings filters are configured, setting *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0. to a value greater than one is no longer sufficient to both emit *note BytesWarning: c23. messages and have them converted to exceptions. Instead, the flag must be set (to cause the warnings to be emitted in the first place), and an explicit ‘error::BytesWarning’ warnings filter added to convert them to exceptions. Due to a change in the way docstrings are handled by the compiler, the implicit ‘return None’ in a function body consisting solely of a docstring is now marked as occurring on the same line as the docstring, not on the function’s header line. The current exception state has been moved from the frame object to the co-routine. This simplified the interpreter and fixed a couple of obscure bugs caused by having swap exception state when entering or exiting a generator. (Contributed by Mark Shannon in bpo-25612(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22257 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25612  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2, Prev: Porting to Python 3 7, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.18 Notable changes in Python 3.7.1 -------------------------------------- Starting in 3.7.1, *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. now consistently reads and respects all of the same environment settings as *note Py_Main(): c25. (in earlier Python versions, it respected an ill-defined subset of those environment variables, while in Python 3.7.0 it didn’t read any of them due to bpo-34247(1)). If this behavior is unwanted, set *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d4. to 1 before calling *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. In 3.7.1 the C API for Context Variables *note was updated: c26. to use *note PyObject: 334. pointers. See also bpo-34762(2). In 3.7.1 the *note tokenize: fb. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’ token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34247 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.19 Notable changes in Python 3.7.2 -------------------------------------- In 3.7.2, *note venv: 111. on Windows no longer copies the original binaries, but creates redirector scripts named ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ instead. This resolves a long standing issue where all virtual environments would have to be upgraded or recreated with each Python update. However, note that this release will still require recreation of virtual environments in order to get the new scripts.  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 2, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.20 Notable changes in Python 3.7.6 -------------------------------------- Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72e. is no longer supported. This is because of the behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.21 Notable changes in Python 3.7.10 --------------------------------------- Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27c. and *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 27b. Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default. This change also affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11, Next: Notable security feature in 3 7 14, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.22 Notable changes in Python 3.7.11 --------------------------------------- A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’. (See gh-87451(1)) The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 10a. preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’. (See gh-88048(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048  File: python.info, Node: Notable security feature in 3 7 14, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11, Up: What’s New In Python 3 7 1.7.23 Notable security feature in 3.7.14 ----------------------------------------- Converting between *note int: 259. and *note str: 447. in bases other than 2 (binary), 4, 8 (octal), 16 (hexadecimal), or 32 such as base 10 (decimal) now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if the number of digits in string form is above a limit to avoid potential denial of service attacks due to the algorithmic complexity. This is a mitigation for CVE 2020-10735(1). This limit can be configured or disabled by environment variable, command line flag, or *note sys: d9. APIs. See the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. documentation. The default limit is 4300 digits in string form. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2020-10735  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 6, Next: What’s New In Python 3 5, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 7, Up: What’s New in Python 1.8 What’s New In Python 3.6 ============================ Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <>, Yury Selivanov <> This article explains the new features in Python 3.6, compared to 3.5. Python 3.6 was released on December 23, 2016.  See the changelog(1) for a full list of changes. See also ........ PEP 494(2) - Python 3.6 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<6>. * New Features: New Features<13>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<8>. * New Modules: New Modules<8>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<8>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<8>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<2>. * Other Improvements:: * Deprecated: Deprecated<9>. * Removed: Removed<9>. * Porting to Python 3.6: Porting to Python 3 6. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.2: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.4: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.5: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.7: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.10: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.13: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13. * Notable changes in Python 3.6.14: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/3.6/whatsnew/changelog.html (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0494/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<6>, Next: New Features<13>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.1 Summary – Release highlights ---------------------------------- New syntax features: * *note PEP 498: c2f, formatted string literals. * *note PEP 515: c30, underscores in numeric literals. * *note PEP 526: c31, syntax for variable annotations. * *note PEP 525: c32, asynchronous generators. * *note PEP 530: c33.: asynchronous comprehensions. New library modules: * *note secrets: c0.: *note PEP 506 – Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library: c34. CPython implementation improvements: * The *note dict: ac6. type has been reimplemented to use a *note more compact representation: c35. based on a proposal by Raymond Hettinger(1) and similar to the PyPy dict implementation(2). This resulted in dictionaries using 20% to 25% less memory when compared to Python 3.5. * Customization of class creation has been simplified with the *note new protocol: c36. * The class attribute definition order is *note now preserved: c37. * The order of elements in ‘**kwargs’ now *note corresponds to the order: c38. in which keyword arguments were passed to the function. * DTrace and SystemTap *note probing support: c39. has been added. * The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: c3a. environment variable can now be used to debug the interpreter memory allocation and access errors. Significant improvements in the standard library: * The *note asyncio: a. module has received new features, significant usability and performance improvements, and a fair amount of bug fixes. Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer provisional and its API is considered stable. * A new *note file system path protocol: c3b. has been implemented to support *note path-like objects: 2a2. All standard library functions operating on paths have been updated to work with the new protocol. * The *note datetime: 30. module has gained support for *note Local Time Disambiguation: c3c. * The *note typing: 104. module received a number of *note improvements: c3d. * The *note tracemalloc: ff. module has been significantly reworked and is now used to provide better output for *note ResourceWarning: 246. as well as provide better diagnostics for memory allocation errors. See the *note PYTHONMALLOC section: c3a. for more information. Security improvements: * The new *note secrets: c0. module has been added to simplify the generation of cryptographically strong pseudo-random numbers suitable for managing secrets such as account authentication, tokens, and similar. * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 51e. now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security. See the PEP 524(3) for the rationale. * The *note hashlib: 68. and *note ssl: d0. modules now support OpenSSL 1.1.0. * The default settings and feature set of the *note ssl: d0. module have been improved. * The *note hashlib: 68. module received support for the BLAKE2, SHA-3 and SHAKE hash algorithms and the *note scrypt(): c3e. key derivation function. Windows improvements: * *note PEP 528: c3f. and *note PEP 529: c40, Windows filesystem and console encoding changed to UTF-8. * The ‘py.exe’ launcher, when used interactively, no longer prefers Python 2 over Python 3 when the user doesn’t specify a version (via command line arguments or a config file). Handling of shebang lines remains unchanged - “python” refers to Python 2 in that case. * ‘python.exe’ and ‘pythonw.exe’ have been marked as long-path aware, which means that the 260 character path limit may no longer apply. See *note removing the MAX_PATH limitation: c41. for details. * A ‘._pth’ file can be added to force isolated mode and fully specify all search paths to avoid registry and environment lookup. See *note the documentation: c21. for more information. * A ‘python36.zip’ file now works as a landmark to infer *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. See *note the documentation: c21. for more information. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html (2) https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/  File: python.info, Node: New Features<13>, Next: Other Language Changes<8>, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * PEP 498; Formatted string literals: PEP 498 Formatted string literals. * PEP 526; Syntax for variable annotations: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations. * PEP 515; Underscores in Numeric Literals: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals. * PEP 525; Asynchronous Generators: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators. * PEP 530; Asynchronous Comprehensions: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions. * PEP 487; Simpler customization of class creation: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation. * PEP 487; Descriptor Protocol Enhancements: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements. * PEP 519; Adding a file system path protocol: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol. * PEP 495; Local Time Disambiguation: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation. * PEP 529; Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8. * PEP 528; Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8. * PEP 520; Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order. * PEP 468; Preserving Keyword Argument Order: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order. * New dict implementation:: * PEP 523; Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython. * PYTHONMALLOC environment variable:: * DTrace and SystemTap probing support::  File: python.info, Node: PEP 498 Formatted string literals, Next: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.1 PEP 498: Formatted string literals .......................................... PEP 498(1) introduces a new kind of string literals: 'f-strings', or *note formatted string literals: 9a9. Formatted string literals are prefixed with ‘'f'’ and are similar to the format strings accepted by *note str.format(): 61d. They contain replacement fields surrounded by curly braces. The replacement fields are expressions, which are evaluated at run time, and then formatted using the *note format(): 61b. protocol: >>> name = "Fred" >>> f"He said his name is {name}." 'He said his name is Fred.' >>> width = 10 >>> precision = 4 >>> value = decimal.Decimal("12.34567") >>> f"result: {value:{width}.{precision}}" # nested fields 'result: 12.35' See also ........ PEP 498(2) – Literal String Interpolation. PEP written and implemented by Eric V. Smith. *note Feature documentation: 9a9. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations, Next: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals, Prev: PEP 498 Formatted string literals, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.2 PEP 526: Syntax for variable annotations ................................................ PEP 484(1) introduced the standard for type annotations of function parameters, a.k.a. type hints. This PEP adds syntax to Python for annotating the types of variables including class variables and instance variables: primes: List[int] = [] captain: str # Note: no initial value! class Starship: stats: Dict[str, int] = {} Just as for function annotations, the Python interpreter does not attach any particular meaning to variable annotations and only stores them in the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class or module. In contrast to variable declarations in statically typed languages, the goal of annotation syntax is to provide an easy way to specify structured type metadata for third party tools and libraries via the abstract syntax tree and the ‘__annotations__’ attribute. See also ........ PEP 526(2) – Syntax for variable annotations. PEP written by Ryan Gonzalez, Philip House, Ivan Levkivskyi, Lisa Roach, and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Ivan Levkivskyi. Tools that use or will use the new syntax: mypy(3), pytype(4), PyCharm, etc. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (3) https://www.mypy-lang.org/ (4) https://github.com/google/pytype  File: python.info, Node: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals, Next: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators, Prev: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.3 PEP 515: Underscores in Numeric Literals ................................................ PEP 515(1) adds the ability to use underscores in numeric literals for improved readability. For example: >>> 1_000_000_000_000_000 1000000000000000 >>> 0x_FF_FF_FF_FF 4294967295 Single underscores are allowed between digits and after any base specifier. Leading, trailing, or multiple underscores in a row are not allowed. The *note string formatting: 1ea. language also now has support for the ‘'_'’ option to signal the use of an underscore for a thousands separator for floating-point presentation types and for integer presentation type ‘'d'’. For integer presentation types ‘'b'’, ‘'o'’, ‘'x'’, and ‘'X'’, underscores will be inserted every 4 digits: >>> '{:_}'.format(1000000) '1_000_000' >>> '{:_x}'.format(0xFFFFFFFF) 'ffff_ffff' See also ........ PEP 515(2) – Underscores in Numeric Literals PEP written by Georg Brandl and Serhiy Storchaka. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0515/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators, Next: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions, Prev: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.4 PEP 525: Asynchronous Generators ........................................ PEP 492(1) introduced support for native coroutines and ‘async’ / ‘await’ syntax to Python 3.5. A notable limitation of the Python 3.5 implementation is that it was not possible to use ‘await’ and ‘yield’ in the same function body. In Python 3.6 this restriction has been lifted, making it possible to define 'asynchronous generators': async def ticker(delay, to): """Yield numbers from 0 to *to* every *delay* seconds.""" for i in range(to): yield i await asyncio.sleep(delay) The new syntax allows for faster and more concise code. See also ........ PEP 525(2) – Asynchronous Generators PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions, Next: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation, Prev: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.5 PEP 530: Asynchronous Comprehensions ............................................ PEP 530(1) adds support for using ‘async for’ in list, set, dict comprehensions and generator expressions: result = [i async for i in aiter() if i % 2] Additionally, ‘await’ expressions are supported in all kinds of comprehensions: result = [await fun() for fun in funcs if await condition()] See also ........ PEP 530(2) – Asynchronous Comprehensions PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0530/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation, Next: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements, Prev: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.6 PEP 487: Simpler customization of class creation ........................................................ It is now possible to customize subclass creation without using a metaclass. The new ‘__init_subclass__’ classmethod will be called on the base class whenever a new subclass is created: class PluginBase: subclasses = [] def __init_subclass__(cls, **kwargs): super().__init_subclass__(**kwargs) cls.subclasses.append(cls) class Plugin1(PluginBase): pass class Plugin2(PluginBase): pass In order to allow zero-argument *note super(): 4d7. calls to work correctly from *note __init_subclass__(): 62d. implementations, custom metaclasses must ensure that the new ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry is propagated to ‘type.__new__’ (as described in *note Creating the class object: c4a.). See also ........ PEP 487(1) – Simpler customization of class creation PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann. *note Feature documentation: c4b. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements, Next: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol, Prev: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.7 PEP 487: Descriptor Protocol Enhancements ................................................. PEP 487(1) extends the descriptor protocol to include the new optional *note __set_name__(): c4e. method. Whenever a new class is defined, the new method will be called on all descriptors included in the definition, providing them with a reference to the class being defined and the name given to the descriptor within the class namespace. In other words, instances of descriptors can now know the attribute name of the descriptor in the owner class: class IntField: def __get__(self, instance, owner): return instance.__dict__[self.name] def __set__(self, instance, value): if not isinstance(value, int): raise ValueError(f'expecting integer in {self.name}') instance.__dict__[self.name] = value # this is the new initializer: def __set_name__(self, owner, name): self.name = name class Model: int_field = IntField() See also ........ PEP 487(2) – Simpler customization of class creation PEP written and implemented by Martin Teichmann. *note Feature documentation: c4f. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol, Next: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation, Prev: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.8 PEP 519: Adding a file system path protocol ................................................... File system paths have historically been represented as *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. objects. This has led to people who write code which operate on file system paths to assume that such objects are only one of those two types (an *note int: 259. representing a file descriptor does not count as that is not a file path). Unfortunately that assumption prevents alternative object representations of file system paths like *note pathlib: a4. from working with pre-existing code, including Python’s standard library. To fix this situation, a new interface represented by *note os.PathLike: c51. has been defined. By implementing the *note __fspath__(): c52. method, an object signals that it represents a path. An object can then provide a low-level representation of a file system path as a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. object. This means an object is considered *note path-like: 2a2. if it implements *note os.PathLike: c51. or is a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. object which represents a file system path. Code can use *note os.fspath(): c53, *note os.fsdecode(): c54, or *note os.fsencode(): c55. to explicitly get a *note str: 447. and/or *note bytes: 1c2. representation of a path-like object. The built-in *note open(): 517. function has been updated to accept *note os.PathLike: c51. objects, as have all relevant functions in the *note os: a1. and *note os.path: a2. modules, and most other functions and classes in the standard library. The *note os.DirEntry: 497. class and relevant classes in *note pathlib: a4. have also been updated to implement *note os.PathLike: c51. The hope is that updating the fundamental functions for operating on file system paths will lead to third-party code to implicitly support all *note path-like objects: 2a2. without any code changes, or at least very minimal ones (e.g. calling *note os.fspath(): c53. at the beginning of code before operating on a path-like object). Here are some examples of how the new interface allows for *note pathlib.Path: 22b. to be used more easily and transparently with pre-existing code: >>> import pathlib >>> with open(pathlib.Path("README")) as f: ... contents = f.read() ... >>> import os.path >>> os.path.splitext(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt")) ('some_file', '.txt') >>> os.path.join("/a/b", pathlib.Path("c")) '/a/b/c' >>> import os >>> os.fspath(pathlib.Path("some_file.txt")) 'some_file.txt' (Implemented by Brett Cannon, Ethan Furman, Dusty Phillips, and Jelle Zijlstra.) See also ........ PEP 519(1) – Adding a file system path protocol PEP written by Brett Cannon and Koos Zevenhoven. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation, Next: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8, Prev: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.9 PEP 495: Local Time Disambiguation .......................................... In most world locations, there have been and will be times when local clocks are moved back. In those times, intervals are introduced in which local clocks show the same time twice in the same day. In these situations, the information displayed on a local clock (or stored in a Python datetime instance) is insufficient to identify a particular moment in time. PEP 495(1) adds the new 'fold' attribute to instances of *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. and *note datetime.time: 1ce. classes to differentiate between two moments in time for which local times are the same: >>> u0 = datetime(2016, 11, 6, 4, tzinfo=timezone.utc) >>> for i in range(4): ... u = u0 + i*HOUR ... t = u.astimezone(Eastern) ... print(u.time(), 'UTC =', t.time(), t.tzname(), t.fold) ... 04:00:00 UTC = 00:00:00 EDT 0 05:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EDT 0 06:00:00 UTC = 01:00:00 EST 1 07:00:00 UTC = 02:00:00 EST 0 The values of the *note fold: c57. attribute have the value ‘0’ for all instances except those that represent the second (chronologically) moment in time in an ambiguous case. See also ........ PEP 495(2) – Local Time Disambiguation PEP written by Alexander Belopolsky and Tim Peters, implementation by Alexander Belopolsky. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0495/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8, Next: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8, Prev: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.10 PEP 529: Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8 ............................................................. Representing filesystem paths is best performed with str (Unicode) rather than bytes. However, there are some situations where using bytes is sufficient and correct. Prior to Python 3.6, data loss could result when using bytes paths on Windows. With this change, using bytes to represent paths is now supported on Windows, provided those bytes are encoded with the encoding returned by *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59, which now defaults to ‘'utf-8'’. Applications that do not use str to represent paths should use *note os.fsencode(): c55. and *note os.fsdecode(): c54. to ensure their bytes are correctly encoded. To revert to the previous behaviour, set *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. or call *note sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2b0. See PEP 529(1) for more information and discussion of code modifications that may be required. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8, Next: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order, Prev: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.11 PEP 528: Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 .......................................................... The default console on Windows will now accept all Unicode characters and provide correctly read str objects to Python code. ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ now default to utf-8 encoding. This change only applies when using an interactive console, and not when redirecting files or pipes. To revert to the previous behaviour for interactive console use, set *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c5b. See also ........ PEP 528(1) – Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8 PEP written and implemented by Steve Dower. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order, Next: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order, Prev: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.12 PEP 520: Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order ............................................................. Attributes in a class definition body have a natural ordering: the same order in which the names appear in the source. This order is now preserved in the new class’s *note __dict__: c5d. attribute. Also, the effective default class 'execution' namespace (returned from *note type.__prepare__(): c5e.) is now an insertion-order-preserving mapping. See also ........ PEP 520(1) – Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0520/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order, Next: New dict implementation, Prev: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.13 PEP 468: Preserving Keyword Argument Order ................................................... ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature is now guaranteed to be an insertion-order-preserving mapping. See also ........ PEP 468(1) – Preserving Keyword Argument Order PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0468/  File: python.info, Node: New dict implementation, Next: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython, Prev: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.14 New dict implementation ................................ The *note dict: ac6. type now uses a “compact” representation based on a proposal by Raymond Hettinger(1) which was first implemented by PyPy(2). The memory usage of the new *note dict(): 258. is between 20% and 25% smaller compared to Python 3.5. The order-preserving aspect of this new implementation is considered an implementation detail and should not be relied upon (this may change in the future, but it is desired to have this new dict implementation in the language for a few releases before changing the language spec to mandate order-preserving semantics for all current and future Python implementations; this also helps preserve backwards-compatibility with older versions of the language where random iteration order is still in effect, e.g. Python 3.5). (Contributed by INADA Naoki in bpo-27350(3). Idea originally suggested by Raymond Hettinger(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html (2) https://morepypy.blogspot.com/2015/01/faster-more-memory-efficient-and-more.html (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27350 (4) https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2012-December/123028.html  File: python.info, Node: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython, Next: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable, Prev: New dict implementation, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.15 PEP 523: Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython .......................................................... While Python provides extensive support to customize how code executes, one place it has not done so is in the evaluation of frame objects. If you wanted some way to intercept frame evaluation in Python there really wasn’t any way without directly manipulating function pointers for defined functions. PEP 523(1) changes this by providing an API to make frame evaluation pluggable at the C level. This will allow for tools such as debuggers and JITs to intercept frame evaluation before the execution of Python code begins. This enables the use of alternative evaluation implementations for Python code, tracking frame evaluation, etc. This API is not part of the limited C API and is marked as private to signal that usage of this API is expected to be limited and only applicable to very select, low-level use-cases. Semantics of the API will change with Python as necessary. See also ........ PEP 523(2) – Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython PEP written by Brett Cannon and Dino Viehland. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/  File: python.info, Node: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable, Next: DTrace and SystemTap probing support, Prev: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.16 PYTHONMALLOC environment variable .......................................... The new *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable allows setting the Python memory allocators and installing debug hooks. It is now possible to install debug hooks on Python memory allocators on Python compiled in release mode using ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’. Effects of debug hooks: * Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ‘0xCB’ * Freed memory is filled with the byte ‘0xDB’ * Detect violations of the Python memory allocator API. For example, *note PyObject_Free(): c65. called on a memory block allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. * Detect writes before the start of a buffer (buffer underflows) * Detect writes after the end of a buffer (buffer overflows) * Check that the *note GIL: 148. is held when allocator functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c67. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68.) and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66.) domains are called. Checking if the GIL is held is also a new feature of Python 3.6. See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. function for debug hooks on Python memory allocators. It is now also possible to force the usage of the ‘malloc()’ allocator of the C library for all Python memory allocations using ‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’. This is helpful when using external memory debuggers like Valgrind on a Python compiled in release mode. On error, the debug hooks on Python memory allocators now use the *note tracemalloc: ff. module to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated. Example of fatal error on buffer overflow using ‘python3.6 -X tracemalloc=5’ (store 5 frames in traces): Debug memory block at address p=0x7fbcd41666f8: API 'o' 4 bytes originally requested The 7 pad bytes at p-7 are FORBIDDENBYTE, as expected. The 8 pad bytes at tail=0x7fbcd41666fc are not all FORBIDDENBYTE (0xfb): at tail+0: 0x02 *** OUCH at tail+1: 0xfb at tail+2: 0xfb at tail+3: 0xfb at tail+4: 0xfb at tail+5: 0xfb at tail+6: 0xfb at tail+7: 0xfb The block was made by call #1233329 to debug malloc/realloc. Data at p: 1a 2b 30 00 Memory block allocated at (most recent call first): File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 File "unittest/case.py", line 600 File "unittest/case.py", line 648 File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 Fatal Python error: bad trailing pad byte Current thread 0x00007fbcdbd32700 (most recent call first): File "test/test_bytes.py", line 323 in test_hex File "unittest/case.py", line 600 in run File "unittest/case.py", line 648 in __call__ File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__ File "unittest/suite.py", line 122 in run File "unittest/suite.py", line 84 in __call__ ... (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26516(1) and bpo-26564(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26516 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26564  File: python.info, Node: DTrace and SystemTap probing support, Prev: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable, Up: New Features<13> 1.8.2.17 DTrace and SystemTap probing support ............................................. Python can now be built ‘--with-dtrace’ which enables static markers for the following events in the interpreter: * function call/return * garbage collection started/finished * line of code executed. This can be used to instrument running interpreters in production, without the need to recompile specific *note debug builds: 1fb. or providing application-specific profiling/debugging code. More details in *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: c6c. The current implementation is tested on Linux and macOS. Additional markers may be added in the future. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-21590(1), based on patches by Jesús Cea Avión, David Malcolm, and Nikhil Benesch.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21590  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<8>, Next: New Modules<8>, Prev: New Features<13>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.3 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * A ‘global’ or ‘nonlocal’ statement must now textually appear before the first use of the affected name in the same scope. Previously this was a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. * It is now possible to set a *note special method: c6e. to ‘None’ to indicate that the corresponding operation is not available. For example, if a class sets ‘__iter__()’ to ‘None’, the class is not iterable. (Contributed by Andrew Barnert and Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25958(1).) * Long sequences of repeated traceback lines are now abbreviated as ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’ (see *note traceback: c6f. for an example). (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(2).) * Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. (subclass of *note ImportError: 415.) when it cannot find a module. Code that currently checks for ImportError (in try-except) will still work. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(3).) * Class methods relying on zero-argument ‘super()’ will now work correctly when called from metaclass methods during class creation. (Contributed by Martin Teichmann in bpo-23722(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25958 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23722  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<8>, Next: Improved Modules<8>, Prev: Other Language Changes<8>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.4 New Modules ----------------- * Menu: * secrets::  File: python.info, Node: secrets, Up: New Modules<8> 1.8.4.1 secrets ............... The main purpose of the new *note secrets: c0. module is to provide an obvious way to reliably generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random values suitable for managing secrets, such as account authentication, tokens, and similar. Warning: Note that the pseudo-random generators in the *note random: b8. module should 'NOT' be used for security purposes. Use *note secrets: c0. on Python 3.6+ and *note os.urandom(): 51e. on Python 3.5 and earlier. See also ........ PEP 506(1) – Adding A Secrets Module To The Standard Library PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0506/  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<8>, Next: Optimizations<8>, Prev: New Modules<8>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.5 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * array: array<4>. * ast: ast<4>. * asyncio: asyncio<9>. * binascii: binascii<2>. * cmath:: * collections: collections<4>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<4>. * contextlib: contextlib<4>. * datetime: datetime<5>. * decimal: decimal<2>. * distutils: distutils<5>. * email: email<2>. * encodings: encodings<2>. * enum: enum<7>. * faulthandler: faulthandler<2>. * fileinput: fileinput<2>. * hashlib: hashlib<5>. * http.client: http client<2>. * idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<2>. * importlib: importlib<6>. * inspect: inspect<6>. * json:: * logging: logging<4>. * math: math<7>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<5>. * os: os<8>. * pathlib: pathlib<9>. * pdb: pdb<5>. * pickle: pickle<2>. * pickletools:: * pydoc: pydoc<3>. * random: random<4>. * re: re<5>. * readline:: * rlcompleter:: * shlex: shlex<2>. * site: site<3>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<7>. * socket: socket<7>. * socketserver: socketserver<2>. * ssl: ssl<7>. * statistics: statistics<5>. * struct:: * subprocess: subprocess<3>. * sys: sys<10>. * telnetlib:: * time: time<6>. * timeit:: * tkinter: tkinter<6>. * traceback: traceback<4>. * tracemalloc: tracemalloc<3>. * typing: typing<9>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<7>. * unittest.mock: unittest mock<2>. * urllib.request: urllib request. * urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser. * venv: venv<5>. * warnings: warnings<4>. * winreg:: * winsound:: * xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client. * zipfile: zipfile<3>. * zlib::  File: python.info, Node: array<4>, Next: ast<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.1 array ............. Exhausted iterators of *note array.array: 1a0. will now stay exhausted even if the iterated array is extended. This is consistent with the behavior of other mutable sequences. Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26492(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26492  File: python.info, Node: ast<4>, Next: asyncio<9>, Prev: array<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.2 ast ........... The new *note ast.Constant: 2bb. AST node has been added. It can be used by external AST optimizers for the purposes of constant folding. Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26146(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26146  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<9>, Next: binascii<2>, Prev: ast<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.3 asyncio ............... Starting with Python 3.6 the ‘asyncio’ module is no longer provisional and its API is considered stable. Notable changes in the *note asyncio: a. module since Python 3.5.0 (all backported to 3.5.x due to the provisional status): * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c4. function has been changed to always return the currently running loop when called from coroutines and callbacks. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28613(1).) * The *note ensure_future(): c76. function and all functions that use it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): c77, now accept all kinds of *note awaitable objects: 1ad. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 880. function to submit coroutines to event loops from other threads. (Contributed by Vincent Michel.) * New *note Transport.is_closing(): c78. method to check if the transport is closing or closed. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * The *note loop.create_server(): b13. method can now accept a list of hosts. (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.) * New *note loop.create_future(): c79. method to create Future objects. This allows alternative event loop implementations, such as uvloop(2), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: bcd. implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27041(3).) * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): c7a. method to get the current exception handler. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27040(4).) * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4. method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears. (Contributed by Mark Korenberg.) * The performance of *note StreamReader.readexactly(): c7b. has been improved. (Contributed by Mark Korenberg in bpo-28370(5).) * The *note loop.getaddrinfo(): c14. method is optimized to avoid calling the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already resolved. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.) * The *note loop.stop(): c7c. method has been changed to stop the loop immediately after the current iteration. Any new callbacks scheduled as a result of the last iteration will be discarded. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in bpo-25593(6).) * ‘Future.set_exception’ will now raise *note TypeError: 534. when passed an instance of the *note StopIteration: bfa. exception. (Contributed by Chris Angelico in bpo-26221(7).) * New *note loop.connect_accepted_socket(): b1a. method to be used by servers that accept connections outside of asyncio, but that use asyncio to handle them. (Contributed by Jim Fulton in bpo-27392(8).) * ‘TCP_NODELAY’ flag is now set for all TCP transports by default. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27456(9).) * New *note loop.shutdown_asyncgens(): c7d. to properly close pending asynchronous generators before closing the loop. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28003(10).) * *note Future: bcd. and *note Task: 1be. classes now have an optimized C implementation which makes asyncio code up to 30% faster. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26081(11) and bpo-28544(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28613 (2) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27041 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27040 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28370 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25593 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26221 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27392 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27456 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28003 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544  File: python.info, Node: binascii<2>, Next: cmath, Prev: asyncio<9>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.4 binascii ................ The *note b2a_base64(): c7f. function now accepts an optional 'newline' keyword argument to control whether the newline character is appended to the return value. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25357(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25357  File: python.info, Node: cmath, Next: collections<4>, Prev: binascii<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.5 cmath ............. The new *note cmath.tau: c81. ('τ') constant has been added. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.) New constants: *note cmath.inf: c82. and *note cmath.nan: c83. to match *note math.inf: c84. and *note math.nan: 65f, and also *note cmath.infj: c85. and *note cmath.nanj: c86. to match the format used by complex repr. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23229(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23229  File: python.info, Node: collections<4>, Next: concurrent futures<4>, Prev: cmath, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.6 collections ................... The new *note Collection: c88. abstract base class has been added to represent sized iterable container classes. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi, docs by Neil Girdhar in bpo-27598(1).) The new *note Reversible: c89. abstract base class represents iterable classes that also provide the ‘__reversed__()’ method. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-25987(2).) The new *note AsyncGenerator: c8a. abstract base class represents asynchronous generators. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28720(3).) The *note namedtuple(): 1ca. function now accepts an optional keyword argument 'module', which, when specified, is used for the *note __module__: 36f. attribute of the returned named tuple class. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-17941(4).) The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 1ca. are now keyword-only. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(5).) Recursive *note collections.deque: 5d8. instances can now be pickled. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26482(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25987 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28720 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17941 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26482  File: python.info, Node: concurrent futures<4>, Next: contextlib<4>, Prev: collections<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.7 concurrent.futures .......................... The *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. class constructor now accepts an optional 'thread_name_prefix' argument to make it possible to customize the names of the threads created by the pool. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-27664(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27664  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<4>, Next: datetime<5>, Prev: concurrent futures<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.8 contextlib .................. The *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8d. class has been added to provide an abstract base class for context managers. It provides a sensible default implementation for ‘__enter__()’ which returns ‘self’ and leaves ‘__exit__()’ an abstract method. A matching class has been added to the *note typing: 104. module as *note typing.ContextManager: c8e. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609  File: python.info, Node: datetime<5>, Next: decimal<2>, Prev: contextlib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.9 datetime ................ The *note datetime: 1cc. and *note time: 1ce. classes have the new ‘fold’ attribute used to disambiguate local time when necessary. Many functions in the *note datetime: 30. have been updated to support local time disambiguation. See *note Local Time Disambiguation: c3c. section for more information. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-24773(1).) The *note datetime.strftime(): c90. and *note date.strftime(): c91. methods now support ISO 8601 date directives ‘%G’, ‘%u’ and ‘%V’. (Contributed by Ashley Anderson in bpo-12006(2).) The *note datetime.isoformat(): b30. function now accepts an optional 'timespec' argument that specifies the number of additional components of the time value to include. (Contributed by Alessandro Cucci and Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-19475(3).) The *note datetime.combine(): c92. now accepts an optional 'tzinfo' argument. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-27661(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24773 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12006 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19475 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27661  File: python.info, Node: decimal<2>, Next: distutils<5>, Prev: datetime<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.10 decimal ................ New *note Decimal.as_integer_ratio(): c94. method that returns a pair ‘(n, d)’ of integers that represent the given *note Decimal: 29f. instance as a fraction, in lowest terms and with a positive denominator: >>> Decimal('-3.14').as_integer_ratio() (-157, 50) (Contributed by Stefan Krah amd Mark Dickinson in bpo-25928(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25928  File: python.info, Node: distutils<5>, Next: email<2>, Prev: decimal<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.11 distutils .................. The ‘default_format’ attribute has been removed from ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’ and the ‘formats’ attribute defaults to ‘['gztar']’. Although not anticipated, any code relying on the presence of ‘default_format’ may need to be adapted. See bpo-27819(1) for more details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27819  File: python.info, Node: email<2>, Next: encodings<2>, Prev: distutils<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.12 email .............. The new email API, enabled via the 'policy' keyword to various constructors, is no longer provisional. The *note email: 3b. documentation has been reorganized and rewritten to focus on the new API, while retaining the old documentation for the legacy API. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24277(1).) The *note email.mime: 45. classes now all accept an optional 'policy' keyword. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-27331(2).) The *note DecodedGenerator: c97. now supports the 'policy' keyword. There is a new *note policy: 4f. attribute, *note message_factory: c98, that controls what class is used by default when the parser creates new message objects. For the *note email.policy.compat32: c99. policy this is *note Message: 27e, for the new policies it is *note EmailMessage: 27d. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-20476(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24277 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27331 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20476  File: python.info, Node: encodings<2>, Next: enum<7>, Prev: email<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.13 encodings .................. On Windows, added the ‘'oem'’ encoding to use ‘CP_OEMCP’, and the ‘'ansi'’ alias for the existing ‘'mbcs'’ encoding, which uses the ‘CP_ACP’ code page. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27959(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27959  File: python.info, Node: enum<7>, Next: faulthandler<2>, Prev: encodings<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.14 enum ............. Two new enumeration base classes have been added to the *note enum: 56. module: *note Flag: 61f. and ‘IntFlags’. Both are used to define constants that can be combined using the bitwise operators. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-23591(1).) Many standard library modules have been updated to use the ‘IntFlags’ class for their constants. The new *note enum.auto: c9c. value can be used to assign values to enum members automatically: >>> from enum import Enum, auto >>> class Color(Enum): ... red = auto() ... blue = auto() ... green = auto() ... >>> list(Color) [, , ] ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23591  File: python.info, Node: faulthandler<2>, Next: fileinput<2>, Prev: enum<7>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.15 faulthandler ..................... On Windows, the *note faulthandler: 58. module now installs a handler for Windows exceptions: see *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23848(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23848  File: python.info, Node: fileinput<2>, Next: hashlib<5>, Prev: faulthandler<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.16 fileinput .................. *note hook_encoded(): ca0. now supports the 'errors' argument. (Contributed by Joseph Hackman in bpo-25788(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25788  File: python.info, Node: hashlib<5>, Next: http client<2>, Prev: fileinput<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.17 hashlib ................ *note hashlib: 68. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0. The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).) BLAKE2 hash functions were added to the module. *note blake2b(): 63e. and *note blake2s(): 63f. are always available and support the full feature set of BLAKE2. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26798(2) based on code by Dmitry Chestnykh and Samuel Neves. Documentation written by Dmitry Chestnykh.) The SHA-3 hash functions *note sha3_224(): ca2, *note sha3_256(): ca3, *note sha3_384(): ca4, *note sha3_512(): ca5, and SHAKE hash functions *note shake_128(): ca6. and *note shake_256(): ca7. were added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16113(3). Keccak Code Package by Guido Bertoni, Joan Daemen, Michaël Peeters, Gilles Van Assche, and Ronny Van Keer.) The password-based key derivation function *note scrypt(): c3e. is now available with OpenSSL 1.1.0 and newer. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27928(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26798 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16113 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27928  File: python.info, Node: http client<2>, Next: idlelib and IDLE<2>, Prev: hashlib<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.18 http.client .................... *note HTTPConnection.request(): ca9. and *note endheaders(): caa. both now support chunked encoding request bodies. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319  File: python.info, Node: idlelib and IDLE<2>, Next: importlib<6>, Prev: http client<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.19 idlelib and IDLE ......................... The idlelib package is being modernized and refactored to make IDLE look and work better and to make the code easier to understand, test, and improve. Part of making IDLE look better, especially on Linux and Mac, is using ttk widgets, mostly in the dialogs. As a result, IDLE no longer runs with tcl/tk 8.4. It now requires tcl/tk 8.5 or 8.6. We recommend running the latest release of either. ‘Modernizing’ includes renaming and consolidation of idlelib modules. The renaming of files with partial uppercase names is similar to the renaming of, for instance, Tkinter and TkFont to tkinter and tkinter.font in 3.0. As a result, imports of idlelib files that worked in 3.5 will usually not work in 3.6. At least a module name change will be needed (see idlelib/README.txt), sometimes more. (Name changes contributed by Al Swiegart and Terry Reedy in bpo-24225(1). Most idlelib patches since have been and will be part of the process.) In compensation, the eventual result with be that some idlelib classes will be easier to use, with better APIs and docstrings explaining them. Additional useful information will be added to idlelib when available. New in 3.6.2: Multiple fixes for autocompletion. (Contributed by Louie Lu in bpo-15786(2).) New in 3.6.3: Module Browser (on the File menu, formerly called Class Browser), now displays nested functions and classes in addition to top-level functions and classes. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo, Cheryl Sabella, and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-1612262(3).) The IDLE features formerly implemented as extensions have been reimplemented as normal features. Their settings have been moved from the Extensions tab to other dialog tabs. (Contributed by Charles Wohlganger and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-27099(4).) The Settings dialog (Options, Configure IDLE) has been partly rewritten to improve both appearance and function. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in multiple issues.) New in 3.6.4: The font sample now includes a selection of non-Latin characters so that users can better see the effect of selecting a particular font. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-13802(5).) The sample can be edited to include other characters. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-31860(6).) New in 3.6.6: Editor code context option revised. Box displays all context lines up to maxlines. Clicking on a context line jumps the editor to that line. Context colors for custom themes is added to Highlights tab of Settings dialog. (Contributed by Cheryl Sabella and Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33642(7), bpo-33768(8), and bpo-33679(9).) On Windows, a new API call tells Windows that tk scales for DPI. On Windows 8.1+ or 10, with DPI compatibility properties of the Python binary unchanged, and a monitor resolution greater than 96 DPI, this should make text and lines sharper. It should otherwise have no effect. (Contributed by Terry Jan Reedy in bpo-33656(10).) New in 3.6.7: Output over N lines (50 by default) is squeezed down to a button. N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Fewer, but possibly extra long, lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. Squeezed output can be expanded in place by double-clicking the button or into the clipboard or a separate window by right-clicking the button. (Contributed by Tal Einat in bpo-1529353(11).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24225 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15786 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1612262 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27099 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13802 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31860 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33642 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33768 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33679 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33656 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1529353  File: python.info, Node: importlib<6>, Next: inspect<6>, Prev: idlelib and IDLE<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.20 importlib .................. Import now raises the new exception *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. (subclass of *note ImportError: 415.) when it cannot find a module. Code that current checks for ‘ImportError’ (in try-except) will still work. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(1).) *note importlib.util.LazyLoader: cad. now calls *note create_module(): cae. on the wrapped loader, removing the restriction that *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: caf. and *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cb0. couldn’t be used with *note importlib.util.LazyLoader: cad. *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f8, *note importlib.util.source_from_cache(): 515, and *note importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(): cb1. now accept a *note path-like object: 2a2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767  File: python.info, Node: inspect<6>, Next: json, Prev: importlib<6>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.21 inspect ................ The *note inspect.signature(): 733. function now reports the implicit ‘.0’ parameters generated by the compiler for comprehension and generator expression scopes as if they were positional-only parameters called ‘implicit0’. (Contributed by Jelle Zijlstra in bpo-19611(1).) To reduce code churn when upgrading from Python 2.7 and the legacy ‘inspect.getargspec()’ API, the previously documented deprecation of *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 734. has been reversed. While this function is convenient for single/source Python 2/3 code bases, the richer *note inspect.signature(): 733. interface remains the recommended approach for new code. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-27172(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19611 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27172  File: python.info, Node: json, Next: logging<4>, Prev: inspect<6>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.22 json ............. *note json.load(): cb4. and *note json.loads(): 955. now support binary input. Encoded JSON should be represented using either UTF-8, UTF-16, or UTF-32. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-17909(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17909  File: python.info, Node: logging<4>, Next: math<7>, Prev: json, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.23 logging ................ The new *note WatchedFileHandler.reopenIfNeeded(): cb6. method has been added to add the ability to check if the log file needs to be reopened. (Contributed by Marian Horban in bpo-24884(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24884  File: python.info, Node: math<7>, Next: multiprocessing<5>, Prev: logging<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.24 math ............. The tau ('τ') constant has been added to the *note math: 8e. and *note cmath: 18. modules. (Contributed by Lisa Roach in bpo-12345(1), see PEP 628(2) for details.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12345 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0628/  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<5>, Next: os<8>, Prev: math<7>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.25 multiprocessing ........................ *note Proxy Objects: cb9. returned by *note multiprocessing.Manager(): cba. can now be nested. (Contributed by Davin Potts in bpo-6766(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6766  File: python.info, Node: os<8>, Next: pathlib<9>, Prev: multiprocessing<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.26 os ........... See the summary of *note PEP 519: c3b. for details on how the *note os: a1. and *note os.path: a2. modules now support *note path-like objects: 2a2. *note scandir(): a5e. now supports *note bytes: 1c2. paths on Windows. A new *note close(): cbc. method allows explicitly closing a *note scandir(): a5e. iterator. The *note scandir(): a5e. iterator now supports the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol. If a ‘scandir()’ iterator is neither exhausted nor explicitly closed a *note ResourceWarning: 246. will be emitted in its destructor. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25994(1).) On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 51e. now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security. See the PEP 524(2) for the rationale. The Linux ‘getrandom()’ syscall (get random bytes) is now exposed as the new *note os.getrandom(): cbd. function. (Contributed by Victor Stinner, part of the PEP 524(3)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25994 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0524/  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<9>, Next: pdb<5>, Prev: os<8>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.27 pathlib ................ *note pathlib: a4. now supports *note path-like objects: 2a2. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(1).) See the summary of *note PEP 519: c3b. for details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186  File: python.info, Node: pdb<5>, Next: pickle<2>, Prev: pathlib<9>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.28 pdb ............ The *note Pdb: 921. class constructor has a new optional 'readrc' argument to control whether ‘.pdbrc’ files should be read.  File: python.info, Node: pickle<2>, Next: pickletools, Prev: pdb<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.29 pickle ............... Objects that need ‘__new__’ called with keyword arguments can now be pickled using *note pickle protocols: cc1. older than protocol version 4. Protocol version 4 already supports this case. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24164(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24164  File: python.info, Node: pickletools, Next: pydoc<3>, Prev: pickle<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.30 pickletools .................... *note pickletools.dis(): cc3. now outputs the implicit memo index for the ‘MEMOIZE’ opcode. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25382(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25382  File: python.info, Node: pydoc<3>, Next: random<4>, Prev: pickletools, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.31 pydoc .............. The *note pydoc: b5. module has learned to respect the ‘MANPAGER’ environment variable. (Contributed by Matthias Klose in bpo-8637(1).) *note help(): 8d6. and *note pydoc: b5. can now list named tuple fields in the order they were defined rather than alphabetically. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-24879(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8637 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24879  File: python.info, Node: random<4>, Next: re<5>, Prev: pydoc<3>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.32 random ............... The new *note choices(): cc6. function returns a list of elements of specified size from the given population with optional weights. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18844(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18844  File: python.info, Node: re<5>, Next: readline, Prev: random<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.33 re ........... Added support of modifier spans in regular expressions. Examples: ‘'(?i:p)ython'’ matches ‘'python'’ and ‘'Python'’, but not ‘'PYTHON'’; ‘'(?i)g(?-i:v)r'’ matches ‘'GvR'’ and ‘'gvr'’, but not ‘'GVR'’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-433028(1).) Match object groups can be accessed by ‘__getitem__’, which is equivalent to ‘group()’. So ‘mo['name']’ is now equivalent to ‘mo.group('name')’. (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-24454(2).) *note Match: cc8. objects now support *note index-like objects: 718. as group indices. (Contributed by Jeroen Demeyer and Xiang Zhang in bpo-27177(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=433028 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24454 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27177  File: python.info, Node: readline, Next: rlcompleter, Prev: re<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.34 readline ................. Added *note set_auto_history(): cca. to enable or disable automatic addition of input to the history list. (Contributed by Tyler Crompton in bpo-26870(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26870  File: python.info, Node: rlcompleter, Next: shlex<2>, Prev: readline, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.35 rlcompleter .................... Private and special attribute names now are omitted unless the prefix starts with underscores. A space or a colon is added after some completed keywords. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25011(1) and bpo-25209(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25011 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25209  File: python.info, Node: shlex<2>, Next: site<3>, Prev: rlcompleter, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.36 shlex .............. The *note shlex: ccd. has much *note improved shell compatibility: cce. through the new 'punctuation_chars' argument to control which characters are treated as punctuation. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-1521950(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1521950  File: python.info, Node: site<3>, Next: sqlite3<7>, Prev: shlex<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.37 site ............. When specifying paths to add to *note sys.path: 3b0. in a ‘.pth’ file, you may now specify file paths on top of directories (e.g. zip files). (Contributed by Wolfgang Langner in bpo-26587(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26587  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<7>, Next: socket<7>, Prev: site<3>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.38 sqlite3 ................ *note sqlite3.Cursor.lastrowid: cd1. now supports the ‘REPLACE’ statement. (Contributed by Alex LordThorsen in bpo-16864(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16864  File: python.info, Node: socket<7>, Next: socketserver<2>, Prev: sqlite3<7>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.39 socket ............... The *note ioctl(): cd3. function now supports the *note SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH: cd4. control code. (Contributed by Daniel Stokes in bpo-26536(1).) The *note getsockopt(): cd5. constants ‘SO_DOMAIN’, ‘SO_PROTOCOL’, ‘SO_PEERSEC’, and ‘SO_PASSSEC’ are now supported. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26907(2).) The *note setsockopt(): cd6. now supports the ‘setsockopt(level, optname, None, optlen: int)’ form. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27744(3).) The socket module now supports the address family *note AF_ALG: cd7. to interface with Linux Kernel crypto API. ‘ALG_*’, ‘SOL_ALG’ and *note sendmsg_afalg(): cd8. were added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27744(4) with support from Victor Stinner.) New Linux constants ‘TCP_USER_TIMEOUT’ and ‘TCP_CONGESTION’ were added. (Contributed by Omar Sandoval, bpo-26273(5)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26536 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26907 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27744 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26273  File: python.info, Node: socketserver<2>, Next: ssl<7>, Prev: socket<7>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.40 socketserver ..................... Servers based on the *note socketserver: cd. module, including those defined in *note http.server: 72, *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. and *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11b, now support the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26404(1).) The ‘wfile’ attribute of *note StreamRequestHandler: cda. classes now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. writable interface. In particular, calling *note write(): cdb. is now guaranteed to send the data in full. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26721(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26404 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26721  File: python.info, Node: ssl<7>, Next: statistics<5>, Prev: socketserver<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.41 ssl ............ *note ssl: d0. supports OpenSSL 1.1.0. The minimum recommend version is 1.0.2. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-26470(1).) 3DES has been removed from the default cipher suites and ChaCha20 Poly1305 cipher suites have been added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-27850(2) and bpo-27766(3).) *note SSLContext: 296. has better default configuration for options and ciphers. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28043(4).) SSL session can be copied from one client-side connection to another with the new *note SSLSession: cdd. class. TLS session resumption can speed up the initial handshake, reduce latency and improve performance (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19500(5) based on a draft by Alex Warhawk.) The new *note get_ciphers(): cde. method can be used to get a list of enabled ciphers in order of cipher priority. All constants and flags have been converted to *note IntEnum: cdf. and ‘IntFlags’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28025(6).) Server and client-side specific TLS protocols for *note SSLContext: 296. were added. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28085(7).) Added *note ssl.SSLContext.post_handshake_auth: a30. to enable and *note ssl.SSLSocket.verify_client_post_handshake(): a31. to initiate TLS 1.3 post-handshake authentication. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-78851(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27850 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27766 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28043 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19500 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28025 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28085 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78851  File: python.info, Node: statistics<5>, Next: struct, Prev: ssl<7>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.42 statistics ................... A new *note harmonic_mean(): ce1. function has been added. (Contributed by Steven D’Aprano in bpo-27181(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27181  File: python.info, Node: struct, Next: subprocess<3>, Prev: statistics<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.43 struct ............... *note struct: d5. now supports IEEE 754 half-precision floats via the ‘'e'’ format specifier. (Contributed by Eli Stevens, Mark Dickinson in bpo-11734(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11734  File: python.info, Node: subprocess<3>, Next: sys<10>, Prev: struct, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.44 subprocess ................... *note subprocess.Popen: 199. destructor now emits a *note ResourceWarning: 246. warning if the child process is still running. Use the context manager protocol (‘with proc: ...’) or explicitly call the *note wait(): ce4. method to read the exit status of the child process. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26741(1).) The *note subprocess.Popen: 199. constructor and all functions that pass arguments through to it now accept 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments. Specifying either of these will enable text mode for the 'stdin', 'stdout' and 'stderr' streams. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-6135(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26741 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6135  File: python.info, Node: sys<10>, Next: telnetlib, Prev: subprocess<3>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.45 sys ............ The new *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce6. function returns the name of the error mode used to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27781(1).) On Windows the return value of the *note getwindowsversion(): ce7. function now includes the 'platform_version' field which contains the accurate major version, minor version and build number of the current operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the process (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-27932(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27781 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27932  File: python.info, Node: telnetlib, Next: time<6>, Prev: sys<10>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.46 telnetlib .................. ‘telnetlib.Telnet’ is now a context manager (contributed by Stéphane Wirtel in bpo-25485(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25485  File: python.info, Node: time<6>, Next: timeit, Prev: telnetlib, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.47 time ............. The *note struct_time: cea. attributes ‘tm_gmtoff’ and ‘tm_zone’ are now available on all platforms.  File: python.info, Node: timeit, Next: tkinter<6>, Prev: time<6>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.48 timeit ............... The new *note Timer.autorange(): cec. convenience method has been added to call *note Timer.timeit(): ced. repeatedly so that the total run time is greater or equal to 200 milliseconds. (Contributed by Steven D’Aprano in bpo-6422(1).) *note timeit: ef. now warns when there is substantial (4x) variance between best and worst times. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23552(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6422 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23552  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<6>, Next: traceback<4>, Prev: timeit, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.49 tkinter ................ Added methods ‘trace_add()’, ‘trace_remove()’ and ‘trace_info()’ in the ‘tkinter.Variable’ class. They replace old methods ‘trace_variable()’, ‘trace()’, ‘trace_vdelete()’ and ‘trace_vinfo()’ that use obsolete Tcl commands and might not work in future versions of Tcl. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22115(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22115  File: python.info, Node: traceback<4>, Next: tracemalloc<3>, Prev: tkinter<6>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.50 traceback .................. Both the traceback module and the interpreter’s builtin exception display now abbreviate long sequences of repeated lines in tracebacks as shown in the following example: >>> def f(): f() ... >>> f() Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in File "", line 1, in f File "", line 1, in f File "", line 1, in f [Previous line repeated 995 more times] RecursionError: maximum recursion depth exceeded (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823  File: python.info, Node: tracemalloc<3>, Next: typing<9>, Prev: traceback<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.51 tracemalloc .................... The *note tracemalloc: ff. module now supports tracing memory allocations in multiple different address spaces. The new *note DomainFilter: cf1. filter class has been added to filter block traces by their address space (domain). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26588(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26588  File: python.info, Node: typing<9>, Next: unicodedata<7>, Prev: tracemalloc<3>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.52 typing ............... Since the *note typing: 104. module is *note provisional: b03, all changes introduced in Python 3.6 have also been backported to Python 3.5.x. The *note typing: 104. module has a much improved support for generic type aliases. For example ‘Dict[str, Tuple[S, T]]’ is now a valid type annotation. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #195(1).) The *note typing.ContextManager: c8e. class has been added for representing *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8d. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25609(2).) The *note typing.Collection: cf3. class has been added for representing *note collections.abc.Collection: c88. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-27598(3).) The *note typing.ClassVar: 268. type construct has been added to mark class variables. As introduced in PEP 526(4), a variable annotation wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #280(5).) A new *note TYPE_CHECKING: cf4. constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by the static type checkers, but is ‘False’ at runtime. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum in Github #230(6).) A new *note NewType(): cf5. helper function has been added to create lightweight distinct types for annotations: from typing import NewType UserId = NewType('UserId', int) some_id = UserId(524313) The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass of the original type. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in Github #189(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/195 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25609 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27598 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (5) https://github.com/python/typing/pull/280 (6) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/230 (7) https://github.com/python/typing/issues/189  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<7>, Next: unittest mock<2>, Prev: typing<9>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.53 unicodedata .................... The *note unicodedata: 105. module now uses data from Unicode 9.0.0(1). (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode9.0.0/  File: python.info, Node: unittest mock<2>, Next: urllib request, Prev: unicodedata<7>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.54 unittest.mock ...................... The *note Mock: a4b. class has the following improvements: * Two new methods, *note Mock.assert_called(): cf8. and *note Mock.assert_called_once(): cf9. to check if the mock object was called. (Contributed by Amit Saha in bpo-26323(1).) * The *note Mock.reset_mock(): cfa. method now has two optional keyword only arguments: 'return_value' and 'side_effect'. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21271(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26323 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21271  File: python.info, Node: urllib request, Next: urllib robotparser, Prev: unittest mock<2>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.55 urllib.request ....................... If a HTTP request has a file or iterable body (other than a bytes object) but no ‘Content-Length’ header, rather than throwing an error, ‘AbstractHTTPHandler’ now falls back to use chunked transfer encoding. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl in bpo-12319(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319  File: python.info, Node: urllib robotparser, Next: venv<5>, Prev: urllib request, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.56 urllib.robotparser ........................... *note RobotFileParser: cfd. now supports the ‘Crawl-delay’ and ‘Request-rate’ extensions. (Contributed by Nikolay Bogoychev in bpo-16099(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16099  File: python.info, Node: venv<5>, Next: warnings<4>, Prev: urllib robotparser, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.57 venv ............. *note venv: 111. accepts a new parameter ‘--prompt’. This parameter provides an alternative prefix for the virtual environment. (Proposed by Łukasz Balcerzak and ported to 3.6 by Stéphane Wirtel in bpo-22829(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22829  File: python.info, Node: warnings<4>, Next: winreg, Prev: venv<5>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.58 warnings ................. A new optional 'source' parameter has been added to the *note warnings.warn_explicit(): d00. function: the destroyed object which emitted a *note ResourceWarning: 246. A 'source' attribute has also been added to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’ (contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26568(1) and bpo-26567(2)). When a *note ResourceWarning: 246. warning is logged, the *note tracemalloc: ff. module is now used to try to retrieve the traceback where the destroyed object was allocated. Example with the script ‘example.py’: import warnings def func(): return open(__file__) f = func() f = None Output of the command ‘python3.6 -Wd -X tracemalloc=5 example.py’: example.py:7: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='example.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'> f = None Object allocated at (most recent call first): File "example.py", lineno 4 return open(__file__) File "example.py", lineno 6 f = func() The “Object allocated at” traceback is new and is only displayed if *note tracemalloc: ff. is tracing Python memory allocations and if the *note warnings: 112. module was already imported. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26568 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567  File: python.info, Node: winreg, Next: winsound, Prev: warnings<4>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.59 winreg ............... Added the 64-bit integer type *note REG_QWORD: d02. (Contributed by Clement Rouault in bpo-23026(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23026  File: python.info, Node: winsound, Next: xmlrpc client, Prev: winreg, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.60 winsound ................. Allowed keyword arguments to be passed to *note Beep: d04, *note MessageBeep: d05, and *note PlaySound: d06. (bpo-27982(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27982  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc client, Next: zipfile<3>, Prev: winsound, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.61 xmlrpc.client ...................... The *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. module now supports unmarshalling additional data types used by the Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics and ‘None’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26885(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26885  File: python.info, Node: zipfile<3>, Next: zlib, Prev: xmlrpc client, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.62 zipfile ................ A new *note ZipInfo.from_file(): d09. class method allows making a *note ZipInfo: d0a. instance from a filesystem file. A new *note ZipInfo.is_dir(): d0b. method can be used to check if the *note ZipInfo: d0a. instance represents a directory. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-26039(1).) The *note ZipFile.open(): 417. method can now be used to write data into a ZIP file, as well as for extracting data. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-26039(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26039  File: python.info, Node: zlib, Prev: zipfile<3>, Up: Improved Modules<8> 1.8.5.63 zlib ............. The *note compress(): 63b. and *note decompress(): d0d. functions now accept keyword arguments. (Contributed by Aviv Palivoda in bpo-26243(1) and Xiang Zhang in bpo-16764(2) respectively.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26243 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16764  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<8>, Next: Build and C API Changes<2>, Prev: Improved Modules<8>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.6 Optimizations ------------------- * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode which made a number of opcode optimizations possible. (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).) * The *note asyncio.Future: bcd. class now has an optimized C implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and INADA Naoki in bpo-26081(3).) * The *note asyncio.Task: 1be. class now has an optimized C implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-28544(4).) * Various implementation improvements in the *note typing: 104. module (such as caching of generic types) allow up to 30 times performance improvements and reduced memory footprint. * The ASCII decoder is now up to 60 times as fast for error handlers ‘surrogateescape’, ‘ignore’ and ‘replace’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-24870(5)). * The ASCII and the Latin1 encoders are now up to 3 times as fast for the error handler ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25227(6)). * The UTF-8 encoder is now up to 75 times as fast for error handlers ‘ignore’, ‘replace’, ‘surrogateescape’, ‘surrogatepass’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25267(7)). * The UTF-8 decoder is now up to 15 times as fast for error handlers ‘ignore’, ‘replace’ and ‘surrogateescape’ (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25301(8)). * ‘bytes % args’ is now up to 2 times faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25349(9)). * ‘bytearray % args’ is now between 2.5 and 5 times faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25399(10)). * Optimize *note bytes.fromhex(): aef. and *note bytearray.fromhex(): af0.: they are now between 2x and 3.5x faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25401(11)). * Optimize ‘bytes.replace(b'', b'.')’ and ‘bytearray.replace(b'', b'.')’: up to 80% faster. (Contributed by Josh Snider in bpo-26574(12)). * Allocator functions of the *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. domain (*note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69.) now use the *note pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. instead of ‘malloc()’ function of the C library. The pymalloc allocator is optimized for objects smaller or equal to 512 bytes with a short lifetime, and use ‘malloc()’ for larger memory blocks. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26249(13)). * *note pickle.load(): d10. and *note pickle.loads(): d11. are now up to 10% faster when deserializing many small objects (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-27056(14)). * Passing *note keyword arguments: d12. to a function has an overhead in comparison with passing *note positional arguments: d13. Now in extension functions implemented with using Argument Clinic this overhead is significantly decreased. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27574(15)). * Optimized *note glob(): 2a1. and *note iglob(): 803. functions in the *note glob: 64. module; they are now about 3–6 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25596(16)). * Optimized globbing in *note pathlib: a4. by using *note os.scandir(): a5e.; it is now about 1.5–4 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26032(17)). * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. parsing, iteration and deepcopy performance has been significantly improved. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25638(18), bpo-25873(19), and bpo-25869(20).) * Creation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. instances from floats and decimals is now 2 to 3 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25971(21).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26081 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28544 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24870 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25227 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25267 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25301 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25349 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25399 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25401 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26574 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27056 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27574 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25596 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26032 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25638 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25873 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25869 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25971  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<2>, Next: Other Improvements, Prev: Optimizations<8>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.7 Build and C API Changes ----------------------------- * Python now requires some C99 support in the toolchain to build. Most notably, Python now uses standard integer types and macros in place of custom macros like ‘PY_LONG_LONG’. For more information, see PEP 7(1) and bpo-17884(2). * Cross-compiling CPython with the Android NDK and the Android API level set to 21 (Android 5.0 Lollipop) or greater runs successfully. While Android is not yet a supported platform, the Python test suite runs on the Android emulator with only about 16 tests failures. See the Android meta-issue bpo-26865(3). * The ‘--enable-optimizations’ configure flag has been added. Turning it on will activate expensive optimizations like PGO. (Original patch by Alecsandru Patrascu of Intel in bpo-26359(4).) * The *note GIL: 148. must now be held when allocator functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c67. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68.) and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66.) domains are called. * New *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. API which indicates if flushing buffered data failed. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-5319(5).) * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. now supports *note positional-only parameters: a85. Positional-only parameters are defined by empty names. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26282(6)). * ‘PyTraceback_Print’ method now abbreviates long sequences of repeated lines as ‘"[Previous line repeated {count} more times]"’. (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-26823(7).) * The new *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): d16. function allows for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 415. to raise. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-15767(8).) * The new *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): d17. function can be used to generate a *note ResourceWarning: 246. providing the source of the resource allocation. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-26567(9).) * The new *note PyOS_FSPath(): d18. function returns the file system representation of a *note path-like object: 2a2. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-27186(10).) * The *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d19. and *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 574. functions will now accept *note path-like objects: 2a2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17884 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26865 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26359 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26282 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26823 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15767 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26567 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27186  File: python.info, Node: Other Improvements, Next: Deprecated<9>, Prev: Build and C API Changes<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.8 Other Improvements ------------------------ * When *note -version: d1b. (short form: *note -V: 177.) is supplied twice, Python prints *note sys.version: 178. for detailed information. $ ./python -VV Python 3.6.0b4+ (3.6:223967b49e49+, Nov 21 2016, 20:55:04) [GCC 4.2.1 Compatible Apple LLVM 8.0.0 (clang-800.0.42.1)]  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<9>, Next: Removed<9>, Prev: Other Improvements, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.9 Deprecated ---------------- * Menu: * New Keywords:: * Deprecated Python behavior:: * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>. * xml: xml<6>. * Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>. * Deprecated Build Options::  File: python.info, Node: New Keywords, Next: Deprecated Python behavior, Up: Deprecated<9> 1.8.9.1 New Keywords .................... ‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class, function or module names. Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they will become proper keywords in Python 3.7. Starting in Python 3.6, the use of ‘async’ or ‘await’ as names will generate a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python behavior, Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>, Prev: New Keywords, Up: Deprecated<9> 1.8.9.2 Deprecated Python behavior .................................. Raising the *note StopIteration: bfa. exception inside a generator will now generate a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5, and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 195. in Python 3.7. See *note PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: d1f. for details. The ‘__aiter__()’ method is now expected to return an asynchronous iterator directly instead of returning an awaitable as previously. Doing the former will trigger a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Backward compatibility will be removed in Python 3.7. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-27243(1).) A backslash-character pair that is not a valid escape sequence now generates a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Although this will eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 18d, that will not be for several Python releases. (Contributed by Emanuel Barry in bpo-27364(2).) When performing a relative import, falling back on ‘__name__’ and ‘__path__’ from the calling module when ‘__spec__’ or ‘__package__’ are not defined now raises an *note ImportWarning: 4f6. (Contributed by Rose Ames in bpo-25791(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27243 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27364 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>, Next: xml<6>, Prev: Deprecated Python behavior, Up: Deprecated<9> 1.8.9.3 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods ........................................................ * Menu: * asynchat:: * asyncore:: * dbm: dbm<4>. * distutils: distutils<6>. * grp:: * importlib: importlib<7>. * os: os<9>. * re: re<6>. * ssl: ssl<8>. * tkinter: tkinter<7>. * venv: venv<6>.  File: python.info, Node: asynchat, Next: asyncore, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.4 asynchat ................ The ‘asynchat’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: a. (Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002  File: python.info, Node: asyncore, Next: dbm<4>, Prev: asynchat, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.5 asyncore ................ The ‘asyncore’ has been deprecated in favor of *note asyncio: a. (Contributed by Mariatta in bpo-25002(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25002  File: python.info, Node: dbm<4>, Next: distutils<6>, Prev: asyncore, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.6 dbm ........... Unlike other *note dbm: 31. implementations, the *note dbm.dumb: 32. module creates databases with the ‘'rw'’ mode and allows modifying the database opened with the ‘'r'’ mode. This behavior is now deprecated and will be removed in 3.8. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21708(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21708  File: python.info, Node: distutils<6>, Next: grp, Prev: dbm<4>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.7 distutils ................. The undocumented ‘extra_path’ argument to the ‘distutils.Distribution’ constructor is now considered deprecated and will raise a warning if set. Support for this parameter will be removed in a future Python release. See bpo-27919(1) for details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27919  File: python.info, Node: grp, Next: importlib<7>, Prev: distutils<6>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.8 grp ........... The support of non-integer arguments in *note getgrgid(): d26. has been deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-26129(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26129  File: python.info, Node: importlib<7>, Next: os<9>, Prev: grp, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.9 importlib ................. The *note importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader.load_module(): d28. and *note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader.load_module(): d29. methods are now deprecated. They were the only remaining implementations of *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 866. in *note importlib: 77. that had not been deprecated in previous versions of Python in favour of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 867. The *note importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder: d2a. class is now deprecated. As of 3.6.0, it is still added to *note sys.meta_path: d2b. by default (on Windows), but this may change in future releases.  File: python.info, Node: os<9>, Next: re<6>, Prev: importlib<7>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.10 os ........... Undocumented support of general *note bytes-like objects: d2d. as paths in *note os: a1. functions, *note compile(): 192. and similar functions is now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25791(1) and bpo-26754(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26754  File: python.info, Node: re<6>, Next: ssl<8>, Prev: os<9>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.11 re ........... Support for inline flags ‘(?letters)’ in the middle of the regular expression has been deprecated and will be removed in a future Python version. Flags at the start of a regular expression are still allowed. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22493(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22493  File: python.info, Node: ssl<8>, Next: tkinter<7>, Prev: re<6>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.12 ssl ............ OpenSSL 0.9.8, 1.0.0 and 1.0.1 are deprecated and no longer supported. In the future the *note ssl: d0. module will require at least OpenSSL 1.0.2 or 1.1.0. SSL-related arguments like ‘certfile’, ‘keyfile’ and ‘check_hostname’ in *note ftplib: 5e, *note http.client: 6f, *note imaplib: 74, *note poplib: ac, and *note smtplib: ca. have been deprecated in favor of ‘context’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(1).) A couple of protocols and functions of the *note ssl: d0. module are now deprecated. Some features will no longer be available in future versions of OpenSSL. Other features are deprecated in favor of a different API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-28022(2) and bpo-26470(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28022 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26470  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<7>, Next: venv<6>, Prev: ssl<8>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.13 tkinter ................ The ‘tkinter.tix’ module is now deprecated. *note tkinter: f0. users should use *note tkinter.ttk: f9. instead.  File: python.info, Node: venv<6>, Prev: tkinter<7>, Up: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2> 1.8.9.14 venv ............. The ‘pyvenv’ script has been deprecated in favour of ‘python3 -m venv’. This prevents confusion as to what Python interpreter ‘pyvenv’ is connected to and thus what Python interpreter will be used by the virtual environment. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25154(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25154  File: python.info, Node: xml<6>, Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>, Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>, Up: Deprecated<9> 1.8.9.15 xml ............ * As mitigation against DTD and external entity retrieval, the *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process external entities by default. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in gh-61441(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>, Next: Deprecated Build Options, Prev: xml<6>, Up: Deprecated<9> 1.8.9.16 Deprecated functions and types of the C API .................................................... Undocumented functions ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ and ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ are deprecated now. Use the *note generic codec based API: d35. instead.  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Build Options, Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>, Up: Deprecated<9> 1.8.9.17 Deprecated Build Options ................................. The ‘--with-system-ffi’ configure flag is now on by default on non-macOS UNIX platforms. It may be disabled by using ‘--without-system-ffi’, but using the flag is deprecated and will not be accepted in Python 3.7. macOS is unaffected by this change. Note that many OS distributors already use the ‘--with-system-ffi’ flag when building their system Python.  File: python.info, Node: Removed<9>, Next: Porting to Python 3 6, Prev: Deprecated<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.10 Removed -------------- * Menu: * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<3>.  File: python.info, Node: API and Feature Removals<3>, Up: Removed<9> 1.8.10.1 API and Feature Removals ................................. * Unknown escapes consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in regular expressions will now cause an error. In replacement templates for *note re.sub(): 2a5. they are still allowed, but deprecated. The *note re.LOCALE: b6c. flag can now only be used with binary patterns. * ‘inspect.getmoduleinfo()’ was removed (was deprecated since CPython 3.3). *note inspect.getmodulename(): d39. should be used for obtaining the module name for a given path. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-13248(1).) * ‘traceback.Ignore’ class and ‘traceback.usage’, ‘traceback.modname’, ‘traceback.fullmodname’, ‘traceback.find_lines_from_code’, ‘traceback.find_lines’, ‘traceback.find_strings’, ‘traceback.find_executable_lines’ methods were removed from the *note traceback: fe. module. They were undocumented methods deprecated since Python 3.2 and equivalent functionality is available from private methods. * The ‘tk_menuBar()’ and ‘tk_bindForTraversal()’ dummy methods in *note tkinter: f0. widget classes were removed (corresponding Tk commands were obsolete since Tk 4.0). * The *note open(): 417. method of the *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6c0. class no longer supports the ‘'U'’ mode (was deprecated since Python 3.4). Use *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b6. for reading compressed text files in *note universal newlines: d3a. mode. * The undocumented ‘IN’, ‘CDROM’, ‘DLFCN’, ‘TYPES’, ‘CDIO’, and ‘STROPTS’ modules have been removed. They had been available in the platform specific ‘Lib/plat-*/’ directories, but were chronically out of date, inconsistently available across platforms, and unmaintained. The script that created these modules is still available in the source distribution at Tools/scripts/h2py.py(2). * The deprecated ‘asynchat.fifo’ class has been removed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.6.15/Tools/scripts/h2py.py  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 6, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2, Prev: Removed<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.11 Porting to Python 3.6 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior:: * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<8>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<6>. * CPython bytecode changes: CPython bytecode changes<7>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior, Next: Changes in the Python API<8>, Up: Porting to Python 3 6 1.8.11.1 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior ............................................. * The output of a special Python build with defined ‘COUNT_ALLOCS’, ‘SHOW_ALLOC_COUNT’ or ‘SHOW_TRACK_COUNT’ macros is now off by default. It can be re-enabled using the ‘-X showalloccount’ option. It now outputs to ‘stderr’ instead of ‘stdout’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23034(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23034  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<8>, Next: Changes in the C API<6>, Prev: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior, Up: Porting to Python 3 6 1.8.11.2 Changes in the Python API .................................. * *note open(): 517. will no longer allow combining the ‘'U'’ mode flag with ‘'+'’. (Contributed by Jeff Balogh and John O’Connor in bpo-2091(1).) * *note sqlite3: cf. no longer implicitly commits an open transaction before DDL statements. * On Linux, *note os.urandom(): 51e. now blocks until the system urandom entropy pool is initialized to increase the security. * When *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 867. is defined, *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): cae. must also be defined. * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3e. now sets *note TypeError: 534. when its 'msg' argument is not set. Previously only ‘NULL’ was returned. * The format of the *note co_lnotab: 2e4. attribute of code objects changed to support a negative line number delta. By default, Python does not emit bytecode with a negative line number delta. Functions using *note frame.f_lineno: 7a7, ‘PyFrame_GetLineNumber()’ or ‘PyCode_Addr2Line()’ are not affected. Functions directly decoding ‘co_lnotab’ should be updated to use a signed 8-bit integer type for the line number delta, but this is only required to support applications using a negative line number delta. See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for the ‘co_lnotab’ format and how to decode it, and see the PEP 511(2) for the rationale. * The functions in the *note compileall: 20. module now return booleans instead of ‘1’ or ‘0’ to represent success or failure, respectively. Thanks to booleans being a subclass of integers, this should only be an issue if you were doing identity checks for ‘1’ or ‘0’. See bpo-25768(3). * Reading the ‘port’ attribute of *note urllib.parse.urlsplit(): d3f. and *note urlparse(): 307. results now raises *note ValueError: 204. for out-of-range values, rather than returning *note None: 671. See bpo-20059(4). * The ‘imp’ module now raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. instead of *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. * The following modules have had missing APIs added to their ‘__all__’ attributes to match the documented APIs: *note calendar: 14, ‘cgi’, *note csv: 29, *note ElementTree: 125, *note enum: 56, *note fileinput: 5b, *note ftplib: 5e, *note logging: 87, *note mailbox: 8b, *note mimetypes: 8f, *note optparse: a0, *note plistlib: ab, ‘smtpd’, *note subprocess: d6, *note tarfile: de, *note threading: ed. and *note wave: 113. This means they will export new symbols when ‘import *’ is used. (Contributed by Joel Taddei and Jacek Kołodziej in bpo-23883(5).) * When performing a relative import, if ‘__package__’ does not compare equal to ‘__spec__.parent’ then *note ImportWarning: 4f6. is raised. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-25791(6).) * When a relative import is performed and no parent package is known, then *note ImportError: 415. will be raised. Previously, *note SystemError: 572. could be raised. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18018(7).) * Servers based on the *note socketserver: cd. module, including those defined in *note http.server: 72, *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. and *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11b, now only catch exceptions derived from *note Exception: 9d9. Therefore if a request handler raises an exception like *note SystemExit: d40. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1, *note handle_error(): d41. is no longer called, and the exception will stop a single-threaded server. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-23430(8).) * ‘spwd.getspnam()’ now raises a *note PermissionError: d42. instead of *note KeyError: 33f. if the user doesn’t have privileges. * The *note socket.socket.close(): d43. method now raises an exception if an error (e.g. ‘EBADF’) was reported by the underlying system call. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-26685(9).) * The 'decode_data' argument for the ‘smtpd.SMTPChannel’ and ‘smtpd.SMTPServer’ constructors is now ‘False’ by default. This means that the argument passed to ‘process_message()’ is now a bytes object by default, and ‘process_message()’ will be passed keyword arguments. Code that has already been updated in accordance with the deprecation warning generated by 3.5 will not be affected. * All optional arguments of the *note dump(): d44, *note dumps(): d45, *note load(): cb4. and *note loads(): 955. functions and *note JSONEncoder: d46. and *note JSONDecoder: d47. class constructors in the *note json: 82. module are now *note keyword-only: 2a7. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18726(10).) * Subclasses of *note type: d48. which don’t override ‘type.__new__’ may no longer use the one-argument form to get the type of an object. * As part of PEP 487(11), the handling of keyword arguments passed to *note type: d48. (other than the metaclass hint, ‘metaclass’) is now consistently delegated to *note object.__init_subclass__(): 62d. This means that ‘type.__new__()’ and ‘type.__init__()’ both now accept arbitrary keyword arguments, but *note object.__init_subclass__(): 62d. (which is called from ‘type.__new__()’) will reject them by default. Custom metaclasses accepting additional keyword arguments will need to adjust their calls to ‘type.__new__()’ (whether direct or via *note super: 4d7.) accordingly. * In ‘distutils.command.sdist.sdist’, the ‘default_format’ attribute has been removed and is no longer honored. Instead, the gzipped tarfile format is the default on all platforms and no platform-specific selection is made. In environments where distributions are built on Windows and zip distributions are required, configure the project with a ‘setup.cfg’ file containing the following: [sdist] formats=zip This behavior has also been backported to earlier Python versions by Setuptools 26.0.0. * In the *note urllib.request: 10b. module and the *note http.client.HTTPConnection.request(): ca9. method, if no Content-Length header field has been specified and the request body is a file object, it is now sent with HTTP 1.1 chunked encoding. If a file object has to be sent to a HTTP 1.0 server, the Content-Length value now has to be specified by the caller. (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Rolf Krahl with tweaks from Martin Panter in bpo-12319(12).) * The *note DictReader: 9e4. now returns rows of type *note OrderedDict: 5d7. (Contributed by Steve Holden in bpo-27842(13).) * The ‘crypt.METHOD_CRYPT’ will no longer be added to ‘crypt.methods’ if unsupported by the platform. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-25287(14).) * The 'verbose' and 'rename' arguments for *note namedtuple(): 1ca. are now keyword-only. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-25628(15).) * On Linux, *note ctypes.util.find_library(): d49. now looks in ‘LD_LIBRARY_PATH’ for shared libraries. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-9998(16).) * The *note imaplib.IMAP4: 902. class now handles flags containing the ‘']'’ character in messages sent from the server to improve real-world compatibility. (Contributed by Lita Cho in bpo-21815(17).) * The ‘mmap.write()’ function now returns the number of bytes written like other write methods. (Contributed by Jakub Stasiak in bpo-26335(18).) * The *note pkgutil.iter_modules(): d4a. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): bff. functions now return *note ModuleInfo: d4b. named tuples. (Contributed by Ramchandra Apte in bpo-17211(19).) * *note re.sub(): 2a5. now raises an error for invalid numerical group references in replacement templates even if the pattern is not found in the string. The error message for invalid group references now includes the group index and the position of the reference. (Contributed by SilentGhost, Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-25953(20).) * *note zipfile.ZipFile: 6c0. will now raise *note NotImplementedError: 22a. for unrecognized compression values. Previously a plain *note RuntimeError: 195. was raised. Additionally, calling *note ZipFile: 6c0. methods on a closed ZipFile or calling the *note write(): d4c. method on a ZipFile created with mode ‘'r'’ will raise a *note ValueError: 204. Previously, a *note RuntimeError: 195. was raised in those scenarios. * when custom metaclasses are combined with zero-argument *note super(): 4d7. or direct references from methods to the implicit ‘__class__’ closure variable, the implicit ‘__classcell__’ namespace entry must now be passed up to ‘type.__new__’ for initialisation. Failing to do so will result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in Python 3.6 and a *note RuntimeError: 195. in Python 3.8. * With the introduction of *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47, import system consumers may start expecting import system replacements to raise that more specific exception when appropriate, rather than the less-specific *note ImportError: 415. To provide future compatibility with such consumers, implementers of alternative import systems that completely replace *note __import__(): 8d3. will need to update their implementations to raise the new subclass when a module can’t be found at all. Implementers of compliant plugins to the default import system shouldn’t need to make any changes, as the default import system will raise the new subclass when appropriate. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2091 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0511/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25768 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20059 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23883 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25791 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18018 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23430 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26685 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18726 (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0487/ (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12319 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27842 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25287 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25628 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9998 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21815 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26335 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17211 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25953  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<6>, Next: CPython bytecode changes<7>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<8>, Up: Porting to Python 3 6 1.8.11.3 Changes in the C API ............................. * The *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. allocator family now uses the *note pymalloc allocator: d0f. rather than the system ‘malloc()’. Applications calling *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. without holding the GIL can now crash. Set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable to ‘debug’ to validate the usage of memory allocators in your application. See bpo-26249(1). * *note Py_Exit(): d4e. (and the main interpreter) now override the exit status with 120 if flushing buffered data failed. See bpo-5319(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26249 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5319  File: python.info, Node: CPython bytecode changes<7>, Prev: Changes in the C API<6>, Up: Porting to Python 3 6 1.8.11.4 CPython bytecode changes ................................. There have been several major changes to the *note bytecode: 187. in Python 3.6. * The Python interpreter now uses a 16-bit wordcode instead of bytecode. (Contributed by Demur Rumed with input and reviews from Serhiy Storchaka and Victor Stinner in bpo-26647(1) and bpo-28050(2).) * The new ‘FORMAT_VALUE’ and *note BUILD_STRING: d50. opcodes as part of the *note formatted string literal: c2f. implementation. (Contributed by Eric Smith in bpo-25483(3) and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27078(4).) * The new *note BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP: d51. opcode to optimize the creation of dictionaries with constant keys. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27140(5).) * The function call opcodes have been heavily reworked for better performance and simpler implementation. The *note MAKE_FUNCTION: d52, ‘CALL_FUNCTION’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_KW’ and ‘BUILD_MAP_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ opcodes have been modified, the new *note CALL_FUNCTION_EX: d53. and ‘BUILD_TUPLE_UNPACK_WITH_CALL’ have been added, and ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR’, ‘CALL_FUNCTION_VAR_KW’ and ‘MAKE_CLOSURE’ opcodes have been removed. (Contributed by Demur Rumed in bpo-27095(6), and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-27213(7), bpo-28257(8).) * The new *note SETUP_ANNOTATIONS: d54. and ‘STORE_ANNOTATION’ opcodes have been added to support the new *note variable annotation: d55. syntax. (Contributed by Ivan Levkivskyi in bpo-27985(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=26647 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28050 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=25483 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27078 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27140 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27095 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27213 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28257 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=27985  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4, Prev: Porting to Python 3 6, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.12 Notable changes in Python 3.6.2 -------------------------------------- * Menu: * New make regen-all build target:: * Removal of make touch build target::  File: python.info, Node: New make regen-all build target, Next: Removal of make touch build target, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2 1.8.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target .......................................... To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times. Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force regeneration of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions). More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see Makefile.pre.in(1) for details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).) Added in version 3.6.2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404  File: python.info, Node: Removal of make touch build target, Prev: New make regen-all build target, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2 1.8.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target ............................................. The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed. It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).) Changed in version 3.6.2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 2, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.13 Notable changes in Python 3.6.4 -------------------------------------- The ‘PyExc_RecursionErrorInst’ singleton that was part of the public API has been removed as its members being never cleared may cause a segfault during finalization of the interpreter. (Contributed by Xavier de Gaye in bpo-22898(1) and bpo-30697(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22898 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=30697  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.14 Notable changes in Python 3.6.5 -------------------------------------- The *note locale.localeconv(): bfe. function now sets temporarily the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-31900(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31900  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.15 Notable changes in Python 3.6.7 -------------------------------------- *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. and *note xml.sax: 129. modules no longer process external entities by default. See also gh-61441(1). In 3.6.7 the *note tokenize: fb. module now implicitly emits a ‘NEWLINE’ token when provided with input that does not have a trailing new line. This behavior now matches what the C tokenizer does internally. (Contributed by Ammar Askar in bpo-33899(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/61441 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33899  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.16 Notable changes in Python 3.6.10 --------------------------------------- Due to significant security concerns, the 'reuse_address' parameter of *note asyncio.loop.create_datagram_endpoint(): 72e. is no longer supported. This is because of the behavior of the socket option ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ in UDP. For more details, see the documentation for ‘loop.create_datagram_endpoint()’. (Contributed by Kyle Stanley, Antoine Pitrou, and Yury Selivanov in bpo-37228(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=37228  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.17 Notable changes in Python 3.6.13 --------------------------------------- Earlier Python versions allowed using both ‘;’ and ‘&’ as query parameter separators in *note urllib.parse.parse_qs(): 27c. and *note urllib.parse.parse_qsl(): 27b. Due to security concerns, and to conform with newer W3C recommendations, this has been changed to allow only a single separator key, with ‘&’ as the default. This change also affects ‘cgi.parse()’ and ‘cgi.parse_multipart()’ as they use the affected functions internally. For more details, please see their respective documentation. (Contributed by Adam Goldschmidt, Senthil Kumaran and Ken Jin in bpo-42967(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=42967  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14, Prev: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13, Up: What’s New In Python 3 6 1.8.18 Notable changes in Python 3.6.14 --------------------------------------- A security fix alters the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. behavior to not trust the IPv4 address sent from the remote server when setting up a passive data channel. We reuse the ftp server IP address instead. For unusual code requiring the old behavior, set a ‘trust_server_pasv_ipv4_address’ attribute on your FTP instance to ‘True’. (See gh-87451(1)) The presence of newline or tab characters in parts of a URL allows for some forms of attacks. Following the WHATWG specification that updates RFC 3986, ASCII newline ‘\n’, ‘\r’ and tab ‘\t’ characters are stripped from the URL by the parser *note urllib.parse(): 10a. preventing such attacks. The removal characters are controlled by a new module level variable ‘urllib.parse._UNSAFE_URL_BYTES_TO_REMOVE’. (See gh-88048(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87451 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88048  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 5, Next: What’s New In Python 3 4, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 6, Up: What’s New in Python 1.9 What’s New In Python 3.5 ============================ Editors: Elvis Pranskevichus <>, Yury Selivanov <> This article explains the new features in Python 3.5, compared to 3.4. Python 3.5 was released on September 13, 2015.  See the changelog(1) for a full list of changes. See also ........ PEP 478(2) - Python 3.5 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<7>. * New Features: New Features<14>. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<9>. * New Modules: New Modules<9>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<9>. * Other module-level changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<9>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<3>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<10>. * Removed: Removed<10>. * Porting to Python 3.5: Porting to Python 3 5. * Notable changes in Python 3.5.4: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/3.5/whatsnew/changelog.html (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0478/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<7>, Next: New Features<14>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.1 Summary – Release highlights ---------------------------------- New syntax features: * *note PEP 492: d62, coroutines with async and await syntax. * *note PEP 465: d63, a new matrix multiplication operator: ‘a @ b’. * *note PEP 448: d64, additional unpacking generalizations. New library modules: * *note typing: 104.: *note PEP 484 – Type Hints: d65. * *note zipapp: 130.: *note PEP 441 Improving Python ZIP Application Support: d66. New built-in features: * ‘bytes % args’, ‘bytearray % args’: *note PEP 461: d67. – Adding ‘%’ formatting to bytes and bytearray. * New *note bytes.hex(): d68, *note bytearray.hex(): d69. and *note memoryview.hex(): d6a. methods. (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-9951(1).) * *note memoryview: 464. now supports tuple indexing (including multi-dimensional). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23632(2).) * Generators have a new ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attribute, which returns the object being iterated by ‘yield from’ expressions. (Contributed by Benno Leslie and Yury Selivanov in bpo-24450(3).) * A new *note RecursionError: d6b. exception is now raised when maximum recursion depth is reached. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-19235(4).) CPython implementation improvements: * When the ‘LC_TYPE’ locale is the POSIX locale (‘C’ locale), *note sys.stdin: 539. and *note sys.stdout: ad6. now use the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, instead of the ‘strict’ error handler. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-19977(5).) * ‘.pyo’ files are no longer used and have been replaced by a more flexible scheme that includes the optimization level explicitly in ‘.pyc’ name. (See *note PEP 488 overview: d6c.) * Builtin and extension modules are now initialized in a multi-phase process, which is similar to how Python modules are loaded. (See *note PEP 489 overview: d6d.) Significant improvements in the standard library: * *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. is now *note implemented in C: d6e, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster. * The *note ssl: d0. module gained *note support for Memory BIO: d6f, which decouples SSL protocol handling from network IO. * The new *note os.scandir(): a5e. function provides a *note better and significantly faster way: d70. of directory traversal. * *note functools.lru_cache(): 9ee. has been mostly *note reimplemented in C: d71, yielding much better performance. * The new *note subprocess.run(): b86. function provides a *note streamlined way to run subprocesses: d72. * The *note traceback: fe. module has been significantly *note enhanced: d73. for improved performance and developer convenience. Security improvements: * SSLv3 is now disabled throughout the standard library. It can still be enabled by instantiating a *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. manually. (See bpo-22638(6) for more details; this change was backported to CPython 3.4 and 2.7.) * HTTP cookie parsing is now stricter, in order to protect against potential injection attacks. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22796(7).) Windows improvements: * A new installer for Windows has replaced the old MSI. See *note Using Python on Windows: aa7. for more information. * Windows builds now use Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, and extension modules should use the same. Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential porting issues. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9951 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23632 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24450 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19977 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22638 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22796  File: python.info, Node: New Features<14>, Next: Other Language Changes<9>, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.2 New Features ------------------ * Menu: * PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax:: * PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication:: * PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations:: * PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray:: * PEP 484 - Type Hints:: * PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator. * PEP 475; Retry system calls failing with EINTR: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR. * PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators. * PEP 485; A function for testing approximate equality: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality. * PEP 486; Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments. * PEP 488; Elimination of PYO files: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files. * PEP 489; Multi-phase extension module initialization: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax, Next: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.1 PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax ........................................................ PEP 492(1) greatly improves support for asynchronous programming in Python by adding *note awaitable objects: 1ad, *note coroutine functions: d76, *note asynchronous iteration: d77, and *note asynchronous context managers: 5d3. Coroutine functions are declared using the new *note async def: 5cd. syntax: >>> async def coro(): ... return 'spam' Inside a coroutine function, the new *note await: 1b9. expression can be used to suspend coroutine execution until the result is available. Any object can be 'awaited', as long as it implements the *note awaitable: 1ad. protocol by defining the ‘__await__()’ method. PEP 492 also adds *note async for: aab. statement for convenient iteration over asynchronous iterables. An example of a rudimentary HTTP client written using the new syntax: import asyncio async def http_get(domain): reader, writer = await asyncio.open_connection(domain, 80) writer.write(b'\r\n'.join([ b'GET / HTTP/1.1', b'Host: %b' % domain.encode('latin-1'), b'Connection: close', b'', b'' ])) async for line in reader: print('>>>', line) writer.close() loop = asyncio.get_event_loop() try: loop.run_until_complete(http_get('example.com')) finally: loop.close() Similarly to asynchronous iteration, there is a new syntax for asynchronous context managers. The following script: import asyncio async def coro(name, lock): print('coro {}: waiting for lock'.format(name)) async with lock: print('coro {}: holding the lock'.format(name)) await asyncio.sleep(1) print('coro {}: releasing the lock'.format(name)) loop = asyncio.get_event_loop() lock = asyncio.Lock() coros = asyncio.gather(coro(1, lock), coro(2, lock)) try: loop.run_until_complete(coros) finally: loop.close() will output: coro 2: waiting for lock coro 2: holding the lock coro 1: waiting for lock coro 2: releasing the lock coro 1: holding the lock coro 1: releasing the lock Note that both *note async for: aab. and *note async with: 5d1. can only be used inside a coroutine function declared with *note async def: 5cd. Coroutine functions are intended to be run inside a compatible event loop, such as the *note asyncio loop: d78. Note: Changed in version 3.5.2: Starting with CPython 3.5.2, ‘__aiter__’ can directly return *note asynchronous iterators: 1ab. Returning an *note awaitable: 1ad. object will result in a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. See more details in the *note Asynchronous Iterators: d79. documentation section. See also ........ PEP 492(2) – Coroutines with async and await syntax PEP written and implemented by Yury Selivanov. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication, Next: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations, Prev: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.2 PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication ...................................................................... PEP 465(1) adds the ‘@’ infix operator for matrix multiplication. Currently, no builtin Python types implement the new operator, however, it can be implemented by defining ‘__matmul__()’, ‘__rmatmul__()’, and ‘__imatmul__()’ for regular, reflected, and in-place matrix multiplication. The semantics of these methods is similar to that of methods defining other infix arithmetic operators. Matrix multiplication is a notably common operation in many fields of mathematics, science, engineering, and the addition of ‘@’ allows writing cleaner code: S = (H @ beta - r).T @ inv(H @ V @ H.T) @ (H @ beta - r) instead of: S = dot((dot(H, beta) - r).T, dot(inv(dot(dot(H, V), H.T)), dot(H, beta) - r)) NumPy 1.10 has support for the new operator: >>> import numpy >>> x = numpy.ones(3) >>> x array([ 1., 1., 1.]) >>> m = numpy.eye(3) >>> m array([[ 1., 0., 0.], [ 0., 1., 0.], [ 0., 0., 1.]]) >>> x @ m array([ 1., 1., 1.]) See also ........ PEP 465(2) – A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication PEP written by Nathaniel J. Smith; implemented by Benjamin Peterson. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations, Next: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray, Prev: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.3 PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations ...................................................... PEP 448(1) extends the allowed uses of the ‘*’ iterable unpacking operator and ‘**’ dictionary unpacking operator. It is now possible to use an arbitrary number of unpackings in *note function calls: d7c.: >>> print(*[1], *[2], 3, *[4, 5]) 1 2 3 4 5 >>> def fn(a, b, c, d): ... print(a, b, c, d) ... >>> fn(**{'a': 1, 'c': 3}, **{'b': 2, 'd': 4}) 1 2 3 4 Similarly, tuple, list, set, and dictionary displays allow multiple unpackings (see *note Expression lists: d7d. and *note Dictionary displays: d7e.): >>> *range(4), 4 (0, 1, 2, 3, 4) >>> [*range(4), 4] [0, 1, 2, 3, 4] >>> {*range(4), 4, *(5, 6, 7)} {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} >>> {'x': 1, **{'y': 2}} {'x': 1, 'y': 2} See also ........ PEP 448(2) – Additional Unpacking Generalizations PEP written by Joshua Landau; implemented by Neil Girdhar, Thomas Wouters, and Joshua Landau. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0448/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray, Next: PEP 484 - Type Hints, Prev: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.4 PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray .................................................................... PEP 461(1) adds support for the ‘%’ *note interpolation operator: d80. to *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. While interpolation is usually thought of as a string operation, there are cases where interpolation on ‘bytes’ or ‘bytearrays’ makes sense, and the work needed to make up for this missing functionality detracts from the overall readability of the code. This issue is particularly important when dealing with wire format protocols, which are often a mixture of binary and ASCII compatible text. Examples: >>> b'Hello %b!' % b'World' b'Hello World!' >>> b'x=%i y=%f' % (1, 2.5) b'x=1 y=2.500000' Unicode is not allowed for ‘%b’, but it is accepted by ‘%a’ (equivalent of ‘repr(obj).encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace')’): >>> b'Hello %b!' % 'World' Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: %b requires bytes, or an object that implements __bytes__, not 'str' >>> b'price: %a' % '10€' b"price: '10\\u20ac'" Note that ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ conversion types, although supported, should only be used in codebases that need compatibility with Python 2. See also ........ PEP 461(2) – Adding % formatting to bytes and bytearray PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Neil Schemenauer and Ethan Furman. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0461/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 484 - Type Hints, Next: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator, Prev: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.5 PEP 484 - Type Hints ............................ Function annotation syntax has been a Python feature since version 3.0 ( PEP 3107(1)), however the semantics of annotations has been left undefined. Experience has shown that the majority of function annotation uses were to provide type hints to function parameters and return values. It became evident that it would be beneficial for Python users, if the standard library included the base definitions and tools for type annotations. PEP 484(2) introduces a *note provisional module: b03. to provide these standard definitions and tools, along with some conventions for situations where annotations are not available. For example, here is a simple function whose argument and return type are declared in the annotations: def greeting(name: str) -> str: return 'Hello ' + name While these annotations are available at runtime through the usual ‘__annotations__’ attribute, 'no automatic type checking happens at runtime'. Instead, it is assumed that a separate off-line type checker (e.g. mypy(3)) will be used for on-demand source code analysis. The type system supports unions, generic types, and a special type named *note Any: 6a8. which is consistent with (i.e. assignable to and from) all types. See also ........ * *note typing: 104. module documentation * PEP 484(4) – Type Hints PEP written by Guido van Rossum, Jukka Lehtosalo, and Łukasz Langa; implemented by Guido van Rossum. * PEP 483(5) – The Theory of Type Hints PEP written by Guido van Rossum ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (3) https://mypy-lang.org (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator, Next: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR, Prev: PEP 484 - Type Hints, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.6 PEP 471 - os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator ................................................................................ PEP 471(1) adds a new directory iteration function, *note os.scandir(): a5e, to the standard library. Additionally, *note os.walk(): 4a5. is now implemented using ‘scandir’, which makes it 3 to 5 times faster on POSIX systems and 7 to 20 times faster on Windows systems. This is largely achieved by greatly reducing the number of calls to *note os.stat(): 49c. required to walk a directory tree. Additionally, ‘scandir’ returns an iterator, as opposed to returning a list of file names, which improves memory efficiency when iterating over very large directories. The following example shows a simple use of *note os.scandir(): a5e. to display all the files (excluding directories) in the given 'path' that don’t start with ‘'.'’. The *note entry.is_file(): d83. call will generally not make an additional system call: for entry in os.scandir(path): if not entry.name.startswith('.') and entry.is_file(): print(entry.name) See also ........ PEP 471(2) – os.scandir() function – a better and faster directory iterator PEP written and implemented by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0471/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR, Next: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators, Prev: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.7 PEP 475: Retry system calls failing with EINTR ...................................................... An *note errno.EINTR: d86. error code is returned whenever a system call, that is waiting for I/O, is interrupted by a signal. Previously, Python would raise *note InterruptedError: d87. in such cases. This meant that, when writing a Python application, the developer had two choices: 1. Ignore the ‘InterruptedError’. 2. Handle the ‘InterruptedError’ and attempt to restart the interrupted system call at every call site. The first option makes an application fail intermittently. The second option adds a large amount of boilerplate that makes the code nearly unreadable. Compare: print("Hello World") and: while True: try: print("Hello World") break except InterruptedError: continue PEP 475(1) implements automatic retry of system calls on ‘EINTR’. This removes the burden of dealing with ‘EINTR’ or *note InterruptedError: d87. in user code in most situations and makes Python programs, including the standard library, more robust. Note that the system call is only retried if the signal handler does not raise an exception. Below is a list of functions which are now retried when interrupted by a signal: * *note open(): 517. and *note io.open(): 518.; * functions of the *note faulthandler: 58. module; * *note os: a1. functions: *note fchdir(): d88, *note fchmod(): 21e, *note fchown(): d89, *note fdatasync(): d8a, *note fstat(): d8b, *note fstatvfs(): d8c, *note fsync(): d8d, *note ftruncate(): d8e, *note mkfifo(): d8f, *note mknod(): d90, *note open(): d91, *note posix_fadvise(): d92, *note posix_fallocate(): d93, *note pread(): b5f, *note pwrite(): b62, *note read(): d94, *note readv(): b5e, *note sendfile(): b0f, *note wait3(): d95, *note wait4(): d96, *note wait(): d97, *note waitid(): d98, *note waitpid(): d99, *note write(): d9a, *note writev(): b61.; * special cases: *note os.close(): b74. and *note os.dup2(): b63. now ignore *note EINTR: d86. errors; the syscall is not retried (see the PEP for the rationale); * *note select: c1. functions: *note devpoll.poll(): d9b, *note epoll.poll(): d9c, *note kqueue.control(): d9d, *note poll.poll(): d9e, *note select(): d9f.; * methods of the *note socket: da0. class: *note accept(): da1, *note connect(): da2. (except for non-blocking sockets), *note recv(): da3, *note recvfrom(): da4, *note recvmsg(): da5, *note send(): da6, *note sendall(): da7, *note sendmsg(): 472, *note sendto(): da8.; * *note signal.sigtimedwait(): da9. and *note signal.sigwaitinfo(): daa.; * *note time.sleep(): 699. See also ........ PEP 475(2) – Retry system calls failing with EINTR PEP and implementation written by Charles-François Natali and Victor Stinner, with the help of Antoine Pitrou (the French connection). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators, Next: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality, Prev: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.8 PEP 479: Change StopIteration handling inside generators ................................................................ The interaction of generators and *note StopIteration: bfa. in Python 3.4 and earlier was sometimes surprising, and could conceal obscure bugs. Previously, ‘StopIteration’ raised accidentally inside a generator function was interpreted as the end of the iteration by the loop construct driving the generator. PEP 479(1) changes the behavior of generators: when a ‘StopIteration’ exception is raised inside a generator, it is replaced with a *note RuntimeError: 195. before it exits the generator frame. The main goal of this change is to ease debugging in the situation where an unguarded *note next(): 7d3. call raises ‘StopIteration’ and causes the iteration controlled by the generator to terminate silently. This is particularly pernicious in combination with the ‘yield from’ construct. This is a backwards incompatible change, so to enable the new behavior, a *note __future__: dac. import is necessary: >>> from __future__ import generator_stop >>> def gen(): ... next(iter([])) ... yield ... >>> next(gen()) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 2, in gen StopIteration The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception: Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in RuntimeError: generator raised StopIteration Without a ‘__future__’ import, a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. will be raised whenever a *note StopIteration: bfa. exception is raised inside a generator. See also ........ PEP 479(2) – Change StopIteration handling inside generators PEP written by Chris Angelico and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Chris Angelico, Yury Selivanov and Nick Coghlan. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality, Next: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments, Prev: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.9 PEP 485: A function for testing approximate equality ............................................................ PEP 485(1) adds the *note math.isclose(): daf. and *note cmath.isclose(): db0. functions which tell whether two values are approximately equal or “close” to each other. Whether or not two values are considered close is determined according to given absolute and relative tolerances. Relative tolerance is the maximum allowed difference between ‘isclose’ arguments, relative to the larger absolute value: >>> import math >>> a = 5.0 >>> b = 4.99998 >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-5) True >>> math.isclose(a, b, rel_tol=1e-6) False It is also possible to compare two values using absolute tolerance, which must be a non-negative value: >>> import math >>> a = 5.0 >>> b = 4.99998 >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00003) True >>> math.isclose(a, b, abs_tol=0.00001) False See also ........ PEP 485(2) – A function for testing approximate equality PEP written by Christopher Barker; implemented by Chris Barker and Tal Einat. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0485/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments, Next: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files, Prev: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.10 PEP 486: Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments ........................................................................ PEP 486(1) makes the Windows launcher (see PEP 397(2)) aware of an active virtual environment. When the default interpreter would be used and the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ environment variable is set, the interpreter in the virtual environment will be used. See also ........ PEP 486(3) – Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments PEP written and implemented by Paul Moore. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0486/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files, Next: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization, Prev: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.11 PEP 488: Elimination of PYO files .......................................... PEP 488(1) does away with the concept of ‘.pyo’ files. This means that ‘.pyc’ files represent both unoptimized and optimized bytecode. To prevent the need to constantly regenerate bytecode files, ‘.pyc’ files now have an optional ‘opt-’ tag in their name when the bytecode is optimized. This has the side-effect of no more bytecode file name clashes when running under either *note -O: db4. or *note -OO: db5. Consequently, bytecode files generated from *note -O: db4, and *note -OO: db5. may now exist simultaneously. *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f8. has an updated API to help with this change. See also ........ PEP 488(2) – Elimination of PYO files PEP written and implemented by Brett Cannon. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization, Prev: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files, Up: New Features<14> 1.9.2.12 PEP 489: Multi-phase extension module initialization ............................................................. PEP 489(1) updates extension module initialization to take advantage of the two step module loading mechanism introduced by PEP 451(2) in Python 3.4. This change brings the import semantics of extension modules that opt-in to using the new mechanism much closer to those of Python source and bytecode modules, including the ability to use any valid identifier as a module name, rather than being restricted to ASCII. See also ........ PEP 489(3) – Multi-phase extension module initialization PEP written by Petr Viktorin, Stefan Behnel, and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Petr Viktorin. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<9>, Next: New Modules<9>, Prev: New Features<14>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.3 Other Language Changes ---------------------------- Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * Added the ‘"namereplace"’ error handlers. The ‘"backslashreplace"’ error handlers now work with decoding and translating. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(1) and bpo-22286(2).) * The *note -b: 5df. option now affects comparisons of *note bytes: 1c2. with *note int: 259. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23681(3).) * New Kazakh ‘kz1048’ and Tajik ‘koi8_t’ *note codecs: db8. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22682(4) and bpo-22681(5).) * Property docstrings are now writable. This is especially useful for *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. docstrings. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(6).) * Circular imports involving relative imports are now supported. (Contributed by Brett Cannon and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17636(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22286 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23681 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22682 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22681 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17636  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<9>, Next: Improved Modules<9>, Prev: Other Language Changes<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.4 New Modules ----------------- * Menu: * typing: typing<10>. * zipapp: zipapp<2>.  File: python.info, Node: typing<10>, Next: zipapp<2>, Up: New Modules<9> 1.9.4.1 typing .............. The new *note typing: 104. *note provisional: b03. module provides standard definitions and tools for function type annotations. See *note Type Hints: d65. for more information.  File: python.info, Node: zipapp<2>, Prev: typing<10>, Up: New Modules<9> 1.9.4.2 zipapp .............. The new *note zipapp: 130. module (specified in PEP 441(1)) provides an API and command line tool for creating executable Python Zip Applications, which were introduced in Python 2.6 in bpo-1739468(2), but which were not well publicized, either at the time or since. With the new module, bundling your application is as simple as putting all the files, including a ‘__main__.py’ file, into a directory ‘myapp’ and running: $ python -m zipapp myapp $ python myapp.pyz The module implementation has been contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-23491(3). See also ........ PEP 441(4) – Improving Python ZIP Application Support ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23491 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0441/  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<9>, Next: Other module-level changes, Prev: New Modules<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.5 Improved Modules ---------------------- * Menu: * argparse: argparse<4>. * asyncio: asyncio<10>. * bz2:: * cgi:: * cmath: cmath<2>. * code:: * collections: collections<5>. * collections.abc: collections abc<3>. * compileall: compileall<4>. * concurrent.futures: concurrent futures<5>. * configparser: configparser<4>. * contextlib: contextlib<5>. * csv: csv<3>. * curses: curses<4>. * dbm: dbm<5>. * difflib:: * distutils: distutils<7>. * doctest: doctest<3>. * email: email<3>. * enum: enum<8>. * faulthandler: faulthandler<3>. * functools: functools<4>. * glob: glob<3>. * gzip: gzip<4>. * heapq:: * http: http<2>. * http.client: http client<3>. * idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<3>. * imaplib: imaplib<2>. * imghdr:: * importlib: importlib<8>. * inspect: inspect<7>. * io: io<5>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<4>. * json: json<2>. * linecache: linecache<2>. * locale: locale<6>. * logging: logging<5>. * lzma:: * math: math<8>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<6>. * operator: operator<2>. * os: os<10>. * pathlib: pathlib<10>. * pickle: pickle<3>. * poplib: poplib<2>. * re: re<7>. * readline: readline<2>. * selectors:: * shutil: shutil<5>. * signal: signal<3>. * smtpd: smtpd<2>. * smtplib: smtplib<2>. * sndhdr:: * socket: socket<8>. * ssl: ssl<9>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<8>. * subprocess: subprocess<4>. * sys: sys<11>. * sysconfig: sysconfig<2>. * tarfile: tarfile<7>. * threading: threading<6>. * time: time<7>. * timeit: timeit<2>. * tkinter: tkinter<8>. * traceback: traceback<5>. * types: types<5>. * unicodedata: unicodedata<8>. * unittest: unittest<8>. * unittest.mock: unittest mock<3>. * urllib: urllib<2>. * wsgiref:: * xmlrpc: xmlrpc<2>. * xml.sax: xml sax. * zipfile: zipfile<4>.  File: python.info, Node: argparse<4>, Next: asyncio<10>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.1 argparse ................ The *note ArgumentParser: 535. class now allows disabling *note abbreviated usage: dbe. of long options by setting *note allow_abbrev: dbf. to ‘False’. (Contributed by Jonathan Paugh, Steven Bethard, paul j3 and Daniel Eriksson in bpo-14910(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14910  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<10>, Next: bz2, Prev: argparse<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.2 asyncio ............... Since the *note asyncio: a. module is *note provisional: b03, all changes introduced in Python 3.5 have also been backported to Python 3.4.x. Notable changes in the *note asyncio: a. module since Python 3.4.0: * New debugging APIs: *note loop.set_debug(): dc1. and *note loop.get_debug(): dc2. methods. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.) * The proactor event loop now supports SSL. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Victor Stinner in bpo-22560(1).) * A new *note loop.is_closed(): dc3. method to check if the event loop is closed. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21326(2).) * A new *note loop.create_task(): 1c0. to conveniently create and schedule a new *note Task: 1be. for a coroutine. The ‘create_task’ method is also used by all asyncio functions that wrap coroutines into tasks, such as *note asyncio.wait(): 47b, *note asyncio.gather(): 5f9, etc. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.) * A new *note transport.get_write_buffer_limits(): dc4. method to inquire for 'high-' and 'low-' water limits of the flow control. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.) * The ‘async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note ensure_future(): c76. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * New *note loop.set_task_factory(): dc5. and *note loop.get_task_factory(): dc6. methods to customize the task factory that *note loop.create_task(): 1c0. method uses. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * New *note Queue.join(): dc7. and *note Queue.task_done(): dc8. queue methods. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.) * The ‘JoinableQueue’ class was removed, in favor of the *note asyncio.Queue: a76. class. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.) Updates in 3.5.1: * The *note ensure_future(): c76. function and all functions that use it, such as *note loop.run_until_complete(): c77, now accept all kinds of *note awaitable objects: 1ad. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * New *note run_coroutine_threadsafe(): 880. function to submit coroutines to event loops from other threads. (Contributed by Vincent Michel.) * New *note Transport.is_closing(): c78. method to check if the transport is closing or closed. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * The *note loop.create_server(): b13. method can now accept a list of hosts. (Contributed by Yann Sionneau.) Updates in 3.5.2: * New *note loop.create_future(): c79. method to create Future objects. This allows alternative event loop implementations, such as uvloop(3), to provide a faster *note asyncio.Future: bcd. implementation. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * New *note loop.get_exception_handler(): c7a. method to get the current exception handler. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov.) * New *note StreamReader.readuntil(): 1b4. method to read data from the stream until a separator bytes sequence appears. (Contributed by Mark Korenberg.) * The *note loop.create_connection(): 5ff. and *note loop.create_server(): b13. methods are optimized to avoid calling the system ‘getaddrinfo’ function if the address is already resolved. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.) * The *note loop.sock_connect(sock, address): dc9. no longer requires the 'address' to be resolved prior to the call. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22560 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21326 (3) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop  File: python.info, Node: bz2, Next: cgi, Prev: asyncio<10>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.3 bz2 ........... The *note BZ2Decompressor.decompress: dcb. method now accepts an optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed data. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-15955(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955  File: python.info, Node: cgi, Next: cmath<2>, Prev: bz2, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.4 cgi ........... The ‘FieldStorage’ class now supports the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-20289(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20289  File: python.info, Node: cmath<2>, Next: code, Prev: cgi, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.5 cmath ............. A new function *note isclose(): db0. provides a way to test for approximate equality. (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in bpo-24270(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270  File: python.info, Node: code, Next: collections<5>, Prev: cmath<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.6 code ............ The *note InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback(): dcf. method now prints the full chained traceback, just like the interactive interpreter. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17442(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17442  File: python.info, Node: collections<5>, Next: collections abc<3>, Prev: code, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.7 collections ................... The *note OrderedDict: 5d7. class is now implemented in C, which makes it 4 to 100 times faster. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-16991(1).) ‘OrderedDict.items()’, ‘OrderedDict.keys()’, ‘OrderedDict.values()’ views now support *note reversed(): 862. iteration. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19505(2).) The *note deque: 5d8. class now defines *note index(): dd1, *note insert(): dd2, and *note copy(): dd3, and supports the ‘+’ and ‘*’ operators. This allows deques to be recognized as a *note MutableSequence: 1a1. and improves their substitutability for lists. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-23704(3).) Docstrings produced by *note namedtuple(): 1ca. can now be updated: Point = namedtuple('Point', ['x', 'y']) Point.__doc__ += ': Cartesian coordinate' Point.x.__doc__ = 'abscissa' Point.y.__doc__ = 'ordinate' (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-24064(4).) The *note UserString: dd4. class now implements the ‘__getnewargs__()’, ‘__rmod__()’, *note casefold(): dd5, *note format_map(): dd6, *note isprintable(): dd7, and *note maketrans(): dd8. methods to match the corresponding methods of *note str: 447. (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-22189(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16991 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19505 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23704 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24064 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22189  File: python.info, Node: collections abc<3>, Next: compileall<4>, Prev: collections<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.8 collections.abc ....................... The ‘Sequence.index()’ method now accepts 'start' and 'stop' arguments to match the corresponding methods of *note tuple: 36b, *note list: 60d, etc. (Contributed by Devin Jeanpierre in bpo-23086(1).) A new *note Generator: dda. abstract base class. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-24018(2).) New *note Awaitable: ddb, *note Coroutine: ddc, *note AsyncIterator: ddd, and *note AsyncIterable: dde. abstract base classes. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24184(3).) For earlier Python versions, a backport of the new ABCs is available in an external PyPI package(4). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23086 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24018 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24184 (4) https://pypi.org/project/backports_abc/  File: python.info, Node: compileall<4>, Next: concurrent futures<5>, Prev: collections abc<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.9 compileall .................. A new *note compileall: 20. option, ‘-j N’, allows running 'N' workers simultaneously to perform parallel bytecode compilation. The *note compile_dir(): b26. function has a corresponding ‘workers’ parameter. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-16104(1).) Another new option, ‘-r’, allows controlling the maximum recursion level for subdirectories. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19628(2).) The ‘-q’ command line option can now be specified more than once, in which case all output, including errors, will be suppressed. The corresponding ‘quiet’ parameter in *note compile_dir(): b26, *note compile_file(): de0, and *note compile_path(): de1. can now accept an integer value indicating the level of output suppression. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-21338(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16104 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19628 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21338  File: python.info, Node: concurrent futures<5>, Next: configparser<4>, Prev: compileall<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.10 concurrent.futures ........................... The *note Executor.map(): de3. method now accepts a 'chunksize' argument to allow batching of tasks to improve performance when *note ProcessPoolExecutor(): 8ed. is used. (Contributed by Dan O’Reilly in bpo-11271(1).) The number of workers in the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. constructor is optional now. The default value is 5 times the number of CPUs. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-21527(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11271 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21527  File: python.info, Node: configparser<4>, Next: contextlib<5>, Prev: concurrent futures<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.11 configparser ..................... *note configparser: 22. now provides a way to customize the conversion of values by specifying a dictionary of converters in the *note ConfigParser: 1c8. constructor, or by defining them as methods in ‘ConfigParser’ subclasses. Converters defined in a parser instance are inherited by its section proxies. Example: >>> import configparser >>> conv = {} >>> conv['list'] = lambda v: [e.strip() for e in v.split() if e.strip()] >>> cfg = configparser.ConfigParser(converters=conv) >>> cfg.read_string(""" ... [s] ... list = a b c d e f g ... """) >>> cfg.get('s', 'list') 'a b c d e f g' >>> cfg.getlist('s', 'list') ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'] >>> section = cfg['s'] >>> section.getlist('list') ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e', 'f', 'g'] (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-18159(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18159  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<5>, Next: csv<3>, Prev: configparser<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.12 contextlib ................... The new *note redirect_stderr(): de6. *note context manager: 5d0. (similar to *note redirect_stdout(): de7.) makes it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to *note sys.stderr: 939. and don’t provide any options to redirect it: >>> import contextlib, io, logging >>> f = io.StringIO() >>> with contextlib.redirect_stderr(f): ... logging.warning('warning') ... >>> f.getvalue() 'WARNING:root:warning\n' (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-22389(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22389  File: python.info, Node: csv<3>, Next: curses<4>, Prev: contextlib<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.13 csv ............ The *note writerow(): de9. method now supports arbitrary iterables, not just sequences. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23171(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23171  File: python.info, Node: curses<4>, Next: dbm<5>, Prev: csv<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.14 curses ............... The new *note update_lines_cols(): deb. function updates the ‘LINES’ and ‘COLS’ module variables. This is useful for detecting manual screen resizing. (Contributed by Arnon Yaari in bpo-4254(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4254  File: python.info, Node: dbm<5>, Next: difflib, Prev: curses<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.15 dbm ............ *note dumb.open: a96. always creates a new database when the flag has the value ‘"n"’. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18039(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18039  File: python.info, Node: difflib, Next: distutils<7>, Prev: dbm<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.16 difflib ................ The charset of HTML documents generated by *note HtmlDiff.make_file(): dee. can now be customized by using a new 'charset' keyword-only argument. The default charset of HTML document changed from ‘"ISO-8859-1"’ to ‘"utf-8"’. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-2052(1).) The *note diff_bytes(): def. function can now compare lists of byte strings. This fixes a regression from Python 2. (Contributed by Terry J. Reedy and Greg Ward in bpo-17445(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2052 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17445  File: python.info, Node: distutils<7>, Next: doctest<3>, Prev: difflib, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.17 distutils .................. Both the ‘build’ and ‘build_ext’ commands now accept a ‘-j’ option to enable parallel building of extension modules. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5309(1).) The ‘distutils’ module now supports ‘xz’ compression, and can be enabled by passing ‘xztar’ as an argument to ‘bdist --format’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16314(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5309 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16314  File: python.info, Node: doctest<3>, Next: email<3>, Prev: distutils<7>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.18 doctest ................ The *note DocTestSuite(): df2. function returns an empty *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. if 'module' contains no docstrings, instead of raising *note ValueError: 204. (Contributed by Glenn Jones in bpo-15916(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15916  File: python.info, Node: email<3>, Next: enum<8>, Prev: doctest<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.19 email .............. A new policy option *note Policy.mangle_from_: df5. controls whether or not lines that start with ‘"From "’ in email bodies are prefixed with a ‘">"’ character by generators. The default is ‘True’ for *note compat32: c99. and ‘False’ for all other policies. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-20098(1).) A new *note Message.get_content_disposition(): df6. method provides easy access to a canonical value for the ‘Content-Disposition’ header. (Contributed by Abhilash Raj in bpo-21083(2).) A new policy option *note EmailPolicy.utf8: df7. can be set to ‘True’ to encode email headers using the UTF-8 charset instead of using encoded words. This allows ‘Messages’ to be formatted according to RFC 6532(3) and used with an SMTP server that supports the RFC 6531(4) ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-24211(5).) The *note mime.text.MIMEText: df8. constructor now accepts a *note charset.Charset: df9. instance. (Contributed by Claude Paroz and Berker Peksag in bpo-16324(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20098 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21083 (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6532.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24211 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16324  File: python.info, Node: enum<8>, Next: faulthandler<3>, Prev: email<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.20 enum ............. The *note Enum: 62c. callable has a new parameter 'start' to specify the initial number of enum values if only 'names' are provided: >>> Animal = enum.Enum('Animal', 'cat dog', start=10) >>> Animal.cat >>> Animal.dog (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-21706(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21706  File: python.info, Node: faulthandler<3>, Next: functools<4>, Prev: enum<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.21 faulthandler ..................... The *note enable(): c9e, *note register(): dfc, *note dump_traceback(): dfd. and *note dump_traceback_later(): dfe. functions now accept file descriptors in addition to file-like objects. (Contributed by Wei Wu in bpo-23566(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23566  File: python.info, Node: functools<4>, Next: glob<3>, Prev: faulthandler<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.22 functools .................. Most of the *note lru_cache(): 9ee. machinery is now implemented in C, making it significantly faster. (Contributed by Matt Joiner, Alexey Kachayev, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14373(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14373  File: python.info, Node: glob<3>, Next: gzip<4>, Prev: functools<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.23 glob ............. The *note iglob(): 803. and *note glob(): 2a1. functions now support recursive search in subdirectories, using the ‘"**"’ pattern. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13968(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13968  File: python.info, Node: gzip<4>, Next: heapq, Prev: glob<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.24 gzip ............. The 'mode' argument of the *note GzipFile: 416. constructor now accepts ‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation. (Contributed by Tim Heaney in bpo-19222(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222  File: python.info, Node: heapq, Next: http<2>, Prev: gzip<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.25 heapq .............. Element comparison in *note merge(): e03. can now be customized by passing a *note key function: e04. in a new optional 'key' keyword argument, and a new optional 'reverse' keyword argument can be used to reverse element comparison: >>> import heapq >>> a = ['9', '777', '55555'] >>> b = ['88', '6666'] >>> list(heapq.merge(a, b, key=len)) ['9', '88', '777', '6666', '55555'] >>> list(heapq.merge(reversed(a), reversed(b), key=len, reverse=True)) ['55555', '6666', '777', '88', '9'] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13742(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13742  File: python.info, Node: http<2>, Next: http client<3>, Prev: heapq, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.26 http ............. A new *note HTTPStatus: 8ff. enum that defines a set of HTTP status codes, reason phrases and long descriptions written in English. (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793  File: python.info, Node: http client<3>, Next: idlelib and IDLE<3>, Prev: http<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.27 http.client .................... *note HTTPConnection.getresponse(): e07. now raises a *note RemoteDisconnected: e08. exception when a remote server connection is closed unexpectedly. Additionally, if a *note ConnectionError: e09. (of which ‘RemoteDisconnected’ is a subclass) is raised, the client socket is now closed automatically, and will reconnect on the next request: import http.client conn = http.client.HTTPConnection('www.python.org') for retries in range(3): try: conn.request('GET', '/') resp = conn.getresponse() except http.client.RemoteDisconnected: pass (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-3566(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3566  File: python.info, Node: idlelib and IDLE<3>, Next: imaplib<2>, Prev: http client<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.28 idlelib and IDLE ......................... Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release. See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.4.0, as well as changes made in future 3.5.x releases. This file is also available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.  File: python.info, Node: imaplib<2>, Next: imghdr, Prev: idlelib and IDLE<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.29 imaplib ................ The *note IMAP4: 902. class now supports the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol. When used in a *note with: 5ce. statement, the IMAP4 ‘LOGOUT’ command will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-4972(1).) The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports RFC 5161(2) (ENABLE Extension) and RFC 6855(3) (UTF-8 Support) via the *note IMAP4.enable(): e0c. method. A new *note IMAP4.utf8_enabled: e0d. attribute tracks whether or not RFC 6855(4) support is enabled. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch, R. David Murray, and Maciej Szulik in bpo-21800(5).) The *note imaplib: 74. module now automatically encodes non-ASCII string usernames and passwords using UTF-8, as recommended by the RFCs. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21800(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972 (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5161.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6855.html (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21800  File: python.info, Node: imghdr, Next: importlib<8>, Prev: imaplib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.30 imghdr ............... The ‘what()’ function now recognizes the OpenEXR(1) format (contributed by Martin Vignali and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20295(2)), and the WebP(3) format (contributed by Fabrice Aneche and Claudiu Popa in bpo-20197(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.openexr.com (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20295 (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WebP (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20197  File: python.info, Node: importlib<8>, Next: inspect<7>, Prev: imghdr, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.31 importlib .................. The *note util.LazyLoader: cad. class allows for lazy loading of modules in applications where startup time is important. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-17621(1).) The *note abc.InspectLoader.source_to_code(): e10. method is now a static method. This makes it easier to initialize a module object with code compiled from a string by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-21156(2).) The new *note util.module_from_spec(): e11. function is now the preferred way to create a new module. As opposed to creating a *note types.ModuleType: e12. instance directly, this new function will set the various import-controlled attributes based on the passed-in spec object. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-20383(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17621 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21156 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20383  File: python.info, Node: inspect<7>, Next: io<5>, Prev: importlib<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.32 inspect ................ Both the *note Signature: 1cf. and *note Parameter: 1d0. classes are now picklable and hashable. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20726(1) and bpo-20334(2).) A new *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): e14. method provides a way to set default values for missing arguments: >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam') >>> ba.apply_defaults() >>> ba.arguments OrderedDict([('a', 'spam'), ('b', 'ham'), ('args', ())]) (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24190(3).) A new class method *note Signature.from_callable(): 735. makes subclassing of *note Signature: 1cf. easier. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov and Eric Snow in bpo-17373(4).) The *note signature(): 733. function now accepts a 'follow_wrapped' optional keyword argument, which, when set to ‘False’, disables automatic following of ‘__wrapped__’ links. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20691(5).) A set of new functions to inspect *note coroutine functions: d76. and *note coroutine objects: 48d. has been added: *note iscoroutine(): e15, *note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8, *note isawaitable(): e16, *note getcoroutinelocals(): e17, and *note getcoroutinestate(): e18. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(6) and bpo-24400(7).) The *note stack(): 64e, *note trace(): 64f, *note getouterframes(): 64c, and *note getinnerframes(): 64d. functions now return a list of named tuples. (Contributed by Daniel Shahaf in bpo-16808(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20726 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20334 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24190 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17373 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20691 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16808  File: python.info, Node: io<5>, Next: ipaddress<4>, Prev: inspect<7>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.33 io ........... A new *note BufferedIOBase.readinto1(): e1a. method, that uses at most one call to the underlying raw stream’s *note RawIOBase.read(): e1b. or *note RawIOBase.readinto(): e1c. methods. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20578(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20578  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress<4>, Next: json<2>, Prev: io<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.34 ipaddress .................. Both the *note IPv4Network: 200. and *note IPv6Network: 201. classes now accept an ‘(address, netmask)’ tuple argument, so as to easily construct network objects from existing addresses: >>> import ipaddress >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', 8)) IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8') >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network(('127.0.0.0', '255.0.0.0')) IPv4Network('127.0.0.0/8') (Contributed by Peter Moody and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16531(1).) A new ‘reverse_pointer’ attribute for the *note IPv4Network: 200. and *note IPv6Network: 201. classes returns the name of the reverse DNS PTR record: >>> import ipaddress >>> addr = ipaddress.IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') >>> addr.reverse_pointer '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa' >>> addr6 = ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1') >>> addr6.reverse_pointer '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.ip6.arpa' (Contributed by Leon Weber in bpo-20480(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16531 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20480  File: python.info, Node: json<2>, Next: linecache<2>, Prev: ipaddress<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.35 json ............. The *note json.tool: 83. command line interface now preserves the order of keys in JSON objects passed in input. The new ‘--sort-keys’ option can be used to sort the keys alphabetically. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21650(1).) JSON decoder now raises *note JSONDecodeError: e1f. instead of *note ValueError: 204. to provide better context information about the error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19361(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21650 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19361  File: python.info, Node: linecache<2>, Next: locale<6>, Prev: json<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.36 linecache .................. A new *note lazycache(): e21. function can be used to capture information about a non-file-based module to permit getting its lines later via *note getline(): e22. This avoids doing I/O until a line is actually needed, without having to carry the module globals around indefinitely. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911  File: python.info, Node: locale<6>, Next: logging<5>, Prev: linecache<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.37 locale ............... A new *note delocalize(): e24. function can be used to convert a string into a normalized number string, taking the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ settings into account: >>> import locale >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'de_DE.UTF-8') 'de_DE.UTF-8' >>> locale.delocalize('1.234,56') '1234.56' >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_NUMERIC, 'en_US.UTF-8') 'en_US.UTF-8' >>> locale.delocalize('1,234.56') '1234.56' (Contributed by Cédric Krier in bpo-13918(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13918  File: python.info, Node: logging<5>, Next: lzma, Prev: locale<6>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.38 logging ................ All logging methods (*note Logger: b4f. *note log(): e26, *note exception(): e27, *note critical(): e28, *note debug(): e29, etc.), now accept exception instances as an 'exc_info' argument, in addition to boolean values and exception tuples: >>> import logging >>> try: ... 1/0 ... except ZeroDivisionError as ex: ... logging.error('exception', exc_info=ex) ERROR:root:exception (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20537(1).) The *note handlers.HTTPHandler: e2a. class now accepts an optional *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. instance to configure SSL settings used in an HTTP connection. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22788(2).) The *note handlers.QueueListener: e2b. class now takes a 'respect_handler_level' keyword argument which, if set to ‘True’, will pass messages to handlers taking handler levels into account. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20537 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22788  File: python.info, Node: lzma, Next: math<8>, Prev: logging<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.39 lzma ............. The *note LZMADecompressor.decompress(): e2d. method now accepts an optional 'max_length' argument to limit the maximum size of decompressed data. (Contributed by Martin Panter in bpo-15955(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15955  File: python.info, Node: math<8>, Next: multiprocessing<6>, Prev: lzma, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.40 math ............. Two new constants have been added to the *note math: 8e. module: *note inf: c84. and *note nan: 65f. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-23185(1).) A new function *note isclose(): daf. provides a way to test for approximate equality. (Contributed by Chris Barker and Tal Einat in bpo-24270(2).) A new *note gcd(): 90f. function has been added. The ‘fractions.gcd()’ function is now deprecated. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22486(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23185 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24270 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22486  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<6>, Next: operator<2>, Prev: math<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.41 multiprocessing ........................ *note sharedctypes.synchronized(): e30. objects now support the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol. (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-21565(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21565  File: python.info, Node: operator<2>, Next: os<10>, Prev: multiprocessing<6>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.42 operator ................. *note attrgetter(): e32, *note itemgetter(): a61, and *note methodcaller(): e33. objects now support pickling. (Contributed by Josh Rosenberg and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22955(1).) New *note matmul(): e34. and *note imatmul(): e35. functions to perform matrix multiplication. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22955 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176  File: python.info, Node: os<10>, Next: pathlib<10>, Prev: operator<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.43 os ........... The new *note scandir(): a5e. function returning an iterator of *note DirEntry: 497. objects has been added. If possible, *note scandir(): a5e. extracts file attributes while scanning a directory, removing the need to perform subsequent system calls to determine file type or attributes, which may significantly improve performance. (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with the help of Victor Stinner in bpo-22524(1).) On Windows, a new *note stat_result.st_file_attributes: e37. attribute is now available. It corresponds to the ‘dwFileAttributes’ member of the ‘BY_HANDLE_FILE_INFORMATION’ structure returned by ‘GetFileInformationByHandle()’. (Contributed by Ben Hoyt in bpo-21719(2).) The *note urandom(): 51e. function now uses the ‘getrandom()’ syscall on Linux 3.17 or newer, and ‘getentropy()’ on OpenBSD 5.6 and newer, removing the need to use ‘/dev/urandom’ and avoiding failures due to potential file descriptor exhaustion. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22181(3).) New *note get_blocking(): e38. and *note set_blocking(): e39. functions allow getting and setting a file descriptor’s blocking mode (*note O_NONBLOCK: e3a.) (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22054(4).) The *note truncate(): e3b. and *note ftruncate(): d8e. functions are now supported on Windows. (Contributed by Steve Dower in bpo-23668(5).) There is a new *note os.path.commonpath(): e3c. function returning the longest common sub-path of each passed pathname. Unlike the *note os.path.commonprefix(): e3d. function, it always returns a valid path: >>> os.path.commonprefix(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib']) '/usr/l' >>> os.path.commonpath(['/usr/lib', '/usr/local/lib']) '/usr' (Contributed by Rafik Draoui and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10395(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22524 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21719 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22181 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22054 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23668 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10395  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<10>, Next: pickle<3>, Prev: os<10>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.44 pathlib ................ The new *note Path.samefile(): e3f. method can be used to check whether the path points to the same file as another path, which can be either another *note Path: 22b. object, or a string: >>> import pathlib >>> p1 = pathlib.Path('/etc/hosts') >>> p2 = pathlib.Path('/etc/../etc/hosts') >>> p1.samefile(p2) True (Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19775(1).) The *note Path.mkdir(): e40. method now accepts a new optional 'exist_ok' argument to match ‘mkdir -p’ and *note os.makedirs(): 220. functionality. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21539(2).) There is a new *note Path.expanduser(): e41. method to expand ‘~’ and ‘~user’ prefixes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Claudiu Popa in bpo-19776(3).) A new *note Path.home(): e42. class method can be used to get a *note Path: 22b. instance representing the user’s home directory. (Contributed by Victor Salgado and Mayank Tripathi in bpo-19777(4).) New *note Path.write_text(): e43, *note Path.read_text(): e44, *note Path.write_bytes(): e45, *note Path.read_bytes(): e46. methods to simplify read/write operations on files. The following code snippet will create or rewrite existing file ‘~/spam42’: >>> import pathlib >>> p = pathlib.Path('~/spam42') >>> p.expanduser().write_text('ham') 3 (Contributed by Christopher Welborn in bpo-20218(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19775 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21539 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19776 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19777 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20218  File: python.info, Node: pickle<3>, Next: poplib<2>, Prev: pathlib<10>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.45 pickle ............... Nested objects, such as unbound methods or nested classes, can now be pickled using *note pickle protocols: cc1. older than protocol version 4. Protocol version 4 already supports these cases. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23611(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23611  File: python.info, Node: poplib<2>, Next: re<7>, Prev: pickle<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.46 poplib ............... A new *note POP3.utf8(): e49. command enables RFC 6856(1) (Internationalized Email) support, if a POP server supports it. (Contributed by Milan OberKirch in bpo-21804(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6856.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21804  File: python.info, Node: re<7>, Next: readline<2>, Prev: poplib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.47 re ........... References and conditional references to groups with fixed length are now allowed in lookbehind assertions: >>> import re >>> pat = re.compile(r'(a|b).(?<=\1)c') >>> pat.match('aac') <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='aac'> >>> pat.match('bbc') <_sre.SRE_Match object; span=(0, 3), match='bbc'> (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-9179(1).) The number of capturing groups in regular expressions is no longer limited to 100. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22437(2).) The *note sub(): 2a5. and *note subn(): 2a6. functions now replace unmatched groups with empty strings instead of raising an exception. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1519638(3).) The ‘re.error’ exceptions have new attributes, ‘msg’, ‘pattern’, ‘pos’, ‘lineno’, and ‘colno’, that provide better context information about the error: >>> re.compile(""" ... (?x) ... .++ ... """) Traceback (most recent call last): ... sre_constants.error: multiple repeat at position 16 (line 3, column 7) (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22578(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9179 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22437 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1519638 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22578  File: python.info, Node: readline<2>, Next: selectors, Prev: re<7>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.48 readline ................. A new *note append_history_file(): e4c. function can be used to append the specified number of trailing elements in history to the given file. (Contributed by Bruno Cauet in bpo-22940(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22940  File: python.info, Node: selectors, Next: shutil<5>, Prev: readline<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.49 selectors .................. The new *note DevpollSelector: bd7. supports efficient ‘/dev/poll’ polling on Solaris. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-18931(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18931  File: python.info, Node: shutil<5>, Next: signal<3>, Prev: selectors, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.50 shutil ............... The *note move(): a5b. function now accepts a 'copy_function' argument, allowing, for example, the *note copy(): a59. function to be used instead of the default *note copy2(): a5a. if there is a need to ignore file metadata when moving. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19840(1).) The *note make_archive(): 4af. function now supports the 'xztar' format. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5411(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19840 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5411  File: python.info, Node: signal<3>, Next: smtpd<2>, Prev: shutil<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.51 signal ............... On Windows, the *note set_wakeup_fd(): b70. function now also supports socket handles. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22018(1).) Various ‘SIG*’ constants in the *note signal: c6. module have been converted into *note Enums: 56. This allows meaningful names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer “magic numbers”. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-21076(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22018 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21076  File: python.info, Node: smtpd<2>, Next: smtplib<2>, Prev: signal<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.52 smtpd .............. Both the ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'decode_data' keyword argument to determine if the ‘DATA’ portion of the SMTP transaction is decoded using the ‘"utf-8"’ codec or is instead provided to the ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ method as a byte string. The default is ‘True’ for backward compatibility reasons, but will change to ‘False’ in Python 3.6. If 'decode_data' is set to ‘False’, the ‘process_message’ method must be prepared to accept keyword arguments. (Contributed by Maciej Szulik in bpo-19662(1).) The ‘SMTPServer’ class now advertises the ‘8BITMIME’ extension ( RFC 6152(2)) if 'decode_data' has been set ‘True’. If the client specifies ‘BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, it is passed to ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-21795(3).) The ‘SMTPServer’ class now also supports the ‘SMTPUTF8’ extension ( RFC 6531(4): Internationalized Email). If the client specified ‘SMTPUTF8 BODY=8BITMIME’ on the ‘MAIL’ command, they are passed to ‘SMTPServer.process_message()’ via the 'mail_options' keyword. It is the responsibility of the ‘process_message’ method to correctly handle the ‘SMTPUTF8’ data. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-21725(5).) It is now possible to provide, directly or via name resolution, IPv6 addresses in the ‘SMTPServer’ constructor, and have it successfully connect. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-14758(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19662 (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6152.html (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21795 (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21725 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14758  File: python.info, Node: smtplib<2>, Next: sndhdr, Prev: smtpd<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.53 smtplib ................ A new *note SMTP.auth(): e52. method provides a convenient way to implement custom authentication mechanisms. (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch in bpo-15014(1).) The *note SMTP.set_debuglevel(): e53. method now accepts an additional debuglevel (2), which enables timestamps in debug messages. (Contributed by Gavin Chappell and Maciej Szulik in bpo-16914(2).) Both the *note SMTP.sendmail(): e54. and *note SMTP.send_message(): e55. methods now support RFC 6531(3) (SMTPUTF8). (Contributed by Milan Oberkirch and R. David Murray in bpo-22027(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15014 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16914 (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc6531.html (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22027  File: python.info, Node: sndhdr, Next: socket<8>, Prev: smtplib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.54 sndhdr ............... The ‘what()’ and ‘whathdr()’ functions now return a *note namedtuple(): 1ca. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18615(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18615  File: python.info, Node: socket<8>, Next: ssl<9>, Prev: sndhdr, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.55 socket ............... Functions with timeouts now use a monotonic clock, instead of a system clock. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).) A new *note socket.sendfile(): e58. method allows sending a file over a socket by using the high-performance *note os.sendfile(): b0f. function on UNIX, resulting in uploads being from 2 to 3 times faster than when using plain *note socket.send(): da6. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-17552(2).) The *note socket.sendall(): da7. method no longer resets the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration to send all data. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23853(3).) The 'backlog' argument of the *note socket.listen(): e59. method is now optional. By default it is set to *note SOMAXCONN: e5a. or to ‘128’, whichever is less. (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-21455(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21455  File: python.info, Node: ssl<9>, Next: sqlite3<8>, Prev: socket<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.56 ssl ............ * Menu: * Memory BIO Support:: * Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support:: * Other Changes::  File: python.info, Node: Memory BIO Support, Next: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support, Up: ssl<9> 1.9.5.57 Memory BIO Support ........................... (Contributed by Geert Jansen in bpo-21965(1).) The new *note SSLObject: b81. class has been added to provide SSL protocol support for cases when the network I/O capabilities of *note SSLSocket: 8e9. are not necessary or are suboptimal. ‘SSLObject’ represents an SSL protocol instance, but does not implement any network I/O methods, and instead provides a memory buffer interface. The new *note MemoryBIO: e5d. class can be used to pass data between Python and an SSL protocol instance. The memory BIO SSL support is primarily intended to be used in frameworks implementing asynchronous I/O for which *note SSLSocket: 8e9.’s readiness model (“select/poll”) is inefficient. A new *note SSLContext.wrap_bio(): b82. method can be used to create a new ‘SSLObject’ instance. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21965  File: python.info, Node: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support, Next: Other Changes, Prev: Memory BIO Support, Up: ssl<9> 1.9.5.58 Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support ....................................................... (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-20188(1).) Where OpenSSL support is present, the *note ssl: d0. module now implements the 'Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation' TLS extension as described in RFC 7301(2). The new *note SSLContext.set_alpn_protocols(): e5f. can be used to specify which protocols a socket should advertise during the TLS handshake. The new *note SSLSocket.selected_alpn_protocol(): e60. returns the protocol that was selected during the TLS handshake. The *note HAS_ALPN: e61. flag indicates whether ALPN support is present. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20188 (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7301.html  File: python.info, Node: Other Changes, Prev: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support, Up: ssl<9> 1.9.5.59 Other Changes ...................... There is a new *note SSLSocket.version(): e63. method to query the actual protocol version in use. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-20421(1).) The *note SSLSocket: 8e9. class now implements a ‘SSLSocket.sendfile()’ method. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola’ in bpo-17552(2).) The ‘SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either the *note ssl.SSLWantReadError: e64. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: e65. exception on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return ‘0’. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).) The *note cert_time_to_seconds(): e66. function now interprets the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(4). Additionally, the return value is always an *note int: 259. (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(5).) New ‘SSLObject.shared_ciphers()’ and *note SSLSocket.shared_ciphers(): e67. methods return the list of ciphers sent by the client during the handshake. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-23186(6).) The *note SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e68, *note SSLSocket.read(): e69, ‘SSLSocket.shutdown()’, and *note SSLSocket.write(): e6a. methods of the *note SSLSocket: 8e9. class no longer reset the socket timeout every time bytes are received or sent. The socket timeout is now the maximum total duration of the method. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23853(7).) The ‘match_hostname()’ function now supports matching of IP addresses. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-23239(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20421 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17552 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951 (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23186 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23853 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23239  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<8>, Next: subprocess<4>, Prev: ssl<9>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.60 sqlite3 ................ The *note Row: e6c. class now fully supports the sequence protocol, in particular *note reversed(): 862. iteration and slice indexing. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-10203(1); by Lucas Sinclair, Jessica McKellar, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13583(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10203 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13583  File: python.info, Node: subprocess<4>, Next: sys<11>, Prev: sqlite3<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.61 subprocess ................... The new *note run(): b86. function has been added. It runs the specified command and returns a *note CompletedProcess: e6e. object, which describes a finished process. The new API is more consistent and is the recommended approach to invoking subprocesses in Python code that does not need to maintain compatibility with earlier Python versions. (Contributed by Thomas Kluyver in bpo-23342(1).) Examples: >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l"]) # doesn't capture output CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l'], returncode=0) >>> subprocess.run("exit 1", shell=True, check=True) Traceback (most recent call last): ... subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command 'exit 1' returned non-zero exit status 1 >>> subprocess.run(["ls", "-l", "/dev/null"], stdout=subprocess.PIPE) CompletedProcess(args=['ls', '-l', '/dev/null'], returncode=0, stdout=b'crw-rw-rw- 1 root root 1, 3 Jan 23 16:23 /dev/null\n') ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23342  File: python.info, Node: sys<11>, Next: sysconfig<2>, Prev: subprocess<4>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.62 sys ............ A new ‘set_coroutine_wrapper()’ function allows setting a global hook that will be called whenever a *note coroutine object: 48d. is created by an *note async def: 5cd. function. A corresponding ‘get_coroutine_wrapper()’ can be used to obtain a currently set wrapper. Both functions are *note provisional: b03, and are intended for debugging purposes only. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).) A new *note is_finalizing(): a8f. function can be used to check if the Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14e. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22696(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22696  File: python.info, Node: sysconfig<2>, Next: tarfile<7>, Prev: sys<11>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.63 sysconfig .................. The name of the user scripts directory on Windows now includes the first two components of the Python version. (Contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-23437(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23437  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<7>, Next: threading<6>, Prev: sysconfig<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.64 tarfile ................ The 'mode' argument of the *note open(): e72. function now accepts ‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21717(1).) The *note TarFile.extractall(): 42a. and *note TarFile.extract(): 42b. methods now take a keyword argument 'numeric_owner'. If set to ‘True’, the extracted files and directories will be owned by the numeric ‘uid’ and ‘gid’ from the tarfile. If set to ‘False’ (the default, and the behavior in versions prior to 3.5), they will be owned by the named user and group in the tarfile. (Contributed by Michael Vogt and Eric Smith in bpo-23193(2).) The *note TarFile.list(): e73. now accepts an optional 'members' keyword argument that can be set to a subset of the list returned by *note TarFile.getmembers(): e74. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21549(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23193 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21549  File: python.info, Node: threading<6>, Next: time<7>, Prev: tarfile<7>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.65 threading .................. Both the *note Lock.acquire(): 694. and *note RLock.acquire(): e76. methods now use a monotonic clock for timeout management. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043  File: python.info, Node: time<7>, Next: timeit<2>, Prev: threading<6>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.66 time ............. The *note monotonic(): 255. function is now always available. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-22043(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22043  File: python.info, Node: timeit<2>, Next: tkinter<8>, Prev: time<7>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.67 timeit ............... A new command line option ‘-u’ or ‘--unit=U’ can be used to specify the time unit for the timer output. Supported options are ‘usec’, ‘msec’, or ‘sec’. (Contributed by Julian Gindi in bpo-18983(1).) The *note timeit(): e79. function has a new 'globals' parameter for specifying the namespace in which the code will be running. (Contributed by Ben Roberts in bpo-2527(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18983 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2527  File: python.info, Node: tkinter<8>, Next: traceback<5>, Prev: timeit<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.68 tkinter ................ The ‘tkinter._fix’ module used for setting up the Tcl/Tk environment on Windows has been replaced by a private function in the ‘_tkinter’ module which makes no permanent changes to environment variables. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-20035(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20035  File: python.info, Node: traceback<5>, Next: types<5>, Prev: tkinter<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.69 traceback .................. New *note walk_stack(): e7c. and *note walk_tb(): e7d. functions to conveniently traverse frame and *note traceback objects: af4. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(1).) New lightweight classes: *note TracebackException: 25e, *note StackSummary: e7e, and *note FrameSummary: e7f. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-17911(2).) Both the *note print_tb(): e80. and *note print_stack(): e81. functions now support negative values for the 'limit' argument. (Contributed by Dmitry Kazakov in bpo-22619(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17911 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22619  File: python.info, Node: types<5>, Next: unicodedata<8>, Prev: traceback<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.70 types .............. A new *note coroutine(): e83. function to transform *note generator: bde. and *note generator-like: dda. objects into *note awaitables: 1ad. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24017(1).) A new type called *note CoroutineType: e84, which is used for *note coroutine: 48d. objects created by *note async def: 5cd. functions. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24400(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24017 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24400  File: python.info, Node: unicodedata<8>, Next: unittest<8>, Prev: types<5>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.71 unicodedata .................... The *note unicodedata: 105. module now uses data from Unicode 8.0.0(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode8.0.0/  File: python.info, Node: unittest<8>, Next: unittest mock<3>, Prev: unicodedata<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.72 unittest ................. The *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 291. method now accepts a keyword-only argument 'pattern' which is passed to ‘load_tests’ as the third argument. Found packages are now checked for ‘load_tests’ regardless of whether their path matches 'pattern', because it is impossible for a package name to match the default pattern. (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(1).) Unittest discovery errors now are exposed in the *note TestLoader.errors: e87. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 290. instance. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-19746(2).) A new command line option ‘--locals’ to show local variables in tracebacks. (Contributed by Robert Collins in bpo-22936(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19746 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22936  File: python.info, Node: unittest mock<3>, Next: urllib<2>, Prev: unittest<8>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.73 unittest.mock ...................... The *note Mock: a4b. class has the following improvements: * The class constructor has a new 'unsafe' parameter, which causes mock objects to raise *note AttributeError: 348. on attribute names starting with ‘"assert"’. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21238(1).) * A new *note Mock.assert_not_called(): e89. method to check if the mock object was called. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-21262(2).) The *note MagicMock: e8a. class now supports ‘__truediv__()’, ‘__divmod__()’ and ‘__matmul__()’ operators. (Contributed by Johannes Baiter in bpo-20968(3), and Håkan Lövdahl in bpo-23581(4) and bpo-23568(5).) It is no longer necessary to explicitly pass ‘create=True’ to the *note patch(): e8b. function when patching builtin names. (Contributed by Kushal Das in bpo-17660(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21238 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21262 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20968 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23581 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23568 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17660  File: python.info, Node: urllib<2>, Next: wsgiref, Prev: unittest mock<3>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.74 urllib ............... A new *note request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth: e8d. class allows HTTP Basic Authentication credentials to be managed so as to eliminate unnecessary ‘401’ response handling, or to unconditionally send credentials on the first request in order to communicate with servers that return a ‘404’ response instead of a ‘401’ if the ‘Authorization’ header is not sent. (Contributed by Matej Cepl in bpo-19494(1) and Akshit Khurana in bpo-7159(2).) A new 'quote_via' argument for the *note parse.urlencode(): e8e. function provides a way to control the encoding of query parts if needed. (Contributed by Samwyse and Arnon Yaari in bpo-13866(3).) The *note request.urlopen(): 295. function accepts an *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. object as a 'context' argument, which will be used for the HTTPS connection. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22366(4).) The *note parse.urljoin(): e8f. was updated to use the RFC 3986(5) semantics for the resolution of relative URLs, rather than RFC 1808(6) and RFC 2396(7). (Contributed by Demian Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-22118(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19494 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7159 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13866 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22366 (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1808.html (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2396.html (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22118  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref, Next: xmlrpc<2>, Prev: urllib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.75 wsgiref ................ The 'headers' argument of the *note headers.Headers: e91. class constructor is now optional. (Contributed by Pablo Torres Navarrete and SilentGhost in bpo-5800(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5800  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc<2>, Next: xml sax, Prev: wsgiref, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.76 xmlrpc ............... The *note client.ServerProxy: a56. class now supports the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-20627(1).) The *note client.ServerProxy: a56. constructor now accepts an optional *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. instance. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-22960(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20627 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22960  File: python.info, Node: xml sax, Next: zipfile<4>, Prev: xmlrpc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.77 xml.sax ................ SAX parsers now support a character stream of the *note xmlreader.InputSource: e94. object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-2175(1).) *note parseString(): e95. now accepts a *note str: 447. instance. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-10590(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2175 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10590  File: python.info, Node: zipfile<4>, Prev: xml sax, Up: Improved Modules<9> 1.9.5.78 zipfile ................ ZIP output can now be written to unseekable streams. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23252(1).) The 'mode' argument of *note ZipFile.open(): 417. method now accepts ‘"x"’ to request exclusive creation. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-21717(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23252 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21717  File: python.info, Node: Other module-level changes, Next: Optimizations<9>, Prev: Improved Modules<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.6 Other module-level changes -------------------------------- Many functions in the *note mmap: 90, ‘ossaudiodev’, *note socket: cc, *note ssl: d0, and *note codecs: 1b. modules now accept writable *note bytes-like objects: d2d. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23001(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23001  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<9>, Next: Build and C API Changes<3>, Prev: Other module-level changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.7 Optimizations ------------------- The *note os.walk(): 4a5. function has been sped up by 3 to 5 times on POSIX systems, and by 7 to 20 times on Windows. This was done using the new *note os.scandir(): a5e. function, which exposes file information from the underlying ‘readdir’ or ‘FindFirstFile’/‘FindNextFile’ system calls. (Contributed by Ben Hoyt with help from Victor Stinner in bpo-23605(1).) Construction of ‘bytes(int)’ (filled by zero bytes) is faster and uses less memory for large objects. ‘calloc()’ is used instead of ‘malloc()’ to allocate memory for these objects. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21233(2).) Some operations on *note ipaddress: 80. *note IPv4Network: 200. and *note IPv6Network: 201. have been massively sped up, such as *note subnets(): e99, *note supernet(): e9a, *note summarize_address_range(): e9b, *note collapse_addresses(): e9c. The speed up can range from 3 to 15 times. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Michel Albert, and Markus in bpo-21486(3), bpo-21487(4), bpo-20826(5), bpo-23266(6).) Pickling of *note ipaddress: 80. objects was optimized to produce significantly smaller output. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23133(7).) Many operations on *note io.BytesIO: e9d. are now 50% to 100% faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15381(8) and David Wilson in bpo-22003(9).) The *note marshal.dumps(): e9e. function is now faster: 65–85% with versions 3 and 4, 20–25% with versions 0 to 2 on typical data, and up to 5 times in best cases. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20416(10) and bpo-23344(11).) The UTF-32 encoder is now 3 to 7 times faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15027(12).) Regular expressions are now parsed up to 10% faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19380(13).) The *note json.dumps(): d45. function was optimized to run with ‘ensure_ascii=False’ as fast as with ‘ensure_ascii=True’. (Contributed by Naoki Inada in bpo-23206(14).) The *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e9f. and *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): ea0. functions have been sped up in the common case that the second argument has *note type: d48. as its metaclass. (Contributed Georg Brandl by in bpo-22540(15).) Method caching was slightly improved, yielding up to 5% performance improvement in some benchmarks. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-22847(16).) Objects from the *note random: b8. module now use 50% less memory on 64-bit builds. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23488(17).) The *note property(): 194. getter calls are up to 25% faster. (Contributed by Joe Jevnik in bpo-23910(18).) Instantiation of *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. is now up to 30% faster. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel in bpo-22464(19).) String methods *note find(): ea1, *note rfind(): ea2, *note split(): ea3, *note partition(): ea4. and the *note in: 2ee. string operator are now significantly faster for searching 1-character substrings. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23573(20).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23605 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21486 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21487 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20826 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23266 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23133 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15381 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22003 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20416 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23344 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15027 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19380 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23206 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22540 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22847 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23488 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23910 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22464 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23573  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<3>, Next: Deprecated<10>, Prev: Optimizations<9>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.8 Build and C API Changes ----------------------------- New ‘calloc’ functions were added: * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c, * *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea6, * *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea7. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21233(1).) New encoding/decoding helper functions: * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. (replaced ‘_Py_char2wchar()’), * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. (replaced ‘_Py_wchar2char()’). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18395(2).) A new *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): ea8. function to replace the unicode encode error with ‘\N{...}’ escapes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19676(3).) A new *note PyErr_FormatV(): ea9. function similar to *note PyErr_Format(): eaa, but accepts a ‘va_list’ argument. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18711(4).) A new *note PyExc_RecursionError: eab. exception. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-19235(5).) New *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): eac, *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): ead, and *note PyModule_ExecDef(): eae. functions introduced by PEP 489(6) – multi-phase extension module initialization. (Contributed by Petr Viktorin in bpo-24268(7).) New *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): eaf. and *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): eb0. functions to perform matrix multiplication. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-21176(8). See also PEP 465(9) for details.) The *note PyTypeObject.tp_finalize: aa6. slot is now part of the stable ABI. Windows builds now require Microsoft Visual C++ 14.0, which is available as part of Visual Studio 2015(10). Extension modules now include a platform information tag in their filename on some platforms (the tag is optional, and CPython will import extensions without it, although if the tag is present and mismatched, the extension won’t be loaded): * On Linux, extension module filenames end with ‘.cpython-m--.pyd’: * ‘’ is the major number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is ‘3’. * ‘’ is the minor number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is ‘5’. * ‘’ is the hardware architecture the extension module was built to run on. It’s most commonly either ‘i386’ for 32-bit Intel platforms or ‘x86_64’ for 64-bit Intel (and AMD) platforms. * ‘’ is always ‘linux-gnu’, except for extensions built to talk to the 32-bit ABI on 64-bit platforms, in which case it is ‘linux-gnu32’ (and ‘’ will be ‘x86_64’). * On Windows, extension module filenames end with ‘.cp-.pyd’: * ‘’ is the major number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is ‘3’. * ‘’ is the minor number of the Python version; for Python 3.5 this is ‘5’. * ‘’ is the platform the extension module was built for, either ‘win32’ for Win32, ‘win_amd64’ for Win64, ‘win_ia64’ for Windows Itanium 64, and ‘win_arm’ for Windows on ARM. * If built in debug mode, ‘’ will be ‘_d’, otherwise it will be blank. * On OS X platforms, extension module filenames now end with ‘-darwin.so’. * On all other platforms, extension module filenames are the same as they were with Python 3.4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21233 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18395 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19676 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18711 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19235 (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/ (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24268 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21176 (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0465/ (10) https://visualstudio.microsoft.com/en/vs/older-downloads/#visual-studio-2015-and-other-products  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<10>, Next: Removed<10>, Prev: Build and C API Changes<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.9 Deprecated ---------------- * Menu: * New Keywords: New Keywords<2>. * Deprecated Python Behavior: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>. * Unsupported Operating Systems:: * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>.  File: python.info, Node: New Keywords<2>, Next: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>, Up: Deprecated<10> 1.9.9.1 New Keywords .................... ‘async’ and ‘await’ are not recommended to be used as variable, class, function or module names. Introduced by PEP 492(1) in Python 3.5, they will become proper keywords in Python 3.7. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>, Next: Unsupported Operating Systems, Prev: New Keywords<2>, Up: Deprecated<10> 1.9.9.2 Deprecated Python Behavior .................................. Raising the *note StopIteration: bfa. exception inside a generator will now generate a silent *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7, which will become a non-silent deprecation warning in Python 3.6 and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 195. in Python 3.7. See *note PEP 479; Change StopIteration handling inside generators: d1f. for details.  File: python.info, Node: Unsupported Operating Systems, Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>, Prev: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>, Up: Deprecated<10> 1.9.9.3 Unsupported Operating Systems ..................................... Windows XP is no longer supported by Microsoft, thus, per PEP 11(1), CPython 3.5 is no longer officially supported on this OS. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>, Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems, Up: Deprecated<10> 1.9.9.4 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods ........................................................ The ‘formatter’ module has now graduated to full deprecation and is still slated for removal in Python 3.6. The ‘asyncio.async()’ function is deprecated in favor of *note ensure_future(): c76. The ‘smtpd’ module has in the past always decoded the DATA portion of email messages using the ‘utf-8’ codec. This can now be controlled by the new 'decode_data' keyword to ‘SMTPServer’. The default value is ‘True’, but this default is deprecated. Specify the 'decode_data' keyword with an appropriate value to avoid the deprecation warning. Directly assigning values to the *note key: c01, *note value: c02. and *note coded_value: c03. of *note http.cookies.Morsel: c04. objects is deprecated. Use the *note set(): c05. method instead. In addition, the undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): c05. is deprecated, and is now ignored. Passing a format string as keyword argument 'format_string' to the *note format(): c00. method of the *note string.Formatter: eb6. class has been deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23671(1).) The ‘platform.dist()’ and ‘platform.linux_distribution()’ functions are now deprecated. Linux distributions use too many different ways of describing themselves, so the functionality is left to a package. (Contributed by Vajrasky Kok and Berker Peksag in bpo-1322(2).) The previously undocumented ‘from_function’ and ‘from_builtin’ methods of *note inspect.Signature: 1cf. are deprecated. Use the new *note Signature.from_callable(): 735. method instead. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-24248(3).) The ‘inspect.getargspec()’ function is deprecated and scheduled to be removed in Python 3.6. (See bpo-20438(4) for details.) The *note inspect: 7e. *note getfullargspec(): 734, *note getcallargs(): eb7, and ‘formatargspec()’ functions are deprecated in favor of the *note inspect.signature(): 733. API. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20438(5).) *note getargvalues(): eb8. and *note formatargvalues(): eb9. functions were inadvertently marked as deprecated with the release of Python 3.5.0. Use of *note re.LOCALE: b6c. flag with str patterns or *note re.ASCII: 628. is now deprecated. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22407(6).) Use of unrecognized special sequences consisting of ‘'\'’ and an ASCII letter in regular expression patterns and replacement patterns now raises a deprecation warning and will be forbidden in Python 3.6. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-23622(7).) The undocumented and unofficial 'use_load_tests' default argument of the *note unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 291. method now is deprecated and ignored. (Contributed by Robert Collins and Barry A. Warsaw in bpo-16662(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23671 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1322 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24248 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20438 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22407 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23622 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16662  File: python.info, Node: Removed<10>, Next: Porting to Python 3 5, Prev: Deprecated<10>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.10 Removed -------------- * Menu: * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<4>.  File: python.info, Node: API and Feature Removals<4>, Up: Removed<10> 1.9.10.1 API and Feature Removals ................................. The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been removed: * The ‘__version__’ attribute has been dropped from the email package. The email code hasn’t been shipped separately from the stdlib for a long time, and the ‘__version__’ string was not updated in the last few releases. * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5e. module was deprecated in 3.4, and has now been removed. (Contributed by Matt Chaput in bpo-6623(1).) * The concept of ‘.pyo’ files has been removed. * The JoinableQueue class in the provisional *note asyncio: a. module was deprecated in 3.4.4 and is now removed. (Contributed by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis in bpo-23464(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6623 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23464  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 5, Next: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4, Prev: Removed<10>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.11 Porting to Python 3.5 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in Python behavior: Changes in Python behavior<2>. * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<9>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<7>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in Python behavior<2>, Next: Changes in the Python API<9>, Up: Porting to Python 3 5 1.9.11.1 Changes in Python behavior ................................... * Due to an oversight, earlier Python versions erroneously accepted the following syntax: f(1 for x in [1], *args) f(1 for x in [1], **kwargs) Python 3.5 now correctly raises a *note SyntaxError: 18d, as generator expressions must be put in parentheses if not a sole argument to a function.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<9>, Next: Changes in the C API<7>, Prev: Changes in Python behavior<2>, Up: Porting to Python 3 5 1.9.11.2 Changes in the Python API .................................. * PEP 475(1): System calls are now retried when interrupted by a signal instead of raising *note InterruptedError: d87. if the Python signal handler does not raise an exception. * Before Python 3.5, a *note datetime.time: 1ce. object was considered to be false if it represented midnight in UTC. This behavior was considered obscure and error-prone and has been removed in Python 3.5. See bpo-13936(2) for full details. * The ‘ssl.SSLSocket.send()’ method now raises either *note ssl.SSLWantReadError: e64. or *note ssl.SSLWantWriteError: e65. on a non-blocking socket if the operation would block. Previously, it would return ‘0’. (Contributed by Nikolaus Rath in bpo-20951(3).) * The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function name, instead of being set from the code name. Use ‘gen.gi_code.co_name’ to retrieve the code name. Generators also have a new ‘__qualname__’ attribute, the qualified name, which is now used for the representation of a generator (‘repr(gen)’). (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-21205(4).) * The deprecated “strict” mode and argument of *note HTMLParser: 874, ‘HTMLParser.error()’, and the ‘HTMLParserError’ exception have been removed. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(5).) The 'convert_charrefs' argument of *note HTMLParser: 874. is now ‘True’ by default. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-21047(6).) * Although it is not formally part of the API, it is worth noting for porting purposes (ie: fixing tests) that error messages that were previously of the form “‘sometype’ does not support the buffer protocol” are now of the form “a *note bytes-like object: d2d. is required, not ‘sometype’”. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-16518(7).) * If the current directory is set to a directory that no longer exists then *note FileNotFoundError: 427. will no longer be raised and instead *note find_spec(): ebf. will return ‘None’ 'without' caching ‘None’ in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0, which is different than the typical case (bpo-22834(8)). * HTTP status code and messages from *note http.client: 6f. and *note http.server: 72. were refactored into a common *note HTTPStatus: 8ff. enum. The values in *note http.client: 6f. and *note http.server: 72. remain available for backwards compatibility. (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-21793(9).) * When an import loader defines ‘importlib.machinery.Loader.exec_module()’ it is now expected to also define ‘create_module()’ (raises a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. now, will be an error in Python 3.6). If the loader inherits from *note importlib.abc.Loader: ec0. then there is nothing to do, else simply define ‘create_module()’ to return ‘None’. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-23014(10).) * The *note re.split(): 2a4. function always ignored empty pattern matches, so the ‘"x*"’ pattern worked the same as ‘"x+"’, and the ‘"\b"’ pattern never worked. Now *note re.split(): 2a4. raises a warning if the pattern could match an empty string. For compatibility, use patterns that never match an empty string (e.g. ‘"x+"’ instead of ‘"x*"’). Patterns that could only match an empty string (such as ‘"\b"’) now raise an error. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22818(11).) * The *note http.cookies.Morsel: c04. dict-like interface has been made self consistent: morsel comparison now takes the *note key: c01. and *note value: c02. into account, *note copy(): ec1. now results in a *note Morsel: c04. instance rather than a *note dict: 258, and *note update(): ec2. will now raise an exception if any of the keys in the update dictionary are invalid. In addition, the undocumented 'LegalChars' parameter of *note set(): c05. is deprecated and is now ignored. (Contributed by Demian Brecht in bpo-2211(12).) * PEP 488(13) has removed ‘.pyo’ files from Python and introduced the optional ‘opt-’ tag in ‘.pyc’ file names. The *note importlib.util.cache_from_source(): 2f8. has gained an 'optimization' parameter to help control the ‘opt-’ tag. Because of this, the 'debug_override' parameter of the function is now deprecated. ‘.pyo’ files are also no longer supported as a file argument to the Python interpreter and thus serve no purpose when distributed on their own (i.e. sourceless code distribution). Due to the fact that the magic number for bytecode has changed in Python 3.5, all old ‘.pyo’ files from previous versions of Python are invalid regardless of this PEP. * The *note socket: cc. module now exports the *note CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES: ec3. constant on linux 3.6 and greater. * The *note ssl.cert_time_to_seconds(): e66. function now interprets the input time as UTC and not as local time, per RFC 5280(14). Additionally, the return value is always an *note int: 259. (Contributed by Akira Li in bpo-19940(15).) * The ‘pygettext.py’ Tool now uses the standard +NNNN format for timezones in the POT-Creation-Date header. * The *note smtplib: ca. module now uses *note sys.stderr: 939. instead of the previous module-level ‘stderr’ variable for debug output. If your (test) program depends on patching the module-level variable to capture the debug output, you will need to update it to capture sys.stderr instead. * The *note str.startswith(): ec4. and *note str.endswith(): ec5. methods no longer return ‘True’ when finding the empty string and the indexes are completely out of range. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-24284(16).) * The *note inspect.getdoc(): 9f9. function now returns documentation strings inherited from base classes. Documentation strings no longer need to be duplicated if the inherited documentation is appropriate. To suppress an inherited string, an empty string must be specified (or the documentation may be filled in). This change affects the output of the *note pydoc: b5. module and the *note help(): 8d6. function. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-15582(17).) * Nested *note functools.partial(): 410. calls are now flattened. If you were relying on the previous behavior, you can now either add an attribute to a *note functools.partial(): 410. object or you can create a subclass of *note functools.partial(): 410. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-7830(18).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0475/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13936 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20951 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21205 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21047 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16518 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22834 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21793 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23014 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22818 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2211 (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/ (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5280.html (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19940 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=24284 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15582 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7830  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<7>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<9>, Up: Porting to Python 3 5 1.9.11.3 Changes in the C API ............................. * The undocumented ‘format’ member of the (non-public) ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ structure has been removed. All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ must be rebuilt. * The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to *note PyMemAllocatorEx: ec7. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added. * Removed non-documented macro ‘PyObject_REPR()’ which leaked references. Use format character ‘%R’ in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385.-like functions to format the *note repr(): 7f9. of the object. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-22453(1).) * Because the lack of the *note __module__: 36f. attribute breaks pickling and introspection, a deprecation warning is now raised for builtin types without the *note __module__: 36f. attribute. This will be an *note AttributeError: 348. in the future. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-20204(2).) * As part of the PEP 492(3) implementation, the ‘tp_reserved’ slot of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. was replaced with a *note tp_as_async: ec8. slot. Refer to *note Coroutine Objects: ec9. for new types, structures and functions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=22453 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20204 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/  File: python.info, Node: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4, Prev: Porting to Python 3 5, Up: What’s New In Python 3 5 1.9.12 Notable changes in Python 3.5.4 -------------------------------------- * Menu: * New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<2>. * Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<2>.  File: python.info, Node: New make regen-all build target<2>, Next: Removal of make touch build target<2>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4 1.9.12.1 New ‘make regen-all’ build target .......................................... To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times. Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force regeneration of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions). More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see Makefile.pre.in(1) for details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).) Added in version 3.5.4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404  File: python.info, Node: Removal of make touch build target<2>, Prev: New make regen-all build target<2>, Up: Notable changes in Python 3 5 4 1.9.12.2 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target ............................................. The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed. It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).) Changed in version 3.5.4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 4, Next: What’s New In Python 3 3, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 5, Up: What’s New in Python 1.10 What’s New In Python 3.4 ============================= Author: R. David Murray <> (Editor) This article explains the new features in Python 3.4, compared to 3.3. Python 3.4 was released on March 16, 2014. For full details, see the changelog(1). See also ........ PEP 429(2) – Python 3.4 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release Highlights: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. * New Features: New Features<15>. * New Modules: New Modules<10>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<10>. * CPython Implementation Changes:: * Deprecated: Deprecated<11>. * Removed: Removed<11>. * Porting to Python 3.4: Porting to Python 3 4. * Changed in 3.4.3: Changed in 3 4 3. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/3.4/whatsnew/changelog.html (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0429/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release Highlights<3>, Next: New Features<15>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.1 Summary – Release Highlights ----------------------------------- New syntax features: * No new syntax features were added in Python 3.4. Other new features: * *note pip should always be available: ed0. ( PEP 453(1)). * *note Newly created file descriptors are non-inheritable: ed1. ( PEP 446(2)). * command line option for *note isolated mode: ed2. (bpo-16499(3)). * *note improvements in the handling of codecs: ed3. that are not text encodings (multiple issues). * *note A ModuleSpec Type: ed4. for the Import System ( PEP 451(4)). (Affects importer authors.) * The *note marshal: 8d. format has been made *note more compact and efficient: ed5. (bpo-16475(5)). New library modules: * *note asyncio: a.: *note New provisional API for asynchronous IO: ed6. ( PEP 3156(6)). * *note ensurepip: 55.: *note Bootstrapping the pip installer: ed7. ( PEP 453(7)). * *note enum: 56.: *note Support for enumeration types: ed8. ( PEP 435(8)). * *note pathlib: a4.: *note Object-oriented filesystem paths: ed9. ( PEP 428(9)). * *note selectors: c2.: *note High-level and efficient I/O multiplexing: eda, built upon the *note select: c1. module primitives (part of PEP 3156(10)). * *note statistics: d2.: A basic *note numerically stable statistics library: edb. ( PEP 450(11)). * *note tracemalloc: ff.: *note Trace Python memory allocations: edc. ( PEP 454(12)). Significantly improved library modules: * *note Single-dispatch generic functions: edd. in *note functools: 5f. ( PEP 443(13)). * New *note pickle: a6. *note protocol 4: ede. ( PEP 3154(14)). * *note multiprocessing: 94. now has *note an option to avoid using os.fork on Unix: edf. (bpo-8713(15)). * *note email: 3b. has a new submodule, *note contentmanager: 3d, and a new *note Message: 27e. subclass (‘EmailMessage’) that *note simplify MIME handling: ee0. (bpo-18891(16)). * The *note inspect: 7e. and *note pydoc: b5. modules are now capable of correct introspection of a much wider variety of callable objects, which improves the output of the Python *note help(): 8d6. system. * The *note ipaddress: 80. module API has been declared stable Security improvements: * *note Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm: ee1. ( PEP 456(17)). * *note Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable: ed1. ( PEP 446(18)) to avoid leaking file descriptors to child processes. * New command line option for *note isolated mode: ed2, (bpo-16499(19)). * *note multiprocessing: 94. now has *note an option to avoid using os.fork on Unix: edf. 'spawn' and 'forkserver' are more secure because they avoid sharing data with child processes. * *note multiprocessing: 94. child processes on Windows no longer inherit all of the parent’s inheritable handles, only the necessary ones. * A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 50a. function provides the PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(20). * *note TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support: ee2. for *note ssl: d0. * *note Retrieving certificates from the Windows system cert store support: ee3. for *note ssl: d0. * *note Server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) support: ee4. for *note ssl: d0. * The *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. class has a *note lot of improvements: ee5. * All modules in the standard library that support SSL now support server certificate verification, including hostname matching (‘ssl.match_hostname()’) and CRLs (Certificate Revocation lists, see *note ssl.SSLContext.load_verify_locations(): ee6.). CPython implementation improvements: * *note Safe object finalization: ee7. ( PEP 442(21)). * Leveraging PEP 442(22), in most cases *note module globals are no longer set to None during finalization: ee7. (bpo-18214(23)). * *note Configurable memory allocators: ee8. ( PEP 445(24)). * *note Argument Clinic: ee9. ( PEP 436(25)). Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes, including many other smaller improvements, CPython optimizations, deprecations, and potential porting issues. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475 (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/ (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/ (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/ (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891 (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/ (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/ (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499 (20) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2 (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/ (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/ (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18214 (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/ (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/  File: python.info, Node: New Features<15>, Next: New Modules<10>, Prev: Summary – Release Highlights<3>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.2 New Features ------------------- * Menu: * PEP 453; Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations. * PEP 446; Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable. * Improvements to Codec Handling:: * PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<10>.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations, Next: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable, Up: New Features<15> 1.10.2.1 PEP 453: Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations ....................................................................... * Menu: * Bootstrapping pip By Default:: * Documentation Changes::  File: python.info, Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default, Next: Documentation Changes, Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations 1.10.2.2 Bootstrapping pip By Default ..................................... The new *note ensurepip: 55. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python installations and virtual environments. The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 3.4.0 is ‘pip’ 1.5.4, and future 3.4.x maintenance releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the time of creating the release candidate. By default, the commands ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies. On Windows and in virtual environments on all platforms, the unversioned ‘pip’ command will also be installed. On other platforms, the system wide unversioned ‘pip’ command typically refers to the separately installed Python 2 version. The ‘pyvenv’ command line utility and the *note venv: 111. module make use of the *note ensurepip: 55. module to make ‘pip’ readily available in virtual environments. When using the command line utility, ‘pip’ is installed by default, while when using the *note venv: 111. module *note API: eed. installation of ‘pip’ must be requested explicitly. For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: eee, the ‘make install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands bootstrap ‘pip’ by default. This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and overridden through Makefile options. On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’. As discussed in the PEP(2) platform packagers may choose not to install these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using the system package manager). Note: To avoid conflicts between parallel Python 2 and Python 3 installations, only the versioned ‘pip3’ and ‘pip3.4’ commands are bootstrapped by default when ‘ensurepip’ is invoked directly - the ‘--default-pip’ option is needed to also request the unversioned ‘pip’ command. ‘pyvenv’ and the Windows installer ensure that the unqualified ‘pip’ command is made available in those environments, and ‘pip’ can always be invoked via the ‘-m’ switch rather than directly to avoid ambiguity on systems with multiple Python installations. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors  File: python.info, Node: Documentation Changes, Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default, Up: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations 1.10.2.3 Documentation Changes .............................. As part of this change, the *note Installing Python Modules: ef0. and distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the individual projects. However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools: ef1. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools: ef2. See also ........ PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable, Next: Improvements to Codec Handling, Prev: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations, Up: New Features<15> 1.10.2.4 PEP 446: Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable .................................................................... PEP 446(1) makes newly created file descriptors *note non-inheritable: ef4. In general, this is the behavior an application will want: when launching a new process, having currently open files also open in the new process can lead to all sorts of hard to find bugs, and potentially to security issues. However, there are occasions when inheritance is desired. To support these cases, the following new functions and methods are available: * *note os.get_inheritable(): ef5, *note os.set_inheritable(): ef6. * *note os.get_handle_inheritable(): ef7, *note os.set_handle_inheritable(): ef8. * *note socket.socket.get_inheritable(): ef9, *note socket.socket.set_inheritable(): efa. See also ........ PEP 446(2) – Make newly created file descriptors non-inheritable PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0446/  File: python.info, Node: Improvements to Codec Handling, Next: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System, Prev: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable, Up: New Features<15> 1.10.2.5 Improvements to Codec Handling ....................................... Since it was first introduced, the *note codecs: 1b. module has always been intended to operate as a type-neutral dynamic encoding and decoding system. However, its close coupling with the Python text model, especially the type restricted convenience methods on the builtin *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. types, has historically obscured that fact. As a key step in clarifying the situation, the *note codecs.encode(): efc. and *note codecs.decode(): efd. convenience functions are now properly documented in Python 2.7, 3.3 and 3.4. These functions have existed in the *note codecs: 1b. module (and have been covered by the regression test suite) since Python 2.4, but were previously only discoverable through runtime introspection. Unlike the convenience methods on *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a, the *note codecs: 1b. convenience functions support arbitrary codecs in both Python 2 and Python 3, rather than being limited to Unicode text encodings (in Python 3) or ‘basestring’ <-> ‘basestring’ conversions (in Python 2). In Python 3.4, the interpreter is able to identify the known non-text encodings provided in the standard library and direct users towards these general purpose convenience functions when appropriate: >>> b"abcdef".decode("hex") Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.decode() to handle arbitrary codecs >>> "hello".encode("rot13") Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in LookupError: 'rot13' is not a text encoding; use codecs.encode() to handle arbitrary codecs >>> open("foo.txt", encoding="hex") Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in LookupError: 'hex' is not a text encoding; use codecs.open() to handle arbitrary codecs In a related change, whenever it is feasible without breaking backwards compatibility, exceptions raised during encoding and decoding operations are wrapped in a chained exception of the same type that mentions the name of the codec responsible for producing the error: >>> import codecs >>> codecs.decode(b"abcdefgh", "hex") Traceback (most recent call last): File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/hex_codec.py", line 20, in hex_decode return (binascii.a2b_hex(input), len(input)) binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception: Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in binascii.Error: decoding with 'hex' codec failed (Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found) >>> codecs.encode("hello", "bz2") Traceback (most recent call last): File "/usr/lib/python3.4/encodings/bz2_codec.py", line 17, in bz2_encode return (bz2.compress(input), len(input)) File "/usr/lib/python3.4/bz2.py", line 498, in compress return comp.compress(data) + comp.flush() TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface The above exception was the direct cause of the following exception: Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: encoding with 'bz2' codec failed (TypeError: 'str' does not support the buffer interface) Finally, as the examples above show, these improvements have permitted the restoration of the convenience aliases for the non-Unicode codecs that were themselves restored in Python 3.2. This means that encoding binary data to and from its hexadecimal representation (for example) can now be written as: >>> from codecs import encode, decode >>> encode(b"hello", "hex") b'68656c6c6f' >>> decode(b"68656c6c6f", "hex") b'hello' The binary and text transforms provided in the standard library are detailed in *note Binary Transforms: efe. and *note Text Transforms: eff. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-7475(1), bpo-17827(2), bpo-17828(3) and bpo-19619(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7475 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17827 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17828 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19619  File: python.info, Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System, Next: Other Language Changes<10>, Prev: Improvements to Codec Handling, Up: New Features<15> 1.10.2.6 PEP 451: A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System ......................................................... PEP 451(1) provides an encapsulation of the information about a module that the import machinery will use to load it (that is, a module specification). This helps simplify both the import implementation and several import-related APIs. The change is also a stepping stone for several future import-related improvements(2). The public-facing changes from the PEP are entirely backward-compatible. Furthermore, they should be transparent to everyone but importer authors. Key finder and loader methods have been deprecated, but they will continue working. New importers should use the new methods described in the PEP. Existing importers should be updated to implement the new methods. See the *note Deprecated: f01. section for a list of methods that should be replaced and their replacements. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (2) https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2013-November/130111.html  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<10>, Prev: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System, Up: New Features<15> 1.10.2.7 Other Language Changes ............................... Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.3. * *note min(): f03. and *note max(): f04. now accept a 'default' keyword-only argument that can be used to specify the value they return if the iterable they are evaluating has no elements. (Contributed by Julian Berman in bpo-18111(1).) * Module objects are now *note weakly referenceable: f05. * Module ‘__file__’ attributes (and related values) should now always contain absolute paths by default, with the sole exception of ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using a relative path. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(2).) * All the UTF-* codecs (except UTF-7) now reject surrogates during both encoding and decoding unless the ‘surrogatepass’ error handler is used, with the exception of the UTF-16 decoder (which accepts valid surrogate pairs) and the UTF-16 encoder (which produces them while encoding non-BMP characters). (Contributed by Victor Stinner, Kang-Hao (Kenny) Lu and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12892(3).) * New German EBCDIC *note codec: db8. ‘cp273’. (Contributed by Michael Bierenfeld and Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1097797(4).) * New Ukrainian *note codec: db8. ‘cp1125’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19668(5).) * *note bytes: 1c2.join() and *note bytearray: 53a.join() now accept arbitrary buffer objects as arguments. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15958(6).) * The *note int: 259. constructor now accepts any object that has an ‘__index__’ method for its 'base' argument. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-16772(7).) * Frame objects now have a *note clear(): 282. method that clears all references to local variables from the frame. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17934(8).) * *note memoryview: 464. is now registered as a *note Sequence: 1e, and supports the *note reversed(): 862. builtin. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Claudiu Popa in bpo-18690(9) and bpo-19078(10).) * Signatures reported by *note help(): 8d6. have been modified and improved in several cases as a result of the introduction of Argument Clinic and other changes to the *note inspect: 7e. and *note pydoc: b5. modules. * *note __length_hint__(): f06. is now part of the formal language specification (see PEP 424(11)). (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18111 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12892 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1097797 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19668 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15958 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17934 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18690 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19078 (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/ (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<10>, Next: Improved Modules<10>, Prev: New Features<15>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.3 New Modules ------------------ * Menu: * asyncio: asyncio<11>. * ensurepip: ensurepip<2>. * enum: enum<9>. * pathlib: pathlib<11>. * selectors: selectors<2>. * statistics: statistics<6>. * tracemalloc: tracemalloc<4>.  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<11>, Next: ensurepip<2>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.1 asyncio ................ The new *note asyncio: a. module (defined in PEP 3156(1)) provides a standard pluggable event loop model for Python, providing solid asynchronous IO support in the standard library, and making it easier for other event loop implementations to interoperate with the standard library and each other. For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: b03. See also ........ PEP 3156(2) – Asynchronous IO Support Rebooted: the “asyncio” Module PEP written and implementation led by Guido van Rossum. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/  File: python.info, Node: ensurepip<2>, Next: enum<9>, Prev: asyncio<11>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.2 ensurepip .................. The new *note ensurepip: 55. module is the primary infrastructure for the PEP 453(1) implementation. In the normal course of events end users will not need to interact with this module, but it can be used to manually bootstrap ‘pip’ if the automated bootstrapping into an installation or virtual environment was declined. *note ensurepip: 55. includes a bundled copy of ‘pip’, up-to-date as of the first release candidate of the release of CPython with which it ships (this applies to both maintenance releases and feature releases). ‘ensurepip’ does not access the internet. If the installation has internet access, after ‘ensurepip’ is run the bundled ‘pip’ can be used to upgrade ‘pip’ to a more recent release than the bundled one. (Note that such an upgraded version of ‘pip’ is considered to be a separately installed package and will not be removed if Python is uninstalled.) The module is named 'ensure'pip because if called when ‘pip’ is already installed, it does nothing. It also has an ‘--upgrade’ option that will cause it to install the bundled copy of ‘pip’ if the existing installed version of ‘pip’ is older than the bundled copy. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/  File: python.info, Node: enum<9>, Next: pathlib<11>, Prev: ensurepip<2>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.3 enum ............. The new *note enum: 56. module (defined in PEP 435(1)) provides a standard implementation of enumeration types, allowing other modules (such as *note socket: cc.) to provide more informative error messages and better debugging support by replacing opaque integer constants with backwards compatible enumeration values. See also ........ PEP 435(2) – Adding an Enum type to the Python standard library PEP written by Barry Warsaw, Eli Bendersky and Ethan Furman, implemented by Ethan Furman. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0435/  File: python.info, Node: pathlib<11>, Next: selectors<2>, Prev: enum<9>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.4 pathlib ................ The new *note pathlib: a4. module offers classes representing filesystem paths with semantics appropriate for different operating systems. Path classes are divided between 'pure paths', which provide purely computational operations without I/O, and 'concrete paths', which inherit from pure paths but also provide I/O operations. For Python 3.4, this module is considered a *note provisional API: b03. See also ........ PEP 428(1) – The pathlib module – object-oriented filesystem paths PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0428/  File: python.info, Node: selectors<2>, Next: statistics<6>, Prev: pathlib<11>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.5 selectors .................. The new *note selectors: c2. module (created as part of implementing PEP 3156(1)) allows high-level and efficient I/O multiplexing, built upon the *note select: c1. module primitives. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3156/  File: python.info, Node: statistics<6>, Next: tracemalloc<4>, Prev: selectors<2>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.6 statistics ................... The new *note statistics: d2. module (defined in PEP 450(1)) offers some core statistics functionality directly in the standard library. This module supports calculation of the mean, median, mode, variance and standard deviation of a data series. See also ........ PEP 450(2) – Adding A Statistics Module To The Standard Library PEP written and implemented by Steven D’Aprano ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0450/  File: python.info, Node: tracemalloc<4>, Prev: statistics<6>, Up: New Modules<10> 1.10.3.7 tracemalloc .................... The new *note tracemalloc: ff. module (defined in PEP 454(1)) is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information: * Trace where an object was allocated * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks See also ........ PEP 454(2) – Add a new tracemalloc module to trace Python memory allocations PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0454/  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<10>, Next: CPython Implementation Changes, Prev: New Modules<10>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.4 Improved Modules ----------------------- * Menu: * abc:: * aifc: aifc<2>. * argparse: argparse<5>. * audioop:: * base64: base64<3>. * collections: collections<6>. * colorsys:: * contextlib: contextlib<6>. * dbm: dbm<6>. * dis: dis<4>. * doctest: doctest<4>. * email: email<4>. * filecmp:: * functools: functools<5>. * gc: gc<5>. * glob: glob<4>. * hashlib: hashlib<6>. * hmac: hmac<3>. * html:: * http: http<3>. * idlelib and IDLE: idlelib and IDLE<4>. * importlib: importlib<9>. * inspect: inspect<8>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<5>. * logging: logging<6>. * marshal: marshal<2>. * mmap: mmap<3>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<7>. * operator: operator<3>. * os: os<11>. * pdb: pdb<6>. * pickle: pickle<4>. * plistlib: plistlib<2>. * poplib: poplib<3>. * pprint: pprint<4>. * pty:: * pydoc: pydoc<4>. * re: re<8>. * resource:: * select:: * shelve: shelve<2>. * shutil: shutil<6>. * smtpd: smtpd<3>. * smtplib: smtplib<3>. * socket: socket<9>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<9>. * ssl: ssl<10>. * stat:: * struct: struct<2>. * subprocess: subprocess<5>. * sunau: sunau<2>. * sys: sys<12>. * tarfile: tarfile<8>. * textwrap:: * threading: threading<7>. * traceback: traceback<6>. * types: types<6>. * urllib: urllib<3>. * unittest: unittest<9>. * venv: venv<7>. * wave: wave<2>. * weakref: weakref<2>. * xml.etree: xml etree<2>. * zipfile: zipfile<5>.  File: python.info, Node: abc, Next: aifc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.1 abc ............ New function *note abc.get_cache_token(): f11. can be used to know when to invalidate caches that are affected by changes in the object graph. (Contributed by Łukasz Langa in bpo-16832(1).) New class *note ABC: f12. has *note ABCMeta: f13. as its meta class. Using ‘ABC’ as a base class has essentially the same effect as specifying ‘metaclass=abc.ABCMeta’, but is simpler to type and easier to read. (Contributed by Bruno Dupuis in bpo-16049(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16832 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16049  File: python.info, Node: aifc<2>, Next: argparse<5>, Prev: abc, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.2 aifc ............. The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain tuple. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17818(1).) ‘aifc.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used in a *note with: 5ce. block, the ‘close()’ method of the returned object will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchacha in bpo-16486(2).) The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2d. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8311(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17818 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16486 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311  File: python.info, Node: argparse<5>, Next: audioop, Prev: aifc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.3 argparse ................. The *note FileType: f16. class now accepts 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments, which are passed through to *note open(): 517. (Contributed by Lucas Maystre in bpo-11175(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11175  File: python.info, Node: audioop, Next: base64<3>, Prev: argparse<5>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.4 audioop ................ ‘audioop’ now supports 24-bit samples. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-12866(1).) New ‘byteswap()’ function converts big-endian samples to little-endian and vice versa. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19641(2).) All ‘audioop’ functions now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2d. Strings are not accepted: they didn’t work before, now they raise an error right away. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16685(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12866 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19641 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685  File: python.info, Node: base64<3>, Next: collections<6>, Prev: audioop, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.5 base64 ............... The encoding and decoding functions in *note base64: e. now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2d. in cases where it previously required a *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. instance. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-17839(1).) New functions *note a85encode(): f19, *note a85decode(): f1a, *note b85encode(): f1b, and *note b85decode(): f1c. provide the ability to encode and decode binary data from and to ‘Ascii85’ and the git/mercurial ‘Base85’ formats, respectively. The ‘a85’ functions have options that can be used to make them compatible with the variants of the ‘Ascii85’ encoding, including the Adobe variant. (Contributed by Martin Morrison, the Mercurial project, Serhiy Storchaka, and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17618(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17839 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17618  File: python.info, Node: collections<6>, Next: colorsys, Prev: base64<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.6 collections .................... The *note ChainMap.new_child(): f1e. method now accepts an 'm' argument specifying the child map to add to the chain. This allows an existing mapping and/or a custom mapping type to be used for the child. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16613(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16613  File: python.info, Node: colorsys, Next: contextlib<6>, Prev: collections<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.7 colorsys ................. The number of digits in the coefficients for the RGB — YIQ conversions have been expanded so that they match the FCC NTSC versions. The change in results should be less than 1% and may better match results found elsewhere. (Contributed by Brian Landers and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14323(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14323  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<6>, Next: dbm<6>, Prev: colorsys, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.8 contextlib ................... The new *note contextlib.suppress: f21. context manager helps to clarify the intent of code that deliberately suppresses exceptions from a single statement. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15806(1) and Zero Piraeus in bpo-19266(2).) The new *note contextlib.redirect_stdout(): de7. context manager makes it easier for utility scripts to handle inflexible APIs that write their output to *note sys.stdout: ad6. and don’t provide any options to redirect it. Using the context manager, the *note sys.stdout: ad6. output can be redirected to any other stream or, in conjunction with *note io.StringIO: f22, to a string. The latter can be especially useful, for example, to capture output from a function that was written to implement a command line interface. It is recommended only for utility scripts because it affects the global state of *note sys.stdout: ad6. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-15805(3).) The *note contextlib: 23. documentation has also been updated to include a *note discussion: f23. of the differences between single use, reusable and reentrant context managers. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15806 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19266 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15805  File: python.info, Node: dbm<6>, Next: dis<4>, Prev: contextlib<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.9 dbm ............ *note dbm.open(): f25. objects now support the context management protocol. When used in a *note with: 5ce. statement, the ‘close’ method of the database object will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-19282(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19282  File: python.info, Node: dis<4>, Next: doctest<4>, Prev: dbm<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.10 dis ............. Functions *note show_code(): f27, *note dis(): b34, ‘distb()’, and *note disassemble(): f28. now accept a keyword-only 'file' argument that controls where they write their output. The *note dis: 38. module is now built around an *note Instruction: 1dc. class that provides object oriented access to the details of each individual bytecode operation. A new method, *note get_instructions(): 1db, provides an iterator that emits the Instruction stream for a given piece of Python code. Thus it is now possible to write a program that inspects and manipulates a bytecode object in ways different from those provided by the *note dis: 38. module itself. For example: >>> import dis >>> for instr in dis.get_instructions(lambda x: x + 1): ... print(instr.opname) LOAD_FAST LOAD_CONST BINARY_ADD RETURN_VALUE The various display tools in the *note dis: 38. module have been rewritten to use these new components. In addition, a new application-friendly class *note Bytecode: f29. provides an object-oriented API for inspecting bytecode in both in human-readable form and for iterating over instructions. The *note Bytecode: f29. constructor takes the same arguments that ‘get_instruction()’ does (plus an optional 'current_offset'), and the resulting object can be iterated to produce *note Instruction: 1dc. objects. But it also has a *note dis: f2a. method, equivalent to calling *note dis: b34. on the constructor argument, but returned as a multi-line string: >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(lambda x: x + 1, current_offset=3) >>> for instr in bytecode: ... print('{} ({})'.format(instr.opname, instr.opcode)) LOAD_FAST (124) LOAD_CONST (100) BINARY_ADD (23) RETURN_VALUE (83) >>> bytecode.dis().splitlines() [' 1 0 LOAD_FAST 0 (x)', ' --> 3 LOAD_CONST 1 (1)', ' 6 BINARY_ADD', ' 7 RETURN_VALUE'] *note Bytecode: f29. also has a class method, *note from_traceback(): f2b, that provides the ability to manipulate a traceback (that is, ‘print(Bytecode.from_traceback(tb).dis())’ is equivalent to ‘distb(tb)’). (Contributed by Nick Coghlan, Ryan Kelly and Thomas Kluyver in bpo-11816(1) and Claudiu Popa in bpo-17916(2).) New function *note stack_effect(): f2c. computes the effect on the Python stack of a given opcode and argument, information that is not otherwise available. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19722(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11816 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17916 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19722  File: python.info, Node: doctest<4>, Next: email<4>, Prev: dis<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.11 doctest ................. A new *note option flag: f2e, *note FAIL_FAST: f2f, halts test running as soon as the first failure is detected. (Contributed by R. David Murray and Daniel Urban in bpo-16522(1).) The *note doctest: 3a. command line interface now uses *note argparse: 6, and has two new options, ‘-o’ and ‘-f’. ‘-o’ allows *note doctest options: f2e. to be specified on the command line, and ‘-f’ is a shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’ (to parallel the similar option supported by the *note unittest: 106. CLI). (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-11390(2).) *note doctest: 3a. will now find doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’ strings. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-3158(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16522 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11390 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158  File: python.info, Node: email<4>, Next: filecmp, Prev: doctest<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.12 email ............... *note as_string(): f31. now accepts a 'policy' argument to override the default policy of the message when generating a string representation of it. This means that ‘as_string’ can now be used in more circumstances, instead of having to create and use a *note generator: 40. in order to pass formatting parameters to its ‘flatten’ method. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18600(1).) New method *note as_bytes(): f32. added to produce a bytes representation of the message in a fashion similar to how ‘as_string’ produces a string representation. It does not accept the 'maxheaderlen' argument, but does accept the 'unixfrom' and 'policy' arguments. The *note Message: 27e. *note __bytes__(): f33. method calls it, meaning that ‘bytes(mymsg)’ will now produce the intuitive result: a bytes object containing the fully formatted message. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18600(2).) The *note Message.set_param(): f34. message now accepts a 'replace' keyword argument. When specified, the associated header will be updated without changing its location in the list of headers. For backward compatibility, the default is ‘False’. (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(3).) A pair of new subclasses of *note Message: 27e. have been added (*note EmailMessage: 27d. and *note MIMEPart: f35.), along with a new sub-module, *note contentmanager: 3d. and a new *note policy: 4f. attribute *note content_manager: f36. All documentation is currently in the new module, which is being added as part of email’s new *note provisional API: b03. These classes provide a number of new methods that make extracting content from and inserting content into email messages much easier. For details, see the *note contentmanager: 3d. documentation and the *note email; Examples: f37. These API additions complete the bulk of the work that was planned as part of the email6 project. The currently provisional API is scheduled to become final in Python 3.5 (possibly with a few minor additions in the area of error handling). (Contributed by R. David Murray in bpo-18891(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18600 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18891  File: python.info, Node: filecmp, Next: functools<5>, Prev: email<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.13 filecmp ................. A new *note clear_cache(): f39. function provides the ability to clear the *note filecmp: 5a. comparison cache, which uses *note os.stat(): 49c. information to determine if the file has changed since the last compare. This can be used, for example, if the file might have been changed and re-checked in less time than the resolution of a particular filesystem’s file modification time field. (Contributed by Mark Levitt in bpo-18149(1).) New module attribute *note DEFAULT_IGNORES: f3a. provides the list of directories that are used as the default value for the 'ignore' parameter of the *note dircmp(): f3b. function. (Contributed by Eli Bendersky in bpo-15442(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18149 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15442  File: python.info, Node: functools<5>, Next: gc<5>, Prev: filecmp, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.14 functools ................... The new *note partialmethod(): a7b. descriptor brings partial argument application to descriptors, just as *note partial(): 410. provides for normal callables. The new descriptor also makes it easier to get arbitrary callables (including *note partial(): 410. instances) to behave like normal instance methods when included in a class definition. (Contributed by Alon Horev and Nick Coghlan in bpo-4331(1).) The new *note singledispatch(): 635. decorator brings support for single-dispatch generic functions to the Python standard library. Where object oriented programming focuses on grouping multiple operations on a common set of data into a class, a generic function focuses on grouping multiple implementations of an operation that allows it to work with 'different' kinds of data. See also ........ PEP 443(2) – Single-dispatch generic functions PEP written and implemented by Łukasz Langa. *note total_ordering(): f3d. now supports a return value of *note NotImplemented: 7cd. from the underlying comparison function. (Contributed by Katie Miller in bpo-10042(3).) A pure-python version of the *note partial(): 410. function is now in the stdlib; in CPython it is overridden by the C accelerated version, but it is available for other implementations to use. (Contributed by Brian Thorne in bpo-12428(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4331 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10042 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12428  File: python.info, Node: gc<5>, Next: glob<4>, Prev: functools<5>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.15 gc ............ New function *note get_stats(): f3f. returns a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing the collections statistics since interpreter startup. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16351(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16351  File: python.info, Node: glob<4>, Next: hashlib<6>, Prev: gc<5>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.16 glob .............. A new function *note escape(): f41. provides a way to escape special characters in a filename so that they do not become part of the globbing expansion but are instead matched literally. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8402(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8402  File: python.info, Node: hashlib<6>, Next: hmac<3>, Prev: glob<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.17 hashlib ................. A new *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 50a. function provides the PKCS#5 password-based key derivation function 2(1). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18582(2).) The *note name: f43. attribute of *note hashlib: 68. hash objects is now a formally supported interface. It has always existed in CPython’s *note hashlib: 68. (although it did not return lower case names for all supported hashes), but it was not a public interface and so some other Python implementations have not previously supported it. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs in bpo-18532(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PBKDF2 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18582 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532  File: python.info, Node: hmac<3>, Next: html, Prev: hashlib<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.18 hmac .............. *note hmac: 6a. now accepts ‘bytearray’ as well as ‘bytes’ for the 'key' argument to the *note new(): a9f. function, and the 'msg' parameter to both the *note new(): a9f. function and the *note update(): f45. method now accepts any type supported by the *note hashlib: 68. module. (Contributed by Jonas Borgström in bpo-18240(1).) The 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): a9f. function may now be any hash digest name recognized by *note hashlib: 68. In addition, the current behavior in which the value of 'digestmod' defaults to ‘MD5’ is deprecated: in a future version of Python there will be no default value. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17276(2).) With the addition of *note block_size: f46. and *note name: f47. attributes (and the formal documentation of the *note digest_size: f48. attribute), the *note hmac: 6a. module now conforms fully to the PEP 247(3) API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18775(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18240 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0247/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18775  File: python.info, Node: html, Next: http<3>, Prev: hmac<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.19 html .............. New function *note unescape(): 957. function converts HTML5 character references to the corresponding Unicode characters. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-2927(1).) *note HTMLParser: 874. accepts a new keyword argument 'convert_charrefs' that, when ‘True’, automatically converts all character references. For backward-compatibility, its value defaults to ‘False’, but it will change to ‘True’ in a future version of Python, so you are invited to set it explicitly and update your code to use this new feature. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13633(2).) The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 874. is now deprecated. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2927 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114  File: python.info, Node: http<3>, Next: idlelib and IDLE<4>, Prev: html, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.20 http .............. *note send_error(): f4b. now accepts an optional additional 'explain' parameter which can be used to provide an extended error description, overriding the hardcoded default if there is one. This extended error description will be formatted using the ‘error_message_format’ attribute and sent as the body of the error response. (Contributed by Karl Cow in bpo-12921(1).) The *note http.server: 72. *note command line interface: f4c. now has a ‘-b/--bind’ option that causes the server to listen on a specific address. (Contributed by Malte Swart in bpo-17764(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12921 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17764  File: python.info, Node: idlelib and IDLE<4>, Next: importlib<9>, Prev: http<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.21 idlelib and IDLE .......................... Since idlelib implements the IDLE shell and editor and is not intended for import by other programs, it gets improvements with every release. See ‘Lib/idlelib/NEWS.txt’ for a cumulative list of changes since 3.3.0, as well as changes made in future 3.4.x releases. This file is also available from the IDLE Help ‣ About IDLE dialog.  File: python.info, Node: importlib<9>, Next: inspect<8>, Prev: idlelib and IDLE<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.22 importlib ................... The *note InspectLoader: f4f. ABC defines a new method, *note source_to_code(): e10. that accepts source data and a path and returns a code object. The default implementation is equivalent to ‘compile(data, path, 'exec', dont_inherit=True)’. (Contributed by Eric Snow and Brett Cannon in bpo-15627(1).) *note InspectLoader: f4f. also now has a default implementation for the *note get_code(): f50. method. However, it will normally be desirable to override the default implementation for performance reasons. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18072(2).) The *note reload(): 514. function has been moved from ‘imp’ to *note importlib: 77. as part of the ‘imp’ module deprecation. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-18193(3).) *note importlib.util: 7d. now has a *note MAGIC_NUMBER: 50e. attribute providing access to the bytecode version number. This replaces the ‘get_magic()’ function in the deprecated ‘imp’ module. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18192(4).) New *note importlib.util: 7d. functions *note cache_from_source(): 2f8. and *note source_from_cache(): 515. replace the same-named functions in the deprecated ‘imp’ module. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18194(5).) The *note importlib: 77. bootstrap *note NamespaceLoader: f51. now conforms to the *note InspectLoader: f4f. ABC, which means that ‘runpy’ and ‘python -m’ can now be used with namespace packages. (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18058(6).) *note importlib.util: 7d. has a new function *note decode_source(): f52. that decodes source from bytes using universal newline processing. This is useful for implementing *note InspectLoader.get_source(): f53. methods. *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cb0. now has a *note get_filename(): f54. method. This was inadvertently omitted in the original implementation. (Contributed by Eric Snow in bpo-19152(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15627 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18072 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18193 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18192 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18194 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18058 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19152  File: python.info, Node: inspect<8>, Next: ipaddress<5>, Prev: importlib<9>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.23 inspect ................. The *note inspect: 7e. module now offers a basic *note command line interface: f56. to quickly display source code and other information for modules, classes and functions. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa and Nick Coghlan in bpo-18626(1).) *note unwrap(): f57. makes it easy to unravel wrapper function chains created by *note functools.wraps(): f58. (and any other API that sets the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute on a wrapper function). (Contributed by Daniel Urban, Aaron Iles and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13266(2).) As part of the implementation of the new *note enum: 56. module, the *note inspect: 7e. module now has substantially better support for custom ‘__dir__’ methods and dynamic class attributes provided through metaclasses. (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-18929(3) and bpo-19030(4).) *note getfullargspec(): 734. and ‘getargspec()’ now use the *note signature(): 733. API. This allows them to support a much broader range of callables, including those with ‘__signature__’ attributes, those with metadata provided by argument clinic, *note functools.partial(): 410. objects and more. Note that, unlike *note signature(): 733, these functions still ignore ‘__wrapped__’ attributes, and report the already bound first argument for bound methods, so it is still necessary to update your code to use *note signature(): 733. directly if those features are desired. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-17481(5).) *note signature(): 733. now supports duck types of CPython functions, which adds support for functions compiled with Cython. (Contributed by Stefan Behnel and Yury Selivanov in bpo-17159(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18626 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13266 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18929 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17481 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17159  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress<5>, Next: logging<6>, Prev: inspect<8>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.24 ipaddress ................... *note ipaddress: 80. was added to the standard library in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional API: b03. With the release of Python 3.4, this qualification has been removed: *note ipaddress: 80. is now considered a stable API, covered by the normal standard library requirements to maintain backwards compatibility. A new *note is_global: f5a. property is ‘True’ if an address is globally routeable. (Contributed by Peter Moody in bpo-17400(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17400  File: python.info, Node: logging<6>, Next: marshal<2>, Prev: ipaddress<5>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.25 logging ................. The *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f5c. has a new 'atTime' parameter that can be used to specify the time of day when rollover should happen. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren in bpo-9556(1).) *note SocketHandler: f5d. and *note DatagramHandler: f5e. now support Unix domain sockets (by setting 'port' to ‘None’). (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in commit ce46195b56a9.) *note fileConfig(): b51. now accepts a *note configparser.RawConfigParser: f5f. subclass instance for the 'fname' parameter. This facilitates using a configuration file when logging configuration is just a part of the overall application configuration, or where the application modifies the configuration before passing it to *note fileConfig(): b51. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-16110(2).) Logging configuration data received from a socket via the *note logging.config.listen(): f60. function can now be validated before being processed by supplying a verification function as the argument to the new 'verify' keyword argument. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-15452(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9556 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16110 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15452  File: python.info, Node: marshal<2>, Next: mmap<3>, Prev: logging<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.26 marshal ................. The default *note marshal: 8d. version has been bumped to 3. The code implementing the new version restores the Python2 behavior of recording only one copy of interned strings and preserving the interning on deserialization, and extends this “one copy” ability to any object type (including handling recursive references). This reduces both the size of ‘.pyc’ files and the amount of memory a module occupies in memory when it is loaded from a ‘.pyc’ (or ‘.pyo’) file. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson in bpo-16475(1), with additional speedups by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-19219(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16475 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219  File: python.info, Node: mmap<3>, Next: multiprocessing<7>, Prev: marshal<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.27 mmap .............. mmap objects are now *note weakly referenceable: f05. (Contributed by Valerie Lambert in bpo-4885(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4885  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<7>, Next: operator<3>, Prev: mmap<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.28 multiprocessing ......................... On Unix two new *note start methods: 2cb, ‘spawn’ and ‘forkserver’, have been added for starting processes using *note multiprocessing: 94. These make the mixing of processes with threads more robust, and the ‘spawn’ method matches the semantics that multiprocessing has always used on Windows. New function *note get_all_start_methods(): f64. reports all start methods available on the platform, *note get_start_method(): f65. reports the current start method, and *note set_start_method(): 2ca. sets the start method. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-8713(1).) *note multiprocessing: 94. also now has the concept of a ‘context’, which determines how child processes are created. New function *note get_context(): 2c9. returns a context that uses a specified start method. It has the same API as the *note multiprocessing: 94. module itself, so you can use it to create *note Pool: f66.s and other objects that will operate within that context. This allows a framework and an application or different parts of the same application to use multiprocessing without interfering with each other. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-18999(2).) Except when using the old 'fork' start method, child processes no longer inherit unneeded handles/file descriptors from their parents (part of bpo-8713(3)). *note multiprocessing: 94. now relies on *note runpy: be. (which implements the ‘-m’ switch) to initialise ‘__main__’ appropriately in child processes when using the ‘spawn’ or ‘forkserver’ start methods. This resolves some edge cases where combining multiprocessing, the ‘-m’ command line switch, and explicit relative imports could cause obscure failures in child processes. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19946(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18999 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8713 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19946  File: python.info, Node: operator<3>, Next: os<11>, Prev: multiprocessing<7>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.29 operator .................. New function *note length_hint(): f68. provides an implementation of the specification for how the *note __length_hint__(): f06. special method should be used, as part of the PEP 424(1) formal specification of this language feature. (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(2).) There is now a pure-python version of the *note operator: 9f. module available for reference and for use by alternate implementations of Python. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-16694(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0424/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16694  File: python.info, Node: os<11>, Next: pdb<6>, Prev: operator<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.30 os ............ There are new functions to get and set the *note inheritable flag: ef4. of a file descriptor (*note os.get_inheritable(): ef5, *note os.set_inheritable(): ef6.) or a Windows handle (*note os.get_handle_inheritable(): ef7, *note os.set_handle_inheritable(): ef8.). New function *note cpu_count(): 1c5. reports the number of CPUs available on the platform on which Python is running (or ‘None’ if the count can’t be determined). The *note multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f6a. function is now implemented in terms of this function). (Contributed by Trent Nelson, Yogesh Chaudhari, Victor Stinner, and Charles-François Natali in bpo-17914(1).) *note os.path.samestat(): f6b. is now available on the Windows platform (and the *note os.path.samefile(): f6c. implementation is now shared between Unix and Windows). (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-11939(2).) *note os.path.ismount(): a11. now recognizes volumes mounted below a drive root on Windows. (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-9035(3).) *note os.open(): d91. supports two new flags on platforms that provide them, *note O_PATH: f6d. (un-opened file descriptor), and *note O_TMPFILE: f6e. (unnamed temporary file; as of 3.4.0 release available only on Linux systems with a kernel version of 3.11 or newer that have uapi headers). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18673(4) and Benjamin Peterson, respectively.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17914 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11939 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9035 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18673  File: python.info, Node: pdb<6>, Next: pickle<4>, Prev: os<11>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.31 pdb ............. *note pdb: a5. has been enhanced to handle generators, *note yield: 9cd, and ‘yield from’ in a more useful fashion. This is especially helpful when debugging *note asyncio: a. based programs. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov and Xavier de Gaye in bpo-16596(1).) The ‘print’ command has been removed from *note pdb: a5, restoring access to the Python *note print(): f70. function from the pdb command line. Python2’s ‘pdb’ did not have a ‘print’ command; instead, entering ‘print’ executed the ‘print’ statement. In Python3 ‘print’ was mistakenly made an alias for the pdb *note p: f71. command. ‘p’, however, prints the ‘repr’ of its argument, not the ‘str’ like the Python2 ‘print’ command did. Worse, the Python3 ‘pdb print’ command shadowed the Python3 ‘print’ function, making it inaccessible at the ‘pdb’ prompt. (Contributed by Connor Osborn in bpo-18764(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16596 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18764  File: python.info, Node: pickle<4>, Next: plistlib<2>, Prev: pdb<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.32 pickle ................ *note pickle: a6. now supports (but does not use by default) a new pickle protocol, protocol 4. This new protocol addresses a number of issues that were present in previous protocols, such as the serialization of nested classes, very large strings and containers, and classes whose ‘__new__()’ method takes keyword-only arguments. It also provides some efficiency improvements. See also ........ PEP 3154(1) – Pickle protocol 4 PEP written by Antoine Pitrou and implemented by Alexandre Vassalotti. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3154/  File: python.info, Node: plistlib<2>, Next: poplib<3>, Prev: pickle<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.33 plistlib .................. *note plistlib: ab. now has an API that is similar to the standard pattern for stdlib serialization protocols, with new *note load(): 94f, *note dump(): 951, *note loads(): 950, and *note dumps(): 952. functions. (The older API is now deprecated.) In addition to the already supported XML plist format (*note FMT_XML: f74.), it also now supports the binary plist format (*note FMT_BINARY: f75.). (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren and others in bpo-14455(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14455  File: python.info, Node: poplib<3>, Next: pprint<4>, Prev: plistlib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.34 poplib ................ Two new methods have been added to *note poplib: ac.: *note capa(): f77, which returns the list of capabilities advertised by the POP server, and *note stls(): f78, which switches a clear-text POP3 session into an encrypted POP3 session if the POP server supports it. (Contributed by Lorenzo Catucci in bpo-4473(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4473  File: python.info, Node: pprint<4>, Next: pty, Prev: poplib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.35 pprint ................ The *note pprint: ae. module’s *note PrettyPrinter: f7a. class and its *note pformat(): f7b, and *note pprint(): 824. functions have a new option, 'compact', that controls how the output is formatted. Currently setting 'compact' to ‘True’ means that sequences will be printed with as many sequence elements as will fit within 'width' on each (indented) line. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19132(1).) Long strings are now wrapped using Python’s normal line continuation syntax. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17150(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19132 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17150  File: python.info, Node: pty, Next: pydoc<4>, Prev: pprint<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.36 pty ............. *note pty.spawn(): f7d. now returns the status value from *note os.waitpid(): d99. on the child process, instead of ‘None’. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.)  File: python.info, Node: pydoc<4>, Next: re<8>, Prev: pty, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.37 pydoc ............... The *note pydoc: b5. module is now based directly on the *note inspect.signature(): 733. introspection API, allowing it to provide signature information for a wider variety of callable objects. This change also means that ‘__wrapped__’ attributes are now taken into account when displaying help information. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-19674(1).) The *note pydoc: b5. module no longer displays the ‘self’ parameter for already bound methods. Instead, it aims to always display the exact current signature of the supplied callable. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-20710(2).) In addition to the changes that have been made to *note pydoc: b5. directly, its handling of custom ‘__dir__’ methods and various descriptor behaviours has also been improved substantially by the underlying changes in the *note inspect: 7e. module. As the *note help(): 8d6. builtin is based on *note pydoc: b5, the above changes also affect the behaviour of *note help(): 8d6. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19674 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20710  File: python.info, Node: re<8>, Next: resource, Prev: pydoc<4>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.38 re ............ New *note fullmatch(): f80. function and ‘regex.fullmatch()’ method anchor the pattern at both ends of the string to match. This provides a way to be explicit about the goal of the match, which avoids a class of subtle bugs where ‘$’ characters get lost during code changes or the addition of alternatives to an existing regular expression. (Contributed by Matthew Barnett in bpo-16203(1).) The repr of *note regex objects: f81. now includes the pattern and the flags; the repr of *note match objects: f82. now includes the start, end, and the part of the string that matched. (Contributed by Hugo Lopes Tavares and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-13592(2) and bpo-17087(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16203 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13592 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17087  File: python.info, Node: resource, Next: select, Prev: re<8>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.39 resource .................. New *note prlimit(): f84. function, available on Linux platforms with a kernel version of 2.6.36 or later and glibc of 2.13 or later, provides the ability to query or set the resource limits for processes other than the one making the call. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16595(1).) On Linux kernel version 2.6.36 or later, there are also some new Linux specific constants: *note RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE: f85, *note RLIMIT_NICE: f86, *note RLIMIT_RTPRIO: f87, *note RLIMIT_RTTIME: f88, and *note RLIMIT_SIGPENDING: f89. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19324(2).) On FreeBSD version 9 and later, there some new FreeBSD specific constants: *note RLIMIT_SBSIZE: f8a, *note RLIMIT_SWAP: f8b, and *note RLIMIT_NPTS: f8c. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-19343(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16595 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19324 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19343  File: python.info, Node: select, Next: shelve<2>, Prev: resource, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.40 select ................ *note epoll: f8e. objects now support the context management protocol. When used in a *note with: 5ce. statement, the *note close(): f8f. method will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16488(1).) *note devpoll: f90. objects now have *note fileno(): f91. and *note close(): f92. methods, as well as a new attribute *note closed: f93. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-18794(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16488 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18794  File: python.info, Node: shelve<2>, Next: shutil<6>, Prev: select, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.41 shelve ................ *note Shelf: f95. instances may now be used in *note with: 5ce. statements, and will be automatically closed at the end of the ‘with’ block. (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13896(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13896  File: python.info, Node: shutil<6>, Next: smtpd<3>, Prev: shelve<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.42 shutil ................ *note copyfile(): a58. now raises a specific *note Error: f97. subclass, *note SameFileError: f98, when the source and destination are the same file, which allows an application to take appropriate action on this specific error. (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-1492704(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1492704  File: python.info, Node: smtpd<3>, Next: smtplib<3>, Prev: shutil<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.43 smtpd ............... The ‘SMTPServer’ and ‘SMTPChannel’ classes now accept a 'map' keyword argument which, if specified, is passed in to ‘asynchat.async_chat’ as its 'map' argument. This allows an application to avoid affecting the global socket map. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-11959(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11959  File: python.info, Node: smtplib<3>, Next: socket<9>, Prev: smtpd<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.44 smtplib ................. *note SMTPException: f9b. is now a subclass of *note OSError: 413, which allows both socket level errors and SMTP protocol level errors to be caught in one try/except statement by code that only cares whether or not an error occurred. (Contributed by Ned Jackson Lovely in bpo-2118(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2118  File: python.info, Node: socket<9>, Next: sqlite3<9>, Prev: smtplib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.45 socket ................ The socket module now supports the *note CAN_BCM: f9d. protocol on platforms that support it. (Contributed by Brian Thorne in bpo-15359(1).) Socket objects have new methods to get or set their *note inheritable flag: ef4, *note get_inheritable(): ef9. and *note set_inheritable(): efa. The ‘socket.AF_*’ and ‘socket.SOCK_*’ constants are now enumeration values using the new *note enum: 56. module. This allows meaningful names to be printed during debugging, instead of integer “magic numbers”. The *note AF_LINK: f9e. constant is now available on BSD and OSX. *note inet_pton(): 962. and *note inet_ntop(): f9f. are now supported on Windows. (Contributed by Atsuo Ishimoto in bpo-7171(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15359 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7171  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<9>, Next: ssl<10>, Prev: socket<9>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.46 sqlite3 ................. A new boolean parameter to the *note connect(): 2aa. function, 'uri', can be used to indicate that the 'database' parameter is a ‘uri’ (see the SQLite URI documentation(1)). (Contributed by poq in bpo-13773(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.sqlite.org/uri.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13773  File: python.info, Node: ssl<10>, Next: stat, Prev: sqlite3<9>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.47 ssl ............. *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1: fa2. and *note PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2: fa3. (TLSv1.1 and TLSv1.2 support) have been added; support for these protocols is only available if Python is linked with OpenSSL 1.0.1 or later. (Contributed by Michele Orrù and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16692(1).) New function *note create_default_context(): 155. provides a standard way to obtain an *note SSLContext: 296. whose settings are intended to be a reasonable balance between compatibility and security. These settings are more stringent than the defaults provided by the *note SSLContext: 296. constructor, and may be adjusted in the future, without prior deprecation, if best-practice security requirements change. The new recommended best practice for using stdlib libraries that support SSL is to use *note create_default_context(): 155. to obtain an *note SSLContext: 296. object, modify it if needed, and then pass it as the 'context' argument of the appropriate stdlib API. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19689(2).) *note SSLContext: 296. method *note load_verify_locations(): ee6. accepts a new optional argument 'cadata', which can be used to provide PEM or DER encoded certificates directly via strings or bytes, respectively. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18138(3).) New function *note get_default_verify_paths(): fa4. returns a named tuple of the paths and environment variables that the *note set_default_verify_paths(): fa5. method uses to set OpenSSL’s default ‘cafile’ and ‘capath’. This can be an aid in debugging default verification issues. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18143(4).) *note SSLContext: 296. has a new method, *note cert_store_stats(): fa6, that reports the number of loaded ‘X.509’ certs, ‘X.509 CA’ certs, and certificate revocation lists (‘crl’s), as well as a *note get_ca_certs(): fa7. method that returns a list of the loaded ‘CA’ certificates. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18147(5).) If OpenSSL 0.9.8 or later is available, *note SSLContext: 296. has a new attribute *note verify_flags: fa8. that can be used to control the certificate verification process by setting it to some combination of the new constants *note VERIFY_DEFAULT: fa9, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF: faa, *note VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN: fab, or *note VERIFY_X509_STRICT: 157. OpenSSL does not do any CRL verification by default. (Contributed by Christien Heimes in bpo-8813(6).) New *note SSLContext: 296. method *note load_default_certs(): fac. loads a set of default “certificate authority” (CA) certificates from default locations, which vary according to the platform. It can be used to load both TLS web server authentication certificates (‘purpose=’*note SERVER_AUTH: fad.) for a client to use to verify a server, and certificates for a server to use in verifying client certificates (‘purpose=’*note CLIENT_AUTH: fae.). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-19292(7).) Two new windows-only functions, *note enum_certificates(): faf. and *note enum_crls(): fb0. provide the ability to retrieve certificates, certificate information, and CRLs from the Windows cert store. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-17134(8).) Support for server-side SNI (Server Name Indication) using the new *note ssl.SSLContext.set_servername_callback(): fb1. method. (Contributed by Daniel Black in bpo-8109(9).) The dictionary returned by *note SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fb2. contains additional ‘X509v3’ extension items: ‘crlDistributionPoints’, ‘calIssuers’, and ‘OCSP’ URIs. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-18379(10).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16692 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19689 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18138 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18143 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18147 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8813 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19292 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17134 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8109 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18379  File: python.info, Node: stat, Next: struct<2>, Prev: ssl<10>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.48 stat .............. The *note stat: d1. module is now backed by a C implementation in ‘_stat’. A C implementation is required as most of the values aren’t standardized and are platform-dependent. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-11016(1).) The module supports new *note ST_MODE: fb4. flags, *note S_IFDOOR: fb5, *note S_IFPORT: fb6, and *note S_IFWHT: fb7. (Contributed by Christian Hiemes in bpo-11016(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11016  File: python.info, Node: struct<2>, Next: subprocess<5>, Prev: stat, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.49 struct ................ New function *note iter_unpack: fb9. and a new *note struct.Struct.iter_unpack(): fba. method on compiled formats provide streamed unpacking of a buffer containing repeated instances of a given format of data. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17804(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17804  File: python.info, Node: subprocess<5>, Next: sunau<2>, Prev: struct<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.50 subprocess .................... *note check_output(): fbc. now accepts an 'input' argument that can be used to provide the contents of ‘stdin’ for the command that is run. (Contributed by Zack Weinberg in bpo-16624(1).) ‘getstatus()’ and *note getstatusoutput(): fbd. now work on Windows. This change was actually inadvertently made in 3.3.4. (Contributed by Tim Golden in bpo-10197(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16624 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10197  File: python.info, Node: sunau<2>, Next: sys<12>, Prev: subprocess<5>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.51 sunau ............... The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain tuple. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-18901(1).) ‘sunau.open()’ now supports the context management protocol: when used in a *note with: 5ce. block, the ‘close’ method of the returned object will be called automatically at the end of the block. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18878(2).) ‘AU_write.setsampwidth()’ now supports 24 bit samples, thus adding support for writing 24 sample using the module. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-19261(3).) The ‘writeframesraw()’ and ‘writeframes()’ methods now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2d. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18901 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18878 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19261 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311  File: python.info, Node: sys<12>, Next: tarfile<8>, Prev: sunau<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.52 sys ............. New function *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): fc0. returns the current number of blocks allocated by the interpreter. (In CPython with the default ‘--with-pymalloc’ setting, this is allocations made through the *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68. API.) This can be useful for tracking memory leaks, especially if automated via a test suite. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(1).) When the Python interpreter starts in *note interactive mode: fc1, it checks for an *note __interactivehook__: fc2. attribute on the *note sys: d9. module. If the attribute exists, its value is called with no arguments just before interactive mode is started. The check is made after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc3. file is read, so it can be set there. The *note site: c7. module *note sets it: fc4. to a function that enables tab completion and history saving (in ‘~/.python-history’) if the platform supports *note readline: ba. If you do not want this (new) behavior, you can override it in *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc3, *note sitecustomize: c8, or *note usercustomize: 10e. by deleting this attribute from *note sys: d9. (or setting it to some other callable). (Contributed by Éric Araujo and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5845(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<8>, Next: textwrap, Prev: sys<12>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.53 tarfile ................. The *note tarfile: de. module now supports a simple *note Command-Line Interface: fc6. when called as a script directly or via ‘-m’. This can be used to create and extract tarfile archives. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-13477(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13477  File: python.info, Node: textwrap, Next: threading<7>, Prev: tarfile<8>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.54 textwrap .................. The *note TextWrapper: fc8. class has two new attributes/constructor arguments: *note max_lines: fc9, which limits the number of lines in the output, and *note placeholder: fca, which is a string that will appear at the end of the output if it has been truncated because of 'max_lines'. Building on these capabilities, a new convenience function *note shorten(): fcb. collapses all of the whitespace in the input to single spaces and produces a single line of a given 'width' that ends with the 'placeholder' (by default, ‘[...]’). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18585(1) and bpo-18725(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18585 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18725  File: python.info, Node: threading<7>, Next: traceback<6>, Prev: textwrap, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.55 threading ................... The *note Thread: 94c. object representing the main thread can be obtained from the new *note main_thread(): fcd. function. In normal conditions this will be the thread from which the Python interpreter was started. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-18882(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18882  File: python.info, Node: traceback<6>, Next: types<6>, Prev: threading<7>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.56 traceback ................... A new *note traceback.clear_frames(): fcf. function takes a traceback object and clears the local variables in all of the frames it references, reducing the amount of memory consumed. (Contributed by Andrew Kuchling in bpo-1565525(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1565525  File: python.info, Node: types<6>, Next: urllib<3>, Prev: traceback<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.57 types ............... A new *note DynamicClassAttribute(): 626. descriptor provides a way to define an attribute that acts normally when looked up through an instance object, but which is routed to the 'class' ‘__getattr__’ when looked up through the class. This allows one to have properties active on a class, and have virtual attributes on the class with the same name (see ‘Enum’ for an example). (Contributed by Ethan Furman in bpo-19030(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19030  File: python.info, Node: urllib<3>, Next: unittest<9>, Prev: types<6>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.58 urllib ................ *note urllib.request: 10b. now supports ‘data:’ URLs via the *note DataHandler: fd2. class. (Contributed by Mathias Panzenböck in bpo-16423(1).) The http method that will be used by a *note Request: fd3. class can now be specified by setting a *note method: fd4. class attribute on the subclass. (Contributed by Jason R Coombs in bpo-18978(2).) *note Request: fd3. objects are now reusable: if the *note full_url: fd5. or *note data: fd6. attributes are modified, all relevant internal properties are updated. This means, for example, that it is now possible to use the same *note Request: fd3. object in more than one *note OpenerDirector.open(): fd7. call with different 'data' arguments, or to modify a *note Request: fd3.‘s ‘url’ rather than recomputing it from scratch. There is also a new *note remove_header(): fd8. method that can be used to remove headers from a *note Request: fd3. (Contributed by Alexey Kachayev in bpo-16464(3), Daniel Wozniak in bpo-17485(4), and Damien Brecht and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-17272(5).) *note HTTPError: fd9. objects now have a *note headers: fda. attribute that provides access to the HTTP response headers associated with the error. (Contributed by Berker Peksag in bpo-15701(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16423 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18978 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16464 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17485 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17272 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15701  File: python.info, Node: unittest<9>, Next: venv<7>, Prev: urllib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.59 unittest .................. The *note TestCase: 449. class has a new method, *note subTest(): fdc, that produces a context manager whose *note with: 5ce. block becomes a “sub-test”. This context manager allows a test method to dynamically generate subtests by, say, calling the ‘subTest’ context manager inside a loop. A single test method can thereby produce an indefinite number of separately identified and separately counted tests, all of which will run even if one or more of them fail. For example: class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase): def test_even(self): for i in range(6): with self.subTest(i=i): self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0) will result in six subtests, each identified in the unittest verbose output with a label consisting of the variable name ‘i’ and a particular value for that variable (‘i=0’, ‘i=1’, etc). See *note Distinguishing test iterations using subtests: fdd. for the full version of this example. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-16997(1).) *note unittest.main(): fde. now accepts an iterable of test names for 'defaultTest', where previously it only accepted a single test name as a string. (Contributed by Jyrki Pulliainen in bpo-15132(2).) If *note SkipTest: fdf. is raised during test discovery (that is, at the module level in the test file), it is now reported as a skip instead of an error. (Contributed by Zach Ware in bpo-16935(3).) *note discover(): fe0. now sorts the discovered files to provide consistent test ordering. (Contributed by Martin Melin and Jeff Ramnani in bpo-16709(4).) *note TestSuite: df3. now drops references to tests as soon as the test has been run, if the test is successful. On Python interpreters that do garbage collection, this allows the tests to be garbage collected if nothing else is holding a reference to the test. It is possible to override this behavior by creating a *note TestSuite: df3. subclass that defines a custom ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method. (Contributed by Tom Wardill, Matt McClure, and Andrew Svetlov in bpo-11798(5).) A new test assertion context-manager, *note assertLogs(): 855, will ensure that a given block of code emits a log message using the *note logging: 87. module. By default the message can come from any logger and have a priority of ‘INFO’ or higher, but both the logger name and an alternative minimum logging level may be specified. The object returned by the context manager can be queried for the *note LogRecord: fe1.s and/or formatted messages that were logged. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18937(6).) Test discovery now works with namespace packages (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17457(7).) *note unittest.mock: 107. objects now inspect their specification signatures when matching calls, which means an argument can now be matched by either position or name, instead of only by position. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17015(8).) ‘mock_open()’ objects now have ‘readline’ and ‘readlines’ methods. (Contributed by Toshio Kuratomi in bpo-17467(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16997 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15132 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16935 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16709 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18937 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17457 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17015 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17467  File: python.info, Node: venv<7>, Next: wave<2>, Prev: unittest<9>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.60 venv .............. *note venv: 111. now includes activation scripts for the ‘csh’ and ‘fish’ shells. (Contributed by Andrew Svetlov in bpo-15417(1).) *note EnvBuilder: 26c. and the *note create(): 26d. convenience function take a new keyword argument 'with_pip', which defaults to ‘False’, that controls whether or not *note EnvBuilder: 26c. ensures that ‘pip’ is installed in the virtual environment. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(2) as part of the PEP 453(3) implementation.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15417 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/  File: python.info, Node: wave<2>, Next: weakref<2>, Prev: venv<7>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.61 wave .............. The ‘getparams()’ method now returns a namedtuple rather than a plain tuple. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17487(1).) *note wave.open(): 94b. now supports the context management protocol. (Contributed by Claudiu Popa in bpo-17616(2).) *note wave: 113. can now *note write output to unseekable files: fe4. (Contributed by David Jones, Guilherme Polo, and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-5202(3).) The *note writeframesraw(): fe5. and *note writeframes(): fe6. methods now accept any *note bytes-like object: d2d. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-8311(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17487 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17616 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5202 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8311  File: python.info, Node: weakref<2>, Next: xml etree<2>, Prev: wave<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.62 weakref ................. New *note WeakMethod: fe8. class simulates weak references to bound methods. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14631(1).) New *note finalize: a7c. class makes it possible to register a callback to be invoked when an object is garbage collected, without needing to carefully manage the lifecycle of the weak reference itself. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15528(2).) The callback, if any, associated with a *note ref: fe9. is now exposed via the *note __callback__: fea. attribute. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson in bpo-17643(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14631 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15528 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17643  File: python.info, Node: xml etree<2>, Next: zipfile<5>, Prev: weakref<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.63 xml.etree ................... A new parser, *note XMLPullParser: fec, allows a non-blocking applications to parse XML documents. An example can be seen at *note Pull API for non-blocking parsing: fed. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-17741(1).) The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. *note tostring(): fee. and *note tostringlist(): fef. functions, and the *note ElementTree: 94e. *note write(): ff0. method, now have a 'short_empty_elements' *note keyword-only parameter: 2a7. providing control over whether elements with no content are written in abbreviated (‘’) or expanded (‘’) form. (Contributed by Ariel Poliak and Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14377(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17741 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14377  File: python.info, Node: zipfile<5>, Prev: xml etree<2>, Up: Improved Modules<10> 1.10.4.64 zipfile ................. The *note writepy(): ff2. method of the *note PyZipFile: ff3. class has a new 'filterfunc' option that can be used to control which directories and files are added to the archive. For example, this could be used to exclude test files from the archive. (Contributed by Christian Tismer in bpo-19274(1).) The 'allowZip64' parameter to *note ZipFile: 6c0. and ‘PyZipfile’ is now ‘True’ by default. (Contributed by William Mallard in bpo-17201(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19274 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17201  File: python.info, Node: CPython Implementation Changes, Next: Deprecated<11>, Prev: Improved Modules<10>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.5 CPython Implementation Changes ------------------------------------- * Menu: * PEP 445; Customization of CPython Memory Allocators: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators. * PEP 442; Safe Object Finalization: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization. * PEP 456; Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm. * PEP 436; Argument Clinic: PEP 436 Argument Clinic. * Other Build and C API Changes:: * Other Improvements: Other Improvements<2>. * Significant Optimizations::  File: python.info, Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators, Next: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.1 PEP 445: Customization of CPython Memory Allocators ............................................................ PEP 445(1) adds new C level interfaces to customize memory allocation in the CPython interpreter. See also ........ PEP 445(2) – Add new APIs to customize Python memory allocators PEP written and implemented by Victor Stinner. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization, Next: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm, Prev: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.2 PEP 442: Safe Object Finalization .......................................... PEP 442(1) removes the current limitations and quirks of object finalization in CPython. With it, objects with ‘__del__()’ methods, as well as generators with *note finally: 9ca. clauses, can be finalized when they are part of a reference cycle. As part of this change, module globals are no longer forcibly set to *note None: 671. during interpreter shutdown in most cases, instead relying on the normal operation of the cyclic garbage collector. This avoids a whole class of interpreter-shutdown-time errors, usually involving ‘__del__’ methods, that have plagued Python since the cyclic GC was first introduced. See also ........ PEP 442(2) – Safe object finalization PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm, Next: PEP 436 Argument Clinic, Prev: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.3 PEP 456: Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm ........................................................... PEP 456(1) follows up on earlier security fix work done on Python’s hash algorithm to address certain DOS attacks to which public facing APIs backed by dictionary lookups may be subject. (See bpo-14621(2) for the start of the current round of improvements.) The PEP unifies CPython’s hash code to make it easier for a packager to substitute a different hash algorithm, and switches Python’s default implementation to a SipHash implementation on platforms that have a 64 bit data type. Any performance differences in comparison with the older FNV algorithm are trivial. The PEP adds additional fields to the *note sys.hash_info: ff8. named tuple to describe the hash algorithm in use by the currently executing binary. Otherwise, the PEP does not alter any existing CPython APIs. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14621  File: python.info, Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic, Next: Other Build and C API Changes, Prev: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.4 PEP 436: Argument Clinic ................................. “Argument Clinic” ( PEP 436(1)) is now part of the CPython build process and can be used to simplify the process of defining and maintaining accurate signatures for builtins and standard library extension modules implemented in C. Some standard library extension modules have been converted to use Argument Clinic in Python 3.4, and *note pydoc: b5. and *note inspect: 7e. have been updated accordingly. It is expected that signature metadata for programmatic introspection will be added to additional callables implemented in C as part of Python 3.4 maintenance releases. Note: The Argument Clinic PEP is not fully up to date with the state of the implementation. This has been deemed acceptable by the release manager and core development team in this case, as Argument Clinic will not be made available as a public API for third party use in Python 3.4. See also ........ PEP 436(2) – The Argument Clinic DSL PEP written and implemented by Larry Hastings. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0436/  File: python.info, Node: Other Build and C API Changes, Next: Other Improvements<2>, Prev: PEP 436 Argument Clinic, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.5 Other Build and C API Changes ...................................... * The new *note PyType_GetSlot(): 89a. function has been added to the stable ABI, allowing retrieval of function pointers from named type slots when using the limited API. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis in bpo-17162(1).) * The new ‘Py_SetStandardStreamEncoding()’ pre-initialization API allows applications embedding the CPython interpreter to reliably force a particular encoding and error handler for the standard streams. (Contributed by Bastien Montagne and Nick Coghlan in bpo-16129(2).) * Most Python C APIs that don’t mutate string arguments are now correctly marked as accepting ‘const char *’ rather than ‘char *’. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-1772673(3).) * A new shell version of ‘python-config’ can be used even when a python interpreter is not available (for example, in cross compilation scenarios). * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. now supports width and precision specifications for ‘%s’, ‘%A’, ‘%U’, ‘%V’, ‘%S’, and ‘%R’. (Contributed by Ysj Ray and Victor Stinner in bpo-7330(4).) * New function *note PyStructSequence_InitType2(): ffb. supplements the existing *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): ffc. function. The difference is that it returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on failure. * The CPython source can now be compiled using the address sanity checking features of recent versions of GCC and clang: the false alarms in the small object allocator have been silenced. (Contributed by Dhiru Kholia in bpo-18596(5).) * The Windows build now uses Address Space Layout Randomization(6) and Data Execution Prevention(7). (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16632(8).) * New function *note PyObject_LengthHint(): ffd. is the C API equivalent of *note operator.length_hint(): f68. (Contributed by Armin Ronacher in bpo-16148(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17162 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16129 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772673 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7330 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18596 (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_space_layout_randomization (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Execution_Prevention (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16632 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16148  File: python.info, Node: Other Improvements<2>, Next: Significant Optimizations, Prev: Other Build and C API Changes, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.6 Other Improvements ........................... * The *note python: 1000. command has a new *note option: 1001, ‘-I’, which causes it to run in “isolated mode”, which means that *note sys.path: 3b0. contains neither the script’s directory nor the user’s ‘site-packages’ directory, and all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables are ignored (it implies both ‘-s’ and ‘-E’). Other restrictions may also be applied in the future, with the goal being to isolate the execution of a script from the user’s environment. This is appropriate, for example, when Python is used to run a system script. On most POSIX systems it can and should be used in the ‘#!’ line of system scripts. (Contributed by Christian Heimes in bpo-16499(1).) * Tab-completion is now enabled by default in the interactive interpreter on systems that support *note readline: ba. History is also enabled by default, and is written to (and read from) the file ‘~/.python-history’. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Éric Araujo in bpo-5845(2).) * Invoking the Python interpreter with ‘--version’ now outputs the version to standard output instead of standard error (bpo-18338(3)). Similar changes were made to *note argparse: 6. (bpo-18920(4)) and other modules that have script-like invocation capabilities (bpo-18922(5)). * The CPython Windows installer now adds ‘.py’ to the ‘PATHEXT’ variable when extensions are registered, allowing users to run a python script at the windows command prompt by just typing its name without the ‘.py’ extension. (Contributed by Paul Moore in bpo-18569(6).) * A new ‘make’ target coverage-report(7) will build python, run the test suite, and generate an HTML coverage report for the C codebase using ‘gcov’ and lcov(8). * The ‘-R’ option to the *note python regression test suite: 1002. now also checks for memory allocation leaks, using *note sys.getallocatedblocks(): fc0. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13390(9).) * ‘python -m’ now works with namespace packages. * The *note stat: d1. module is now implemented in C, which means it gets the values for its constants from the C header files, instead of having the values hard-coded in the python module as was previously the case. * Loading multiple python modules from a single OS module (‘.so’, ‘.dll’) now works correctly (previously it silently returned the first python module in the file). (Contributed by Václav Šmilauer in bpo-16421(10).) * A new opcode, ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’, has been added to fix a bug in the loading of free variables in class bodies that could be triggered by certain uses of *note __prepare__: c5e. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-17853(11).) * A number of MemoryError-related crashes were identified and fixed by Victor Stinner using his PEP 445(12)-based ‘pyfailmalloc’ tool (bpo-18408(13), bpo-18520(14)). * The ‘pyvenv’ command now accepts a ‘--copies’ option to use copies rather than symlinks even on systems where symlinks are the default. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip in bpo-18807(15).) * The ‘pyvenv’ command also accepts a ‘--without-pip’ option to suppress the otherwise-automatic bootstrapping of pip into the virtual environment. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-19552(16) as part of the PEP 453(17) implementation.) * The encoding name is now optional in the value set for the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1003. environment variable. This makes it possible to set just the error handler, without changing the default encoding. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18818(18).) * The *note bz2: 13, *note lzma: 8a, and *note gzip: 67. module ‘open’ functions now support ‘x’ (exclusive creation) mode. (Contributed by Tim Heaney and Vajrasky Kok in bpo-19201(19), bpo-19222(20), and bpo-19223(21).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16499 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5845 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18338 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18920 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18922 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18569 (7) https://devguide.python.org/coverage/#measuring-coverage-of-c-code-with-gcov-and-lcov (8) https://github.com/linux-test-project/lcov (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13390 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16421 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17853 (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0445/ (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18408 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18520 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18807 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19552 (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/ (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18818 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19201 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19222 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19223  File: python.info, Node: Significant Optimizations, Prev: Other Improvements<2>, Up: CPython Implementation Changes 1.10.5.7 Significant Optimizations .................................. * The UTF-32 decoder is now 3x to 4x faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-14625(1).) * The cost of hash collisions for sets is now reduced. Each hash table probe now checks a series of consecutive, adjacent key/hash pairs before continuing to make random probes through the hash table. This exploits cache locality to make collision resolution less expensive. The collision resolution scheme can be described as a hybrid of linear probing and open addressing. The number of additional linear probes defaults to nine. This can be changed at compile-time by defining LINEAR_PROBES to be any value. Set LINEAR_PROBES=0 to turn-off linear probing entirely. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-18771(2).) * The interpreter starts about 30% faster. A couple of measures lead to the speedup. The interpreter loads fewer modules on startup, e.g. the *note re: b9, *note collections: 1d. and *note locale: 86. modules and their dependencies are no longer imported by default. The marshal module has been improved to load compiled Python code faster. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, Christian Heimes and Victor Stinner in bpo-19219(3), bpo-19218(4), bpo-19209(5), bpo-19205(6) and bpo-9548(7).) * *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. is now as fast or faster than the Python2 version for most cases. *note lzma.LZMAFile: 1005. has also been optimized. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Nadeem Vawda in bpo-16034(8).) * *note random.getrandbits(): 1006. is 20%-40% faster for small integers (the most common use case). (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-16674(9).) * By taking advantage of the new storage format for strings, pickling of strings is now significantly faster. (Contributed by Victor Stinner and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-15596(10).) * A performance issue in ‘io.FileIO.readall()’ has been solved. This particularly affects Windows, and significantly speeds up the case of piping significant amounts of data through *note subprocess: d6. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-15758(11).) * *note html.escape(): 1007. is now 10x faster. (Contributed by Matt Bryant in bpo-18020(12).) * On Windows, the native ‘VirtualAlloc’ is now used instead of the CRT ‘malloc’ in ‘obmalloc’. Artificial benchmarks show about a 3% memory savings. * *note os.urandom(): 51e. now uses a lazily opened persistent file descriptor so as to avoid using many file descriptors when run in parallel from multiple threads. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-18756(13).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14625 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18771 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19219 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19218 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19209 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19205 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9548 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16034 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16674 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15596 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15758 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18020 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18756  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<11>, Next: Removed<11>, Prev: CPython Implementation Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.6 Deprecated ----------------- This section covers various APIs and other features that have been deprecated in Python 3.4, and will be removed in Python 3.5 or later. In most (but not all) cases, using the deprecated APIs will produce a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. when the interpreter is run with deprecation warnings enabled (for example, by using ‘-Wd’). * Menu: * Deprecations in the Python API:: * Deprecated Features::  File: python.info, Node: Deprecations in the Python API, Next: Deprecated Features, Up: Deprecated<11> 1.10.6.1 Deprecations in the Python API ....................................... * As mentioned in *note PEP 451; A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System: ed4, a number of *note importlib: 77. methods and functions are deprecated: ‘importlib.find_loader()’ is replaced by *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0.; ‘importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.find_spec(): 100a.; ‘importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_module()’ is replaced by *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder.find_spec(): 865.; ‘importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’ are replaced by *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 869.; all of the ‘XXXLoader’ ABC ‘load_module’ methods (‘importlib.abc.Loader.load_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.InspectLoader.load_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.FileLoader.load_module()’, ‘importlib.abc.SourceLoader.load_module()’) should no longer be implemented, instead loaders should implement an ‘exec_module’ method (*note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 867, *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader.exec_module(): 100b. *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.exec_module(): 100c.) and let the import system take care of the rest; and ‘importlib.abc.Loader.module_repr()’, ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’, ‘importlib.util.set_loader()’, and ‘importlib.util.set_package()’ are no longer needed because their functions are now handled automatically by the import system. * The ‘imp’ module is pending deprecation. To keep compatibility with Python 2/3 code bases, the module’s removal is currently not scheduled. * The ‘formatter’ module is pending deprecation and is slated for removal in Python 3.6. * ‘MD5’ as the default 'digestmod' for the *note hmac.new(): a9f. function is deprecated. Python 3.6 will require an explicit digest name or constructor as 'digestmod' argument. * The internal ‘Netrc’ class in the *note ftplib: 5e. module has been documented as deprecated in its docstring for quite some time. It now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and will be removed completely in Python 3.5. * The undocumented 'endtime' argument to *note subprocess.Popen.wait(): ce4. should not have been exposed and is hopefully not in use; it is deprecated and will mostly likely be removed in Python 3.5. * The 'strict' argument of *note HTMLParser: 874. is deprecated. * The *note plistlib: ab. ‘readPlist()’, ‘writePlist()’, ‘readPlistFromBytes()’, and ‘writePlistToBytes()’ functions are deprecated in favor of the corresponding new functions *note load(): 94f, *note dump(): 951, *note loads(): 950, and *note dumps(): 952. ‘Data()’ is deprecated in favor of just using the *note bytes: 1c2. constructor. * The *note sysconfig: db. key ‘SO’ is deprecated, it has been replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’. * The ‘U’ mode accepted by various ‘open’ functions is deprecated. In Python3 it does not do anything useful, and should be replaced by appropriate uses of *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b6. (if needed) and its 'newline' argument. * The 'parser' argument of *note xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse(): 275. has been deprecated, as has the 'html' argument of *note XMLParser(): a53. To prepare for the removal of the latter, all arguments to ‘XMLParser’ should be passed by keyword.  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Features, Prev: Deprecations in the Python API, Up: Deprecated<11> 1.10.6.2 Deprecated Features ............................ * Running *note IDLE — Python editor and shell: 100e. with the ‘-n’ flag (no subprocess) is deprecated. However, the feature will not be removed until bpo-18823(1) is resolved. * The site module adding a “site-python” directory to sys.path, if it exists, is deprecated (bpo-19375(2)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18823 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19375  File: python.info, Node: Removed<11>, Next: Porting to Python 3 4, Prev: Deprecated<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.7 Removed -------------- * Menu: * Operating Systems No Longer Supported:: * API and Feature Removals: API and Feature Removals<5>. * Code Cleanups::  File: python.info, Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported, Next: API and Feature Removals<5>, Up: Removed<11> 1.10.7.1 Operating Systems No Longer Supported .............................................. Support for the following operating systems has been removed from the source and build tools: * OS/2 (bpo-16135(1)). * Windows 2000 (changeset e52df05b496a). * Windows systems where ‘COMSPEC’ points to ‘command.com’ (bpo-14470(2)). * VMS (bpo-16136(3)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16135 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14470 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16136  File: python.info, Node: API and Feature Removals<5>, Next: Code Cleanups, Prev: Operating Systems No Longer Supported, Up: Removed<11> 1.10.7.2 API and Feature Removals ................................. The following obsolete and previously deprecated APIs and features have been removed: * The unmaintained ‘Misc/TextMate’ and ‘Misc/vim’ directories have been removed (see the devguide(1) for suggestions on what to use instead). * The ‘SO’ makefile macro is removed (it was replaced by the ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’ and ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ macros) (bpo-16754(2)). * The ‘PyThreadState.tick_counter’ field has been removed; its value has been meaningless since Python 3.2, when the “new GIL” was introduced (bpo-19199(3)). * ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’ have been removed from *note importlib: 77. (Contributed by Taras Lyapun in bpo-15641(4).) * The 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: b40. and *note HTTPSConnection: b41. has been removed. HTTP 0.9-style “Simple Responses” are no longer supported. * The deprecated *note urllib.request.Request: fd3. getter and setter methods ‘add_data’, ‘has_data’, ‘get_data’, ‘get_type’, ‘get_host’, ‘get_selector’, ‘set_proxy’, ‘get_origin_req_host’, and ‘is_unverifiable’ have been removed (use direct attribute access instead). * Support for loading the deprecated ‘TYPE_INT64’ has been removed from *note marshal: 8d. (Contributed by Dan Riti in bpo-15480(5).) * *note inspect.Signature: 1cf.: positional-only parameters are now required to have a valid name. * *note object.__format__(): 61a. no longer accepts non-empty format strings, it now raises a *note TypeError: 534. instead. Using a non-empty string has been deprecated since Python 3.2. This change has been made to prevent a situation where previously working (but incorrect) code would start failing if an object gained a __format__ method, which means that your code may now raise a *note TypeError: 534. if you are using an ‘'s'’ format code with objects that do not have a __format__ method that handles it. See bpo-7994(6) for background. * ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbjunk()’ and ‘difflib.SequenceMatcher.isbpopular()’ were deprecated in 3.2, and have now been removed: use ‘x in sm.bjunk’ and ‘x in sm.bpopular’, where 'sm' is a *note SequenceMatcher: 1012. object (bpo-13248(7)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16754 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19199 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15641 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15480 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13248  File: python.info, Node: Code Cleanups, Prev: API and Feature Removals<5>, Up: Removed<11> 1.10.7.3 Code Cleanups ...................... * The unused and undocumented internal ‘Scanner’ class has been removed from the *note pydoc: b5. module. * The private and effectively unused ‘_gestalt’ module has been removed, along with the private *note platform: aa. functions ‘_mac_ver_lookup’, ‘_mac_ver_gstalt’, and ‘_bcd2str’, which would only have ever been called on badly broken OSX systems (see bpo-18393(1)). * The hardcoded copies of certain *note stat: d1. constants that were included in the *note tarfile: de. module namespace have been removed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18393  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 4, Next: Changed in 3 4 3, Prev: Removed<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.8 Porting to Python 3.4 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. * Changes in the Python API: Changes in the Python API<10>. * Changes in the C API: Changes in the C API<8>.  File: python.info, Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>, Next: Changes in the Python API<10>, Up: Porting to Python 3 4 1.10.8.1 Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior ............................................. * In a posix shell, setting the ‘PATH’ environment variable to an empty value is equivalent to not setting it at all. However, setting *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. to an empty value was 'not' equivalent to not setting it at all: setting *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. to an empty value was equivalent to setting it to ‘.’, which leads to confusion when reasoning by analogy to how ‘PATH’ works. The behavior now conforms to the posix convention for ‘PATH’. * The [X refs, Y blocks] output of a debug (‘--with-pydebug’) build of the CPython interpreter is now off by default. It can be re-enabled using the ‘-X showrefcount’ option. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-17323(1).) * The python command and most stdlib scripts (as well as *note argparse: 6.) now output ‘--version’ information to ‘stdout’ instead of ‘stderr’ (for issue list see *note Other Improvements: fff. above). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17323  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the Python API<10>, Next: Changes in the C API<8>, Prev: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>, Up: Porting to Python 3 4 1.10.8.2 Changes in the Python API .................................. * The ABCs defined in *note importlib.abc: 78. now either raise the appropriate exception or return a default value instead of raising *note NotImplementedError: 22a. blindly. This will only affect code calling *note super(): 4d7. and falling through all the way to the ABCs. For compatibility, catch both *note NotImplementedError: 22a. or the appropriate exception as needed. * The module type now initializes the *note __package__: 2db. and *note __loader__: 2e6. attributes to ‘None’ by default. To determine if these attributes were set in a backwards-compatible fashion, use e.g. ‘getattr(module, '__loader__', None) is not None’. (bpo-17115(1).) * ‘importlib.util.module_for_loader()’ now sets ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ unconditionally to properly support reloading. If this is not desired then you will need to set these attributes manually. You can use ‘importlib.util.module_to_load()’ for module management. * Import now resets relevant attributes (e.g. ‘__name__’, ‘__loader__’, ‘__package__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’) unconditionally when reloading. Note that this restores a pre-3.3 behavior in that it means a module is re-found when re-loaded (bpo-19413(2)). * Frozen packages no longer set ‘__path__’ to a list containing the package name, they now set it to an empty list. The previous behavior could cause the import system to do the wrong thing on submodule imports if there was also a directory with the same name as the frozen package. The correct way to determine if a module is a package or not is to use ‘hasattr(module, '__path__')’ (bpo-18065(3)). * Frozen modules no longer define a ‘__file__’ attribute. It’s semantically incorrect for frozen modules to set the attribute as they are not loaded from any explicit location. If you must know that a module comes from frozen code then you can see if the module’s ‘__spec__.location’ is set to ‘'frozen'’, check if the loader is a subclass of *note importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter: 1018, or if Python 2 compatibility is necessary you can use ‘imp.is_frozen()’. * *note py_compile.compile(): a24. now raises *note FileExistsError: 1019. if the file path it would write to is a symlink or a non-regular file. This is to act as a warning that import will overwrite those files with a regular file regardless of what type of file path they were originally. * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.get_source(): 101a. no longer raises *note ImportError: 415. when the source code being loaded triggers a *note SyntaxError: 18d. or *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. As *note ImportError: 415. is meant to be raised only when source code cannot be found but it should, it was felt to be over-reaching/overloading of that meaning when the source code is found but improperly structured. If you were catching ImportError before and wish to continue to ignore syntax or decoding issues, catch all three exceptions now. * *note functools.update_wrapper(): 101b. and *note functools.wraps(): f58. now correctly set the ‘__wrapped__’ attribute to the function being wrapped, even if that function also had its ‘__wrapped__’ attribute set. This means ‘__wrapped__’ attributes now correctly link a stack of decorated functions rather than every ‘__wrapped__’ attribute in the chain referring to the innermost function. Introspection libraries that assumed the previous behaviour was intentional can use *note inspect.unwrap(): f57. to access the first function in the chain that has no ‘__wrapped__’ attribute. * *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 734. has been reimplemented on top of *note inspect.signature(): 733. and hence handles a much wider variety of callable objects than it did in the past. It is expected that additional builtin and extension module callables will gain signature metadata over the course of the Python 3.4 series. Code that assumes that *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 734. will fail on non-Python callables may need to be adjusted accordingly. * *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: 101c. now passes on the current working directory to objects in *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. for the empty string. This results in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. never containing ‘''’, thus iterating through *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. based on *note sys.path: 3b0. will not find all keys. A module’s ‘__file__’ when imported in the current working directory will also now have an absolute path, including when using ‘-m’ with the interpreter (except for ‘__main__.__file__’ when a script has been executed directly using a relative path) (Contributed by Brett Cannon in bpo-18416(4)). is specified on the command-line) (bpo-18416(5)). * The removal of the 'strict' argument to *note HTTPConnection: b40. and *note HTTPSConnection: b41. changes the meaning of the remaining arguments if you are specifying them positionally rather than by keyword. If you’ve been paying attention to deprecation warnings your code should already be specifying any additional arguments via keywords. * Strings between ‘from __future__ import ...’ statements now 'always' raise a *note SyntaxError: 18d. Previously if there was no leading docstring, an interstitial string would sometimes be ignored. This brings CPython into compliance with the language spec; Jython and PyPy already were. (bpo-17434(6)). * *note ssl.SSLSocket.getpeercert(): fb2. and *note ssl.SSLSocket.do_handshake(): e68. now raise an *note OSError: 413. with ‘ENOTCONN’ when the ‘SSLSocket’ is not connected, instead of the previous behavior of raising an *note AttributeError: 348. In addition, *note getpeercert(): fb2. will raise a *note ValueError: 204. if the handshake has not yet been done. * *note base64.b32decode(): 101e. now raises a *note binascii.Error: 101f. when the input string contains non-b32-alphabet characters, instead of a *note TypeError: 534. This particular *note TypeError: 534. was missed when the other *note TypeError: 534.s were converted. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-18011(7).) Note: this change was also inadvertently applied in Python 3.3.3. * The ‘file’ attribute is now automatically closed when the creating ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected. If you were pulling the file object out separately from the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance and not keeping the instance alive, then you should either store the entire ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance or read the contents of the file before the ‘cgi.FieldStorage’ instance is garbage collected. * Calling ‘read’ or ‘write’ on a closed SSL socket now raises an informative *note ValueError: 204. rather than the previous more mysterious *note AttributeError: 348. (bpo-9177(8)). * *note slice.indices(): 1020. no longer produces an *note OverflowError: 87f. for huge values. As a consequence of this fix, *note slice.indices(): 1020. now raises a *note ValueError: 204. if given a negative length; previously it returned nonsense values (bpo-14794(9)). * The *note complex: 2f2. constructor, unlike the *note cmath: 18. functions, was incorrectly accepting *note float: 2f1. values if an object’s ‘__complex__’ special method returned one. This now raises a *note TypeError: 534. (bpo-16290(10).) * The *note int: 259. constructor in 3.2 and 3.3 erroneously accepts *note float: 2f1. values for the 'base' parameter. It is unlikely anyone was doing this, but if so, it will now raise a *note TypeError: 534. (bpo-16772(11)). * Defaults for keyword-only arguments are now evaluated 'after' defaults for regular keyword arguments, instead of before. Hopefully no one wrote any code that depends on the previous buggy behavior (bpo-16967(12)). * Stale thread states are now cleared after *note fork(): 197. This may cause some system resources to be released that previously were incorrectly kept perpetually alive (for example, database connections kept in thread-local storage). (bpo-17094(13).) * Parameter names in ‘__annotations__’ dicts are now mangled properly, similarly to *note __kwdefaults__: 1021. (Contributed by Yury Selivanov in bpo-20625(14).) * *note hashlib.hash.name: f43. now always returns the identifier in lower case. Previously some builtin hashes had uppercase names, but now that it is a formal public interface the naming has been made consistent (bpo-18532(15)). * Because *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. now drops references to tests after they are run, test harnesses that reuse a *note TestSuite: df3. to re-run a set of tests may fail. Test suites should not be re-used in this fashion since it means state is retained between test runs, breaking the test isolation that *note unittest: 106. is designed to provide. However, if the lack of isolation is considered acceptable, the old behavior can be restored by creating a *note TestSuite: df3. subclass that defines a ‘_removeTestAtIndex’ method that does nothing (see *note TestSuite.__iter__(): 1022.) (bpo-11798(16)). * *note unittest: 106. now uses *note argparse: 6. for command line parsing. There are certain invalid command forms that used to work that are no longer allowed; in theory this should not cause backward compatibility issues since the disallowed command forms didn’t make any sense and are unlikely to be in use. * The *note re.split(): 2a4, *note re.findall(): 1023, and *note re.sub(): 2a5. functions, and the ‘group()’ and ‘groups()’ methods of ‘match’ objects now always return a 'bytes' object when the string to be matched is a *note bytes-like object: d2d. Previously the return type matched the input type, so if your code was depending on the return value being, say, a ‘bytearray’, you will need to change your code. * ‘audioop’ functions now raise an error immediately if passed string input, instead of failing randomly later on (bpo-16685(17)). * The new 'convert_charrefs' argument to *note HTMLParser: 874. currently defaults to ‘False’ for backward compatibility, but will eventually be changed to default to ‘True’. It is recommended that you add this keyword, with the appropriate value, to any *note HTMLParser: 874. calls in your code (bpo-13633(18)). * Since the 'digestmod' argument to the *note hmac.new(): a9f. function will in the future have no default, all calls to *note hmac.new(): a9f. should be changed to explicitly specify a 'digestmod' (bpo-17276(19)). * Calling *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1024. with the ‘SO’ key, or looking ‘SO’ up in the results of a call to *note sysconfig.get_config_vars(): 1025. is deprecated. This key should be replaced by ‘EXT_SUFFIX’ or ‘SHLIB_SUFFIX’, depending on the context (bpo-19555(20)). * Any calls to ‘open’ functions that specify ‘U’ should be modified. ‘U’ is ineffective in Python3 and will eventually raise an error if used. Depending on the function, the equivalent of its old Python2 behavior can be achieved using either a 'newline' argument, or if necessary by wrapping the stream in *note TextIOWrapper: 7b6. to use its 'newline' argument (bpo-15204(21)). * If you use ‘pyvenv’ in a script and desire that pip 'not' be installed, you must add ‘--without-pip’ to your command invocation. * The default behavior of *note json.dump(): d44. and *note json.dumps(): d45. when an indent is specified has changed: it no longer produces trailing spaces after the item separating commas at the ends of lines. This will matter only if you have tests that are doing white-space-sensitive comparisons of such output (bpo-16333(22)). * *note doctest: 3a. now looks for doctests in extension module ‘__doc__’ strings, so if your doctest test discovery includes extension modules that have things that look like doctests in them you may see test failures you’ve never seen before when running your tests (bpo-3158(23)). * The *note collections.abc: 1e. module has been slightly refactored as part of the Python startup improvements. As a consequence of this, it is no longer the case that importing *note collections: 1d. automatically imports *note collections.abc: 1e. If your program depended on the (undocumented) implicit import, you will need to add an explicit ‘import collections.abc’ (bpo-20784(24)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17115 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19413 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18065 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18416 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17434 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18011 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9177 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14794 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16290 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16772 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16967 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17094 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20625 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18532 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11798 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16685 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13633 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=17276 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=19555 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15204 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16333 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3158 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=20784  File: python.info, Node: Changes in the C API<8>, Prev: Changes in the Python API<10>, Up: Porting to Python 3 4 1.10.8.3 Changes in the C API ............................. * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1027, *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028, and *note PyObject_Str(): 1029, along with some other internal C APIs, now include a debugging assertion that ensures they are not used in situations where they may silently discard a currently active exception. In cases where discarding the active exception is expected and desired (for example, because it has already been saved locally with *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. or is being deliberately replaced with a different exception), an explicit *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. call will be needed to avoid triggering the assertion when invoking these operations (directly or indirectly) and running against a version of Python that is compiled with assertions enabled. * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3e. now sets *note TypeError: 534. when its 'msg' argument is not set. Previously only ‘NULL’ was returned with no exception set. * The result of the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer: 583. callback must now be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred, instead of a string allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. or *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. (bpo-16742(1)) * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 404. now always set the value. In Python 3.3, the function did nothing if the key already exists (if the current value is a non-‘NULL’ pointer). * The ‘f_tstate’ (thread state) field of the *note PyFrameObject: 784. structure has been removed to fix a bug: see bpo-14432(2) for the rationale. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=16742 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14432  File: python.info, Node: Changed in 3 4 3, Prev: Porting to Python 3 4, Up: What’s New In Python 3 4 1.10.9 Changed in 3.4.3 ----------------------- * Menu: * PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients, Up: Changed in 3 4 3 1.10.9.1 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients ...................................................................................... *note http.client: 6f. and modules which use it, such as *note urllib.request: 10b. and *note xmlrpc.client: 12e, will now verify that the server presents a certificate which is signed by a CA in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being requested by default, significantly improving security for many applications. For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an alternate context: import urllib.request import ssl # This disables all verification context = ssl._create_unverified_context() # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need # to be in the trust store context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt") urllib.request.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context)  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 3, Next: What’s New In Python 3 2, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 4, Up: What’s New in Python 1.11 What’s New In Python 3.3 ============================= This article explains the new features in Python 3.3, compared to 3.2. Python 3.3 was released on September 29, 2012. For full details, see the changelog(1). See also ........ PEP 398(2) - Python 3.3 Release Schedule * Menu: * Summary – Release highlights: Summary – Release highlights<8>. * PEP 405; Virtual Environments: PEP 405 Virtual Environments. * PEP 420; Implicit Namespace Packages: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages. * PEP 3118; New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation. * PEP 393; Flexible String Representation: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation. * PEP 397; Python Launcher for Windows: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows. * PEP 3151; Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy. * PEP 380; Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator. * PEP 409; Suppressing exception context: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context. * PEP 414; Explicit Unicode literals: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals. * PEP 3155; Qualified name for classes and functions: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions. * PEP 412; Key-Sharing Dictionary: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary. * PEP 362; Function Signature Object: PEP 362 Function Signature Object. * PEP 421; Adding sys.implementation: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation. * Using importlib as the Implementation of Import:: * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<11>. * A Finer-Grained Import Lock:: * Builtin functions and types:: * New Modules: New Modules<11>. * Improved Modules: Improved Modules<11>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<10>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<4>. * Deprecated: Deprecated<12>. * Porting to Python 3.3: Porting to Python 3 3. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/3.3/whatsnew/changelog.html (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0398/  File: python.info, Node: Summary – Release highlights<8>, Next: PEP 405 Virtual Environments, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.1 Summary – Release highlights ----------------------------------- New syntax features: * New ‘yield from’ expression for *note generator delegation: 1032. * The ‘u'unicode'’ syntax is accepted again for *note str: 447. objects. New library modules: * *note faulthandler: 58. (helps debugging low-level crashes) * *note ipaddress: 80. (high-level objects representing IP addresses and masks) * *note lzma: 8a. (compress data using the XZ / LZMA algorithm) * *note unittest.mock: 107. (replace parts of your system under test with mock objects) * *note venv: 111. (Python *note virtual environments: 1033, as in the popular ‘virtualenv’ package) New built-in features: * Reworked *note I/O exception hierarchy: 1034. Implementation improvements: * Rewritten *note import machinery: 1035. based on *note importlib: 77. * More compact *note unicode strings: 1036. * More compact *note attribute dictionaries: 1037. Significantly Improved Library Modules: * C Accelerator for the *note decimal: 1038. module. * Better unicode handling in the *note email: 1039. module (*note provisional: 103a.). Security improvements: * Hash randomization is switched on by default. Please read on for a comprehensive list of user-facing changes.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments, Next: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages, Prev: Summary – Release highlights<8>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.2 PEP 405: Virtual Environments ------------------------------------ Virtual environments help create separate Python setups while sharing a system-wide base install, for ease of maintenance. Virtual environments have their own set of private site packages (i.e. locally installed libraries), and are optionally segregated from the system-wide site packages. Their concept and implementation are inspired by the popular ‘virtualenv’ third-party package, but benefit from tighter integration with the interpreter core. This PEP adds the *note venv: 111. module for programmatic access, and the ‘pyvenv’ script for command-line access and administration. The Python interpreter checks for a ‘pyvenv.cfg’, file whose existence signals the base of a virtual environment’s directory tree. See also ........ PEP 405(1) - Python Virtual Environments PEP written by Carl Meyer; implementation by Carl Meyer and Vinay Sajip ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages, Next: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation, Prev: PEP 405 Virtual Environments, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.3 PEP 420: Implicit Namespace Packages ------------------------------------------- Native support for package directories that don’t require ‘__init__.py’ marker files and can automatically span multiple path segments (inspired by various third party approaches to namespace packages, as described in PEP 420(1)) See also ........ PEP 420(2) - Implicit Namespace Packages PEP written by Eric V. Smith; implementation by Eric V. Smith and Barry Warsaw ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation, Next: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation, Prev: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.4 PEP 3118: New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The implementation of PEP 3118(1) has been significantly improved. The new memoryview implementation comprehensively fixes all ownership and lifetime issues of dynamically allocated fields in the Py_buffer struct that led to multiple crash reports. Additionally, several functions that crashed or returned incorrect results for non-contiguous or multi-dimensional input have been fixed. The memoryview object now has a PEP-3118 compliant getbufferproc() that checks the consumer’s request type. Many new features have been added, most of them work in full generality for non-contiguous arrays and arrays with suboffsets. The documentation has been updated, clearly spelling out responsibilities for both exporters and consumers. Buffer request flags are grouped into basic and compound flags. The memory layout of non-contiguous and multi-dimensional NumPy-style arrays is explained. * Menu: * Features:: * API changes:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/  File: python.info, Node: Features, Next: API changes, Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation 1.11.4.1 Features ................. * All native single character format specifiers in struct module syntax (optionally prefixed with ‘@’) are now supported. * With some restrictions, the cast() method allows changing of format and shape of C-contiguous arrays. * Multi-dimensional list representations are supported for any array type. * Multi-dimensional comparisons are supported for any array type. * One-dimensional memoryviews of hashable (read-only) types with formats B, b or c are now hashable. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13411(1).) * Arbitrary slicing of any 1-D arrays type is supported. For example, it is now possible to reverse a memoryview in 'O'(1) by using a negative step. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13411  File: python.info, Node: API changes, Prev: Features, Up: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation 1.11.4.2 API changes .................... * The maximum number of dimensions is officially limited to 64. * The representation of empty shape, strides and suboffsets is now an empty tuple instead of ‘None’. * Accessing a memoryview element with format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes) now returns an integer (in accordance with the struct module syntax). For returning a bytes object the view must be cast to ‘c’ first. * memoryview comparisons now use the logical structure of the operands and compare all array elements by value. All format strings in struct module syntax are supported. Views with unrecognised format strings are still permitted, but will always compare as unequal, regardless of view contents. * For further changes see *note Build and C API Changes: 1041. and *note Porting C code: 1042. (Contributed by Stefan Krah in bpo-10181(1).) See also ........ PEP 3118(2) - Revising the Buffer Protocol ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10181 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation, Next: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows, Prev: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.5 PEP 393: Flexible String Representation ---------------------------------------------- The Unicode string type is changed to support multiple internal representations, depending on the character with the largest Unicode ordinal (1, 2, or 4 bytes) in the represented string. This allows a space-efficient representation in common cases, but gives access to full UCS-4 on all systems. For compatibility with existing APIs, several representations may exist in parallel; over time, this compatibility should be phased out. On the Python side, there should be no downside to this change. On the C API side, PEP 393(1) is fully backward compatible. The legacy API should remain available at least five years. Applications using the legacy API will not fully benefit of the memory reduction, or - worse - may use a bit more memory, because Python may have to maintain two versions of each string (in the legacy format and in the new efficient storage). * Menu: * Functionality:: * Performance and resource usage:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/  File: python.info, Node: Functionality, Next: Performance and resource usage, Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation 1.11.5.1 Functionality ...................... Changes introduced by PEP 393(1) are the following: * Python now always supports the full range of Unicode code points, including non-BMP ones (i.e. from ‘U+0000’ to ‘U+10FFFF’). The distinction between narrow and wide builds no longer exists and Python now behaves like a wide build, even under Windows. * With the death of narrow builds, the problems specific to narrow builds have also been fixed, for example: * *note len(): 62a. now always returns 1 for non-BMP characters, so ‘len('\U0010FFFF') == 1’; * surrogate pairs are not recombined in string literals, so ‘'\uDBFF\uDFFF' != '\U0010FFFF'’; * indexing or slicing non-BMP characters returns the expected value, so ‘'\U0010FFFF'[0]’ now returns ‘'\U0010FFFF'’ and not ‘'\uDBFF'’; * all other functions in the standard library now correctly handle non-BMP code points. * The value of *note sys.maxunicode: 1045. is now always ‘1114111’ (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal). The ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ function still returns either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’ for backward compatibility, and it should not be used with the new Unicode API (see bpo-13054(2)). * The ‘./configure’ flag ‘--with-wide-unicode’ has been removed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13054  File: python.info, Node: Performance and resource usage, Prev: Functionality, Up: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation 1.11.5.2 Performance and resource usage ....................................... The storage of Unicode strings now depends on the highest code point in the string: * pure ASCII and Latin1 strings (‘U+0000-U+00FF’) use 1 byte per code point; * BMP strings (‘U+0000-U+FFFF’) use 2 bytes per code point; * non-BMP strings (‘U+10000-U+10FFFF’) use 4 bytes per code point. The net effect is that for most applications, memory usage of string storage should decrease significantly - especially compared to former wide unicode builds - as, in many cases, strings will be pure ASCII even in international contexts (because many strings store non-human language data, such as XML fragments, HTTP headers, JSON-encoded data, etc.). We also hope that it will, for the same reasons, increase CPU cache efficiency on non-trivial applications. The memory usage of Python 3.3 is two to three times smaller than Python 3.2, and a little bit better than Python 2.7, on a Django benchmark (see the PEP for details). See also ........ PEP 393(1) - Flexible String Representation PEP written by Martin von Löwis; implementation by Torsten Becker and Martin von Löwis. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows, Next: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy, Prev: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.6 PEP 397: Python Launcher for Windows ------------------------------------------- The Python 3.3 Windows installer now includes a ‘py’ launcher application that can be used to launch Python applications in a version independent fashion. This launcher is invoked implicitly when double-clicking ‘*.py’ files. If only a single Python version is installed on the system, that version will be used to run the file. If multiple versions are installed, the most recent version is used by default, but this can be overridden by including a Unix-style “shebang line” in the Python script. The launcher can also be used explicitly from the command line as the ‘py’ application. Running ‘py’ follows the same version selection rules as implicitly launching scripts, but a more specific version can be selected by passing appropriate arguments (such as ‘-3’ to request Python 3 when Python 2 is also installed, or ‘-2.6’ to specifically request an earlier Python version when a more recent version is installed). In addition to the launcher, the Windows installer now includes an option to add the newly installed Python to the system PATH. (Contributed by Brian Curtin in bpo-3561(1).) See also ........ PEP 397(2) - Python Launcher for Windows PEP written by Mark Hammond and Martin v. Löwis; implementation by Vinay Sajip. Launcher documentation: *note Python Launcher for Windows: 5ba. Installer PATH modification: *note Finding the Python executable: 1049. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3561 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0397/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy, Next: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator, Prev: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.7 PEP 3151: Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy ------------------------------------------------------------ The hierarchy of exceptions raised by operating system errors is now both simplified and finer-grained. You don’t have to worry anymore about choosing the appropriate exception type between *note OSError: 413, *note IOError: 104b, *note EnvironmentError: 104c, *note WindowsError: 104d, ‘mmap.error’, *note socket.error: 104e. or *note select.error: 104f. All these exception types are now only one: *note OSError: 413. The other names are kept as aliases for compatibility reasons. Also, it is now easier to catch a specific error condition. Instead of inspecting the ‘errno’ attribute (or ‘args[0]’) for a particular constant from the *note errno: 57. module, you can catch the adequate *note OSError: 413. subclass. The available subclasses are the following: * *note BlockingIOError: 1050. * *note ChildProcessError: 1051. * *note ConnectionError: e09. * *note FileExistsError: 1019. * *note FileNotFoundError: 427. * *note InterruptedError: d87. * *note IsADirectoryError: 1052. * *note NotADirectoryError: 1053. * *note PermissionError: d42. * *note ProcessLookupError: 1054. * *note TimeoutError: 831. And the *note ConnectionError: e09. itself has finer-grained subclasses: * *note BrokenPipeError: 1055. * *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1056. * *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1057. * *note ConnectionResetError: 1058. Thanks to the new exceptions, common usages of the *note errno: 57. can now be avoided. For example, the following code written for Python 3.2: from errno import ENOENT, EACCES, EPERM try: with open("document.txt") as f: content = f.read() except IOError as err: if err.errno == ENOENT: print("document.txt file is missing") elif err.errno in (EACCES, EPERM): print("You are not allowed to read document.txt") else: raise can now be written without the *note errno: 57. import and without manual inspection of exception attributes: try: with open("document.txt") as f: content = f.read() except FileNotFoundError: print("document.txt file is missing") except PermissionError: print("You are not allowed to read document.txt") See also ........ PEP 3151(1) - Reworking the OS and IO Exception Hierarchy PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator, Next: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context, Prev: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.8 PEP 380: Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator ------------------------------------------------------- PEP 380 adds the ‘yield from’ expression, allowing a *note generator: 105a. to delegate part of its operations to another generator. This allows a section of code containing *note yield: 9cd. to be factored out and placed in another generator. Additionally, the subgenerator is allowed to return with a value, and the value is made available to the delegating generator. While designed primarily for use in delegating to a subgenerator, the ‘yield from’ expression actually allows delegation to arbitrary subiterators. For simple iterators, ‘yield from iterable’ is essentially just a shortened form of ‘for item in iterable: yield item’: >>> def g(x): ... yield from range(x, 0, -1) ... yield from range(x) ... >>> list(g(5)) [5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4] However, unlike an ordinary loop, ‘yield from’ allows subgenerators to receive sent and thrown values directly from the calling scope, and return a final value to the outer generator: >>> def accumulate(): ... tally = 0 ... while 1: ... next = yield ... if next is None: ... return tally ... tally += next ... >>> def gather_tallies(tallies): ... while 1: ... tally = yield from accumulate() ... tallies.append(tally) ... >>> tallies = [] >>> acc = gather_tallies(tallies) >>> next(acc) # Ensure the accumulator is ready to accept values >>> for i in range(4): ... acc.send(i) ... >>> acc.send(None) # Finish the first tally >>> for i in range(5): ... acc.send(i) ... >>> acc.send(None) # Finish the second tally >>> tallies [6, 10] The main principle driving this change is to allow even generators that are designed to be used with the ‘send’ and ‘throw’ methods to be split into multiple subgenerators as easily as a single large function can be split into multiple subfunctions. See also ........ PEP 380(1) - Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator PEP written by Greg Ewing; implementation by Greg Ewing, integrated into 3.3 by Renaud Blanch, Ryan Kelly and Nick Coghlan; documentation by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek and Nick Coghlan ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context, Next: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals, Prev: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.9 PEP 409: Suppressing exception context --------------------------------------------- PEP 409 introduces new syntax that allows the display of the chained exception context to be disabled. This allows cleaner error messages in applications that convert between exception types: >>> class D: ... def __init__(self, extra): ... self._extra_attributes = extra ... def __getattr__(self, attr): ... try: ... return self._extra_attributes[attr] ... except KeyError: ... raise AttributeError(attr) from None ... >>> D({}).x Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in File "", line 8, in __getattr__ AttributeError: x Without the ‘from None’ suffix to suppress the cause, the original exception would be displayed by default: >>> class C: ... def __init__(self, extra): ... self._extra_attributes = extra ... def __getattr__(self, attr): ... try: ... return self._extra_attributes[attr] ... except KeyError: ... raise AttributeError(attr) ... >>> C({}).x Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 6, in __getattr__ KeyError: 'x' During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred: Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in File "", line 8, in __getattr__ AttributeError: x No debugging capability is lost, as the original exception context remains available if needed (for example, if an intervening library has incorrectly suppressed valuable underlying details): >>> try: ... D({}).x ... except AttributeError as exc: ... print(repr(exc.__context__)) ... KeyError('x',) See also ........ PEP 409(1) - Suppressing exception context PEP written by Ethan Furman; implemented by Ethan Furman and Nick Coghlan. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0409/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals, Next: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions, Prev: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.10 PEP 414: Explicit Unicode literals ------------------------------------------ To ease the transition from Python 2 for Unicode aware Python applications that make heavy use of Unicode literals, Python 3.3 once again supports the “‘u’” prefix for string literals. This prefix has no semantic significance in Python 3, it is provided solely to reduce the number of purely mechanical changes in migrating to Python 3, making it easier for developers to focus on the more significant semantic changes (such as the stricter default separation of binary and text data). See also ........ PEP 414(1) - Explicit Unicode literals PEP written by Armin Ronacher. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0414/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions, Next: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary, Prev: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.11 PEP 3155: Qualified name for classes and functions ---------------------------------------------------------- Functions and class objects have a new *note __qualname__: 105e. attribute representing the “path” from the module top-level to their definition. For global functions and classes, this is the same as *note __name__: 105f. For other functions and classes, it provides better information about where they were actually defined, and how they might be accessible from the global scope. Example with (non-bound) methods: >>> class C: ... def meth(self): ... pass ... >>> C.meth.__name__ 'meth' >>> C.meth.__qualname__ 'C.meth' Example with nested classes: >>> class C: ... class D: ... def meth(self): ... pass ... >>> C.D.__name__ 'D' >>> C.D.__qualname__ 'C.D' >>> C.D.meth.__name__ 'meth' >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__ 'C.D.meth' Example with nested functions: >>> def outer(): ... def inner(): ... pass ... return inner ... >>> outer().__name__ 'inner' >>> outer().__qualname__ 'outer..inner' The string representation of those objects is also changed to include the new, more precise information: >>> str(C.D) "" >>> str(C.D.meth) '' See also ........ PEP 3155(1) - Qualified name for classes and functions PEP written and implemented by Antoine Pitrou. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary, Next: PEP 362 Function Signature Object, Prev: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.12 PEP 412: Key-Sharing Dictionary --------------------------------------- Dictionaries used for the storage of objects’ attributes are now able to share part of their internal storage between each other (namely, the part which stores the keys and their respective hashes). This reduces the memory consumption of programs creating many instances of non-builtin types. See also ........ PEP 412(1) - Key-Sharing Dictionary PEP written and implemented by Mark Shannon. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0412/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 362 Function Signature Object, Next: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation, Prev: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.13 PEP 362: Function Signature Object ------------------------------------------ A new function *note inspect.signature(): 733. makes introspection of python callables easy and straightforward. A broad range of callables is supported: python functions, decorated or not, classes, and *note functools.partial(): 410. objects. New classes *note inspect.Signature: 1cf, *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0. and *note inspect.BoundArguments: 1062. hold information about the call signatures, such as, annotations, default values, parameters kinds, and bound arguments, which considerably simplifies writing decorators and any code that validates or amends calling signatures or arguments. See also ........ PEP 362(1): - Function Signature Object PEP written by Brett Cannon, Yury Selivanov, Larry Hastings, Jiwon Seo; implemented by Yury Selivanov. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation, Next: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import, Prev: PEP 362 Function Signature Object, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.14 PEP 421: Adding sys.implementation ------------------------------------------ A new attribute on the *note sys: d9. module exposes details specific to the implementation of the currently running interpreter. The initial set of attributes on *note sys.implementation: 512. are ‘name’, ‘version’, ‘hexversion’, and ‘cache_tag’. The intention of ‘sys.implementation’ is to consolidate into one namespace the implementation-specific data used by the standard library. This allows different Python implementations to share a single standard library code base much more easily. In its initial state, ‘sys.implementation’ holds only a small portion of the implementation-specific data. Over time that ratio will shift in order to make the standard library more portable. One example of improved standard library portability is ‘cache_tag’. As of Python 3.3, ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is used by *note importlib: 77. to support PEP 3147(1) compliance. Any Python implementation that uses ‘importlib’ for its built-in import system may use ‘cache_tag’ to control the caching behavior for modules. * Menu: * SimpleNamespace:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: SimpleNamespace, Up: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation 1.11.14.1 SimpleNamespace ......................... The implementation of ‘sys.implementation’ also introduces a new type to Python: *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. In contrast to a mapping-based namespace, like *note dict: 258, ‘SimpleNamespace’ is attribute-based, like *note object: a8c. However, unlike ‘object’, ‘SimpleNamespace’ instances are writable. This means that you can add, remove, and modify the namespace through normal attribute access. See also ........ PEP 421(1) - Adding sys.implementation PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/  File: python.info, Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import, Next: Other Language Changes<11>, Prev: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.15 Using importlib as the Implementation of Import ------------------------------------------------------- bpo-2377(1) - Replace __import__ w/ importlib.__import__ bpo-13959(2) - Re-implement parts of ‘imp’ in pure Python bpo-14605(3) - Make import machinery explicit bpo-14646(4) - Require loaders set __loader__ and __package__ The *note __import__(): 8d3. function is now powered by *note importlib.__import__(): 1066. This work leads to the completion of “phase 2” of PEP 302(5). There are multiple benefits to this change. First, it has allowed for more of the machinery powering import to be exposed instead of being implicit and hidden within the C code. It also provides a single implementation for all Python VMs supporting Python 3.3 to use, helping to end any VM-specific deviations in import semantics. And finally it eases the maintenance of import, allowing for future growth to occur. For the common user, there should be no visible change in semantics. For those whose code currently manipulates import or calls import programmatically, the code changes that might possibly be required are covered in the *note Porting Python code: 1067. section of this document. * Menu: * New APIs:: * Visible Changes:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2377 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13959 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14605 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14646 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/  File: python.info, Node: New APIs, Next: Visible Changes, Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import 1.11.15.1 New APIs .................. One of the large benefits of this work is the exposure of what goes into making the import statement work. That means the various importers that were once implicit are now fully exposed as part of the *note importlib: 77. package. The abstract base classes defined in *note importlib.abc: 78. have been expanded to properly delineate between *note meta path finders: 1069. and *note path entry finders: 106a. by introducing *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. and *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86c, respectively. The old ABC of ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ is now only provided for backwards-compatibility and does not enforce any method requirements. In terms of finders, *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 106b. exposes the mechanism used to search for source and bytecode files of a module. Previously this class was an implicit member of *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. For loaders, the new abstract base class *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 106c. helps write a loader that uses the file system as the storage mechanism for a module’s code. The loader for source files (*note importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader: 106d.), sourceless bytecode files (*note importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader: 106e.), and extension modules (*note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cb0.) are now available for direct use. *note ImportError: 415. now has ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes which are set when there is relevant data to provide. The message for failed imports will also provide the full name of the module now instead of just the tail end of the module’s name. The *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c10. function will now call the method with the same name on all finders cached in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. to help clean up any stored state as necessary.  File: python.info, Node: Visible Changes, Prev: New APIs, Up: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import 1.11.15.2 Visible Changes ......................... For potential required changes to code, see the *note Porting Python code: 1067. section. Beyond the expanse of what *note importlib: 77. now exposes, there are other visible changes to import. The biggest is that *note sys.meta_path: d2b. and *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. now store all of the meta path finders and path entry hooks used by import. Previously the finders were implicit and hidden within the C code of import instead of being directly exposed. This means that one can now easily remove or change the order of the various finders to fit one’s needs. Another change is that all modules have a ‘__loader__’ attribute, storing the loader used to create the module. PEP 302(1) has been updated to make this attribute mandatory for loaders to implement, so in the future once 3rd-party loaders have been updated people will be able to rely on the existence of the attribute. Until such time, though, import is setting the module post-load. Loaders are also now expected to set the ‘__package__’ attribute from PEP 366(2). Once again, import itself is already setting this on all loaders from *note importlib: 77. and import itself is setting the attribute post-load. ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. when no finder can be found on *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. Since ‘imp.NullImporter’ is not directly exposed on *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. it could no longer be relied upon to always be available to use as a value representing no finder found. All other changes relate to semantic changes which should be taken into consideration when updating code for Python 3.3, and thus should be read about in the *note Porting Python code: 1067. section of this document. (Implementation by Brett Cannon) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<11>, Next: A Finer-Grained Import Lock, Prev: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.16 Other Language Changes ------------------------------ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * Added support for Unicode name aliases and named sequences. Both *note unicodedata.lookup(): 1071. and ‘'\N{...}'’ now resolve name aliases, and *note unicodedata.lookup(): 1071. resolves named sequences too. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-12753(1).) * Unicode database updated to UCD version 6.1.0 * Equality comparisons on *note range(): 943. objects now return a result reflecting the equality of the underlying sequences generated by those range objects. (bpo-13201(2)) * The ‘count()’, ‘find()’, ‘rfind()’, ‘index()’ and ‘rindex()’ methods of *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. objects now accept an integer between 0 and 255 as their first argument. (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12170(3).) * The ‘rjust()’, ‘ljust()’, and ‘center()’ methods of *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. now accept a *note bytearray: 53a. for the ‘fill’ argument. (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12380(4).) * New methods have been added to *note list: 60d. and *note bytearray: 53a.: ‘copy()’ and ‘clear()’ (bpo-10516(5)). Consequently, *note MutableSequence: 1a1. now also defines a ‘clear()’ method (bpo-11388(6)). * Raw bytes literals can now be written ‘rb"..."’ as well as ‘br"..."’. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13748(7).) * *note dict.setdefault(): 1072. now does only one lookup for the given key, making it atomic when used with built-in types. (Contributed by Filip Gruszczyński in bpo-13521(8).) * The error messages produced when a function call does not match the function signature have been significantly improved. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12753 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13201 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12170 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10516 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11388 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13748 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13521  File: python.info, Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock, Next: Builtin functions and types, Prev: Other Language Changes<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.17 A Finer-Grained Import Lock ----------------------------------- Previous versions of CPython have always relied on a global import lock. This led to unexpected annoyances, such as deadlocks when importing a module would trigger code execution in a different thread as a side-effect. Clumsy workarounds were sometimes employed, such as the *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9. C API function. In Python 3.3, importing a module takes a per-module lock. This correctly serializes importation of a given module from multiple threads (preventing the exposure of incompletely initialized modules), while eliminating the aforementioned annoyances. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9260(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9260  File: python.info, Node: Builtin functions and types, Next: New Modules<11>, Prev: A Finer-Grained Import Lock, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.18 Builtin functions and types ----------------------------------- * *note open(): 517. gets a new 'opener' parameter: the underlying file descriptor for the file object is then obtained by calling 'opener' with ('file', 'flags'). It can be used to use custom flags like *note os.O_CLOEXEC: 1075. for example. The ‘'x'’ mode was added: open for exclusive creation, failing if the file already exists. * *note print(): f70.: added the 'flush' keyword argument. If the 'flush' keyword argument is true, the stream is forcibly flushed. * *note hash(): 5e7.: hash randomization is enabled by default, see *note object.__hash__(): afb. and *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1076. * The *note str: 447. type gets a new *note casefold(): dd5. method: return a casefolded copy of the string, casefolded strings may be used for caseless matching. For example, ‘'ß'.casefold()’ returns ‘'ss'’. * The sequence documentation has been substantially rewritten to better explain the binary/text sequence distinction and to provide specific documentation sections for the individual builtin sequence types (bpo-4966(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4966  File: python.info, Node: New Modules<11>, Next: Improved Modules<11>, Prev: Builtin functions and types, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.19 New Modules ------------------- * Menu: * faulthandler: faulthandler<4>. * ipaddress: ipaddress<6>. * lzma: lzma<2>.  File: python.info, Node: faulthandler<4>, Next: ipaddress<6>, Up: New Modules<11> 1.11.19.1 faulthandler ...................... This new debug module *note faulthandler: 58. contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault (a crash like a segmentation fault), after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. to install fault handlers for the ‘SIGSEGV’, ‘SIGFPE’, ‘SIGABRT’, ‘SIGBUS’, and ‘SIGILL’ signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1079. environment variable or by using *note -X: 176. ‘faulthandler’ command line option. Example of a segmentation fault on Linux: $ python -q -X faulthandler >>> import ctypes >>> ctypes.string_at(0) Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700: File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at File "", line 1 in Segmentation fault  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress<6>, Next: lzma<2>, Prev: faulthandler<4>, Up: New Modules<11> 1.11.19.2 ipaddress ................... The new *note ipaddress: 80. module provides tools for creating and manipulating objects representing IPv4 and IPv6 addresses, networks and interfaces (i.e. an IP address associated with a specific IP subnet). (Contributed by Google and Peter Moody in PEP 3144(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3144/  File: python.info, Node: lzma<2>, Prev: ipaddress<6>, Up: New Modules<11> 1.11.19.3 lzma .............. The newly added *note lzma: 8a. module provides data compression and decompression using the LZMA algorithm, including support for the ‘.xz’ and ‘.lzma’ file formats. (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda and Per Øyvind Karlsen in bpo-6715(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6715  File: python.info, Node: Improved Modules<11>, Next: Optimizations<10>, Prev: New Modules<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.20 Improved Modules ------------------------ * Menu: * abc: abc<2>. * array: array<5>. * base64: base64<4>. * binascii: binascii<3>. * bz2: bz2<2>. * codecs: codecs<2>. * collections: collections<7>. * contextlib: contextlib<7>. * crypt: crypt<2>. * curses: curses<5>. * datetime: datetime<6>. * decimal: decimal<3>. * email: email<5>. * ftplib: ftplib<3>. * functools: functools<6>. * gc: gc<6>. * hmac: hmac<4>. * http: http<4>. * html: html<2>. * imaplib: imaplib<3>. * inspect: inspect<9>. * io: io<6>. * itertools: itertools<6>. * logging: logging<7>. * math: math<9>. * mmap: mmap<4>. * multiprocessing: multiprocessing<8>. * nntplib: nntplib<2>. * os: os<12>. * pdb: pdb<7>. * pickle: pickle<5>. * pydoc: pydoc<5>. * re: re<9>. * sched:: * select: select<2>. * shlex: shlex<3>. * shutil: shutil<7>. * signal: signal<4>. * smtpd: smtpd<4>. * smtplib: smtplib<4>. * socket: socket<10>. * socketserver: socketserver<3>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<10>. * ssl: ssl<11>. * stat: stat<2>. * struct: struct<3>. * subprocess: subprocess<6>. * sys: sys<13>. * tarfile: tarfile<9>. * tempfile: tempfile<4>. * textwrap: textwrap<2>. * threading: threading<8>. * time: time<8>. * types: types<7>. * unittest: unittest<10>. * urllib: urllib<4>. * webbrowser: webbrowser<3>. * xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree<2>. * zlib: zlib<2>.  File: python.info, Node: abc<2>, Next: array<5>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.1 abc ............. Improved support for abstract base classes containing descriptors composed with abstract methods. The recommended approach to declaring abstract descriptors is now to provide ‘__isabstractmethod__’ as a dynamically updated property. The built-in descriptors have been updated accordingly. * *note abc.abstractproperty: 107e. has been deprecated, use *note property: 194. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107f. instead. * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 1080. has been deprecated, use *note classmethod: 166. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107f. instead. * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 1081. has been deprecated, use *note staticmethod: 412. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107f. instead. (Contributed by Darren Dale in bpo-11610(1).) *note abc.ABCMeta.register(): 1082. now returns the registered subclass, which means it can now be used as a class decorator (bpo-10868(2)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11610 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10868  File: python.info, Node: array<5>, Next: base64<4>, Prev: abc<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.2 array ............... The *note array: 7. module supports the long long type using ‘q’ and ‘Q’ type codes. (Contributed by Oren Tirosh and Hirokazu Yamamoto in bpo-1172711(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1172711  File: python.info, Node: base64<4>, Next: binascii<3>, Prev: array<5>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.3 base64 ................ ASCII-only Unicode strings are now accepted by the decoding functions of the *note base64: e. modern interface. For example, ‘base64.b64decode('YWJj')’ returns ‘b'abc'’. (Contributed by Catalin Iacob in bpo-13641(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13641  File: python.info, Node: binascii<3>, Next: bz2<2>, Prev: base64<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.4 binascii .................. In addition to the binary objects they normally accept, the ‘a2b_’ functions now all also accept ASCII-only strings as input. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13637(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13637  File: python.info, Node: bz2<2>, Next: codecs<2>, Prev: binascii<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.5 bz2 ............. The *note bz2: 13. module has been rewritten from scratch. In the process, several new features have been added: * New *note bz2.open(): 1087. function: open a bzip2-compressed file in binary or text mode. * *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. can now read from and write to arbitrary file-like objects, by means of its constructor’s 'fileobj' argument. (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-5863(1).) * *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. and *note bz2.decompress(): 1088. can now decompress multi-stream inputs (such as those produced by the ‘pbzip2’ tool). *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. can now also be used to create this type of file, using the ‘'a'’ (append) mode. (Contributed by Nir Aides in bpo-1625(2).) * *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. now implements all of the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. API, except for the ‘detach()’ and ‘truncate()’ methods. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5863 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1625  File: python.info, Node: codecs<2>, Next: collections<7>, Prev: bz2<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.6 codecs ................ The *note mbcs: 53. codec has been rewritten to handle correctly ‘replace’ and ‘ignore’ error handlers on all Windows versions. The *note mbcs: 53. codec now supports all error handlers, instead of only ‘replace’ to encode and ‘ignore’ to decode. A new Windows-only codec has been added: ‘cp65001’ (bpo-13216(1)). It is the Windows code page 65001 (Windows UTF-8, ‘CP_UTF8’). For example, it is used by ‘sys.stdout’ if the console output code page is set to cp65001 (e.g., using ‘chcp 65001’ command). Multibyte CJK decoders now resynchronize faster. They only ignore the first byte of an invalid byte sequence. For example, ‘b'\xff\n'.decode('gb2312', 'replace')’ now returns a ‘\n’ after the replacement character. (bpo-12016(2)) Incremental CJK codec encoders are no longer reset at each call to their encode() methods. For example: >>> import codecs >>> encoder = codecs.getincrementalencoder('hz')('strict') >>> b''.join(encoder.encode(x) for x in '\u52ff\u65bd\u65bc\u4eba\u3002 Bye.') b'~{NpJ)l6HK!#~} Bye.' This example gives ‘b'~{Np~}~{J)~}~{l6~}~{HK~}~{!#~} Bye.'’ with older Python versions. (bpo-12100(3)) The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13216 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12016 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12100  File: python.info, Node: collections<7>, Next: contextlib<7>, Prev: codecs<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.7 collections ..................... Addition of a new *note ChainMap: c1c. class to allow treating a number of mappings as a single unit. (Written by Raymond Hettinger for bpo-11089(1), made public in bpo-11297(2).) The abstract base classes have been moved in a new *note collections.abc: 1e. module, to better differentiate between the abstract and the concrete collections classes. Aliases for ABCs are still present in the *note collections: 1d. module to preserve existing imports. (bpo-11085(3)) The *note Counter: 108b. class now supports the unary ‘+’ and ‘-’ operators, as well as the in-place operators ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘|=’, and ‘&=’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13121(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11089 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11297 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11085 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13121  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<7>, Next: crypt<2>, Prev: collections<7>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.8 contextlib .................... *note ExitStack: b29. now provides a solid foundation for programmatic manipulation of context managers and similar cleanup functionality. Unlike the previous ‘contextlib.nested’ API (which was deprecated and removed), the new API is designed to work correctly regardless of whether context managers acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’ method (for example, file objects) or in their ‘__enter__’ method (for example, synchronisation objects from the *note threading: ed. module). (bpo-13585(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13585  File: python.info, Node: crypt<2>, Next: curses<5>, Prev: contextlib<7>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.9 crypt ............... Addition of salt and modular crypt format (hashing method) and the ‘mksalt()’ function to the ‘crypt’ module. (bpo-10924(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10924  File: python.info, Node: curses<5>, Next: datetime<6>, Prev: crypt<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.10 curses ................. * If the *note curses: 2b. module is linked to the ncursesw library, use Unicode functions when Unicode strings or characters are passed (e.g. ‘waddwstr()’), and bytes functions otherwise (e.g. ‘waddstr()’). * Use the locale encoding instead of ‘utf-8’ to encode Unicode strings. * ‘curses.window’ has a new *note curses.window.encoding: 108f. attribute. * The ‘curses.window’ class has a new *note get_wch(): 1090. method to get a wide character * The *note curses: 2b. module has a new *note unget_wch(): 1091. function to push a wide character so the next *note get_wch(): 1090. will return it (Contributed by Iñigo Serna in bpo-6755(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6755  File: python.info, Node: datetime<6>, Next: decimal<3>, Prev: curses<5>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.11 datetime ................... * Equality comparisons between naive and aware *note datetime: 1cc. instances now return *note False: b37. instead of raising *note TypeError: 534. (bpo-15006(1)). * New *note datetime.datetime.timestamp(): 1093. method: Return POSIX timestamp corresponding to the *note datetime: 1cc. instance. * The *note datetime.datetime.strftime(): c90. method supports formatting years older than 1000. * The *note datetime.datetime.astimezone(): 9d0. method can now be called without arguments to convert datetime instance to the system timezone. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15006  File: python.info, Node: decimal<3>, Next: email<5>, Prev: datetime<6>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.12 decimal .................. bpo-7652(1) - integrate fast native decimal arithmetic. C-module and libmpdec written by Stefan Krah. The new C version of the decimal module integrates the high speed libmpdec library for arbitrary precision correctly rounded decimal floating-point arithmetic. libmpdec conforms to IBM’s General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. Performance gains range from 10x for database applications to 100x for numerically intensive applications. These numbers are expected gains for standard precisions used in decimal floating-point arithmetic. Since the precision is user configurable, the exact figures may vary. For example, in integer bignum arithmetic the differences can be significantly higher. The following table is meant as an illustration. Benchmarks are available at ‘https://www.bytereef.org/mpdecimal/quickstart.html’. decimal.py _decimal speedup --------------------------------------------------------------------- pi 42.02s 0.345s 120x telco 172.19s 5.68s 30x psycopg 3.57s 0.29s 12x * Menu: * Features: Features<2>. * API changes: API changes<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7652  File: python.info, Node: Features<2>, Next: API changes<2>, Up: decimal<3> 1.11.20.13 Features ................... * The *note FloatOperation: 1096. signal optionally enables stricter semantics for mixing floats and Decimals. * If Python is compiled without threads, the C version automatically disables the expensive thread local context machinery. In this case, the variable *note HAVE_THREADS: 1097. is set to ‘False’.  File: python.info, Node: API changes<2>, Prev: Features<2>, Up: decimal<3> 1.11.20.14 API changes ...................... * The C module has the following context limits, depending on the machine architecture: 32-bit 64-bit --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘MAX_PREC’ ‘425000000’ ‘999999999999999999’ ‘MAX_EMAX’ ‘425000000’ ‘999999999999999999’ ‘MIN_EMIN’ ‘-425000000’ ‘-999999999999999999’ * In the context templates (*note DefaultContext: 1099, *note BasicContext: 109a. and *note ExtendedContext: 109b.) the magnitude of *note Emax: 109c. and *note Emin: 109d. has changed to ‘999999’. * The *note Decimal: 29f. constructor in decimal.py does not observe the context limits and converts values with arbitrary exponents or precision exactly. Since the C version has internal limits, the following scheme is used: If possible, values are converted exactly, otherwise *note InvalidOperation: 109e. is raised and the result is NaN. In the latter case it is always possible to use *note create_decimal(): 109f. in order to obtain a rounded or inexact value. * The power function in decimal.py is always correctly rounded. In the C version, it is defined in terms of the correctly rounded *note exp(): 10a0. and *note ln(): 10a1. functions, but the final result is only “almost always correctly rounded”. * In the C version, the context dictionary containing the signals is a *note MutableMapping: 10a2. For speed reasons, *note flags: 10a3. and *note traps: 10a4. always refer to the same *note MutableMapping: 10a2. that the context was initialized with. If a new signal dictionary is assigned, *note flags: 10a3. and *note traps: 10a4. are updated with the new values, but they do not reference the RHS dictionary. * Pickling a *note Context: 10a5. produces a different output in order to have a common interchange format for the Python and C versions. * The order of arguments in the *note Context: 10a5. constructor has been changed to match the order displayed by *note repr(): 7f9. * The ‘watchexp’ parameter in the *note quantize(): 10a6. method is deprecated.  File: python.info, Node: email<5>, Next: ftplib<3>, Prev: decimal<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.15 email ................ * Menu: * Policy Framework:: * Provisional Policy with New Header API:: * Other API Changes::  File: python.info, Node: Policy Framework, Next: Provisional Policy with New Header API, Up: email<5> 1.11.20.16 Policy Framework ........................... The email package now has a *note policy: 4f. framework. A *note Policy: 10a9. is an object with several methods and properties that control how the email package behaves. The primary policy for Python 3.3 is the *note Compat32: 10aa. policy, which provides backward compatibility with the email package in Python 3.2. A ‘policy’ can be specified when an email message is parsed by a *note parser: 4e, or when a *note Message: 27e. object is created, or when an email is serialized using a *note generator: 40. Unless overridden, a policy passed to a ‘parser’ is inherited by all the ‘Message’ object and sub-objects created by the ‘parser’. By default a ‘generator’ will use the policy of the ‘Message’ object it is serializing. The default policy is *note compat32: c99. The minimum set of controls implemented by all ‘policy’ objects are: max_line_length The maximum length, excluding the linesep character(s), individual lines may have when a ‘Message’ is serialized. Defaults to 78. linesep The character used to separate individual lines when a ‘Message’ is serialized. Defaults to ‘\n’. cte_type ‘7bit’ or ‘8bit’. ‘8bit’ applies only to a ‘Bytes’ ‘generator’, and means that non-ASCII may be used where allowed by the protocol (or where it exists in the original input). raise_on_defect Causes a ‘parser’ to raise error when defects are encountered instead of adding them to the ‘Message’ object’s ‘defects’ list. A new policy instance, with new settings, is created using the *note clone(): 10ab. method of policy objects. ‘clone’ takes any of the above controls as keyword arguments. Any control not specified in the call retains its default value. Thus you can create a policy that uses ‘\r\n’ linesep characters like this: mypolicy = compat32.clone(linesep='\r\n') Policies can be used to make the generation of messages in the format needed by your application simpler. Instead of having to remember to specify ‘linesep='\r\n'’ in all the places you call a ‘generator’, you can specify it once, when you set the policy used by the ‘parser’ or the ‘Message’, whichever your program uses to create ‘Message’ objects. On the other hand, if you need to generate messages in multiple forms, you can still specify the parameters in the appropriate ‘generator’ call. Or you can have custom policy instances for your different cases, and pass those in when you create the ‘generator’.  File: python.info, Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API, Next: Other API Changes, Prev: Policy Framework, Up: email<5> 1.11.20.17 Provisional Policy with New Header API ................................................. While the policy framework is worthwhile all by itself, the main motivation for introducing it is to allow the creation of new policies that implement new features for the email package in a way that maintains backward compatibility for those who do not use the new policies. Because the new policies introduce a new API, we are releasing them in Python 3.3 as a *note provisional policy: 103a. Backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the code) may occur if deemed necessary by the core developers. The new policies are instances of *note EmailPolicy: 10ad, and add the following additional controls: refold_source Controls whether or not headers parsed by a *note parser: 4e. are refolded by the *note generator: 40. It can be ‘none’, ‘long’, or ‘all’. The default is ‘long’, which means that source headers with a line longer than ‘max_line_length’ get refolded. ‘none’ means no line get refolded, and ‘all’ means that all lines get refolded. header_factory A callable that take a ‘name’ and ‘value’ and produces a custom header object. The ‘header_factory’ is the key to the new features provided by the new policies. When one of the new policies is used, any header retrieved from a ‘Message’ object is an object produced by the ‘header_factory’, and any time you set a header on a ‘Message’ it becomes an object produced by ‘header_factory’. All such header objects have a ‘name’ attribute equal to the header name. Address and Date headers have additional attributes that give you access to the parsed data of the header. This means you can now do things like this: >>> m = Message(policy=SMTP) >>> m['To'] = 'Éric ' >>> m['to'] 'Éric ' >>> m['to'].addresses (Address(display_name='Éric', username='foo', domain='example.com'),) >>> m['to'].addresses[0].username 'foo' >>> m['to'].addresses[0].display_name 'Éric' >>> m['Date'] = email.utils.localtime() >>> m['Date'].datetime datetime.datetime(2012, 5, 25, 21, 39, 24, 465484, tzinfo=datetime.timezone(datetime.timedelta(-1, 72000), 'EDT')) >>> m['Date'] 'Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400' >>> print(m) To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400 You will note that the unicode display name is automatically encoded as ‘utf-8’ when the message is serialized, but that when the header is accessed directly, you get the unicode version. This eliminates any need to deal with the *note email.header: 41. *note decode_header(): 10ae. or *note make_header(): 10af. functions. You can also create addresses from parts: >>> m['cc'] = [Group('pals', [Address('Bob', 'bob', 'example.com'), ... Address('Sally', 'sally', 'example.com')]), ... Address('Bonzo', addr_spec='bonz@laugh.com')] >>> print(m) To: =?utf-8?q?=C3=89ric?= Date: Fri, 25 May 2012 21:44:27 -0400 cc: pals: Bob , Sally ;, Bonzo Decoding to unicode is done automatically: >>> m2 = message_from_string(str(m)) >>> m2['to'] 'Éric ' When you parse a message, you can use the ‘addresses’ and ‘groups’ attributes of the header objects to access the groups and individual addresses: >>> m2['cc'].addresses (Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com')) >>> m2['cc'].groups (Group(display_name='pals', addresses=(Address(display_name='Bob', username='bob', domain='example.com'), Address(display_name='Sally', username='sally', domain='example.com')), Group(display_name=None, addresses=(Address(display_name='Bonzo', username='bonz', domain='laugh.com'),)) In summary, if you use one of the new policies, header manipulation works the way it ought to: your application works with unicode strings, and the email package transparently encodes and decodes the unicode to and from the RFC standard Content Transfer Encodings.  File: python.info, Node: Other API Changes, Prev: Provisional Policy with New Header API, Up: email<5> 1.11.20.18 Other API Changes ............................ New *note BytesHeaderParser: 10b1, added to the *note parser: 4e. module to complement *note HeaderParser: 10b2. and complete the Bytes API. New utility functions: * *note format_datetime(): 10b3.: given a *note datetime: 1cc, produce a string formatted for use in an email header. * *note parsedate_to_datetime(): 10b4.: given a date string from an email header, convert it into an aware *note datetime: 1cc, or a naive *note datetime: 1cc. if the offset is ‘-0000’. * *note localtime(): 2c7.: With no argument, returns the current local time as an aware *note datetime: 1cc. using the local *note timezone: 10b5. Given an aware *note datetime: 1cc, converts it into an aware *note datetime: 1cc. using the local *note timezone: 10b5.  File: python.info, Node: ftplib<3>, Next: functools<6>, Prev: email<5>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.19 ftplib ................. * *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. now accepts a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8594(1).) * The *note FTP_TLS: 8fa. class now provides a new *note ccc(): 10b7. function to revert control channel back to plaintext. This can be useful to take advantage of firewalls that know how to handle NAT with non-secure FTP without opening fixed ports. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12139(2).) * Added *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 10b8. method which provides a parsable directory listing format and deprecates *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 10b9. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 10ba. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11072(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8594 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12139 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11072  File: python.info, Node: functools<6>, Next: gc<6>, Prev: ftplib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.20 functools .................... The *note functools.lru_cache(): 9ee. decorator now accepts a ‘typed’ keyword argument (that defaults to ‘False’ to ensure that it caches values of different types that compare equal in separate cache slots. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-13227(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13227  File: python.info, Node: gc<6>, Next: hmac<4>, Prev: functools<6>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.21 gc ............. It is now possible to register callbacks invoked by the garbage collector before and after collection using the new *note callbacks: 10bd. list.  File: python.info, Node: hmac<4>, Next: http<4>, Prev: gc<6>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.22 hmac ............... A new *note compare_digest(): 10bf. function has been added to prevent side channel attacks on digests through timing analysis. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan and Christian Heimes in bpo-15061(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15061  File: python.info, Node: http<4>, Next: html<2>, Prev: hmac<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.23 http ............... *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. now buffers the headers and writes them all at once when *note end_headers(): 10c2. is called. A new method *note flush_headers(): 10c3. can be used to directly manage when the accumulated headers are sent. (Contributed by Andrew Schaaf in bpo-3709(1).) *note http.server: 72. now produces valid ‘HTML 4.01 strict’ output. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-13295(2).) *note http.client.HTTPResponse: 10c4. now has a *note readinto(): 10c5. method, which means it can be used as an *note io.RawIOBase: 10c6. class. (Contributed by John Kuhn in bpo-13464(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13295 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13464  File: python.info, Node: html<2>, Next: imaplib<3>, Prev: http<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.24 html ............... *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. is now able to parse broken markup without raising errors, therefore the 'strict' argument of the constructor and the ‘HTMLParseError’ exception are now deprecated. The ability to parse broken markup is the result of a number of bug fixes that are also available on the latest bug fix releases of Python 2.7/3.2. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-15114(1), and bpo-14538(2), bpo-13993(3), bpo-13960(4), bpo-13358(5), bpo-1745761(6), bpo-755670(7), bpo-13357(8), bpo-12629(9), bpo-1200313(10), bpo-670664(11), bpo-13273(12), bpo-12888(13), bpo-7311(14).) A new *note html5: 10c8. dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references to the equivalent Unicode character(s) (e.g. ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’) has been added to the *note html.entities: 6c. module. The dictionary is now also used by *note HTMLParser: 874. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-11113(15) and bpo-15156(16).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15114 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14538 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13993 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13960 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13358 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1745761 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=755670 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13357 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12629 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1200313 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=670664 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13273 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12888 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7311 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11113 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15156  File: python.info, Node: imaplib<3>, Next: inspect<9>, Prev: html<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.25 imaplib .................. The *note IMAP4_SSL: 903. constructor now accepts an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure channel. (Contributed by Sijin Joseph in bpo-8808(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8808  File: python.info, Node: inspect<9>, Next: io<6>, Prev: imaplib<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.26 inspect .................. A new *note getclosurevars(): 10cb. function has been added. This function reports the current binding of all names referenced from the function body and where those names were resolved, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing code that relies on stateful closures. (Contributed by Meador Inge and Nick Coghlan in bpo-13062(1).) A new *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10cc. function has been added. This function reports the current binding of local variables in the generator’s stack frame, making it easier to verify correct internal state when testing generators. (Contributed by Meador Inge in bpo-15153(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13062 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15153  File: python.info, Node: io<6>, Next: itertools<6>, Prev: inspect<9>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.27 io ............. The *note open(): 518. function has a new ‘'x'’ mode that can be used to exclusively create a new file, and raise a *note FileExistsError: 1019. if the file already exists. It is based on the C11 ‘x’ mode to fopen(). (Contributed by David Townshend in bpo-12760(1).) The constructor of the *note TextIOWrapper: 7b6. class has a new 'write_through' optional argument. If 'write_through' is ‘True’, calls to ‘write()’ are guaranteed not to be buffered: any data written on the *note TextIOWrapper: 7b6. object is immediately handled to its underlying binary buffer. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12760  File: python.info, Node: itertools<6>, Next: logging<7>, Prev: io<6>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.28 itertools .................... *note accumulate(): 9fc. now takes an optional ‘func’ argument for providing a user-supplied binary function.  File: python.info, Node: logging<7>, Next: math<9>, Prev: itertools<6>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.29 logging .................. The *note basicConfig(): 9ff. function now supports an optional ‘handlers’ argument taking an iterable of handlers to be added to the root logger. A class level attribute ‘append_nul’ has been added to *note SysLogHandler: 658. to allow control of the appending of the ‘NUL’ (‘\000’) byte to syslog records, since for some daemons it is required while for others it is passed through to the log.  File: python.info, Node: math<9>, Next: mmap<4>, Prev: logging<7>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.30 math ............... The *note math: 8e. module has a new function, *note log2(): 10d1, which returns the base-2 logarithm of 'x'. (Written by Mark Dickinson in bpo-11888(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11888  File: python.info, Node: mmap<4>, Next: multiprocessing<8>, Prev: math<9>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.31 mmap ............... The *note read(): 10d3. method is now more compatible with other file-like objects: if the argument is omitted or specified as ‘None’, it returns the bytes from the current file position to the end of the mapping. (Contributed by Petri Lehtinen in bpo-12021(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12021  File: python.info, Node: multiprocessing<8>, Next: nntplib<2>, Prev: mmap<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.32 multiprocessing .......................... The new *note multiprocessing.connection.wait(): 10d5. function allows polling multiple objects (such as connections, sockets and pipes) with a timeout. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-12328(1).) ‘multiprocessing.Connection’ objects can now be transferred over multiprocessing connections. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-4892(2).) *note multiprocessing.Process: b59. now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’ flag from the parent process (bpo-6064(3)). New attribute *note multiprocessing.Process.sentinel: 10d6. allows a program to wait on multiple *note Process: b59. objects at one time using the appropriate OS primitives (for example, *note select: c1. on posix systems). New methods *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.starmap(): 10d7. and *note starmap_async(): 10d8. provide *note itertools.starmap(): 10d9. equivalents to the existing *note multiprocessing.pool.Pool.map(): 10da. and *note map_async(): 10db. functions. (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12708(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12328 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4892 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12708  File: python.info, Node: nntplib<2>, Next: os<12>, Prev: multiprocessing<8>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.33 nntplib .................. The ‘nntplib.NNTP’ class now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 104e. exceptions and to close the NNTP connection when done: >>> from nntplib import NNTP >>> with NNTP('news.gmane.org') as n: ... n.group('gmane.comp.python.committers') ... ('211 1755 1 1755 gmane.comp.python.committers', 1755, 1, 1755, 'gmane.comp.python.committers') >>> (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-9795(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9795  File: python.info, Node: os<12>, Next: pdb<7>, Prev: nntplib<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.34 os ............. * The *note os: a1. module has a new *note pipe2(): 10de. function that makes it possible to create a pipe with *note O_CLOEXEC: 1075. or *note O_NONBLOCK: e3a. flags set atomically. This is especially useful to avoid race conditions in multi-threaded programs. * The *note os: a1. module has a new *note sendfile(): b0f. function which provides an efficient “zero-copy” way for copying data from one file (or socket) descriptor to another. The phrase “zero-copy” refers to the fact that all of the copying of data between the two descriptors is done entirely by the kernel, with no copying of data into userspace buffers. *note sendfile(): b0f. can be used to efficiently copy data from a file on disk to a network socket, e.g. for downloading a file. (Patch submitted by Ross Lagerwall and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10882(1).) * To avoid race conditions like symlink attacks and issues with temporary files and directories, it is more reliable (and also faster) to manipulate file descriptors instead of file names. Python 3.3 enhances existing functions and introduces new functions to work on file descriptors (bpo-4761(2), bpo-10755(3) and bpo-14626(4)). - The *note os: a1. module has a new *note fwalk(): b5b. function similar to *note walk(): 4a5. except that it also yields file descriptors referring to the directories visited. This is especially useful to avoid symlink races. - The following functions get new optional 'dir_fd' (*note paths relative to directory descriptors: 10df.) and/or 'follow_symlinks' (*note not following symlinks: 10e0.): *note access(): 10e1, *note chflags(): 10e2, *note chmod(): 21d, *note chown(): 10e3, *note link(): 10e4, *note lstat(): 49d, *note mkdir(): 21f, *note mkfifo(): d8f, *note mknod(): d90, *note open(): d91, *note readlink(): 91f, *note remove(): 10e5, *note rename(): 10e6, *note replace(): 10e7, *note rmdir(): 10e8, *note stat(): 49c, *note symlink(): 10e9, *note unlink(): 10ea, *note utime(): 10eb. Platform support for using these parameters can be checked via the sets *note os.supports_dir_fd: 10ec. and ‘os.supports_follows_symlinks’. - The following functions now support a file descriptor for their path argument: *note chdir(): 609, *note chmod(): 21d, *note chown(): 10e3, *note execve(): 10ed, *note listdir(): 10ee, *note pathconf(): 10ef, *note exists(): a0d, *note stat(): 49c, *note statvfs(): 10f0, *note utime(): 10eb. Platform support for this can be checked via the *note os.supports_fd: 10f1. set. * *note access(): 10e1. accepts an ‘effective_ids’ keyword argument to turn on using the effective uid/gid rather than the real uid/gid in the access check. Platform support for this can be checked via the *note supports_effective_ids: 10f2. set. * The *note os: a1. module has two new functions: *note getpriority(): 10f3. and *note setpriority(): 10f4. They can be used to get or set process niceness/priority in a fashion similar to *note os.nice(): 10f5. but extended to all processes instead of just the current one. (Patch submitted by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-10784(5).) * The new *note os.replace(): 10e7. function allows cross-platform renaming of a file with overwriting the destination. With *note os.rename(): 10e6, an existing destination file is overwritten under POSIX, but raises an error under Windows. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8828(6).) * The stat family of functions (*note stat(): 49c, *note fstat(): d8b, and *note lstat(): 49d.) now support reading a file’s timestamps with nanosecond precision. Symmetrically, *note utime(): 10eb. can now write file timestamps with nanosecond precision. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(7).) * The new *note os.get_terminal_size(): 10f6. function queries the size of the terminal attached to a file descriptor. See also *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f7. (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(8).) * New functions to support Linux extended attributes (bpo-12720(9)): *note getxattr(): 10f8, *note listxattr(): 10f9, *note removexattr(): 10fa, *note setxattr(): 10fb. * New interface to the scheduler. These functions control how a process is allocated CPU time by the operating system. New functions: *note sched_get_priority_max(): 10fc, *note sched_get_priority_min(): 10fd, *note sched_getaffinity(): 10fe, *note sched_getparam(): 10ff, *note sched_getscheduler(): 1100, *note sched_rr_get_interval(): 1101, *note sched_setaffinity(): 1102, *note sched_setparam(): 1103, *note sched_setscheduler(): 1104, *note sched_yield(): 1105, * New functions to control the file system: * *note posix_fadvise(): d92.: Announces an intention to access data in a specific pattern thus allowing the kernel to make optimizations. * *note posix_fallocate(): d93.: Ensures that enough disk space is allocated for a file. * *note sync(): 1106.: Force write of everything to disk. * Additional new posix functions: * *note lockf(): 1107.: Apply, test or remove a POSIX lock on an open file descriptor. * *note pread(): b5f.: Read from a file descriptor at an offset, the file offset remains unchanged. * *note pwrite(): b62.: Write to a file descriptor from an offset, leaving the file offset unchanged. * *note readv(): b5e.: Read from a file descriptor into a number of writable buffers. * *note truncate(): e3b.: Truncate the file corresponding to 'path', so that it is at most 'length' bytes in size. * *note waitid(): d98.: Wait for the completion of one or more child processes. * *note writev(): b61.: Write the contents of 'buffers' to a file descriptor, where 'buffers' is an arbitrary sequence of buffers. * *note getgrouplist(): 1108. (bpo-9344(10)): Return list of group ids that specified user belongs to. * *note times(): 1109. and *note uname(): 110a.: Return type changed from a tuple to a tuple-like object with named attributes. * Some platforms now support additional constants for the *note lseek(): 110b. function, such as ‘os.SEEK_HOLE’ and ‘os.SEEK_DATA’. * New constants *note RTLD_LAZY: 110c, *note RTLD_NOW: 110d, *note RTLD_GLOBAL: 110e, *note RTLD_LOCAL: 110f, *note RTLD_NODELETE: 1110, *note RTLD_NOLOAD: 1111, and *note RTLD_DEEPBIND: 1112. are available on platforms that support them. These are for use with the *note sys.setdlopenflags(): 1113. function, and supersede the similar constants defined in *note ctypes: 2a. and ‘DLFCN’. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-13226(11).) * *note os.symlink(): 10e9. now accepts (and ignores) the ‘target_is_directory’ keyword argument on non-Windows platforms, to ease cross-platform support. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10882 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4761 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10755 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14626 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10784 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8828 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12720 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9344 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13226  File: python.info, Node: pdb<7>, Next: pickle<5>, Prev: os<12>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.35 pdb .............. Tab-completion is now available not only for command names, but also their arguments. For example, for the ‘break’ command, function and file names are completed. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-14210(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14210  File: python.info, Node: pickle<5>, Next: pydoc<5>, Prev: pdb<7>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.36 pickle ................. *note pickle.Pickler: a1d. objects now have an optional *note dispatch_table: 1116. attribute allowing per-pickler reduction functions to be set. (Contributed by Richard Oudkerk in bpo-14166(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14166  File: python.info, Node: pydoc<5>, Next: re<9>, Prev: pickle<5>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.37 pydoc ................ The Tk GUI and the ‘serve()’ function have been removed from the *note pydoc: b5. module: ‘pydoc -g’ and ‘serve()’ have been deprecated in Python 3.2.  File: python.info, Node: re<9>, Next: sched, Prev: pydoc<5>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.38 re ............. *note str: 447. regular expressions now support ‘\u’ and ‘\U’ escapes. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in bpo-3665(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3665  File: python.info, Node: sched, Next: select<2>, Prev: re<9>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.39 sched ................ * *note run(): 111a. now accepts a 'blocking' parameter which when set to false makes the method execute the scheduled events due to expire soonest (if any) and then return immediately. This is useful in case you want to use the *note scheduler: 111b. in non-blocking applications. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-13449(1).) * *note scheduler: 111b. class can now be safely used in multi-threaded environments. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-8684(2).) * 'timefunc' and 'delayfunct' parameters of *note scheduler: 111b. class constructor are now optional and defaults to *note time.time(): 256. and *note time.sleep(): 699. respectively. (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(3).) * *note enter(): 111c. and *note enterabs(): 111d. 'argument' parameter is now optional. (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(4).) * *note enter(): 111c. and *note enterabs(): 111d. now accept a 'kwargs' parameter. (Contributed by Chris Clark in bpo-13245(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13449 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8684 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13245  File: python.info, Node: select<2>, Next: shlex<3>, Prev: sched, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.40 select ................. Solaris and derivative platforms have a new class *note select.devpoll: f90. for high performance asynchronous sockets via ‘/dev/poll’. (Contributed by Jesús Cea Avión in bpo-6397(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6397  File: python.info, Node: shlex<3>, Next: shutil<7>, Prev: select<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.41 shlex ................ The previously undocumented helper function ‘quote’ from the ‘pipes’ modules has been moved to the *note shlex: c4. module and documented. *note quote(): 27f. properly escapes all characters in a string that might be otherwise given special meaning by the shell.  File: python.info, Node: shutil<7>, Next: signal<4>, Prev: shlex<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.42 shutil ................. * New functions: * *note disk_usage(): 1121.: provides total, used and free disk space statistics. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-12442(1).) * *note chown(): 242.: allows one to change user and/or group of the given path also specifying the user/group names and not only their numeric ids. (Contributed by Sandro Tosi in bpo-12191(2).) * *note shutil.get_terminal_size(): 10f7.: returns the size of the terminal window to which the interpreter is attached. (Contributed by Zbigniew Jędrzejewski-Szmek in bpo-13609(3).) * *note copy2(): a5a. and *note copystat(): 1122. now preserve file timestamps with nanosecond precision on platforms that support it. They also preserve file “extended attributes” on Linux. (Contributed by Larry Hastings in bpo-14127(4) and bpo-15238(5).) * Several functions now take an optional ‘symlinks’ argument: when that parameter is true, symlinks aren’t dereferenced and the operation instead acts on the symlink itself (or creates one, if relevant). (Contributed by Hynek Schlawack in bpo-12715(6).) * When copying files to a different file system, *note move(): a5b. now handles symlinks the way the posix ‘mv’ command does, recreating the symlink rather than copying the target file contents. (Contributed by Jonathan Niehof in bpo-9993(7).) *note move(): a5b. now also returns the ‘dst’ argument as its result. * *note rmtree(): 2fb. is now resistant to symlink attacks on platforms which support the new ‘dir_fd’ parameter in *note os.open(): d91. and *note os.unlink(): 10ea. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Hynek Schlawack in bpo-4489(8).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12442 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12191 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13609 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14127 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15238 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12715 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9993 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4489  File: python.info, Node: signal<4>, Next: smtpd<4>, Prev: shutil<7>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.43 signal ................. * The *note signal: c6. module has new functions: * *note pthread_sigmask(): 1124.: fetch and/or change the signal mask of the calling thread (Contributed by Jean-Paul Calderone in bpo-8407(1)); * *note pthread_kill(): 1125.: send a signal to a thread; * *note sigpending(): 1126.: examine pending functions; * *note sigwait(): 1127.: wait a signal; * *note sigwaitinfo(): daa.: wait for a signal, returning detailed information about it; * *note sigtimedwait(): da9.: like *note sigwaitinfo(): daa. but with a timeout. * The signal handler writes the signal number as a single byte instead of a nul byte into the wakeup file descriptor. So it is possible to wait more than one signal and know which signals were raised. * *note signal.signal(): 1128. and *note signal.siginterrupt(): 1129. raise an OSError, instead of a RuntimeError: OSError has an errno attribute. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8407  File: python.info, Node: smtpd<4>, Next: smtplib<4>, Prev: signal<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.44 smtpd ................ The ‘smtpd’ module now supports RFC 5321(1) (extended SMTP) and RFC 1870(2) (size extension). Per the standard, these extensions are enabled if and only if the client initiates the session with an ‘EHLO’ command. (Initial ‘ELHO’ support by Alberto Trevino. Size extension by Juhana Jauhiainen. Substantial additional work on the patch contributed by Michele Orrù and Dan Boswell. bpo-8739(3)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5321.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1870.html (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8739  File: python.info, Node: smtplib<4>, Next: socket<10>, Prev: smtpd<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.45 smtplib .................. The *note SMTP: 92d, *note SMTP_SSL: 92e, and *note LMTP: 92f. classes now accept a ‘source_address’ keyword argument to specify the ‘(host, port)’ to use as the source address in the bind call when creating the outgoing socket. (Contributed by Paulo Scardine in bpo-11281(1).) *note SMTP: 92d. now supports the context management protocol, allowing an ‘SMTP’ instance to be used in a ‘with’ statement. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-11289(2).) The *note SMTP_SSL: 92e. constructor and the *note starttls(): 112c. method now accept an SSLContext parameter to control parameters of the secure channel. (Contributed by Kasun Herath in bpo-8809(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11281 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11289 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8809  File: python.info, Node: socket<10>, Next: socketserver<3>, Prev: smtplib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.46 socket ................. * The *note socket: da0. class now exposes additional methods to process ancillary data when supported by the underlying platform: * *note sendmsg(): 472. * *note recvmsg(): da5. * *note recvmsg_into(): 112e. (Contributed by David Watson in bpo-6560(1), based on an earlier patch by Heiko Wundram) * The *note socket: da0. class now supports the PF_CAN protocol family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socketcan’), on Linux (‘https://lwn.net/Articles/253425’). (Contributed by Matthias Fuchs, updated by Tiago Gonçalves in bpo-10141(2).) * The *note socket: da0. class now supports the PF_RDS protocol family (‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliable_Datagram_Sockets’ and https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds(3)). * The *note socket: da0. class now supports the ‘PF_SYSTEM’ protocol family on OS X. (Contributed by Michael Goderbauer in bpo-13777(4).) * New function *note sethostname(): 112f. allows the hostname to be set on Unix systems if the calling process has sufficient privileges. (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-10866(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6560 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10141 (3) https://web.archive.org/web/20130115155505/https://oss.oracle.com/projects/rds/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13777 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10866  File: python.info, Node: socketserver<3>, Next: sqlite3<10>, Prev: socket<10>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.47 socketserver ....................... *note BaseServer: 1131. now has an overridable method *note service_actions(): 1132. that is called by the *note serve_forever(): 1133. method in the service loop. *note ForkingMixIn: b77. now uses this to clean up zombie child processes. (Contributed by Justin Warkentin in bpo-11109(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11109  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<10>, Next: ssl<11>, Prev: socketserver<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.48 sqlite3 .................. New *note sqlite3.Connection: 247. method *note set_trace_callback(): 2af. can be used to capture a trace of all sql commands processed by sqlite. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-11688(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11688  File: python.info, Node: ssl<11>, Next: stat<2>, Prev: sqlite3<10>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.49 ssl .............. * The *note ssl: d0. module has two new random generation functions: * *note RAND_bytes(): 51f.: generate cryptographically strong pseudo-random bytes. * ‘RAND_pseudo_bytes()’: generate pseudo-random bytes. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-12049(1).) * The *note ssl: d0. module now exposes a finer-grained exception hierarchy in order to make it easier to inspect the various kinds of errors. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-11183(2).) * *note load_cert_chain(): 297. now accepts a 'password' argument to be used if the private key is encrypted. (Contributed by Adam Simpkins in bpo-12803(3).) * Diffie-Hellman key exchange, both regular and Elliptic Curve-based, is now supported through the *note load_dh_params(): 1136. and *note set_ecdh_curve(): 1137. methods. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13626(4) and bpo-13627(5).) * SSL sockets have a new *note get_channel_binding(): 1138. method allowing the implementation of certain authentication mechanisms such as SCRAM-SHA-1-PLUS. (Contributed by Jacek Konieczny in bpo-12551(6).) * You can query the SSL compression algorithm used by an SSL socket, thanks to its new *note compression(): 1139. method. The new attribute *note OP_NO_COMPRESSION: 113a. can be used to disable compression. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-13634(7).) * Support has been added for the Next Protocol Negotiation extension using the *note ssl.SSLContext.set_npn_protocols(): 2fc. method. (Contributed by Colin Marc in bpo-14204(8).) * SSL errors can now be introspected more easily thanks to *note library: 113b. and *note reason: 113c. attributes. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-14837(9).) * The *note get_server_certificate(): 838. function now supports IPv6. (Contributed by Charles-François Natali in bpo-11811(10).) * New attribute *note OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE: 113d. allows setting SSLv3 server sockets to use the server’s cipher ordering preference rather than the client’s (bpo-13635(11)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12049 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11183 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12803 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13626 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13627 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12551 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13634 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14204 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14837 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11811 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13635  File: python.info, Node: stat<2>, Next: struct<3>, Prev: ssl<11>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.50 stat ............... The undocumented tarfile.filemode function has been moved to *note stat.filemode(): 113f. It can be used to convert a file’s mode to a string of the form ‘-rwxrwxrwx’. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-14807(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14807  File: python.info, Node: struct<3>, Next: subprocess<6>, Prev: stat<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.51 struct ................. The *note struct: d5. module now supports ‘ssize_t’ and ‘size_t’ via the new codes ‘n’ and ‘N’, respectively. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-3163(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3163  File: python.info, Node: subprocess<6>, Next: sys<13>, Prev: struct<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.52 subprocess ..................... Command strings can now be bytes objects on posix platforms. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-8513(1).) A new constant *note DEVNULL: 1142. allows suppressing output in a platform-independent fashion. (Contributed by Ross Lagerwall in bpo-5870(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8513 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5870  File: python.info, Node: sys<13>, Next: tarfile<9>, Prev: subprocess<6>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.53 sys .............. The *note sys: d9. module has a new *note thread_info: 1144. *note named tuple: 64a. holding information about the thread implementation (bpo-11223(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11223  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<9>, Next: tempfile<4>, Prev: sys<13>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.54 tarfile .................. *note tarfile: de. now supports ‘lzma’ encoding via the *note lzma: 8a. module. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-5689(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5689  File: python.info, Node: tempfile<4>, Next: textwrap<2>, Prev: tarfile<9>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.55 tempfile ................... *note tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile: 68f.'s ‘truncate()’ method now accepts a ‘size’ parameter. (Contributed by Ryan Kelly in bpo-9957(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9957  File: python.info, Node: textwrap<2>, Next: threading<8>, Prev: tempfile<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.56 textwrap ................... The *note textwrap: ec. module has a new *note indent(): 278. that makes it straightforward to add a common prefix to selected lines in a block of text (bpo-13857(1)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13857  File: python.info, Node: threading<8>, Next: time<8>, Prev: textwrap<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.57 threading .................... *note threading.Condition: 1149, *note threading.Semaphore: 114a, *note threading.BoundedSemaphore: 114b, *note threading.Event: 114c, and *note threading.Timer: 114d, all of which used to be factory functions returning a class instance, are now classes and may be subclassed. (Contributed by Éric Araujo in bpo-10968(1).) The *note threading.Thread: 94c. constructor now accepts a ‘daemon’ keyword argument to override the default behavior of inheriting the ‘daemon’ flag value from the parent thread (bpo-6064(2)). The formerly private function ‘_thread.get_ident’ is now available as the public function *note threading.get_ident(): 114e. This eliminates several cases of direct access to the ‘_thread’ module in the stdlib. Third party code that used ‘_thread.get_ident’ should likewise be changed to use the new public interface. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10968 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6064  File: python.info, Node: time<8>, Next: types<7>, Prev: threading<8>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.58 time ............... The PEP 418(1) added new functions to the *note time: ee. module: * *note get_clock_info(): 1150.: Get information on a clock. * *note monotonic(): 255.: Monotonic clock (cannot go backward), not affected by system clock updates. * *note perf_counter(): a88.: Performance counter with the highest available resolution to measure a short duration. * *note process_time(): a89.: Sum of the system and user CPU time of the current process. Other new functions: * *note clock_getres(): 1151, *note clock_gettime(): 1152. and *note clock_settime(): 1153. functions with ‘CLOCK_XXX’ constants. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-10278(2).) To improve cross platform consistency, *note sleep(): 699. now raises a *note ValueError: 204. when passed a negative sleep value. Previously this was an error on posix, but produced an infinite sleep on Windows. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0418/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10278  File: python.info, Node: types<7>, Next: unittest<10>, Prev: time<8>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.59 types ................ Add a new *note types.MappingProxyType: 469. class: Read-only proxy of a mapping. (bpo-14386(1)) The new functions *note types.new_class(): 1155. and *note types.prepare_class(): 1156. provide support for PEP 3115(2) compliant dynamic type creation. (bpo-14588(3)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14386 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14588  File: python.info, Node: unittest<10>, Next: urllib<4>, Prev: types<7>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.60 unittest ................... *note assertRaises(): 528, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 52a, *note assertWarns(): 1158, and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1159. now accept a keyword argument 'msg' when used as context managers. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti and Winston Ewert in bpo-10775(1).) *note unittest.TestCase.run(): 115a. now returns the *note TestResult: 115b. object. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10775  File: python.info, Node: urllib<4>, Next: webbrowser<3>, Prev: unittest<10>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.61 urllib ................. The *note Request: fd3. class, now accepts a 'method' argument used by *note get_method(): 115d. to determine what HTTP method should be used. For example, this will send a ‘'HEAD'’ request: >>> urlopen(Request('https://www.python.org', method='HEAD')) (bpo-1673007(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1673007  File: python.info, Node: webbrowser<3>, Next: xml etree ElementTree<2>, Prev: urllib<4>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.62 webbrowser ..................... The *note webbrowser: 115. module supports more “browsers”: Google Chrome (named ‘chrome’, ‘chromium’, ‘chrome-browser’ or ‘chromium-browser’ depending on the version and operating system), and the generic launchers ‘xdg-open’, from the FreeDesktop.org project, and ‘gvfs-open’, which is the default URI handler for GNOME 3. (The former contributed by Arnaud Calmettes in bpo-13620(1), the latter by Matthias Klose in bpo-14493(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13620 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14493  File: python.info, Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>, Next: zlib<2>, Prev: webbrowser<3>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.63 xml.etree.ElementTree ................................ The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module now imports its C accelerator by default; there is no longer a need to explicitly import ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ (this module stays for backwards compatibility, but is now deprecated). In addition, the ‘iter’ family of methods of *note Element: 30a. has been optimized (rewritten in C). The module’s documentation has also been greatly improved with added examples and a more detailed reference.  File: python.info, Node: zlib<2>, Prev: xml etree ElementTree<2>, Up: Improved Modules<11> 1.11.20.64 zlib ............... New attribute *note zlib.Decompress.eof: 1161. makes it possible to distinguish between a properly formed compressed stream and an incomplete or truncated one. (Contributed by Nadeem Vawda in bpo-12646(1).) New attribute *note zlib.ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION: 1162. reports the version string of the underlying ‘zlib’ library that is loaded at runtime. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff in bpo-12306(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12646 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12306  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<10>, Next: Build and C API Changes<4>, Prev: Improved Modules<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.21 Optimizations --------------------- Major performance enhancements have been added: * Thanks to PEP 393(1), some operations on Unicode strings have been optimized: * the memory footprint is divided by 2 to 4 depending on the text * encode an ASCII string to UTF-8 doesn’t need to encode characters anymore, the UTF-8 representation is shared with the ASCII representation * the UTF-8 encoder has been optimized * repeating a single ASCII letter and getting a substring of an ASCII string is 4 times faster * UTF-8 is now 2x to 4x faster. UTF-16 encoding is now up to 10x faster. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka, bpo-14624(2), bpo-14738(3) and bpo-15026(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14624 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14738 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=15026  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<4>, Next: Deprecated<12>, Prev: Optimizations<10>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.22 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * New PEP 3118(1) related function: * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1164. * PEP 393(2) added new Unicode types, macros and functions: * High-level API: * *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b4. * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b8. * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b2, *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b3. * *note PyUnicode_New(): 8aa. * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b5. * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1165, *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1166. * Low-level API: * *note Py_UCS1: 1167, *note Py_UCS2: 1168, *note Py_UCS4: 29d. types * *note PyASCIIObject: 1169. and *note PyCompactUnicodeObject: 116a. structures * *note PyUnicode_READY: 3fd. * *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 116b. * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 116c, *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8ba. * *note PyUnicode_DATA: 116d, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA: 116e, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA: 116f, *note PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA: 1170. * *note PyUnicode_KIND: 1171. with ‘PyUnicode_Kind’ enum: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’, *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1172, *note PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND: 1173, *note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1174. * *note PyUnicode_READ: 1175, *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR: 1176, *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1177. * *note PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE: 1178. * *note PyArg_ParseTuple: 56e. now accepts a *note bytearray: 53a. for the ‘c’ format (bpo-12380(3)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12380  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated<12>, Next: Porting to Python 3 3, Prev: Build and C API Changes<4>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.23 Deprecated ------------------ * Menu: * Unsupported Operating Systems: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>. * Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>. * Deprecated functions and types of the C API: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>. * Deprecated features::  File: python.info, Node: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>, Next: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>, Up: Deprecated<12> 1.11.23.1 Unsupported Operating Systems ....................................... OS/2 and VMS are no longer supported due to the lack of a maintainer. Windows 2000 and Windows platforms which set ‘COMSPEC’ to ‘command.com’ are no longer supported due to maintenance burden. OSF support, which was deprecated in 3.2, has been completely removed.  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>, Next: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>, Prev: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>, Up: Deprecated<12> 1.11.23.2 Deprecated Python modules, functions and methods .......................................................... * Passing a non-empty string to ‘object.__format__()’ is deprecated, and will produce a *note TypeError: 534. in Python 3.4 (bpo-9856(1)). * The ‘unicode_internal’ codec has been deprecated because of the PEP 393(2), use UTF-8, UTF-16 (‘utf-16-le’ or ‘utf-16-be’), or UTF-32 (‘utf-32-le’ or ‘utf-32-be’) * *note ftplib.FTP.nlst(): 10b9. and *note ftplib.FTP.dir(): 10ba.: use *note ftplib.FTP.mlsd(): 10b8. * ‘platform.popen()’: use the *note subprocess: d6. module. Check especially the *note Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module: 117c. section (bpo-11377(3)). * bpo-13374(4): The Windows bytes API has been deprecated in the *note os: a1. module. Use Unicode filenames, instead of bytes filenames, to not depend on the ANSI code page anymore and to support any filename. * bpo-13988(5): The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated. The accelerator is used automatically whenever available. * The behaviour of ‘time.clock()’ depends on the platform: use the new *note time.perf_counter(): a88. or *note time.process_time(): a89. function instead, depending on your requirements, to have a well defined behaviour. * The ‘os.stat_float_times()’ function is deprecated. * *note abc: 4. module: * *note abc.abstractproperty: 107e. has been deprecated, use *note property: 194. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107f. instead. * *note abc.abstractclassmethod: 1080. has been deprecated, use *note classmethod: 166. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107f. instead. * *note abc.abstractstaticmethod: 1081. has been deprecated, use *note staticmethod: 412. with *note abc.abstractmethod(): 107f. instead. * *note importlib: 77. package: * *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_mtime(): 117d. is now deprecated in favour of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 117e. as bytecode files now store both the modification time and size of the source file the bytecode file was compiled from. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9856 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11377 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13374 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13988  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>, Next: Deprecated features, Prev: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>, Up: Deprecated<12> 1.11.23.3 Deprecated functions and types of the C API ..................................................... The *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. has been deprecated by PEP 393(1) and will be removed in Python 4. All functions using this type are deprecated: Unicode functions and methods using *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. and *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9.* types: * ‘PyUnicode_FromUnicode’: use *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1180. or *note PyUnicode_FromKindAndData(): 116b. * ‘PyUnicode_AS_UNICODE’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicode()’, ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeAndSize()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8bb. * ‘PyUnicode_AS_DATA’: use *note PyUnicode_DATA: 116d. with *note PyUnicode_READ: 1175. and *note PyUnicode_WRITE: 1177. * ‘PyUnicode_GET_SIZE’, ‘PyUnicode_GetSize()’: use *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b3. or *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b2. * ‘PyUnicode_GET_DATA_SIZE’: use ‘PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH(str) * PyUnicode_KIND(str)’ (only work on ready strings) * ‘PyUnicode_AsUnicodeCopy()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8ba. or *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8bb. * ‘PyUnicode_GetMax()’ Functions and macros manipulating Py_UNICODE* strings: * ‘Py_UNICODE_strlen()’: use *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b2. or *note PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH: 8b3. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcat()’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b4. or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strncpy()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_COPY()’: use *note PyUnicode_CopyCharacters(): 8b4. or *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b5. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strcmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8b6. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strncmp()’: use *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b7. * ‘Py_UNICODE_strchr()’, ‘Py_UNICODE_strrchr()’: use *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b8. * ‘Py_UNICODE_FILL()’: use *note PyUnicode_Fill(): 1181. * ‘Py_UNICODE_MATCH’ Encoders: * ‘PyUnicode_Encode()’: use ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF7()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF8()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8(): bbb. or *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1182. * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF32()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUTF16()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeUnicodeEscape()’ use *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1183. * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeRawUnicodeEscape()’ use *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1184. * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeLatin1()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 1185. * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeASCII()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 1186. * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeCharmap()’ * ‘PyUnicode_TranslateCharmap()’ * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeMBCS()’: use *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1187. or *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1188. (with ‘CP_ACP’ code_page) * ‘PyUnicode_EncodeDecimal()’, ‘PyUnicode_TransformDecimalToASCII()’ ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated features, Prev: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>, Up: Deprecated<12> 1.11.23.4 Deprecated features ............................. The *note array: 7. module’s ‘'u'’ format code is now deprecated and will be removed in Python 4 together with the rest of the (*note Py_UNICODE: 3e9.) API.  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 3, Prev: Deprecated<12>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 3 1.11.24 Porting to Python 3.3 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code. * Menu: * Porting Python code:: * Porting C code:: * Building C extensions:: * Command Line Switch Changes::  File: python.info, Node: Porting Python code, Next: Porting C code, Up: Porting to Python 3 3 1.11.24.1 Porting Python code ............................. * Hash randomization is enabled by default. Set the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1076. environment variable to ‘0’ to disable hash randomization. See also the *note object.__hash__(): afb. method. * bpo-12326(1): On Linux, sys.platform doesn’t contain the major version anymore. It is now always ‘linux’, instead of ‘linux2’ or ‘linux3’ depending on the Linux version used to build Python. Replace sys.platform == ‘linux2’ with sys.platform.startswith(‘linux’), or directly sys.platform == ‘linux’ if you don’t need to support older Python versions. * bpo-13847(2), bpo-14180(3): *note time: ee. and *note datetime: 30.: *note OverflowError: 87f. is now raised instead of *note ValueError: 204. if a timestamp is out of range. *note OSError: 413. is now raised if C functions ‘gmtime()’ or ‘localtime()’ failed. * The default finders used by import now utilize a cache of what is contained within a specific directory. If you create a Python source file or sourceless bytecode file, make sure to call *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c10. to clear out the cache for the finders to notice the new file. * *note ImportError: 415. now uses the full name of the module that was attempted to be imported. Doctests that check ImportErrors’ message will need to be updated to use the full name of the module instead of just the tail of the name. * The 'index' argument to *note __import__(): 8d3. now defaults to 0 instead of -1 and no longer support negative values. It was an oversight when PEP 328(4) was implemented that the default value remained -1. If you need to continue to perform a relative import followed by an absolute import, then perform the relative import using an index of 1, followed by another import using an index of 0. It is preferred, though, that you use *note importlib.import_module(): 513. rather than call *note __import__(): 8d3. directly. * *note __import__(): 8d3. no longer allows one to use an index value other than 0 for top-level modules. E.g. ‘__import__('sys', level=1)’ is now an error. * Because *note sys.meta_path: d2b. and *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. now have finders on them by default, you will most likely want to use ‘list.insert()’ instead of ‘list.append()’ to add to those lists. * Because ‘None’ is now inserted into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0, if you are clearing out entries in the dictionary of paths that do not have a finder, you will need to remove keys paired with values of ‘None’ 'and' ‘imp.NullImporter’ to be backwards-compatible. This will lead to extra overhead on older versions of Python that re-insert ‘None’ into *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. where it represents the use of implicit finders, but semantically it should not change anything. * ‘importlib.abc.Finder’ no longer specifies a ‘find_module()’ abstract method that must be implemented. If you were relying on subclasses to implement that method, make sure to check for the method’s existence first. You will probably want to check for ‘find_loader()’ first, though, in the case of working with *note path entry finders: 106a. * *note pkgutil: a9. has been converted to use *note importlib: 77. internally. This eliminates many edge cases where the old behaviour of the PEP 302(5) import emulation failed to match the behaviour of the real import system. The import emulation itself is still present, but is now deprecated. The *note pkgutil.iter_importers(): 118c. and *note pkgutil.walk_packages(): bff. functions special case the standard import hooks so they are still supported even though they do not provide the non-standard ‘iter_modules()’ method. * A longstanding RFC-compliance bug (bpo-1079(6)) in the parsing done by *note email.header.decode_header(): 10ae. has been fixed. Code that uses the standard idiom to convert encoded headers into unicode (‘str(make_header(decode_header(h))’) will see no change, but code that looks at the individual tuples returned by decode_header will see that whitespace that precedes or follows ‘ASCII’ sections is now included in the ‘ASCII’ section. Code that builds headers using ‘make_header’ should also continue to work without change, since ‘make_header’ continues to add whitespace between ‘ASCII’ and non-‘ASCII’ sections if it is not already present in the input strings. * *note email.utils.formataddr(): 118d. now does the correct content transfer encoding when passed non-‘ASCII’ display names. Any code that depended on the previous buggy behavior that preserved the non-‘ASCII’ unicode in the formatted output string will need to be changed (bpo-1690608(7)). * *note poplib.POP3.quit(): 118e. may now raise protocol errors like all other ‘poplib’ methods. Code that assumes ‘quit’ does not raise *note poplib.error_proto: 118f. errors may need to be changed if errors on ‘quit’ are encountered by a particular application (bpo-11291(8)). * The ‘strict’ argument to *note email.parser.Parser: 1190, deprecated since Python 2.4, has finally been removed. * The deprecated method ‘unittest.TestCase.assertSameElements’ has been removed. * The deprecated variable ‘time.accept2dyear’ has been removed. * The deprecated ‘Context._clamp’ attribute has been removed from the *note decimal: 36. module. It was previously replaced by the public attribute *note clamp: 1191. (See bpo-8540(9).) * The undocumented internal helper class ‘SSLFakeFile’ has been removed from *note smtplib: ca, since its functionality has long been provided directly by *note socket.socket.makefile(): 1192. * Passing a negative value to *note time.sleep(): 699. on Windows now raises an error instead of sleeping forever. It has always raised an error on posix. * The ‘ast.__version__’ constant has been removed. If you need to make decisions affected by the AST version, use *note sys.version_info: 69c. to make the decision. * Code that used to work around the fact that the *note threading: ed. module used factory functions by subclassing the private classes will need to change to subclass the now-public classes. * The undocumented debugging machinery in the threading module has been removed, simplifying the code. This should have no effect on production code, but is mentioned here in case any application debug frameworks were interacting with it (bpo-13550(10)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12326 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13847 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14180 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1079 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1690608 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11291 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=13550  File: python.info, Node: Porting C code, Next: Building C extensions, Prev: Porting Python code, Up: Porting to Python 3 3 1.11.24.2 Porting C code ........................ * In the course of changes to the buffer API the undocumented ‘smalltable’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 753. structure has been removed and the layout of the ‘PyMemoryViewObject’ has changed. All extensions relying on the relevant parts in ‘memoryobject.h’ or ‘object.h’ must be rebuilt. * Due to *note PEP 393: 1036, the *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. type and all functions using this type are deprecated (but will stay available for at least five years). If you were using low-level Unicode APIs to construct and access unicode objects and you want to benefit of the memory footprint reduction provided by PEP 393(1), you have to convert your code to the new *note Unicode API: 1193. However, if you only have been using high-level functions such as *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1194, *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1195. or *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385, your code will automatically take advantage of the new unicode representations. * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1196. now returns ‘-1’ upon failure. * As a negative value for the 'level' argument to *note __import__(): 8d3. is no longer valid, the same now holds for *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1197. This also means that the value of 'level' used by *note PyImport_ImportModuleEx(): 1198. is now ‘0’ instead of ‘-1’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/  File: python.info, Node: Building C extensions, Next: Command Line Switch Changes, Prev: Porting C code, Up: Porting to Python 3 3 1.11.24.3 Building C extensions ............................... * The range of possible file names for C extensions has been narrowed. Very rarely used spellings have been suppressed: under POSIX, files named ‘xxxmodule.so’, ‘xxxmodule.abi3.so’ and ‘xxxmodule.cpython-*.so’ are no longer recognized as implementing the ‘xxx’ module. If you had been generating such files, you have to switch to the other spellings (i.e., remove the ‘module’ string from the file names). (implemented in bpo-14040(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=14040  File: python.info, Node: Command Line Switch Changes, Prev: Building C extensions, Up: Porting to Python 3 3 1.11.24.4 Command Line Switch Changes ..................................... * The -Q command-line flag and related artifacts have been removed. Code checking sys.flags.division_warning will need updating. (bpo-10998(1), contributed by Éric Araujo.) * When ‘python’ is started with *note -S: 119b, ‘import site’ will no longer add site-specific paths to the module search paths. In previous versions, it did. (bpo-11591(2), contributed by Carl Meyer with editions by Éric Araujo.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10998 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=11591  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 2, Next: What’s New In Python 3 1, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 3, Up: What’s New in Python 1.12 What’s New In Python 3.2 ============================= Author: Raymond Hettinger This article explains the new features in Python 3.2 as compared to 3.1. Python 3.2 was released on February 20, 2011. It focuses on a few highlights and gives a few examples. For full details, see the Misc/NEWS(1) file. See also ........ PEP 392(2) - Python 3.2 Release Schedule * Menu: * PEP 384; Defining a Stable ABI: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI. * PEP 389; Argparse Command Line Parsing Module: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module. * PEP 391; Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging. * PEP 3148; The concurrent.futures module: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module. * PEP 3147; PYC Repository Directories: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories. * PEP 3149; ABI Version Tagged .so Files: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files. * PEP 3333; Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<12>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules. * Multi-threading:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<11>. * Unicode:: * Codecs:: * Documentation:: * IDLE:: * Code Repository:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<5>. * Porting to Python 3.2: Porting to Python 3 2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/076ca6c3c8df3030307e548d9be792ce3c1c6eea/Misc/NEWS (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0392/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI, Next: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.1 PEP 384: Defining a Stable ABI ------------------------------------- In the past, extension modules built for one Python version were often not usable with other Python versions. Particularly on Windows, every feature release of Python required rebuilding all extension modules that one wanted to use. This requirement was the result of the free access to Python interpreter internals that extension modules could use. With Python 3.2, an alternative approach becomes available: extension modules which restrict themselves to a limited API (by defining Py_LIMITED_API) cannot use many of the internals, but are constrained to a set of API functions that are promised to be stable for several releases. As a consequence, extension modules built for 3.2 in that mode will also work with 3.3, 3.4, and so on. Extension modules that make use of details of memory structures can still be built, but will need to be recompiled for every feature release. See also ........ PEP 384(1) - Defining a Stable ABI PEP written by Martin von Löwis. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0384/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module, Next: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging, Prev: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.2 PEP 389: Argparse Command Line Parsing Module ---------------------------------------------------- A new module for command line parsing, *note argparse: 6, was introduced to overcome the limitations of *note optparse: a0. which did not provide support for positional arguments (not just options), subcommands, required options and other common patterns of specifying and validating options. This module has already had widespread success in the community as a third-party module. Being more fully featured than its predecessor, the *note argparse: 6. module is now the preferred module for command-line processing. The older module is still being kept available because of the substantial amount of legacy code that depends on it. Here’s an annotated example parser showing features like limiting results to a set of choices, specifying a 'metavar' in the help screen, validating that one or more positional arguments is present, and making a required option: import argparse parser = argparse.ArgumentParser( description = 'Manage servers', # main description for help epilog = 'Tested on Solaris and Linux') # displayed after help parser.add_argument('action', # argument name choices = ['deploy', 'start', 'stop'], # three allowed values help = 'action on each target') # help msg parser.add_argument('targets', metavar = 'HOSTNAME', # var name used in help msg nargs = '+', # require one or more targets help = 'url for target machines') # help msg explanation parser.add_argument('-u', '--user', # -u or --user option required = True, # make it a required argument help = 'login as user') Example of calling the parser on a command string: >>> cmd = 'deploy sneezy.example.com sleepy.example.com -u skycaptain' >>> result = parser.parse_args(cmd.split()) >>> result.action 'deploy' >>> result.targets ['sneezy.example.com', 'sleepy.example.com'] >>> result.user 'skycaptain' Example of the parser’s automatically generated help: >>> parser.parse_args('-h'.split()) usage: manage_cloud.py [-h] -u USER {deploy,start,stop} HOSTNAME [HOSTNAME ...] Manage servers positional arguments: {deploy,start,stop} action on each target HOSTNAME url for target machines optional arguments: -h, --help show this help message and exit -u USER, --user USER login as user Tested on Solaris and Linux An especially nice *note argparse: 6. feature is the ability to define subparsers, each with their own argument patterns and help displays: import argparse parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog='HELM') subparsers = parser.add_subparsers() parser_l = subparsers.add_parser('launch', help='Launch Control') # first subgroup parser_l.add_argument('-m', '--missiles', action='store_true') parser_l.add_argument('-t', '--torpedos', action='store_true') parser_m = subparsers.add_parser('move', help='Move Vessel', # second subgroup aliases=('steer', 'turn')) # equivalent names parser_m.add_argument('-c', '--course', type=int, required=True) parser_m.add_argument('-s', '--speed', type=int, default=0) $ ./helm.py --help # top level help (launch and move) $ ./helm.py launch --help # help for launch options $ ./helm.py launch --missiles # set missiles=True and torpedos=False $ ./helm.py steer --course 180 --speed 5 # set movement parameters See also ........ PEP 389(1) - New Command Line Parsing Module PEP written by Steven Bethard. *note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 11a0. for details on the differences from *note optparse: a0. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging, Next: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module, Prev: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.3 PEP 391: Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging ---------------------------------------------------------- The *note logging: 87. module provided two kinds of configuration, one style with function calls for each option or another style driven by an external file saved in a *note configparser: 22. format. Those options did not provide the flexibility to create configurations from JSON or YAML files, nor did they support incremental configuration, which is needed for specifying logger options from a command line. To support a more flexible style, the module now offers *note logging.config.dictConfig(): 11a2. for specifying logging configuration with plain Python dictionaries. The configuration options include formatters, handlers, filters, and loggers. Here’s a working example of a configuration dictionary: {"version": 1, "formatters": {"brief": {"format": "%(levelname)-8s: %(name)-15s: %(message)s"}, "full": {"format": "%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s"} }, "handlers": {"console": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "formatter": "brief", "level": "INFO", "stream": "ext://sys.stdout"}, "console_priority": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "formatter": "full", "level": "ERROR", "stream": "ext://sys.stderr"} }, "root": {"level": "DEBUG", "handlers": ["console", "console_priority"]}} If that dictionary is stored in a file called ‘conf.json’, it can be loaded and called with code like this: >>> import json, logging.config >>> with open('conf.json') as f: ... conf = json.load(f) ... >>> logging.config.dictConfig(conf) >>> logging.info("Transaction completed normally") INFO : root : Transaction completed normally >>> logging.critical("Abnormal termination") 2011-02-17 11:14:36,694 root CRITICAL Abnormal termination See also ........ PEP 391(1) - Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging PEP written by Vinay Sajip. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module, Next: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories, Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.4 PEP 3148: The ‘concurrent.futures’ module ------------------------------------------------ Code for creating and managing concurrency is being collected in a new top-level namespace, 'concurrent'. Its first member is a 'futures' package which provides a uniform high-level interface for managing threads and processes. The design for *note concurrent.futures: 21. was inspired by the 'java.util.concurrent' package. In that model, a running call and its result are represented by a *note Future: 11a4. object that abstracts features common to threads, processes, and remote procedure calls. That object supports status checks (running or done), timeouts, cancellations, adding callbacks, and access to results or exceptions. The primary offering of the new module is a pair of executor classes for launching and managing calls. The goal of the executors is to make it easier to use existing tools for making parallel calls. They save the effort needed to setup a pool of resources, launch the calls, create a results queue, add time-out handling, and limit the total number of threads, processes, or remote procedure calls. Ideally, each application should share a single executor across multiple components so that process and thread limits can be centrally managed. This solves the design challenge that arises when each component has its own competing strategy for resource management. Both classes share a common interface with three methods: *note submit(): a82. for scheduling a callable and returning a *note Future: 11a4. object; *note map(): de3. for scheduling many asynchronous calls at a time, and *note shutdown(): 8ec. for freeing resources. The class is a *note context manager: 5d0. and can be used in a *note with: 5ce. statement to assure that resources are automatically released when currently pending futures are done executing. A simple of example of *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. is a launch of four parallel threads for copying files: import concurrent.futures, shutil with concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor(max_workers=4) as e: e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src1.txt', 'dest1.txt') e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src2.txt', 'dest2.txt') e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest3.txt') e.submit(shutil.copy, 'src3.txt', 'dest4.txt') See also ........ PEP 3148(1) - Futures – Execute Computations Asynchronously PEP written by Brian Quinlan. *note Code for Threaded Parallel URL reads: 11a5, an example using threads to fetch multiple web pages in parallel. *note Code for computing prime numbers in parallel: 11a6, an example demonstrating *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3148/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories, Next: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files, Prev: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.5 PEP 3147: PYC Repository Directories ------------------------------------------- Python’s scheme for caching bytecode in '.pyc' files did not work well in environments with multiple Python interpreters. If one interpreter encountered a cached file created by another interpreter, it would recompile the source and overwrite the cached file, thus losing the benefits of caching. The issue of “pyc fights” has become more pronounced as it has become commonplace for Linux distributions to ship with multiple versions of Python. These conflicts also arise with CPython alternatives such as Unladen Swallow. To solve this problem, Python’s import machinery has been extended to use distinct filenames for each interpreter. Instead of Python 3.2 and Python 3.3 and Unladen Swallow each competing for a file called “mymodule.pyc”, they will now look for “mymodule.cpython-32.pyc”, “mymodule.cpython-33.pyc”, and “mymodule.unladen10.pyc”. And to prevent all of these new files from cluttering source directories, the 'pyc' files are now collected in a “__pycache__” directory stored under the package directory. Aside from the filenames and target directories, the new scheme has a few aspects that are visible to the programmer: * Imported modules now have a *note __cached__: 2d9. attribute which stores the name of the actual file that was imported: >>> import collections >>> collections.__cached__ 'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc' * The tag that is unique to each interpreter is accessible from the ‘imp’ module: >>> import imp >>> imp.get_tag() 'cpython-32' * Scripts that try to deduce source filename from the imported file now need to be smarter. It is no longer sufficient to simply strip the “c” from a “.pyc” filename. Instead, use the new functions in the ‘imp’ module: >>> imp.source_from_cache('c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc') 'c:/py32/lib/collections.py' >>> imp.cache_from_source('c:/py32/lib/collections.py') 'c:/py32/lib/__pycache__/collections.cpython-32.pyc' * The *note py_compile: b3. and *note compileall: 20. modules have been updated to reflect the new naming convention and target directory. The command-line invocation of 'compileall' has new options: ‘-i’ for specifying a list of files and directories to compile and ‘-b’ which causes bytecode files to be written to their legacy location rather than '__pycache__'. * The *note importlib.abc: 78. module has been updated with new *note abstract base classes: 11a8. for loading bytecode files. The obsolete ABCs, ‘PyLoader’ and ‘PyPycLoader’, have been deprecated (instructions on how to stay Python 3.1 compatible are included with the documentation). See also ........ PEP 3147(1) - PYC Repository Directories PEP written by Barry Warsaw. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files, Next: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1, Prev: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.6 PEP 3149: ABI Version Tagged .so Files --------------------------------------------- The PYC repository directory allows multiple bytecode cache files to be co-located. This PEP implements a similar mechanism for shared object files by giving them a common directory and distinct names for each version. The common directory is “pyshared” and the file names are made distinct by identifying the Python implementation (such as CPython, PyPy, Jython, etc.), the major and minor version numbers, and optional build flags (such as “d” for debug, “m” for pymalloc, “u” for wide-unicode). For an arbitrary package “foo”, you may see these files when the distribution package is installed: /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-32m.so /usr/share/pyshared/foo.cpython-33md.so In Python itself, the tags are accessible from functions in the *note sysconfig: db. module: >>> import sysconfig >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('SOABI') # find the version tag 'cpython-32mu' >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('EXT_SUFFIX') # find the full filename extension '.cpython-32mu.so' See also ........ PEP 3149(1) - ABI Version Tagged .so Files PEP written by Barry Warsaw. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1, Next: Other Language Changes<12>, Prev: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.7 PEP 3333: Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 ----------------------------------------------------------- This informational PEP clarifies how bytes/text issues are to be handled by the WSGI protocol. The challenge is that string handling in Python 3 is most conveniently handled with the *note str: 447. type even though the HTTP protocol is itself bytes oriented. The PEP differentiates so-called 'native strings' that are used for request/response headers and metadata versus 'byte strings' which are used for the bodies of requests and responses. The 'native strings' are always of type *note str: 447. but are restricted to code points between 'U+0000' through 'U+00FF' which are translatable to bytes using 'Latin-1' encoding. These strings are used for the keys and values in the environment dictionary and for response headers and statuses in the ‘start_response()’ function. They must follow RFC 2616(1) with respect to encoding. That is, they must either be 'ISO-8859-1' characters or use RFC 2047(2) MIME encoding. For developers porting WSGI applications from Python 2, here are the salient points: * If the app already used strings for headers in Python 2, no change is needed. * If instead, the app encoded output headers or decoded input headers, then the headers will need to be re-encoded to Latin-1. For example, an output header encoded in utf-8 was using ‘h.encode('utf-8')’ now needs to convert from bytes to native strings using ‘h.encode('utf-8').decode('latin-1')’. * Values yielded by an application or sent using the ‘write()’ method must be byte strings. The ‘start_response()’ function and environ must use native strings. The two cannot be mixed. For server implementers writing CGI-to-WSGI pathways or other CGI-style protocols, the users must to be able access the environment using native strings even though the underlying platform may have a different convention. To bridge this gap, the *note wsgiref: 118. module has a new function, *note wsgiref.handlers.read_environ(): 11ab. for transcoding CGI variables from *note os.environ: 11ac. into native strings and returning a new dictionary. See also ........ PEP 3333(3) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0.1 PEP written by Phillip Eby. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<12>, Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules, Prev: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.8 Other Language Changes ----------------------------- Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * String formatting for *note format(): 61b. and *note str.format(): 61d. gained new capabilities for the format character '#'. Previously, for integers in binary, octal, or hexadecimal, it caused the output to be prefixed with ‘0b’, ‘0o’, or ‘0x’ respectively. Now it can also handle floats, complex, and Decimal, causing the output to always have a decimal point even when no digits follow it. >>> format(20, '#o') '0o24' >>> format(12.34, '#5.0f') ' 12.' (Suggested by Mark Dickinson and implemented by Eric Smith in bpo-7094(1).) * There is also a new *note str.format_map(): dd6. method that extends the capabilities of the existing *note str.format(): 61d. method by accepting arbitrary *note mapping: 11ae. objects. This new method makes it possible to use string formatting with any of Python’s many dictionary-like objects such as *note defaultdict: 11af, *note Shelf: f95, *note ConfigParser: 1c8, or *note dbm: 31. It is also useful with custom *note dict: 258. subclasses that normalize keys before look-up or that supply a ‘__missing__()’ method for unknown keys: >>> import shelve >>> d = shelve.open('tmp.shl') >>> 'The {project_name} status is {status} as of {date}'.format_map(d) 'The testing project status is green as of February 15, 2011' >>> class LowerCasedDict(dict): ... def __getitem__(self, key): ... return dict.__getitem__(self, key.lower()) ... >>> lcd = LowerCasedDict(part='widgets', quantity=10) >>> 'There are {QUANTITY} {Part} in stock'.format_map(lcd) 'There are 10 widgets in stock' >>> class PlaceholderDict(dict): ... def __missing__(self, key): ... return '<{}>'.format(key) ... >>> 'Hello {name}, welcome to {location}'.format_map(PlaceholderDict()) 'Hello , welcome to ' (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith in bpo-6081(2).) * The interpreter can now be started with a quiet option, ‘-q’, to prevent the copyright and version information from being displayed in the interactive mode. The option can be introspected using the *note sys.flags: 688. attribute: $ python -q >>> sys.flags sys.flags(debug=0, division_warning=0, inspect=0, interactive=0, optimize=0, dont_write_bytecode=0, no_user_site=0, no_site=0, ignore_environment=0, verbose=0, bytes_warning=0, quiet=1) (Contributed by Marcin Wojdyr in bpo-1772833(3)). * The *note hasattr(): 4ce. function works by calling *note getattr(): bd1. and detecting whether an exception is raised. This technique allows it to detect methods created dynamically by *note __getattr__(): 4cf. or *note __getattribute__(): bd2. which would otherwise be absent from the class dictionary. Formerly, 'hasattr' would catch any exception, possibly masking genuine errors. Now, 'hasattr' has been tightened to only catch *note AttributeError: 348. and let other exceptions pass through: >>> class A: ... @property ... def f(self): ... return 1 // 0 ... >>> a = A() >>> hasattr(a, 'f') Traceback (most recent call last): ... ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero (Discovered by Yury Selivanov and fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-9666(4).) * The *note str(): 447. of a float or complex number is now the same as its *note repr(): 7f9. Previously, the *note str(): 447. form was shorter but that just caused confusion and is no longer needed now that the shortest possible *note repr(): 7f9. is displayed by default: >>> import math >>> repr(math.pi) '3.141592653589793' >>> str(math.pi) '3.141592653589793' (Proposed and implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-9337(5).) * *note memoryview: 464. objects now have a *note release(): 11b0. method and they also now support the context management protocol. This allows timely release of any resources that were acquired when requesting a buffer from the original object. >>> with memoryview(b'abcdefgh') as v: ... print(v.tolist()) [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104] (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9757(6).) * Previously it was illegal to delete a name from the local namespace if it occurs as a free variable in a nested block: def outer(x): def inner(): return x inner() del x This is now allowed. Remember that the target of an *note except: 18b. clause is cleared, so this code which used to work with Python 2.6, raised a *note SyntaxError: 18d. with Python 3.1 and now works again: def f(): def print_error(): print(e) try: something except Exception as e: print_error() # implicit "del e" here (See bpo-4617(7).) * *note Struct sequence types: 11b1. are now subclasses of tuple. This means that C structures like those returned by *note os.stat(): 49c, *note time.gmtime(): 11b2, and *note sys.version_info: 69c. now work like a *note named tuple: 64a. and now work with functions and methods that expect a tuple as an argument. This is a big step forward in making the C structures as flexible as their pure Python counterparts: >>> import sys >>> isinstance(sys.version_info, tuple) True >>> 'Version %d.%d.%d %s(%d)' % sys.version_info 'Version 3.2.0 final(0)' (Suggested by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis and implemented by Benjamin Peterson in bpo-8413(8).) * Warnings are now easier to control using the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable as an alternative to using ‘-W’ at the command line: $ export PYTHONWARNINGS='ignore::RuntimeWarning::,once::UnicodeWarning::' (Suggested by Barry Warsaw and implemented by Philip Jenvey in bpo-7301(9).) * A new warning category, *note ResourceWarning: 246, has been added. It is emitted when potential issues with resource consumption or cleanup are detected. It is silenced by default in normal release builds but can be enabled through the means provided by the *note warnings: 112. module, or on the command line. A *note ResourceWarning: 246. is issued at interpreter shutdown if the *note gc.garbage: 11b3. list isn’t empty, and if *note gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 11b4. is set, all uncollectable objects are printed. This is meant to make the programmer aware that their code contains object finalization issues. A *note ResourceWarning: 246. is also issued when a *note file object: 11b5. is destroyed without having been explicitly closed. While the deallocator for such object ensures it closes the underlying operating system resource (usually, a file descriptor), the delay in deallocating the object could produce various issues, especially under Windows. Here is an example of enabling the warning from the command line: $ python -q -Wdefault >>> f = open("foo", "wb") >>> del f __main__:1: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.BufferedWriter name='foo'> (Added by Antoine Pitrou and Georg Brandl in bpo-10093(10) and bpo-477863(11).) * *note range: 943. objects now support 'index' and 'count' methods. This is part of an effort to make more objects fully implement the *note collections.Sequence: 11b6. *note abstract base class: 11a8. As a result, the language will have a more uniform API. In addition, *note range: 943. objects now support slicing and negative indices, even with values larger than *note sys.maxsize: 11b7. This makes 'range' more interoperable with lists: >>> range(0, 100, 2).count(10) 1 >>> range(0, 100, 2).index(10) 5 >>> range(0, 100, 2)[5] 10 >>> range(0, 100, 2)[0:5] range(0, 10, 2) (Contributed by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9213(12), by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-2690(13), and by Nick Coghlan in bpo-10889(14).) * The *note callable(): 11b8. builtin function from Py2.x was resurrected. It provides a concise, readable alternative to using an *note abstract base class: 11a8. in an expression like ‘isinstance(x, collections.Callable)’: >>> callable(max) True >>> callable(20) False (See bpo-10518(15).) * Python’s import mechanism can now load modules installed in directories with non-ASCII characters in the path name. This solved an aggravating problem with home directories for users with non-ASCII characters in their usernames. (Required extensive work by Victor Stinner in bpo-9425(16).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7094 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6081 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1772833 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9666 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9337 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9757 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4617 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8413 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10093 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=477863 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9213 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2690 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10889 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10518 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9425  File: python.info, Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules, Next: Multi-threading, Prev: Other Language Changes<12>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.9 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules -------------------------------------------- Python’s standard library has undergone significant maintenance efforts and quality improvements. The biggest news for Python 3.2 is that the *note email: 3b. package, *note mailbox: 8b. module, and ‘nntplib’ modules now work correctly with the bytes/text model in Python 3. For the first time, there is correct handling of messages with mixed encodings. Throughout the standard library, there has been more careful attention to encodings and text versus bytes issues. In particular, interactions with the operating system are now better able to exchange non-ASCII data using the Windows MBCS encoding, locale-aware encodings, or UTF-8. Another significant win is the addition of substantially better support for 'SSL' connections and security certificates. In addition, more classes now implement a *note context manager: 5d0. to support convenient and reliable resource clean-up using a *note with: 5ce. statement. * Menu: * email: email<6>. * elementtree:: * functools: functools<7>. * itertools: itertools<7>. * collections: collections<8>. * threading: threading<9>. * datetime and time:: * math: math<10>. * abc: abc<3>. * io: io<7>. * reprlib:: * logging: logging<8>. * csv: csv<4>. * contextlib: contextlib<8>. * decimal and fractions:: * ftp:: * popen:: * select: select<3>. * gzip and zipfile:: * tarfile: tarfile<10>. * hashlib: hashlib<7>. * ast: ast<5>. * os: os<13>. * shutil: shutil<8>. * sqlite3: sqlite3<11>. * html: html<3>. * socket: socket<11>. * ssl: ssl<12>. * nntp:: * certificates:: * imaplib: imaplib<4>. * http.client: http client<4>. * unittest: unittest<11>. * random: random<5>. * poplib: poplib<4>. * asyncore: asyncore<2>. * tempfile: tempfile<5>. * inspect: inspect<10>. * pydoc: pydoc<6>. * dis: dis<5>. * dbm: dbm<7>. * ctypes: ctypes<3>. * site: site<4>. * sysconfig: sysconfig<3>. * pdb: pdb<8>. * configparser: configparser<5>. * urllib.parse: urllib parse<6>. * mailbox:: * turtledemo::  File: python.info, Node: email<6>, Next: elementtree, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.1 email .............. The usability of the *note email: 3b. package in Python 3 has been mostly fixed by the extensive efforts of R. David Murray. The problem was that emails are typically read and stored in the form of *note bytes: 1c2. rather than *note str: 447. text, and they may contain multiple encodings within a single email. So, the email package had to be extended to parse and generate email messages in bytes format. * New functions *note message_from_bytes(): 11bb. and *note message_from_binary_file(): 11bc, and new classes *note BytesFeedParser: 11bd. and *note BytesParser: 11be. allow binary message data to be parsed into model objects. * Given bytes input to the model, *note get_payload(): 11bf. will by default decode a message body that has a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' using the charset specified in the MIME headers and return the resulting string. * Given bytes input to the model, *note Generator: 11c0. will convert message bodies that have a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit' to instead have a '7bit' ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’. Headers with unencoded non-ASCII bytes are deemed to be RFC 2047(1)-encoded using the 'unknown-8bit' character set. * A new class *note BytesGenerator: 11c1. produces bytes as output, preserving any unchanged non-ASCII data that was present in the input used to build the model, including message bodies with a ‘Content-Transfer-Encoding’ of '8bit'. * The *note smtplib: ca. *note SMTP: 92d. class now accepts a byte string for the 'msg' argument to the *note sendmail(): e54. method, and a new method, *note send_message(): e55. accepts a *note Message: 27e. object and can optionally obtain the 'from_addr' and 'to_addrs' addresses directly from the object. (Proposed and implemented by R. David Murray, bpo-4661(2) and bpo-10321(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2047.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4661 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10321  File: python.info, Node: elementtree, Next: functools<7>, Prev: email<6>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.2 elementtree .................... The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. package and its ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ counterpart have been updated to version 1.3. Several new and useful functions and methods have been added: * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist(): 11c3. which builds an XML document from a sequence of fragments * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace(): 11c4. for registering a global namespace prefix * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist(): fef. for string representation including all sublists * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.extend(): 11c5. for appending a sequence of zero or more elements * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.iterfind(): 11c6. searches an element and subelements * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.Element.itertext(): 11c7. creates a text iterator over an element and its subelements * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.end(): 11c8. closes the current element * *note xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder.doctype(): a97. handles a doctype declaration Two methods have been deprecated: * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getchildren()’ use ‘list(elem)’ instead. * ‘xml.etree.ElementTree.getiterator()’ use ‘Element.iter’ instead. For details of the update, see Introducing ElementTree(1) on Fredrik Lundh’s website. (Contributed by Florent Xicluna and Fredrik Lundh, bpo-6472(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472  File: python.info, Node: functools<7>, Next: itertools<7>, Prev: elementtree, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.3 functools .................. * The *note functools: 5f. module includes a new decorator for caching function calls. *note functools.lru_cache(): 9ee. can save repeated queries to an external resource whenever the results are expected to be the same. For example, adding a caching decorator to a database query function can save database accesses for popular searches: >>> import functools >>> @functools.lru_cache(maxsize=300) ... def get_phone_number(name): ... c = conn.cursor() ... c.execute('SELECT phonenumber FROM phonelist WHERE name=?', (name,)) ... return c.fetchone()[0] >>> for name in user_requests: ... get_phone_number(name) # cached lookup To help with choosing an effective cache size, the wrapped function is instrumented for tracking cache statistics: >>> get_phone_number.cache_info() CacheInfo(hits=4805, misses=980, maxsize=300, currsize=300) If the phonelist table gets updated, the outdated contents of the cache can be cleared with: >>> get_phone_number.cache_clear() (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design ideas from Jim Baker, Miki Tebeka, and Nick Coghlan; see recipe 498245(1), recipe 577479(2), bpo-10586(3), and bpo-10593(4).) * The *note functools.wraps(): f58. decorator now adds a ‘__wrapped__’ attribute pointing to the original callable function. This allows wrapped functions to be introspected. It also copies *note __annotations__: 11ca. if defined. And now it also gracefully skips over missing attributes such as *note __doc__: 11cb. which might not be defined for the wrapped callable. In the above example, the cache can be removed by recovering the original function: >>> get_phone_number = get_phone_number.__wrapped__ # uncached function (By Nick Coghlan and Terrence Cole; bpo-9567(5), bpo-3445(6), and bpo-8814(7).) * To help write classes with rich comparison methods, a new decorator *note functools.total_ordering(): f3d. will use existing equality and inequality methods to fill in the remaining methods. For example, supplying '__eq__' and '__lt__' will enable *note total_ordering(): f3d. to fill-in '__le__', '__gt__' and '__ge__': @total_ordering class Student: def __eq__(self, other): return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) == (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower())) def __lt__(self, other): return ((self.lastname.lower(), self.firstname.lower()) < (other.lastname.lower(), other.firstname.lower())) With the 'total_ordering' decorator, the remaining comparison methods are filled in automatically. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * To aid in porting programs from Python 2, the *note functools.cmp_to_key(): 11cc. function converts an old-style comparison function to modern *note key function: e04.: >>> # locale-aware sort order >>> sorted(iterable, key=cmp_to_key(locale.strcoll)) For sorting examples and a brief sorting tutorial, see the Sorting HowTo(8) tutorial. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/498245-lru-and-lfu-cache-decorators/ (2) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577479-simple-caching-decorator/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10586 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10593 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9567 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3445 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8814 (8) https://wiki.python.org/moin/HowTo/Sorting/  File: python.info, Node: itertools<7>, Next: collections<8>, Prev: functools<7>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.4 itertools .................. * The *note itertools: 81. module has a new *note accumulate(): 9fc. function modeled on APL’s 'scan' operator and Numpy’s 'accumulate' function: >>> from itertools import accumulate >>> list(accumulate([8, 2, 50])) [8, 10, 60] >>> prob_dist = [0.1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.3] >>> list(accumulate(prob_dist)) # cumulative probability distribution [0.1, 0.5, 0.7, 1.0] For an example using *note accumulate(): 9fc, see the *note examples for the random module: 11ce. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and incorporating design suggestions from Mark Dickinson.)  File: python.info, Node: collections<8>, Next: threading<9>, Prev: itertools<7>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.5 collections .................... * The *note collections.Counter: 108b. class now has two forms of in-place subtraction, the existing '-=' operator for saturating subtraction(1) and the new *note subtract(): 11d0. method for regular subtraction. The former is suitable for multisets(2) which only have positive counts, and the latter is more suitable for use cases that allow negative counts: >>> from collections import Counter >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3) >>> tally -= Counter(dogs=2, cats=8) # saturating subtraction >>> tally Counter({'dogs': 3}) >>> tally = Counter(dogs=5, cats=3) >>> tally.subtract(dogs=2, cats=8) # regular subtraction >>> tally Counter({'dogs': 3, 'cats': -5}) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. class has a new method *note move_to_end(): 11d1. which takes an existing key and moves it to either the first or last position in the ordered sequence. The default is to move an item to the last position. This is equivalent of renewing an entry with ‘od[k] = od.pop(k)’. A fast move-to-end operation is useful for resequencing entries. For example, an ordered dictionary can be used to track order of access by aging entries from the oldest to the most recently accessed. >>> from collections import OrderedDict >>> d = OrderedDict.fromkeys(['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e']) >>> list(d) ['a', 'b', 'X', 'd', 'e'] >>> d.move_to_end('X') >>> list(d) ['a', 'b', 'd', 'e', 'X'] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note collections.deque: 5d8. class grew two new methods *note count(): 11d2. and *note reverse(): 11d3. that make them more substitutable for *note list: 60d. objects: >>> from collections import deque >>> d = deque('simsalabim') >>> d.count('s') 2 >>> d.reverse() >>> d deque(['m', 'i', 'b', 'a', 'l', 'a', 's', 'm', 'i', 's']) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturation_arithmetic (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiset  File: python.info, Node: threading<9>, Next: datetime and time, Prev: collections<8>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.6 threading .................. The *note threading: ed. module has a new *note Barrier: 11d5. synchronization class for making multiple threads wait until all of them have reached a common barrier point. Barriers are useful for making sure that a task with multiple preconditions does not run until all of the predecessor tasks are complete. Barriers can work with an arbitrary number of threads. This is a generalization of a Rendezvous(1) which is defined for only two threads. Implemented as a two-phase cyclic barrier, *note Barrier: 11d5. objects are suitable for use in loops. The separate 'filling' and 'draining' phases assure that all threads get released (drained) before any one of them can loop back and re-enter the barrier. The barrier fully resets after each cycle. Example of using barriers: from threading import Barrier, Thread def get_votes(site): ballots = conduct_election(site) all_polls_closed.wait() # do not count until all polls are closed totals = summarize(ballots) publish(site, totals) all_polls_closed = Barrier(len(sites)) for site in sites: Thread(target=get_votes, args=(site,)).start() In this example, the barrier enforces a rule that votes cannot be counted at any polling site until all polls are closed. Notice how a solution with a barrier is similar to one with *note threading.Thread.join(): 11d6, but the threads stay alive and continue to do work (summarizing ballots) after the barrier point is crossed. If any of the predecessor tasks can hang or be delayed, a barrier can be created with an optional 'timeout' parameter. Then if the timeout period elapses before all the predecessor tasks reach the barrier point, all waiting threads are released and a *note BrokenBarrierError: 11d7. exception is raised: def get_votes(site): ballots = conduct_election(site) try: all_polls_closed.wait(timeout=midnight - time.now()) except BrokenBarrierError: lockbox = seal_ballots(ballots) queue.put(lockbox) else: totals = summarize(ballots) publish(site, totals) In this example, the barrier enforces a more robust rule. If some election sites do not finish before midnight, the barrier times-out and the ballots are sealed and deposited in a queue for later handling. See Barrier Synchronization Patterns(2) for more examples of how barriers can be used in parallel computing. Also, there is a simple but thorough explanation of barriers in The Little Book of Semaphores(3), 'section 3.6'. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson with an API review by Jeffrey Yasskin in bpo-8777(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronous_rendezvous (2) https://osl.cs.illinois.edu/media/papers/karmani-2009-barrier_synchronization_pattern.pdf (3) https://greenteapress.com/semaphores/LittleBookOfSemaphores.pdf (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8777  File: python.info, Node: datetime and time, Next: math<10>, Prev: threading<9>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.7 datetime and time .......................... * The *note datetime: 30. module has a new type *note timezone: 10b5. that implements the *note tzinfo: 5da. interface by returning a fixed UTC offset and timezone name. This makes it easier to create timezone-aware datetime objects: >>> from datetime import datetime, timezone >>> datetime.now(timezone.utc) datetime.datetime(2010, 12, 8, 21, 4, 2, 923754, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc) >>> datetime.strptime("01/01/2000 12:00 +0000", "%m/%d/%Y %H:%M %z") datetime.datetime(2000, 1, 1, 12, 0, tzinfo=datetime.timezone.utc) * Also, *note timedelta: 9cf. objects can now be multiplied by *note float: 2f1. and divided by *note float: 2f1. and *note int: 259. objects. And *note timedelta: 9cf. objects can now divide one another. * The *note datetime.date.strftime(): c91. method is no longer restricted to years after 1900. The new supported year range is from 1000 to 9999 inclusive. * Whenever a two-digit year is used in a time tuple, the interpretation has been governed by ‘time.accept2dyear’. The default is ‘True’ which means that for a two-digit year, the century is guessed according to the POSIX rules governing the ‘%y’ strptime format. Starting with Py3.2, use of the century guessing heuristic will emit a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Instead, it is recommended that ‘time.accept2dyear’ be set to ‘False’ so that large date ranges can be used without guesswork: >>> import time, warnings >>> warnings.resetwarnings() # remove the default warning filters >>> time.accept2dyear = True # guess whether 11 means 11 or 2011 >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0)) Warning (from warnings module): ... DeprecationWarning: Century info guessed for a 2-digit year. 'Fri Jan 1 12:34:56 2011' >>> time.accept2dyear = False # use the full range of allowable dates >>> time.asctime((11, 1, 1, 12, 34, 56, 4, 1, 0)) 'Fri Jan 1 12:34:56 11' Several functions now have significantly expanded date ranges. When ‘time.accept2dyear’ is false, the *note time.asctime(): 11d9. function will accept any year that fits in a C int, while the *note time.mktime(): 11da. and *note time.strftime(): 11db. functions will accept the full range supported by the corresponding operating system functions. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky and Victor Stinner in bpo-1289118(1), bpo-5094(2), bpo-6641(3), bpo-2706(4), bpo-1777412(5), bpo-8013(6), and bpo-10827(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1289118 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5094 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6641 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2706 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1777412 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8013 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10827  File: python.info, Node: math<10>, Next: abc<3>, Prev: datetime and time, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.8 math ............. The *note math: 8e. module has been updated with six new functions inspired by the C99 standard. The *note isfinite(): 11dd. function provides a reliable and fast way to detect special values. It returns ‘True’ for regular numbers and ‘False’ for 'Nan' or 'Infinity': >>> from math import isfinite >>> [isfinite(x) for x in (123, 4.56, float('Nan'), float('Inf'))] [True, True, False, False] The *note expm1(): 11de. function computes ‘e**x-1’ for small values of 'x' without incurring the loss of precision that usually accompanies the subtraction of nearly equal quantities: >>> from math import expm1 >>> expm1(0.013671875) # more accurate way to compute e**x-1 for a small x 0.013765762467652909 The *note erf(): bd8. function computes a probability integral or Gaussian error function(1). The complementary error function, *note erfc(): bd9, is ‘1 - erf(x)’: >>> from math import erf, erfc, sqrt >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) # portion of normal distribution within 1 standard deviation 0.682689492137086 >>> erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) # portion of normal distribution outside 1 standard deviation 0.31731050786291404 >>> erf(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) + erfc(1.0/sqrt(2.0)) 1.0 The *note gamma(): 11df. function is a continuous extension of the factorial function. See ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_function’ for details. Because the function is related to factorials, it grows large even for small values of 'x', so there is also a *note lgamma(): 11e0. function for computing the natural logarithm of the gamma function: >>> from math import gamma, lgamma >>> gamma(7.0) # six factorial 720.0 >>> lgamma(801.0) # log(800 factorial) 4551.950730698041 (Contributed by Mark Dickinson.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_function  File: python.info, Node: abc<3>, Next: io<7>, Prev: math<10>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.9 abc ............ The *note abc: 4. module now supports *note abstractclassmethod(): 1080. and *note abstractstaticmethod(): 1081. These tools make it possible to define an *note abstract base class: 11a8. that requires a particular *note classmethod(): 166. or *note staticmethod(): 412. to be implemented: class Temperature(metaclass=abc.ABCMeta): @abc.abstractclassmethod def from_fahrenheit(cls, t): ... @abc.abstractclassmethod def from_celsius(cls, t): ... (Patch submitted by Daniel Urban; bpo-5867(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5867  File: python.info, Node: io<7>, Next: reprlib, Prev: abc<3>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.10 io ............ The *note io.BytesIO: e9d. has a new method, *note getbuffer(): 11e3, which provides functionality similar to *note memoryview(): 464. It creates an editable view of the data without making a copy. The buffer’s random access and support for slice notation are well-suited to in-place editing: >>> REC_LEN, LOC_START, LOC_LEN = 34, 7, 11 >>> def change_location(buffer, record_number, location): ... start = record_number * REC_LEN + LOC_START ... buffer[start: start+LOC_LEN] = location >>> import io >>> byte_stream = io.BytesIO( ... b'G3805 storeroom Main chassis ' ... b'X7899 shipping Reserve cog ' ... b'L6988 receiving Primary sprocket' ... ) >>> buffer = byte_stream.getbuffer() >>> change_location(buffer, 1, b'warehouse ') >>> change_location(buffer, 0, b'showroom ') >>> print(byte_stream.getvalue()) b'G3805 showroom Main chassis ' b'X7899 warehouse Reserve cog ' b'L6988 receiving Primary sprocket' (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-5506(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5506  File: python.info, Node: reprlib, Next: logging<8>, Prev: io<7>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.11 reprlib ................. When writing a *note __repr__(): 618. method for a custom container, it is easy to forget to handle the case where a member refers back to the container itself. Python’s builtin objects such as *note list: 60d. and *note set: 5d5. handle self-reference by displaying “…” in the recursive part of the representation string. To help write such *note __repr__(): 618. methods, the *note reprlib: bb. module has a new decorator, *note recursive_repr(): 11e5, for detecting recursive calls to ‘__repr__()’ and substituting a placeholder string instead: >>> class MyList(list): ... @recursive_repr() ... def __repr__(self): ... return '<' + '|'.join(map(repr, self)) + '>' ... >>> m = MyList('abc') >>> m.append(m) >>> m.append('x') >>> print(m) <'a'|'b'|'c'|...|'x'> (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in bpo-9826(1) and bpo-9840(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9826 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9840  File: python.info, Node: logging<8>, Next: csv<4>, Prev: reprlib, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.12 logging ................. In addition to dictionary-based configuration described above, the *note logging: 87. package has many other improvements. The logging documentation has been augmented by a *note basic tutorial: 11e7, an *note advanced tutorial: 11e8, and a *note cookbook: 11e9. of logging recipes. These documents are the fastest way to learn about logging. The *note logging.basicConfig(): 9ff. set-up function gained a 'style' argument to support three different types of string formatting. It defaults to “%” for traditional %-formatting, can be set to “{” for the new *note str.format(): 61d. style, or can be set to “$” for the shell-style formatting provided by *note string.Template: 683. The following three configurations are equivalent: >>> from logging import basicConfig >>> basicConfig(style='%', format="%(name)s -> %(levelname)s: %(message)s") >>> basicConfig(style='{', format="{name} -> {levelname} {message}") >>> basicConfig(style='$', format="$name -> $levelname: $message") If no configuration is set-up before a logging event occurs, there is now a default configuration using a *note StreamHandler: 11ea. directed to *note sys.stderr: 939. for events of ‘WARNING’ level or higher. Formerly, an event occurring before a configuration was set-up would either raise an exception or silently drop the event depending on the value of *note logging.raiseExceptions: 11eb. The new default handler is stored in *note logging.lastResort: 11ec. The use of filters has been simplified. Instead of creating a *note Filter: 11ed. object, the predicate can be any Python callable that returns ‘True’ or ‘False’. There were a number of other improvements that add flexibility and simplify configuration. See the module documentation for a full listing of changes in Python 3.2.  File: python.info, Node: csv<4>, Next: contextlib<8>, Prev: logging<8>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.13 csv ............. The *note csv: 29. module now supports a new dialect, *note unix_dialect: 11ef, which applies quoting for all fields and a traditional Unix style with ‘'\n'’ as the line terminator. The registered dialect name is ‘unix’. The *note csv.DictWriter: 11f0. has a new method, *note writeheader(): 11f1. for writing-out an initial row to document the field names: >>> import csv, sys >>> w = csv.DictWriter(sys.stdout, ['name', 'dept'], dialect='unix') >>> w.writeheader() "name","dept" >>> w.writerows([ ... {'name': 'tom', 'dept': 'accounting'}, ... {'name': 'susan', 'dept': 'Salesl'}]) "tom","accounting" "susan","sales" (New dialect suggested by Jay Talbot in bpo-5975(1), and the new method suggested by Ed Abraham in bpo-1537721(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5975 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537721  File: python.info, Node: contextlib<8>, Next: decimal and fractions, Prev: csv<4>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.14 contextlib .................... There is a new and slightly mind-blowing tool *note ContextDecorator: 11f3. that is helpful for creating a *note context manager: 5d0. that does double duty as a function decorator. As a convenience, this new functionality is used by *note contextmanager(): 11f4. so that no extra effort is needed to support both roles. The basic idea is that both context managers and function decorators can be used for pre-action and post-action wrappers. Context managers wrap a group of statements using a *note with: 5ce. statement, and function decorators wrap a group of statements enclosed in a function. So, occasionally there is a need to write a pre-action or post-action wrapper that can be used in either role. For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, the *note contextmanager(): 11f4. provides both capabilities in a single definition: from contextlib import contextmanager import logging logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO) @contextmanager def track_entry_and_exit(name): logging.info('Entering: %s', name) yield logging.info('Exiting: %s', name) Formerly, this would have only been usable as a context manager: with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'): print('Some time consuming activity goes here') load_widget() Now, it can be used as a decorator as well: @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader') def activity(): print('Some time consuming activity goes here') load_widget() Trying to fulfill two roles at once places some limitations on the technique. Context managers normally have the flexibility to return an argument usable by a *note with: 5ce. statement, but there is no parallel for function decorators. In the above example, there is not a clean way for the 'track_entry_and_exit' context manager to return a logging instance for use in the body of enclosed statements. (Contributed by Michael Foord in bpo-9110(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9110  File: python.info, Node: decimal and fractions, Next: ftp, Prev: contextlib<8>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.15 decimal and fractions ............................... Mark Dickinson crafted an elegant and efficient scheme for assuring that different numeric datatypes will have the same hash value whenever their actual values are equal (bpo-8188(1)): assert hash(Fraction(3, 2)) == hash(1.5) == \ hash(Decimal("1.5")) == hash(complex(1.5, 0)) Some of the hashing details are exposed through a new attribute, *note sys.hash_info: ff8, which describes the bit width of the hash value, the prime modulus, the hash values for 'infinity' and 'nan', and the multiplier used for the imaginary part of a number: >>> sys.hash_info sys.hash_info(width=64, modulus=2305843009213693951, inf=314159, nan=0, imag=1000003) An early decision to limit the interoperability of various numeric types has been relaxed. It is still unsupported (and ill-advised) to have implicit mixing in arithmetic expressions such as ‘Decimal('1.1') + float('1.1')’ because the latter loses information in the process of constructing the binary float. However, since existing floating-point value can be converted losslessly to either a decimal or rational representation, it makes sense to add them to the constructor and to support mixed-type comparisons. * The *note decimal.Decimal: 29f. constructor now accepts *note float: 2f1. objects directly so there in no longer a need to use the *note from_float(): 11f6. method (bpo-8257(2)). * Mixed type comparisons are now fully supported so that *note Decimal: 29f. objects can be directly compared with *note float: 2f1. and *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. (bpo-2531(3) and bpo-8188(4)). Similar changes were made to *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. so that the *note from_float(): 11f7. and *note from_decimal(): 11f8. methods are no longer needed (bpo-8294(5)): >>> from decimal import Decimal >>> from fractions import Fraction >>> Decimal(1.1) Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625') >>> Fraction(1.1) Fraction(2476979795053773, 2251799813685248) Another useful change for the *note decimal: 36. module is that the *note Context.clamp: 1191. attribute is now public. This is useful in creating contexts that correspond to the decimal interchange formats specified in IEEE 754 (see bpo-8540(6)). (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Raymond Hettinger.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8188 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8294 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8540  File: python.info, Node: ftp, Next: popen, Prev: decimal and fractions, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.16 ftp ............. The *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. class now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 104e. exceptions and to close the FTP connection when done: >>> from ftplib import FTP >>> with FTP("ftp1.at.proftpd.org") as ftp: ftp.login() ftp.dir() '230 Anonymous login ok, restrictions apply.' dr-xr-xr-x 9 ftp ftp 154 May 6 10:43 . dr-xr-xr-x 9 ftp ftp 154 May 6 10:43 .. dr-xr-xr-x 5 ftp ftp 4096 May 6 10:43 CentOS dr-xr-xr-x 3 ftp ftp 18 Jul 10 2008 Fedora Other file-like objects such as *note mmap.mmap: 20d. and *note fileinput.input(): 7fb. also grew auto-closing context managers: with fileinput.input(files=('log1.txt', 'log2.txt')) as f: for line in f: process(line) (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé and Giampaolo Rodolà in bpo-4972(1), and by Georg Brandl in bpo-8046(2) and bpo-1286(3).) The *note FTP_TLS: 8fa. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8806(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4972 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8046 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1286 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8806  File: python.info, Node: popen, Next: select<3>, Prev: ftp, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.17 popen ............... The *note os.popen(): a87. and *note subprocess.Popen(): 199. functions now support *note with: 5ce. statements for auto-closing of the file descriptors. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Brian Curtin in bpo-7461(1) and bpo-10554(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7461 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10554  File: python.info, Node: select<3>, Next: gzip and zipfile, Prev: popen, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.18 select ................ The *note select: c1. module now exposes a new, constant attribute, *note PIPE_BUF: 11fc, which gives the minimum number of bytes which are guaranteed not to block when *note select.select(): d9f. says a pipe is ready for writing. >>> import select >>> select.PIPE_BUF 512 (Available on Unix systems. Patch by Sébastien Sablé in bpo-9862(1)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9862  File: python.info, Node: gzip and zipfile, Next: tarfile<10>, Prev: select<3>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.19 gzip and zipfile .......................... *note gzip.GzipFile: 416. now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. *note abstract base class: 11a8. (except for ‘truncate()’). It also has a *note peek(): 11fe. method and supports unseekable as well as zero-padded file objects. The *note gzip: 67. module also gains the *note compress(): 63a. and *note decompress(): 11ff. functions for easier in-memory compression and decompression. Keep in mind that text needs to be encoded as *note bytes: 1c2. before compressing and decompressing: >>> import gzip >>> s = 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count, ' >>> s += 'and the number of the counting shall be three' >>> b = s.encode() # convert to utf-8 >>> len(b) 89 >>> c = gzip.compress(b) >>> len(c) 77 >>> gzip.decompress(c).decode()[:42] # decompress and convert to text 'Three shall be the number thou shalt count' (Contributed by Anand B. Pillai in bpo-3488(1); and by Antoine Pitrou, Nir Aides and Brian Curtin in bpo-9962(2), bpo-1675951(3), bpo-7471(4) and bpo-2846(5).) Also, the *note zipfile.ZipExtFile: 417. class was reworked internally to represent files stored inside an archive. The new implementation is significantly faster and can be wrapped in an *note io.BufferedReader: 1200. object for more speedups. It also solves an issue where interleaved calls to 'read' and 'readline' gave the wrong results. (Patch submitted by Nir Aides in bpo-7610(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3488 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9962 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675951 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7471 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2846 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610  File: python.info, Node: tarfile<10>, Next: hashlib<7>, Prev: gzip and zipfile, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.20 tarfile ................. The *note TarFile: 1202. class can now be used as a context manager. In addition, its *note add(): bf3. method has a new option, 'filter', that controls which files are added to the archive and allows the file metadata to be edited. The new 'filter' option replaces the older, less flexible 'exclude' parameter which is now deprecated. If specified, the optional 'filter' parameter needs to be a *note keyword argument: d12. The user-supplied filter function accepts a *note TarInfo: 1203. object and returns an updated *note TarInfo: 1203. object, or if it wants the file to be excluded, the function can return ‘None’: >>> import tarfile, glob >>> def myfilter(tarinfo): ... if tarinfo.isfile(): # only save real files ... tarinfo.uname = 'monty' # redact the user name ... return tarinfo >>> with tarfile.open(name='myarchive.tar.gz', mode='w:gz') as tf: ... for filename in glob.glob('*.txt'): ... tf.add(filename, filter=myfilter) ... tf.list() -rw-r--r-- monty/501 902 2011-01-26 17:59:11 annotations.txt -rw-r--r-- monty/501 123 2011-01-26 17:59:11 general_questions.txt -rw-r--r-- monty/501 3514 2011-01-26 17:59:11 prion.txt -rw-r--r-- monty/501 124 2011-01-26 17:59:11 py_todo.txt -rw-r--r-- monty/501 1399 2011-01-26 17:59:11 semaphore_notes.txt (Proposed by Tarek Ziadé and implemented by Lars Gustäbel in bpo-6856(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856  File: python.info, Node: hashlib<7>, Next: ast<5>, Prev: tarfile<10>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.21 hashlib ................. The *note hashlib: 68. module has two new constant attributes listing the hashing algorithms guaranteed to be present in all implementations and those available on the current implementation: >>> import hashlib >>> hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed {'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha384', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'md5'} >>> hashlib.algorithms_available {'md2', 'SHA256', 'SHA512', 'dsaWithSHA', 'mdc2', 'SHA224', 'MD4', 'sha256', 'sha512', 'ripemd160', 'SHA1', 'MDC2', 'SHA', 'SHA384', 'MD2', 'ecdsa-with-SHA1','md4', 'md5', 'sha1', 'DSA-SHA', 'sha224', 'dsaEncryption', 'DSA', 'RIPEMD160', 'sha', 'MD5', 'sha384'} (Suggested by Carl Chenet in bpo-7418(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7418  File: python.info, Node: ast<5>, Next: os<13>, Prev: hashlib<7>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.22 ast ............. The *note ast: 8. module has a wonderful a general-purpose tool for safely evaluating expression strings using the Python literal syntax. The *note ast.literal_eval(): c18. function serves as a secure alternative to the builtin *note eval(): 180. function which is easily abused. Python 3.2 adds *note bytes: 1c2. and *note set: 5d5. literals to the list of supported types: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, and ‘None’. >>> from ast import literal_eval >>> request = "{'req': 3, 'func': 'pow', 'args': (2, 0.5)}" >>> literal_eval(request) {'args': (2, 0.5), 'req': 3, 'func': 'pow'} >>> request = "os.system('do something harmful')" >>> literal_eval(request) Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: malformed node or string: <_ast.Call object at 0x101739a10> (Implemented by Benjamin Peterson and Georg Brandl.)  File: python.info, Node: os<13>, Next: shutil<8>, Prev: ast<5>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.23 os ............ Different operating systems use various encodings for filenames and environment variables. The *note os: a1. module provides two new functions, *note fsencode(): c55. and *note fsdecode(): c54, for encoding and decoding filenames: >>> import os >>> filename = 'Sehenswürdigkeiten' >>> os.fsencode(filename) b'Sehensw\xc3\xbcrdigkeiten' Some operating systems allow direct access to encoded bytes in the environment. If so, the *note os.supports_bytes_environ: 1207. constant will be true. For direct access to encoded environment variables (if available), use the new *note os.getenvb(): 1208. function or use *note os.environb: 1209. which is a bytes version of *note os.environ: 11ac. (Contributed by Victor Stinner.)  File: python.info, Node: shutil<8>, Next: sqlite3<11>, Prev: os<13>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.24 shutil ................ The *note shutil.copytree(): a28. function has two new options: * 'ignore_dangling_symlinks': when ‘symlinks=False’ so that the function copies a file pointed to by a symlink, not the symlink itself. This option will silence the error raised if the file doesn’t exist. * 'copy_function': is a callable that will be used to copy files. *note shutil.copy2(): a5a. is used by default. (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.) In addition, the *note shutil: c5. module now supports *note archiving operations: 120b. for zipfiles, uncompressed tarfiles, gzipped tarfiles, and bzipped tarfiles. And there are functions for registering additional archiving file formats (such as xz compressed tarfiles or custom formats). The principal functions are *note make_archive(): 4af. and *note unpack_archive(): 467. By default, both operate on the current directory (which can be set by *note os.chdir(): 609.) and on any sub-directories. The archive filename needs to be specified with a full pathname. The archiving step is non-destructive (the original files are left unchanged). >>> import shutil, pprint >>> os.chdir('mydata') # change to the source directory >>> f = shutil.make_archive('/var/backup/mydata', ... 'zip') # archive the current directory >>> f # show the name of archive '/var/backup/mydata.zip' >>> os.chdir('tmp') # change to an unpacking >>> shutil.unpack_archive('/var/backup/mydata.zip') # recover the data >>> pprint.pprint(shutil.get_archive_formats()) # display known formats [('bztar', "bzip2'ed tar-file"), ('gztar', "gzip'ed tar-file"), ('tar', 'uncompressed tar file'), ('zip', 'ZIP file')] >>> shutil.register_archive_format( # register a new archive format ... name='xz', ... function=xz.compress, # callable archiving function ... extra_args=[('level', 8)], # arguments to the function ... description='xz compression' ... ) (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé.)  File: python.info, Node: sqlite3<11>, Next: html<3>, Prev: shutil<8>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.25 sqlite3 ................. The *note sqlite3: cf. module was updated to pysqlite version 2.6.0. It has two new capabilities. * The ‘sqlite3.Connection.in_transit’ attribute is true if there is an active transaction for uncommitted changes. * The *note sqlite3.Connection.enable_load_extension(): 83a. and *note sqlite3.Connection.load_extension(): 4b4. methods allows you to load SQLite extensions from “.so” files. One well-known extension is the fulltext-search extension distributed with SQLite. (Contributed by R. David Murray and Shashwat Anand; bpo-8845(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8845  File: python.info, Node: html<3>, Next: socket<11>, Prev: sqlite3<11>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.26 html .............. A new *note html: 6b. module was introduced with only a single function, *note escape(): 1007, which is used for escaping reserved characters from HTML markup: >>> import html >>> html.escape('x > 2 && x < 7') 'x > 2 && x < 7'  File: python.info, Node: socket<11>, Next: ssl<12>, Prev: html<3>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.27 socket ................ The *note socket: cc. module has two new improvements. * Socket objects now have a *note detach(): 120f. method which puts the socket into closed state without actually closing the underlying file descriptor. The latter can then be reused for other purposes. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8524(1).) * *note socket.create_connection(): 66e. now supports the context management protocol to unconditionally consume *note socket.error: 104e. exceptions and to close the socket when done. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-9794(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8524 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9794  File: python.info, Node: ssl<12>, Next: nntp, Prev: socket<11>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.28 ssl ............. The *note ssl: d0. module added a number of features to satisfy common requirements for secure (encrypted, authenticated) internet connections: * A new class, *note SSLContext: 296, serves as a container for persistent SSL data, such as protocol settings, certificates, private keys, and various other options. It includes a *note wrap_socket(): 520. for creating an SSL socket from an SSL context. * A new function, ‘ssl.match_hostname()’, supports server identity verification for higher-level protocols by implementing the rules of HTTPS (from RFC 2818(1)) which are also suitable for other protocols. * The *note ssl.wrap_socket(): 520. constructor function now takes a 'ciphers' argument. The 'ciphers' string lists the allowed encryption algorithms using the format described in the OpenSSL documentation(2). * When linked against recent versions of OpenSSL, the *note ssl: d0. module now supports the Server Name Indication extension to the TLS protocol, allowing multiple “virtual hosts” using different certificates on a single IP port. This extension is only supported in client mode, and is activated by passing the 'server_hostname' argument to *note ssl.SSLContext.wrap_socket(): 520. * Various options have been added to the *note ssl: d0. module, such as *note OP_NO_SSLv2: 835. which disables the insecure and obsolete SSLv2 protocol. * The extension now loads all the OpenSSL ciphers and digest algorithms. If some SSL certificates cannot be verified, they are reported as an “unknown algorithm” error. * The version of OpenSSL being used is now accessible using the module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 1211. (a string), *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 1212. (a 5-tuple), and *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 1213. (an integer). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-8850(3), bpo-1589(4), bpo-8322(5), bpo-5639(6), bpo-4870(7), bpo-8484(8), and bpo-8321(9).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2818.html (2) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/#cipher-list-format (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8850 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1589 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5639 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4870 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321  File: python.info, Node: nntp, Next: certificates, Prev: ssl<12>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.29 nntp .............. The ‘nntplib’ module has a revamped implementation with better bytes and text semantics as well as more practical APIs. These improvements break compatibility with the nntplib version in Python 3.1, which was partly dysfunctional in itself. Support for secure connections through both implicit (using ‘nntplib.NNTP_SSL’) and explicit (using ‘nntplib.NNTP.starttls()’) TLS has also been added. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-9360(1) and Andrew Vant in bpo-1926(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9360 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1926  File: python.info, Node: certificates, Next: imaplib<4>, Prev: nntp, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.30 certificates ...................... *note http.client.HTTPSConnection: b41, *note urllib.request.HTTPSHandler: 1216. and *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 295. now take optional arguments to allow for server certificate checking against a set of Certificate Authorities, as recommended in public uses of HTTPS. (Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9003(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9003  File: python.info, Node: imaplib<4>, Next: http client<4>, Prev: certificates, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.31 imaplib ................. Support for explicit TLS on standard IMAP4 connections has been added through the new *note imaplib.IMAP4.starttls: 1218. method. (Contributed by Lorenzo M. Catucci and Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4471(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4471  File: python.info, Node: http client<4>, Next: unittest<11>, Prev: imaplib<4>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.32 http.client ..................... There were a number of small API improvements in the *note http.client: 6f. module. The old-style HTTP 0.9 simple responses are no longer supported and the 'strict' parameter is deprecated in all classes. The *note HTTPConnection: b40. and *note HTTPSConnection: b41. classes now have a 'source_address' parameter for a (host, port) tuple indicating where the HTTP connection is made from. Support for certificate checking and HTTPS virtual hosts were added to *note HTTPSConnection: b41. The *note request(): ca9. method on connection objects allowed an optional 'body' argument so that a *note file object: 11b5. could be used to supply the content of the request. Conveniently, the 'body' argument now also accepts an *note iterable: 121a. object so long as it includes an explicit ‘Content-Length’ header. This extended interface is much more flexible than before. To establish an HTTPS connection through a proxy server, there is a new *note set_tunnel(): 121b. method that sets the host and port for HTTP Connect tunneling. To match the behavior of *note http.server: 72, the HTTP client library now also encodes headers with ISO-8859-1 (Latin-1) encoding. It was already doing that for incoming headers, so now the behavior is consistent for both incoming and outgoing traffic. (See work by Armin Ronacher in bpo-10980(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10980  File: python.info, Node: unittest<11>, Next: random<5>, Prev: http client<4>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.33 unittest .................. The unittest module has a number of improvements supporting test discovery for packages, easier experimentation at the interactive prompt, new testcase methods, improved diagnostic messages for test failures, and better method names. * The command-line call ‘python -m unittest’ can now accept file paths instead of module names for running specific tests (bpo-10620(1)). The new test discovery can find tests within packages, locating any test importable from the top-level directory. The top-level directory can be specified with the ‘-t’ option, a pattern for matching files with ‘-p’, and a directory to start discovery with ‘-s’: $ python -m unittest discover -s my_proj_dir -p _test.py (Contributed by Michael Foord.) * Experimentation at the interactive prompt is now easier because the *note unittest.TestCase: 449. class can now be instantiated without arguments: >>> from unittest import TestCase >>> TestCase().assertEqual(pow(2, 3), 8) (Contributed by Michael Foord.) * The *note unittest: 106. module has two new methods, *note assertWarns(): 1158. and *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1159. to verify that a given warning type is triggered by the code under test: with self.assertWarns(DeprecationWarning): legacy_function('XYZ') (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-9754(2).) Another new method, *note assertCountEqual(): 121d. is used to compare two iterables to determine if their element counts are equal (whether the same elements are present with the same number of occurrences regardless of order): def test_anagram(self): self.assertCountEqual('algorithm', 'logarithm') (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * A principal feature of the unittest module is an effort to produce meaningful diagnostics when a test fails. When possible, the failure is recorded along with a diff of the output. This is especially helpful for analyzing log files of failed test runs. However, since diffs can sometime be voluminous, there is a new *note maxDiff: 121e. attribute that sets maximum length of diffs displayed. * In addition, the method names in the module have undergone a number of clean-ups. For example, *note assertRegex(): 529. is the new name for ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ which was misnamed because the test uses *note re.search(): 121f, not *note re.match(): 1220. Other methods using regular expressions are now named using short form “Regex” in preference to “Regexp” – this matches the names used in other unittest implementations, matches Python’s old name for the *note re: b9. module, and it has unambiguous camel-casing. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Ezio Melotti.) * To improve consistency, some long-standing method aliases are being deprecated in favor of the preferred names: Old Name Preferred Name ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘assert_()’ *note assertTrue(): 522. ‘assertEquals()’ *note assertEqual(): 524. ‘assertNotEquals()’ *note assertNotEqual(): 525. ‘assertAlmostEquals()’ *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. ‘assertNotAlmostEquals()’ *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. Likewise, the ‘TestCase.fail*’ methods deprecated in Python 3.1 are expected to be removed in Python 3.3. (Contributed by Ezio Melotti; bpo-9424(3).) * The ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ method was deprecated because it was misimplemented with the arguments in the wrong order. This created hard-to-debug optical illusions where tests like ‘TestCase().assertDictContainsSubset({'a':1, 'b':2}, {'a':1})’ would fail. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10620 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9754 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9424  File: python.info, Node: random<5>, Next: poplib<4>, Prev: unittest<11>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.34 random ................ The integer methods in the *note random: b8. module now do a better job of producing uniform distributions. Previously, they computed selections with ‘int(n*random())’ which had a slight bias whenever 'n' was not a power of two. Now, multiple selections are made from a range up to the next power of two and a selection is kept only when it falls within the range ‘0 <= x < n’. The functions and methods affected are *note randrange(): 868, *note randint(): 1222, *note choice(): 1223, *note shuffle(): 742. and *note sample(): 741. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-9025(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9025  File: python.info, Node: poplib<4>, Next: asyncore<2>, Prev: random<5>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.35 poplib ................ *note POP3_SSL: 924. class now accepts a 'context' parameter, which is a *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. object allowing bundling SSL configuration options, certificates and private keys into a single (potentially long-lived) structure. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-8807(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8807  File: python.info, Node: asyncore<2>, Next: tempfile<5>, Prev: poplib<4>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.36 asyncore .................. ‘asyncore.dispatcher’ now provides a ‘handle_accepted()’ method returning a ‘(sock, addr)’ pair which is called when a connection has actually been established with a new remote endpoint. This is supposed to be used as a replacement for old ‘handle_accept()’ and avoids the user to call ‘accept()’ directly. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodolà; bpo-6706(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706  File: python.info, Node: tempfile<5>, Next: inspect<10>, Prev: asyncore<2>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.37 tempfile .................. The *note tempfile: e0. module has a new context manager, *note TemporaryDirectory: 1227. which provides easy deterministic cleanup of temporary directories: with tempfile.TemporaryDirectory() as tmpdirname: print('created temporary dir:', tmpdirname) (Contributed by Neil Schemenauer and Nick Coghlan; bpo-5178(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5178  File: python.info, Node: inspect<10>, Next: pydoc<6>, Prev: tempfile<5>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.38 inspect ................. * The *note inspect: 7e. module has a new function *note getgeneratorstate(): 1229. to easily identify the current state of a generator-iterator: >>> from inspect import getgeneratorstate >>> def gen(): ... yield 'demo' ... >>> g = gen() >>> getgeneratorstate(g) 'GEN_CREATED' >>> next(g) 'demo' >>> getgeneratorstate(g) 'GEN_SUSPENDED' >>> next(g, None) >>> getgeneratorstate(g) 'GEN_CLOSED' (Contributed by Rodolpho Eckhardt and Nick Coghlan, bpo-10220(1).) * To support lookups without the possibility of activating a dynamic attribute, the *note inspect: 7e. module has a new function, *note getattr_static(): 490. Unlike *note hasattr(): 4ce, this is a true read-only search, guaranteed not to change state while it is searching: >>> class A: ... @property ... def f(self): ... print('Running') ... return 10 ... >>> a = A() >>> getattr(a, 'f') Running 10 >>> inspect.getattr_static(a, 'f') (Contributed by Michael Foord.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10220  File: python.info, Node: pydoc<6>, Next: dis<5>, Prev: inspect<10>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.39 pydoc ............... The *note pydoc: b5. module now provides a much-improved web server interface, as well as a new command-line option ‘-b’ to automatically open a browser window to display that server: $ pydoc3.2 -b (Contributed by Ron Adam; bpo-2001(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2001  File: python.info, Node: dis<5>, Next: dbm<7>, Prev: pydoc<6>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.40 dis ............. The *note dis: 38. module gained two new functions for inspecting code, *note code_info(): 122c. and *note show_code(): f27. Both provide detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object. The former returns a string and the latter prints it: >>> import dis, random >>> dis.show_code(random.choice) Name: choice Filename: /Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/random.py Argument count: 2 Kw-only arguments: 0 Number of locals: 3 Stack size: 11 Flags: OPTIMIZED, NEWLOCALS, NOFREE Constants: 0: 'Choose a random element from a non-empty sequence.' 1: 'Cannot choose from an empty sequence' Names: 0: _randbelow 1: len 2: ValueError 3: IndexError Variable names: 0: self 1: seq 2: i In addition, the *note dis(): b34. function now accepts string arguments so that the common idiom ‘dis(compile(s, '', 'eval'))’ can be shortened to ‘dis(s)’: >>> dis('3*x+1 if x%2==1 else x//2') 1 0 LOAD_NAME 0 (x) 3 LOAD_CONST 0 (2) 6 BINARY_MODULO 7 LOAD_CONST 1 (1) 10 COMPARE_OP 2 (==) 13 POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE 28 16 LOAD_CONST 2 (3) 19 LOAD_NAME 0 (x) 22 BINARY_MULTIPLY 23 LOAD_CONST 1 (1) 26 BINARY_ADD 27 RETURN_VALUE >> 28 LOAD_NAME 0 (x) 31 LOAD_CONST 0 (2) 34 BINARY_FLOOR_DIVIDE 35 RETURN_VALUE Taken together, these improvements make it easier to explore how CPython is implemented and to see for yourself what the language syntax does under-the-hood. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan in bpo-9147(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9147  File: python.info, Node: dbm<7>, Next: ctypes<3>, Prev: dis<5>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.41 dbm ............. All database modules now support the ‘get()’ and ‘setdefault()’ methods. (Suggested by Ray Allen in bpo-9523(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9523  File: python.info, Node: ctypes<3>, Next: site<4>, Prev: dbm<7>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.42 ctypes ................ A new type, *note ctypes.c_ssize_t: 122f. represents the C ‘ssize_t’ datatype.  File: python.info, Node: site<4>, Next: sysconfig<3>, Prev: ctypes<3>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.43 site .............. The *note site: c7. module has three new functions useful for reporting on the details of a given Python installation. * *note getsitepackages(): 1231. lists all global site-packages directories. * *note getuserbase(): 1232. reports on the user’s base directory where data can be stored. * *note getusersitepackages(): 1233. reveals the user-specific site-packages directory path. >>> import site >>> site.getsitepackages() ['/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/python3.2/site-packages', '/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework/Versions/3.2/lib/site-python', '/Library/Python/3.2/site-packages'] >>> site.getuserbase() '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2' >>> site.getusersitepackages() '/Users/raymondhettinger/Library/Python/3.2/lib/python/site-packages' Conveniently, some of site’s functionality is accessible directly from the command-line: $ python -m site --user-base /Users/raymondhettinger/.local $ python -m site --user-site /Users/raymondhettinger/.local/lib/python3.2/site-packages (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé in bpo-6693(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693  File: python.info, Node: sysconfig<3>, Next: pdb<8>, Prev: site<4>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.44 sysconfig ................... The new *note sysconfig: db. module makes it straightforward to discover installation paths and configuration variables that vary across platforms and installations. The module offers access simple access functions for platform and version information: * *note get_platform(): 1235. returning values like 'linux-i586' or 'macosx-10.6-ppc'. * *note get_python_version(): 1236. returns a Python version string such as “3.2”. It also provides access to the paths and variables corresponding to one of seven named schemes used by ‘distutils’. Those include 'posix_prefix', 'posix_home', 'posix_user', 'nt', 'nt_user', 'os2', 'os2_home': * *note get_paths(): 1237. makes a dictionary containing installation paths for the current installation scheme. * *note get_config_vars(): 1025. returns a dictionary of platform specific variables. There is also a convenient command-line interface: C:\Python32>python -m sysconfig Platform: "win32" Python version: "3.2" Current installation scheme: "nt" Paths: data = "C:\Python32" include = "C:\Python32\Include" platinclude = "C:\Python32\Include" platlib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages" platstdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib" purelib = "C:\Python32\Lib\site-packages" scripts = "C:\Python32\Scripts" stdlib = "C:\Python32\Lib" Variables: BINDIR = "C:\Python32" BINLIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib" EXE = ".exe" INCLUDEPY = "C:\Python32\Include" LIBDEST = "C:\Python32\Lib" SO = ".pyd" VERSION = "32" abiflags = "" base = "C:\Python32" exec_prefix = "C:\Python32" platbase = "C:\Python32" prefix = "C:\Python32" projectbase = "C:\Python32" py_version = "3.2" py_version_nodot = "32" py_version_short = "3.2" srcdir = "C:\Python32" userbase = "C:\Documents and Settings\Raymond\Application Data\Python" (Moved out of Distutils by Tarek Ziadé.)  File: python.info, Node: pdb<8>, Next: configparser<5>, Prev: sysconfig<3>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.45 pdb ............. The *note pdb: a5. debugger module gained a number of usability improvements: * ‘pdb.py’ now has a ‘-c’ option that executes commands as given in a ‘.pdbrc’ script file. * A ‘.pdbrc’ script file can contain ‘continue’ and ‘next’ commands that continue debugging. * The *note Pdb: 921. class constructor now accepts a 'nosigint' argument. * New commands: ‘l(list)’, ‘ll(long list)’ and ‘source’ for listing source code. * New commands: ‘display’ and ‘undisplay’ for showing or hiding the value of an expression if it has changed. * New command: ‘interact’ for starting an interactive interpreter containing the global and local names found in the current scope. * Breakpoints can be cleared by breakpoint number. (Contributed by Georg Brandl, Antonio Cuni and Ilya Sandler.)  File: python.info, Node: configparser<5>, Next: urllib parse<6>, Prev: pdb<8>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.46 configparser ...................... The *note configparser: 22. module was modified to improve usability and predictability of the default parser and its supported INI syntax. The old ‘ConfigParser’ class was removed in favor of ‘SafeConfigParser’ which has in turn been renamed to *note ConfigParser: 1c8. Support for inline comments is now turned off by default and section or option duplicates are not allowed in a single configuration source. Config parsers gained a new API based on the mapping protocol: >>> parser = ConfigParser() >>> parser.read_string(""" ... [DEFAULT] ... location = upper left ... visible = yes ... editable = no ... color = blue ... ... [main] ... title = Main Menu ... color = green ... ... [options] ... title = Options ... """) >>> parser['main']['color'] 'green' >>> parser['main']['editable'] 'no' >>> section = parser['options'] >>> section['title'] 'Options' >>> section['title'] = 'Options (editable: %(editable)s)' >>> section['title'] 'Options (editable: no)' The new API is implemented on top of the classical API, so custom parser subclasses should be able to use it without modifications. The INI file structure accepted by config parsers can now be customized. Users can specify alternative option/value delimiters and comment prefixes, change the name of the 'DEFAULT' section or switch the interpolation syntax. There is support for pluggable interpolation including an additional interpolation handler *note ExtendedInterpolation: 71e.: >>> parser = ConfigParser(interpolation=ExtendedInterpolation()) >>> parser.read_dict({'buildout': {'directory': '/home/ambv/zope9'}, ... 'custom': {'prefix': '/usr/local'}}) >>> parser.read_string(""" ... [buildout] ... parts = ... zope9 ... instance ... find-links = ... ${buildout:directory}/downloads/dist ... ... [zope9] ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9install ... location = /opt/zope ... ... [instance] ... recipe = plone.recipe.zope9instance ... zope9-location = ${zope9:location} ... zope-conf = ${custom:prefix}/etc/zope.conf ... """) >>> parser['buildout']['find-links'] '\n/home/ambv/zope9/downloads/dist' >>> parser['instance']['zope-conf'] '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf' >>> instance = parser['instance'] >>> instance['zope-conf'] '/usr/local/etc/zope.conf' >>> instance['zope9-location'] '/opt/zope' A number of smaller features were also introduced, like support for specifying encoding in read operations, specifying fallback values for get-functions, or reading directly from dictionaries and strings. (All changes contributed by Łukasz Langa.)  File: python.info, Node: urllib parse<6>, Next: mailbox, Prev: configparser<5>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.47 urllib.parse ...................... A number of usability improvements were made for the *note urllib.parse: 10a. module. The *note urlparse(): 307. function now supports IPv6(1) addresses as described in RFC 2732(2): >>> import urllib.parse >>> urllib.parse.urlparse('http://[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]/foo/') ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[dead:beef:cafe:5417:affe:8FA3:deaf:feed]', path='/foo/', params='', query='', fragment='') The *note urldefrag(): 123b. function now returns a *note named tuple: 64a.: >>> r = urllib.parse.urldefrag('http://python.org/about/#target') >>> r DefragResult(url='http://python.org/about/', fragment='target') >>> r[0] 'http://python.org/about/' >>> r.fragment 'target' And, the *note urlencode(): e8e. function is now much more flexible, accepting either a string or bytes type for the 'query' argument. If it is a string, then the 'safe', 'encoding', and 'error' parameters are sent to *note quote_plus(): 123c. for encoding: >>> urllib.parse.urlencode([ ... ('type', 'telenovela'), ... ('name', '¿Dónde Está Elisa?')], ... encoding='latin-1') 'type=telenovela&name=%BFD%F3nde+Est%E1+Elisa%3F' As detailed in *note Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes: 123d, all the *note urllib.parse: 10a. functions now accept ASCII-encoded byte strings as input, so long as they are not mixed with regular strings. If ASCII-encoded byte strings are given as parameters, the return types will also be an ASCII-encoded byte strings: >>> urllib.parse.urlparse(b'http://www.python.org:80/about/') ParseResultBytes(scheme=b'http', netloc=b'www.python.org:80', path=b'/about/', params=b'', query=b'', fragment=b'') (Work by Nick Coghlan, Dan Mahn, and Senthil Kumaran in bpo-2987(3), bpo-5468(4), and bpo-9873(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6 (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5468 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9873  File: python.info, Node: mailbox, Next: turtledemo, Prev: urllib parse<6>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.48 mailbox ................. Thanks to a concerted effort by R. David Murray, the *note mailbox: 8b. module has been fixed for Python 3.2. The challenge was that mailbox had been originally designed with a text interface, but email messages are best represented with *note bytes: 1c2. because various parts of a message may have different encodings. The solution harnessed the *note email: 3b. package’s binary support for parsing arbitrary email messages. In addition, the solution required a number of API changes. As expected, the *note add(): 123f. method for *note mailbox.Mailbox: 1240. objects now accepts binary input. *note StringIO: f22. and text file input are deprecated. Also, string input will fail early if non-ASCII characters are used. Previously it would fail when the email was processed in a later step. There is also support for binary output. The *note get_file(): 1241. method now returns a file in the binary mode (where it used to incorrectly set the file to text-mode). There is also a new *note get_bytes(): 1242. method that returns a *note bytes: 1c2. representation of a message corresponding to a given 'key'. It is still possible to get non-binary output using the old API’s *note get_string(): 1243. method, but that approach is not very useful. Instead, it is best to extract messages from a *note Message: 1244. object or to load them from binary input. (Contributed by R. David Murray, with efforts from Steffen Daode Nurpmeso and an initial patch by Victor Stinner in bpo-9124(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9124  File: python.info, Node: turtledemo, Prev: mailbox, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules 1.12.9.49 turtledemo .................... The demonstration code for the *note turtle: 101. module was moved from the 'Demo' directory to main library. It includes over a dozen sample scripts with lively displays. Being on *note sys.path: 3b0, it can now be run directly from the command-line: $ python -m turtledemo (Moved from the Demo directory by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-10199(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10199  File: python.info, Node: Multi-threading, Next: Optimizations<11>, Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.10 Multi-threading ----------------------- * The mechanism for serializing execution of concurrently running Python threads (generally known as the *note GIL: 159. or Global Interpreter Lock) has been rewritten. Among the objectives were more predictable switching intervals and reduced overhead due to lock contention and the number of ensuing system calls. The notion of a “check interval” to allow thread switches has been abandoned and replaced by an absolute duration expressed in seconds. This parameter is tunable through *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 94a. It currently defaults to 5 milliseconds. Additional details about the implementation can be read from a python-dev mailing-list message(1) (however, “priority requests” as exposed in this message have not been kept for inclusion). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.) * Regular and recursive locks now accept an optional 'timeout' argument to their *note acquire(): 694. method. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7316(2).) * Similarly, *note threading.Semaphore.acquire(): 1247. also gained a 'timeout' argument. (Contributed by Torsten Landschoff; bpo-850728(3).) * Regular and recursive lock acquisitions can now be interrupted by signals on platforms using Pthreads. This means that Python programs that deadlock while acquiring locks can be successfully killed by repeatedly sending SIGINT to the process (by pressing ‘Ctrl’+‘C’ in most shells). (Contributed by Reid Kleckner; bpo-8844(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2009-October/093321.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7316 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=850728 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8844  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<11>, Next: Unicode, Prev: Multi-threading, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.11 Optimizations --------------------- A number of small performance enhancements have been added: * Python’s peephole optimizer now recognizes patterns such ‘x in {1, 2, 3}’ as being a test for membership in a set of constants. The optimizer recasts the *note set: 5d5. as a *note frozenset: 5d6. and stores the pre-built constant. Now that the speed penalty is gone, it is practical to start writing membership tests using set-notation. This style is both semantically clear and operationally fast: extension = name.rpartition('.')[2] if extension in {'xml', 'html', 'xhtml', 'css'}: handle(name) (Patch and additional tests contributed by Dave Malcolm; bpo-6690(1)). * Serializing and unserializing data using the *note pickle: a6. module is now several times faster. (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti, Antoine Pitrou and the Unladen Swallow team in bpo-9410(2) and bpo-3873(3).) * The Timsort algorithm(4) used in *note list.sort(): bcf. and *note sorted(): bce. now runs faster and uses less memory when called with a *note key function: e04. Previously, every element of a list was wrapped with a temporary object that remembered the key value associated with each element. Now, two arrays of keys and values are sorted in parallel. This saves the memory consumed by the sort wrappers, and it saves time lost to delegating comparisons. (Patch by Daniel Stutzbach in bpo-9915(5).) * JSON decoding performance is improved and memory consumption is reduced whenever the same string is repeated for multiple keys. Also, JSON encoding now uses the C speedups when the ‘sort_keys’ argument is true. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou in bpo-7451(6) and by Raymond Hettinger and Antoine Pitrou in bpo-10314(7).) * Recursive locks (created with the *note threading.RLock(): 2e2. API) now benefit from a C implementation which makes them as fast as regular locks, and between 10x and 15x faster than their previous pure Python implementation. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3001(8).) * The fast-search algorithm in stringlib is now used by the *note split(): ea3, *note rsplit(): 1249, *note splitlines(): 124a. and *note replace(): 19a. methods on *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 53a. and *note str: 447. objects. Likewise, the algorithm is also used by *note rfind(): ea2, *note rindex(): 124b, *note rsplit(): 1249. and *note rpartition(): 124c. (Patch by Florent Xicluna in bpo-7622(9) and bpo-7462(10).) * Integer to string conversions now work two “digits” at a time, reducing the number of division and modulo operations. (bpo-6713(11) by Gawain Bolton, Mark Dickinson, and Victor Stinner.) There were several other minor optimizations. Set differencing now runs faster when one operand is much larger than the other (patch by Andress Bennetts in bpo-8685(12)). The ‘array.repeat()’ method has a faster implementation (bpo-1569291(13) by Alexander Belopolsky). The *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. has more efficient buffering (bpo-3709(14) by Andrew Schaaf). The *note operator.attrgetter(): e32. function has been sped-up (bpo-10160(15) by Christos Georgiou). And *note ConfigParser: 1c8. loads multi-line arguments a bit faster (bpo-7113(16) by Łukasz Langa). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6690 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9410 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3873 (4) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9915 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7451 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10314 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3001 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8685 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1569291 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3709 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10160 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7113  File: python.info, Node: Unicode, Next: Codecs, Prev: Optimizations<11>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.12 Unicode --------------- Python has been updated to Unicode 6.0.0(1). The update to the standard adds over 2,000 new characters including emoji(2) symbols which are important for mobile phones. In addition, the updated standard has altered the character properties for two Kannada characters (U+0CF1, U+0CF2) and one New Tai Lue numeric character (U+19DA), making the former eligible for use in identifiers while disqualifying the latter. For more information, see Unicode Character Database Changes(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/ (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emoji (3) https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode6.0.0/#Database_Changes  File: python.info, Node: Codecs, Next: Documentation, Prev: Unicode, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.13 Codecs -------------- Support was added for 'cp720' Arabic DOS encoding (bpo-1616979(1)). MBCS encoding no longer ignores the error handler argument. In the default strict mode, it raises an *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. when it encounters an undecodable byte sequence and an *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. for an unencodable character. The MBCS codec supports ‘'strict'’ and ‘'ignore'’ error handlers for decoding, and ‘'strict'’ and ‘'replace'’ for encoding. To emulate Python3.1 MBCS encoding, select the ‘'ignore'’ handler for decoding and the ‘'replace'’ handler for encoding. On Mac OS X, Python decodes command line arguments with ‘'utf-8'’ rather than the locale encoding. By default, *note tarfile: de. uses ‘'utf-8'’ encoding on Windows (instead of ‘'mbcs'’) and the ‘'surrogateescape'’ error handler on all operating systems. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979  File: python.info, Node: Documentation, Next: IDLE, Prev: Codecs, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.14 Documentation --------------------- The documentation continues to be improved. * A table of quick links has been added to the top of lengthy sections such as *note Built-in Functions: 1250. In the case of *note itertools: 81, the links are accompanied by tables of cheatsheet-style summaries to provide an overview and memory jog without having to read all of the docs. * In some cases, the pure Python source code can be a helpful adjunct to the documentation, so now many modules now feature quick links to the latest version of the source code. For example, the *note functools: 5f. module documentation has a quick link at the top labeled: 'Source code' Lib/functools.py(1). (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; see rationale(2).) * The docs now contain more examples and recipes. In particular, *note re: b9. module has an extensive section, *note Regular Expression Examples: 1251. Likewise, the *note itertools: 81. module continues to be updated with new *note Itertools Recipes: 1252. * The *note datetime: 30. module now has an auxiliary implementation in pure Python. No functionality was changed. This just provides an easier-to-read alternate implementation. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky in bpo-9528(3).) * The unmaintained ‘Demo’ directory has been removed. Some demos were integrated into the documentation, some were moved to the ‘Tools/demo’ directory, and others were removed altogether. (Contributed by Georg Brandl in bpo-7962(4).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/functools.py (2) https://rhettinger.wordpress.com/2011/01/28/open-your-source-more/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9528 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7962  File: python.info, Node: IDLE, Next: Code Repository, Prev: Documentation, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.15 IDLE ------------ * The format menu now has an option to clean source files by stripping trailing whitespace. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5150(1).) * IDLE on Mac OS X now works with both Carbon AquaTk and Cocoa AquaTk. (Contributed by Kevin Walzer, Ned Deily, and Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6075(2).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6075  File: python.info, Node: Code Repository, Next: Build and C API Changes<5>, Prev: IDLE, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.16 Code Repository ----------------------- In addition to the existing Subversion code repository at ‘https://svn.python.org’ there is now a Mercurial(1) repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/’. After the 3.2 release, there are plans to switch to Mercurial as the primary repository. This distributed version control system should make it easier for members of the community to create and share external changesets. See PEP 385(2) for details. To learn to use the new version control system, see the Quick Start(3) or the Guide to Mercurial Workflows(4). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0385/ (3) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/wiki/QuickStart (4) https://www.mercurial-scm.org/guide  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<5>, Next: Porting to Python 3 2, Prev: Code Repository, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.17 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * The 'idle', 'pydoc' and '2to3' scripts are now installed with a version-specific suffix on ‘make altinstall’ (bpo-10679(1)). * The C functions that access the Unicode Database now accept and return characters from the full Unicode range, even on narrow unicode builds (Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER, Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL, and others). A visible difference in Python is that *note unicodedata.numeric(): 1256. now returns the correct value for large code points, and *note repr(): 7f9. may consider more characters as printable. (Reported by Bupjoe Lee and fixed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; bpo-5127(2).) * Computed gotos are now enabled by default on supported compilers (which are detected by the configure script). They can still be disabled selectively by specifying ‘--without-computed-gotos’. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-9203(3).) * The option ‘--with-wctype-functions’ was removed. The built-in unicode database is now used for all functions. (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot D’Arc; bpo-9210(4).) * Hash values are now values of a new type, *note Py_hash_t: 1257, which is defined to be the same size as a pointer. Previously they were of type long, which on some 64-bit operating systems is still only 32 bits long. As a result of this fix, *note set: 5d5. and *note dict: 258. can now hold more than ‘2**32’ entries on builds with 64-bit pointers (previously, they could grow to that size but their performance degraded catastrophically). (Suggested by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-9778(5).) * A new macro ‘Py_VA_COPY’ copies the state of the variable argument list. It is equivalent to C99 'va_copy' but available on all Python platforms (bpo-2443(6)). * A new C API function ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ allows an embedded interpreter to set *note sys.argv: 1258. without also modifying *note sys.path: 3b0. (bpo-5753(7)). * ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available in macro form. The function declaration, which was kept for backwards compatibility reasons, is now removed – the macro was introduced in 1997 (bpo-8276(8)). * There is a new function *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1259. which is analogous to *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 125a. They both serve to convert Python *note int: 259. into a native fixed-width type while providing detection of cases where the conversion won’t fit (bpo-7767(9)). * The *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 125b. function now returns 'not equal' if the Python string is 'NUL' terminated. * There is a new function *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 125c. that is like *note PyErr_NewException(): 125d. but allows a docstring to be specified. This lets C exceptions have the same self-documenting capabilities as their pure Python counterparts (bpo-7033(10)). * When compiled with the ‘--with-valgrind’ option, the pymalloc allocator will be automatically disabled when running under Valgrind. This gives improved memory leak detection when running under Valgrind, while taking advantage of pymalloc at other times (bpo-2422(11)). * Removed the ‘O?’ format from the 'PyArg_Parse' functions. The format is no longer used and it had never been documented (bpo-8837(12)). There were a number of other small changes to the C-API. See the Misc/NEWS(13) file for a complete list. Also, there were a number of updates to the Mac OS X build, see Mac/BuildScript/README.txt(14) for details. For users running a 32/64-bit build, there is a known problem with the default Tcl/Tk on Mac OS X 10.6. Accordingly, we recommend installing an updated alternative such as ActiveState Tcl/Tk 8.5.9(15). See ‘https://www.python.org/download/mac/tcltk/’ for additional details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10679 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5127 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9203 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9210 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=9778 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2443 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8837 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Misc/NEWS (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/v3.2.6/Mac/BuildScript/README.txt (15) https://web.archive.org/web/20101208191259/https://www.activestate.com/activetcl/downloads  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 2, Prev: Build and C API Changes<5>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 2 1.12.18 Porting to Python 3.2 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code: * The *note configparser: 22. module has a number of clean-ups. The major change is to replace the old ‘ConfigParser’ class with long-standing preferred alternative ‘SafeConfigParser’. In addition there are a number of smaller incompatibilities: * The interpolation syntax is now validated on *note get(): 125f. and *note set(): 1260. operations. In the default interpolation scheme, only two tokens with percent signs are valid: ‘%(name)s’ and ‘%%’, the latter being an escaped percent sign. * The *note set(): 1260. and *note add_section(): 1261. methods now verify that values are actual strings. Formerly, unsupported types could be introduced unintentionally. * Duplicate sections or options from a single source now raise either *note DuplicateSectionError: 1262. or *note DuplicateOptionError: 1263. Formerly, duplicates would silently overwrite a previous entry. * Inline comments are now disabled by default so now the ';' character can be safely used in values. * Comments now can be indented. Consequently, for ';' or '#' to appear at the start of a line in multiline values, it has to be interpolated. This keeps comment prefix characters in values from being mistaken as comments. * ‘""’ is now a valid value and is no longer automatically converted to an empty string. For empty strings, use ‘"option ="’ in a line. * The ‘nntplib’ module was reworked extensively, meaning that its APIs are often incompatible with the 3.1 APIs. * *note bytearray: 53a. objects can no longer be used as filenames; instead, they should be converted to *note bytes: 1c2. * The ‘array.tostring()’ and ‘array.fromstring()’ have been renamed to *note array.tobytes(): 1264. and *note array.frombytes(): 1265. for clarity. The old names have been deprecated. (See bpo-8990(1).) * ‘PyArg_Parse*()’ functions: * “t#” format has been removed: use “s#” or “s*” instead * “w” and “w#” formats has been removed: use “w*” instead * The ‘PyCObject’ type, deprecated in 3.1, has been removed. To wrap opaque C pointers in Python objects, the *note PyCapsule: 1266. API should be used instead; the new type has a well-defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor. * The ‘sys.setfilesystemencoding()’ function was removed because it had a flawed design. * The *note random.seed(): 1267. function and method now salt string seeds with an sha512 hash function. To access the previous version of 'seed' in order to reproduce Python 3.1 sequences, set the 'version' argument to '1', ‘random.seed(s, version=1)’. * The previously deprecated ‘string.maketrans()’ function has been removed in favor of the static methods *note bytes.maketrans(): 1268. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 1269. This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the *note string: d3. module. Now, *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2, and *note bytearray: 53a. each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type. (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(2).) * The previously deprecated ‘contextlib.nested()’ function has been removed in favor of a plain *note with: 5ce. statement which can accept multiple context managers. The latter technique is faster (because it is built-in), and it does a better job finalizing multiple context managers when one of them raises an exception: with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile: for line in infile: if '' in line: outfile.write(line) (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue 53094(3).) * *note struct.pack(): 126a. now only allows bytes for the ‘s’ string pack code. Formerly, it would accept text arguments and implicitly encode them to bytes using UTF-8. This was problematic because it made assumptions about the correct encoding and because a variable-length encoding can fail when writing to fixed length segment of a structure. Code such as ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', 'GIF87a', x, y)’ should be rewritten with to use bytes instead of text, ‘struct.pack('<6sHHBBB', b'GIF87a', x, y)’. (Discovered by David Beazley and fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-10783(4).) * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. class now raises an *note xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError: 126b. when a parse fails. Previously it raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 126c. * The new, longer *note str(): 447. value on floats may break doctests which rely on the old output format. * In *note subprocess.Popen: 199, the default value for 'close_fds' is now ‘True’ under Unix; under Windows, it is ‘True’ if the three standard streams are set to ‘None’, ‘False’ otherwise. Previously, 'close_fds' was always ‘False’ by default, which produced difficult to solve bugs or race conditions when open file descriptors would leak into the child process. * Support for legacy HTTP 0.9 has been removed from *note urllib.request: 10b. and *note http.client: 6f. Such support is still present on the server side (in *note http.server: 72.). (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10711(5).) * SSL sockets in timeout mode now raise *note socket.timeout: 830. when a timeout occurs, rather than a generic *note SSLError: 126d. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-10272(6).) * The misleading functions ‘PyEval_AcquireLock()’ and ‘PyEval_ReleaseLock()’ have been officially deprecated. The thread-state aware APIs (such as *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5.) should be used instead. * Due to security risks, ‘asyncore.handle_accept()’ has been deprecated, and a new function, ‘asyncore.handle_accepted()’, was added to replace it. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola in bpo-6706(7).) * Due to the new *note GIL: 159. implementation, ‘PyEval_InitThreads()’ cannot be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. anymore. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8990 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675 (3) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10783 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10711 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=10272 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6706  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 1, Next: What’s New In Python 3 0, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 2, Up: What’s New in Python 1.13 What’s New In Python 3.1 ============================= Author: Raymond Hettinger This article explains the new features in Python 3.1, compared to 3.0. Python 3.1 was released on June 27, 2009. * Menu: * PEP 372; Ordered Dictionaries: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries. * PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<13>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>. * Optimizations: Optimizations<12>. * IDLE: IDLE<2>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<6>. * Porting to Python 3.1: Porting to Python 3 1.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries, Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.1 PEP 372: Ordered Dictionaries ------------------------------------ Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order. Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted. Based on the experiences from those implementations, a new *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. class has been introduced. The OrderedDict API is substantially the same as regular dictionaries but will iterate over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on when a key was first inserted. If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged. Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end. The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several modules. The *note configparser: 22. module uses them by default. This lets configuration files be read, modified, and then written back in their original order. The '_asdict()' method for *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices. The *note json: 82. module is being built-out with an 'object_pairs_hook' to allow OrderedDicts to be built by the decoder. Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1). See also ........ PEP 372(2) - Ordered Dictionaries PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger. Implementation written by Raymond Hettinger. Since an ordered dictionary remembers its insertion order, it can be used in conjunction with sorting to make a sorted dictionary: >>> # regular unsorted dictionary >>> d = {'banana': 3, 'apple':4, 'pear': 1, 'orange': 2} >>> # dictionary sorted by key >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[0])) OrderedDict([('apple', 4), ('banana', 3), ('orange', 2), ('pear', 1)]) >>> # dictionary sorted by value >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: t[1])) OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3), ('apple', 4)]) >>> # dictionary sorted by length of the key string >>> OrderedDict(sorted(d.items(), key=lambda t: len(t[0]))) OrderedDict([('pear', 1), ('apple', 4), ('orange', 2), ('banana', 3)]) The new sorted dictionaries maintain their sort order when entries are deleted. But when new keys are added, the keys are appended to the end and the sort is not maintained. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pyyaml.org/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator, Next: Other Language Changes<13>, Prev: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.2 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator -------------------------------------------------------- The built-in *note format(): 61b. function and the *note str.format(): 61d. method use a mini-language that now includes a simple, non-locale aware way to format a number with a thousands separator. That provides a way to humanize a program’s output, improving its professional appearance and readability: >>> format(1234567, ',d') '1,234,567' >>> format(1234567.89, ',.2f') '1,234,567.89' >>> format(12345.6 + 8901234.12j, ',f') '12,345.600000+8,901,234.120000j' >>> format(Decimal('1234567.89'), ',f') '1,234,567.89' The supported types are *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1, *note complex: 2f2. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29f. Discussions are underway about how to specify alternative separators like dots, spaces, apostrophes, or underscores. Locale-aware applications should use the existing 'n' format specifier which already has some support for thousands separators. See also ........ PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP written by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<13>, Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>, Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.3 Other Language Changes ----------------------------- Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter. The directory/zipfile is automatically inserted as the first entry in sys.path. (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu; revised patch by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).) * The *note int(): 259. type gained a ‘bit_length’ method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary: >>> n = 37 >>> bin(37) '0b100101' >>> n.bit_length() 6 >>> n = 2**123-1 >>> n.bit_length() 123 >>> (n+1).bit_length() 124 (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson, Victor Stinner, Raymond Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-3439(2).) * The fields in *note format(): 61b. strings can now be automatically numbered: >>> 'Sir {} of {}'.format('Gallahad', 'Camelot') 'Sir Gallahad of Camelot' Formerly, the string would have required numbered fields such as: ‘'Sir {0} of {1}'’. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(3).) * The ‘string.maketrans()’ function is deprecated and is replaced by new static methods, *note bytes.maketrans(): 1268. and *note bytearray.maketrans(): 1269. This change solves the confusion around which types were supported by the *note string: d3. module. Now, *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2, and *note bytearray: 53a. each have their own 'maketrans' and 'translate' methods with intermediate translation tables of the appropriate type. (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-5675(4).) * The syntax of the *note with: 5ce. statement now allows multiple context managers in a single statement: >>> with open('mylog.txt') as infile, open('a.out', 'w') as outfile: ... for line in infile: ... if '' in line: ... outfile.write(line) With the new syntax, the ‘contextlib.nested()’ function is no longer needed and is now deprecated. (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Mattias Brändström; appspot issue 53094(5).) * ‘round(x, n)’ now returns an integer if 'x' is an integer. Previously it returned a float: >>> round(1123, -2) 1100 (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4707(6).) * Python now uses David Gay’s algorithm for finding the shortest floating-point representation that doesn’t change its value. This should help mitigate some of the confusion surrounding binary floating-point numbers. The significance is easily seen with a number like ‘1.1’ which does not have an exact equivalent in binary floating point. Since there is no exact equivalent, an expression like ‘float('1.1')’ evaluates to the nearest representable value which is ‘0x1.199999999999ap+0’ in hex or ‘1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625’ in decimal. That nearest value was and still is used in subsequent floating-point calculations. What is new is how the number gets displayed. Formerly, Python used a simple approach. The value of ‘repr(1.1)’ was computed as ‘format(1.1, '.17g')’ which evaluated to ‘'1.1000000000000001'’. The advantage of using 17 digits was that it relied on IEEE-754 guarantees to assure that ‘eval(repr(1.1))’ would round-trip exactly to its original value. The disadvantage is that many people found the output to be confusing (mistaking intrinsic limitations of binary floating-point representation as being a problem with Python itself). The new algorithm for ‘repr(1.1)’ is smarter and returns ‘'1.1'’. Effectively, it searches all equivalent string representations (ones that get stored with the same underlying float value) and returns the shortest representation. The new algorithm tends to emit cleaner representations when possible, but it does not change the underlying values. So, it is still the case that ‘1.1 + 2.2 != 3.3’ even though the representations may suggest otherwise. The new algorithm depends on certain features in the underlying floating-point implementation. If the required features are not found, the old algorithm will continue to be used. Also, the text pickle protocols assure cross-platform portability by using the old algorithm. (Contributed by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson; bpo-1580(7)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5675 (5) https://codereview.appspot.com/53094 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4707 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1580  File: python.info, Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>, Next: Optimizations<12>, Prev: Other Language Changes<13>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.4 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules -------------------------------------------- * Added a *note collections.Counter: 108b. class to support convenient counting of unique items in a sequence or iterable: >>> Counter(['red', 'blue', 'red', 'green', 'blue', 'blue']) Counter({'blue': 3, 'red': 2, 'green': 1}) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(1).) * Added a new module, *note tkinter.ttk: f9. for access to the Tk themed widget set. The basic idea of ttk is to separate, to the extent possible, the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the code implementing its appearance. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2983(2).) * The *note gzip.GzipFile: 416. and *note bz2.BZ2File: 863. classes now support the context management protocol: >>> # Automatically close file after writing >>> with gzip.GzipFile(filename, "wb") as f: ... f.write(b"xxx") (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.) * The *note decimal: 36. module now supports methods for creating a decimal object from a binary *note float: 2f1. The conversion is exact but can sometimes be surprising: >>> Decimal.from_float(1.1) Decimal('1.100000000000000088817841970012523233890533447265625') The long decimal result shows the actual binary fraction being stored for '1.1'. The fraction has many digits because '1.1' cannot be exactly represented in binary. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger and Mark Dickinson.) * The *note itertools: 81. module grew two new functions. The *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(): 1274. function is one of four for generating combinatorics including permutations and Cartesian products. The *note itertools.compress(): 1275. function mimics its namesake from APL. Also, the existing *note itertools.count(): 1276. function now has an optional 'step' argument and can accept any type of counting sequence including *note fractions.Fraction: 1e9. and *note decimal.Decimal: 29f.: >>> [p+q for p,q in combinations_with_replacement('LOVE', 2)] ['LL', 'LO', 'LV', 'LE', 'OO', 'OV', 'OE', 'VV', 'VE', 'EE'] >>> list(compress(data=range(10), selectors=[0,0,1,1,0,1,0,1,0,0])) [2, 3, 5, 7] >>> c = count(start=Fraction(1,2), step=Fraction(1,6)) >>> [next(c), next(c), next(c), next(c)] [Fraction(1, 2), Fraction(2, 3), Fraction(5, 6), Fraction(1, 1)] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now supports a keyword argument 'rename' which lets invalid fieldnames be automatically converted to positional names in the form _0, _1, etc. This is useful when the field names are being created by an external source such as a CSV header, SQL field list, or user input: >>> query = input() SELECT region, dept, count(*) FROM main GROUPBY region, dept >>> cursor.execute(query) >>> query_fields = [desc[0] for desc in cursor.description] >>> UserQuery = namedtuple('UserQuery', query_fields, rename=True) >>> pprint.pprint([UserQuery(*row) for row in cursor]) [UserQuery(region='South', dept='Shipping', _2=185), UserQuery(region='North', dept='Accounting', _2=37), UserQuery(region='West', dept='Sales', _2=419)] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(3).) * The *note re.sub(): 2a5, *note re.subn(): 2a6. and *note re.split(): 2a4. functions now accept a flags parameter. (Contributed by Gregory Smith.) * The *note logging: 87. module now implements a simple *note logging.NullHandler: 1277. class for applications that are not using logging but are calling library code that does. Setting-up a null handler will suppress spurious warnings such as “No handlers could be found for logger foo”: >>> h = logging.NullHandler() >>> logging.getLogger("foo").addHandler(h) (Contributed by Vinay Sajip; bpo-4384(4)). * The *note runpy: be. module which supports the ‘-m’ command line switch now supports the execution of packages by looking for and executing a ‘__main__’ submodule when a package name is supplied. (Contributed by Andi Vajda; bpo-4195(5).) * The *note pdb: a5. module can now access and display source code loaded via *note zipimport: 132. (or any other conformant PEP 302(6) loader). (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-4201(7).) * *note functools.partial: 410. objects can now be pickled. (Suggested by Antoine Pitrou and Jesse Noller. Implemented by Jack Diederich; bpo-5228(8).) * Add *note pydoc: b5. help topics for symbols so that ‘help('@')’ works as expected in the interactive environment. (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(9).) * The *note unittest: 106. module now supports skipping individual tests or classes of tests. And it supports marking a test as an expected failure, a test that is known to be broken, but shouldn’t be counted as a failure on a TestResult: class TestGizmo(unittest.TestCase): @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows") def test_gizmo_on_windows(self): ... @unittest.expectedFailure def test_gimzo_without_required_library(self): ... Also, tests for exceptions have been builtout to work with context managers using the *note with: 5ce. statement: def test_division_by_zero(self): with self.assertRaises(ZeroDivisionError): x / 0 In addition, several new assertion methods were added including *note assertSetEqual(): 1278, *note assertDictEqual(): 1279, ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’, *note assertListEqual(): 127a, *note assertTupleEqual(): 127b, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 127c, *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 52a, *note assertIsNone(): 127d, and *note assertIsNotNone(): 127e. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson and Antoine Pitrou.) * The *note io: 7f. module has three new constants for the *note seek(): 127f. method: *note SEEK_SET: 1280, *note SEEK_CUR: 1281, and *note SEEK_END: 1282. * The *note sys.version_info: 69c. tuple is now a named tuple: >>> sys.version_info sys.version_info(major=3, minor=1, micro=0, releaselevel='alpha', serial=2) (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(10).) * The ‘nntplib’ and *note imaplib: 74. modules now support IPv6. (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(11) and bpo-1664(12).) * The *note pickle: a6. module has been adapted for better interoperability with Python 2.x when used with protocol 2 or lower. The reorganization of the standard library changed the formal reference for many objects. For example, ‘__builtin__.set’ in Python 2 is called ‘builtins.set’ in Python 3. This change confounded efforts to share data between different versions of Python. But now when protocol 2 or lower is selected, the pickler will automatically use the old Python 2 names for both loading and dumping. This remapping is turned-on by default but can be disabled with the 'fix_imports' option: >>> s = {1, 2, 3} >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0) b'c__builtin__\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.' >>> pickle.dumps(s, protocol=0, fix_imports=False) b'cbuiltins\nset\np0\n((lp1\nL1L\naL2L\naL3L\natp2\nRp3\n.' An unfortunate but unavoidable side-effect of this change is that protocol 2 pickles produced by Python 3.1 won’t be readable with Python 3.0. The latest pickle protocol, protocol 3, should be used when migrating data between Python 3.x implementations, as it doesn’t attempt to remain compatible with Python 2.x. (Contributed by Alexandre Vassalotti and Antoine Pitrou, bpo-6137(13).) * A new module, *note importlib: 77. was added. It provides a complete, portable, pure Python reference implementation of the *note import: 5de. statement and its counterpart, the *note __import__(): 8d3. function. It represents a substantial step forward in documenting and defining the actions that take place during imports. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4384 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4195 (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4201 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5228 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1655 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6137  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<12>, Next: IDLE<2>, Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.5 Optimizations -------------------- Major performance enhancements have been added: * The new I/O library (as defined in PEP 3116(1)) was mostly written in Python and quickly proved to be a problematic bottleneck in Python 3.0. In Python 3.1, the I/O library has been entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task at hand. The pure Python version is still available for experimentation purposes through the ‘_pyio’ module. (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Antoine Pitrou.) * Added a heuristic so that tuples and dicts containing only untrackable objects are not tracked by the garbage collector. This can reduce the size of collections and therefore the garbage collection overhead on long-running programs, depending on their particular use of datatypes. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-4688(2).) * Enabling a configure option named ‘--with-computed-gotos’ on compilers that support it (notably: gcc, SunPro, icc), the bytecode evaluation loop is compiled with a new dispatch mechanism which gives speedups of up to 20%, depending on the system, the compiler, and the benchmark. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou along with a number of other participants, bpo-4753(3)). * The decoding of UTF-8, UTF-16 and LATIN-1 is now two to four times faster. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, bpo-4868(4).) * The *note json: 82. module now has a C extension to substantially improve its performance. In addition, the API was modified so that json works only with *note str: 447, not with *note bytes: 1c2. That change makes the module closely match the JSON specification(5) which is defined in terms of Unicode. (Contributed by Bob Ippolito and converted to Py3.1 by Antoine Pitrou and Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4136(6).) * Unpickling now interns the attribute names of pickled objects. This saves memory and allows pickles to be smaller. (Contributed by Jake McGuire and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-5084(7).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4753 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4868 (5) https://json.org/ (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084  File: python.info, Node: IDLE<2>, Next: Build and C API Changes<6>, Prev: Optimizations<12>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.6 IDLE ----------- * IDLE’s format menu now provides an option to strip trailing whitespace from a source file. (Contributed by Roger D. Serwy; bpo-5150(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5150  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<6>, Next: Porting to Python 3 1, Prev: IDLE<2>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.7 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------ Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * Integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time. Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’. Using base ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed. Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default. Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there’s a new *note sys.int_info: 1286. that provides information about the internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store each digit: >>> import sys >>> sys.int_info sys.int_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4) (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(1).) * The *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1287. function now handles a negative 'pylong' by raising *note OverflowError: 87f. instead of *note TypeError: 534. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and Lisandro Dalcrin; bpo-5175(2).) * Deprecated ‘PyNumber_Int()’. Use *note PyNumber_Long(): a67. instead. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4910(3).) * Added a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1288. function to replace the deprecated functions ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5914(4).) * Added *note PyCapsule: 1266. as a replacement for the ‘PyCObject’ API. The principal difference is that the new type has a well defined interface for passing typing safety information and a less complicated signature for calling a destructor. The old type had a problematic API and is now deprecated. (Contributed by Larry Hastings; bpo-5630(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5175 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4910 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5914 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 3 1, Prev: Build and C API Changes<6>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 1 1.13.8 Porting to Python 3.1 ---------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code: * The new floating-point string representations can break existing doctests. For example: def e(): '''Compute the base of natural logarithms. >>> e() 2.7182818284590451 ''' return sum(1/math.factorial(x) for x in reversed(range(30))) doctest.testmod() ********************************************************************** Failed example: e() Expected: 2.7182818284590451 Got: 2.718281828459045 ********************************************************************** * The automatic name remapping in the pickle module for protocol 2 or lower can make Python 3.1 pickles unreadable in Python 3.0. One solution is to use protocol 3. Another solution is to set the 'fix_imports' option to ‘False’. See the discussion above for more details.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New In Python 3 0, Next: What’s New in Python 2 7, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 1, Up: What’s New in Python 1.14 What’s New In Python 3.0 ============================= Author: Guido van Rossum This article explains the new features in Python 3.0, compared to 2.6. Python 3.0, also known as “Python 3000” or “Py3K”, is the first ever 'intentionally backwards incompatible' Python release. Python 3.0 was released on December 3, 2008. There are more changes than in a typical release, and more that are important for all Python users. Nevertheless, after digesting the changes, you’ll find that Python really hasn’t changed all that much – by and large, we’re mostly fixing well-known annoyances and warts, and removing a lot of old cruft. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of all new features, but instead tries to give a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 3.0, and/or the many PEPs referenced in the text. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a particular feature, PEPs usually have more details than the regular documentation; but note that PEPs usually are not kept up-to-date once a feature has been fully implemented. Due to time constraints this document is not as complete as it should have been. As always for a new release, the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the source distribution contains a wealth of detailed information about every small thing that was changed. * Menu: * Common Stumbling Blocks:: * Overview Of Syntax Changes:: * Changes Already Present In Python 2.6: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6. * Library Changes:: * PEP 3101; A New Approach To String Formatting: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting. * Changes To Exceptions:: * Miscellaneous Other Changes:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<7>. * Performance:: * Porting To Python 3.0: Porting To Python 3 0.  File: python.info, Node: Common Stumbling Blocks, Next: Overview Of Syntax Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.1 Common Stumbling Blocks ------------------------------ This section lists those few changes that are most likely to trip you up if you’re used to Python 2.5. * Menu: * Print Is A Function:: * Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists:: * Ordering Comparisons:: * Integers:: * Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit.  File: python.info, Node: Print Is A Function, Next: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists, Up: Common Stumbling Blocks 1.14.1.1 Print Is A Function ............................ The ‘print’ statement has been replaced with a *note print(): f70. function, with keyword arguments to replace most of the special syntax of the old ‘print’ statement ( PEP 3105(1)). Examples: Old: print "The answer is", 2*2 New: print("The answer is", 2*2) Old: print x, # Trailing comma suppresses newline New: print(x, end=" ") # Appends a space instead of a newline Old: print # Prints a newline New: print() # You must call the function! Old: print >>sys.stderr, "fatal error" New: print("fatal error", file=sys.stderr) Old: print (x, y) # prints repr((x, y)) New: print((x, y)) # Not the same as print(x, y)! You can also customize the separator between items, e.g.: print("There are <", 2**32, "> possibilities!", sep="") which produces: There are <4294967296> possibilities! Note: * The *note print(): f70. function doesn’t support the “softspace” feature of the old ‘print’ statement. For example, in Python 2.x, ‘print "A\n", "B"’ would write ‘"A\nB\n"’; but in Python 3.0, ‘print("A\n", "B")’ writes ‘"A\n B\n"’. * Initially, you’ll be finding yourself typing the old ‘print x’ a lot in interactive mode. Time to retrain your fingers to type ‘print(x)’ instead! * When using the ‘2to3’ source-to-source conversion tool, all ‘print’ statements are automatically converted to *note print(): f70. function calls, so this is mostly a non-issue for larger projects. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/  File: python.info, Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists, Next: Ordering Comparisons, Prev: Print Is A Function, Up: Common Stumbling Blocks 1.14.1.2 Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists ............................................. Some well-known APIs no longer return lists: * *note dict: 258. methods *note dict.keys(): 7c8, *note dict.items(): 7ca. and *note dict.values(): 7c9. return “views” instead of lists. For example, this no longer works: ‘k = d.keys(); k.sort()’. Use ‘k = sorted(d)’ instead (this works in Python 2.5 too and is just as efficient). * Also, the ‘dict.iterkeys()’, ‘dict.iteritems()’ and ‘dict.itervalues()’ methods are no longer supported. * *note map(): 860. and *note filter(): 861. return iterators. If you really need a list and the input sequences are all of equal length, a quick fix is to wrap *note map(): 860. in *note list(): 60d, e.g. ‘list(map(...))’, but a better fix is often to use a list comprehension (especially when the original code uses *note lambda: 128f.), or rewriting the code so it doesn’t need a list at all. Particularly tricky is *note map(): 860. invoked for the side effects of the function; the correct transformation is to use a regular *note for: 2ec. loop (since creating a list would just be wasteful). If the input sequences are not of equal length, *note map(): 860. will stop at the termination of the shortest of the sequences. For full compatibility with *note map(): 860. from Python 2.x, also wrap the sequences in *note itertools.zip_longest(): 1290, e.g. ‘map(func, *sequences)’ becomes ‘list(map(func, itertools.zip_longest(*sequences)))’. * *note range(): 943. now behaves like ‘xrange()’ used to behave, except it works with values of arbitrary size. The latter no longer exists. * *note zip(): 7cb. now returns an iterator.  File: python.info, Node: Ordering Comparisons, Next: Integers, Prev: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists, Up: Common Stumbling Blocks 1.14.1.3 Ordering Comparisons ............................. Python 3.0 has simplified the rules for ordering comparisons: * The ordering comparison operators (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>=’, ‘>’) raise a TypeError exception when the operands don’t have a meaningful natural ordering. Thus, expressions like ‘1 < ''’, ‘0 > None’ or ‘len <= len’ are no longer valid, and e.g. ‘None < None’ raises *note TypeError: 534. instead of returning ‘False’. A corollary is that sorting a heterogeneous list no longer makes sense – all the elements must be comparable to each other. Note that this does not apply to the ‘==’ and ‘!=’ operators: objects of different incomparable types always compare unequal to each other. * *note sorted(): bce. and *note list.sort(): bcf. no longer accept the 'cmp' argument providing a comparison function. Use the 'key' argument instead. N.B. the 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are now “keyword-only”. * The ‘cmp()’ function should be treated as gone, and the ‘__cmp__()’ special method is no longer supported. Use *note __lt__(): 1292. for sorting, *note __eq__(): afa. with *note __hash__(): afb, and other rich comparisons as needed. (If you really need the ‘cmp()’ functionality, you could use the expression ‘(a > b) - (a < b)’ as the equivalent for ‘cmp(a, b)’.)  File: python.info, Node: Integers, Next: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit, Prev: Ordering Comparisons, Up: Common Stumbling Blocks 1.14.1.4 Integers ................. * PEP 237(1): Essentially, ‘long’ renamed to *note int: 259. That is, there is only one built-in integral type, named *note int: 259.; but it behaves mostly like the old ‘long’ type. * PEP 238(2): An expression like ‘1/2’ returns a float. Use ‘1//2’ to get the truncating behavior. (The latter syntax has existed for years, at least since Python 2.2.) * The ‘sys.maxint’ constant was removed, since there is no longer a limit to the value of integers. However, *note sys.maxsize: 11b7. can be used as an integer larger than any practical list or string index. It conforms to the implementation’s “natural” integer size and is typically the same as ‘sys.maxint’ in previous releases on the same platform (assuming the same build options). * The *note repr(): 7f9. of a long integer doesn’t include the trailing ‘L’ anymore, so code that unconditionally strips that character will chop off the last digit instead. (Use *note str(): 447. instead.) * Octal literals are no longer of the form ‘0720’; use ‘0o720’ instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/  File: python.info, Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit, Prev: Integers, Up: Common Stumbling Blocks 1.14.1.5 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit ................................................... Everything you thought you knew about binary data and Unicode has changed. * Python 3.0 uses the concepts of 'text' and (binary) 'data' instead of Unicode strings and 8-bit strings. All text is Unicode; however 'encoded' Unicode is represented as binary data. The type used to hold text is *note str: 447, the type used to hold data is *note bytes: 1c2. The biggest difference with the 2.x situation is that any attempt to mix text and data in Python 3.0 raises *note TypeError: 534, whereas if you were to mix Unicode and 8-bit strings in Python 2.x, it would work if the 8-bit string happened to contain only 7-bit (ASCII) bytes, but you would get *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. if it contained non-ASCII values. This value-specific behavior has caused numerous sad faces over the years. * As a consequence of this change in philosophy, pretty much all code that uses Unicode, encodings or binary data most likely has to change. The change is for the better, as in the 2.x world there were numerous bugs having to do with mixing encoded and unencoded text. To be prepared in Python 2.x, start using ‘unicode’ for all unencoded text, and *note str: 447. for binary or encoded data only. Then the ‘2to3’ tool will do most of the work for you. * You can no longer use ‘u"..."’ literals for Unicode text. However, you must use ‘b"..."’ literals for binary data. * As the *note str: 447. and *note bytes: 1c2. types cannot be mixed, you must always explicitly convert between them. Use *note str.encode(): 8d4. to go from *note str: 447. to *note bytes: 1c2, and *note bytes.decode(): 8d5. to go from *note bytes: 1c2. to *note str: 447. You can also use ‘bytes(s, encoding=...)’ and ‘str(b, encoding=...)’, respectively. * Like *note str: 447, the *note bytes: 1c2. type is immutable. There is a separate 'mutable' type to hold buffered binary data, *note bytearray: 53a. Nearly all APIs that accept *note bytes: 1c2. also accept *note bytearray: 53a. The mutable API is based on *note collections.MutableSequence: 1a1. * All backslashes in raw string literals are interpreted literally. This means that ‘'\U'’ and ‘'\u'’ escapes in raw strings are not treated specially. For example, ‘r'\u20ac'’ is a string of 6 characters in Python 3.0, whereas in 2.6, ‘ur'\u20ac'’ was the single “euro” character. (Of course, this change only affects raw string literals; the euro character is ‘'\u20ac'’ in Python 3.0.) * The built-in ‘basestring’ abstract type was removed. Use *note str: 447. instead. The *note str: 447. and *note bytes: 1c2. types don’t have functionality enough in common to warrant a shared base class. The ‘2to3’ tool (see below) replaces every occurrence of ‘basestring’ with *note str: 447. * Files opened as text files (still the default mode for *note open(): 517.) always use an encoding to map between strings (in memory) and bytes (on disk). Binary files (opened with a ‘b’ in the mode argument) always use bytes in memory. This means that if a file is opened using an incorrect mode or encoding, I/O will likely fail loudly, instead of silently producing incorrect data. It also means that even Unix users will have to specify the correct mode (text or binary) when opening a file. There is a platform-dependent default encoding, which on Unixy platforms can be set with the ‘LANG’ environment variable (and sometimes also with some other platform-specific locale-related environment variables). In many cases, but not all, the system default is UTF-8; you should never count on this default. Any application reading or writing more than pure ASCII text should probably have a way to override the encoding. There is no longer any need for using the encoding-aware streams in the *note codecs: 1b. module. * The initial values of *note sys.stdin: 539, *note sys.stdout: ad6. and *note sys.stderr: 939. are now unicode-only text files (i.e., they are instances of *note io.TextIOBase: 691.). To read and write bytes data with these streams, you need to use their *note io.TextIOBase.buffer: 1295. attribute. * Filenames are passed to and returned from APIs as (Unicode) strings. This can present platform-specific problems because on some platforms filenames are arbitrary byte strings. (On the other hand, on Windows filenames are natively stored as Unicode.) As a work-around, most APIs (e.g. *note open(): 517. and many functions in the *note os: a1. module) that take filenames accept *note bytes: 1c2. objects as well as strings, and a few APIs have a way to ask for a *note bytes: 1c2. return value. Thus, *note os.listdir(): 10ee. returns a list of *note bytes: 1c2. instances if the argument is a *note bytes: 1c2. instance, and *note os.getcwdb(): a91. returns the current working directory as a *note bytes: 1c2. instance. Note that when *note os.listdir(): 10ee. returns a list of strings, filenames that cannot be decoded properly are omitted rather than raising *note UnicodeError: 1296. * Some system APIs like *note os.environ: 11ac. and *note sys.argv: 1258. can also present problems when the bytes made available by the system is not interpretable using the default encoding. Setting the ‘LANG’ variable and rerunning the program is probably the best approach. * PEP 3138(1): The *note repr(): 7f9. of a string no longer escapes non-ASCII characters. It still escapes control characters and code points with non-printable status in the Unicode standard, however. * PEP 3120(2): The default source encoding is now UTF-8. * PEP 3131(3): Non-ASCII letters are now allowed in identifiers. (However, the standard library remains ASCII-only with the exception of contributor names in comments.) * The ‘StringIO’ and ‘cStringIO’ modules are gone. Instead, import the *note io: 7f. module and use *note io.StringIO: f22. or *note io.BytesIO: e9d. for text and data respectively. * See also the *note Unicode HOWTO: 1297, which was updated for Python 3.0. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3138/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3131/  File: python.info, Node: Overview Of Syntax Changes, Next: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6, Prev: Common Stumbling Blocks, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.2 Overview Of Syntax Changes --------------------------------- This section gives a brief overview of every 'syntactic' change in Python 3.0. * Menu: * New Syntax:: * Changed Syntax:: * Removed Syntax::  File: python.info, Node: New Syntax, Next: Changed Syntax, Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes 1.14.2.1 New Syntax ................... * PEP 3107(1): Function argument and return value annotations. This provides a standardized way of annotating a function’s parameters and return value. There are no semantics attached to such annotations except that they can be introspected at runtime using the ‘__annotations__’ attribute. The intent is to encourage experimentation through metaclasses, decorators or frameworks. * PEP 3102(2): Keyword-only arguments. Named parameters occurring after ‘*args’ in the parameter list 'must' be specified using keyword syntax in the call. You can also use a bare ‘*’ in the parameter list to indicate that you don’t accept a variable-length argument list, but you do have keyword-only arguments. * Keyword arguments are allowed after the list of base classes in a class definition. This is used by the new convention for specifying a metaclass (see next section), but can be used for other purposes as well, as long as the metaclass supports it. * PEP 3104(3): *note nonlocal: 129a. statement. Using ‘nonlocal x’ you can now assign directly to a variable in an outer (but non-global) scope. ‘nonlocal’ is a new reserved word. * PEP 3132(4): Extended Iterable Unpacking. You can now write things like ‘a, b, *rest = some_sequence’. And even ‘*rest, a = stuff’. The ‘rest’ object is always a (possibly empty) list; the right-hand side may be any iterable. Example: (a, *rest, b) = range(5) This sets 'a' to ‘0’, 'b' to ‘4’, and 'rest' to ‘[1, 2, 3]’. * Dictionary comprehensions: ‘{k: v for k, v in stuff}’ means the same thing as ‘dict(stuff)’ but is more flexible. (This is PEP 274(5) vindicated. :-) * Set literals, e.g. ‘{1, 2}’. Note that ‘{}’ is an empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set. Set comprehensions are also supported; e.g., ‘{x for x in stuff}’ means the same thing as ‘set(stuff)’ but is more flexible. * New octal literals, e.g. ‘0o720’ (already in 2.6). The old octal literals (‘0720’) are gone. * New binary literals, e.g. ‘0b1010’ (already in 2.6), and there is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bin(): 129b. * Bytes literals are introduced with a leading ‘b’ or ‘B’, and there is a new corresponding built-in function, *note bytes(): 1c2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3107/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3102/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3104/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3132/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0274/  File: python.info, Node: Changed Syntax, Next: Removed Syntax, Prev: New Syntax, Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes 1.14.2.2 Changed Syntax ....................... * PEP 3109(1) and PEP 3134(2): new *note raise: 5e9. statement syntax: ‘raise [EXPR [from EXPR]]’. See below. * ‘as’ and *note with: 5ce. are now reserved words. (Since 2.6, actually.) * ‘True’, ‘False’, and ‘None’ are reserved words. (2.6 partially enforced the restrictions on ‘None’ already.) * Change from *note except: 18b. 'exc', 'var' to ‘except’ 'exc' ‘as’ 'var'. See PEP 3110(3). * PEP 3115(4): New Metaclass Syntax. Instead of: class C: __metaclass__ = M ... you must now use: class C(metaclass=M): ... The module-global ‘__metaclass__’ variable is no longer supported. (It was a crutch to make it easier to default to new-style classes without deriving every class from *note object: a8c.) * List comprehensions no longer support the syntactic form ‘[... for VAR in ITEM1, ITEM2, ...]’. Use ‘[... for VAR in (ITEM1, ITEM2, ...)]’ instead. Also note that list comprehensions have different semantics: they are closer to syntactic sugar for a generator expression inside a *note list(): 60d. constructor, and in particular the loop control variables are no longer leaked into the surrounding scope. * The 'ellipsis' (‘...’) can be used as an atomic expression anywhere. (Previously it was only allowed in slices.) Also, it 'must' now be spelled as ‘...’. (Previously it could also be spelled as ‘. . .’, by a mere accident of the grammar.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/  File: python.info, Node: Removed Syntax, Prev: Changed Syntax, Up: Overview Of Syntax Changes 1.14.2.3 Removed Syntax ....................... * PEP 3113(1): Tuple parameter unpacking removed. You can no longer write ‘def foo(a, (b, c)): ...’. Use ‘def foo(a, b_c): b, c = b_c’ instead. * Removed backticks (use *note repr(): 7f9. instead). * Removed ‘<>’ (use ‘!=’ instead). * Removed keyword: *note exec(): 17f. is no longer a keyword; it remains as a function. (Fortunately the function syntax was also accepted in 2.x.) Also note that *note exec(): 17f. no longer takes a stream argument; instead of ‘exec(f)’ you can use ‘exec(f.read())’. * Integer literals no longer support a trailing ‘l’ or ‘L’. * String literals no longer support a leading ‘u’ or ‘U’. * The *note from: 129e. 'module' *note import: 5de. ‘*’ syntax is only allowed at the module level, no longer inside functions. * The only acceptable syntax for relative imports is ‘from .[MODULE] import NAME’. All *note import: 5de. forms not starting with ‘.’ are interpreted as absolute imports. ( PEP 328(2)) * Classic classes are gone. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3113/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/  File: python.info, Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6, Next: Library Changes, Prev: Overview Of Syntax Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.3 Changes Already Present In Python 2.6 -------------------------------------------- Since many users presumably make the jump straight from Python 2.5 to Python 3.0, this section reminds the reader of new features that were originally designed for Python 3.0 but that were back-ported to Python 2.6. The corresponding sections in *note What’s New in Python 2.6: 12a0. should be consulted for longer descriptions. * *note PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: 12a1. The *note with: 5ce. statement is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be imported from the *note __future__: 0. Also check out *note Writing Context Managers: 12a2. and *note The contextlib module: 12a3. * *note PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: 12a4. This enhances the usefulness of the *note -m: 5dd. option when the referenced module lives in a package. * *note PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: 12a5. * *note PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: 12a6. * *note PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: 12a7. Note: the 2.6 description mentions the *note format(): 61b. method for both 8-bit and Unicode strings. In 3.0, only the *note str: 447. type (text strings with Unicode support) supports this method; the *note bytes: 1c2. type does not. The plan is to eventually make this the only API for string formatting, and to start deprecating the ‘%’ operator in Python 3.1. * *note PEP 3105; print As a Function: 12a8. This is now a standard feature and no longer needs to be imported from *note __future__: 0. More details were given above. * *note PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: 12a9. The *note except: 18b. 'exc' ‘as’ 'var' syntax is now standard and ‘except’ 'exc', 'var' is no longer supported. (Of course, the ‘as’ 'var' part is still optional.) * *note PEP 3112; Byte Literals: 12aa. The ‘b"..."’ string literal notation (and its variants like ‘b'...'’, ‘b"""..."""’, and ‘br"..."’) now produces a literal of type *note bytes: 1c2. * *note PEP 3116; New I/O Library: 12ab. The *note io: 7f. module is now the standard way of doing file I/O. The built-in *note open(): 517. function is now an alias for *note io.open(): 518. and has additional keyword arguments 'encoding', 'errors', 'newline' and 'closefd'. Also note that an invalid 'mode' argument now raises *note ValueError: 204, not *note IOError: 104b. The binary file object underlying a text file object can be accessed as ‘f.buffer’ (but beware that the text object maintains a buffer of itself in order to speed up the encoding and decoding operations). * *note PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: 12ac. The old builtin ‘buffer()’ is now really gone; the new builtin *note memoryview(): 464. provides (mostly) similar functionality. * *note PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: 12ad. The *note abc: 4. module and the ABCs defined in the *note collections: 1d. module plays a somewhat more prominent role in the language now, and built-in collection types like *note dict: 258. and *note list: 60d. conform to the *note collections.MutableMapping: 10a2. and *note collections.MutableSequence: 1a1. ABCs, respectively. * *note PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: 12ae. As mentioned above, the new octal literal notation is the only one supported, and binary literals have been added. * *note PEP 3129; Class Decorators: 12af. * *note PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: 12b0. The *note numbers: 9e. module is another new use of ABCs, defining Python’s “numeric tower”. Also note the new *note fractions: 5d. module which implements *note numbers.Rational: 12b1.  File: python.info, Node: Library Changes, Next: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting, Prev: Changes Already Present In Python 2 6, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.4 Library Changes ---------------------- Due to time constraints, this document does not exhaustively cover the very extensive changes to the standard library. PEP 3108(1) is the reference for the major changes to the library. Here’s a capsule review: * Many old modules were removed. Some, like ‘gopherlib’ (no longer used) and ‘md5’ (replaced by *note hashlib: 68.), were already deprecated by PEP 4(2). Others were removed as a result of the removal of support for various platforms such as Irix, BeOS and Mac OS 9 (see PEP 11(3)). Some modules were also selected for removal in Python 3.0 due to lack of use or because a better replacement exists. See PEP 3108(4) for an exhaustive list. * The ‘bsddb3’ package was removed because its presence in the core standard library has proved over time to be a particular burden for the core developers due to testing instability and Berkeley DB’s release schedule. However, the package is alive and well, externally maintained at ‘https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm’. * Some modules were renamed because their old name disobeyed PEP 8(5), or for various other reasons. Here’s the list: Old Name New Name -------------------------------------------------------- _winreg winreg ConfigParser configparser copy_reg copyreg Queue queue SocketServer socketserver markupbase _markupbase repr reprlib test.test_support test.support * A common pattern in Python 2.x is to have one version of a module implemented in pure Python, with an optional accelerated version implemented as a C extension; for example, *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’. This places the burden of importing the accelerated version and falling back on the pure Python version on each user of these modules. In Python 3.0, the accelerated versions are considered implementation details of the pure Python versions. Users should always import the standard version, which attempts to import the accelerated version and falls back to the pure Python version. The *note pickle: a6. / ‘cPickle’ pair received this treatment. The *note profile: af. module is on the list for 3.1. The ‘StringIO’ module has been turned into a class in the *note io: 7f. module. * Some related modules have been grouped into packages, and usually the submodule names have been simplified. The resulting new packages are: * *note dbm: 31. (‘anydbm’, ‘dbhash’, ‘dbm’, ‘dumbdbm’, ‘gdbm’, ‘whichdb’). * *note html: 6b. (‘HTMLParser’, ‘htmlentitydefs’). * *note http: 6e. (‘httplib’, ‘BaseHTTPServer’, ‘CGIHTTPServer’, ‘SimpleHTTPServer’, ‘Cookie’, ‘cookielib’). * *note tkinter: f0. (all ‘Tkinter’-related modules except *note turtle: 101.). The target audience of *note turtle: 101. doesn’t really care about *note tkinter: f0. Also note that as of Python 2.6, the functionality of *note turtle: 101. has been greatly enhanced. * *note urllib: 108. (‘urllib’, ‘urllib2’, ‘urlparse’, ‘robotparse’). * *note xmlrpc: 12d. (‘xmlrpclib’, ‘DocXMLRPCServer’, ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’). Some other changes to standard library modules, not covered by PEP 3108(6): * Killed ‘sets’. Use the built-in *note set(): 5d5. class. * Cleanup of the *note sys: d9. module: removed ‘sys.exitfunc()’, ‘sys.exc_clear()’, ‘sys.exc_type’, ‘sys.exc_value’, ‘sys.exc_traceback’. (Note that *note sys.last_type: 4bb. etc. remain.) * Cleanup of the *note array.array: 1a0. type: the ‘read()’ and ‘write()’ methods are gone; use *note fromfile(): 12b3. and *note tofile(): 12b4. instead. Also, the ‘'c'’ typecode for array is gone – use either ‘'b'’ for bytes or ‘'u'’ for Unicode characters. * Cleanup of the *note operator: 9f. module: removed ‘sequenceIncludes()’ and ‘isCallable()’. * Cleanup of the ‘thread’ module: ‘acquire_lock()’ and ‘release_lock()’ are gone; use *note acquire(): 694. and *note release(): 12b5. instead. * Cleanup of the *note random: b8. module: removed the ‘jumpahead()’ API. * The ‘new’ module is gone. * The functions ‘os.tmpnam()’, ‘os.tempnam()’ and ‘os.tmpfile()’ have been removed in favor of the *note tempfile: e0. module. * The *note tokenize: fb. module has been changed to work with bytes. The main entry point is now *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d5, instead of generate_tokens. * ‘string.letters’ and its friends (‘string.lowercase’ and ‘string.uppercase’) are gone. Use *note string.ascii_letters: 12b6. etc. instead. (The reason for the removal is that ‘string.letters’ and friends had locale-specific behavior, which is a bad idea for such attractively named global “constants”.) * Renamed module ‘__builtin__’ to *note builtins: 12. (removing the underscores, adding an ‘s’). The ‘__builtins__’ variable found in most global namespaces is unchanged. To modify a builtin, you should use *note builtins: 12, not ‘__builtins__’! ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0004/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0011/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3108/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting, Next: Changes To Exceptions, Prev: Library Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 'PEP 3101': A New Approach To String Formatting * A new system for built-in string formatting operations replaces the ‘%’ string formatting operator. (However, the ‘%’ operator is still supported; it will be deprecated in Python 3.1 and removed from the language at some later time.) Read PEP 3101(1) for the full scoop. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/  File: python.info, Node: Changes To Exceptions, Next: Miscellaneous Other Changes, Prev: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.6 Changes To Exceptions ---------------------------- The APIs for raising and catching exception have been cleaned up and new powerful features added: * PEP 352(1): All exceptions must be derived (directly or indirectly) from *note BaseException: 5b7. This is the root of the exception hierarchy. This is not new as a recommendation, but the 'requirement' to inherit from *note BaseException: 5b7. is new. (Python 2.6 still allowed classic classes to be raised, and placed no restriction on what you can catch.) As a consequence, string exceptions are finally truly and utterly dead. * Almost all exceptions should actually derive from *note Exception: 9d9.; *note BaseException: 5b7. should only be used as a base class for exceptions that should only be handled at the top level, such as *note SystemExit: d40. or *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. The recommended idiom for handling all exceptions except for this latter category is to use *note except: 18b. *note Exception: 9d9. * ‘StandardError’ was removed. * Exceptions no longer behave as sequences. Use the *note args: 569. attribute instead. * PEP 3109(2): Raising exceptions. You must now use ‘raise EXCEPTION(ARGS)’ instead of ‘raise EXCEPTION, ARGS’. Additionally, you can no longer explicitly specify a traceback; instead, if you 'have' to do this, you can assign directly to the *note __traceback__: 12b9. attribute (see below). * PEP 3110(3): Catching exceptions. You must now use ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION as VARIABLE’ instead of ‘except SOMEEXCEPTION, VARIABLE’. Moreover, the 'variable' is explicitly deleted when the *note except: 18b. block is left. * PEP 3134(4): Exception chaining. There are two cases: implicit chaining and explicit chaining. Implicit chaining happens when an exception is raised in an *note except: 18b. or *note finally: 9ca. handler block. This usually happens due to a bug in the handler block; we call this a 'secondary' exception. In this case, the original exception (that was being handled) is saved as the *note __context__: 12ba. attribute of the secondary exception. Explicit chaining is invoked with this syntax: raise SecondaryException() from primary_exception (where 'primary_exception' is any expression that produces an exception object, probably an exception that was previously caught). In this case, the primary exception is stored on the *note __cause__: 12bb. attribute of the secondary exception. The traceback printed when an unhandled exception occurs walks the chain of ‘__cause__’ and *note __context__: 12ba. attributes and prints a separate traceback for each component of the chain, with the primary exception at the top. (Java users may recognize this behavior.) * PEP 3134(5): Exception objects now store their traceback as the *note __traceback__: 12b9. attribute. This means that an exception object now contains all the information pertaining to an exception, and there are fewer reasons to use *note sys.exc_info(): 686. (though the latter is not removed). * A few exception messages are improved when Windows fails to load an extension module. For example, ‘error code 193’ is now ‘%1 is not a valid Win32 application’. Strings now deal with non-English locales. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3109/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3134/  File: python.info, Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes, Next: Build and C API Changes<7>, Prev: Changes To Exceptions, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.7 Miscellaneous Other Changes ---------------------------------- * Menu: * Operators And Special Methods:: * Builtins::  File: python.info, Node: Operators And Special Methods, Next: Builtins, Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes 1.14.7.1 Operators And Special Methods ...................................... * ‘!=’ now returns the opposite of ‘==’, unless ‘==’ returns *note NotImplemented: 7cd. * The concept of “unbound methods” has been removed from the language. When referencing a method as a class attribute, you now get a plain function object. * ‘__getslice__()’, ‘__setslice__()’ and ‘__delslice__()’ were killed. The syntax ‘a[i:j]’ now translates to ‘a.__getitem__(slice(i, j))’ (or *note __setitem__(): 12be. or *note __delitem__(): 12bf, when used as an assignment or deletion target, respectively). * PEP 3114(1): the standard *note next(): 7d3. method has been renamed to *note __next__(): 12c0. * The ‘__oct__()’ and ‘__hex__()’ special methods are removed – *note oct(): 12c1. and *note hex(): 12c2. use *note __index__(): 718. now to convert the argument to an integer. * Removed support for ‘__members__’ and ‘__methods__’. * The function attributes named ‘func_X’ have been renamed to use the ‘__X__’ form, freeing up these names in the function attribute namespace for user-defined attributes. To wit, ‘func_closure’, ‘func_code’, ‘func_defaults’, ‘func_dict’, ‘func_doc’, ‘func_globals’, ‘func_name’ were renamed to *note __closure__: 12c3, *note __code__: 29c, *note __defaults__: 12c4, *note __dict__: 12c5, *note __doc__: 11cb, *note __globals__: 12c6, *note __name__: 12c7, respectively. * ‘__nonzero__()’ is now *note __bool__(): 12c8. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3114/  File: python.info, Node: Builtins, Prev: Operators And Special Methods, Up: Miscellaneous Other Changes 1.14.7.2 Builtins ................. * PEP 3135(1): New *note super(): 4d7. You can now invoke *note super(): 4d7. without arguments and (assuming this is in a regular instance method defined inside a *note class: 12ca. statement) the right class and instance will automatically be chosen. With arguments, the behavior of *note super(): 4d7. is unchanged. * PEP 3111(2): ‘raw_input()’ was renamed to *note input(): 12cb. That is, the new *note input(): 12cb. function reads a line from *note sys.stdin: 539. and returns it with the trailing newline stripped. It raises *note EOFError: 12cc. if the input is terminated prematurely. To get the old behavior of *note input(): 12cb, use ‘eval(input())’. * A new built-in function *note next(): 7d3. was added to call the *note __next__(): 12c0. method on an object. * The *note round(): 12cd. function rounding strategy and return type have changed. Exact halfway cases are now rounded to the nearest even result instead of away from zero. (For example, ‘round(2.5)’ now returns ‘2’ rather than ‘3’.) ‘round(x[, n])’ now delegates to ‘x.__round__([n])’ instead of always returning a float. It generally returns an integer when called with a single argument and a value of the same type as ‘x’ when called with two arguments. * Moved ‘intern()’ to *note sys.intern(): 12ce. * Removed: ‘apply()’. Instead of ‘apply(f, args)’ use ‘f(*args)’. * Removed *note callable(): 11b8. Instead of ‘callable(f)’ you can use ‘isinstance(f, collections.Callable)’. The ‘operator.isCallable()’ function is also gone. * Removed ‘coerce()’. This function no longer serves a purpose now that classic classes are gone. * Removed ‘execfile()’. Instead of ‘execfile(fn)’ use ‘exec(open(fn).read())’. * Removed the ‘file’ type. Use *note open(): 517. There are now several different kinds of streams that open can return in the *note io: 7f. module. * Removed ‘reduce()’. Use *note functools.reduce(): 12cf. if you really need it; however, 99 percent of the time an explicit *note for: 2ec. loop is more readable. * Removed ‘reload()’. Use ‘imp.reload()’. * Removed. ‘dict.has_key()’ – use the *note in: 2ee. operator instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3135/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3111/  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<7>, Next: Performance, Prev: Miscellaneous Other Changes, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.8 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------ Due to time constraints, here is a 'very' incomplete list of changes to the C API. * Support for several platforms was dropped, including but not limited to Mac OS 9, BeOS, RISCOS, Irix, and Tru64. * PEP 3118(1): New Buffer API. * PEP 3121(2): Extension Module Initialization & Finalization. * PEP 3123(3): Making *note PyObject_HEAD: 12d1. conform to standard C. * No more C API support for restricted execution. * ‘PyNumber_Coerce()’, ‘PyNumber_CoerceEx()’, ‘PyMember_Get()’, and ‘PyMember_Set()’ C APIs are removed. * New C API *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9, works like *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. but won’t block on the import lock (returning an error instead). * Renamed the boolean conversion C-level slot and method: ‘nb_nonzero’ is now ‘nb_bool’. * Removed ‘METH_OLDARGS’ and ‘WITH_CYCLE_GC’ from the C API. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3123/  File: python.info, Node: Performance, Next: Porting To Python 3 0, Prev: Build and C API Changes<7>, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.9 Performance ------------------ The net result of the 3.0 generalizations is that Python 3.0 runs the pystone benchmark around 10% slower than Python 2.5. Most likely the biggest cause is the removal of special-casing for small integers. There’s room for improvement, but it will happen after 3.0 is released!  File: python.info, Node: Porting To Python 3 0, Prev: Performance, Up: What’s New In Python 3 0 1.14.10 Porting To Python 3.0 ----------------------------- For porting existing Python 2.5 or 2.6 source code to Python 3.0, the best strategy is the following: 0. (Prerequisite:) Start with excellent test coverage. 1. Port to Python 2.6. This should be no more work than the average port from Python 2.x to Python 2.(x+1). Make sure all your tests pass. 2. (Still using 2.6:) Turn on the ‘-3’ command line switch. This enables warnings about features that will be removed (or change) in 3.0. Run your test suite again, and fix code that you get warnings about until there are no warnings left, and all your tests still pass. 3. Run the ‘2to3’ source-to-source translator over your source code tree. Run the result of the translation under Python 3.0. Manually fix up any remaining issues, fixing problems until all tests pass again. It is not recommended to try to write source code that runs unchanged under both Python 2.6 and 3.0; you’d have to use a very contorted coding style, e.g. avoiding ‘print’ statements, metaclasses, and much more. If you are maintaining a library that needs to support both Python 2.6 and Python 3.0, the best approach is to modify step 3 above by editing the 2.6 version of the source code and running the ‘2to3’ translator again, rather than editing the 3.0 version of the source code. For porting C extensions to Python 3.0, please see *note Porting Extension Modules to Python 3: 12d4.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 7, Next: What’s New in Python 2 6, Prev: What’s New In Python 3 0, Up: What’s New in Python 1.15 What’s New in Python 2.7 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca) This article explains the new features in Python 2.7. Python 2.7 was released on July 3, 2010. Numeric handling has been improved in many ways, for both floating-point numbers and for the *note Decimal: 29f. class. There are some useful additions to the standard library, such as a greatly enhanced *note unittest: 106. module, the *note argparse: 6. module for parsing command-line options, convenient *note OrderedDict: 5d7. and *note Counter: 108b. classes in the *note collections: 1d. module, and many other improvements. Python 2.7 is planned to be the last of the 2.x releases, so we worked on making it a good release for the long term. To help with porting to Python 3, several new features from the Python 3.x series have been included in 2.7. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.7 at ‘https://docs.python.org’. If you want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature or the issue on ‘https://bugs.python.org’ in which a change was discussed. Whenever possible, “What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch item for each change. * Menu: * The Future for Python 2.x: The Future for Python 2 x. * Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings:: * Python 3.1 Features: Python 3 1 Features. * PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections. * PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>. * PEP 389; The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines. * PEP 391; Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging. * PEP 3106; Dictionary Views: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views. * PEP 3137; The memoryview Object: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<14>. * New and Improved Modules:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<8>. * Other Changes and Fixes:: * Porting to Python 2.7: Porting to Python 2 7. * New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases. * Acknowledgements::  File: python.info, Node: The Future for Python 2 x, Next: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.1 The Future for Python 2.x -------------------------------- Python 2.7 is the last major release in the 2.x series, as the Python maintainers have shifted the focus of their new feature development efforts to the Python 3.x series. This means that while Python 2 continues to receive bug fixes, and to be updated to build correctly on new hardware and versions of supported operated systems, there will be no new full feature releases for the language or standard library. However, while there is a large common subset between Python 2.7 and Python 3, and many of the changes involved in migrating to that common subset, or directly to Python 3, can be safely automated, some other changes (notably those associated with Unicode handling) may require careful consideration, and preferably robust automated regression test suites, to migrate effectively. This means that Python 2.7 will remain in place for a long time, providing a stable and supported base platform for production systems that have not yet been ported to Python 3. The full expected lifecycle of the Python 2.7 series is detailed in PEP 373(1). Some key consequences of the long-term significance of 2.7 are: * As noted above, the 2.7 release has a much longer period of maintenance when compared to earlier 2.x versions. Python 2.7 is currently expected to remain supported by the core development team (receiving security updates and other bug fixes) until at least 2020 (10 years after its initial release, compared to the more typical support period of 18–24 months). * As the Python 2.7 standard library ages, making effective use of the Python Package Index (either directly or via a redistributor) becomes more important for Python 2 users. In addition to a wide variety of third party packages for various tasks, the available packages include backports of new modules and features from the Python 3 standard library that are compatible with Python 2, as well as various tools and libraries that can make it easier to migrate to Python 3. The Python Packaging User Guide(2) provides guidance on downloading and installing software from the Python Package Index. * While the preferred approach to enhancing Python 2 is now the publication of new packages on the Python Package Index, this approach doesn’t necessarily work in all cases, especially those related to network security. In exceptional cases that cannot be handled adequately by publishing new or updated packages on PyPI, the Python Enhancement Proposal process may be used to make the case for adding new features directly to the Python 2 standard library. Any such additions, and the maintenance releases where they were added, will be noted in the *note New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases: 12d9. section below. For projects wishing to migrate from Python 2 to Python 3, or for library and framework developers wishing to support users on both Python 2 and Python 3, there are a variety of tools and guides available to help decide on a suitable approach and manage some of the technical details involved. The recommended starting point is the pyporting-howto HOWTO guide. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/ (2) https://packaging.python.org  File: python.info, Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings, Next: Python 3 1 Features, Prev: The Future for Python 2 x, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.2 Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings ------------------------------------------------------ For Python 2.7, a policy decision was made to silence warnings only of interest to developers by default. *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and its descendants are now ignored unless otherwise requested, preventing users from seeing warnings triggered by an application. This change was also made in the branch that became Python 3.2. (Discussed on stdlib-sig and carried out in bpo-7319(1).) In previous releases, *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages were enabled by default, providing Python developers with a clear indication of where their code may break in a future major version of Python. However, there are increasingly many users of Python-based applications who are not directly involved in the development of those applications. *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages are irrelevant to such users, making them worry about an application that’s actually working correctly and burdening application developers with responding to these concerns. You can re-enable display of *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages by running Python with the *note -Wdefault: 8c6. (short form: *note -Wd: 8c6.) switch, or by setting the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable to ‘"default"’ (or ‘"d"’) before running Python. Python code can also re-enable them by calling ‘warnings.simplefilter('default')’. The ‘unittest’ module also automatically reenables deprecation warnings when running tests. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7319  File: python.info, Node: Python 3 1 Features, Next: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections, Prev: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.3 Python 3.1 Features -------------------------- Much as Python 2.6 incorporated features from Python 3.0, version 2.7 incorporates some of the new features in Python 3.1. The 2.x series continues to provide tools for migrating to the 3.x series. A partial list of 3.1 features that were backported to 2.7: * The syntax for set literals (‘{1,2,3}’ is a mutable set). * Dictionary and set comprehensions (‘{i: i*2 for i in range(3)}’). * Multiple context managers in a single *note with: 5ce. statement. * A new version of the *note io: 7f. library, rewritten in C for performance. * The ordered-dictionary type described in *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: 12dc. * The new ‘","’ format specifier described in *note PEP 378; Format Specifier for Thousands Separator: 12dd. * The *note memoryview: 464. object. * A small subset of the *note importlib: 77. module, *note described below: 12de. * The *note repr(): 7f9. of a float ‘x’ is shorter in many cases: it’s now based on the shortest decimal string that’s guaranteed to round back to ‘x’. As in previous versions of Python, it’s guaranteed that ‘float(repr(x))’ recovers ‘x’. * Float-to-string and string-to-float conversions are correctly rounded. The *note round(): 12cd. function is also now correctly rounded. * The *note PyCapsule: 1266. type, used to provide a C API for extension modules. * The *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 125a. C API function. Other new Python3-mode warnings include: * ‘operator.isCallable()’ and ‘operator.sequenceIncludes()’, which are not supported in 3.x, now trigger warnings. * The ‘-3’ switch now automatically enables the ‘-Qwarn’ switch that causes warnings about using classic division with integers and long integers.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections, Next: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>, Prev: Python 3 1 Features, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.4 PEP 372: Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections ----------------------------------------------------------- Regular Python dictionaries iterate over key/value pairs in arbitrary order. Over the years, a number of authors have written alternative implementations that remember the order that the keys were originally inserted. Based on the experiences from those implementations, 2.7 introduces a new *note OrderedDict: 5d7. class in the *note collections: 1d. module. The *note OrderedDict: 5d7. API provides the same interface as regular dictionaries but iterates over keys and values in a guaranteed order depending on when a key was first inserted: >>> from collections import OrderedDict >>> d = OrderedDict([('first', 1), ... ('second', 2), ... ('third', 3)]) >>> d.items() [('first', 1), ('second', 2), ('third', 3)] If a new entry overwrites an existing entry, the original insertion position is left unchanged: >>> d['second'] = 4 >>> d.items() [('first', 1), ('second', 4), ('third', 3)] Deleting an entry and reinserting it will move it to the end: >>> del d['second'] >>> d['second'] = 5 >>> d.items() [('first', 1), ('third', 3), ('second', 5)] The *note popitem(): 12e0. method has an optional 'last' argument that defaults to ‘True’. If 'last' is true, the most recently added key is returned and removed; if it’s false, the oldest key is selected: >>> od = OrderedDict([(x,0) for x in range(20)]) >>> od.popitem() (19, 0) >>> od.popitem() (18, 0) >>> od.popitem(last=False) (0, 0) >>> od.popitem(last=False) (1, 0) Comparing two ordered dictionaries checks both the keys and values, and requires that the insertion order was the same: >>> od1 = OrderedDict([('first', 1), ... ('second', 2), ... ('third', 3)]) >>> od2 = OrderedDict([('third', 3), ... ('first', 1), ... ('second', 2)]) >>> od1 == od2 False >>> # Move 'third' key to the end >>> del od2['third']; od2['third'] = 3 >>> od1 == od2 True Comparing an *note OrderedDict: 5d7. with a regular dictionary ignores the insertion order and just compares the keys and values. How does the *note OrderedDict: 5d7. work? It maintains a doubly linked list of keys, appending new keys to the list as they’re inserted. A secondary dictionary maps keys to their corresponding list node, so deletion doesn’t have to traverse the entire linked list and therefore remains 'O'(1). The standard library now supports use of ordered dictionaries in several modules. * The *note ConfigParser: 22. module uses them by default, meaning that configuration files can now be read, modified, and then written back in their original order. * The *note _asdict(): 9e0. method for *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. now returns an ordered dictionary with the values appearing in the same order as the underlying tuple indices. * The *note json: 82. module’s *note JSONDecoder: d47. class constructor was extended with an 'object_pairs_hook' parameter to allow ‘OrderedDict’ instances to be built by the decoder. Support was also added for third-party tools like PyYAML(1). See also ........ PEP 372(2) - Adding an ordered dictionary to collections PEP written by Armin Ronacher and Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Raymond Hettinger. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pyyaml.org/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0372/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>, Next: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines, Prev: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.5 PEP 378: Format Specifier for Thousands Separator -------------------------------------------------------- To make program output more readable, it can be useful to add separators to large numbers, rendering them as 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 instead of 18446744073709551616. The fully general solution for doing this is the *note locale: 86. module, which can use different separators (“,” in North America, “.” in Europe) and different grouping sizes, but *note locale: 86. is complicated to use and unsuitable for multi-threaded applications where different threads are producing output for different locales. Therefore, a simple comma-grouping mechanism has been added to the mini-language used by the *note str.format(): 61d. method. When formatting a floating-point number, simply include a comma between the width and the precision: >>> '{:20,.2f}'.format(18446744073709551616.0) '18,446,744,073,709,551,616.00' When formatting an integer, include the comma after the width: >>> '{:20,d}'.format(18446744073709551616) '18,446,744,073,709,551,616' This mechanism is not adaptable at all; commas are always used as the separator and the grouping is always into three-digit groups. The comma-formatting mechanism isn’t as general as the *note locale: 86. module, but it’s easier to use. See also ........ PEP 378(1) - Format Specifier for Thousands Separator PEP written by Raymond Hettinger; implemented by Eric Smith. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0378/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines, Next: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging, Prev: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.6 PEP 389: The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines ------------------------------------------------------------- The *note argparse: 6. module for parsing command-line arguments was added as a more powerful replacement for the *note optparse: a0. module. This means Python now supports three different modules for parsing command-line arguments: *note getopt: 61, *note optparse: a0, and *note argparse: 6. The *note getopt: 61. module closely resembles the C library’s ‘getopt()’ function, so it remains useful if you’re writing a Python prototype that will eventually be rewritten in C. *note optparse: a0. becomes redundant, but there are no plans to remove it because there are many scripts still using it, and there’s no automated way to update these scripts. (Making the *note argparse: 6. API consistent with *note optparse: a0.’s interface was discussed but rejected as too messy and difficult.) In short, if you’re writing a new script and don’t need to worry about compatibility with earlier versions of Python, use *note argparse: 6. instead of *note optparse: a0. Here’s an example: import argparse parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(description='Command-line example.') # Add optional switches parser.add_argument('-v', action='store_true', dest='is_verbose', help='produce verbose output') parser.add_argument('-o', action='store', dest='output', metavar='FILE', help='direct output to FILE instead of stdout') parser.add_argument('-C', action='store', type=int, dest='context', metavar='NUM', default=0, help='display NUM lines of added context') # Allow any number of additional arguments. parser.add_argument(nargs='*', action='store', dest='inputs', help='input filenames (default is stdin)') args = parser.parse_args() print args.__dict__ Unless you override it, ‘-h’ and ‘--help’ switches are automatically added, and produce neatly formatted output: -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py --help usage: argparse-example.py [-h] [-v] [-o FILE] [-C NUM] [inputs [inputs ...]] Command-line example. positional arguments: inputs input filenames (default is stdin) optional arguments: -h, --help show this help message and exit -v produce verbose output -o FILE direct output to FILE instead of stdout -C NUM display NUM lines of added context As with *note optparse: a0, the command-line switches and arguments are returned as an object with attributes named by the 'dest' parameters: -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v {'output': None, 'is_verbose': True, 'context': 0, 'inputs': []} -> ./python.exe argparse-example.py -v -o /tmp/output -C 4 file1 file2 {'output': '/tmp/output', 'is_verbose': True, 'context': 4, 'inputs': ['file1', 'file2']} *note argparse: 6. has much fancier validation than *note optparse: a0.; you can specify an exact number of arguments as an integer, 0 or more arguments by passing ‘'*'’, 1 or more by passing ‘'+'’, or an optional argument with ‘'?'’. A top-level parser can contain sub-parsers to define subcommands that have different sets of switches, as in ‘svn commit’, ‘svn checkout’, etc. You can specify an argument’s type as *note FileType: f16, which will automatically open files for you and understands that ‘'-'’ means standard input or output. See also ........ *note argparse: 6. documentation The documentation page of the argparse module. *note Migrating optparse code to argparse: 11a0. Part of the Python documentation, describing how to convert code that uses *note optparse: a0. PEP 389(1) - argparse - New Command Line Parsing Module PEP written and implemented by Steven Bethard. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0389/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging, Next: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views, Prev: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.7 PEP 391: Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging ---------------------------------------------------------- The *note logging: 87. module is very flexible; applications can define a tree of logging subsystems, and each logger in this tree can filter out certain messages, format them differently, and direct messages to a varying number of handlers. All this flexibility can require a lot of configuration. You can write Python statements to create objects and set their properties, but a complex set-up requires verbose but boring code. *note logging: 87. also supports a *note fileConfig(): b51. function that parses a file, but the file format doesn’t support configuring filters, and it’s messier to generate programmatically. Python 2.7 adds a *note dictConfig(): 11a2. function that uses a dictionary to configure logging. There are many ways to produce a dictionary from different sources: construct one with code; parse a file containing JSON; or use a YAML parsing library if one is installed. For more information see *note Configuration functions: 12e4. The following example configures two loggers, the root logger and a logger named “network”. Messages sent to the root logger will be sent to the system log using the syslog protocol, and messages to the “network” logger will be written to a ‘network.log’ file that will be rotated once the log reaches 1MB. import logging import logging.config configdict = { 'version': 1, # Configuration schema in use; must be 1 for now 'formatters': { 'standard': { 'format': ('%(asctime)s %(name)-15s ' '%(levelname)-8s %(message)s')}}, 'handlers': {'netlog': {'backupCount': 10, 'class': 'logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler', 'filename': '/logs/network.log', 'formatter': 'standard', 'level': 'INFO', 'maxBytes': 1000000}, 'syslog': {'class': 'logging.handlers.SysLogHandler', 'formatter': 'standard', 'level': 'ERROR'}}, # Specify all the subordinate loggers 'loggers': { 'network': { 'handlers': ['netlog'] } }, # Specify properties of the root logger 'root': { 'handlers': ['syslog'] }, } # Set up configuration logging.config.dictConfig(configdict) # As an example, log two error messages logger = logging.getLogger('/') logger.error('Database not found') netlogger = logging.getLogger('network') netlogger.error('Connection failed') Three smaller enhancements to the *note logging: 87. module, all implemented by Vinay Sajip, are: * The *note SysLogHandler: 658. class now supports syslogging over TCP. The constructor has a 'socktype' parameter giving the type of socket to use, either *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12e5. for UDP or *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e6. for TCP. The default protocol remains UDP. * *note Logger: b4f. instances gained a *note getChild(): 12e7. method that retrieves a descendant logger using a relative path. For example, once you retrieve a logger by doing ‘log = getLogger('app')’, calling ‘log.getChild('network.listen')’ is equivalent to ‘getLogger('app.network.listen')’. * The *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8. class gained an *note isEnabledFor(): 12e9. method that takes a 'level' and returns whether the underlying logger would process a message of that level of importance. See also ........ PEP 391(1) - Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging PEP written and implemented by Vinay Sajip. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0391/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views, Next: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object, Prev: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.8 PEP 3106: Dictionary Views --------------------------------- The dictionary methods *note keys(): 7c8, *note values(): 7c9, and *note items(): 7ca. are different in Python 3.x. They return an object called a 'view' instead of a fully materialized list. It’s not possible to change the return values of *note keys(): 7c8, *note values(): 7c9, and *note items(): 7ca. in Python 2.7 because too much code would break. Instead the 3.x versions were added under the new names ‘viewkeys()’, ‘viewvalues()’, and ‘viewitems()’. >>> d = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26)) >>> d {0: 'A', 130: 'N', 10: 'B', 140: 'O', 20: ..., 250: 'Z'} >>> d.viewkeys() dict_keys([0, 130, 10, 140, 20, 150, 30, ..., 250]) Views can be iterated over, but the key and item views also behave like sets. The ‘&’ operator performs intersection, and ‘|’ performs a union: >>> d1 = dict((i*10, chr(65+i)) for i in range(26)) >>> d2 = dict((i**.5, i) for i in range(1000)) >>> d1.viewkeys() & d2.viewkeys() set([0.0, 10.0, 20.0, 30.0]) >>> d1.viewkeys() | range(0, 30) set([0, 1, 130, 3, 4, 5, 6, ..., 120, 250]) The view keeps track of the dictionary and its contents change as the dictionary is modified: >>> vk = d.viewkeys() >>> vk dict_keys([0, 130, 10, ..., 250]) >>> d[260] = '&' >>> vk dict_keys([0, 130, 260, 10, ..., 250]) However, note that you can’t add or remove keys while you’re iterating over the view: >>> for k in vk: ... d[k*2] = k ... Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in RuntimeError: dictionary changed size during iteration You can use the view methods in Python 2.x code, and the 2to3 converter will change them to the standard *note keys(): 7c8, *note values(): 7c9, and *note items(): 7ca. methods. See also ........ PEP 3106(1) - Revamping dict.keys(), .values() and .items() PEP written by Guido van Rossum. Backported to 2.7 by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-1967(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3106/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1967  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object, Next: Other Language Changes<14>, Prev: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.9 PEP 3137: The memoryview Object -------------------------------------- The *note memoryview: 464. object provides a view of another object’s memory content that matches the *note bytes: 1c2. type’s interface. >>> import string >>> m = memoryview(string.letters) >>> m >>> len(m) # Returns length of underlying object 52 >>> m[0], m[25], m[26] # Indexing returns one byte ('a', 'z', 'A') >>> m2 = m[0:26] # Slicing returns another memoryview >>> m2 The content of the view can be converted to a string of bytes or a list of integers: >>> m2.tobytes() 'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz' >>> m2.tolist() [97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, ... 121, 122] >>> *note memoryview: 464. objects allow modifying the underlying object if it’s a mutable object. >>> m2[0] = 75 Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: cannot modify read-only memory >>> b = bytearray(string.letters) # Creating a mutable object >>> b bytearray(b'abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyzABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ') >>> mb = memoryview(b) >>> mb[0] = '*' # Assign to view, changing the bytearray. >>> b[0:5] # The bytearray has been changed. bytearray(b'*bcde') >>> See also ........ PEP 3137(1) - Immutable Bytes and Mutable Buffer PEP written by Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Travis Oliphant, Antoine Pitrou and others. Backported to 2.7 by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-2396(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3137/ (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2396  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<14>, Next: New and Improved Modules, Prev: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.10 Other Language Changes ------------------------------ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * The syntax for set literals has been backported from Python 3.x. Curly brackets are used to surround the contents of the resulting mutable set; set literals are distinguished from dictionaries by not containing colons and values. ‘{}’ continues to represent an empty dictionary; use ‘set()’ for an empty set. >>> {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) >>> set() # empty set set([]) >>> {} # empty dict {} Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2335(1). * Dictionary and set comprehensions are another feature backported from 3.x, generalizing list/generator comprehensions to use the literal syntax for sets and dictionaries. >>> {x: x*x for x in range(6)} {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 4, 3: 9, 4: 16, 5: 25} >>> {('a'*x) for x in range(6)} set(['', 'a', 'aa', 'aaa', 'aaaa', 'aaaaa']) Backported by Alexandre Vassalotti; bpo-2333(2). * The *note with: 5ce. statement can now use multiple context managers in one statement. Context managers are processed from left to right and each one is treated as beginning a new ‘with’ statement. This means that: with A() as a, B() as b: ... suite of statements ... is equivalent to: with A() as a: with B() as b: ... suite of statements ... The ‘contextlib.nested()’ function provides a very similar function, so it’s no longer necessary and has been deprecated. (Proposed in ‘https://codereview.appspot.com/53094’; implemented by Georg Brandl.) * Conversions between floating-point numbers and strings are now correctly rounded on most platforms. These conversions occur in many different places: *note str(): 447. on floats and complex numbers; the *note float: 2f1. and *note complex: 2f2. constructors; numeric formatting; serializing and deserializing floats and complex numbers using the *note marshal: 8d, *note pickle: a6. and *note json: 82. modules; parsing of float and imaginary literals in Python code; and *note Decimal: 29f.-to-float conversion. Related to this, the *note repr(): 7f9. of a floating-point number 'x' now returns a result based on the shortest decimal string that’s guaranteed to round back to 'x' under correct rounding (with round-half-to-even rounding mode). Previously it gave a string based on rounding x to 17 decimal digits. The rounding library responsible for this improvement works on Windows and on Unix platforms using the gcc, icc, or suncc compilers. There may be a small number of platforms where correct operation of this code cannot be guaranteed, so the code is not used on such systems. You can find out which code is being used by checking *note sys.float_repr_style: 12ed, which will be ‘short’ if the new code is in use and ‘legacy’ if it isn’t. Implemented by Eric Smith and Mark Dickinson, using David Gay’s ‘dtoa.c’ library; bpo-7117(3). * Conversions from long integers and regular integers to floating point now round differently, returning the floating-point number closest to the number. This doesn’t matter for small integers that can be converted exactly, but for large numbers that will unavoidably lose precision, Python 2.7 now approximates more closely. For example, Python 2.6 computed the following: >>> n = 295147905179352891391 >>> float(n) 2.9514790517935283e+20 >>> n - long(float(n)) 65535L Python 2.7’s floating-point result is larger, but much closer to the true value: >>> n = 295147905179352891391 >>> float(n) 2.9514790517935289e+20 >>> n - long(float(n)) -1L (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-3166(4).) Integer division is also more accurate in its rounding behaviours. (Also implemented by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1811(5).) * Implicit coercion for complex numbers has been removed; the interpreter will no longer ever attempt to call a ‘__coerce__()’ method on complex objects. (Removed by Meador Inge and Mark Dickinson; bpo-5211(6).) * The *note str.format(): 61d. method now supports automatic numbering of the replacement fields. This makes using *note str.format(): 61d. more closely resemble using ‘%s’ formatting: >>> '{}:{}:{}'.format(2009, 04, 'Sunday') '2009:4:Sunday' >>> '{}:{}:{day}'.format(2009, 4, day='Sunday') '2009:4:Sunday' The auto-numbering takes the fields from left to right, so the first ‘{...}’ specifier will use the first argument to *note str.format(): 61d, the next specifier will use the next argument, and so on. You can’t mix auto-numbering and explicit numbering – either number all of your specifier fields or none of them – but you can mix auto-numbering and named fields, as in the second example above. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-5237(7).) Complex numbers now correctly support usage with *note format(): 61b, and default to being right-aligned. Specifying a precision or comma-separation applies to both the real and imaginary parts of the number, but a specified field width and alignment is applied to the whole of the resulting ‘1.5+3j’ output. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-1588(8) and bpo-7988(9).) The ‘F’ format code now always formats its output using uppercase characters, so it will now produce ‘INF’ and ‘NAN’. (Contributed by Eric Smith; bpo-3382(10).) A low-level change: the *note object.__format__(): 61a. method now triggers a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. if it’s passed a format string, because the ‘__format__()’ method for *note object: a8c. converts the object to a string representation and formats that. Previously the method silently applied the format string to the string representation, but that could hide mistakes in Python code. If you’re supplying formatting information such as an alignment or precision, presumably you’re expecting the formatting to be applied in some object-specific way. (Fixed by Eric Smith; bpo-7994(11).) * The *note int(): 259. and ‘long()’ types gained a ‘bit_length’ method that returns the number of bits necessary to represent its argument in binary: >>> n = 37 >>> bin(n) '0b100101' >>> n.bit_length() 6 >>> n = 2**123-1 >>> n.bit_length() 123 >>> (n+1).bit_length() 124 (Contributed by Fredrik Johansson and Victor Stinner; bpo-3439(12).) * The *note import: 5de. statement will no longer try an absolute import if a relative import (e.g. ‘from .os import sep’) fails. This fixes a bug, but could possibly break certain ‘import’ statements that were only working by accident. (Fixed by Meador Inge; bpo-7902(13).) * It’s now possible for a subclass of the built-in ‘unicode’ type to override the ‘__unicode__()’ method. (Implemented by Victor Stinner; bpo-1583863(14).) * The *note bytearray: 53a. type’s *note translate(): 12ee. method now accepts ‘None’ as its first argument. (Fixed by Georg Brandl; bpo-4759(15).) * When using *note @classmethod: 166. and *note @staticmethod: 412. to wrap methods as class or static methods, the wrapper object now exposes the wrapped function as their *note __func__: 12ef. attribute. (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc, after a suggestion by George Sakkis; bpo-5982(16).) * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’, deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError: 348. as you would expect. Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-7604(17).) * Two new encodings are now supported: “cp720”, used primarily for Arabic text; and “cp858”, a variant of CP 850 that adds the euro symbol. (CP720 contributed by Alexander Belchenko and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc in bpo-1616979(18); CP858 contributed by Tim Hatch in bpo-8016(19).) * The ‘file’ object will now set the ‘filename’ attribute on the *note IOError: 104b. exception when trying to open a directory on POSIX platforms (noted by Jan Kaliszewski; bpo-4764(20)), and now explicitly checks for and forbids writing to read-only file objects instead of trusting the C library to catch and report the error (fixed by Stefan Krah; bpo-5677(21)). * The Python tokenizer now translates line endings itself, so the *note compile(): 192. built-in function now accepts code using any line-ending convention. Additionally, it no longer requires that the code end in a newline. * Extra parentheses in function definitions are illegal in Python 3.x, meaning that you get a syntax error from ‘def f((x)): pass’. In Python3-warning mode, Python 2.7 will now warn about this odd usage. (Noted by James Lingard; bpo-7362(22).) * It’s now possible to create weak references to old-style class objects. New-style classes were always weak-referenceable. (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8268(23).) * When a module object is garbage-collected, the module’s dictionary is now only cleared if no one else is holding a reference to the dictionary (bpo-7140(24)). * Menu: * Interpreter Changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<13>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2335 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2333 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7117 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3166 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1811 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5211 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5237 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1588 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7988 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3382 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7994 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3439 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7902 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583863 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4759 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5982 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1616979 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8016 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4764 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5677 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7362 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8268 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7140  File: python.info, Node: Interpreter Changes, Next: Optimizations<13>, Up: Other Language Changes<14> 1.15.10.1 Interpreter Changes ............................. A new environment variable, *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa, allows controlling warnings. It should be set to a string containing warning settings, equivalent to those used with the *note -W: 8c6. switch, separated by commas. (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7301(1).) For example, the following setting will print warnings every time they occur, but turn warnings from the *note Cookie: 71. module into an error. (The exact syntax for setting an environment variable varies across operating systems and shells.) export PYTHONWARNINGS=all,error:::Cookie:0 ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7301  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<13>, Prev: Interpreter Changes, Up: Other Language Changes<14> 1.15.10.2 Optimizations ....................... Several performance enhancements have been added: * A new opcode was added to perform the initial setup for *note with: 5ce. statements, looking up the *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.) * The garbage collector now performs better for one common usage pattern: when many objects are being allocated without deallocating any of them. This would previously take quadratic time for garbage collection, but now the number of full garbage collections is reduced as the number of objects on the heap grows. The new logic only performs a full garbage collection pass when the middle generation has been collected 10 times and when the number of survivor objects from the middle generation exceeds 10% of the number of objects in the oldest generation. (Suggested by Martin von Löwis and implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4074(1).) * The garbage collector tries to avoid tracking simple containers which can’t be part of a cycle. In Python 2.7, this is now true for tuples and dicts containing atomic types (such as ints, strings, etc.). Transitively, a dict containing tuples of atomic types won’t be tracked either. This helps reduce the cost of each garbage collection by decreasing the number of objects to be considered and traversed by the collector. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4688(2).) * Long integers are now stored internally either in base ‘2**15’ or in base ‘2**30’, the base being determined at build time. Previously, they were always stored in base ‘2**15’. Using base ‘2**30’ gives significant performance improvements on 64-bit machines, but benchmark results on 32-bit machines have been mixed. Therefore, the default is to use base ‘2**30’ on 64-bit machines and base ‘2**15’ on 32-bit machines; on Unix, there’s a new configure option ‘--enable-big-digits’ that can be used to override this default. Apart from the performance improvements this change should be invisible to end users, with one exception: for testing and debugging purposes there’s a new structseq ‘sys.long_info’ that provides information about the internal format, giving the number of bits per digit and the size in bytes of the C type used to store each digit: >>> import sys >>> sys.long_info sys.long_info(bits_per_digit=30, sizeof_digit=4) (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-4258(3).) Another set of changes made long objects a few bytes smaller: 2 bytes smaller on 32-bit systems and 6 bytes on 64-bit. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5260(4).) * The division algorithm for long integers has been made faster by tightening the inner loop, doing shifts instead of multiplications, and fixing an unnecessary extra iteration. Various benchmarks show speedups of between 50% and 150% for long integer divisions and modulo operations. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-5512(5).) Bitwise operations are also significantly faster (initial patch by Gregory Smith; bpo-1087418(6)). * The implementation of ‘%’ checks for the left-side operand being a Python string and special-cases it; this results in a 1–3% performance increase for applications that frequently use ‘%’ with strings, such as templating libraries. (Implemented by Collin Winter; bpo-5176(7).) * List comprehensions with an ‘if’ condition are compiled into faster bytecode. (Patch by Antoine Pitrou, back-ported to 2.7 by Jeffrey Yasskin; bpo-4715(8).) * Converting an integer or long integer to a decimal string was made faster by special-casing base 10 instead of using a generalized conversion function that supports arbitrary bases. (Patch by Gawain Bolton; bpo-6713(9).) * The ‘split()’, ‘replace()’, ‘rindex()’, ‘rpartition()’, and ‘rsplit()’ methods of string-like types (strings, Unicode strings, and *note bytearray: 53a. objects) now use a fast reverse-search algorithm instead of a character-by-character scan. This is sometimes faster by a factor of 10. (Added by Florent Xicluna; bpo-7462(10) and bpo-7622(11).) * The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules now automatically intern the strings used for attribute names, reducing memory usage of the objects resulting from unpickling. (Contributed by Jake McGuire; bpo-5084(12).) * The ‘cPickle’ module now special-cases dictionaries, nearly halving the time required to pickle them. (Contributed by Collin Winter; bpo-5670(13).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4074 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4688 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4258 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5260 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5512 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1087418 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5176 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4715 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6713 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7462 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7622 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5084 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5670  File: python.info, Node: New and Improved Modules, Next: Build and C API Changes<8>, Prev: Other Language Changes<14>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.11 New and Improved Modules -------------------------------- As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details. * The *note bdb: f. module’s base debugging class *note Bdb: 12f5. gained a feature for skipping modules. The constructor now takes an iterable containing glob-style patterns such as ‘django.*’; the debugger will not step into stack frames from a module that matches one of these patterns. (Contributed by Maru Newby after a suggestion by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-5142(1).) * The *note binascii: 10. module now supports the buffer API, so it can be used with *note memoryview: 464. instances and other similar buffer objects. (Backported from 3.x by Florent Xicluna; bpo-7703(2).) * Updated module: the ‘bsddb’ module has been updated from 4.7.2devel9 to version 4.8.4 of the pybsddb package(3). The new version features better Python 3.x compatibility, various bug fixes, and adds several new BerkeleyDB flags and methods. (Updated by Jesús Cea Avión; bpo-8156(4). The pybsddb changelog can be read at ‘https://hg.jcea.es/pybsddb/file/tip/ChangeLog’.) * The *note bz2: 13. module’s *note BZ2File: 863. now supports the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with bz2.BZ2File(...) as f:’. (Contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; bpo-3860(5).) * New class: the *note Counter: 108b. class in the *note collections: 1d. module is useful for tallying data. *note Counter: 108b. instances behave mostly like dictionaries but return zero for missing keys instead of raising a *note KeyError: 33f.: >>> from collections import Counter >>> c = Counter() >>> for letter in 'here is a sample of english text': ... c[letter] += 1 ... >>> c Counter({' ': 6, 'e': 5, 's': 3, 'a': 2, 'i': 2, 'h': 2, 'l': 2, 't': 2, 'g': 1, 'f': 1, 'm': 1, 'o': 1, 'n': 1, 'p': 1, 'r': 1, 'x': 1}) >>> c['e'] 5 >>> c['z'] 0 There are three additional *note Counter: 108b. methods. *note most_common(): 12f6. returns the N most common elements and their counts. *note elements(): 12f7. returns an iterator over the contained elements, repeating each element as many times as its count. *note subtract(): 11d0. takes an iterable and subtracts one for each element instead of adding; if the argument is a dictionary or another ‘Counter’, the counts are subtracted. >>> c.most_common(5) [(' ', 6), ('e', 5), ('s', 3), ('a', 2), ('i', 2)] >>> c.elements() -> 'a', 'a', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', ' ', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'e', 'g', 'f', 'i', 'i', 'h', 'h', 'm', 'l', 'l', 'o', 'n', 'p', 's', 's', 's', 'r', 't', 't', 'x' >>> c['e'] 5 >>> c.subtract('very heavy on the letter e') >>> c['e'] # Count is now lower -1 Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1696199(6). New class: *note OrderedDict: 5d7. is described in the earlier section *note PEP 372; Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections: 12dc. New method: The *note deque: 5d8. data type now has a *note count(): 11d2. method that returns the number of contained elements equal to the supplied argument 'x', and a *note reverse(): 11d3. method that reverses the elements of the deque in-place. *note deque: 5d8. also exposes its maximum length as the read-only *note maxlen: 12f8. attribute. (Both features added by Raymond Hettinger.) The *note namedtuple: 1ca. class now has an optional 'rename' parameter. If 'rename' is true, field names that are invalid because they’ve been repeated or aren’t legal Python identifiers will be renamed to legal names that are derived from the field’s position within the list of fields: >>> from collections import namedtuple >>> T = namedtuple('T', ['field1', '$illegal', 'for', 'field2'], rename=True) >>> T._fields ('field1', '_1', '_2', 'field2') (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1818(7).) Finally, the *note Mapping: 8c9. abstract base class now returns *note NotImplemented: 7cd. if a mapping is compared to another type that isn’t a ‘Mapping’. (Fixed by Daniel Stutzbach; bpo-8729(8).) * Constructors for the parsing classes in the *note ConfigParser: 22. module now take an 'allow_no_value' parameter, defaulting to false; if true, options without values will be allowed. For example: >>> import ConfigParser, StringIO >>> sample_config = """ ... [mysqld] ... user = mysql ... pid-file = /var/run/mysqld/mysqld.pid ... skip-bdb ... """ >>> config = ConfigParser.RawConfigParser(allow_no_value=True) >>> config.readfp(StringIO.StringIO(sample_config)) >>> config.get('mysqld', 'user') 'mysql' >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'skip-bdb') None >>> print config.get('mysqld', 'unknown') Traceback (most recent call last): ... NoOptionError: No option 'unknown' in section: 'mysqld' (Contributed by Mats Kindahl; bpo-7005(9).) * Deprecated function: ‘contextlib.nested()’, which allows handling more than one context manager with a single *note with: 5ce. statement, has been deprecated, because the ‘with’ statement now supports multiple context managers. * The *note cookielib: 70. module now ignores cookies that have an invalid version field, one that doesn’t contain an integer value. (Fixed by John J. Lee; bpo-3924(10).) * The *note copy: 25. module’s *note deepcopy(): b6e. function will now correctly copy bound instance methods. (Implemented by Robert Collins; bpo-1515(11).) * The *note ctypes: 2a. module now always converts ‘None’ to a C ‘NULL’ pointer for arguments declared as pointers. (Changed by Thomas Heller; bpo-4606(12).) The underlying libffi library(13) has been updated to version 3.0.9, containing various fixes for different platforms. (Updated by Matthias Klose; bpo-8142(14).) * New method: the *note datetime: 30. module’s *note timedelta: 9cf. class gained a *note total_seconds(): 12f9. method that returns the number of seconds in the duration. (Contributed by Brian Quinlan; bpo-5788(15).) * New method: the *note Decimal: 29f. class gained a *note from_float(): 11f6. class method that performs an exact conversion of a floating-point number to a ‘Decimal’. This exact conversion strives for the closest decimal approximation to the floating-point representation’s value; the resulting decimal value will therefore still include the inaccuracy, if any. For example, ‘Decimal.from_float(0.1)’ returns ‘Decimal('0.1000000000000000055511151231257827021181583404541015625')’. (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4796(16).) Comparing instances of *note Decimal: 29f. with floating-point numbers now produces sensible results based on the numeric values of the operands. Previously such comparisons would fall back to Python’s default rules for comparing objects, which produced arbitrary results based on their type. Note that you still cannot combine ‘Decimal’ and floating point in other operations such as addition, since you should be explicitly choosing how to convert between float and ‘Decimal’. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-2531(17).) The constructor for *note Decimal: 29f. now accepts floating-point numbers (added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-8257(18)) and non-European Unicode characters such as Arabic-Indic digits (contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-6595(19)). Most of the methods of the *note Context: 10a5. class now accept integers as well as *note Decimal: 29f. instances; the only exceptions are the *note canonical(): 12fa. and *note is_canonical(): 12fb. methods. (Patch by Juan José Conti; bpo-7633(20).) When using *note Decimal: 29f. instances with a string’s *note format(): 61d. method, the default alignment was previously left-alignment. This has been changed to right-alignment, which is more sensible for numeric types. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-6857(21).) Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal *note InvalidOperation: 109e. instead of silently returning a true or false value depending on the comparison operator. Quiet NaN values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7279(22).) * The *note difflib: 37. module now produces output that is more compatible with modern ‘diff’/‘patch’ tools through one small change, using a tab character instead of spaces as a separator in the header giving the filename. (Fixed by Anatoly Techtonik; bpo-7585(23).) * The Distutils ‘sdist’ command now always regenerates the ‘MANIFEST’ file, since even if the ‘MANIFEST.in’ or ‘setup.py’ files haven’t been modified, the user might have created some new files that should be included. (Fixed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-8688(24).) * The *note doctest: 3a. module’s *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12fc. flag will now ignore the name of the module containing the exception being tested. (Patch by Lennart Regebro; bpo-7490(25).) * The *note email: 3b. module’s *note Message: 27e. class will now accept a Unicode-valued payload, automatically converting the payload to the encoding specified by ‘output_charset’. (Added by R. David Murray; bpo-1368247(26).) * The *note Fraction: 1e9. class now accepts a single float or *note Decimal: 29f. instance, or two rational numbers, as arguments to its constructor. (Implemented by Mark Dickinson; rationals added in bpo-5812(27), and float/decimal in bpo-8294(28).) Ordering comparisons (‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’) between fractions and complex numbers now raise a *note TypeError: 534. This fixes an oversight, making the *note Fraction: 1e9. match the other numeric types. * New class: *note FTP_TLS: 8fa. in the *note ftplib: 5e. module provides secure FTP connections using TLS encapsulation of authentication as well as subsequent control and data transfers. (Contributed by Giampaolo Rodola; bpo-2054(29).) The *note storbinary(): 12fd. method for binary uploads can now restart uploads thanks to an added 'rest' parameter (patch by Pablo Mouzo; bpo-6845(30).) * New class decorator: *note total_ordering(): f3d. in the *note functools: 5f. module takes a class that defines an *note __eq__(): afa. method and one of *note __lt__(): 1292, *note __le__(): 12fe, *note __gt__(): 12ff, or *note __ge__(): 1300, and generates the missing comparison methods. Since the ‘__cmp__()’ method is being deprecated in Python 3.x, this decorator makes it easier to define ordered classes. (Added by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5479(31).) New function: *note cmp_to_key(): 11cc. will take an old-style comparison function that expects two arguments and return a new callable that can be used as the 'key' parameter to functions such as *note sorted(): bce, *note min(): f03. and *note max(): f04, etc. The primary intended use is to help with making code compatible with Python 3.x. (Added by Raymond Hettinger.) * New function: the *note gc: 60. module’s *note is_tracked(): 1301. returns true if a given instance is tracked by the garbage collector, false otherwise. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4688(32).) * The *note gzip: 67. module’s *note GzipFile: 416. now supports the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with gzip.GzipFile(...) as f:’ (contributed by Hagen Fürstenau; bpo-3860(33)), and it now implements the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. ABC, so you can wrap it with *note io.BufferedReader: 1200. for faster processing (contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7471(34)). It’s also now possible to override the modification time recorded in a gzipped file by providing an optional timestamp to the constructor. (Contributed by Jacques Frechet; bpo-4272(35).) Files in gzip format can be padded with trailing zero bytes; the *note gzip: 67. module will now consume these trailing bytes. (Fixed by Tadek Pietraszek and Brian Curtin; bpo-2846(36).) * New attribute: the *note hashlib: 68. module now has an ‘algorithms’ attribute containing a tuple naming the supported algorithms. In Python 2.7, ‘hashlib.algorithms’ contains ‘('md5', 'sha1', 'sha224', 'sha256', 'sha384', 'sha512')’. (Contributed by Carl Chenet; bpo-7418(37).) * The default *note HTTPResponse: 10c4. class used by the *note httplib: 6e. module now supports buffering, resulting in much faster reading of HTTP responses. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4879(38).) The *note HTTPConnection: b40. and *note HTTPSConnection: b41. classes now support a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the connection. (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(39).) * The ‘ihooks’ module now supports relative imports. Note that ‘ihooks’ is an older module for customizing imports, superseded by the ‘imputil’ module added in Python 2.0. (Relative import support added by Neil Schemenauer.) * The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports IPv6 addresses. (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1655(40).) * New function: the *note inspect: 7e. module’s *note getcallargs(): eb7. takes a callable and its positional and keyword arguments, and figures out which of the callable’s parameters will receive each argument, returning a dictionary mapping argument names to their values. For example: >>> from inspect import getcallargs >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named): ... pass ... >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,), 'named': {}} >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) {'a': 2, 'b': 1, 'pos': (), 'named': {'x': 4}} >>> getcallargs(f) Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: f() takes at least 1 argument (0 given) Contributed by George Sakkis; bpo-3135(41). * Updated module: The *note io: 7f. library has been upgraded to the version shipped with Python 3.1. For 3.1, the I/O library was entirely rewritten in C and is 2 to 20 times faster depending on the task being performed. The original Python version was renamed to the ‘_pyio’ module. One minor resulting change: the *note io.TextIOBase: 691. class now has an *note errors: 1302. attribute giving the error setting used for encoding and decoding errors (one of ‘'strict'’, ‘'replace'’, ‘'ignore'’). The *note io.FileIO: 1303. class now raises an *note OSError: 413. when passed an invalid file descriptor. (Implemented by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-4991(42).) The *note truncate(): 1304. method now preserves the file position; previously it would change the file position to the end of the new file. (Fixed by Pascal Chambon; bpo-6939(43).) * New function: ‘itertools.compress(data, selectors)’ takes two iterators. Elements of 'data' are returned if the corresponding value in 'selectors' is true: itertools.compress('ABCDEF', [1,0,1,0,1,1]) => A, C, E, F New function: ‘itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iter, r)’ returns all the possible 'r'-length combinations of elements from the iterable 'iter'. Unlike *note combinations(): 1305, individual elements can be repeated in the generated combinations: itertools.combinations_with_replacement('abc', 2) => ('a', 'a'), ('a', 'b'), ('a', 'c'), ('b', 'b'), ('b', 'c'), ('c', 'c') Note that elements are treated as unique depending on their position in the input, not their actual values. The *note itertools.count(): 1276. function now has a 'step' argument that allows incrementing by values other than 1. *note count(): 1276. also now allows keyword arguments, and using non-integer values such as floats or *note Decimal: 29f. instances. (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5032(44).) *note itertools.combinations(): 1305. and *note itertools.product(): 1306. previously raised *note ValueError: 204. for values of 'r' larger than the input iterable. This was deemed a specification error, so they now return an empty iterator. (Fixed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-4816(45).) * Updated module: The *note json: 82. module was upgraded to version 2.0.9 of the simplejson package, which includes a C extension that makes encoding and decoding faster. (Contributed by Bob Ippolito; bpo-4136(46).) To support the new *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. type, *note json.load(): cb4. now has an optional 'object_pairs_hook' parameter that will be called with any object literal that decodes to a list of pairs. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-5381(47).) * The *note mailbox: 8b. module’s *note Maildir: 418. class now records the timestamp on the directories it reads, and only re-reads them if the modification time has subsequently changed. This improves performance by avoiding unneeded directory scans. (Fixed by A.M. Kuchling and Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1607951(48), bpo-6896(49).) * New functions: the *note math: 8e. module gained *note erf(): bd8. and *note erfc(): bd9. for the error function and the complementary error function, *note expm1(): 11de. which computes ‘e**x - 1’ with more precision than using *note exp(): 1307. and subtracting 1, *note gamma(): 11df. for the Gamma function, and *note lgamma(): 11e0. for the natural log of the Gamma function. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson and nirinA raseliarison; bpo-3366(50).) * The *note multiprocessing: 94. module’s ‘Manager*’ classes can now be passed a callable that will be called whenever a subprocess is started, along with a set of arguments that will be passed to the callable. (Contributed by lekma; bpo-5585(51).) The *note Pool: f66. class, which controls a pool of worker processes, now has an optional 'maxtasksperchild' parameter. Worker processes will perform the specified number of tasks and then exit, causing the ‘Pool’ to start a new worker. This is useful if tasks may leak memory or other resources, or if some tasks will cause the worker to become very large. (Contributed by Charles Cazabon; bpo-6963(52).) * The ‘nntplib’ module now supports IPv6 addresses. (Contributed by Derek Morr; bpo-1664(53).) * New functions: the *note os: a1. module wraps the following POSIX system calls: *note getresgid(): 1308. and *note getresuid(): 1309, which return the real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs; *note setresgid(): 130a. and *note setresuid(): 130b, which set real, effective, and saved GIDs and UIDs to new values; *note initgroups(): 130c, which initialize the group access list for the current process. (GID/UID functions contributed by Travis H.; bpo-6508(54). Support for initgroups added by Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-7333(55).) The *note os.fork(): 197. function now re-initializes the import lock in the child process; this fixes problems on Solaris when *note fork(): 197. is called from a thread. (Fixed by Zsolt Cserna; bpo-7242(56).) * In the *note os.path: a2. module, the *note normpath(): 130d. and *note abspath(): 130e. functions now preserve Unicode; if their input path is a Unicode string, the return value is also a Unicode string. (*note normpath(): 130d. fixed by Matt Giuca in bpo-5827(57); *note abspath(): 130e. fixed by Ezio Melotti in bpo-3426(58).) * The *note pydoc: b5. module now has help for the various symbols that Python uses. You can now do ‘help('<<')’ or ‘help('@')’, for example. (Contributed by David Laban; bpo-4739(59).) * The *note re: b9. module’s *note split(): 2a4, *note sub(): 2a5, and *note subn(): 2a6. now accept an optional 'flags' argument, for consistency with the other functions in the module. (Added by Gregory P. Smith.) * New function: *note run_path(): 181. in the *note runpy: be. module will execute the code at a provided 'path' argument. 'path' can be the path of a Python source file (‘example.py’), a compiled bytecode file (‘example.pyc’), a directory (‘./package/’), or a zip archive (‘example.zip’). If a directory or zip path is provided, it will be added to the front of ‘sys.path’ and the module *note __main__: 1. will be imported. It’s expected that the directory or zip contains a ‘__main__.py’; if it doesn’t, some other ‘__main__.py’ might be imported from a location later in ‘sys.path’. This makes more of the machinery of *note runpy: be. available to scripts that want to mimic the way Python’s command line processes an explicit path name. (Added by Nick Coghlan; bpo-6816(60).) * New function: in the *note shutil: c5. module, *note make_archive(): 4af. takes a filename, archive type (zip or tar-format), and a directory path, and creates an archive containing the directory’s contents. (Added by Tarek Ziadé.) *note shutil: c5.’s *note copyfile(): a58. and *note copytree(): a28. functions now raise a ‘SpecialFileError’ exception when asked to copy a named pipe. Previously the code would treat named pipes like a regular file by opening them for reading, and this would block indefinitely. (Fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-3002(61).) * The *note signal: c6. module no longer re-installs the signal handler unless this is truly necessary, which fixes a bug that could make it impossible to catch the EINTR signal robustly. (Fixed by Charles-Francois Natali; bpo-8354(62).) * New functions: in the *note site: c7. module, three new functions return various site- and user-specific paths. *note getsitepackages(): 1231. returns a list containing all global site-packages directories, *note getusersitepackages(): 1233. returns the path of the user’s site-packages directory, and *note getuserbase(): 1232. returns the value of the *note USER_BASE: 130f. environment variable, giving the path to a directory that can be used to store data. (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-6693(63).) The *note site: c7. module now reports exceptions occurring when the *note sitecustomize: c8. module is imported, and will no longer catch and swallow the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. exception. (Fixed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3137(64).) * The *note create_connection(): 66e. function gained a 'source_address' parameter, a ‘(host, port)’ 2-tuple giving the source address that will be used for the connection. (Contributed by Eldon Ziegler; bpo-3972(65).) The *note recv_into(): 1310. and *note recvfrom_into(): 1311. methods will now write into objects that support the buffer API, most usefully the *note bytearray: 53a. and *note memoryview: 464. objects. (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8104(66).) * The *note SocketServer: cd. module’s *note TCPServer: 1312. class now supports socket timeouts and disabling the Nagle algorithm. The ‘disable_nagle_algorithm’ class attribute defaults to ‘False’; if overridden to be true, new request connections will have the TCP_NODELAY option set to prevent buffering many small sends into a single TCP packet. The *note timeout: 1313. class attribute can hold a timeout in seconds that will be applied to the request socket; if no request is received within that time, *note handle_timeout(): 1314. will be called and *note handle_request(): 1315. will return. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6192(67) and bpo-6267(68).) * Updated module: the *note sqlite3: cf. module has been updated to version 2.6.0 of the pysqlite package(69). Version 2.6.0 includes a number of bugfixes, and adds the ability to load SQLite extensions from shared libraries. Call the ‘enable_load_extension(True)’ method to enable extensions, and then call *note load_extension(): 4b4. to load a particular shared library. (Updated by Gerhard Häring.) * The *note ssl: d0. module’s *note SSLSocket: 8e9. objects now support the buffer API, which fixed a test suite failure (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7133(70)) and automatically set OpenSSL’s ‘SSL_MODE_AUTO_RETRY’, which will prevent an error code being returned from ‘recv()’ operations that trigger an SSL renegotiation (fix by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8222(71)). The *note wrap_socket(): 520. constructor function now takes a 'ciphers' argument that’s a string listing the encryption algorithms to be allowed; the format of the string is described in the OpenSSL documentation(72). (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8322(73).) Another change makes the extension load all of OpenSSL’s ciphers and digest algorithms so that they’re all available. Some SSL certificates couldn’t be verified, reporting an “unknown algorithm” error. (Reported by Beda Kosata, and fixed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8484(74).) The version of OpenSSL being used is now available as the module attributes *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION: 1211. (a string), *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO: 1212. (a 5-tuple), and *note ssl.OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER: 1213. (an integer). (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8321(75).) * The *note struct: d5. module will no longer silently ignore overflow errors when a value is too large for a particular integer format code (one of ‘bBhHiIlLqQ’); it now always raises a *note struct.error: 1316. exception. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1523(76).) The *note pack(): 126a. function will also attempt to use *note __index__(): 718. to convert and pack non-integers before trying the *note __int__(): 717. method or reporting an error. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-8300(77).) * New function: the *note subprocess: d6. module’s *note check_output(): fbc. runs a command with a specified set of arguments and returns the command’s output as a string when the command runs without error, or raises a *note CalledProcessError: 1317. exception otherwise. >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '.']) 'Filesystem Size Used Avail Capacity Mounted on\n /dev/disk0s2 52G 49G 3.0G 94% /\n' >>> subprocess.check_output(['df', '-h', '/bogus']) ... subprocess.CalledProcessError: Command '['df', '-h', '/bogus']' returned non-zero exit status 1 (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.) The *note subprocess: d6. module will now retry its internal system calls on receiving an *note EINTR: d86. signal. (Reported by several people; final patch by Gregory P. Smith in bpo-1068268(78).) * New function: *note is_declared_global(): 1318. in the *note symtable: d8. module returns true for variables that are explicitly declared to be global, false for ones that are implicitly global. (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.) * The *note syslog: dc. module will now use the value of ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default value of ‘'python'’. (Changed by Sean Reifschneider; bpo-8451(79).) * The *note sys.version_info: 69c. value is now a named tuple, with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘micro’, ‘releaselevel’, and ‘serial’. (Contributed by Ross Light; bpo-4285(80).) *note sys.getwindowsversion(): ce7. also returns a named tuple, with attributes named ‘major’, ‘minor’, ‘build’, ‘platform’, ‘service_pack’, ‘service_pack_major’, ‘service_pack_minor’, ‘suite_mask’, and ‘product_type’. (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-7766(81).) * The *note tarfile: de. module’s default error handling has changed, to no longer suppress fatal errors. The default error level was previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed. The default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s an error. (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(82).) *note tarfile: de. now supports filtering the *note TarInfo: 1203. objects being added to a tar file. When you call *note add(): bf3, you may supply an optional 'filter' argument that’s a callable. The 'filter' callable will be passed the *note TarInfo: 1203. for every file being added, and can modify and return it. If the callable returns ‘None’, the file will be excluded from the resulting archive. This is more powerful than the existing 'exclude' argument, which has therefore been deprecated. (Added by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-6856(83).) The *note TarFile: 1202. class also now supports the context management protocol. (Added by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7232(84).) * The *note wait(): 1319. method of the *note threading.Event: 114c. class now returns the internal flag on exit. This means the method will usually return true because *note wait(): 1319. is supposed to block until the internal flag becomes true. The return value will only be false if a timeout was provided and the operation timed out. (Contributed by Tim Lesher; bpo-1674032(85).) * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module is now used internally to determine which characters are numeric, whitespace, or represent line breaks. The database also includes information from the ‘Unihan.txt’ data file (patch by Anders Chrigström and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-1571184(86)) and has been updated to version 5.2.0 (updated by Florent Xicluna; bpo-8024(87)). * The *note urlparse: 10a. module’s *note urlsplit(): d3f. now handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC 3986(88): if the URL is of the form ‘"://..."’, the text before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up scheme that the module doesn’t know about. This change may break code that worked around the old behaviour. For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following: >>> import urlparse >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query') ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '') Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return: >>> import urlparse >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query') ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '') (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.) The *note urlparse: 10a. module also supports IPv6 literal addresses as defined by RFC 2732(89) (contributed by Senthil Kumaran; bpo-2987(90)). >>> urlparse.urlparse('http://[1080::8:800:200C:417A]/foo') ParseResult(scheme='http', netloc='[1080::8:800:200C:417A]', path='/foo', params='', query='', fragment='') * New class: the *note WeakSet: 5d9. class in the *note weakref: 114. module is a set that only holds weak references to its elements; elements will be removed once there are no references pointing to them. (Originally implemented in Python 3.x by Raymond Hettinger, and backported to 2.7 by Michael Foord.) * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. library, no longer escapes ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing instruction (which looks like ‘’) or comment (which looks like ‘’). (Patch by Neil Muller; bpo-2746(91).) * The XML-RPC client and server, provided by the *note xmlrpclib: 12e. and *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. modules, have improved performance by supporting HTTP/1.1 keep-alive and by optionally using gzip encoding to compress the XML being exchanged. The gzip compression is controlled by the ‘encode_threshold’ attribute of *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 131a, which contains a size in bytes; responses larger than this will be compressed. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-6267(92).) * The *note zipfile: 131. module’s *note ZipFile: 6c0. now supports the context management protocol, so you can write ‘with zipfile.ZipFile(...) as f:’. (Contributed by Brian Curtin; bpo-5511(93).) *note zipfile: 131. now also supports archiving empty directories and extracts them correctly. (Fixed by Kuba Wieczorek; bpo-4710(94).) Reading files out of an archive is faster, and interleaving *note read(): 131b. and *note readline(): 131c. now works correctly. (Contributed by Nir Aides; bpo-7610(95).) The *note is_zipfile(): 131d. function now accepts a file object, in addition to the path names accepted in earlier versions. (Contributed by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4756(96).) The *note writestr(): 131e. method now has an optional 'compress_type' parameter that lets you override the default compression method specified in the *note ZipFile: 6c0. constructor. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-6003(97).) * Menu: * New module; importlib: New module importlib. * New module; sysconfig: New module sysconfig. * ttk; Themed Widgets for Tk: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk. * Updated module; unittest: Updated module unittest. * Updated module; ElementTree 1.3: Updated module ElementTree 1 3. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5142 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7703 (3) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8156 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3860 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1696199 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1818 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8729 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7005 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3924 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1515 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4606 (13) https://sourceware.org/libffi/ (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8142 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5788 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4796 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2531 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8257 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6595 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7633 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7585 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8688 (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7490 (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1368247 (27) 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https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6939 (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5032 (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4816 (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4136 (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5381 (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1607951 (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6896 (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3366 (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5585 (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6963 (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1664 (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6508 (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7333 (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7242 (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5827 (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3426 (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4739 (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6816 (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3002 (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8354 (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6693 (64) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3137 (65) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3972 (66) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8104 (67) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6192 (68) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267 (69) https://github.com/ghaering/pysqlite (70) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7133 (71) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8222 (72) https://docs.openssl.org/1.0.2/man1/ciphers/ (73) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8322 (74) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8484 (75) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8321 (76) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1523 (77) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8300 (78) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1068268 (79) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451 (80) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4285 (81) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7766 (82) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357 (83) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6856 (84) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7232 (85) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1674032 (86) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1571184 (87) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8024 (88) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (89) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2732.html (90) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2987 (91) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746 (92) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6267 (93) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5511 (94) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4710 (95) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7610 (96) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4756 (97) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6003  File: python.info, Node: New module importlib, Next: New module sysconfig, Up: New and Improved Modules 1.15.11.1 New module: importlib ............................... Python 3.1 includes the *note importlib: 77. package, a re-implementation of the logic underlying Python’s *note import: 5de. statement. *note importlib: 77. is useful for implementers of Python interpreters and to users who wish to write new importers that can participate in the import process. Python 2.7 doesn’t contain the complete *note importlib: 77. package, but instead has a tiny subset that contains a single function, *note import_module(): 513. ‘import_module(name, package=None)’ imports a module. 'name' is a string containing the module or package’s name. It’s possible to do relative imports by providing a string that begins with a ‘.’ character, such as ‘..utils.errors’. For relative imports, the 'package' argument must be provided and is the name of the package that will be used as the anchor for the relative import. *note import_module(): 513. both inserts the imported module into ‘sys.modules’ and returns the module object. Here are some examples: >>> from importlib import import_module >>> anydbm = import_module('anydbm') # Standard absolute import >>> anydbm >>> # Relative import >>> file_util = import_module('..file_util', 'distutils.command') >>> file_util *note importlib: 77. was implemented by Brett Cannon and introduced in Python 3.1.  File: python.info, Node: New module sysconfig, Next: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk, Prev: New module importlib, Up: New and Improved Modules 1.15.11.2 New module: sysconfig ............................... The *note sysconfig: db. module has been pulled out of the Distutils package, becoming a new top-level module in its own right. *note sysconfig: db. provides functions for getting information about Python’s build process: compiler switches, installation paths, the platform name, and whether Python is running from its source directory. Some of the functions in the module are: * *note get_config_var(): 1024. returns variables from Python’s Makefile and the ‘pyconfig.h’ file. * *note get_config_vars(): 1025. returns a dictionary containing all of the configuration variables. * *note get_path(): 1321. returns the configured path for a particular type of module: the standard library, site-specific modules, platform-specific modules, etc. * *note is_python_build(): 2e1. returns true if you’re running a binary from a Python source tree, and false otherwise. Consult the *note sysconfig: db. documentation for more details and for a complete list of functions. The Distutils package and *note sysconfig: db. are now maintained by Tarek Ziadé, who has also started a Distutils2 package (source repository at ‘https://hg.python.org/distutils2/’) for developing a next-generation version of Distutils.  File: python.info, Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk, Next: Updated module unittest, Prev: New module sysconfig, Up: New and Improved Modules 1.15.11.3 ttk: Themed Widgets for Tk .................................... Tcl/Tk 8.5 includes a set of themed widgets that re-implement basic Tk widgets but have a more customizable appearance and can therefore more closely resemble the native platform’s widgets. This widget set was originally called Tile, but was renamed to Ttk (for “themed Tk”) on being added to Tcl/Tck release 8.5. To learn more, read the *note ttk: f9. module documentation. You may also wish to read the Tcl/Tk manual page describing the Ttk theme engine, available at ‘https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.5/TkCmd/ttk_intro.html’. Some screenshots of the Python/Ttk code in use are at ‘https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-ttk/wikis/Screenshots.wiki’. The *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module was written by Guilherme Polo and added in bpo-2983(1). An alternate version called ‘Tile.py’, written by Martin Franklin and maintained by Kevin Walzer, was proposed for inclusion in bpo-2618(2), but the authors argued that Guilherme Polo’s work was more comprehensive. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2983 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2618  File: python.info, Node: Updated module unittest, Next: Updated module ElementTree 1 3, Prev: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk, Up: New and Improved Modules 1.15.11.4 Updated module: unittest .................................. The *note unittest: 106. module was greatly enhanced; many new features were added. Most of these features were implemented by Michael Foord, unless otherwise noted. The enhanced version of the module is downloadable separately for use with Python versions 2.4 to 2.6, packaged as the ‘unittest2’ package, from unittest2(1). When used from the command line, the module can automatically discover tests. It’s not as fancy as py.test(2) or nose(3), but provides a simple way to run tests kept within a set of package directories. For example, the following command will search the ‘test/’ subdirectory for any importable test files named ‘test*.py’: python -m unittest discover -s test Consult the *note unittest: 106. module documentation for more details. (Developed in bpo-6001(4).) The *note main(): fde. function supports some other new options: * *note -b: 1325. or ‘--buffer’ will buffer the standard output and standard error streams during each test. If the test passes, any resulting output will be discarded; on failure, the buffered output will be displayed. * *note -c: 1326. or ‘--catch’ will cause the control-C interrupt to be handled more gracefully. Instead of interrupting the test process immediately, the currently running test will be completed and then the partial results up to the interruption will be reported. If you’re impatient, a second press of control-C will cause an immediate interruption. This control-C handler tries to avoid causing problems when the code being tested or the tests being run have defined a signal handler of their own, by noticing that a signal handler was already set and calling it. If this doesn’t work for you, there’s a *note removeHandler(): 1327. decorator that can be used to mark tests that should have the control-C handling disabled. * *note -f: 1328. or ‘--failfast’ makes test execution stop immediately when a test fails instead of continuing to execute further tests. (Suggested by Cliff Dyer and implemented by Michael Foord; bpo-8074(5).) The progress messages now show ‘x’ for expected failures and ‘u’ for unexpected successes when run in verbose mode. (Contributed by Benjamin Peterson.) Test cases can raise the *note SkipTest: fdf. exception to skip a test (bpo-1034053(6)). The error messages for *note assertEqual(): 524, *note assertTrue(): 522, and *note assertFalse(): 523. failures now provide more information. If you set the *note longMessage: 1329. attribute of your *note TestCase: 449. classes to true, both the standard error message and any additional message you provide will be printed for failures. (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-5663(7).) The *note assertRaises(): 528. method now returns a context handler when called without providing a callable object to run. For example, you can write this: with self.assertRaises(KeyError): {}['foo'] (Implemented by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-4444(8).) Module- and class-level setup and teardown fixtures are now supported. Modules can contain ‘setUpModule()’ and ‘tearDownModule()’ functions. Classes can have *note setUpClass(): a4e. and *note tearDownClass(): 132a. methods that must be defined as class methods (using ‘@classmethod’ or equivalent). These functions and methods are invoked when the test runner switches to a test case in a different module or class. The methods *note addCleanup(): a81. and *note doCleanups(): 132b. were added. *note addCleanup(): a81. lets you add cleanup functions that will be called unconditionally (after *note setUp(): 132c. if *note setUp(): 132c. fails, otherwise after *note tearDown(): 132d.). This allows for much simpler resource allocation and deallocation during tests (bpo-5679(9)). A number of new methods were added that provide more specialized tests. Many of these methods were written by Google engineers for use in their test suites; Gregory P. Smith, Michael Foord, and GvR worked on merging them into Python’s version of *note unittest: 106. * *note assertIsNone(): 127d. and *note assertIsNotNone(): 127e. take one expression and verify that the result is or is not ‘None’. * *note assertIs(): 132e. and *note assertIsNot(): 132f. take two values and check whether the two values evaluate to the same object or not. (Added by Michael Foord; bpo-2578(10).) * *note assertIsInstance(): 1330. and *note assertNotIsInstance(): 1331. check whether the resulting object is an instance of a particular class, or of one of a tuple of classes. (Added by Georg Brandl; bpo-7031(11).) * *note assertGreater(): 1332, *note assertGreaterEqual(): 1333, *note assertLess(): 1334, and *note assertLessEqual(): 1335. compare two quantities. * *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 1336. compares two strings, and if they’re not equal, displays a helpful comparison that highlights the differences in the two strings. This comparison is now used by default when Unicode strings are compared with *note assertEqual(): 524. * *note assertRegexpMatches(): 529. and *note assertNotRegexpMatches(): 52b. checks whether the first argument is a string matching or not matching the regular expression provided as the second argument (bpo-8038(12)). * *note assertRaisesRegexp(): 52a. checks whether a particular exception is raised, and then also checks that the string representation of the exception matches the provided regular expression. * *note assertIn(): 1337. and *note assertNotIn(): 1338. tests whether 'first' is or is not in 'second'. * *note assertItemsEqual(): 121d. tests whether two provided sequences contain the same elements. * *note assertSetEqual(): 1278. compares whether two sets are equal, and only reports the differences between the sets in case of error. * Similarly, *note assertListEqual(): 127a. and *note assertTupleEqual(): 127b. compare the specified types and explain any differences without necessarily printing their full values; these methods are now used by default when comparing lists and tuples using *note assertEqual(): 524. More generally, *note assertSequenceEqual(): 127c. compares two sequences and can optionally check whether both sequences are of a particular type. * *note assertDictEqual(): 1279. compares two dictionaries and reports the differences; it’s now used by default when you compare two dictionaries using *note assertEqual(): 524. ‘assertDictContainsSubset()’ checks whether all of the key/value pairs in 'first' are found in 'second'. * *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. and *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. test whether 'first' and 'second' are approximately equal. This method can either round their difference to an optionally specified number of 'places' (the default is 7) and compare it to zero, or require the difference to be smaller than a supplied 'delta' value. * *note loadTestsFromName(): 1339. properly honors the *note suiteClass: 133a. attribute of the *note TestLoader: 290. (Fixed by Mark Roddy; bpo-6866(13).) * A new hook lets you extend the *note assertEqual(): 524. method to handle new data types. The *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 133b. method takes a type object and a function. The function will be used when both of the objects being compared are of the specified type. This function should compare the two objects and raise an exception if they don’t match; it’s a good idea for the function to provide additional information about why the two objects aren’t matching, much as the new sequence comparison methods do. *note unittest.main(): fde. now takes an optional ‘exit’ argument. If false, *note main(): fde. doesn’t call *note sys.exit(): 133c, allowing *note main(): fde. to be used from the interactive interpreter. (Contributed by J. Pablo Fernández; bpo-3379(14).) *note TestResult: 115b. has new *note startTestRun(): 133d. and *note stopTestRun(): 133e. methods that are called immediately before and after a test run. (Contributed by Robert Collins; bpo-5728(15).) With all these changes, the ‘unittest.py’ was becoming awkwardly large, so the module was turned into a package and the code split into several files (by Benjamin Peterson). This doesn’t affect how the module is imported or used. See also ........ ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20210619163128/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/unittest2.shtml’ Describes the new features, how to use them, and the rationale for various design decisions. (By Michael Foord.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/unittest2/ (2) https://pytest.org (3) https://nose.readthedocs.io/ (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6001 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8074 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1034053 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5663 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4444 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5679 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2578 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7031 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8038 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6866 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3379 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5728  File: python.info, Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 3, Prev: Updated module unittest, Up: New and Improved Modules 1.15.11.5 Updated module: ElementTree 1.3 ......................................... The version of the ElementTree library included with Python was updated to version 1.3. Some of the new features are: * The various parsing functions now take a 'parser' keyword argument giving an *note XMLParser: a53. instance that will be used. This makes it possible to override the file’s internal encoding: p = ET.XMLParser(encoding='utf-8') t = ET.XML("""""", parser=p) Errors in parsing XML now raise a *note ParseError: 126b. exception, whose instances have a ‘position’ attribute containing a ('line', 'column') tuple giving the location of the problem. * ElementTree’s code for converting trees to a string has been significantly reworked, making it roughly twice as fast in many cases. The *note ElementTree.write(): ff0. and ‘Element.write()’ methods now have a 'method' parameter that can be “xml” (the default), “html”, or “text”. HTML mode will output empty elements as ‘’ instead of ‘’, and text mode will skip over elements and only output the text chunks. If you set the *note tag: 1341. attribute of an element to ‘None’ but leave its children in place, the element will be omitted when the tree is written out, so you don’t need to do more extensive rearrangement to remove a single element. Namespace handling has also been improved. All ‘xmlns:’ declarations are now output on the root element, not scattered throughout the resulting XML. You can set the default namespace for a tree by setting the ‘default_namespace’ attribute and can register new prefixes with *note register_namespace(): 11c4. In XML mode, you can use the true/false 'xml_declaration' parameter to suppress the XML declaration. * New *note Element: 30a. method: *note extend(): 11c5. appends the items from a sequence to the element’s children. Elements themselves behave like sequences, so it’s easy to move children from one element to another: from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET t = ET.XML(""" 1 2 3 """) new = ET.XML('') new.extend(t) # Outputs 1... print ET.tostring(new) * New *note Element: 30a. method: *note iter(): 1342. yields the children of the element as a generator. It’s also possible to write ‘for child in elem:’ to loop over an element’s children. The existing method ‘getiterator()’ is now deprecated, as is ‘getchildren()’ which constructs and returns a list of children. * New *note Element: 30a. method: *note itertext(): 11c7. yields all chunks of text that are descendants of the element. For example: t = ET.XML(""" 1 2 3 """) # Outputs ['\n ', '1', ' ', '2', ' ', '3', '\n'] print list(t.itertext()) * Deprecated: using an element as a Boolean (i.e., ‘if elem:’) would return true if the element had any children, or false if there were no children. This behaviour is confusing – ‘None’ is false, but so is a childless element? – so it will now trigger a *note FutureWarning: 411. In your code, you should be explicit: write ‘len(elem) != 0’ if you’re interested in the number of children, or ‘elem is not None’. Fredrik Lundh develops ElementTree and produced the 1.3 version; you can read his article describing 1.3 at ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20200703234532/http://effbot.org/zone/elementtree-13-intro.htm’. Florent Xicluna updated the version included with Python, after discussions on python-dev and in bpo-6472(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6472  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<8>, Next: Other Changes and Fixes, Prev: New and Improved Modules, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.12 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * The latest release of the GNU Debugger, GDB 7, can be scripted using Python(1). When you begin debugging an executable program P, GDB will look for a file named ‘P-gdb.py’ and automatically read it. Dave Malcolm contributed a ‘python-gdb.py’ that adds a number of commands useful when debugging Python itself. For example, ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ go up or down one Python stack frame, which usually corresponds to several C stack frames. ‘py-print’ prints the value of a Python variable, and ‘py-bt’ prints the Python stack trace. (Added as a result of bpo-8032(2).) * If you use the ‘.gdbinit’ file provided with Python, the “pyo” macro in the 2.7 version now works correctly when the thread being debugged doesn’t hold the GIL; the macro now acquires it before printing. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-3632(3).) * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 981. is now thread-safe, letting any worker thread submit notifications to the main Python thread. This is particularly useful for asynchronous IO operations. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-4293(4).) * New function: *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 1344. creates an empty code object; only the filename, function name, and first line number are required. This is useful for extension modules that are attempting to construct a more useful traceback stack. Previously such extensions needed to call ‘PyCode_New()’, which had many more arguments. (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.) * New function: *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 125c. creates a new exception class, just as the existing *note PyErr_NewException(): 125d. does, but takes an extra ‘char *’ argument containing the docstring for the new exception class. (Added by ‘lekma’ on the Python bug tracker; bpo-7033(5).) * New function: *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. takes a frame object and returns the line number that the frame is currently executing. Previously code would need to get the index of the bytecode instruction currently executing, and then look up the line number corresponding to that address. (Added by Jeffrey Yasskin.) * New functions: *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 125a. and *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1259. approximates a Python long integer as a C long or long long. If the number is too large to fit into the output type, an 'overflow' flag is set and returned to the caller. (Contributed by Case Van Horsen; bpo-7528(6) and bpo-7767(7).) * New function: stemming from the rewrite of string-to-float conversion, a new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1288. function was added. The old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions are now deprecated. * New function: ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ sets the value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter. This function was added to close a security hole for applications that embed Python. The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current directory. This meant that, if you ran an application embedding Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run. If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false. Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(8); discussed in bpo-5753(9), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou. * New macros: the Python header files now define the following macros: ‘Py_ISALNUM’, ‘Py_ISALPHA’, ‘Py_ISDIGIT’, ‘Py_ISLOWER’, ‘Py_ISSPACE’, ‘Py_ISUPPER’, ‘Py_ISXDIGIT’, ‘Py_TOLOWER’, and ‘Py_TOUPPER’. All of these functions are analogous to the C standard macros for classifying characters, but ignore the current locale setting, because in several places Python needs to analyze characters in a locale-independent way. (Added by Eric Smith; bpo-5793(10).) * Removed function: ‘PyEval_CallObject()’ is now only available as a macro. A function version was being kept around to preserve ABI linking compatibility, but that was in 1997; it can certainly be deleted by now. (Removed by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-8276(11).) * New format codes: the ‘PyString_FromFormat()’, ‘PyString_FromFormatV()’, and *note PyErr_Format(): eaa. functions now accept ‘%lld’ and ‘%llu’ format codes for displaying C’s long long types. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7228(12).) * The complicated interaction between threads and process forking has been changed. Previously, the child process created by *note os.fork(): 197. might fail because the child is created with only a single thread running, the thread performing the *note os.fork(): 197. If other threads were holding a lock, such as Python’s import lock, when the fork was performed, the lock would still be marked as “held” in the new process. But in the child process nothing would ever release the lock, since the other threads weren’t replicated, and the child process would no longer be able to perform imports. Python 2.7 acquires the import lock before performing an *note os.fork(): 197, and will also clean up any locks created using the *note threading: ed. module. C extension modules that have internal locks, or that call ‘fork()’ themselves, will not benefit from this clean-up. (Fixed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1590864(13).) * The *note Py_Finalize(): 1345. function now calls the internal ‘threading._shutdown()’ function; this prevents some exceptions from being raised when an interpreter shuts down. (Patch by Adam Olsen; bpo-1722344(14).) * When using the *note PyMemberDef: 54c. structure to define attributes of a type, Python will no longer let you try to delete or set a ‘T_STRING_INPLACE’ attribute. * Global symbols defined by the *note ctypes: 2a. module are now prefixed with ‘Py’, or with ‘_ctypes’. (Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-3102(15).) * New configure option: the ‘--with-system-expat’ switch allows building the *note pyexpat: 126. module to use the system Expat library. (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-7609(16).) * New configure option: the ‘--with-valgrind’ option will now disable the pymalloc allocator, which is difficult for the Valgrind memory-error detector to analyze correctly. Valgrind will therefore be better at detecting memory leaks and overruns. (Contributed by James Henstridge; bpo-2422(17).) * New configure option: you can now supply an empty string to ‘--with-dbmliborder=’ in order to disable all of the various DBM modules. (Added by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6491(18).) * The ‘configure’ script now checks for floating-point rounding bugs on certain 32-bit Intel chips and defines a ‘X87_DOUBLE_ROUNDING’ preprocessor definition. No code currently uses this definition, but it’s available if anyone wishes to use it. (Added by Mark Dickinson; bpo-2937(19).) ‘configure’ also now sets a ‘LDCXXSHARED’ Makefile variable for supporting C++ linking. (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-1222585(20).) * The build process now creates the necessary files for pkg-config support. (Contributed by Clinton Roy; bpo-3585(21).) * The build process now supports Subversion 1.7. (Contributed by Arfrever Frehtes Taifersar Arahesis; bpo-6094(22).) * Menu: * Capsules:: * Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows. * Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X. * Port-Specific Changes; FreeBSD: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://web.archive.org/web/20110715084810/http://sourceware.org/gdb/current/onlinedocs/gdb/Python.html (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8032 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3632 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4293 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7033 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7528 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7767 (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5753 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5793 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8276 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7228 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1590864 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1722344 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3102 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7609 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2422 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6491 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2937 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1222585 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3585 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6094  File: python.info, Node: Capsules, Next: Port-Specific Changes Windows, Up: Build and C API Changes<8> 1.15.12.1 Capsules .................. Python 3.1 adds a new C datatype, *note PyCapsule: 1266, for providing a C API to an extension module. A capsule is essentially the holder of a C ‘void *’ pointer, and is made available as a module attribute; for example, the *note socket: cc. module’s API is exposed as ‘socket.CAPI’, and *note unicodedata: 105. exposes ‘ucnhash_CAPI’. Other extensions can import the module, access its dictionary to get the capsule object, and then get the ‘void *’ pointer, which will usually point to an array of pointers to the module’s various API functions. There is an existing data type already used for this, ‘PyCObject’, but it doesn’t provide type safety. Evil code written in pure Python could cause a segmentation fault by taking a ‘PyCObject’ from module A and somehow substituting it for the ‘PyCObject’ in module B. Capsules know their own name, and getting the pointer requires providing the name: void *vtable; if (!PyCapsule_IsValid(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI") { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ValueError, "argument type invalid"); return NULL; } vtable = PyCapsule_GetPointer(capsule, "mymodule.CAPI"); You are assured that ‘vtable’ points to whatever you’re expecting. If a different capsule was passed in, *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1348. would detect the mismatched name and return false. Refer to *note Providing a C API for an Extension Module: 1349. for more information on using these objects. Python 2.7 now uses capsules internally to provide various extension-module APIs, but the ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ was modified to handle capsules, preserving compile-time compatibility with the ‘PyCObject’ interface. Use of ‘PyCObject_AsVoidPtr()’ will signal a *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7, which is silent by default. Implemented in Python 3.1 and backported to 2.7 by Larry Hastings; discussed in bpo-5630(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5630  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows, Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X, Prev: Capsules, Up: Build and C API Changes<8> 1.15.12.2 Port-Specific Changes: Windows ........................................ * The *note msvcrt: 93. module now contains some constants from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file: *note CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION: 134b, *note VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN: 134c, and *note LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX: 134d. (Contributed by David Cournapeau; bpo-4365(1).) * The *note _winreg: 116. module for accessing the registry now implements the *note CreateKeyEx(): 134e. and *note DeleteKeyEx(): 134f. functions, extended versions of previously supported functions that take several extra arguments. The *note DisableReflectionKey(): 1350, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 1351, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 1352. were also tested and documented. (Implemented by Brian Curtin: bpo-7347(2).) * The new ‘_beginthreadex()’ API is used to start threads, and the native thread-local storage functions are now used. (Contributed by Kristján Valur Jónsson; bpo-3582(3).) * The *note os.kill(): 1353. function now works on Windows. The signal value can be the constants *note CTRL_C_EVENT: 1354, *note CTRL_BREAK_EVENT: 1355, or any integer. The first two constants will send ‘Control’-‘C’ and ‘Control’-‘Break’ keystroke events to subprocesses; any other value will use the ‘TerminateProcess()’ API. (Contributed by Miki Tebeka; bpo-1220212(4).) * The *note os.listdir(): 10ee. function now correctly fails for an empty path. (Fixed by Hirokazu Yamamoto; bpo-5913(5).) * The *note mimetypes: 8f. module will now read the MIME database from the Windows registry when initializing. (Patch by Gabriel Genellina; bpo-4969(6).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4365 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7347 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3582 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1220212 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5913 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4969  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X, Next: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD, Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows, Up: Build and C API Changes<8> 1.15.12.3 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X ......................................... * The path ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’ is now appended to ‘sys.path’, in order to share added packages between the system installation and a user-installed copy of the same version. (Changed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-4865(1).) Changed in version 2.7.13: As of 2.7.13, this change was removed. ‘/Library/Python/2.7/site-packages’, the site-packages directory used by the Apple-supplied system Python 2.7 is no longer appended to ‘sys.path’ for user-installed Pythons such as from the python.org installers. As of macOS 10.12, Apple changed how the system site-packages directory is configured, which could cause installation of pip components, like setuptools, to fail. Packages installed for the system Python will no longer be shared with user-installed Pythons. (bpo-28440(2)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=4865 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=28440  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD, Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X, Up: Build and C API Changes<8> 1.15.12.4 Port-Specific Changes: FreeBSD ........................................ * FreeBSD 7.1’s ‘SO_SETFIB’ constant, used with the *note socket(): da0. methods *note getsockopt(): cd5./*note setsockopt(): cd6. to select an alternate routing table, is now available in the *note socket: cc. module. (Added by Kyle VanderBeek; bpo-8235(1).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8235  File: python.info, Node: Other Changes and Fixes, Next: Porting to Python 2 7, Prev: Build and C API Changes<8>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.13 Other Changes and Fixes ------------------------------- * Two benchmark scripts, ‘iobench’ and ‘ccbench’, were added to the ‘Tools’ directory. ‘iobench’ measures the speed of the built-in file I/O objects returned by *note open(): 517. while performing various operations, and ‘ccbench’ is a concurrency benchmark that tries to measure computing throughput, thread switching latency, and IO processing bandwidth when performing several tasks using a varying number of threads. * The ‘Tools/i18n/msgfmt.py’ script now understands plural forms in ‘.po’ files. (Fixed by Martin von Löwis; bpo-5464(1).) * When importing a module from a ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ file with an existing ‘.py’ counterpart, the *note co_filename: 1359. attributes of the resulting code objects are overwritten when the original filename is obsolete. This can happen if the file has been renamed, moved, or is accessed through different paths. (Patch by Ziga Seilnacht and Jean-Paul Calderone; bpo-1180193(2).) * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now takes a ‘--randseed=’ switch that takes an integer that will be used as the random seed for the ‘-r’ option that executes tests in random order. The ‘-r’ option also reports the seed that was used (Added by Collin Winter.) * Another ‘regrtest.py’ switch is ‘-j’, which takes an integer specifying how many tests run in parallel. This allows reducing the total runtime on multi-core machines. This option is compatible with several other options, including the ‘-R’ switch which is known to produce long runtimes. (Added by Antoine Pitrou, bpo-6152(3).) This can also be used with a new ‘-F’ switch that runs selected tests in a loop until they fail. (Added by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-7312(4).) * When executed as a script, the ‘py_compile.py’ module now accepts ‘'-'’ as an argument, which will read standard input for the list of filenames to be compiled. (Contributed by Piotr Ożarowski; bpo-8233(5).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5464 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1180193 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6152 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7312 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8233  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 2 7, Next: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases, Prev: Other Changes and Fixes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.14 Porting to Python 2.7 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code: * The *note range(): 943. function processes its arguments more consistently; it will now call *note __int__(): 717. on non-float, non-integer arguments that are supplied to it. (Fixed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1533(1).) * The string *note format(): 61b. method changed the default precision used for floating-point and complex numbers from 6 decimal places to 12, which matches the precision used by *note str(): 447. (Changed by Eric Smith; bpo-5920(2).) * Because of an optimization for the *note with: 5ce. statement, the special methods *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. must belong to the object’s type, and cannot be directly attached to the object’s instance. This affects new-style classes (derived from *note object: a8c.) and C extension types. (bpo-6101(3).) * Due to a bug in Python 2.6, the 'exc_value' parameter to *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods was often the string representation of the exception, not an instance. This was fixed in 2.7, so 'exc_value' will be an instance as expected. (Fixed by Florent Xicluna; bpo-7853(4).) * When a restricted set of attributes were set using ‘__slots__’, deleting an unset attribute would not raise *note AttributeError: 348. as you would expect. Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-7604(5).) In the standard library: * Operations with *note datetime: 1cc. instances that resulted in a year falling outside the supported range didn’t always raise *note OverflowError: 87f. Such errors are now checked more carefully and will now raise the exception. (Reported by Mark Leander, patch by Anand B. Pillai and Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-7150(6).) * When using *note Decimal: 29f. instances with a string’s *note format(): 61b. method, the default alignment was previously left-alignment. This has been changed to right-alignment, which might change the output of your programs. (Changed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-6857(7).) Comparisons involving a signaling NaN value (or ‘sNAN’) now signal *note InvalidOperation: 109e. instead of silently returning a true or false value depending on the comparison operator. Quiet NaN values (or ‘NaN’) are now hashable. (Fixed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-7279(8).) * The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. library no longer escapes ampersands and angle brackets when outputting an XML processing instruction (which looks like ‘’) or comment (which looks like ‘’). (Patch by Neil Muller; bpo-2746(9).) * The ‘readline()’ method of *note StringIO: f22. objects now does nothing when a negative length is requested, as other file-like objects do. (bpo-7348(10)). * The *note syslog: dc. module will now use the value of ‘sys.argv[0]’ as the identifier instead of the previous default value of ‘'python'’. (Changed by Sean Reifschneider; bpo-8451(11).) * The *note tarfile: de. module’s default error handling has changed, to no longer suppress fatal errors. The default error level was previously 0, which meant that errors would only result in a message being written to the debug log, but because the debug log is not activated by default, these errors go unnoticed. The default error level is now 1, which raises an exception if there’s an error. (Changed by Lars Gustäbel; bpo-7357(12).) * The *note urlparse: 10a. module’s *note urlsplit(): d3f. now handles unknown URL schemes in a fashion compliant with RFC 3986(13): if the URL is of the form ‘"://..."’, the text before the ‘://’ is treated as the scheme, even if it’s a made-up scheme that the module doesn’t know about. This change may break code that worked around the old behaviour. For example, Python 2.6.4 or 2.5 will return the following: >>> import urlparse >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query') ('invented', '', '//host/filename?query', '', '') Python 2.7 (and Python 2.6.5) will return: >>> import urlparse >>> urlparse.urlsplit('invented://host/filename?query') ('invented', 'host', '/filename?query', '', '') (Python 2.7 actually produces slightly different output, since it returns a named tuple instead of a standard tuple.) For C extensions: * C extensions that use integer format codes with the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ family of functions will now raise a *note TypeError: 534. exception instead of triggering a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. (bpo-5080(14)). * Use the new *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1288. function instead of the old ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod()’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof()’ functions, which are now deprecated. For applications that embed Python: * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added, letting applications close a security hole when the existing ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used. Check whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5920 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6101 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7853 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7604 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7150 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=6857 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7279 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2746 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7348 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=8451 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=7357 (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=5080  File: python.info, Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases, Next: Acknowledgements, Prev: Porting to Python 2 7, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.15 New Features Added to Python 2.7 Maintenance Releases ------------------------------------------------------------- New features may be added to Python 2.7 maintenance releases when the situation genuinely calls for it. Any such additions must go through the Python Enhancement Proposal process, and make a compelling case for why they can’t be adequately addressed by either adding the new feature solely to Python 3, or else by publishing it on the Python Package Index. In addition to the specific proposals listed below, there is a general exemption allowing new ‘-3’ warnings to be added in any Python 2.7 maintenance release. * Menu: * Two new environment variables for debug mode:: * PEP 434; IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches. * PEP 466; Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. * PEP 477; Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7. * PEP 476; Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>. * PEP 493; HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7. * New make regen-all build target: New make regen-all build target<3>. * Removal of make touch build target: Removal of make touch build target<3>.  File: python.info, Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode, Next: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.1 Two new environment variables for debug mode ...................................................... In debug mode, the ‘[xxx refs]’ statistic is not written by default, the ‘PYTHONSHOWREFCOUNT’ environment variable now must also be set. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31733(1).) When Python is compiled with ‘COUNT_ALLOC’ defined, allocation counts are no longer dumped by default anymore: the ‘PYTHONSHOWALLOCCOUNT’ environment variable must now also be set. Moreover, allocation counts are now dumped into stderr, rather than stdout. (Contributed by Victor Stinner; bpo-31692(2).) Added in version 2.7.15. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31733 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=31692  File: python.info, Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches, Next: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7, Prev: Two new environment variables for debug mode, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.2 PEP 434: IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches .............................................................. PEP 434(1) describes a general exemption for changes made to the IDLE development environment shipped along with Python. This exemption makes it possible for the IDLE developers to provide a more consistent user experience across all supported versions of Python 2 and 3. For details of any IDLE changes, refer to the NEWS file for the specific release. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7, Next: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7, Prev: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.3 PEP 466: Network Security Enhancements for Python 2.7 ............................................................... PEP 466(1) describes a number of network security enhancement proposals that have been approved for inclusion in Python 2.7 maintenance releases, with the first of those changes appearing in the Python 2.7.7 release. PEP 466(2) related features added in Python 2.7.7: * *note hmac.compare_digest(): 10bf. was backported from Python 3 to make a timing attack resistant comparison operation available to Python 2 applications. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21306(3).) * OpenSSL 1.0.1g was upgraded in the official Windows installers published on python.org. (Contributed by Zachary Ware; bpo-21462(4).) PEP 466(5) related features added in Python 2.7.8: * *note hashlib.pbkdf2_hmac(): 50a. was backported from Python 3 to make a hashing algorithm suitable for secure password storage broadly available to Python 2 applications. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21304(6).) * OpenSSL 1.0.1h was upgraded for the official Windows installers published on python.org. (Contributed by Zachary Ware in bpo-21671(7) for CVE 2014-0224(8).) PEP 466(9) related features added in Python 2.7.9: * Most of Python 3.4’s *note ssl: d0. module was backported. This means *note ssl: d0. now supports Server Name Indication, TLS1.x settings, access to the platform certificate store, the *note SSLContext: 296. class, and other features. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor and David Reid; bpo-21308(10).) Refer to the “Version added: 2.7.9” notes in the module documentation for specific details. * *note os.urandom(): 51e. was changed to cache a file descriptor to ‘/dev/urandom’ instead of reopening ‘/dev/urandom’ on every call. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor; bpo-21305(11).) * *note hashlib.algorithms_guaranteed: 135f. and *note hashlib.algorithms_available: 1360. were backported from Python 3 to make it easier for Python 2 applications to select the strongest available hash algorithm. (Contributed by Alex Gaynor in bpo-21307(12)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21306 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21462 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/ (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21304 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21671 (8) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2014-0224 (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0466/ (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21308 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21305 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=21307  File: python.info, Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7, Next: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>, Prev: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.4 PEP 477: Backport ensurepip (PEP 453) to Python 2.7 ............................................................. PEP 477(1) approves the inclusion of the PEP 453(2) ensurepip module and the improved documentation that was enabled by it in the Python 2.7 maintenance releases, appearing first in the Python 2.7.9 release. * Menu: * Bootstrapping pip By Default: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>. * Documentation Changes: Documentation Changes<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/  File: python.info, Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>, Next: Documentation Changes<2>, Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7 1.15.15.5 Bootstrapping pip By Default ...................................... The new *note ensurepip: 55. module (defined in PEP 453(1)) provides a standard cross-platform mechanism to bootstrap the pip installer into Python installations. The version of ‘pip’ included with Python 2.7.9 is ‘pip’ 1.5.6, and future 2.7.x maintenance releases will update the bundled version to the latest version of ‘pip’ that is available at the time of creating the release candidate. By default, the commands ‘pip’, ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed on all platforms (where X.Y stands for the version of the Python installation), along with the ‘pip’ Python package and its dependencies. For CPython *note source builds on POSIX systems: eee, the ‘make install’ and ‘make altinstall’ commands do not bootstrap ‘pip’ by default. This behaviour can be controlled through configure options, and overridden through Makefile options. On Windows and Mac OS X, the CPython installers now default to installing ‘pip’ along with CPython itself (users may opt out of installing it during the installation process). Window users will need to opt in to the automatic ‘PATH’ modifications to have ‘pip’ available from the command line by default, otherwise it can still be accessed through the Python launcher for Windows as ‘py -m pip’. As discussed in the PEP(2), platform packagers may choose not to install these commands by default, as long as, when invoked, they provide clear and simple directions on how to install them on that platform (usually using the system package manager). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0477/#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors  File: python.info, Node: Documentation Changes<2>, Prev: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>, Up: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7 1.15.15.6 Documentation Changes ............................... As part of this change, the *note Installing Python Modules: ef0. and distributing-index sections of the documentation have been completely redesigned as short getting started and FAQ documents. Most packaging documentation has now been moved out to the Python Packaging Authority maintained Python Packaging User Guide(1) and the documentation of the individual projects. However, as this migration is currently still incomplete, the legacy versions of those guides remaining available as *note Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools: ef1. and *note Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools: ef2. See also ........ PEP 453(2) – Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations PEP written by Donald Stufft and Nick Coghlan, implemented by Donald Stufft, Nick Coghlan, Martin von Löwis and Ned Deily. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>, Next: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7, Prev: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.7 PEP 476: Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients ....................................................................................... PEP 476(1) updated *note httplib: 6e. and modules which use it, such as *note urllib2: 10b. and *note xmlrpclib: 12e, to now verify that the server presents a certificate which is signed by a Certificate Authority in the platform trust store and whose hostname matches the hostname being requested by default, significantly improving security for many applications. This change was made in the Python 2.7.9 release. For applications which require the old previous behavior, they can pass an alternate context: import urllib2 import ssl # This disables all verification context = ssl._create_unverified_context() # This allows using a specific certificate for the host, which doesn't need # to be in the trust store context = ssl.create_default_context(cafile="/path/to/file.crt") urllib2.urlopen("https://invalid-cert", context=context) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0476/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7, Next: New make regen-all build target<3>, Prev: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.8 PEP 493: HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2.7 .................................................................... PEP 493(1) provides additional migration tools to support a more incremental infrastructure upgrade process for environments containing applications and services relying on the historically permissive processing of server certificates when establishing client HTTPS connections. These additions were made in the Python 2.7.12 release. These tools are intended for use in cases where affected applications and services can’t be modified to explicitly pass a more permissive SSL context when establishing the connection. For applications and services which can’t be modified at all, the new ‘PYTHONHTTPSVERIFY’ environment variable may be set to ‘0’ to revert an entire Python process back to the default permissive behaviour of Python 2.7.8 and earlier. For cases where the connection establishment code can’t be modified, but the overall application can be, the new ‘ssl._https_verify_certificates()’ function can be used to adjust the default behaviour at runtime. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0493/  File: python.info, Node: New make regen-all build target<3>, Next: Removal of make touch build target<3>, Prev: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.9 New ‘make regen-all’ build target ........................................... To simplify cross-compilation, and to ensure that CPython can reliably be compiled without requiring an existing version of Python to already be available, the autotools-based build system no longer attempts to implicitly recompile generated files based on file modification times. Instead, a new ‘make regen-all’ command has been added to force regeneration of these files when desired (e.g. after an initial version of Python has already been built based on the pregenerated versions). More selective regeneration targets are also defined - see Makefile.pre.in(1) for details. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(2).) Added in version 2.7.14. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Makefile.pre.in (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404  File: python.info, Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>, Prev: New make regen-all build target<3>, Up: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases 1.15.15.10 Removal of ‘make touch’ build target ............................................... The ‘make touch’ build target previously used to request implicit regeneration of generated files by updating their modification times has been removed. It has been replaced by the new ‘make regen-all’ target. (Contributed by Victor Stinner in bpo-23404(1).) Changed in version 2.7.14. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=23404  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements, Prev: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases, Up: What’s New in Python 2 7 1.15.16 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Nick Coghlan, Philip Jenvey, Ryan Lovett, R. David Murray, Hugh Secker-Walker.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 6, Next: What’s New in Python 2 5, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 7, Up: What’s New in Python 1.16 What’s New in Python 2.6 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling (amk at amk.ca) This article explains the new features in Python 2.6, released on October 1, 2008. The release schedule is described in PEP 361(1). The major theme of Python 2.6 is preparing the migration path to Python 3.0, a major redesign of the language. Whenever possible, Python 2.6 incorporates new features and syntax from 3.0 while remaining compatible with existing code by not removing older features or syntax. When it’s not possible to do that, Python 2.6 tries to do what it can, adding compatibility functions in a ‘future_builtins’ module and a ‘-3’ switch to warn about usages that will become unsupported in 3.0. Some significant new packages have been added to the standard library, such as the *note multiprocessing: 94. and *note json: 82. modules, but there aren’t many new features that aren’t related to Python 3.0 in some way. Python 2.6 also sees a number of improvements and bugfixes throughout the source. A search through the change logs finds there were 259 patches applied and 612 bugs fixed between Python 2.5 and 2.6. Both figures are likely to be underestimates. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.6. If you want to understand the rationale for the design and implementation, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature. Whenever possible, “What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch item for each change. * Menu: * Python 3.0: Python 3 0. * Changes to the Development Process:: * PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement. * PEP 366; Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module. * PEP 370; Per-user site-packages Directory: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. * PEP 371; The multiprocessing Package: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package. * PEP 3101; Advanced String Formatting: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting. * PEP 3105; print As a Function: PEP 3105 print As a Function. * PEP 3110; Exception-Handling Changes: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes. * PEP 3112; Byte Literals: PEP 3112 Byte Literals. * PEP 3116; New I/O Library: PEP 3116 New I/O Library. * PEP 3118; Revised Buffer Protocol: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol. * PEP 3119; Abstract Base Classes: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes. * PEP 3127; Integer Literal Support and Syntax: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax. * PEP 3129; Class Decorators: PEP 3129 Class Decorators. * PEP 3141; A Type Hierarchy for Numbers: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<15>. * New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<2>. * Deprecations and Removals:: * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<9>. * Porting to Python 2.6: Porting to Python 2 6. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0361/  File: python.info, Node: Python 3 0, Next: Changes to the Development Process, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.1 Python 3.0 ----------------- The development cycle for Python versions 2.6 and 3.0 was synchronized, with the alpha and beta releases for both versions being made on the same days. The development of 3.0 has influenced many features in 2.6. Python 3.0 is a far-ranging redesign of Python that breaks compatibility with the 2.x series. This means that existing Python code will need some conversion in order to run on Python 3.0. However, not all the changes in 3.0 necessarily break compatibility. In cases where new features won’t cause existing code to break, they’ve been backported to 2.6 and are described in this document in the appropriate place. Some of the 3.0-derived features are: * A ‘__complex__()’ method for converting objects to a complex number. * Alternate syntax for catching exceptions: ‘except TypeError as exc’. * The addition of *note functools.reduce(): 12cf. as a synonym for the built-in ‘reduce()’ function. Python 3.0 adds several new built-in functions and changes the semantics of some existing builtins. Functions that are new in 3.0 such as *note bin(): 129b. have simply been added to Python 2.6, but existing builtins haven’t been changed; instead, the ‘future_builtins’ module has versions with the new 3.0 semantics. Code written to be compatible with 3.0 can do ‘from future_builtins import hex, map’ as necessary. A new command-line switch, ‘-3’, enables warnings about features that will be removed in Python 3.0. You can run code with this switch to see how much work will be necessary to port code to 3.0. The value of this switch is available to Python code as the boolean variable ‘sys.py3kwarning’, and to C extension code as ‘Py_Py3kWarningFlag’. See also ........ The 3'xxx' series of PEPs, which contains proposals for Python 3.0. PEP 3000(1) describes the development process for Python 3.0. Start with PEP 3100(2) that describes the general goals for Python 3.0, and then explore the higher-numbered PEPs that propose specific features. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3000/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3100/  File: python.info, Node: Changes to the Development Process, Next: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement, Prev: Python 3 0, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.2 Changes to the Development Process ----------------------------------------- While 2.6 was being developed, the Python development process underwent two significant changes: we switched from SourceForge’s issue tracker to a customized Roundup installation, and the documentation was converted from LaTeX to reStructuredText. * Menu: * New Issue Tracker; Roundup: New Issue Tracker Roundup. * New Documentation Format; reStructuredText Using Sphinx: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx.  File: python.info, Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup, Next: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx, Up: Changes to the Development Process 1.16.2.1 New Issue Tracker: Roundup ................................... For a long time, the Python developers had been growing increasingly annoyed by SourceForge’s bug tracker. SourceForge’s hosted solution doesn’t permit much customization; for example, it wasn’t possible to customize the life cycle of issues. The infrastructure committee of the Python Software Foundation therefore posted a call for issue trackers, asking volunteers to set up different products and import some of the bugs and patches from SourceForge. Four different trackers were examined: Jira(1), Launchpad(2), Roundup(3), and Trac(4). The committee eventually settled on Jira and Roundup as the two candidates. Jira is a commercial product that offers no-cost hosted instances to free-software projects; Roundup is an open-source project that requires volunteers to administer it and a server to host it. After posting a call for volunteers, a new Roundup installation was set up at ‘https://bugs.python.org’. One installation of Roundup can host multiple trackers, and this server now also hosts issue trackers for Jython and for the Python web site. It will surely find other uses in the future. Where possible, this edition of “What’s New in Python” links to the bug/patch item for each change. Hosting of the Python bug tracker is kindly provided by Upfront Systems(5) of Stellenbosch, South Africa. Martin von Löwis put a lot of effort into importing existing bugs and patches from SourceForge; his scripts for this import operation are at ‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ and may be useful to other projects wishing to move from SourceForge to Roundup. See also ........ ‘https://bugs.python.org’ The Python bug tracker. ‘https://bugs.jython.org’: The Jython bug tracker. ‘https://roundup.sourceforge.io/’ Roundup downloads and documentation. ‘https://svn.python.org/view/tracker/importer/’ Martin von Löwis’s conversion scripts. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.atlassian.com/software/jira/ (2) https://launchpad.net/ (3) https://roundup.sourceforge.io/ (4) https://trac.edgewall.org/ (5) https://upfrontsoftware.co.za  File: python.info, Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx, Prev: New Issue Tracker Roundup, Up: Changes to the Development Process 1.16.2.2 New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx ................................................................ The Python documentation was written using LaTeX since the project started around 1989. In the 1980s and early 1990s, most documentation was printed out for later study, not viewed online. LaTeX was widely used because it provided attractive printed output while remaining straightforward to write once the basic rules of the markup were learned. Today LaTeX is still used for writing publications destined for printing, but the landscape for programming tools has shifted. We no longer print out reams of documentation; instead, we browse through it online and HTML has become the most important format to support. Unfortunately, converting LaTeX to HTML is fairly complicated and Fred L. Drake Jr., the long-time Python documentation editor, spent a lot of time maintaining the conversion process. Occasionally people would suggest converting the documentation into SGML and later XML, but performing a good conversion is a major task and no one ever committed the time required to finish the job. During the 2.6 development cycle, Georg Brandl put a lot of effort into building a new toolchain for processing the documentation. The resulting package is called Sphinx, and is available from ‘https://www.sphinx-doc.org/’. Sphinx concentrates on HTML output, producing attractively styled and modern HTML; printed output is still supported through conversion to LaTeX. The input format is reStructuredText, a markup syntax supporting custom extensions and directives that is commonly used in the Python community. Sphinx is a standalone package that can be used for writing, and almost two dozen other projects (listed on the Sphinx web site(1)) have adopted Sphinx as their documentation tool. See also ........ Documenting Python(2) Describes how to write for Python’s documentation. Sphinx(3) Documentation and code for the Sphinx toolchain. Docutils(4) The underlying reStructuredText parser and toolset. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/en/master/examples.html (2) https://devguide.python.org/documenting/ (3) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/ (4) https://docutils.sourceforge.io  File: python.info, Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement, Next: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module, Prev: Changes to the Development Process, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.3 PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement ------------------------------------ The previous version, Python 2.5, added the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import with_statement’ directive. In 2.6 the statement no longer needs to be specially enabled; this means that ‘with’ is now always a keyword. The rest of this section is a copy of the corresponding section from the “What’s New in Python 2.5” document; if you’re familiar with the ‘‘with’’ statement from Python 2.5, you can skip this section. The ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement clarifies code that previously would use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed. In this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used. In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects for use with this statement. The ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement is a control-flow structure whose basic structure is: with expression [as variable]: with-block The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods). The object’s *note __enter__(): 5c4. is called before 'with-block' is executed and therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the name 'variable', if given. (Note carefully that 'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.) After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run clean-up code. Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can be used with the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement. File objects are one example: with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f: for line in f: print line ... more processing code ... After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been automatically closed, even if the *note for: 2ec. loop raised an exception part-way through the block. Note: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open(): 517, because *note __enter__(): 5c4. returns 'self'. The *note threading: ed. module’s locks and condition variables also support the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement: lock = threading.Lock() with lock: # Critical section of code ... The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once the block is complete. The ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 36. module makes it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations: from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext # Displays with default precision of 28 digits v = Decimal('578') print v.sqrt() with localcontext(Context(prec=16)): # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits. # The original context is restored on exiting the block. print v.sqrt() * Menu: * Writing Context Managers:: * The contextlib module::  File: python.info, Node: Writing Context Managers, Next: The contextlib module, Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement 1.16.3.1 Writing Context Managers ................................. Under the hood, the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement is fairly complicated. Most people will only use ‘‘with’’ in company with existing objects and don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if you like. Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading. A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is: * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a “context manager”. The context manager must have *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods. * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c4. method is called. The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘as VAR’ clause is present, the value is simply discarded. * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed. * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the context manager’s *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is called with three arguments, the exception details (‘type, value, traceback’, the same values returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686, which can also be ‘None’ if no exception occurred). The method’s return value controls whether an exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it. You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code containing the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement will never realize anything went wrong. * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are all ‘None’. Let’s think through an example. I won’t present detailed code but will only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions. (For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the database are grouped into a transaction. Transactions can be either committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged. See any database textbook for more information.) Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection. Our goal will be to let the user write code like this: db_connection = DatabaseConnection() with db_connection as cursor: cursor.execute('insert into ...') cursor.execute('delete from ...') # ... more operations ... The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception. Here’s the basic interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume: class DatabaseConnection: # Database interface def cursor(self): "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction" def commit(self): "Commits current transaction" def rollback(self): "Rolls back current transaction" The *note __enter__(): 5c4. method is pretty easy, having only to start a new transaction. For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful result, so the method will return it. The user can then add ‘as cursor’ to their ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement to bind the cursor to a variable name. class DatabaseConnection: ... def __enter__(self): # Code to start a new transaction cursor = self.cursor() return cursor The *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is the most complicated because it’s where most of the work has to be done. The method has to check if an exception occurred. If there was no exception, the transaction is committed. The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception. In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function, returning the default value of ‘None’. ‘None’ is false, so the exception will be re-raised automatically. If you wished, you could be more explicit and add a *note return: 9ce. statement at the marked location. class DatabaseConnection: ... def __exit__(self, type, value, tb): if tb is None: # No exception, so commit self.commit() else: # Exception occurred, so rollback. self.rollback() # return False  File: python.info, Node: The contextlib module, Prev: Writing Context Managers, Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement 1.16.3.2 The contextlib module .............................. The *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a decorator that are useful when writing objects for use with the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement. The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator should yield exactly one value. The code up to the *note yield: 9cd. will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 5c4. method, and the value yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the variable in the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any. The code after the ‘yield’ will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 12f3. method. Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’ statement. Using this decorator, our database example from the previous section could be written as: from contextlib import contextmanager @contextmanager def db_transaction(connection): cursor = connection.cursor() try: yield cursor except: connection.rollback() raise else: connection.commit() db = DatabaseConnection() with db_transaction(db) as cursor: ... The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’ function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to write nested ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statements. In this example, the single ‘‘with’’ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock: lock = threading.Lock() with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked): ... Finally, the ‘closing()’ function returns its argument so that it can be bound to a variable, and calls the argument’s ‘.close()’ method at the end of the block. import urllib, sys from contextlib import closing with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f: for line in f: sys.stdout.write(line) See also ........ PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz. The PEP shows the code generated for a ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement works. The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module, Next: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory, Prev: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.4 PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module ------------------------------------------------------------ Python’s *note -m: 5dd. switch allows running a module as a script. When you ran a module that was located inside a package, relative imports didn’t work correctly. The fix for Python 2.6 adds a *note module.__package__: 2db. attribute. When this attribute is present, relative imports will be relative to the value of this attribute instead of the *note __name__: 1374. attribute. PEP 302-style importers can then set *note __package__: 2db. as necessary. The *note runpy: be. module that implements the *note -m: 5dd. switch now does this, so relative imports will now work correctly in scripts running from inside a package.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory, Next: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package, Prev: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.5 PEP 370: Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory -------------------------------------------------- When you run Python, the module search path ‘sys.path’ usually includes a directory whose path ends in ‘"site-packages"’. This directory is intended to hold locally installed packages available to all users using a machine or a particular site installation. Python 2.6 introduces a convention for user-specific site directories. The directory varies depending on the platform: * Unix and Mac OS X: ‘~/.local/’ * Windows: ‘%APPDATA%/Python’ Within this directory, there will be version-specific subdirectories, such as ‘lib/python2.6/site-packages’ on Unix/Mac OS and ‘Python26/site-packages’ on Windows. If you don’t like the default directory, it can be overridden by an environment variable. *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1376. sets the root directory used for all Python versions supporting this feature. On Windows, the directory for application-specific data can be changed by setting the ‘APPDATA’ environment variable. You can also modify the ‘site.py’ file for your Python installation. The feature can be disabled entirely by running Python with the *note -s: 1377. option or setting the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1378. environment variable. See also ........ PEP 370(1) - Per-user ‘site-packages’ Directory PEP written and implemented by Christian Heimes. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package, Next: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting, Prev: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.6 PEP 371: The ‘multiprocessing’ Package --------------------------------------------- The new *note multiprocessing: 94. package lets Python programs create new processes that will perform a computation and return a result to the parent. The parent and child processes can communicate using queues and pipes, synchronize their operations using locks and semaphores, and can share simple arrays of data. The *note multiprocessing: 94. module started out as an exact emulation of the *note threading: ed. module using processes instead of threads. That goal was discarded along the path to Python 2.6, but the general approach of the module is still similar. The fundamental class is the ‘Process’, which is passed a callable object and a collection of arguments. The ‘start()’ method sets the callable running in a subprocess, after which you can call the ‘is_alive()’ method to check whether the subprocess is still running and the ‘join()’ method to wait for the process to exit. Here’s a simple example where the subprocess will calculate a factorial. The function doing the calculation is written strangely so that it takes significantly longer when the input argument is a multiple of 4. import time from multiprocessing import Process, Queue def factorial(queue, N): "Compute a factorial." # If N is a multiple of 4, this function will take much longer. if (N % 4) == 0: time.sleep(.05 * N/4) # Calculate the result fact = 1L for i in range(1, N+1): fact = fact * i # Put the result on the queue queue.put(fact) if __name__ == '__main__': queue = Queue() N = 5 p = Process(target=factorial, args=(queue, N)) p.start() p.join() result = queue.get() print 'Factorial', N, '=', result A *note Queue: 137a. is used to communicate the result of the factorial. The *note Queue: 137a. object is stored in a global variable. The child process will use the value of the variable when the child was created; because it’s a *note Queue: 137a, parent and child can use the object to communicate. (If the parent were to change the value of the global variable, the child’s value would be unaffected, and vice versa.) Two other classes, ‘Pool’ and ‘Manager’, provide higher-level interfaces. ‘Pool’ will create a fixed number of worker processes, and requests can then be distributed to the workers by calling ‘apply()’ or ‘apply_async()’ to add a single request, and *note map(): 860. or ‘map_async()’ to add a number of requests. The following code uses a ‘Pool’ to spread requests across 5 worker processes and retrieve a list of results: from multiprocessing import Pool def factorial(N, dictionary): "Compute a factorial." ... p = Pool(5) result = p.map(factorial, range(1, 1000, 10)) for v in result: print v This produces the following output: 1 39916800 51090942171709440000 8222838654177922817725562880000000 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000 ... The other high-level interface, the ‘Manager’ class, creates a separate server process that can hold master copies of Python data structures. Other processes can then access and modify these data structures using proxy objects. The following example creates a shared dictionary by calling the *note dict(): 258. method; the worker processes then insert values into the dictionary. (Locking is not done for you automatically, which doesn’t matter in this example. ‘Manager’’s methods also include ‘Lock()’, ‘RLock()’, and ‘Semaphore()’ to create shared locks.) import time from multiprocessing import Pool, Manager def factorial(N, dictionary): "Compute a factorial." # Calculate the result fact = 1L for i in range(1, N+1): fact = fact * i # Store result in dictionary dictionary[N] = fact if __name__ == '__main__': p = Pool(5) mgr = Manager() d = mgr.dict() # Create shared dictionary # Run tasks using the pool for N in range(1, 1000, 10): p.apply_async(factorial, (N, d)) # Mark pool as closed -- no more tasks can be added. p.close() # Wait for tasks to exit p.join() # Output results for k, v in sorted(d.items()): print k, v This will produce the output: 1 1 11 39916800 21 51090942171709440000 31 8222838654177922817725562880000000 41 33452526613163807108170062053440751665152000000000 51 15511187532873822802242430164693032110632597200169861120000... See also ........ The documentation for the *note multiprocessing: 94. module. PEP 371(1) - Addition of the multiprocessing package PEP written by Jesse Noller and Richard Oudkerk; implemented by Richard Oudkerk and Jesse Noller. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0371/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting, Next: PEP 3105 print As a Function, Prev: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.7 PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting ------------------------------------------- In Python 3.0, the ‘%’ operator is supplemented by a more powerful string formatting method, *note format(): 61b. Support for the *note str.format(): 61d. method has been backported to Python 2.6. In 2.6, both 8-bit and Unicode strings have a ‘.format()’ method that treats the string as a template and takes the arguments to be formatted. The formatting template uses curly brackets (‘{’, ‘}’) as special characters: >>> # Substitute positional argument 0 into the string. >>> "User ID: {0}".format("root") 'User ID: root' >>> # Use the named keyword arguments >>> "User ID: {uid} Last seen: {last_login}".format( ... uid="root", ... last_login = "5 Mar 2008 07:20") 'User ID: root Last seen: 5 Mar 2008 07:20' Curly brackets can be escaped by doubling them: >>> "Empty dict: {{}}".format() "Empty dict: {}" Field names can be integers indicating positional arguments, such as ‘{0}’, ‘{1}’, etc. or names of keyword arguments. You can also supply compound field names that read attributes or access dictionary keys: >>> import sys >>> print 'Platform: {0.platform}\nPython version: {0.version}'.format(sys) Platform: darwin Python version: 2.6a1+ (trunk:61261M, Mar 5 2008, 20:29:41) [GCC 4.0.1 (Apple Computer, Inc. build 5367)]' >>> import mimetypes >>> 'Content-type: {0[.mp4]}'.format(mimetypes.types_map) 'Content-type: video/mp4' Note that when using dictionary-style notation such as ‘[.mp4]’, you don’t need to put any quotation marks around the string; it will look up the value using ‘.mp4’ as the key. Strings beginning with a number will be converted to an integer. You can’t write more complicated expressions inside a format string. So far we’ve shown how to specify which field to substitute into the resulting string. The precise formatting used is also controllable by adding a colon followed by a format specifier. For example: >>> # Field 0: left justify, pad to 15 characters >>> # Field 1: right justify, pad to 6 characters >>> fmt = '{0:15} ${1:>6}' >>> fmt.format('Registration', 35) 'Registration $ 35' >>> fmt.format('Tutorial', 50) 'Tutorial $ 50' >>> fmt.format('Banquet', 125) 'Banquet $ 125' Format specifiers can reference other fields through nesting: >>> fmt = '{0:{1}}' >>> width = 15 >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width) 'Invoice #1234 ' >>> width = 35 >>> fmt.format('Invoice #1234', width) 'Invoice #1234 ' The alignment of a field within the desired width can be specified: Character Effect ---------------------------------------------------------------------- < (default) Left-align > Right-align ^ Center = (For numeric types only) Pad after the sign. Format specifiers can also include a presentation type, which controls how the value is formatted. For example, floating-point numbers can be formatted as a general number or in exponential notation: >>> '{0:g}'.format(3.75) '3.75' >>> '{0:e}'.format(3.75) '3.750000e+00' A variety of presentation types are available. Consult the 2.6 documentation for a *note complete list: 137c.; here’s a sample: ‘b’ Binary. Outputs the number in base 2. ‘c’ Character. Converts the integer to the corresponding Unicode character before printing. ‘d’ Decimal Integer. Outputs the number in base 10. ‘o’ Octal format. Outputs the number in base 8. ‘x’ Hex format. Outputs the number in base 16, using lower-case letters for the digits above 9. ‘e’ Exponent notation. Prints the number in scientific notation using the letter ‘e’ to indicate the exponent. ‘g’ General format. This prints the number as a fixed-point number, unless the number is too large, in which case it switches to ‘e’ exponent notation. ‘n’ Number. This is the same as ‘g’ (for floats) or ‘d’ (for integers), except that it uses the current locale setting to insert the appropriate number separator characters. ‘%’ Percentage. Multiplies the number by 100 and displays in fixed (‘f’) format, followed by a percent sign. Classes and types can define a ‘__format__()’ method to control how they’re formatted. It receives a single argument, the format specifier: def __format__(self, format_spec): if isinstance(format_spec, unicode): return unicode(str(self)) else: return str(self) There’s also a *note format(): 61b. builtin that will format a single value. It calls the type’s ‘__format__()’ method with the provided specifier: >>> format(75.6564, '.2f') '75.66' See also ........ *note Format String Syntax: 137c. The reference documentation for format fields. PEP 3101(1) - Advanced String Formatting PEP written by Talin. Implemented by Eric Smith. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3101/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function, Next: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes, Prev: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.8 PEP 3105: ‘print’ As a Function -------------------------------------- The ‘print’ statement becomes the *note print(): f70. function in Python 3.0. Making *note print(): f70. a function makes it possible to replace the function by doing ‘def print(...)’ or importing a new function from somewhere else. Python 2.6 has a ‘__future__’ import that removes ‘print’ as language syntax, letting you use the functional form instead. For example: >>> from __future__ import print_function >>> print('# of entries', len(dictionary), file=sys.stderr) The signature of the new function is: def print(*args, sep=' ', end='\n', file=None) The parameters are: * 'args': positional arguments whose values will be printed out. * 'sep': the separator, which will be printed between arguments. * 'end': the ending text, which will be printed after all of the arguments have been output. * 'file': the file object to which the output will be sent. See also ........ PEP 3105(1) - Make print a function PEP written by Georg Brandl. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes, Next: PEP 3112 Byte Literals, Prev: PEP 3105 print As a Function, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.9 PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes ------------------------------------------- One error that Python programmers occasionally make is writing the following code: try: ... except TypeError, ValueError: # Wrong! ... The author is probably trying to catch both *note TypeError: 534. and *note ValueError: 204. exceptions, but this code actually does something different: it will catch *note TypeError: 534. and bind the resulting exception object to the local name ‘"ValueError"’. The *note ValueError: 204. exception will not be caught at all. The correct code specifies a tuple of exceptions: try: ... except (TypeError, ValueError): ... This error happens because the use of the comma here is ambiguous: does it indicate two different nodes in the parse tree, or a single node that’s a tuple? Python 3.0 makes this unambiguous by replacing the comma with the word “as”. To catch an exception and store the exception object in the variable ‘exc’, you must write: try: ... except TypeError as exc: ... Python 3.0 will only support the use of “as”, and therefore interprets the first example as catching two different exceptions. Python 2.6 supports both the comma and “as”, so existing code will continue to work. We therefore suggest using “as” when writing new Python code that will only be executed with 2.6. See also ........ PEP 3110(1) - Catching Exceptions in Python 3000 PEP written and implemented by Collin Winter. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3110/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals, Next: PEP 3116 New I/O Library, Prev: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.10 PEP 3112: Byte Literals ------------------------------- Python 3.0 adopts Unicode as the language’s fundamental string type and denotes 8-bit literals differently, either as ‘b'string'’ or using a *note bytes: 1c2. constructor. For future compatibility, Python 2.6 adds *note bytes: 1c2. as a synonym for the *note str: 447. type, and it also supports the ‘b''’ notation. The 2.6 *note str: 447. differs from 3.0’s *note bytes: 1c2. type in various ways; most notably, the constructor is completely different. In 3.0, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ is 3 elements long, containing the bytes representing ‘ABC’; in 2.6, ‘bytes([65, 66, 67])’ returns the 12-byte string representing the *note str(): 447. of the list. The primary use of *note bytes: 1c2. in 2.6 will be to write tests of object type such as ‘isinstance(x, bytes)’. This will help the 2to3 converter, which can’t tell whether 2.x code intends strings to contain either characters or 8-bit bytes; you can now use either *note bytes: 1c2. or *note str: 447. to represent your intention exactly, and the resulting code will also be correct in Python 3.0. There’s also a ‘__future__’ import that causes all string literals to become Unicode strings. This means that ‘\u’ escape sequences can be used to include Unicode characters: from __future__ import unicode_literals s = ('\u751f\u3080\u304e\u3000\u751f\u3054' '\u3081\u3000\u751f\u305f\u307e\u3054') print len(s) # 12 Unicode characters At the C level, Python 3.0 will rename the existing 8-bit string type, called ‘PyStringObject’ in Python 2.x, to *note PyBytesObject: 78d. Python 2.6 uses ‘#define’ to support using the names *note PyBytesObject(): 78d, *note PyBytes_Check(): 1380, *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 1381, and all the other functions and macros used with strings. Instances of the *note bytes: 1c2. type are immutable just as strings are. A new *note bytearray: 53a. type stores a mutable sequence of bytes: >>> bytearray([65, 66, 67]) bytearray(b'ABC') >>> b = bytearray(u'\u21ef\u3244', 'utf-8') >>> b bytearray(b'\xe2\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84') >>> b[0] = '\xe3' >>> b bytearray(b'\xe3\x87\xaf\xe3\x89\x84') >>> unicode(str(b), 'utf-8') u'\u31ef \u3244' Byte arrays support most of the methods of string types, such as ‘startswith()’/‘endswith()’, ‘find()’/‘rfind()’, and some of the methods of lists, such as ‘append()’, ‘pop()’, and ‘reverse()’. >>> b = bytearray('ABC') >>> b.append('d') >>> b.append(ord('e')) >>> b bytearray(b'ABCde') There’s also a corresponding C API, with *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 1382, *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1383, and various other functions. See also ........ PEP 3112(1) - Bytes literals in Python 3000 PEP written by Jason Orendorff; backported to 2.6 by Christian Heimes. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library, Next: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol, Prev: PEP 3112 Byte Literals, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.11 PEP 3116: New I/O Library --------------------------------- Python’s built-in file objects support a number of methods, but file-like objects don’t necessarily support all of them. Objects that imitate files usually support ‘read()’ and ‘write()’, but they may not support *note readline(): ba, for example. Python 3.0 introduces a layered I/O library in the *note io: 7f. module that separates buffering and text-handling features from the fundamental read and write operations. There are three levels of abstract base classes provided by the *note io: 7f. module: * ‘RawIOBase’ defines raw I/O operations: ‘read()’, ‘readinto()’, ‘write()’, ‘seek()’, ‘tell()’, ‘truncate()’, and ‘close()’. Most of the methods of this class will often map to a single system call. There are also ‘readable()’, ‘writable()’, and ‘seekable()’ methods for determining what operations a given object will allow. Python 3.0 has concrete implementations of this class for files and sockets, but Python 2.6 hasn’t restructured its file and socket objects in this way. * ‘BufferedIOBase’ is an abstract base class that buffers data in memory to reduce the number of system calls used, making I/O processing more efficient. It supports all of the methods of ‘RawIOBase’, and adds a ‘raw’ attribute holding the underlying raw object. There are five concrete classes implementing this ABC. ‘BufferedWriter’ and ‘BufferedReader’ are for objects that support write-only or read-only usage that have a ‘seek()’ method for random access. ‘BufferedRandom’ objects support read and write access upon the same underlying stream, and ‘BufferedRWPair’ is for objects such as TTYs that have both read and write operations acting upon unconnected streams of data. The ‘BytesIO’ class supports reading, writing, and seeking over an in-memory buffer. * ‘TextIOBase’: Provides functions for reading and writing strings (remember, strings will be Unicode in Python 3.0), and supporting *note universal newlines: d3a. ‘TextIOBase’ defines the *note readline(): ba. method and supports iteration upon objects. There are two concrete implementations. ‘TextIOWrapper’ wraps a buffered I/O object, supporting all of the methods for text I/O and adding a ‘buffer’ attribute for access to the underlying object. ‘StringIO’ simply buffers everything in memory without ever writing anything to disk. (In Python 2.6, *note io.StringIO: f22. is implemented in pure Python, so it’s pretty slow. You should therefore stick with the existing ‘StringIO’ module or ‘cStringIO’ for now. At some point Python 3.0’s *note io: 7f. module will be rewritten into C for speed, and perhaps the C implementation will be backported to the 2.x releases.) In Python 2.6, the underlying implementations haven’t been restructured to build on top of the *note io: 7f. module’s classes. The module is being provided to make it easier to write code that’s forward-compatible with 3.0, and to save developers the effort of writing their own implementations of buffering and text I/O. See also ........ PEP 3116(1) - New I/O PEP written by Daniel Stutzbach, Mike Verdone, and Guido van Rossum. Code by Guido van Rossum, Georg Brandl, Walter Doerwald, Jeremy Hylton, Martin von Löwis, Tony Lownds, and others. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol, Next: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes, Prev: PEP 3116 New I/O Library, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.12 PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol ----------------------------------------- The buffer protocol is a C-level API that lets Python types exchange pointers into their internal representations. A memory-mapped file can be viewed as a buffer of characters, for example, and this lets another module such as *note re: b9. treat memory-mapped files as a string of characters to be searched. The primary users of the buffer protocol are numeric-processing packages such as NumPy, which expose the internal representation of arrays so that callers can write data directly into an array instead of going through a slower API. This PEP updates the buffer protocol in light of experience from NumPy development, adding a number of new features such as indicating the shape of an array or locking a memory region. The most important new C API function is ‘PyObject_GetBuffer(PyObject *obj, Py_buffer *view, int flags)’, which takes an object and a set of flags, and fills in the ‘Py_buffer’ structure with information about the object’s memory representation. Objects can use this operation to lock memory in place while an external caller could be modifying the contents, so there’s a corresponding ‘PyBuffer_Release(Py_buffer *view)’ to indicate that the external caller is done. The 'flags' argument to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. specifies constraints upon the memory returned. Some examples are: * *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. indicates that the memory must be writable. * ‘PyBUF_LOCK’ requests a read-only or exclusive lock on the memory. * *note PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS: 1387. and *note PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS: 1388. requests a C-contiguous (last dimension varies the fastest) or Fortran-contiguous (first dimension varies the fastest) array layout. Two new argument codes for *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e, ‘s*’ and ‘z*’, return locked buffer objects for a parameter. See also ........ PEP 3118(1) - Revising the buffer protocol PEP written by Travis Oliphant and Carl Banks; implemented by Travis Oliphant. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3118/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes, Next: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax, Prev: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.13 PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes --------------------------------------- Some object-oriented languages such as Java support interfaces, declaring that a class has a given set of methods or supports a given access protocol. Abstract Base Classes (or ABCs) are an equivalent feature for Python. The ABC support consists of an *note abc: 4. module containing a metaclass called ‘ABCMeta’, special handling of this metaclass by the *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc. builtins, and a collection of basic ABCs that the Python developers think will be widely useful. Future versions of Python will probably add more ABCs. Let’s say you have a particular class and wish to know whether it supports dictionary-style access. The phrase “dictionary-style” is vague, however. It probably means that accessing items with ‘obj[1]’ works. Does it imply that setting items with ‘obj[2] = value’ works? Or that the object will have ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’ methods? What about the iterative variants such as ‘iterkeys()’? *note copy(): 25. and ‘update()’? Iterating over the object with *note iter(): 7d2.? The Python 2.6 *note collections: 1d. module includes a number of different ABCs that represent these distinctions. ‘Iterable’ indicates that a class defines ‘__iter__()’, and ‘Container’ means the class defines a ‘__contains__()’ method and therefore supports ‘x in y’ expressions. The basic dictionary interface of getting items, setting items, and ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’, is defined by the ‘MutableMapping’ ABC. You can derive your own classes from a particular ABC to indicate they support that ABC’s interface: import collections class Storage(collections.MutableMapping): ... Alternatively, you could write the class without deriving from the desired ABC and instead register the class by calling the ABC’s ‘register()’ method: import collections class Storage: ... collections.MutableMapping.register(Storage) For classes that you write, deriving from the ABC is probably clearer. The ‘register()’ method is useful when you’ve written a new ABC that can describe an existing type or class, or if you want to declare that some third-party class implements an ABC. For example, if you defined a ‘PrintableType’ ABC, it’s legal to do: # Register Python's types PrintableType.register(int) PrintableType.register(float) PrintableType.register(str) Classes should obey the semantics specified by an ABC, but Python can’t check this; it’s up to the class author to understand the ABC’s requirements and to implement the code accordingly. To check whether an object supports a particular interface, you can now write: def func(d): if not isinstance(d, collections.MutableMapping): raise ValueError("Mapping object expected, not %r" % d) Don’t feel that you must now begin writing lots of checks as in the above example. Python has a strong tradition of duck-typing, where explicit type-checking is never done and code simply calls methods on an object, trusting that those methods will be there and raising an exception if they aren’t. Be judicious in checking for ABCs and only do it where it’s absolutely necessary. You can write your own ABCs by using ‘abc.ABCMeta’ as the metaclass in a class definition: from abc import ABCMeta, abstractmethod class Drawable(): __metaclass__ = ABCMeta @abstractmethod def draw(self, x, y, scale=1.0): pass def draw_doubled(self, x, y): self.draw(x, y, scale=2.0) class Square(Drawable): def draw(self, x, y, scale): ... In the ‘Drawable’ ABC above, the ‘draw_doubled()’ method renders the object at twice its size and can be implemented in terms of other methods described in ‘Drawable’. Classes implementing this ABC therefore don’t need to provide their own implementation of ‘draw_doubled()’, though they can do so. An implementation of ‘draw()’ is necessary, though; the ABC can’t provide a useful generic implementation. You can apply the ‘@abstractmethod’ decorator to methods such as ‘draw()’ that must be implemented; Python will then raise an exception for classes that don’t define the method. Note that the exception is only raised when you actually try to create an instance of a subclass lacking the method: >>> class Circle(Drawable): ... pass ... >>> c = Circle() Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: Can't instantiate abstract class Circle with abstract methods draw >>> Abstract data attributes can be declared using the ‘@abstractproperty’ decorator: from abc import abstractproperty ... @abstractproperty def readonly(self): return self._x Subclasses must then define a ‘readonly()’ property. See also ........ PEP 3119(1) - Introducing Abstract Base Classes PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Talin. Implemented by Guido van Rossum. Backported to 2.6 by Benjamin Aranguren, with Alex Martelli. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax, Next: PEP 3129 Class Decorators, Prev: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.14 PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax ---------------------------------------------------- Python 3.0 changes the syntax for octal (base-8) integer literals, prefixing them with “0o” or “0O” instead of a leading zero, and adds support for binary (base-2) integer literals, signalled by a “0b” or “0B” prefix. Python 2.6 doesn’t drop support for a leading 0 signalling an octal number, but it does add support for “0o” and “0b”: >>> 0o21, 2*8 + 1 (17, 17) >>> 0b101111 47 The *note oct(): 12c1. builtin still returns numbers prefixed with a leading zero, and a new *note bin(): 129b. builtin returns the binary representation for a number: >>> oct(42) '052' >>> future_builtins.oct(42) '0o52' >>> bin(173) '0b10101101' The *note int(): 259. and ‘long()’ builtins will now accept the “0o” and “0b” prefixes when base-8 or base-2 are requested, or when the 'base' argument is zero (signalling that the base used should be determined from the string): >>> int ('0o52', 0) 42 >>> int('1101', 2) 13 >>> int('0b1101', 2) 13 >>> int('0b1101', 0) 13 See also ........ PEP 3127(1) - Integer Literal Support and Syntax PEP written by Patrick Maupin; backported to 2.6 by Eric Smith. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3127/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators, Next: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers, Prev: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.15 PEP 3129: Class Decorators ---------------------------------- Decorators have been extended from functions to classes. It’s now legal to write: @foo @bar class A: pass This is equivalent to: class A: pass A = foo(bar(A)) See also ........ PEP 3129(1) - Class Decorators PEP written by Collin Winter. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3129/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers, Next: Other Language Changes<15>, Prev: PEP 3129 Class Decorators, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.16 PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers ---------------------------------------------- Python 3.0 adds several abstract base classes for numeric types inspired by Scheme’s numeric tower. These classes were backported to 2.6 as the *note numbers: 9e. module. The most general ABC is ‘Number’. It defines no operations at all, and only exists to allow checking if an object is a number by doing ‘isinstance(obj, Number)’. ‘Complex’ is a subclass of ‘Number’. Complex numbers can undergo the basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, and exponentiation, and you can retrieve the real and imaginary parts and obtain a number’s conjugate. Python’s built-in complex type is an implementation of ‘Complex’. ‘Real’ further derives from ‘Complex’, and adds operations that only work on real numbers: ‘floor()’, ‘trunc()’, rounding, taking the remainder mod N, floor division, and comparisons. ‘Rational’ numbers derive from ‘Real’, have ‘numerator’ and ‘denominator’ properties, and can be converted to floats. Python 2.6 adds a simple rational-number class, ‘Fraction’, in the *note fractions: 5d. module. (It’s called ‘Fraction’ instead of ‘Rational’ to avoid a name clash with *note numbers.Rational: 12b1.) ‘Integral’ numbers derive from ‘Rational’, and can be shifted left and right with ‘<<’ and ‘>>’, combined using bitwise operations such as ‘&’ and ‘|’, and can be used as array indexes and slice boundaries. In Python 3.0, the PEP slightly redefines the existing builtins *note round(): 12cd, *note math.floor(): 138d, *note math.ceil(): 138e, and adds a new one, *note math.trunc(): 138f, that’s been backported to Python 2.6. *note math.trunc(): 138f. rounds toward zero, returning the closest ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero. See also ........ PEP 3141(1) - A Type Hierarchy for Numbers PEP written by Jeffrey Yasskin. Scheme's numerical tower(2), from the Guile manual. Scheme's number datatypes(3) from the R5RS Scheme specification. * Menu: * The fractions Module:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/ (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/guile/manual/html_node/Numerical-Tower.html#Numerical-Tower (3) https://conservatory.scheme.org/schemers/Documents/Standards/R5RS/HTML/r5rs-Z-H-9.html#%_sec_6.2  File: python.info, Node: The fractions Module, Up: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers 1.16.16.1 The ‘fractions’ Module ................................ To fill out the hierarchy of numeric types, the *note fractions: 5d. module provides a rational-number class. Rational numbers store their values as a numerator and denominator forming a fraction, and can exactly represent numbers such as ‘2/3’ that floating-point numbers can only approximate. The ‘Fraction’ constructor takes two ‘Integral’ values that will be the numerator and denominator of the resulting fraction. >>> from fractions import Fraction >>> a = Fraction(2, 3) >>> b = Fraction(2, 5) >>> float(a), float(b) (0.66666666666666663, 0.40000000000000002) >>> a+b Fraction(16, 15) >>> a/b Fraction(5, 3) For converting floating-point numbers to rationals, the float type now has an ‘as_integer_ratio()’ method that returns the numerator and denominator for a fraction that evaluates to the same floating-point value: >>> (2.5) .as_integer_ratio() (5, 2) >>> (3.1415) .as_integer_ratio() (7074029114692207L, 2251799813685248L) >>> (1./3) .as_integer_ratio() (6004799503160661L, 18014398509481984L) Note that values that can only be approximated by floating-point numbers, such as 1./3, are not simplified to the number being approximated; the fraction attempts to match the floating-point value 'exactly'. The *note fractions: 5d. module is based upon an implementation by Sjoerd Mullender that was in Python’s ‘Demo/classes/’ directory for a long time. This implementation was significantly updated by Jeffrey Yasskin.  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<15>, Next: New and Improved Modules<2>, Prev: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.17 Other Language Changes ------------------------------ Some smaller changes made to the core Python language are: * Directories and zip archives containing a ‘__main__.py’ file can now be executed directly by passing their name to the interpreter. The directory or zip archive is automatically inserted as the first entry in sys.path. (Suggestion and initial patch by Andy Chu, subsequently revised by Phillip J. Eby and Nick Coghlan; bpo-1739468(1).) * The *note hasattr(): 4ce. function was catching and ignoring all errors, under the assumption that they meant a ‘__getattr__()’ method was failing somehow and the return value of *note hasattr(): 4ce. would therefore be ‘False’. This logic shouldn’t be applied to *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. and *note SystemExit: d40, however; Python 2.6 will no longer discard such exceptions when *note hasattr(): 4ce. encounters them. (Fixed by Benjamin Peterson; bpo-2196(2).) * When calling a function using the ‘**’ syntax to provide keyword arguments, you are no longer required to use a Python dictionary; any mapping will now work: >>> def f(**kw): ... print sorted(kw) ... >>> ud=UserDict.UserDict() >>> ud['a'] = 1 >>> ud['b'] = 'string' >>> f(**ud) ['a', 'b'] (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-1686487(3).) It’s also become legal to provide keyword arguments after a ‘*args’ argument to a function call. >>> def f(*args, **kw): ... print args, kw ... >>> f(1,2,3, *(4,5,6), keyword=13) (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) {'keyword': 13} Previously this would have been a syntax error. (Contributed by Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-3473(4).) * A new builtin, ‘next(iterator, [default])’ returns the next item from the specified iterator. If the 'default' argument is supplied, it will be returned if 'iterator' has been exhausted; otherwise, the *note StopIteration: bfa. exception will be raised. (Backported in bpo-2719(5).) * Tuples now have ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods matching the list type’s ‘index()’ and ‘count()’ methods: >>> t = (0,1,2,3,4,0,1,2) >>> t.index(3) 3 >>> t.count(0) 2 (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger) * The built-in types now have improved support for extended slicing syntax, accepting various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’. Previously, the support was partial and certain corner cases wouldn’t work. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.) * Properties now have three attributes, ‘getter’, ‘setter’ and ‘deleter’, that are decorators providing useful shortcuts for adding a getter, setter or deleter function to an existing property. You would use them like this: class C(object): @property def x(self): return self._x @x.setter def x(self, value): self._x = value @x.deleter def x(self): del self._x class D(C): @C.x.getter def x(self): return self._x * 2 @x.setter def x(self, value): self._x = value / 2 * Several methods of the built-in set types now accept multiple iterables: ‘intersection()’, ‘intersection_update()’, ‘union()’, ‘update()’, ‘difference()’ and ‘difference_update()’. >>> s=set('1234567890') >>> s.intersection('abc123', 'cdf246') # Intersection between all inputs set(['2']) >>> s.difference('246', '789') set(['1', '0', '3', '5']) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Many floating-point features were added. The *note float(): 2f1. function will now turn the string ‘nan’ into an IEEE 754 Not A Number value, and ‘+inf’ and ‘-inf’ into positive or negative infinity. This works on any platform with IEEE 754 semantics. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(6).) Other functions in the *note math: 8e. module, ‘isinf()’ and ‘isnan()’, return true if their floating-point argument is infinite or Not A Number. (bpo-1640(7)) Conversion functions were added to convert floating-point numbers into hexadecimal strings (bpo-3008(8)). These functions convert floats to and from a string representation without introducing rounding errors from the conversion between decimal and binary. Floats have a *note hex(): 12c2. method that returns a string representation, and the ‘float.fromhex()’ method converts a string back into a number: >>> a = 3.75 >>> a.hex() '0x1.e000000000000p+1' >>> float.fromhex('0x1.e000000000000p+1') 3.75 >>> b=1./3 >>> b.hex() '0x1.5555555555555p-2' * A numerical nicety: when creating a complex number from two floats on systems that support signed zeros (-0 and +0), the *note complex(): 2f2. constructor will now preserve the sign of the zero. (Fixed by Mark T. Dickinson; bpo-1507(9).) * Classes that inherit a ‘__hash__()’ method from a parent class can set ‘__hash__ = None’ to indicate that the class isn’t hashable. This will make ‘hash(obj)’ raise a *note TypeError: 534. and the class will not be indicated as implementing the ‘Hashable’ ABC. You should do this when you’ve defined a ‘__cmp__()’ or ‘__eq__()’ method that compares objects by their value rather than by identity. All objects have a default hash method that uses ‘id(obj)’ as the hash value. There’s no tidy way to remove the ‘__hash__()’ method inherited from a parent class, so assigning ‘None’ was implemented as an override. At the C level, extensions can set ‘tp_hash’ to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1392. (Fixed by Nick Coghlan and Amaury Forgeot d’Arc; bpo-2235(10).) * The *note GeneratorExit: 1393. exception now subclasses *note BaseException: 5b7. instead of *note Exception: 9d9. This means that an exception handler that does ‘except Exception:’ will not inadvertently catch *note GeneratorExit: 1393. (Contributed by Chad Austin; bpo-1537(11).) * Generator objects now have a ‘gi_code’ attribute that refers to the original code object backing the generator. (Contributed by Collin Winter; bpo-1473257(12).) * The *note compile(): 192. built-in function now accepts keyword arguments as well as positional parameters. (Contributed by Thomas Wouters; bpo-1444529(13).) * The *note complex(): 2f2. constructor now accepts strings containing parenthesized complex numbers, meaning that ‘complex(repr(cplx))’ will now round-trip values. For example, ‘complex('(3+4j)')’ now returns the value (3+4j). (bpo-1491866(14)) * The string ‘translate()’ method now accepts ‘None’ as the translation table parameter, which is treated as the identity transformation. This makes it easier to carry out operations that only delete characters. (Contributed by Bengt Richter and implemented by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1193128(15).) * The built-in *note dir(): 62e. function now checks for a ‘__dir__()’ method on the objects it receives. This method must return a list of strings containing the names of valid attributes for the object, and lets the object control the value that *note dir(): 62e. produces. Objects that have ‘__getattr__()’ or ‘__getattribute__()’ methods can use this to advertise pseudo-attributes they will honor. (bpo-1591665(16)) * Instance method objects have new attributes for the object and function comprising the method; the new synonym for ‘im_self’ is *note __self__: 1394, and ‘im_func’ is also available as *note __func__: 12ef. The old names are still supported in Python 2.6, but are gone in 3.0. * An obscure change: when you use the *note locals(): 141. function inside a *note class: 12ca. statement, the resulting dictionary no longer returns free variables. (Free variables, in this case, are variables referenced in the ‘class’ statement that aren’t attributes of the class.) * Menu: * Optimizations: Optimizations<14>. * Interpreter Changes: Interpreter Changes<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739468 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2196 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1686487 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3473 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2719 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640 (8) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3008 (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1507 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2235 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1473257 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1444529 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1491866 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193128 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1591665  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<14>, Next: Interpreter Changes<2>, Up: Other Language Changes<15> 1.16.17.1 Optimizations ....................... * The *note warnings: 112. module has been rewritten in C. This makes it possible to invoke warnings from the parser, and may also make the interpreter’s startup faster. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Brett Cannon; bpo-1631171(1).) * Type objects now have a cache of methods that can reduce the work required to find the correct method implementation for a particular class; once cached, the interpreter doesn’t need to traverse base classes to figure out the right method to call. The cache is cleared if a base class or the class itself is modified, so the cache should remain correct even in the face of Python’s dynamic nature. (Original optimization implemented by Armin Rigo, updated for Python 2.6 by Kevin Jacobs; bpo-1700288(2).) By default, this change is only applied to types that are included with the Python core. Extension modules may not necessarily be compatible with this cache, so they must explicitly add ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VERSION_TAG’ to the module’s ‘tp_flags’ field to enable the method cache. (To be compatible with the method cache, the extension module’s code must not directly access and modify the ‘tp_dict’ member of any of the types it implements. Most modules don’t do this, but it’s impossible for the Python interpreter to determine that. See bpo-1878(3) for some discussion.) * Function calls that use keyword arguments are significantly faster by doing a quick pointer comparison, usually saving the time of a full string comparison. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger, after an initial implementation by Antoine Pitrou; bpo-1819(4).) * All of the functions in the *note struct: d5. module have been rewritten in C, thanks to work at the Need For Speed sprint. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Some of the standard built-in types now set a bit in their type objects. This speeds up checking whether an object is a subclass of one of these types. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.) * Unicode strings now use faster code for detecting whitespace and line breaks; this speeds up the ‘split()’ method by about 25% and ‘splitlines()’ by 35%. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou.) Memory usage is reduced by using pymalloc for the Unicode string’s data. * The ‘with’ statement now stores the *note __exit__(): 12f3. method on the stack, producing a small speedup. (Implemented by Jeffrey Yasskin.) * To reduce memory usage, the garbage collector will now clear internal free lists when garbage-collecting the highest generation of objects. This may return memory to the operating system sooner. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1700288 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1878 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1819  File: python.info, Node: Interpreter Changes<2>, Prev: Optimizations<14>, Up: Other Language Changes<15> 1.16.17.2 Interpreter Changes ............................. Two command-line options have been reserved for use by other Python implementations. The *note -J: 1398. switch has been reserved for use by Jython for Jython-specific options, such as switches that are passed to the underlying JVM. *note -X: 176. has been reserved for options specific to a particular implementation of Python such as CPython, Jython, or IronPython. If either option is used with Python 2.6, the interpreter will report that the option isn’t currently used. Python can now be prevented from writing ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files by supplying the *note -B: 1399. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 139a. environment variable before running the interpreter. This setting is available to Python programs as the ‘sys.dont_write_bytecode’ variable, and Python code can change the value to modify the interpreter’s behaviour. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.) The encoding used for standard input, output, and standard error can be specified by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1003. environment variable before running the interpreter. The value should be a string in the form ‘’ or ‘:’. The 'encoding' part specifies the encoding’s name, e.g. ‘utf-8’ or ‘latin-1’; the optional 'errorhandler' part specifies what to do with characters that can’t be handled by the encoding, and should be one of “error”, “ignore”, or “replace”. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)  File: python.info, Node: New and Improved Modules<2>, Next: Deprecations and Removals, Prev: Other Language Changes<15>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.18 New and Improved Modules -------------------------------- As in every release, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the Subversion logs for all the details. * The ‘asyncore’ and ‘asynchat’ modules are being actively maintained again, and a number of patches and bugfixes were applied. (Maintained by Josiah Carlson; see bpo-1736190(1) for one patch.) * The ‘bsddb’ module also has a new maintainer, Jesús Cea Avión, and the package is now available as a standalone package. The web page for the package is www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm(2). The plan is to remove the package from the standard library in Python 3.0, because its pace of releases is much more frequent than Python’s. The ‘bsddb.dbshelve’ module now uses the highest pickling protocol available, instead of restricting itself to protocol 1. (Contributed by W. Barnes.) * The ‘cgi’ module will now read variables from the query string of an HTTP POST request. This makes it possible to use form actions with URLs that include query strings such as “/cgi-bin/add.py?category=1”. (Contributed by Alexandre Fiori and Nubis; bpo-1817(3).) The ‘parse_qs()’ and ‘parse_qsl()’ functions have been relocated from the ‘cgi’ module to the *note urlparse: 10a. module. The versions still available in the ‘cgi’ module will trigger *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. messages in 2.6 (bpo-600362(4)). * The *note cmath: 18. module underwent extensive revision, contributed by Mark Dickinson and Christian Heimes. Five new functions were added: * ‘polar()’ converts a complex number to polar form, returning the modulus and argument of the complex number. * ‘rect()’ does the opposite, turning a modulus, argument pair back into the corresponding complex number. * ‘phase()’ returns the argument (also called the angle) of a complex number. * ‘isnan()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of its argument is a NaN. * ‘isinf()’ returns True if either the real or imaginary part of its argument is infinite. The revisions also improved the numerical soundness of the *note cmath: 18. module. For all functions, the real and imaginary parts of the results are accurate to within a few units of least precision (ulps) whenever possible. See bpo-1381(5) for the details. The branch cuts for ‘asinh()’, ‘atanh()’: and ‘atan()’ have also been corrected. The tests for the module have been greatly expanded; nearly 2000 new test cases exercise the algebraic functions. On IEEE 754 platforms, the *note cmath: 18. module now handles IEEE 754 special values and floating-point exceptions in a manner consistent with Annex ‘G’ of the C99 standard. * A new data type in the *note collections: 1d. module: ‘namedtuple(typename, fieldnames)’ is a factory function that creates subclasses of the standard tuple whose fields are accessible by name as well as index. For example: >>> var_type = collections.namedtuple('variable', ... 'id name type size') >>> # Names are separated by spaces or commas. >>> # 'id, name, type, size' would also work. >>> var_type._fields ('id', 'name', 'type', 'size') >>> var = var_type(1, 'frequency', 'int', 4) >>> print var[0], var.id # Equivalent 1 1 >>> print var[2], var.type # Equivalent int int >>> var._asdict() {'size': 4, 'type': 'int', 'id': 1, 'name': 'frequency'} >>> v2 = var._replace(name='amplitude') >>> v2 variable(id=1, name='amplitude', type='int', size=4) Several places in the standard library that returned tuples have been modified to return ‘namedtuple()’ instances. For example, the ‘Decimal.as_tuple()’ method now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Another change to the *note collections: 1d. module is that the ‘deque’ type now supports an optional 'maxlen' parameter; if supplied, the deque’s size will be restricted to no more than 'maxlen' items. Adding more items to a full deque causes old items to be discarded. >>> from collections import deque >>> dq=deque(maxlen=3) >>> dq deque([], maxlen=3) >>> dq.append(1); dq.append(2); dq.append(3) >>> dq deque([1, 2, 3], maxlen=3) >>> dq.append(4) >>> dq deque([2, 3, 4], maxlen=3) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note Cookie: 71. module’s *note Morsel: c04. objects now support an *note httponly: 139c. attribute. In some browsers. cookies with this attribute set cannot be accessed or manipulated by JavaScript code. (Contributed by Arvin Schnell; bpo-1638033(6).) * A new window method in the *note curses: 2b. module, ‘chgat()’, changes the display attributes for a certain number of characters on a single line. (Contributed by Fabian Kreutz.) # Boldface text starting at y=0,x=21 # and affecting the rest of the line. stdscr.chgat(0, 21, curses.A_BOLD) The ‘Textbox’ class in the *note curses.textpad: 2e. module now supports editing in insert mode as well as overwrite mode. Insert mode is enabled by supplying a true value for the 'insert_mode' parameter when creating the ‘Textbox’ instance. * The *note datetime: 30. module’s ‘strftime()’ methods now support a ‘%f’ format code that expands to the number of microseconds in the object, zero-padded on the left to six places. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro; bpo-1158(7).) * The *note decimal: 36. module was updated to version 1.66 of the General Decimal Specification(8). New features include some methods for some basic mathematical functions such as ‘exp()’ and ‘log10()’: >>> Decimal(1).exp() Decimal("2.718281828459045235360287471") >>> Decimal("2.7182818").ln() Decimal("0.9999999895305022877376682436") >>> Decimal(1000).log10() Decimal("3") The ‘as_tuple()’ method of ‘Decimal’ objects now returns a named tuple with ‘sign’, ‘digits’, and ‘exponent’ fields. (Implemented by Facundo Batista and Mark Dickinson. Named tuple support added by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note difflib: 37. module’s ‘SequenceMatcher’ class now returns named tuples representing matches, with ‘a’, ‘b’, and ‘size’ attributes. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in seconds, was added to the *note ftplib.FTP: 8f9. class constructor as well as the ‘connect()’ method. (Added by Facundo Batista.) Also, the ‘FTP’ class’s ‘storbinary()’ and ‘storlines()’ now take an optional 'callback' parameter that will be called with each block of data after the data has been sent. (Contributed by Phil Schwartz; bpo-1221598(9).) * The ‘reduce()’ built-in function is also available in the *note functools: 5f. module. In Python 3.0, the builtin has been dropped and ‘reduce()’ is only available from *note functools: 5f.; currently there are no plans to drop the builtin in the 2.x series. (Patched by Christian Heimes; bpo-1739906(10).) * When possible, the *note getpass: 62. module will now use ‘/dev/tty’ to print a prompt message and read the password, falling back to standard error and standard input. If the password may be echoed to the terminal, a warning is printed before the prompt is displayed. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.) * The *note glob.glob(): 2a1. function can now return Unicode filenames if a Unicode path was used and Unicode filenames are matched within the directory. (bpo-1001604(11)) * A new function in the *note heapq: 69. module, ‘merge(iter1, iter2, ...)’, takes any number of iterables returning data in sorted order, and returns a new generator that returns the contents of all the iterators, also in sorted order. For example: >>> list(heapq.merge([1, 3, 5, 9], [2, 8, 16])) [1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 9, 16] Another new function, ‘heappushpop(heap, item)’, pushes 'item' onto 'heap', then pops off and returns the smallest item. This is more efficient than making a call to ‘heappush()’ and then ‘heappop()’. *note heapq: 69. is now implemented to only use less-than comparison, instead of the less-than-or-equal comparison it previously used. This makes *note heapq: 69.’s usage of a type match the *note list.sort(): bcf. method. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter, specifying a timeout measured in seconds, was added to the *note httplib.HTTPConnection: b40. and *note HTTPSConnection: b41. class constructors. (Added by Facundo Batista.) * Most of the *note inspect: 7e. module’s functions, such as ‘getmoduleinfo()’ and ‘getargs()’, now return named tuples. In addition to behaving like tuples, the elements of the return value can also be accessed as attributes. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) Some new functions in the module include ‘isgenerator()’, ‘isgeneratorfunction()’, and ‘isabstract()’. * The *note itertools: 81. module gained several new functions. ‘izip_longest(iter1, iter2, ...[, fillvalue])’ makes tuples from each of the elements; if some of the iterables are shorter than others, the missing values are set to 'fillvalue'. For example: >>> tuple(itertools.izip_longest([1,2,3], [1,2,3,4,5])) ((1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (None, 4), (None, 5)) ‘product(iter1, iter2, ..., [repeat=N])’ returns the Cartesian product of the supplied iterables, a set of tuples containing every possible combination of the elements returned from each iterable. >>> list(itertools.product([1,2,3], [4,5,6])) [(1, 4), (1, 5), (1, 6), (2, 4), (2, 5), (2, 6), (3, 4), (3, 5), (3, 6)] The optional 'repeat' keyword argument is used for taking the product of an iterable or a set of iterables with themselves, repeated 'N' times. With a single iterable argument, 'N'-tuples are returned: >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], repeat=3)) [(1, 1, 1), (1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 1), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 1), (2, 2, 2)] With two iterables, '2N'-tuples are returned. >>> list(itertools.product([1,2], [3,4], repeat=2)) [(1, 3, 1, 3), (1, 3, 1, 4), (1, 3, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2, 4), (1, 4, 1, 3), (1, 4, 1, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3), (1, 4, 2, 4), (2, 3, 1, 3), (2, 3, 1, 4), (2, 3, 2, 3), (2, 3, 2, 4), (2, 4, 1, 3), (2, 4, 1, 4), (2, 4, 2, 3), (2, 4, 2, 4)] ‘combinations(iterable, r)’ returns sub-sequences of length 'r' from the elements of 'iterable'. >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 2)) [('1', '2'), ('1', '3'), ('2', '3')] >>> list(itertools.combinations('123', 3)) [('1', '2', '3')] >>> list(itertools.combinations('1234', 3)) [('1', '2', '3'), ('1', '2', '4'), ('1', '3', '4'), ('2', '3', '4')] ‘permutations(iter[, r])’ returns all the permutations of length 'r' of the iterable’s elements. If 'r' is not specified, it will default to the number of elements produced by the iterable. >>> list(itertools.permutations([1,2,3,4], 2)) [(1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3)] ‘itertools.chain(*iterables)’ is an existing function in *note itertools: 81. that gained a new constructor in Python 2.6. ‘itertools.chain.from_iterable(iterable)’ takes a single iterable that should return other iterables. ‘chain()’ will then return all the elements of the first iterable, then all the elements of the second, and so on. >>> list(itertools.chain.from_iterable([[1,2,3], [4,5,6]])) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6] (All contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note logging: 87. module’s ‘FileHandler’ class and its subclasses ‘WatchedFileHandler’, ‘RotatingFileHandler’, and ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ now have an optional 'delay' parameter to their constructors. If 'delay' is true, opening of the log file is deferred until the first ‘emit()’ call is made. (Contributed by Vinay Sajip.) ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ also has a 'utc' constructor parameter. If the argument is true, UTC time will be used in determining when midnight occurs and in generating filenames; otherwise local time will be used. * Several new functions were added to the *note math: 8e. module: * *note isinf(): 139d. and *note isnan(): 139e. determine whether a given float is a (positive or negative) infinity or a NaN (Not a Number), respectively. * *note copysign(): 139f. copies the sign bit of an IEEE 754 number, returning the absolute value of 'x' combined with the sign bit of 'y'. For example, ‘math.copysign(1, -0.0)’ returns -1.0. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) * *note factorial(): 947. computes the factorial of a number. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-2138(12).) * *note fsum(): 13a0. adds up the stream of numbers from an iterable, and is careful to avoid loss of precision through using partial sums. (Contributed by Jean Brouwers, Raymond Hettinger, and Mark Dickinson; bpo-2819(13).) * *note acosh(): 13a1, *note asinh(): 13a2. and *note atanh(): 13a3. compute the inverse hyperbolic functions. * *note log1p(): 13a4. returns the natural logarithm of '1+x' (base 'e'). * ‘trunc()’ rounds a number toward zero, returning the closest ‘Integral’ that’s between the function’s argument and zero. Added as part of the backport of *note PEP 3141's type hierarchy for numbers: 12b0. * The *note math: 8e. module has been improved to give more consistent behaviour across platforms, especially with respect to handling of floating-point exceptions and IEEE 754 special values. Whenever possible, the module follows the recommendations of the C99 standard about 754’s special values. For example, ‘sqrt(-1.)’ should now give a *note ValueError: 204. across almost all platforms, while ‘sqrt(float('NaN'))’ should return a NaN on all IEEE 754 platforms. Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends signaling ‘divide-by-zero’ or ‘invalid’, Python will raise *note ValueError: 204. Where Annex ‘F’ of the C99 standard recommends signaling ‘overflow’, Python will raise *note OverflowError: 87f. (See bpo-711019(14) and bpo-1640(15).) (Contributed by Christian Heimes and Mark Dickinson.) * *note mmap: 20d. objects now have a ‘rfind()’ method that searches for a substring beginning at the end of the string and searching backwards. The ‘find()’ method also gained an 'end' parameter giving an index at which to stop searching. (Contributed by John Lenton.) * The *note operator: 9f. module gained a ‘methodcaller()’ function that takes a name and an optional set of arguments, returning a callable that will call the named function on any arguments passed to it. For example: >>> # Equivalent to lambda s: s.replace('old', 'new') >>> replacer = operator.methodcaller('replace', 'old', 'new') >>> replacer('old wine in old bottles') 'new wine in new bottles' (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Gregory Petrosyan.) The ‘attrgetter()’ function now accepts dotted names and performs the corresponding attribute lookups: >>> inst_name = operator.attrgetter( ... '__class__.__name__') >>> inst_name('') 'str' >>> inst_name(help) '_Helper' (Contributed by Georg Brandl, after a suggestion by Barry Warsaw.) * The *note os: a1. module now wraps several new system calls. ‘fchmod(fd, mode)’ and ‘fchown(fd, uid, gid)’ change the mode and ownership of an opened file, and ‘lchmod(path, mode)’ changes the mode of a symlink. (Contributed by Georg Brandl and Christian Heimes.) ‘chflags()’ and ‘lchflags()’ are wrappers for the corresponding system calls (where they’re available), changing the flags set on a file. Constants for the flag values are defined in the *note stat: d1. module; some possible values include ‘UF_IMMUTABLE’ to signal the file may not be changed and ‘UF_APPEND’ to indicate that data can only be appended to the file. (Contributed by M. Levinson.) ‘os.closerange(low, high)’ efficiently closes all file descriptors from 'low' to 'high', ignoring any errors and not including 'high' itself. This function is now used by the *note subprocess: d6. module to make starting processes faster. (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1663329(16).) * The ‘os.environ’ object’s ‘clear()’ method will now unset the environment variables using *note os.unsetenv(): 91a. in addition to clearing the object’s keys. (Contributed by Martin Horcicka; bpo-1181(17).) * The *note os.walk(): 4a5. function now has a ‘followlinks’ parameter. If set to True, it will follow symlinks pointing to directories and visit the directory’s contents. For backward compatibility, the parameter’s default value is false. Note that the function can fall into an infinite recursion if there’s a symlink that points to a parent directory. (bpo-1273829(18)) * In the *note os.path: a2. module, the ‘splitext()’ function has been changed to not split on leading period characters. This produces better results when operating on Unix’s dot-files. For example, ‘os.path.splitext('.ipython')’ now returns ‘('.ipython', '')’ instead of ‘('', '.ipython')’. (bpo-1115886(19)) A new function, ‘os.path.relpath(path, start='.')’, returns a relative path from the ‘start’ path, if it’s supplied, or from the current working directory to the destination ‘path’. (Contributed by Richard Barran; bpo-1339796(20).) On Windows, *note os.path.expandvars(): 13a5. will now expand environment variables given in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will be expanded into the user’s home directory path. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(21).) * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a5. module gained a new command: “run” restarts the Python program being debugged and can optionally take new command-line arguments for the program. (Contributed by Rocky Bernstein; bpo-1393667(22).) * The *note pdb.post_mortem(): 13a6. function, used to begin debugging a traceback, will now use the traceback returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686. if no traceback is supplied. (Contributed by Facundo Batista; bpo-1106316(23).) * The *note pickletools: a7. module now has an ‘optimize()’ function that takes a string containing a pickle and removes some unused opcodes, returning a shorter pickle that contains the same data structure. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * A ‘get_data()’ function was added to the *note pkgutil: a9. module that returns the contents of resource files included with an installed Python package. For example: >>> import pkgutil >>> print pkgutil.get_data('test', 'exception_hierarchy.txt') BaseException +-- SystemExit +-- KeyboardInterrupt +-- GeneratorExit +-- Exception +-- StopIteration +-- StandardError ... (Contributed by Paul Moore; bpo-2439(24).) * The ‘pyexpat’ module’s ‘Parser’ objects now allow setting their ‘buffer_size’ attribute to change the size of the buffer used to hold character data. (Contributed by Achim Gaedke; bpo-1137(25).) * The ‘Queue’ module now provides queue variants that retrieve entries in different orders. The ‘PriorityQueue’ class stores queued items in a heap and retrieves them in priority order, and ‘LifoQueue’ retrieves the most recently added entries first, meaning that it behaves like a stack. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note random: b8. module’s ‘Random’ objects can now be pickled on a 32-bit system and unpickled on a 64-bit system, and vice versa. Unfortunately, this change also means that Python 2.6’s ‘Random’ objects can’t be unpickled correctly on earlier versions of Python. (Contributed by Shawn Ligocki; bpo-1727780(26).) The new ‘triangular(low, high, mode)’ function returns random numbers following a triangular distribution. The returned values are between 'low' and 'high', not including 'high' itself, and with 'mode' as the most frequently occurring value in the distribution. (Contributed by Wladmir van der Laan and Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1681432(27).) * Long regular expression searches carried out by the *note re: b9. module will check for signals being delivered, so time-consuming searches can now be interrupted. (Contributed by Josh Hoyt and Ralf Schmitt; bpo-846388(28).) The regular expression module is implemented by compiling bytecodes for a tiny regex-specific virtual machine. Untrusted code could create malicious strings of bytecode directly and cause crashes, so Python 2.6 includes a verifier for the regex bytecode. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum from work for Google App Engine; bpo-3487(29).) * The *note rlcompleter: bd. module’s ‘Completer.complete()’ method will now ignore exceptions triggered while evaluating a name. (Fixed by Lorenz Quack; bpo-2250(30).) * The *note sched: bf. module’s ‘scheduler’ instances now have a read-only *note queue: b6. attribute that returns the contents of the scheduler’s queue, represented as a list of named tuples with the fields ‘(time, priority, action, argument)’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger; bpo-1861(31).) * The *note select: c1. module now has wrapper functions for the Linux ‘epoll()’ and BSD ‘kqueue()’ system calls. ‘modify()’ method was added to the existing ‘poll’ objects; ‘pollobj.modify(fd, eventmask)’ takes a file descriptor or file object and an event mask, modifying the recorded event mask for that file. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1657(32).) * The *note shutil.copytree(): a28. function now has an optional 'ignore' argument that takes a callable object. This callable will receive each directory path and a list of the directory’s contents, and returns a list of names that will be ignored, not copied. The *note shutil: c5. module also provides an ‘ignore_patterns()’ function for use with this new parameter. ‘ignore_patterns()’ takes an arbitrary number of glob-style patterns and returns a callable that will ignore any files and directories that match any of these patterns. The following example copies a directory tree, but skips both ‘.svn’ directories and Emacs backup files, which have names ending with ‘~’: shutil.copytree('Doc/library', '/tmp/library', ignore=shutil.ignore_patterns('*~', '.svn')) (Contributed by Tarek Ziadé; bpo-2663(33).) * Integrating signal handling with GUI handling event loops like those used by Tkinter or GTk+ has long been a problem; most software ends up polling, waking up every fraction of a second to check if any GUI events have occurred. The *note signal: c6. module can now make this more efficient. Calling ‘signal.set_wakeup_fd(fd)’ sets a file descriptor to be used; when a signal is received, a byte is written to that file descriptor. There’s also a C-level function, *note PySignal_SetWakeupFd(): 13a7, for setting the descriptor. Event loops will use this by opening a pipe to create two descriptors, one for reading and one for writing. The writable descriptor will be passed to ‘set_wakeup_fd()’, and the readable descriptor will be added to the list of descriptors monitored by the event loop via ‘select()’ or ‘poll()’. On receiving a signal, a byte will be written and the main event loop will be woken up, avoiding the need to poll. (Contributed by Adam Olsen; bpo-1583(34).) The ‘siginterrupt()’ function is now available from Python code, and allows changing whether signals can interrupt system calls or not. (Contributed by Ralf Schmitt.) The ‘setitimer()’ and ‘getitimer()’ functions have also been added (where they’re available). ‘setitimer()’ allows setting interval timers that will cause a signal to be delivered to the process after a specified time, measured in wall-clock time, consumed process time, or combined process+system time. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2240(35).) * The *note smtplib: ca. module now supports SMTP over SSL thanks to the addition of the ‘SMTP_SSL’ class. This class supports an interface identical to the existing ‘SMTP’ class. (Contributed by Monty Taylor.) Both class constructors also have an optional ‘timeout’ parameter that specifies a timeout for the initial connection attempt, measured in seconds. (Contributed by Facundo Batista.) An implementation of the LMTP protocol ( RFC 2033(36)) was also added to the module. LMTP is used in place of SMTP when transferring e-mail between agents that don’t manage a mail queue. (LMTP implemented by Leif Hedstrom; bpo-957003(37).) ‘SMTP.starttls()’ now complies with RFC 3207(38) and forgets any knowledge obtained from the server not obtained from the TLS negotiation itself. (Patch contributed by Bill Fenner; bpo-829951(39).) * The *note socket: cc. module now supports TIPC (‘https://tipc.sourceforge.net/’), a high-performance non-IP-based protocol designed for use in clustered environments. TIPC addresses are 4- or 5-tuples. (Contributed by Alberto Bertogli; bpo-1646(40).) A new function, ‘create_connection()’, takes an address and connects to it using an optional timeout value, returning the connected socket object. This function also looks up the address’s type and connects to it using IPv4 or IPv6 as appropriate. Changing your code to use ‘create_connection()’ instead of ‘socket(socket.AF_INET, ...)’ may be all that’s required to make your code work with IPv6. * The base classes in the *note SocketServer: cd. module now support calling a *note handle_timeout(): 1314. method after a span of inactivity specified by the server’s *note timeout: 1313. attribute. (Contributed by Michael Pomraning.) The *note serve_forever(): 1133. method now takes an optional poll interval measured in seconds, controlling how often the server will check for a shutdown request. (Contributed by Pedro Werneck and Jeffrey Yasskin; bpo-742598(41), bpo-1193577(42).) * The *note sqlite3: cf. module, maintained by Gerhard Häring, has been updated from version 2.3.2 in Python 2.5 to version 2.4.1. * The *note struct: d5. module now supports the C99 _Bool type, using the format character ‘'?'’. (Contributed by David Remahl.) * The *note Popen: 199. objects provided by the *note subprocess: d6. module now have *note terminate(): 13a8, *note kill(): 13a9, and *note send_signal(): 13aa. methods. On Windows, ‘send_signal()’ only supports the *note SIGTERM: 13ab. signal, and all these methods are aliases for the Win32 API function ‘TerminateProcess()’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) * A new variable in the *note sys: d9. module, ‘float_info’, is an object containing information derived from the ‘float.h’ file about the platform’s floating-point support. Attributes of this object include ‘mant_dig’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘epsilon’ (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several others. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(43).) Another new variable, ‘dont_write_bytecode’, controls whether Python writes any ‘.pyc’ or ‘.pyo’ files on importing a module. If this variable is true, the compiled files are not written. The variable is initially set on start-up by supplying the *note -B: 1399. switch to the Python interpreter, or by setting the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 139a. environment variable before running the interpreter. Python code can subsequently change the value of this variable to control whether bytecode files are written or not. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz and Georg Brandl.) Information about the command-line arguments supplied to the Python interpreter is available by reading attributes of a named tuple available as ‘sys.flags’. For example, the ‘verbose’ attribute is true if Python was executed in verbose mode, ‘debug’ is true in debugging mode, etc. These attributes are all read-only. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) A new function, ‘getsizeof()’, takes a Python object and returns the amount of memory used by the object, measured in bytes. Built-in objects return correct results; third-party extensions may not, but can define a ‘__sizeof__()’ method to return the object’s size. (Contributed by Robert Schuppenies; bpo-2898(44).) It’s now possible to determine the current profiler and tracer functions by calling *note sys.getprofile(): 13ac. and *note sys.gettrace(): 13ad. (Contributed by Georg Brandl; bpo-1648(45).) * The *note tarfile: de. module now supports POSIX.1-2001 (pax) tarfiles in addition to the POSIX.1-1988 (ustar) and GNU tar formats that were already supported. The default format is GNU tar; specify the ‘format’ parameter to open a file using a different format: tar = tarfile.open("output.tar", "w", format=tarfile.PAX_FORMAT) The new ‘encoding’ and ‘errors’ parameters specify an encoding and an error handling scheme for character conversions. ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ are the three standard ways Python can handle errors,; ‘'utf-8'’ is a special value that replaces bad characters with their UTF-8 representation. (Character conversions occur because the PAX format supports Unicode filenames, defaulting to UTF-8 encoding.) The ‘TarFile.add()’ method now accepts an ‘exclude’ argument that’s a function that can be used to exclude certain filenames from an archive. The function must take a filename and return true if the file should be excluded or false if it should be archived. The function is applied to both the name initially passed to ‘add()’ and to the names of files in recursively added directories. (All changes contributed by Lars Gustäbel). * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the ‘telnetlib.Telnet’ class constructor, specifying a timeout measured in seconds. (Added by Facundo Batista.) * The *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile: 4c2. class usually deletes the temporary file it created when the file is closed. This behaviour can now be changed by passing ‘delete=False’ to the constructor. (Contributed by Damien Miller; bpo-1537850(46).) A new class, ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’, behaves like a temporary file but stores its data in memory until a maximum size is exceeded. On reaching that limit, the contents will be written to an on-disk temporary file. (Contributed by Dustin J. Mitchell.) The ‘NamedTemporaryFile’ and ‘SpooledTemporaryFile’ classes both work as context managers, so you can write ‘with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile() as tmp: ...’. (Contributed by Alexander Belopolsky; bpo-2021(47).) * The *note test.test_support: e4. module gained a number of context managers useful for writing tests. *note EnvironmentVarGuard(): 13ae. is a context manager that temporarily changes environment variables and automatically restores them to their old values. Another context manager, ‘TransientResource’, can surround calls to resources that may or may not be available; it will catch and ignore a specified list of exceptions. For example, a network test may ignore certain failures when connecting to an external web site: with test_support.TransientResource(IOError, errno=errno.ETIMEDOUT): f = urllib.urlopen('https://sf.net') ... Finally, ‘check_warnings()’ resets the ‘warning’ module’s warning filters and returns an object that will record all warning messages triggered (bpo-3781(48)): with test_support.check_warnings() as wrec: warnings.simplefilter("always") # ... code that triggers a warning ... assert str(wrec.message) == "function is outdated" assert len(wrec.warnings) == 1, "Multiple warnings raised" (Contributed by Brett Cannon.) * The *note textwrap: ec. module can now preserve existing whitespace at the beginnings and ends of the newly created lines by specifying ‘drop_whitespace=False’ as an argument: >>> S = """This sentence has a bunch of ... extra whitespace.""" >>> print textwrap.fill(S, width=15) This sentence has a bunch of extra whitespace. >>> print textwrap.fill(S, drop_whitespace=False, width=15) This sentence has a bunch of extra whitespace. >>> (Contributed by Dwayne Bailey; bpo-1581073(49).) * The *note threading: ed. module API is being changed to use properties such as ‘daemon’ instead of ‘setDaemon()’ and ‘isDaemon()’ methods, and some methods have been renamed to use underscores instead of camel-case; for example, the ‘activeCount()’ method is renamed to ‘active_count()’. Both the 2.6 and 3.0 versions of the module support the same properties and renamed methods, but don’t remove the old methods. No date has been set for the deprecation of the old APIs in Python 3.x; the old APIs won’t be removed in any 2.x version. (Carried out by several people, most notably Benjamin Peterson.) The *note threading: ed. module’s ‘Thread’ objects gained an ‘ident’ property that returns the thread’s identifier, a nonzero integer. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-2871(50).) * The *note timeit: ef. module now accepts callables as well as strings for the statement being timed and for the setup code. Two convenience functions were added for creating ‘Timer’ instances: ‘repeat(stmt, setup, time, repeat, number)’ and ‘timeit(stmt, setup, time, number)’ create an instance and call the corresponding method. (Contributed by Erik Demaine; bpo-1533909(51).) * The ‘Tkinter’ module now accepts lists and tuples for options, separating the elements by spaces before passing the resulting value to Tcl/Tk. (Contributed by Guilherme Polo; bpo-2906(52).) * The *note turtle: 101. module for turtle graphics was greatly enhanced by Gregor Lingl. New features in the module include: * Better animation of turtle movement and rotation. * Control over turtle movement using the new ‘delay()’, ‘tracer()’, and ‘speed()’ methods. * The ability to set new shapes for the turtle, and to define a new coordinate system. * Turtles now have an ‘undo()’ method that can roll back actions. * Simple support for reacting to input events such as mouse and keyboard activity, making it possible to write simple games. * A ‘turtle.cfg’ file can be used to customize the starting appearance of the turtle’s screen. * The module’s docstrings can be replaced by new docstrings that have been translated into another language. (bpo-1513695(53)) * An optional ‘timeout’ parameter was added to the *note urllib.urlopen: 295. function and the ‘urllib.ftpwrapper’ class constructor, as well as the *note urllib2.urlopen: 295. function. The parameter specifies a timeout measured in seconds. For example: >>> u = urllib2.urlopen("http://slow.example.com", timeout=3) Traceback (most recent call last): ... urllib2.URLError: >>> (Added by Facundo Batista.) * The Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module has been updated to version 5.1.0. (Updated by Martin von Löwis; bpo-3811(54).) * The *note warnings: 112. module’s ‘formatwarning()’ and ‘showwarning()’ gained an optional 'line' argument that can be used to supply the line of source code. (Added as part of bpo-1631171(55), which re-implemented part of the *note warnings: 112. module in C code.) A new function, ‘catch_warnings()’, is a context manager intended for testing purposes that lets you temporarily modify the warning filters and then restore their original values (bpo-3781(56)). * The XML-RPC *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes can now be prevented from immediately opening and binding to their socket by passing ‘False’ as the 'bind_and_activate' constructor parameter. This can be used to modify the instance’s ‘allow_reuse_address’ attribute before calling the ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ methods to open the socket and begin listening for connections. (Contributed by Peter Parente; bpo-1599845(57).) ‘SimpleXMLRPCServer’ also has a ‘_send_traceback_header’ attribute; if true, the exception and formatted traceback are returned as HTTP headers “X-Exception” and “X-Traceback”. This feature is for debugging purposes only and should not be used on production servers because the tracebacks might reveal passwords or other sensitive information. (Contributed by Alan McIntyre as part of his project for Google’s Summer of Code 2007.) * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module no longer automatically converts *note datetime.date: 1cd. and *note datetime.time: 1ce. to the *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 13af. type; the conversion semantics were not necessarily correct for all applications. Code using ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 1ce. instances. (bpo-1330538(58)) The code can also handle dates before 1900 (contributed by Ralf Schmitt; bpo-2014(59)) and 64-bit integers represented by using ‘’ in XML-RPC responses (contributed by Riku Lindblad; bpo-2985(60)). * The *note zipfile: 131. module’s ‘ZipFile’ class now has ‘extract()’ and ‘extractall()’ methods that will unpack a single file or all the files in the archive to the current directory, or to a specified directory: z = zipfile.ZipFile('python-251.zip') # Unpack a single file, writing it relative # to the /tmp directory. z.extract('Python/sysmodule.c', '/tmp') # Unpack all the files in the archive. z.extractall() (Contributed by Alan McIntyre; bpo-467924(61).) The *note open(): 517, ‘read()’ and ‘extract()’ methods can now take either a filename or a ‘ZipInfo’ object. This is useful when an archive accidentally contains a duplicated filename. (Contributed by Graham Horler; bpo-1775025(62).) Finally, *note zipfile: 131. now supports using Unicode filenames for archived files. (Contributed by Alexey Borzenkov; bpo-1734346(63).) * Menu: * The ast module:: * The future_builtins module:: * The json module; JavaScript Object Notation: The json module JavaScript Object Notation. * The plistlib module; A Property-List Parser: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser. * ctypes Enhancements:: * Improved SSL Support:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1736190 (2) https://www.jcea.es/programacion/pybsddb.htm (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1817 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=600362 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1381 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1638033 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1158 (8) https://speleotrove.com/decimal/decarith.html (9) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1221598 (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1739906 (11) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1001604 (12) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2138 (13) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2819 (14) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=711019 (15) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1640 (16) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1663329 (17) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1181 (18) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1273829 (19) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1115886 (20) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1339796 (21) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650 (22) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1393667 (23) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1106316 (24) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2439 (25) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1137 (26) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1727780 (27) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1681432 (28) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=846388 (29) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3487 (30) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2250 (31) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1861 (32) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1657 (33) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2663 (34) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1583 (35) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2240 (36) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2033.html (37) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957003 (38) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3207.html (39) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=829951 (40) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1646 (41) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=742598 (42) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1193577 (43) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534 (44) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2898 (45) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1648 (46) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1537850 (47) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2021 (48) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781 (49) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1581073 (50) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2871 (51) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1533909 (52) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2906 (53) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1513695 (54) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3811 (55) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1631171 (56) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=3781 (57) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1599845 (58) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538 (59) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2014 (60) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2985 (61) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=467924 (62) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1775025 (63) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1734346  File: python.info, Node: The ast module, Next: The future_builtins module, Up: New and Improved Modules<2> 1.16.18.1 The ‘ast’ module .......................... The *note ast: 8. module provides an Abstract Syntax Tree representation of Python code, and Armin Ronacher contributed a set of helper functions that perform a variety of common tasks. These will be useful for HTML templating packages, code analyzers, and similar tools that process Python code. The ‘parse()’ function takes an expression and returns an AST. The ‘dump()’ function outputs a representation of a tree, suitable for debugging: import ast t = ast.parse(""" d = {} for i in 'abcdefghijklm': d[i + i] = ord(i) - ord('a') + 1 print d """) print ast.dump(t) This outputs a deeply nested tree: Module(body=[ Assign(targets=[ Name(id='d', ctx=Store()) ], value=Dict(keys=[], values=[])) For(target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()), iter=Str(s='abcdefghijklm'), body=[ Assign(targets=[ Subscript(value= Name(id='d', ctx=Load()), slice= Index(value= BinOp(left=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), op=Add(), right=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()))), ctx=Store()) ], value= BinOp(left= BinOp(left= Call(func= Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[ Name(id='i', ctx=Load()) ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None), op=Sub(), right=Call(func= Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[ Str(s='a') ], keywords=[], starargs=None, kwargs=None)), op=Add(), right=Num(n=1))) ], orelse=[]) Print(dest=None, values=[ Name(id='d', ctx=Load()) ], nl=True) ]) The ‘literal_eval()’ method takes a string or an AST representing a literal expression, parses and evaluates it, and returns the resulting value. A literal expression is a Python expression containing only strings, numbers, dictionaries, etc. but no statements or function calls. If you need to evaluate an expression but cannot accept the security risk of using an *note eval(): 180. call, ‘literal_eval()’ will handle it safely: >>> literal = '("a", "b", {2:4, 3:8, 1:2})' >>> print ast.literal_eval(literal) ('a', 'b', {1: 2, 2: 4, 3: 8}) >>> print ast.literal_eval('"a" + "b"') Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: malformed string The module also includes ‘NodeVisitor’ and ‘NodeTransformer’ classes for traversing and modifying an AST, and functions for common transformations such as changing line numbers.  File: python.info, Node: The future_builtins module, Next: The json module JavaScript Object Notation, Prev: The ast module, Up: New and Improved Modules<2> 1.16.18.2 The ‘future_builtins’ module ...................................... Python 3.0 makes many changes to the repertoire of built-in functions, and most of the changes can’t be introduced in the Python 2.x series because they would break compatibility. The ‘future_builtins’ module provides versions of these built-in functions that can be imported when writing 3.0-compatible code. The functions in this module currently include: * ‘ascii(obj)’: equivalent to *note repr(): 7f9. In Python 3.0, *note repr(): 7f9. will return a Unicode string, while *note ascii(): 13b2. will return a pure ASCII bytestring. * ‘filter(predicate, iterable)’, ‘map(func, iterable1, ...)’: the 3.0 versions return iterators, unlike the 2.x builtins which return lists. * ‘hex(value)’, ‘oct(value)’: instead of calling the ‘__hex__()’ or ‘__oct__()’ methods, these versions will call the ‘__index__()’ method and convert the result to hexadecimal or octal. *note oct(): 12c1. will use the new ‘0o’ notation for its result.  File: python.info, Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation, Next: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser, Prev: The future_builtins module, Up: New and Improved Modules<2> 1.16.18.3 The ‘json’ module: JavaScript Object Notation ....................................................... The new *note json: 82. module supports the encoding and decoding of Python types in JSON (Javascript Object Notation). JSON is a lightweight interchange format often used in web applications. For more information about JSON, see ‘http://www.json.org’. *note json: 82. comes with support for decoding and encoding most built-in Python types. The following example encodes and decodes a dictionary: >>> import json >>> data = {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42} >>> in_json = json.dumps(data) # Encode the data >>> in_json '{"parrot": 42, "spam": "foo"}' >>> json.loads(in_json) # Decode into a Python object {"spam": "foo", "parrot": 42} It’s also possible to write your own decoders and encoders to support more types. Pretty-printing of the JSON strings is also supported. *note json: 82. (originally called simplejson) was written by Bob Ippolito.  File: python.info, Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser, Next: ctypes Enhancements, Prev: The json module JavaScript Object Notation, Up: New and Improved Modules<2> 1.16.18.4 The ‘plistlib’ module: A Property-List Parser ....................................................... The ‘.plist’ format is commonly used on Mac OS X to store basic data types (numbers, strings, lists, and dictionaries) by serializing them into an XML-based format. It resembles the XML-RPC serialization of data types. Despite being primarily used on Mac OS X, the format has nothing Mac-specific about it and the Python implementation works on any platform that Python supports, so the *note plistlib: ab. module has been promoted to the standard library. Using the module is simple: import sys import plistlib import datetime # Create data structure data_struct = dict(lastAccessed=datetime.datetime.now(), version=1, categories=('Personal','Shared','Private')) # Create string containing XML. plist_str = plistlib.writePlistToString(data_struct) new_struct = plistlib.readPlistFromString(plist_str) print data_struct print new_struct # Write data structure to a file and read it back. plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, '/tmp/customizations.plist') new_struct = plistlib.readPlist('/tmp/customizations.plist') # read/writePlist accepts file-like objects as well as paths. plistlib.writePlist(data_struct, sys.stdout)  File: python.info, Node: ctypes Enhancements, Next: Improved SSL Support, Prev: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser, Up: New and Improved Modules<2> 1.16.18.5 ctypes Enhancements ............................. Thomas Heller continued to maintain and enhance the *note ctypes: 2a. module. *note ctypes: 2a. now supports a ‘c_bool’ datatype that represents the C99 ‘bool’ type. (Contributed by David Remahl; bpo-1649190(1).) The *note ctypes: 2a. string, buffer and array types have improved support for extended slicing syntax, where various combinations of ‘(start, stop, step)’ are supplied. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.) All *note ctypes: 2a. data types now support ‘from_buffer()’ and ‘from_buffer_copy()’ methods that create a ctypes instance based on a provided buffer object. ‘from_buffer_copy()’ copies the contents of the object, while ‘from_buffer()’ will share the same memory area. A new calling convention tells *note ctypes: 2a. to clear the ‘errno’ or Win32 LastError variables at the outset of each wrapped call. (Implemented by Thomas Heller; bpo-1798(2).) You can now retrieve the Unix ‘errno’ variable after a function call. When creating a wrapped function, you can supply ‘use_errno=True’ as a keyword parameter to the ‘DLL()’ function and then call the module-level methods ‘set_errno()’ and ‘get_errno()’ to set and retrieve the error value. The Win32 LastError variable is similarly supported by the ‘DLL()’, ‘OleDLL()’, and ‘WinDLL()’ functions. You supply ‘use_last_error=True’ as a keyword parameter and then call the module-level methods ‘set_last_error()’ and ‘get_last_error()’. The ‘byref()’ function, used to retrieve a pointer to a ctypes instance, now has an optional 'offset' parameter that is a byte count that will be added to the returned pointer. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1649190 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1798  File: python.info, Node: Improved SSL Support, Prev: ctypes Enhancements, Up: New and Improved Modules<2> 1.16.18.6 Improved SSL Support .............................. Bill Janssen made extensive improvements to Python 2.6’s support for the Secure Sockets Layer by adding a new module, *note ssl: d0, that’s built atop the OpenSSL(1) library. This new module provides more control over the protocol negotiated, the X.509 certificates used, and has better support for writing SSL servers (as opposed to clients) in Python. The existing SSL support in the *note socket: cc. module hasn’t been removed and continues to work, though it will be removed in Python 3.0. To use the new module, you must first create a TCP connection in the usual way and then pass it to the ‘ssl.wrap_socket()’ function. It’s possible to specify whether a certificate is required, and to obtain certificate info by calling the ‘getpeercert()’ method. See also ........ The documentation for the *note ssl: d0. module. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.openssl.org/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecations and Removals, Next: Build and C API Changes<9>, Prev: New and Improved Modules<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.19 Deprecations and Removals --------------------------------- * String exceptions have been removed. Attempting to use them raises a *note TypeError: 534. * Changes to the *note Exception: 9d9. interface as dictated by PEP 352(1) continue to be made. For 2.6, the ‘message’ attribute is being deprecated in favor of the *note args: 569. attribute. * (3.0-warning mode) Python 3.0 will feature a reorganized standard library that will drop many outdated modules and rename others. Python 2.6 running in 3.0-warning mode will warn about these modules when they are imported. The list of deprecated modules is: ‘audiodev’, ‘bgenlocations’, ‘buildtools’, ‘bundlebuilder’, ‘Canvas’, ‘compiler’, ‘dircache’, ‘dl’, ‘fpformat’, ‘gensuitemodule’, ‘ihooks’, ‘imageop’, ‘imgfile’, ‘linuxaudiodev’, ‘mhlib’, ‘mimetools’, ‘multifile’, ‘new’, ‘pure’, ‘statvfs’, ‘sunaudiodev’, ‘test.testall’, and ‘toaiff’. * The ‘gopherlib’ module has been removed. * The ‘MimeWriter’ module and ‘mimify’ module have been deprecated; use the *note email: 3b. package instead. * The ‘md5’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 68. module instead. * The ‘posixfile’ module has been deprecated; *note fcntl.lockf(): 13b8. provides better locking. * The ‘popen2’ module has been deprecated; use the *note subprocess: d6. module. * The ‘rgbimg’ module has been removed. * The ‘sets’ module has been deprecated; it’s better to use the built-in *note set: 5d5. and *note frozenset: 5d6. types. * The ‘sha’ module has been deprecated; use the *note hashlib: 68. module instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<9>, Next: Porting to Python 2 6, Prev: Deprecations and Removals, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.20 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * Python now must be compiled with C89 compilers (after 19 years!). This means that the Python source tree has dropped its own implementations of ‘memmove()’ and ‘strerror()’, which are in the C89 standard library. * Python 2.6 can be built with Microsoft Visual Studio 2008 (version 9.0), and this is the new default compiler. See the ‘PCbuild’ directory for the build files. (Implemented by Christian Heimes.) * On Mac OS X, Python 2.6 can be compiled as a 4-way universal build. The ‘configure’ script can take a ‘--with-universal-archs=[32-bit|64-bit|all]’ switch, controlling whether the binaries are built for 32-bit architectures (x86, PowerPC), 64-bit (x86-64 and PPC-64), or both. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.) * A new function added in Python 2.6.6, ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’, sets the value of ‘sys.argv’ and can optionally update ‘sys.path’ to include the directory containing the script named by ‘sys.argv[0]’ depending on the value of an 'updatepath' parameter. This function was added to close a security hole for applications that embed Python. The old function, ‘PySys_SetArgv()’, would always update ‘sys.path’, and sometimes it would add the current directory. This meant that, if you ran an application embedding Python in a directory controlled by someone else, attackers could put a Trojan-horse module in the directory (say, a file named ‘os.py’) that your application would then import and run. If you maintain a C/C++ application that embeds Python, check whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false. Note that using this function will break compatibility with Python versions 2.6.5 and earlier; if you have to continue working with earlier versions, you can leave the call to ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ alone and call ‘PyRun_SimpleString("sys.path.pop(0)\n")’ afterwards to discard the first ‘sys.path’ component. Security issue reported as CVE 2008-5983(1); discussed in gh-50003(2), and fixed by Antoine Pitrou. * The BerkeleyDB module now has a C API object, available as ‘bsddb.db.api’. This object can be used by other C extensions that wish to use the ‘bsddb’ module for their own purposes. (Contributed by Duncan Grisby.) * The new buffer interface, previously described in *note the PEP 3118 section: 1385, adds *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. and *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396, as well as a few other functions. * Python’s use of the C stdio library is now thread-safe, or at least as thread-safe as the underlying library is. A long-standing potential bug occurred if one thread closed a file object while another thread was reading from or writing to the object. In 2.6 file objects have a reference count, manipulated by the ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ functions. File objects can’t be closed unless the reference count is zero. ‘PyFile_IncUseCount()’ should be called while the GIL is still held, before carrying out an I/O operation using the ‘FILE *’ pointer, and ‘PyFile_DecUseCount()’ should be called immediately after the GIL is re-acquired. (Contributed by Antoine Pitrou and Gregory P. Smith.) * Importing modules simultaneously in two different threads no longer deadlocks; it will now raise an *note ImportError: 415. A new API function, *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9, will look for a module in ‘sys.modules’ first, then try to import it after acquiring an import lock. If the import lock is held by another thread, an *note ImportError: 415. is raised. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) * Several functions return information about the platform’s floating-point support. *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 13ba. returns the maximum representable floating-point value, and *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 13bb. returns the minimum positive value. *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 13bc. returns an object containing more information from the ‘float.h’ file, such as ‘"mant_dig"’ (number of digits in the mantissa), ‘"epsilon"’ (smallest difference between 1.0 and the next largest value representable), and several others. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1534(3).) * C functions and methods that use *note PyComplex_AsCComplex(): 13bd. will now accept arguments that have a ‘__complex__()’ method. In particular, the functions in the *note cmath: 18. module will now accept objects with this method. This is a backport of a Python 3.0 change. (Contributed by Mark Dickinson; bpo-1675423(4).) * Python’s C API now includes two functions for case-insensitive string comparisons, ‘PyOS_stricmp(char*, char*)’ and ‘PyOS_strnicmp(char*, char*, Py_ssize_t)’. (Contributed by Christian Heimes; bpo-1635(5).) * Many C extensions define their own little macro for adding integers and strings to the module’s dictionary in the ‘init*’ function. Python 2.6 finally defines standard macros for adding values to a module, *note PyModule_AddStringMacro: 13be. and *note PyModule_AddIntMacro(): 13bf. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) * Some macros were renamed in both 3.0 and 2.6 to make it clearer that they are macros, not functions. ‘Py_Size()’ became *note Py_SIZE(): 77d, ‘Py_Type()’ became *note Py_TYPE(): 77b, and ‘Py_Refcnt()’ became *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a8. The mixed-case macros are still available in Python 2.6 for backward compatibility. (bpo-1629(6)) * Distutils now places C extensions it builds in a different directory when running on a debug version of Python. (Contributed by Collin Winter; bpo-1530959(7).) * Several basic data types, such as integers and strings, maintain internal free lists of objects that can be re-used. The data structures for these free lists now follow a naming convention: the variable is always named ‘free_list’, the counter is always named ‘numfree’, and a macro ‘Py_MAXFREELIST’ is always defined. * A new Makefile target, “make patchcheck”, prepares the Python source tree for making a patch: it fixes trailing whitespace in all modified ‘.py’ files, checks whether the documentation has been changed, and reports whether the ‘Misc/ACKS’ and ‘Misc/NEWS’ files have been updated. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.) Another new target, “make profile-opt”, compiles a Python binary using GCC’s profile-guided optimization. It compiles Python with profiling enabled, runs the test suite to obtain a set of profiling results, and then compiles using these results for optimization. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith.) * Menu: * Port-Specific Changes; Windows: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>. * Port-Specific Changes; Mac OS X: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>. * Port-Specific Changes; IRIX: Port-Specific Changes IRIX. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/50003 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1534 (4) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1675423 (5) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1635 (6) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1629 (7) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1530959  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>, Next: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>, Up: Build and C API Changes<9> 1.16.20.1 Port-Specific Changes: Windows ........................................ * The support for Windows 95, 98, ME and NT4 has been dropped. Python 2.6 requires at least Windows 2000 SP4. * The new default compiler on Windows is Visual Studio 2008 (version 9.0). The build directories for Visual Studio 2003 (version 7.1) and 2005 (version 8.0) were moved into the PC/ directory. The new ‘PCbuild’ directory supports cross compilation for X64, debug builds and Profile Guided Optimization (PGO). PGO builds are roughly 10% faster than normal builds. (Contributed by Christian Heimes with help from Amaury Forgeot d’Arc and Martin von Löwis.) * The *note msvcrt: 93. module now supports both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O API. The *note getwch(): 13c1. function reads a keypress and returns a Unicode value, as does the *note getwche(): 13c2. function. The *note putwch(): 13c3. function takes a Unicode character and writes it to the console. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) * *note os.path.expandvars(): 13a5. will now expand environment variables in the form “%var%”, and “~user” will be expanded into the user’s home directory path. (Contributed by Josiah Carlson; bpo-957650(1).) * The *note socket: cc. module’s socket objects now have an *note ioctl(): cd3. method that provides a limited interface to the ‘WSAIoctl()’ system interface. * The *note _winreg: 116. module now has a function, *note ExpandEnvironmentStrings(): 13c4, that expands environment variable references such as ‘%NAME%’ in an input string. The handle objects provided by this module now support the context protocol, so they can be used in *note with: 5ce. statements. (Contributed by Christian Heimes.) *note _winreg: 116. also has better support for x64 systems, exposing the *note DisableReflectionKey(): 1350, *note EnableReflectionKey(): 1351, and *note QueryReflectionKey(): 1352. functions, which enable and disable registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on 64-bit systems. (bpo-1753245(2)) * The ‘msilib’ module’s ‘Record’ object gained ‘GetInteger()’ and ‘GetString()’ methods that return field values as an integer or a string. (Contributed by Floris Bruynooghe; bpo-2125(3).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=957650 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1753245 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2125  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>, Next: Port-Specific Changes IRIX, Prev: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>, Up: Build and C API Changes<9> 1.16.20.2 Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X ......................................... * When compiling a framework build of Python, you can now specify the framework name to be used by providing the ‘--with-framework-name=’ option to the ‘configure’ script. * The ‘macfs’ module has been removed. This in turn required the ‘macostools.touched()’ function to be removed because it depended on the ‘macfs’ module. (bpo-1490190(1)) * Many other Mac OS modules have been deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.0: ‘_builtinSuites’, ‘aepack’, ‘aetools’, ‘aetypes’, ‘applesingle’, ‘appletrawmain’, ‘appletrunner’, ‘argvemulator’, ‘Audio_mac’, ‘autoGIL’, ‘Carbon’, ‘cfmfile’, ‘CodeWarrior’, ‘ColorPicker’, ‘EasyDialogs’, ‘Explorer’, ‘Finder’, ‘FrameWork’, ‘findertools’, ‘ic’, ‘icglue’, ‘icopen’, ‘macerrors’, ‘MacOS’, ‘macfs’, ‘macostools’, ‘macresource’, ‘MiniAEFrame’, ‘Nav’, ‘Netscape’, ‘OSATerminology’, ‘pimp’, ‘PixMapWrapper’, ‘StdSuites’, ‘SystemEvents’, ‘Terminal’, and ‘terminalcommand’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1490190  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX, Prev: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>, Up: Build and C API Changes<9> 1.16.20.3 Port-Specific Changes: IRIX ..................................... A number of old IRIX-specific modules were deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.0: ‘al’ and ‘AL’, ‘cd’, ‘cddb’, ‘cdplayer’, ‘CL’ and ‘cl’, ‘DEVICE’, ‘ERRNO’, ‘FILE’, ‘FL’ and ‘fl’, ‘flp’, ‘fm’, ‘GET’, ‘GLWS’, ‘GL’ and ‘gl’, ‘IN’, ‘IOCTL’, ‘jpeg’, ‘panelparser’, ‘readcd’, ‘SV’ and ‘sv’, ‘torgb’, ‘videoreader’, and ‘WAIT’.  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 2 6, Next: Acknowledgements<2>, Prev: Build and C API Changes<9>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.21 Porting to Python 2.6 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes and other bugfixes that may require changes to your code: * Classes that aren’t supposed to be hashable should set ‘__hash__ = None’ in their definitions to indicate the fact. * String exceptions have been removed. Attempting to use them raises a *note TypeError: 534. * The ‘__init__()’ method of *note collections.deque: 5d8. now clears any existing contents of the deque before adding elements from the iterable. This change makes the behavior match ‘list.__init__()’. * *note object.__init__(): 6ac. previously accepted arbitrary arguments and keyword arguments, ignoring them. In Python 2.6, this is no longer allowed and will result in a *note TypeError: 534. This will affect ‘__init__()’ methods that end up calling the corresponding method on *note object: a8c. (perhaps through using *note super(): 4d7.). See bpo-1683368(1) for discussion. * The ‘Decimal’ constructor now accepts leading and trailing whitespace when passed a string. Previously it would raise an ‘InvalidOperation’ exception. On the other hand, the ‘create_decimal()’ method of ‘Context’ objects now explicitly disallows extra whitespace, raising a ‘ConversionSyntax’ exception. * Due to an implementation accident, if you passed a file path to the built-in *note __import__(): 8d3. function, it would actually import the specified file. This was never intended to work, however, and the implementation now explicitly checks for this case and raises an *note ImportError: 415. * C API: the *note PyImport_Import(): 13c8. and *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. functions now default to absolute imports, not relative imports. This will affect C extensions that import other modules. * C API: extension data types that shouldn’t be hashable should define their ‘tp_hash’ slot to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1392. * The *note socket: cc. module exception *note socket.error: 104e. now inherits from *note IOError: 104b. Previously it wasn’t a subclass of ‘StandardError’ but now it is, through *note IOError: 104b. (Implemented by Gregory P. Smith; bpo-1706815(2).) * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module no longer automatically converts *note datetime.date: 1cd. and *note datetime.time: 1ce. to the *note xmlrpclib.DateTime: 13af. type; the conversion semantics were not necessarily correct for all applications. Code using ‘xmlrpclib’ should convert ‘date’ and *note time: 1ce. instances. (bpo-1330538(3)) * (3.0-warning mode) The *note Exception: 9d9. class now warns when accessed using slicing or index access; having *note Exception: 9d9. behave like a tuple is being phased out. * (3.0-warning mode) inequality comparisons between two dictionaries or two objects that don’t implement comparison methods are reported as warnings. ‘dict1 == dict2’ still works, but ‘dict1 < dict2’ is being phased out. Comparisons between cells, which are an implementation detail of Python’s scoping rules, also cause warnings because such comparisons are forbidden entirely in 3.0. For applications that embed Python: * The ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ function was added in Python 2.6.6, letting applications close a security hole when the existing ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ function was used. Check whether you’re calling ‘PySys_SetArgv()’ and carefully consider whether the application should be using ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’ with 'updatepath' set to false. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1683368 (2) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1706815 (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=1330538  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<2>, Prev: Porting to Python 2 6, Up: What’s New in Python 2 6 1.16.22 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Georg Brandl, Steve Brown, Nick Coghlan, Ralph Corderoy, Jim Jewett, Kent Johnson, Chris Lambacher, Martin Michlmayr, Antoine Pitrou, Brian Warner.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 5, Next: What’s New in Python 2 4, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 6, Up: What’s New in Python 1.17 What’s New in Python 2.5 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling This article explains the new features in Python 2.5. The final release of Python 2.5 is scheduled for August 2006; PEP 356(1) describes the planned release schedule. Python 2.5 was released on September 19, 2006. The changes in Python 2.5 are an interesting mix of language and library improvements. The library enhancements will be more important to Python’s user community, I think, because several widely useful packages were added. New modules include ElementTree for XML processing (‘xml.etree’), the SQLite database module (‘sqlite’), and the *note ctypes: 2a. module for calling C functions. The language changes are of middling significance. Some pleasant new features were added, but most of them aren’t features that you’ll use every day. Conditional expressions were finally added to the language using a novel syntax; see section *note PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: 13cd. The new ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement will make writing cleanup code easier (section *note PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: 13ce.). Values can now be passed into generators (section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 13cf.). Imports are now visible as either absolute or relative (section *note PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: 13d0.). Some corner cases of exception handling are handled better (section *note PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: 13d1.). All these improvements are worthwhile, but they’re improvements to one specific language feature or another; none of them are broad modifications to Python’s semantics. As well as the language and library additions, other improvements and bugfixes were made throughout the source tree. A search through the SVN change logs finds there were 353 patches applied and 458 bugs fixed between Python 2.4 and 2.5. (Both figures are likely to be underestimates.) This article doesn’t try to be a complete specification of the new features; instead changes are briefly introduced using helpful examples. For full details, you should always refer to the documentation for Python 2.5 at ‘https://docs.python.org’. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature. Comments, suggestions, and error reports for this document are welcome; please e-mail them to the author or open a bug in the Python bug tracker. * Menu: * PEP 308; Conditional Expressions: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions. * PEP 309; Partial Function Application: PEP 309 Partial Function Application. * PEP 314; Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1. * PEP 328; Absolute and Relative Imports: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports. * PEP 338; Executing Modules as Scripts: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts. * PEP 341; Unified try/except/finally: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally. * PEP 342; New Generator Features: PEP 342 New Generator Features. * PEP 343; The ‘with’ statement: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>. * PEP 352; Exceptions as New-Style Classes: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes. * PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type. * PEP 357; The ‘__index__’ method: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<16>. * New, Improved, and Removed Modules: New Improved and Removed Modules. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<10>. * Porting to Python 2.5: Porting to Python 2 5. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<3>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0356/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions, Next: PEP 309 Partial Function Application, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.1 PEP 308: Conditional Expressions --------------------------------------- For a long time, people have been requesting a way to write conditional expressions, which are expressions that return value A or value B depending on whether a Boolean value is true or false. A conditional expression lets you write a single assignment statement that has the same effect as the following: if condition: x = true_value else: x = false_value There have been endless tedious discussions of syntax on both python-dev and comp.lang.python. A vote was even held that found the majority of voters wanted conditional expressions in some form, but there was no syntax that was preferred by a clear majority. Candidates included C’s ‘cond ? true_v : false_v’, ‘if cond then true_v else false_v’, and 16 other variations. Guido van Rossum eventually chose a surprising syntax: x = true_value if condition else false_value Evaluation is still lazy as in existing Boolean expressions, so the order of evaluation jumps around a bit. The 'condition' expression in the middle is evaluated first, and the 'true_value' expression is evaluated only if the condition was true. Similarly, the 'false_value' expression is only evaluated when the condition is false. This syntax may seem strange and backwards; why does the condition go in the 'middle' of the expression, and not in the front as in C’s ‘c ? x : y’? The decision was checked by applying the new syntax to the modules in the standard library and seeing how the resulting code read. In many cases where a conditional expression is used, one value seems to be the ‘common case’ and one value is an ‘exceptional case’, used only on rarer occasions when the condition isn’t met. The conditional syntax makes this pattern a bit more obvious: contents = ((doc + '\n') if doc else '') I read the above statement as meaning “here 'contents' is usually assigned a value of ‘doc+'\n'’; sometimes 'doc' is empty, in which special case an empty string is returned.” I doubt I will use conditional expressions very often where there isn’t a clear common and uncommon case. There was some discussion of whether the language should require surrounding conditional expressions with parentheses. The decision was made to 'not' require parentheses in the Python language’s grammar, but as a matter of style I think you should always use them. Consider these two statements: # First version -- no parens level = 1 if logging else 0 # Second version -- with parens level = (1 if logging else 0) In the first version, I think a reader’s eye might group the statement into ‘level = 1’, ‘if logging’, ‘else 0’, and think that the condition decides whether the assignment to 'level' is performed. The second version reads better, in my opinion, because it makes it clear that the assignment is always performed and the choice is being made between two values. Another reason for including the brackets: a few odd combinations of list comprehensions and lambdas could look like incorrect conditional expressions. See PEP 308(1) for some examples. If you put parentheses around your conditional expressions, you won’t run into this case. See also ........ PEP 308(2) - Conditional Expressions PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Raymond D. Hettinger; implemented by Thomas Wouters. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0308/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application, Next: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1, Prev: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.2 PEP 309: Partial Function Application -------------------------------------------- The *note functools: 5f. module is intended to contain tools for functional-style programming. One useful tool in this module is the ‘partial()’ function. For programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to construct variants of existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in. Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you could create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that was equivalent to ‘f(1, b, c)’. This is called “partial function application”. ‘partial()’ takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ... kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’. The resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke 'function' with the filled-in arguments. Here’s a small but realistic example: import functools def log (message, subsystem): "Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem." print '%s: %s' % (subsystem, message) ... server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server') server_log('Unable to open socket') Here’s another example, from a program that uses PyGTK. Here a context-sensitive pop-up menu is being constructed dynamically. The callback provided for the menu option is a partially applied version of the ‘open_item()’ method, where the first argument has been provided. ... class Application: def open_item(self, path): ... def init (self): open_func = functools.partial(self.open_item, item_path) popup_menu.append( ("Open", open_func, 1) ) Another function in the *note functools: 5f. module is the ‘update_wrapper(wrapper, wrapped)’ function that helps you write well-behaved decorators. ‘update_wrapper()’ copies the name, module, and docstring attribute to a wrapper function so that tracebacks inside the wrapped function are easier to understand. For example, you might write: def my_decorator(f): def wrapper(*args, **kwds): print 'Calling decorated function' return f(*args, **kwds) functools.update_wrapper(wrapper, f) return wrapper ‘wraps()’ is a decorator that can be used inside your own decorators to copy the wrapped function’s information. An alternate version of the previous example would be: def my_decorator(f): @functools.wraps(f) def wrapper(*args, **kwds): print 'Calling decorated function' return f(*args, **kwds) return wrapper See also ........ PEP 309(1) - Partial Function Application PEP proposed and written by Peter Harris; implemented by Hye-Shik Chang and Nick Coghlan, with adaptations by Raymond Hettinger. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0309/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1, Next: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports, Prev: PEP 309 Partial Function Application, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.3 PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 ---------------------------------------------------------- Some simple dependency support was added to Distutils. The ‘setup()’ function now has ‘requires’, ‘provides’, and ‘obsoletes’ keyword parameters. When you build a source distribution using the ‘sdist’ command, the dependency information will be recorded in the ‘PKG-INFO’ file. Another new keyword parameter is ‘download_url’, which should be set to a URL for the package’s source code. This means it’s now possible to look up an entry in the package index, determine the dependencies for a package, and download the required packages. VERSION = '1.0' setup(name='PyPackage', version=VERSION, requires=['numarray', 'zlib (>=1.1.4)'], obsoletes=['OldPackage'] download_url=('http://www.example.com/pypackage/dist/pkg-%s.tar.gz' % VERSION), ) Another new enhancement to the Python package index at ‘https://pypi.org’ is storing source and binary archives for a package. The new ‘upload’ Distutils command will upload a package to the repository. Before a package can be uploaded, you must be able to build a distribution using the ‘sdist’ Distutils command. Once that works, you can run ‘python setup.py upload’ to add your package to the PyPI archive. Optionally you can GPG-sign the package by supplying the ‘--sign’ and ‘--identity’ options. Package uploading was implemented by Martin von Löwis and Richard Jones. See also ........ PEP 314(1) - Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1 PEP proposed and written by A.M. Kuchling, Richard Jones, and Fred Drake; implemented by Richard Jones and Fred Drake. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0314/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports, Next: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts, Prev: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.4 PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports --------------------------------------------- The simpler part of PEP 328(1) was implemented in Python 2.4: parentheses could now be used to enclose the names imported from a module using the ‘from ... import ...’ statement, making it easier to import many different names. The more complicated part has been implemented in Python 2.5: importing a module can be specified to use absolute or package-relative imports. The plan is to move toward making absolute imports the default in future versions of Python. Let’s say you have a package directory like this: pkg/ pkg/__init__.py pkg/main.py pkg/string.py This defines a package named ‘pkg’ containing the ‘pkg.main’ and ‘pkg.string’ submodules. Consider the code in the ‘main.py’ module. What happens if it executes the statement ‘import string’? In Python 2.4 and earlier, it will first look in the package’s directory to perform a relative import, finds ‘pkg/string.py’, imports the contents of that file as the ‘pkg.string’ module, and that module is bound to the name ‘string’ in the ‘pkg.main’ module’s namespace. That’s fine if ‘pkg.string’ was what you wanted. But what if you wanted Python’s standard *note string: d3. module? There’s no clean way to ignore ‘pkg.string’ and look for the standard module; generally you had to look at the contents of ‘sys.modules’, which is slightly unclean. Holger Krekel’s ‘py.std’ package provides a tidier way to perform imports from the standard library, ‘import py; py.std.string.join()’, but that package isn’t available on all Python installations. Reading code which relies on relative imports is also less clear, because a reader may be confused about which module, *note string: d3. or ‘pkg.string’, is intended to be used. Python users soon learned not to duplicate the names of standard library modules in the names of their packages’ submodules, but you can’t protect against having your submodule’s name being used for a new module added in a future version of Python. In Python 2.5, you can switch *note import: 5de.’s behaviour to absolute imports using a ‘from __future__ import absolute_import’ directive. This absolute-import behaviour will become the default in a future version (probably Python 2.7). Once absolute imports are the default, ‘import string’ will always find the standard library’s version. It’s suggested that users should begin using absolute imports as much as possible, so it’s preferable to begin writing ‘from pkg import string’ in your code. Relative imports are still possible by adding a leading period to the module name when using the ‘from ... import’ form: # Import names from pkg.string from .string import name1, name2 # Import pkg.string from . import string This imports the *note string: d3. module relative to the current package, so in ‘pkg.main’ this will import 'name1' and 'name2' from ‘pkg.string’. Additional leading periods perform the relative import starting from the parent of the current package. For example, code in the ‘A.B.C’ module can do: from . import D # Imports A.B.D from .. import E # Imports A.E from ..F import G # Imports A.F.G Leading periods cannot be used with the ‘import modname’ form of the import statement, only the ‘from ... import’ form. See also ........ PEP 328(2) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative PEP written by Aahz; implemented by Thomas Wouters. ‘https://pylib.readthedocs.io/’ The py library by Holger Krekel, which contains the ‘py.std’ package. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts, Next: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally, Prev: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.5 PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts -------------------------------------------- The *note -m: 5dd. switch added in Python 2.4 to execute a module as a script gained a few more abilities. Instead of being implemented in C code inside the Python interpreter, the switch now uses an implementation in a new module, *note runpy: be. The *note runpy: be. module implements a more sophisticated import mechanism so that it’s now possible to run modules in a package such as ‘pychecker.checker’. The module also supports alternative import mechanisms such as the *note zipimport: 132. module. This means you can add a .zip archive’s path to ‘sys.path’ and then use the *note -m: 5dd. switch to execute code from the archive. See also ........ PEP 338(1) - Executing modules as scripts PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally, Next: PEP 342 New Generator Features, Prev: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.6 PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally ------------------------------------------ Until Python 2.5, the *note try: 6e4. statement came in two flavours. You could use a *note finally: 9ca. block to ensure that code is always executed, or one or more *note except: 18b. blocks to catch specific exceptions. You couldn’t combine both ‘except’ blocks and a ‘finally’ block, because generating the right bytecode for the combined version was complicated and it wasn’t clear what the semantics of the combined statement should be. Guido van Rossum spent some time working with Java, which does support the equivalent of combining *note except: 18b. blocks and a *note finally: 9ca. block, and this clarified what the statement should mean. In Python 2.5, you can now write: try: block-1 ... except Exception1: handler-1 ... except Exception2: handler-2 ... else: else-block finally: final-block The code in 'block-1' is executed. If the code raises an exception, the various *note except: 18b. blocks are tested: if the exception is of class ‘Exception1’, 'handler-1' is executed; otherwise if it’s of class ‘Exception2’, 'handler-2' is executed, and so forth. If no exception is raised, the 'else-block' is executed. No matter what happened previously, the 'final-block' is executed once the code block is complete and any raised exceptions handled. Even if there’s an error in an exception handler or the 'else-block' and a new exception is raised, the code in the 'final-block' is still run. See also ........ PEP 341(1) - Unifying try-except and try-finally PEP written by Georg Brandl; implementation by Thomas Lee. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0341/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features, Next: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>, Prev: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.7 PEP 342: New Generator Features -------------------------------------- Python 2.5 adds a simple way to pass values 'into' a generator. As introduced in Python 2.3, generators only produce output; once a generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new information into the function when its execution is resumed. Sometimes the ability to pass in some information would be useful. Hackish solutions to this include making the generator’s code look at a global variable and then changing the global variable’s value, or passing in some mutable object that callers then modify. To refresh your memory of basic generators, here’s a simple example: def counter (maximum): i = 0 while i < maximum: yield i i += 1 When you call ‘counter(10)’, the result is an iterator that returns the values from 0 up to 9. On encountering the *note yield: 9cd. statement, the iterator returns the provided value and suspends the function’s execution, preserving the local variables. Execution resumes on the following call to the iterator’s *note next(): 7d3. method, picking up after the ‘yield’ statement. In Python 2.3, *note yield: 9cd. was a statement; it didn’t return any value. In 2.5, ‘yield’ is now an expression, returning a value that can be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on: val = (yield i) I recommend that you always put parentheses around a *note yield: 9cd. expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in the above example. The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re needed. ( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a *note yield: 9cd.-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment. This means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.) Values are sent into a generator by calling its ‘send(value)’ method. The generator’s code is then resumed and the *note yield: 9cd. expression returns the specified 'value'. If the regular *note next(): 7d3. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns *note None: 671. Here’s the previous example, modified to allow changing the value of the internal counter. def counter (maximum): i = 0 while i < maximum: val = (yield i) # If value provided, change counter if val is not None: i = val else: i += 1 And here’s an example of changing the counter: >>> it = counter(10) >>> print it.next() 0 >>> print it.next() 1 >>> print it.send(8) 8 >>> print it.next() 9 >>> print it.next() Traceback (most recent call last): File "t.py", line 15, in ? print it.next() StopIteration *note yield: 9cd. will usually return *note None: 671, so you should always check for this case. Don’t just use its value in expressions unless you’re sure that the ‘send()’ method will be the only method used to resume your generator function. In addition to ‘send()’, there are two other new methods on generators: * ‘throw(type, value=None, traceback=None)’ is used to raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the *note yield: 9cd. expression where the generator’s execution is paused. * ‘close()’ raises a new *note GeneratorExit: 1393. exception inside the generator to terminate the iteration. On receiving this exception, the generator’s code must either raise *note GeneratorExit: 1393. or *note StopIteration: bfa. Catching the *note GeneratorExit: 1393. exception and returning a value is illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 195.; if the function raises some other exception, that exception is propagated to the caller. ‘close()’ will also be called by Python’s garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected. If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 1393. occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of catching *note GeneratorExit: 1393. The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers. Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the function, and a *note return: 9ce. statement), but coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points (the *note yield: 9cd. statements). We’ll have to figure out patterns for using coroutines effectively in Python. The addition of the ‘close()’ method has one side effect that isn’t obvious. ‘close()’ is called when a generator is garbage-collected, so this means the generator’s code gets one last chance to run before the generator is destroyed. This last chance means that ‘try...finally’ statements in generators can now be guaranteed to work; the *note finally: 9ca. clause will now always get a chance to run. The syntactic restriction that you couldn’t mix *note yield: 9cd. statements with a ‘try...finally’ suite has therefore been removed. This seems like a minor bit of language trivia, but using generators and ‘try...finally’ is actually necessary in order to implement the *note with: 5ce. statement described by PEP 343(2). I’ll look at this new statement in the following section. Another even more esoteric effect of this change: previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object. It’s now possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’ once the generator has been exhausted. See also ........ PEP 342(3) - Coroutines via Enhanced Generators PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Phillip J. Eby; implemented by Phillip J. Eby. Includes examples of some fancier uses of generators as coroutines. Earlier versions of these features were proposed in PEP 288(4) by Raymond Hettinger and PEP 325(5) by Samuele Pedroni. ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’ The Wikipedia entry for coroutines. ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160321211320/http://www.sidhe.org/~dan/blog/archives/000178.html’ An explanation of coroutines from a Perl point of view, written by Dan Sugalski. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0288/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0325/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>, Next: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes, Prev: PEP 342 New Generator Features, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.8 PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement ------------------------------------ The ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement clarifies code that previously would use ‘try...finally’ blocks to ensure that clean-up code is executed. In this section, I’ll discuss the statement as it will commonly be used. In the next section, I’ll examine the implementation details and show how to write objects for use with this statement. The ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement is a new control-flow structure whose basic structure is: with expression [as variable]: with-block The expression is evaluated, and it should result in an object that supports the context management protocol (that is, has *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods. The object’s *note __enter__(): 5c4. is called before 'with-block' is executed and therefore can run set-up code. It also may return a value that is bound to the name 'variable', if given. (Note carefully that 'variable' is 'not' assigned the result of 'expression'.) After execution of the 'with-block' is finished, the object’s *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is called, even if the block raised an exception, and can therefore run clean-up code. To enable the statement in Python 2.5, you need to add the following directive to your module: from __future__ import with_statement The statement will always be enabled in Python 2.6. Some standard Python objects now support the context management protocol and can be used with the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement. File objects are one example: with open('/etc/passwd', 'r') as f: for line in f: print line ... more processing code ... After this statement has executed, the file object in 'f' will have been automatically closed, even if the *note for: 2ec. loop raised an exception part-way through the block. Note: In this case, 'f' is the same object created by *note open(): 517, because *note __enter__(): 5c4. returns 'self'. The *note threading: ed. module’s locks and condition variables also support the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement: lock = threading.Lock() with lock: # Critical section of code ... The lock is acquired before the block is executed and always released once the block is complete. The new ‘localcontext()’ function in the *note decimal: 36. module makes it easy to save and restore the current decimal context, which encapsulates the desired precision and rounding characteristics for computations: from decimal import Decimal, Context, localcontext # Displays with default precision of 28 digits v = Decimal('578') print v.sqrt() with localcontext(Context(prec=16)): # All code in this block uses a precision of 16 digits. # The original context is restored on exiting the block. print v.sqrt() * Menu: * Writing Context Managers: Writing Context Managers<2>. * The contextlib module: The contextlib module<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Writing Context Managers<2>, Next: The contextlib module<2>, Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2> 1.17.8.1 Writing Context Managers ................................. Under the hood, the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement is fairly complicated. Most people will only use ‘‘with’’ in company with existing objects and don’t need to know these details, so you can skip the rest of this section if you like. Authors of new objects will need to understand the details of the underlying implementation and should keep reading. A high-level explanation of the context management protocol is: * The expression is evaluated and should result in an object called a “context manager”. The context manager must have *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods. * The context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c4. method is called. The value returned is assigned to 'VAR'. If no ‘'as VAR'’ clause is present, the value is simply discarded. * The code in 'BLOCK' is executed. * If 'BLOCK' raises an exception, the ‘__exit__(type, value, traceback)’ is called with the exception details, the same values returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686. The method’s return value controls whether the exception is re-raised: any false value re-raises the exception, and ‘True’ will result in suppressing it. You’ll only rarely want to suppress the exception, because if you do the author of the code containing the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement will never realize anything went wrong. * If 'BLOCK' didn’t raise an exception, the *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is still called, but 'type', 'value', and 'traceback' are all ‘None’. Let’s think through an example. I won’t present detailed code but will only sketch the methods necessary for a database that supports transactions. (For people unfamiliar with database terminology: a set of changes to the database are grouped into a transaction. Transactions can be either committed, meaning that all the changes are written into the database, or rolled back, meaning that the changes are all discarded and the database is unchanged. See any database textbook for more information.) Let’s assume there’s an object representing a database connection. Our goal will be to let the user write code like this: db_connection = DatabaseConnection() with db_connection as cursor: cursor.execute('insert into ...') cursor.execute('delete from ...') # ... more operations ... The transaction should be committed if the code in the block runs flawlessly or rolled back if there’s an exception. Here’s the basic interface for ‘DatabaseConnection’ that I’ll assume: class DatabaseConnection: # Database interface def cursor (self): "Returns a cursor object and starts a new transaction" def commit (self): "Commits current transaction" def rollback (self): "Rolls back current transaction" The *note __enter__(): 5c4. method is pretty easy, having only to start a new transaction. For this application the resulting cursor object would be a useful result, so the method will return it. The user can then add ‘as cursor’ to their ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement to bind the cursor to a variable name. class DatabaseConnection: ... def __enter__ (self): # Code to start a new transaction cursor = self.cursor() return cursor The *note __exit__(): 12f3. method is the most complicated because it’s where most of the work has to be done. The method has to check if an exception occurred. If there was no exception, the transaction is committed. The transaction is rolled back if there was an exception. In the code below, execution will just fall off the end of the function, returning the default value of ‘None’. ‘None’ is false, so the exception will be re-raised automatically. If you wished, you could be more explicit and add a *note return: 9ce. statement at the marked location. class DatabaseConnection: ... def __exit__ (self, type, value, tb): if tb is None: # No exception, so commit self.commit() else: # Exception occurred, so rollback. self.rollback() # return False  File: python.info, Node: The contextlib module<2>, Prev: Writing Context Managers<2>, Up: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2> 1.17.8.2 The contextlib module .............................. The new *note contextlib: 23. module provides some functions and a decorator that are useful for writing objects for use with the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement. The decorator is called ‘contextmanager()’, and lets you write a single generator function instead of defining a new class. The generator should yield exactly one value. The code up to the *note yield: 9cd. will be executed as the *note __enter__(): 5c4. method, and the value yielded will be the method’s return value that will get bound to the variable in the ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any. The code after the *note yield: 9cd. will be executed in the *note __exit__(): 12f3. method. Any exception raised in the block will be raised by the ‘yield’ statement. Our database example from the previous section could be written using this decorator as: from contextlib import contextmanager @contextmanager def db_transaction (connection): cursor = connection.cursor() try: yield cursor except: connection.rollback() raise else: connection.commit() db = DatabaseConnection() with db_transaction(db) as cursor: ... The *note contextlib: 23. module also has a ‘nested(mgr1, mgr2, ...)’ function that combines a number of context managers so you don’t need to write nested ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statements. In this example, the single ‘‘with’’ statement both starts a database transaction and acquires a thread lock: lock = threading.Lock() with nested (db_transaction(db), lock) as (cursor, locked): ... Finally, the ‘closing(object)’ function returns 'object' so that it can be bound to a variable, and calls ‘object.close’ at the end of the block. import urllib, sys from contextlib import closing with closing(urllib.urlopen('http://www.yahoo.com')) as f: for line in f: sys.stdout.write(line) See also ........ PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement PEP written by Guido van Rossum and Nick Coghlan; implemented by Mike Bland, Guido van Rossum, and Neal Norwitz. The PEP shows the code generated for a ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement, which can be helpful in learning how the statement works. The documentation for the *note contextlib: 23. module. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes, Next: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type, Prev: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.9 PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes ----------------------------------------------- Exception classes can now be new-style classes, not just classic classes, and the built-in *note Exception: 9d9. class and all the standard built-in exceptions (*note NameError: 43a, *note ValueError: 204, etc.) are now new-style classes. The inheritance hierarchy for exceptions has been rearranged a bit. In 2.5, the inheritance relationships are: BaseException # New in Python 2.5 |- KeyboardInterrupt |- SystemExit |- Exception |- (all other current built-in exceptions) This rearrangement was done because people often want to catch all exceptions that indicate program errors. *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. and *note SystemExit: d40. aren’t errors, though, and usually represent an explicit action such as the user hitting ‘Control’-‘C’ or code calling *note sys.exit(): 133c. A bare ‘except:’ will catch all exceptions, so you commonly need to list *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. and *note SystemExit: d40. in order to re-raise them. The usual pattern is: try: ... except (KeyboardInterrupt, SystemExit): raise except: # Log error... # Continue running program... In Python 2.5, you can now write ‘except Exception’ to achieve the same result, catching all the exceptions that usually indicate errors but leaving *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. and *note SystemExit: d40. alone. As in previous versions, a bare ‘except:’ still catches all exceptions. The goal for Python 3.0 is to require any class raised as an exception to derive from *note BaseException: 5b7. or some descendant of *note BaseException: 5b7, and future releases in the Python 2.x series may begin to enforce this constraint. Therefore, I suggest you begin making all your exception classes derive from *note Exception: 9d9. now. It’s been suggested that the bare ‘except:’ form should be removed in Python 3.0, but Guido van Rossum hasn’t decided whether to do this or not. Raising of strings as exceptions, as in the statement ‘raise "Error occurred"’, is deprecated in Python 2.5 and will trigger a warning. The aim is to be able to remove the string-exception feature in a few releases. See also ........ PEP 352(1) - Required Superclass for Exceptions PEP written by Brett Cannon and Guido van Rossum; implemented by Brett Cannon. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0352/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type, Next: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method, Prev: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.10 PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type ------------------------------------------------ A wide-ranging change to Python’s C API, using a new *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. type definition instead of int, will permit the interpreter to handle more data on 64-bit platforms. This change doesn’t affect Python’s capacity on 32-bit platforms. Various pieces of the Python interpreter used C’s int type to store sizes or counts; for example, the number of items in a list or tuple were stored in an int. The C compilers for most 64-bit platforms still define int as a 32-bit type, so that meant that lists could only hold up to ‘2**31 - 1’ = 2147483647 items. (There are actually a few different programming models that 64-bit C compilers can use – see ‘https://unix.org/version2/whatsnew/lp64_wp.html’ for a discussion – but the most commonly available model leaves int as 32 bits.) A limit of 2147483647 items doesn’t really matter on a 32-bit platform because you’ll run out of memory before hitting the length limit. Each list item requires space for a pointer, which is 4 bytes, plus space for a *note PyObject: 334. representing the item. 2147483647*4 is already more bytes than a 32-bit address space can contain. It’s possible to address that much memory on a 64-bit platform, however. The pointers for a list that size would only require 16 GiB of space, so it’s not unreasonable that Python programmers might construct lists that large. Therefore, the Python interpreter had to be changed to use some type other than int, and this will be a 64-bit type on 64-bit platforms. The change will cause incompatibilities on 64-bit machines, so it was deemed worth making the transition now, while the number of 64-bit users is still relatively small. (In 5 or 10 years, we may 'all' be on 64-bit machines, and the transition would be more painful then.) This change most strongly affects authors of C extension modules. Python strings and container types such as lists and tuples now use *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. to store their size. Functions such as *note PyList_Size(): 13e5. now return *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. Code in extension modules may therefore need to have some variables changed to *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. functions have a new conversion code, ‘n’, for *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.’s ‘s#’ and ‘t#’ still output int by default, but you can define the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before including ‘Python.h’ to make them return *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PEP 353(1) has a section on conversion guidelines that extension authors should read to learn about supporting 64-bit platforms. See also ........ PEP 353(2) - Using ssize_t as the index type PEP written and implemented by Martin von Löwis. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method, Next: Other Language Changes<16>, Prev: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.11 PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method --------------------------------------- The NumPy developers had a problem that could only be solved by adding a new special method, ‘__index__()’. When using slice notation, as in ‘[start:stop:step]’, the values of the 'start', 'stop', and 'step' indexes must all be either integers or long integers. NumPy defines a variety of specialized integer types corresponding to unsigned and signed integers of 8, 16, 32, and 64 bits, but there was no way to signal that these types could be used as slice indexes. Slicing can’t just use the existing ‘__int__()’ method because that method is also used to implement coercion to integers. If slicing used ‘__int__()’, floating-point numbers would also become legal slice indexes and that’s clearly an undesirable behaviour. Instead, a new special method called ‘__index__()’ was added. It takes no arguments and returns an integer giving the slice index to use. For example: class C: def __index__ (self): return self.value The return value must be either a Python integer or long integer. The interpreter will check that the type returned is correct, and raises a *note TypeError: 534. if this requirement isn’t met. A corresponding *note nb_index: 13e8. slot was added to the C-level *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9. structure to let C extensions implement this protocol. ‘PyNumber_Index(obj)’ can be used in extension code to call the ‘__index__()’ function and retrieve its result. See also ........ PEP 357(1) - Allowing Any Object to be Used for Slicing PEP written and implemented by Travis Oliphant. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0357/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<16>, Next: New Improved and Removed Modules, Prev: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.12 Other Language Changes ------------------------------ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.5 makes to the core Python language. * The *note dict: 258. type has a new hook for letting subclasses provide a default value when a key isn’t contained in the dictionary. When a key isn’t found, the dictionary’s ‘__missing__(key)’ method will be called. This hook is used to implement the new ‘defaultdict’ class in the *note collections: 1d. module. The following example defines a dictionary that returns zero for any missing key: class zerodict (dict): def __missing__ (self, key): return 0 d = zerodict({1:1, 2:2}) print d[1], d[2] # Prints 1, 2 print d[3], d[4] # Prints 0, 0 * Both 8-bit and Unicode strings have new ‘partition(sep)’ and ‘rpartition(sep)’ methods that simplify a common use case. The ‘find(S)’ method is often used to get an index which is then used to slice the string and obtain the pieces that are before and after the separator. ‘partition(sep)’ condenses this pattern into a single method call that returns a 3-tuple containing the substring before the separator, the separator itself, and the substring after the separator. If the separator isn’t found, the first element of the tuple is the entire string and the other two elements are empty. ‘rpartition(sep)’ also returns a 3-tuple but starts searching from the end of the string; the ‘r’ stands for ‘reverse’. Some examples: >>> ('http://www.python.org').partition('://') ('http', '://', 'www.python.org') >>> ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html').partition('://') ('file:/usr/share/doc/index.html', '', '') >>> (u'Subject: a quick question').partition(':') (u'Subject', u':', u' a quick question') >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition('.') ('www.python', '.', 'org') >>> 'www.python.org'.rpartition(':') ('', '', 'www.python.org') (Implemented by Fredrik Lundh following a suggestion by Raymond Hettinger.) * The ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’ methods of string types now accept tuples of strings to check for. def is_image_file (filename): return filename.endswith(('.gif', '.jpg', '.tiff')) (Implemented by Georg Brandl following a suggestion by Tom Lynn.) * The *note min(): f03. and *note max(): f04. built-in functions gained a ‘key’ keyword parameter analogous to the ‘key’ argument for ‘sort()’. This parameter supplies a function that takes a single argument and is called for every value in the list; *note min(): f03./*note max(): f04. will return the element with the smallest/largest return value from this function. For example, to find the longest string in a list, you can do: L = ['medium', 'longest', 'short'] # Prints 'longest' print max(L, key=len) # Prints 'short', because lexicographically 'short' has the largest value print max(L) (Contributed by Steven Bethard and Raymond Hettinger.) * Two new built-in functions, *note any(): 13ec. and *note all(): 13ed, evaluate whether an iterator contains any true or false values. *note any(): 13ec. returns *note True: c0d. if any value returned by the iterator is true; otherwise it will return *note False: b37. *note all(): 13ed. returns *note True: c0d. only if all of the values returned by the iterator evaluate as true. (Suggested by Guido van Rossum, and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.) * The result of a class’s ‘__hash__()’ method can now be either a long integer or a regular integer. If a long integer is returned, the hash of that value is taken. In earlier versions the hash value was required to be a regular integer, but in 2.5 the *note id(): 13ee. built-in was changed to always return non-negative numbers, and users often seem to use ‘id(self)’ in ‘__hash__()’ methods (though this is discouraged). * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules. It’s now a syntax error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn’t have an encoding declaration. In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax error. See PEP 263(1) for how to declare a module’s encoding; for example, you might add a line like this near the top of the source file: # -*- coding: latin1 -*- * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 13ef, is triggered when you attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding. The result of the comparison is false: >>> chr(128) == unichr(128) # Can't convert chr(128) to Unicode __main__:1: UnicodeWarning: Unicode equal comparison failed to convert both arguments to Unicode - interpreting them as being unequal False >>> chr(127) == unichr(127) # chr(127) can be converted True Previously this would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. exception, but in 2.5 this could result in puzzling problems when accessing a dictionary. If you looked up ‘unichr(128)’ and ‘chr(128)’ was being used as a key, you’d get a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. exception. Other changes in 2.5 resulted in this exception being raised instead of suppressed by the code in ‘dictobject.c’ that implements dictionaries. Raising an exception for such a comparison is strictly correct, but the change might have broken code, so instead *note UnicodeWarning: 13ef. was introduced. (Implemented by Marc-André Lemburg.) * One error that Python programmers sometimes make is forgetting to include an ‘__init__.py’ module in a package directory. Debugging this mistake can be confusing, and usually requires running Python with the *note -v: 13f0. switch to log all the paths searched. In Python 2.5, a new *note ImportWarning: 4f6. warning is triggered when an import would have picked up a directory as a package but no ‘__init__.py’ was found. This warning is silently ignored by default; provide the *note -Wd: 8c6. option when running the Python executable to display the warning message. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.) * The list of base classes in a class definition can now be empty. As an example, this is now legal: class C(): pass (Implemented by Brett Cannon.) * Menu: * Interactive Interpreter Changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<15>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/  File: python.info, Node: Interactive Interpreter Changes, Next: Optimizations<15>, Up: Other Language Changes<16> 1.17.12.1 Interactive Interpreter Changes ......................................... In the interactive interpreter, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ have long been strings so that new users get a somewhat helpful message when they try to quit: >>> quit 'Use Ctrl-D (i.e. EOF) to exit.' In Python 2.5, ‘quit’ and ‘exit’ are now objects that still produce string representations of themselves, but are also callable. Newbies who try ‘quit()’ or ‘exit()’ will now exit the interpreter as they expect. (Implemented by Georg Brandl.) The Python executable now accepts the standard long options *note -help: 5ec. and *note -version: d1b.; on Windows, it also accepts the *note /?: 13f3. option for displaying a help message. (Implemented by Georg Brandl.)  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<15>, Prev: Interactive Interpreter Changes, Up: Other Language Changes<16> 1.17.12.2 Optimizations ....................... Several of the optimizations were developed at the NeedForSpeed sprint, an event held in Reykjavik, Iceland, from May 21–28 2006. The sprint focused on speed enhancements to the CPython implementation and was funded by EWT LLC with local support from CCP Games. Those optimizations added at this sprint are specially marked in the following list. * When they were introduced in Python 2.4, the built-in *note set: 5d5. and *note frozenset: 5d6. types were built on top of Python’s dictionary type. In 2.5 the internal data structure has been customized for implementing sets, and as a result sets will use a third less memory and are somewhat faster. (Implemented by Raymond Hettinger.) * The speed of some Unicode operations, such as finding substrings, string splitting, and character map encoding and decoding, has been improved. (Substring search and splitting improvements were added by Fredrik Lundh and Andrew Dalke at the NeedForSpeed sprint. Character maps were improved by Walter Dörwald and Martin von Löwis.) * The ‘long(str, base)’ function is now faster on long digit strings because fewer intermediate results are calculated. The peak is for strings of around 800–1000 digits where the function is 6 times faster. (Contributed by Alan McIntyre and committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) * It’s now illegal to mix iterating over a file with ‘for line in file’ and calling the file object’s ‘read()’/*note readline(): ba./‘readlines()’ methods. Iteration uses an internal buffer and the ‘read*()’ methods don’t use that buffer. Instead they would return the data following the buffer, causing the data to appear out of order. Mixing iteration and these methods will now trigger a *note ValueError: 204. from the ‘read*()’ method. (Implemented by Thomas Wouters.) * The *note struct: d5. module now compiles structure format strings into an internal representation and caches this representation, yielding a 20% speedup. (Contributed by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) * The *note re: b9. module got a 1 or 2% speedup by switching to Python’s allocator functions instead of the system’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’. (Contributed by Jack Diederich at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) * The code generator’s peephole optimizer now performs simple constant folding in expressions. If you write something like ‘a = 2+3’, the code generator will do the arithmetic and produce code corresponding to ‘a = 5’. (Proposed and implemented by Raymond Hettinger.) * Function calls are now faster because code objects now keep the most recently finished frame (a “zombie frame”) in an internal field of the code object, reusing it the next time the code object is invoked. (Original patch by Michael Hudson, modified by Armin Rigo and Richard Jones; committed at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) Frame objects are also slightly smaller, which may improve cache locality and reduce memory usage a bit. (Contributed by Neal Norwitz.) * Python’s built-in exceptions are now new-style classes, a change that speeds up instantiation considerably. Exception handling in Python 2.5 is therefore about 30% faster than in 2.4. (Contributed by Richard Jones, Georg Brandl and Sean Reifschneider at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) * Importing now caches the paths tried, recording whether they exist or not so that the interpreter makes fewer ‘open()’ and ‘stat()’ calls on startup. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis and Georg Brandl.)  File: python.info, Node: New Improved and Removed Modules, Next: Build and C API Changes<10>, Prev: Other Language Changes<16>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.13 New, Improved, and Removed Modules ------------------------------------------ The standard library received many enhancements and bug fixes in Python 2.5. Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the SVN logs for all the details. * The ‘audioop’ module now supports the a-LAW encoding, and the code for u-LAW encoding has been improved. (Contributed by Lars Immisch.) * The *note codecs: 1b. module gained support for incremental codecs. The ‘codec.lookup()’ function now returns a ‘CodecInfo’ instance instead of a tuple. ‘CodecInfo’ instances behave like a 4-tuple to preserve backward compatibility but also have the attributes ‘encode’, ‘decode’, ‘incrementalencoder’, ‘incrementaldecoder’, ‘streamwriter’, and ‘streamreader’. Incremental codecs can receive input and produce output in multiple chunks; the output is the same as if the entire input was fed to the non-incremental codec. See the *note codecs: 1b. module documentation for details. (Designed and implemented by Walter Dörwald.) * The *note collections: 1d. module gained a new type, ‘defaultdict’, that subclasses the standard *note dict: 258. type. The new type mostly behaves like a dictionary but constructs a default value when a key isn’t present, automatically adding it to the dictionary for the requested key value. The first argument to ‘defaultdict’’s constructor is a factory function that gets called whenever a key is requested but not found. This factory function receives no arguments, so you can use built-in type constructors such as *note list(): 60d. or *note int(): 259. For example, you can make an index of words based on their initial letter like this: words = """Nel mezzo del cammin di nostra vita mi ritrovai per una selva oscura che la diritta via era smarrita""".lower().split() index = defaultdict(list) for w in words: init_letter = w[0] index[init_letter].append(w) Printing ‘index’ results in the following output: defaultdict(, {'c': ['cammin', 'che'], 'e': ['era'], 'd': ['del', 'di', 'diritta'], 'm': ['mezzo', 'mi'], 'l': ['la'], 'o': ['oscura'], 'n': ['nel', 'nostra'], 'p': ['per'], 's': ['selva', 'smarrita'], 'r': ['ritrovai'], 'u': ['una'], 'v': ['vita', 'via']} (Contributed by Guido van Rossum.) * The ‘deque’ double-ended queue type supplied by the *note collections: 1d. module now has a ‘remove(value)’ method that removes the first occurrence of 'value' in the queue, raising *note ValueError: 204. if the value isn’t found. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * New module: The *note contextlib: 23. module contains helper functions for use with the new ‘*note with: 5ce.’ statement. See section *note The contextlib module: 13df. for more about this module. * New module: The *note cProfile: 27. module is a C implementation of the existing *note profile: af. module that has much lower overhead. The module’s interface is the same as *note profile: af.: you run ‘cProfile.run('main()')’ to profile a function, can save profile data to a file, etc. It’s not yet known if the Hotshot profiler, which is also written in C but doesn’t match the *note profile: af. module’s interface, will continue to be maintained in future versions of Python. (Contributed by Armin Rigo.) Also, the *note pstats: b0. module for analyzing the data measured by the profiler now supports directing the output to any file object by supplying a 'stream' argument to the ‘Stats’ constructor. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.) * The *note csv: 29. module, which parses files in comma-separated value format, received several enhancements and a number of bugfixes. You can now set the maximum size in bytes of a field by calling the ‘csv.field_size_limit(new_limit)’ function; omitting the 'new_limit' argument will return the currently set limit. The ‘reader’ class now has a ‘line_num’ attribute that counts the number of physical lines read from the source; records can span multiple physical lines, so ‘line_num’ is not the same as the number of records read. The CSV parser is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. Previously, if a line ended within a quoted field without a terminating newline character, a newline would be inserted into the returned field. This behavior caused problems when reading files that contained carriage return characters within fields, so the code was changed to return the field without inserting newlines. As a consequence, if newlines embedded within fields are important, the input should be split into lines in a manner that preserves the newline characters. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro and Andrew McNamara.) * The *note datetime: 1cc. class in the *note datetime: 30. module now has a ‘strptime(string, format)’ method for parsing date strings, contributed by Josh Spoerri. It uses the same format characters as *note time.strptime(): 13f8. and *note time.strftime(): 11db.: from datetime import datetime ts = datetime.strptime('10:13:15 2006-03-07', '%H:%M:%S %Y-%m-%d') * The ‘SequenceMatcher.get_matching_blocks()’ method in the *note difflib: 37. module now guarantees to return a minimal list of blocks describing matching subsequences. Previously, the algorithm would occasionally break a block of matching elements into two list entries. (Enhancement by Tim Peters.) * The *note doctest: 3a. module gained a ‘SKIP’ option that keeps an example from being executed at all. This is intended for code snippets that are usage examples intended for the reader and aren’t actually test cases. An 'encoding' parameter was added to the ‘testfile()’ function and the ‘DocFileSuite’ class to specify the file’s encoding. This makes it easier to use non-ASCII characters in tests contained within a docstring. (Contributed by Bjorn Tillenius.) * The *note email: 3b. package has been updated to version 4.0. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.) * The *note fileinput: 5b. module was made more flexible. Unicode filenames are now supported, and a 'mode' parameter that defaults to ‘"r"’ was added to the *note input(): 12cb. function to allow opening files in binary or *note universal newlines: d3a. mode. Another new parameter, 'openhook', lets you use a function other than *note open(): 517. to open the input files. Once you’re iterating over the set of files, the ‘FileInput’ object’s new *note fileno(): 13f9. returns the file descriptor for the currently opened file. (Contributed by Georg Brandl.) * In the *note gc: 60. module, the new ‘get_count()’ function returns a 3-tuple containing the current collection counts for the three GC generations. This is accounting information for the garbage collector; when these counts reach a specified threshold, a garbage collection sweep will be made. The existing *note gc.collect(): a39. function now takes an optional 'generation' argument of 0, 1, or 2 to specify which generation to collect. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.) * The ‘nsmallest()’ and ‘nlargest()’ functions in the *note heapq: 69. module now support a ‘key’ keyword parameter similar to the one provided by the *note min(): f03./*note max(): f04. functions and the ‘sort()’ methods. For example: >>> import heapq >>> L = ["short", 'medium', 'longest', 'longer still'] >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L) # Return two lowest elements, lexicographically ['longer still', 'longest'] >>> heapq.nsmallest(2, L, key=len) # Return two shortest elements ['short', 'medium'] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note itertools.islice(): b4c. function now accepts ‘None’ for the start and step arguments. This makes it more compatible with the attributes of slice objects, so that you can now write the following: s = slice(5) # Create slice object itertools.islice(iterable, s.start, s.stop, s.step) (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note format(): 61b. function in the *note locale: 86. module has been modified and two new functions were added, ‘format_string()’ and ‘currency()’. The *note format(): 61b. function’s 'val' parameter could previously be a string as long as no more than one %char specifier appeared; now the parameter must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text. An optional 'monetary' parameter was also added which, if ‘True’, will use the locale’s rules for formatting currency in placing a separator between groups of three digits. To format strings with multiple %char specifiers, use the new ‘format_string()’ function that works like *note format(): 61b. but also supports mixing %char specifiers with arbitrary text. A new ‘currency()’ function was also added that formats a number according to the current locale’s settings. (Contributed by Georg Brandl.) * The *note mailbox: 8b. module underwent a massive rewrite to add the capability to modify mailboxes in addition to reading them. A new set of classes that include ‘mbox’, ‘MH’, and ‘Maildir’ are used to read mailboxes, and have an ‘add(message)’ method to add messages, ‘remove(key)’ to remove messages, and ‘lock()’/‘unlock()’ to lock/unlock the mailbox. The following example converts a maildir-format mailbox into an mbox-format one: import mailbox # 'factory=None' uses email.Message.Message as the class representing # individual messages. src = mailbox.Maildir('maildir', factory=None) dest = mailbox.mbox('/tmp/mbox') for msg in src: dest.add(msg) (Contributed by Gregory K. Johnson. Funding was provided by Google’s 2005 Summer of Code.) * New module: the ‘msilib’ module allows creating Microsoft Installer ‘.msi’ files and CAB files. Some support for reading the ‘.msi’ database is also included. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.) * The ‘nis’ module now supports accessing domains other than the system default domain by supplying a 'domain' argument to the ‘nis.match()’ and ‘nis.maps()’ functions. (Contributed by Ben Bell.) * The *note operator: 9f. module’s ‘itemgetter()’ and ‘attrgetter()’ functions now support multiple fields. A call such as ‘operator.attrgetter('a', 'b')’ will return a function that retrieves the ‘a’ and ‘b’ attributes. Combining this new feature with the ‘sort()’ method’s ‘key’ parameter lets you easily sort lists using multiple fields. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note optparse: a0. module was updated to version 1.5.1 of the Optik library. The ‘OptionParser’ class gained an ‘epilog’ attribute, a string that will be printed after the help message, and a ‘destroy()’ method to break reference cycles created by the object. (Contributed by Greg Ward.) * The *note os: a1. module underwent several changes. The ‘stat_float_times’ variable now defaults to true, meaning that *note os.stat(): 49c. will now return time values as floats. (This doesn’t necessarily mean that *note os.stat(): 49c. will return times that are precise to fractions of a second; not all systems support such precision.) Constants named *note os.SEEK_SET: 1280, *note os.SEEK_CUR: 1281, and *note os.SEEK_END: 1282. have been added; these are the parameters to the *note os.lseek(): 110b. function. Two new constants for locking are *note os.O_SHLOCK: 13fa. and *note os.O_EXLOCK: 13fb. Two new functions, ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’, were added. They’re similar the ‘waitpid()’ function which waits for a child process to exit and returns a tuple of the process ID and its exit status, but ‘wait3()’ and ‘wait4()’ return additional information. ‘wait3()’ doesn’t take a process ID as input, so it waits for any child process to exit and returns a 3-tuple of 'process-id', 'exit-status', 'resource-usage' as returned from the *note resource.getrusage(): 13fc. function. ‘wait4(pid)’ does take a process ID. (Contributed by Chad J. Schroeder.) On FreeBSD, the *note os.stat(): 49c. function now returns times with nanosecond resolution, and the returned object now has ‘st_gen’ and ‘st_birthtime’. The ‘st_flags’ attribute is also available, if the platform supports it. (Contributed by Antti Louko and Diego Pettenò.) * The Python debugger provided by the *note pdb: a5. module can now store lists of commands to execute when a breakpoint is reached and execution stops. Once breakpoint #1 has been created, enter ‘commands 1’ and enter a series of commands to be executed, finishing the list with ‘end’. The command list can include commands that resume execution, such as ‘continue’ or ‘next’. (Contributed by Grégoire Dooms.) * The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 9d3. method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead. The ability to return ‘None’ was deprecated in Python 2.4, so this completes the removal of the feature. * The *note pkgutil: a9. module, containing various utility functions for finding packages, was enhanced to support PEP 302(1)’s import hooks and now also works for packages stored in ZIP-format archives. (Contributed by Phillip J. Eby.) * The pybench benchmark suite by Marc-André Lemburg is now included in the ‘Tools/pybench’ directory. The pybench suite is an improvement on the commonly used ‘pystone.py’ program because pybench provides a more detailed measurement of the interpreter’s speed. It times particular operations such as function calls, tuple slicing, method lookups, and numeric operations, instead of performing many different operations and reducing the result to a single number as ‘pystone.py’ does. * The ‘pyexpat’ module now uses version 2.0 of the Expat parser. (Contributed by Trent Mick.) * The *note Queue: 137a. class provided by the ‘Queue’ module gained two new methods. ‘join()’ blocks until all items in the queue have been retrieved and all processing work on the items have been completed. Worker threads call the other new method, ‘task_done()’, to signal that processing for an item has been completed. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The old ‘regex’ and ‘regsub’ modules, which have been deprecated ever since Python 2.0, have finally been deleted. Other deleted modules: ‘statcache’, ‘tzparse’, ‘whrandom’. * Also deleted: the ‘lib-old’ directory, which includes ancient modules such as ‘dircmp’ and ‘ni’, was removed. ‘lib-old’ wasn’t on the default ‘sys.path’, so unless your programs explicitly added the directory to ‘sys.path’, this removal shouldn’t affect your code. * The *note rlcompleter: bd. module is no longer dependent on importing the *note readline: ba. module and therefore now works on non-Unix platforms. (Patch from Robert Kiendl.) * The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’. Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an empty tuple disables this path checking. * The *note socket: cc. module now supports ‘AF_NETLINK’ sockets on Linux, thanks to a patch from Philippe Biondi. Netlink sockets are a Linux-specific mechanism for communications between a user-space process and kernel code; an introductory article about them is at ‘https://www.linuxjournal.com/article/7356’. In Python code, netlink addresses are represented as a tuple of 2 integers, ‘(pid, group_mask)’. Two new methods on socket objects, ‘recv_into(buffer)’ and ‘recvfrom_into(buffer)’, store the received data in an object that supports the buffer protocol instead of returning the data as a string. This means you can put the data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file. Socket objects also gained ‘getfamily()’, ‘gettype()’, and ‘getproto()’ accessor methods to retrieve the family, type, and protocol values for the socket. * New module: the ‘spwd’ module provides functions for accessing the shadow password database on systems that support shadow passwords. * The *note struct: d5. is now faster because it compiles format strings into ‘Struct’ objects with ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ methods. This is similar to how the *note re: b9. module lets you create compiled regular expression objects. You can still use the module-level ‘pack()’ and ‘unpack()’ functions; they’ll create ‘Struct’ objects and cache them. Or you can use ‘Struct’ instances directly: s = struct.Struct('ih3s') data = s.pack(1972, 187, 'abc') year, number, name = s.unpack(data) You can also pack and unpack data to and from buffer objects directly using the ‘pack_into(buffer, offset, v1, v2, ...)’ and ‘unpack_from(buffer, offset)’ methods. This lets you store data directly into an array or a memory-mapped file. (‘Struct’ objects were implemented by Bob Ippolito at the NeedForSpeed sprint. Support for buffer objects was added by Martin Blais, also at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) * The Python developers switched from CVS to Subversion during the 2.5 development process. Information about the exact build version is available as the ‘sys.subversion’ variable, a 3-tuple of ‘(interpreter-name, branch-name, revision-range)’. For example, at the time of writing my copy of 2.5 was reporting ‘('CPython', 'trunk', '45313:45315')’. This information is also available to C extensions via the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fd. function that returns a string of build information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.) * Another new function, *note sys._current_frames(): 13fe, returns the current stack frames for all running threads as a dictionary mapping thread identifiers to the topmost stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. (Contributed by Tim Peters.) * The ‘TarFile’ class in the *note tarfile: de. module now has an ‘extractall()’ method that extracts all members from the archive into the current working directory. It’s also possible to set a different directory as the extraction target, and to unpack only a subset of the archive’s members. The compression used for a tarfile opened in stream mode can now be autodetected using the mode ‘'r|*'’. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.) * The *note threading: ed. module now lets you set the stack size used when new threads are created. The ‘stack_size([*size*])’ function returns the currently configured stack size, and supplying the optional 'size' parameter sets a new value. Not all platforms support changing the stack size, but Windows, POSIX threading, and OS/2 all do. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.) * The *note unicodedata: 105. module has been updated to use version 4.1.0 of the Unicode character database. Version 3.2.0 is required by some specifications, so it’s still available as *note unicodedata.ucd_3_2_0: 13ff. * New module: the *note uuid: 110. module generates universally unique identifiers (UUIDs) according to RFC 4122(2). The RFC defines several different UUID versions that are generated from a starting string, from system properties, or purely randomly. This module contains a ‘UUID’ class and functions named ‘uuid1()’, ‘uuid3()’, ‘uuid4()’, and ‘uuid5()’ to generate different versions of UUID. (Version 2 UUIDs are not specified in RFC 4122(3) and are not supported by this module.) >>> import uuid >>> # make a UUID based on the host ID and current time >>> uuid.uuid1() UUID('a8098c1a-f86e-11da-bd1a-00112444be1e') >>> # make a UUID using an MD5 hash of a namespace UUID and a name >>> uuid.uuid3(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org') UUID('6fa459ea-ee8a-3ca4-894e-db77e160355e') >>> # make a random UUID >>> uuid.uuid4() UUID('16fd2706-8baf-433b-82eb-8c7fada847da') >>> # make a UUID using a SHA-1 hash of a namespace UUID and a name >>> uuid.uuid5(uuid.NAMESPACE_DNS, 'python.org') UUID('886313e1-3b8a-5372-9b90-0c9aee199e5d') (Contributed by Ka-Ping Yee.) * The *note weakref: 114. module’s ‘WeakKeyDictionary’ and ‘WeakValueDictionary’ types gained new methods for iterating over the weak references contained in the dictionary. ‘iterkeyrefs()’ and ‘keyrefs()’ methods were added to ‘WeakKeyDictionary’, and ‘itervaluerefs()’ and ‘valuerefs()’ were added to ‘WeakValueDictionary’. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.) * The *note webbrowser: 115. module received a number of enhancements. It’s now usable as a script with ‘python -m webbrowser’, taking a URL as the argument; there are a number of switches to control the behaviour (‘-n’ for a new browser window, ‘-t’ for a new tab). New module-level functions, ‘open_new()’ and ‘open_new_tab()’, were added to support this. The module’s *note open(): 517. function supports an additional feature, an 'autoraise' parameter that signals whether to raise the open window when possible. A number of additional browsers were added to the supported list such as Firefox, Opera, Konqueror, and elinks. (Contributed by Oleg Broytmann and Georg Brandl.) * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module now supports returning *note datetime: 1cc. objects for the XML-RPC date type. Supply ‘use_datetime=True’ to the *note loads(): 1400. function or the ‘Unmarshaller’ class to enable this feature. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.) * The *note zipfile: 131. module now supports the ZIP64 version of the format, meaning that a .zip archive can now be larger than 4 GiB and can contain individual files larger than 4 GiB. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren.) * The *note zlib: 133. module’s ‘Compress’ and ‘Decompress’ objects now support a *note copy(): 25. method that makes a copy of the object’s internal state and returns a new ‘Compress’ or ‘Decompress’ object. (Contributed by Chris AtLee.) * Menu: * The ctypes package:: * The ElementTree package:: * The hashlib package:: * The sqlite3 package:: * The wsgiref package:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4122.html  File: python.info, Node: The ctypes package, Next: The ElementTree package, Up: New Improved and Removed Modules 1.17.13.1 The ctypes package ............................ The *note ctypes: 2a. package, written by Thomas Heller, has been added to the standard library. *note ctypes: 2a. lets you call arbitrary functions in shared libraries or DLLs. Long-time users may remember the ‘dl’ module, which provides functions for loading shared libraries and calling functions in them. The *note ctypes: 2a. package is much fancier. To load a shared library or DLL, you must create an instance of the ‘CDLL’ class and provide the name or path of the shared library or DLL. Once that’s done, you can call arbitrary functions by accessing them as attributes of the ‘CDLL’ object. import ctypes libc = ctypes.CDLL('libc.so.6') result = libc.printf("Line of output\n") Type constructors for the various C types are provided: ‘c_int()’, ‘c_float()’, ‘c_double()’, ‘c_char_p()’ (equivalent to char*), and so forth. Unlike Python’s types, the C versions are all mutable; you can assign to their ‘value’ attribute to change the wrapped value. Python integers and strings will be automatically converted to the corresponding C types, but for other types you must call the correct type constructor. (And I mean 'must'; getting it wrong will often result in the interpreter crashing with a segmentation fault.) You shouldn’t use ‘c_char_p()’ with a Python string when the C function will be modifying the memory area, because Python strings are supposed to be immutable; breaking this rule will cause puzzling bugs. When you need a modifiable memory area, use ‘create_string_buffer()’: s = "this is a string" buf = ctypes.create_string_buffer(s) libc.strfry(buf) C functions are assumed to return integers, but you can set the ‘restype’ attribute of the function object to change this: >>> libc.atof('2.71828') -1783957616 >>> libc.atof.restype = ctypes.c_double >>> libc.atof('2.71828') 2.71828 *note ctypes: 2a. also provides a wrapper for Python’s C API as the ‘ctypes.pythonapi’ object. This object does 'not' release the global interpreter lock before calling a function, because the lock must be held when calling into the interpreter’s code. There’s a *note py_object: 1403. type constructor that will create a *note PyObject: 334.* pointer. A simple usage: import ctypes d = {} ctypes.pythonapi.PyObject_SetItem(ctypes.py_object(d), ctypes.py_object("abc"), ctypes.py_object(1)) # d is now {'abc', 1}. Don’t forget to use *note py_object(): 1403.; if it’s omitted you end up with a segmentation fault. *note ctypes: 2a. has been around for a while, but people still write and distribution hand-coded extension modules because you can’t rely on *note ctypes: 2a. being present. Perhaps developers will begin to write Python wrappers atop a library accessed through *note ctypes: 2a. instead of extension modules, now that *note ctypes: 2a. is included with core Python. See also ........ ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20180410025338/http://starship.python.net/crew/theller/ctypes/’ The pre-stdlib ctypes web page, with a tutorial, reference, and FAQ. The documentation for the *note ctypes: 2a. module.  File: python.info, Node: The ElementTree package, Next: The hashlib package, Prev: The ctypes package, Up: New Improved and Removed Modules 1.17.13.2 The ElementTree package ................................. A subset of Fredrik Lundh’s ElementTree library for processing XML has been added to the standard library as ‘xml.etree’. The available modules are ‘ElementTree’, ‘ElementPath’, and ‘ElementInclude’ from ElementTree 1.2.6. The ‘cElementTree’ accelerator module is also included. The rest of this section will provide a brief overview of using ElementTree. Full documentation for ElementTree is available at ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’. ElementTree represents an XML document as a tree of element nodes. The text content of the document is stored as the ‘text’ and ‘tail’ attributes of (This is one of the major differences between ElementTree and the Document Object Model; in the DOM there are many different types of node, including ‘TextNode’.) The most commonly used parsing function is ‘parse()’, that takes either a string (assumed to contain a filename) or a file-like object and returns an ‘ElementTree’ instance: from xml.etree import ElementTree as ET tree = ET.parse('ex-1.xml') feed = urllib.urlopen( 'http://planet.python.org/rss10.xml') tree = ET.parse(feed) Once you have an ‘ElementTree’ instance, you can call its ‘getroot()’ method to get the root ‘Element’ node. There’s also an ‘XML()’ function that takes a string literal and returns an ‘Element’ node (not an ‘ElementTree’). This function provides a tidy way to incorporate XML fragments, approaching the convenience of an XML literal: svg = ET.XML(""" """) svg.set('height', '320px') svg.append(elem1) Each XML element supports some dictionary-like and some list-like access methods. Dictionary-like operations are used to access attribute values, and list-like operations are used to access child nodes. Operation Result ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘elem[n]’ Returns n’th child element. ‘elem[m:n]’ Returns list of m’th through n’th child elements. ‘len(elem)’ Returns number of child elements. ‘list(elem)’ Returns list of child elements. ‘elem.append(elem2)’ Adds 'elem2' as a child. ‘elem.insert(index, elem2)’ Inserts 'elem2' at the specified location. ‘del elem[n]’ Deletes n’th child element. ‘elem.keys()’ Returns list of attribute names. ‘elem.get(name)’ Returns value of attribute 'name'. ‘elem.set(name, value)’ Sets new value for attribute 'name'. ‘elem.attrib’ Retrieves the dictionary containing attributes. ‘del elem.attrib[name]’ Deletes attribute 'name'. Comments and processing instructions are also represented as ‘Element’ nodes. To check if a node is a comment or processing instructions: if elem.tag is ET.Comment: ... elif elem.tag is ET.ProcessingInstruction: ... To generate XML output, you should call the ‘ElementTree.write()’ method. Like ‘parse()’, it can take either a string or a file-like object: # Encoding is US-ASCII tree.write('output.xml') # Encoding is UTF-8 f = open('output.xml', 'w') tree.write(f, encoding='utf-8') (Caution: the default encoding used for output is ASCII. For general XML work, where an element’s name may contain arbitrary Unicode characters, ASCII isn’t a very useful encoding because it will raise an exception if an element’s name contains any characters with values greater than 127. Therefore, it’s best to specify a different encoding such as UTF-8 that can handle any Unicode character.) This section is only a partial description of the ElementTree interfaces. Please read the package’s official documentation for more details. See also ........ ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20201124024954/http://effbot.org/zone/element-index.htm’ Official documentation for ElementTree.  File: python.info, Node: The hashlib package, Next: The sqlite3 package, Prev: The ElementTree package, Up: New Improved and Removed Modules 1.17.13.3 The hashlib package ............................. A new *note hashlib: 68. module, written by Gregory P. Smith, has been added to replace the ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules. *note hashlib: 68. adds support for additional secure hashes (SHA-224, SHA-256, SHA-384, and SHA-512). When available, the module uses OpenSSL for fast platform optimized implementations of algorithms. The old ‘md5’ and ‘sha’ modules still exist as wrappers around hashlib to preserve backwards compatibility. The new module’s interface is very close to that of the old modules, but not identical. The most significant difference is that the constructor functions for creating new hashing objects are named differently. # Old versions h = md5.md5() h = md5.new() # New version h = hashlib.md5() # Old versions h = sha.sha() h = sha.new() # New version h = hashlib.sha1() # Hash that weren't previously available h = hashlib.sha224() h = hashlib.sha256() h = hashlib.sha384() h = hashlib.sha512() # Alternative form h = hashlib.new('md5') # Provide algorithm as a string Once a hash object has been created, its methods are the same as before: ‘update(string)’ hashes the specified string into the current digest state, ‘digest()’ and ‘hexdigest()’ return the digest value as a binary string or a string of hex digits, and *note copy(): 25. returns a new hashing object with the same digest state. See also ........ The documentation for the *note hashlib: 68. module.  File: python.info, Node: The sqlite3 package, Next: The wsgiref package, Prev: The hashlib package, Up: New Improved and Removed Modules 1.17.13.4 The sqlite3 package ............................. The pysqlite module (‘https://www.pysqlite.org’), a wrapper for the SQLite embedded database, has been added to the standard library under the package name *note sqlite3: cf. SQLite is a C library that provides a lightweight disk-based database that doesn’t require a separate server process and allows accessing the database using a nonstandard variant of the SQL query language. Some applications can use SQLite for internal data storage. It’s also possible to prototype an application using SQLite and then port the code to a larger database such as PostgreSQL or Oracle. pysqlite was written by Gerhard Häring and provides a SQL interface compliant with the DB-API 2.0 specification described by PEP 249(1). If you’re compiling the Python source yourself, note that the source tree doesn’t include the SQLite code, only the wrapper module. You’ll need to have the SQLite libraries and headers installed before compiling Python, and the build process will compile the module when the necessary headers are available. To use the module, you must first create a ‘Connection’ object that represents the database. Here the data will be stored in the ‘/tmp/example’ file: conn = sqlite3.connect('/tmp/example') You can also supply the special name ‘:memory:’ to create a database in RAM. Once you have a ‘Connection’, you can create a ‘Cursor’ object and call its ‘execute()’ method to perform SQL commands: c = conn.cursor() # Create table c.execute('''create table stocks (date text, trans text, symbol text, qty real, price real)''') # Insert a row of data c.execute("""insert into stocks values ('2006-01-05','BUY','RHAT',100,35.14)""") Usually your SQL operations will need to use values from Python variables. You shouldn’t assemble your query using Python’s string operations because doing so is insecure; it makes your program vulnerable to an SQL injection attack. Instead, use the DB-API’s parameter substitution. Put ‘?’ as a placeholder wherever you want to use a value, and then provide a tuple of values as the second argument to the cursor’s ‘execute()’ method. (Other database modules may use a different placeholder, such as ‘%s’ or ‘:1’.) For example: # Never do this -- insecure! symbol = 'IBM' c.execute("... where symbol = '%s'" % symbol) # Do this instead t = (symbol,) c.execute('select * from stocks where symbol=?', t) # Larger example for t in (('2006-03-28', 'BUY', 'IBM', 1000, 45.00), ('2006-04-05', 'BUY', 'MSOFT', 1000, 72.00), ('2006-04-06', 'SELL', 'IBM', 500, 53.00), ): c.execute('insert into stocks values (?,?,?,?,?)', t) To retrieve data after executing a SELECT statement, you can either treat the cursor as an iterator, call the cursor’s ‘fetchone()’ method to retrieve a single matching row, or call ‘fetchall()’ to get a list of the matching rows. This example uses the iterator form: >>> c = conn.cursor() >>> c.execute('select * from stocks order by price') >>> for row in c: ... print row ... (u'2006-01-05', u'BUY', u'RHAT', 100, 35.140000000000001) (u'2006-03-28', u'BUY', u'IBM', 1000, 45.0) (u'2006-04-06', u'SELL', u'IBM', 500, 53.0) (u'2006-04-05', u'BUY', u'MSOFT', 1000, 72.0) >>> For more information about the SQL dialect supported by SQLite, see ‘https://www.sqlite.org’. See also ........ ‘https://www.pysqlite.org’ The pysqlite web page. ‘https://www.sqlite.org’ The SQLite web page; the documentation describes the syntax and the available data types for the supported SQL dialect. The documentation for the *note sqlite3: cf. module. PEP 249(2) - Database API Specification 2.0 PEP written by Marc-André Lemburg. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0249/  File: python.info, Node: The wsgiref package, Prev: The sqlite3 package, Up: New Improved and Removed Modules 1.17.13.5 The wsgiref package ............................. The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) v1.0 defines a standard interface between web servers and Python web applications and is described in PEP 333(1). The *note wsgiref: 118. package is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification. The package includes a basic HTTP server that will run a WSGI application; this server is useful for debugging but isn’t intended for production use. Setting up a server takes only a few lines of code: from wsgiref import simple_server wsgi_app = ... host = '' port = 8000 httpd = simple_server.make_server(host, port, wsgi_app) httpd.serve_forever() See also ........ ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20160331090247/http://wsgi.readthedocs.org/en/latest/’ A central web site for WSGI-related resources. PEP 333(2) - Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1.0 PEP written by Phillip J. Eby. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0333/  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<10>, Next: Porting to Python 2 5, Prev: New Improved and Removed Modules, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.14 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * The Python source tree was converted from CVS to Subversion, in a complex migration procedure that was supervised and flawlessly carried out by Martin von Löwis. The procedure was developed as PEP 347(1). * Coverity, a company that markets a source code analysis tool called Prevent, provided the results of their examination of the Python source code. The analysis found about 60 bugs that were quickly fixed. Many of the bugs were refcounting problems, often occurring in error-handling code. See ‘https://scan.coverity.com’ for the statistics. * The largest change to the C API came from PEP 353(2), which modifies the interpreter to use a *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. type definition instead of int. See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: 13e3. for a discussion of this change. * The design of the bytecode compiler has changed a great deal, no longer generating bytecode by traversing the parse tree. Instead the parse tree is converted to an abstract syntax tree (or AST), and it is the abstract syntax tree that’s traversed to produce the bytecode. It’s possible for Python code to obtain AST objects by using the *note compile(): 192. built-in and specifying ‘_ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ as the value of the 'flags' parameter: from _ast import PyCF_ONLY_AST ast = compile("""a=0 for i in range(10): a += i """, "", 'exec', PyCF_ONLY_AST) assignment = ast.body[0] for_loop = ast.body[1] No official documentation has been written for the AST code yet, but PEP 339(3) discusses the design. To start learning about the code, read the definition of the various AST nodes in ‘Parser/Python.asdl’. A Python script reads this file and generates a set of C structure definitions in ‘Include/Python-ast.h’. The ‘PyParser_ASTFromString()’ and ‘PyParser_ASTFromFile()’, defined in ‘Include/pythonrun.h’, take Python source as input and return the root of an AST representing the contents. This AST can then be turned into a code object by ‘PyAST_Compile()’. For more information, read the source code, and then ask questions on python-dev. The AST code was developed under Jeremy Hylton’s management, and implemented by (in alphabetical order) Brett Cannon, Nick Coghlan, Grant Edwards, John Ehresman, Kurt Kaiser, Neal Norwitz, Tim Peters, Armin Rigo, and Neil Schemenauer, plus the participants in a number of AST sprints at conferences such as PyCon. * Evan Jones’s patch to obmalloc, first described in a talk at PyCon DC 2005, was applied. Python 2.4 allocated small objects in 256K-sized arenas, but never freed arenas. With this patch, Python will free arenas when they’re empty. The net effect is that on some platforms, when you allocate many objects, Python’s memory usage may actually drop when you delete them and the memory may be returned to the operating system. (Implemented by Evan Jones, and reworked by Tim Peters.) Note that this change means extension modules must be more careful when allocating memory. Python’s API has many different functions for allocating memory that are grouped into families. For example, *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b, and *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. are one family that allocates raw memory, while *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f, and *note PyObject_Free(): c65. are another family that’s supposed to be used for creating Python objects. Previously these different families all reduced to the platform’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ functions. This meant it didn’t matter if you got things wrong and allocated memory with the ‘PyMem’ function but freed it with the ‘PyObject’ function. With 2.5’s changes to obmalloc, these families now do different things and mismatches will probably result in a segfault. You should carefully test your C extension modules with Python 2.5. * The built-in set types now have an official C API. Call *note PySet_New(): 1410. and *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 1411. to create a new set, *note PySet_Add(): 1412. and *note PySet_Discard(): 1413. to add and remove elements, and *note PySet_Contains(): 1414. and *note PySet_Size(): 1415. to examine the set’s state. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * C code can now obtain information about the exact revision of the Python interpreter by calling the *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fd. function that returns a string of build information like this: ‘"trunk:45355:45356M, Apr 13 2006, 07:42:19"’. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.) * Two new macros can be used to indicate C functions that are local to the current file so that a faster calling convention can be used. ‘Py_LOCAL(type)’ declares the function as returning a value of the specified 'type' and uses a fast-calling qualifier. ‘Py_LOCAL_INLINE(type)’ does the same thing and also requests the function be inlined. If macro ‘PY_LOCAL_AGGRESSIVE’ is defined before ‘python.h’ is included, a set of more aggressive optimizations are enabled for the module; you should benchmark the results to find out if these optimizations actually make the code faster. (Contributed by Fredrik Lundh at the NeedForSpeed sprint.) * ‘PyErr_NewException(name, base, dict)’ can now accept a tuple of base classes as its 'base' argument. (Contributed by Georg Brandl.) * The ‘PyErr_Warn()’ function for issuing warnings is now deprecated in favour of ‘PyErr_WarnEx(category, message, stacklevel)’ which lets you specify the number of stack frames separating this function and the caller. A 'stacklevel' of 1 is the function calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1416, 2 is the function above that, and so forth. (Added by Neal Norwitz.) * The CPython interpreter is still written in C, but the code can now be compiled with a C++ compiler without errors. (Implemented by Anthony Baxter, Martin von Löwis, Skip Montanaro.) * The ‘PyRange_New()’ function was removed. It was never documented, never used in the core code, and had dangerously lax error checking. In the unlikely case that your extensions were using it, you can replace it by something like the following: range = PyObject_CallFunction((PyObject*) &PyRange_Type, "lll", start, stop, step); * Menu: * Port-Specific Changes:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0347/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0339/  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes, Up: Build and C API Changes<10> 1.17.14.1 Port-Specific Changes ............................... * MacOS X (10.3 and higher): dynamic loading of modules now uses the ‘dlopen()’ function instead of MacOS-specific functions. * MacOS X: an ‘--enable-universalsdk’ switch was added to the ‘configure’ script that compiles the interpreter as a universal binary able to run on both PowerPC and Intel processors. (Contributed by Ronald Oussoren; bpo-2573(1).) * Windows: ‘.dll’ is no longer supported as a filename extension for extension modules. ‘.pyd’ is now the only filename extension that will be searched for. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=2573  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 2 5, Next: Acknowledgements<3>, Prev: Build and C API Changes<10>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.15 Porting to Python 2.5 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your code: * ASCII is now the default encoding for modules. It’s now a syntax error if a module contains string literals with 8-bit characters but doesn’t have an encoding declaration. In Python 2.4 this triggered a warning, not a syntax error. * Previously, the ‘gi_frame’ attribute of a generator was always a frame object. Because of the PEP 342(1) changes described in section *note PEP 342; New Generator Features: 13cf, it’s now possible for ‘gi_frame’ to be ‘None’. * A new warning, *note UnicodeWarning: 13ef, is triggered when you attempt to compare a Unicode string and an 8-bit string that can’t be converted to Unicode using the default ASCII encoding. Previously such comparisons would raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. exception. * Library: the *note csv: 29. module is now stricter about multi-line quoted fields. If your files contain newlines embedded within fields, the input should be split into lines in a manner which preserves the newline characters. * Library: the *note locale: 86. module’s *note format(): 61b. function’s would previously accept any string as long as no more than one %char specifier appeared. In Python 2.5, the argument must be exactly one %char specifier with no surrounding text. * Library: The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules no longer accept a return value of ‘None’ from the *note __reduce__(): 9d3. method; the method must return a tuple of arguments instead. The modules also no longer accept the deprecated 'bin' keyword parameter. * Library: The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. and *note DocXMLRPCServer: 12f. classes now have a ‘rpc_paths’ attribute that constrains XML-RPC operations to a limited set of URL paths; the default is to allow only ‘'/'’ and ‘'/RPC2'’. Setting ‘rpc_paths’ to ‘None’ or an empty tuple disables this path checking. * C API: Many functions now use *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. instead of int to allow processing more data on 64-bit machines. Extension code may need to make the same change to avoid warnings and to support 64-bit machines. See the earlier section *note PEP 353; Using ssize_t as the index type: 13e3. for a discussion of this change. * C API: The obmalloc changes mean that you must be careful to not mix usage of the ‘PyMem_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ families of functions. Memory allocated with one family’s ‘*_Malloc’ must be freed with the corresponding family’s ‘*_Free’ function. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<3>, Prev: Porting to Python 2 5, Up: What’s New in Python 2 5 1.17.16 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Georg Brandl, Nick Coghlan, Phillip J. Eby, Lars Gustäbel, Raymond Hettinger, Ralf W. Grosse-Kunstleve, Kent Johnson, Iain Lowe, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Gustavo Niemeyer, Paul Prescod, James Pryor, Mike Rovner, Scott Weikart, Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 4, Next: What’s New in Python 2 3, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 5, Up: What’s New in Python 1.18 What’s New in Python 2.4 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling This article explains the new features in Python 2.4.1, released on March 30, 2005. Python 2.4 is a medium-sized release. It doesn’t introduce as many changes as the radical Python 2.2, but introduces more features than the conservative 2.3 release. The most significant new language features are function decorators and generator expressions; most other changes are to the standard library. According to the CVS change logs, there were 481 patches applied and 502 bugs fixed between Python 2.3 and 2.4. Both figures are likely to be underestimates. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of every single new feature, but instead provides a brief introduction to each feature. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.4, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual. Often you will be referred to the PEP for a particular new feature for explanations of the implementation and design rationale. * Menu: * PEP 218; Built-In Set Objects: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects. * PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers. * PEP 289; Generator Expressions: PEP 289 Generator Expressions. * PEP 292; Simpler String Substitutions: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions. * PEP 318; Decorators for Functions and Methods: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods. * PEP 322; Reverse Iteration: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration. * PEP 324; New subprocess Module: PEP 324 New subprocess Module. * PEP 327; Decimal Data Type: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type. * PEP 328; Multi-line Imports: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports. * PEP 331; Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions. * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<17>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<11>. * Porting to Python 2.4: Porting to Python 2 4. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<4>.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects, Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.1 PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects ------------------------------------ Python 2.3 introduced the ‘sets’ module. C implementations of set data types have now been added to the Python core as two new built-in types, ‘set(iterable)’ and ‘frozenset(iterable)’. They provide high speed operations for membership testing, for eliminating duplicates from sequences, and for mathematical operations like unions, intersections, differences, and symmetric differences. >>> a = set('abracadabra') # form a set from a string >>> 'z' in a # fast membership testing False >>> a # unique letters in a set(['a', 'r', 'b', 'c', 'd']) >>> ''.join(a) # convert back into a string 'arbcd' >>> b = set('alacazam') # form a second set >>> a - b # letters in a but not in b set(['r', 'd', 'b']) >>> a | b # letters in either a or b set(['a', 'c', 'r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l']) >>> a & b # letters in both a and b set(['a', 'c']) >>> a ^ b # letters in a or b but not both set(['r', 'd', 'b', 'm', 'z', 'l']) >>> a.add('z') # add a new element >>> a.update('wxy') # add multiple new elements >>> a set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'x', 'z']) >>> a.remove('x') # take one element out >>> a set(['a', 'c', 'b', 'd', 'r', 'w', 'y', 'z']) The *note frozenset(): 5d6. type is an immutable version of *note set(): 5d5. Since it is immutable and hashable, it may be used as a dictionary key or as a member of another set. The ‘sets’ module remains in the standard library, and may be useful if you wish to subclass the ‘Set’ or ‘ImmutableSet’ classes. There are currently no plans to deprecate the module. See also ........ PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type Originally proposed by Greg Wilson and ultimately implemented by Raymond Hettinger. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers, Next: PEP 289 Generator Expressions, Prev: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.2 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers --------------------------------------------------- The lengthy transition process for this PEP, begun in Python 2.2, takes another step forward in Python 2.4. In 2.3, certain integer operations that would behave differently after int/long unification triggered *note FutureWarning: 411. warnings and returned values limited to 32 or 64 bits (depending on your platform). In 2.4, these expressions no longer produce a warning and instead produce a different result that’s usually a long integer. The problematic expressions are primarily left shifts and lengthy hexadecimal and octal constants. For example, ‘2 << 32’ results in a warning in 2.3, evaluating to 0 on 32-bit platforms. In Python 2.4, this expression now returns the correct answer, 8589934592. See also ........ PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers Original PEP written by Moshe Zadka and GvR. The changes for 2.4 were implemented by Kalle Svensson. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions, Next: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions, Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.3 PEP 289: Generator Expressions ------------------------------------- The iterator feature introduced in Python 2.2 and the *note itertools: 81. module make it easier to write programs that loop through large data sets without having the entire data set in memory at one time. List comprehensions don’t fit into this picture very well because they produce a Python list object containing all of the items. This unavoidably pulls all of the objects into memory, which can be a problem if your data set is very large. When trying to write a functionally styled program, it would be natural to write something like: links = [link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed] for link in links: ... instead of for link in get_all_links(): if link.followed: continue ... The first form is more concise and perhaps more readable, but if you’re dealing with a large number of link objects you’d have to write the second form to avoid having all link objects in memory at the same time. Generator expressions work similarly to list comprehensions but don’t materialize the entire list; instead they create a generator that will return elements one by one. The above example could be written as: links = (link for link in get_all_links() if not link.followed) for link in links: ... Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, as in the above example. The parentheses signalling a function call also count, so if you want to create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you could write: print sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects()) Generator expressions differ from list comprehensions in various small ways. Most notably, the loop variable ('obj' in the above example) is not accessible outside of the generator expression. List comprehensions leave the variable assigned to its last value; future versions of Python will change this, making list comprehensions match generator expressions in this respect. See also ........ PEP 289(1) - Generator Expressions Proposed by Raymond Hettinger and implemented by Jiwon Seo with early efforts steered by Hye-Shik Chang. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions, Next: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods, Prev: PEP 289 Generator Expressions, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.4 PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions -------------------------------------------- Some new classes in the standard library provide an alternative mechanism for substituting variables into strings; this style of substitution may be better for applications where untrained users need to edit templates. The usual way of substituting variables by name is the ‘%’ operator: >>> '%(page)i: %(title)s' % {'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'} '2: The Best of Times' When writing the template string, it can be easy to forget the ‘i’ or ‘s’ after the closing parenthesis. This isn’t a big problem if the template is in a Python module, because you run the code, get an “Unsupported format character” *note ValueError: 204, and fix the problem. However, consider an application such as Mailman where template strings or translations are being edited by users who aren’t aware of the Python language. The format string’s syntax is complicated to explain to such users, and if they make a mistake, it’s difficult to provide helpful feedback to them. PEP 292 adds a ‘Template’ class to the *note string: d3. module that uses ‘$’ to indicate a substitution: >>> import string >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title') >>> t.substitute({'page':2, 'title': 'The Best of Times'}) '2: The Best of Times' If a key is missing from the dictionary, the ‘substitute()’ method will raise a *note KeyError: 33f. There’s also a ‘safe_substitute()’ method that ignores missing keys: >>> t = string.Template('$page: $title') >>> t.safe_substitute({'page':3}) '3: $title' See also ........ PEP 292(1) - Simpler String Substitutions Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0292/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods, Next: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration, Prev: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.5 PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods ---------------------------------------------------- Python 2.2 extended Python’s object model by adding static methods and class methods, but it didn’t extend Python’s syntax to provide any new way of defining static or class methods. Instead, you had to write a *note def: 1423. statement in the usual way, and pass the resulting method to a *note staticmethod(): 412. or *note classmethod(): 166. function that would wrap up the function as a method of the new type. Your code would look like this: class C: def meth (cls): ... meth = classmethod(meth) # Rebind name to wrapped-up class method If the method was very long, it would be easy to miss or forget the *note classmethod(): 166. invocation after the function body. The intention was always to add some syntax to make such definitions more readable, but at the time of 2.2’s release a good syntax was not obvious. Today a good syntax 'still' isn’t obvious but users are asking for easier access to the feature; a new syntactic feature has been added to meet this need. The new feature is called “function decorators”. The name comes from the idea that *note classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 412, and friends are storing additional information on a function object; they’re 'decorating' functions with more details. The notation borrows from Java and uses the ‘'@'’ character as an indicator. Using the new syntax, the example above would be written: class C: @classmethod def meth (cls): ... The ‘@classmethod’ is shorthand for the ‘meth=classmethod(meth)’ assignment. More generally, if you have the following: @A @B @C def f (): ... It’s equivalent to the following pre-decorator code: def f(): ... f = A(B(C(f))) Decorators must come on the line before a function definition, one decorator per line, and can’t be on the same line as the def statement, meaning that ‘@A def f(): ...’ is illegal. You can only decorate function definitions, either at the module level or inside a class; you can’t decorate class definitions. A decorator is just a function that takes the function to be decorated as an argument and returns either the same function or some new object. The return value of the decorator need not be callable (though it typically is), unless further decorators will be applied to the result. It’s easy to write your own decorators. The following simple example just sets an attribute on the function object: >>> def deco(func): ... func.attr = 'decorated' ... return func ... >>> @deco ... def f(): pass ... >>> f >>> f.attr 'decorated' >>> As a slightly more realistic example, the following decorator checks that the supplied argument is an integer: def require_int (func): def wrapper (arg): assert isinstance(arg, int) return func(arg) return wrapper @require_int def p1 (arg): print arg @require_int def p2(arg): print arg*2 An example in PEP 318(1) contains a fancier version of this idea that lets you both specify the required type and check the returned type. Decorator functions can take arguments. If arguments are supplied, your decorator function is called with only those arguments and must return a new decorator function; this function must take a single function and return a function, as previously described. In other words, ‘@A @B @C(args)’ becomes: def f(): ... _deco = C(args) f = A(B(_deco(f))) Getting this right can be slightly brain-bending, but it’s not too difficult. A small related change makes the *note func_name: 12c7. attribute of functions writable. This attribute is used to display function names in tracebacks, so decorators should change the name of any new function that’s constructed and returned. See also ........ PEP 318(2) - Decorators for Functions, Methods and Classes Written by Kevin D. Smith, Jim Jewett, and Skip Montanaro. Several people wrote patches implementing function decorators, but the one that was actually checked in was patch #979728, written by Mark Russell. ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonDecoratorLibrary’ This Wiki page contains several examples of decorators. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration, Next: PEP 324 New subprocess Module, Prev: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.6 PEP 322: Reverse Iteration --------------------------------- A new built-in function, ‘reversed(seq)’, takes a sequence and returns an iterator that loops over the elements of the sequence in reverse order. >>> for i in reversed(xrange(1,4)): ... print i ... 3 2 1 Compared to extended slicing, such as ‘range(1,4)[::-1]’, *note reversed(): 862. is easier to read, runs faster, and uses substantially less memory. Note that *note reversed(): 862. only accepts sequences, not arbitrary iterators. If you want to reverse an iterator, first convert it to a list with *note list(): 60d. >>> input = open('/etc/passwd', 'r') >>> for line in reversed(list(input)): ... print line ... root:*:0:0:System Administrator:/var/root:/bin/tcsh ... See also ........ PEP 322(1) - Reverse Iteration Written and implemented by Raymond Hettinger. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module, Next: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type, Prev: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.7 PEP 324: New subprocess Module ------------------------------------- The standard library provides a number of ways to execute a subprocess, offering different features and different levels of complexity. ‘os.system(command)’ is easy to use, but slow (it runs a shell process which executes the command) and dangerous (you have to be careful about escaping the shell’s metacharacters). The ‘popen2’ module offers classes that can capture standard output and standard error from the subprocess, but the naming is confusing. The *note subprocess: d6. module cleans this up, providing a unified interface that offers all the features you might need. Instead of ‘popen2’’s collection of classes, *note subprocess: d6. contains a single class called *note subprocess.Popen: 199. whose constructor supports a number of different keyword arguments. class Popen(args, bufsize=0, executable=None, stdin=None, stdout=None, stderr=None, preexec_fn=None, close_fds=False, shell=False, cwd=None, env=None, universal_newlines=False, startupinfo=None, creationflags=0): 'args' is commonly a sequence of strings that will be the arguments to the program executed as the subprocess. (If the 'shell' argument is true, 'args' can be a string which will then be passed on to the shell for interpretation, just as *note os.system(): 1426. does.) 'stdin', 'stdout', and 'stderr' specify what the subprocess’s input, output, and error streams will be. You can provide a file object or a file descriptor, or you can use the constant ‘subprocess.PIPE’ to create a pipe between the subprocess and the parent. The constructor has a number of handy options: * 'close_fds' requests that all file descriptors be closed before running the subprocess. * 'cwd' specifies the working directory in which the subprocess will be executed (defaulting to whatever the parent’s working directory is). * 'env' is a dictionary specifying environment variables. * 'preexec_fn' is a function that gets called before the child is started. * 'universal_newlines' opens the child’s input and output using Python’s *note universal newlines: d3a. feature. Once you’ve created the ‘Popen’ instance, you can call its ‘wait()’ method to pause until the subprocess has exited, ‘poll()’ to check if it’s exited without pausing, or ‘communicate(data)’ to send the string 'data' to the subprocess’s standard input. ‘communicate(data)’ then reads any data that the subprocess has sent to its standard output or standard error, returning a tuple ‘(stdout_data, stderr_data)’. ‘call()’ is a shortcut that passes its arguments along to the ‘Popen’ constructor, waits for the command to complete, and returns the status code of the subprocess. It can serve as a safer analog to *note os.system(): 1426.: sts = subprocess.call(['dpkg', '-i', '/tmp/new-package.deb']) if sts == 0: # Success ... else: # dpkg returned an error ... The command is invoked without use of the shell. If you really do want to use the shell, you can add ‘shell=True’ as a keyword argument and provide a string instead of a sequence: sts = subprocess.call('dpkg -i /tmp/new-package.deb', shell=True) The PEP takes various examples of shell and Python code and shows how they’d be translated into Python code that uses *note subprocess: d6. Reading this section of the PEP is highly recommended. See also ........ PEP 324(1) - subprocess - New process module Written and implemented by Peter Åstrand, with assistance from Fredrik Lundh and others. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0324/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type, Next: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports, Prev: PEP 324 New subprocess Module, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.8 PEP 327: Decimal Data Type --------------------------------- Python has always supported floating-point (FP) numbers, based on the underlying C double type, as a data type. However, while most programming languages provide a floating-point type, many people (even programmers) are unaware that floating-point numbers don’t represent certain decimal fractions accurately. The new ‘Decimal’ type can represent these fractions accurately, up to a user-specified precision limit. * Menu: * Why is Decimal needed?:: * The Decimal type:: * The Context type::  File: python.info, Node: Why is Decimal needed?, Next: The Decimal type, Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type 1.18.8.1 Why is Decimal needed? ............................... The limitations arise from the representation used for floating-point numbers. FP numbers are made up of three components: * The sign, which is positive or negative. * The mantissa, which is a single-digit binary number followed by a fractional part. For example, ‘1.01’ in base-2 notation is ‘1 + 0/2 + 1/4’, or 1.25 in decimal notation. * The exponent, which tells where the decimal point is located in the number represented. For example, the number 1.25 has positive sign, a mantissa value of 1.01 (in binary), and an exponent of 0 (the decimal point doesn’t need to be shifted). The number 5 has the same sign and mantissa, but the exponent is 2 because the mantissa is multiplied by 4 (2 to the power of the exponent 2); 1.25 * 4 equals 5. Modern systems usually provide floating-point support that conforms to a standard called IEEE 754. C’s double type is usually implemented as a 64-bit IEEE 754 number, which uses 52 bits of space for the mantissa. This means that numbers can only be specified to 52 bits of precision. If you’re trying to represent numbers whose expansion repeats endlessly, the expansion is cut off after 52 bits. Unfortunately, most software needs to produce output in base 10, and common fractions in base 10 are often repeating decimals in binary. For example, 1.1 decimal is binary ‘1.0001100110011 ...’; .1 = 1/16 + 1/32 + 1/256 plus an infinite number of additional terms. IEEE 754 has to chop off that infinitely repeated decimal after 52 digits, so the representation is slightly inaccurate. Sometimes you can see this inaccuracy when the number is printed: >>> 1.1 1.1000000000000001 The inaccuracy isn’t always visible when you print the number because the FP-to-decimal-string conversion is provided by the C library, and most C libraries try to produce sensible output. Even if it’s not displayed, however, the inaccuracy is still there and subsequent operations can magnify the error. For many applications this doesn’t matter. If I’m plotting points and displaying them on my monitor, the difference between 1.1 and 1.1000000000000001 is too small to be visible. Reports often limit output to a certain number of decimal places, and if you round the number to two or three or even eight decimal places, the error is never apparent. However, for applications where it does matter, it’s a lot of work to implement your own custom arithmetic routines. Hence, the ‘Decimal’ type was created.  File: python.info, Node: The Decimal type, Next: The Context type, Prev: Why is Decimal needed?, Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type 1.18.8.2 The ‘Decimal’ type ........................... A new module, *note decimal: 36, was added to Python’s standard library. It contains two classes, ‘Decimal’ and ‘Context’. ‘Decimal’ instances represent numbers, and ‘Context’ instances are used to wrap up various settings such as the precision and default rounding mode. ‘Decimal’ instances are immutable, like regular Python integers and FP numbers; once it’s been created, you can’t change the value an instance represents. ‘Decimal’ instances can be created from integers or strings: >>> import decimal >>> decimal.Decimal(1972) Decimal("1972") >>> decimal.Decimal("1.1") Decimal("1.1") You can also provide tuples containing the sign, the mantissa represented as a tuple of decimal digits, and the exponent: >>> decimal.Decimal((1, (1, 4, 7, 5), -2)) Decimal("-14.75") Cautionary note: the sign bit is a Boolean value, so 0 is positive and 1 is negative. Converting from floating-point numbers poses a bit of a problem: should the FP number representing 1.1 turn into the decimal number for exactly 1.1, or for 1.1 plus whatever inaccuracies are introduced? The decision was to dodge the issue and leave such a conversion out of the API. Instead, you should convert the floating-point number into a string using the desired precision and pass the string to the ‘Decimal’ constructor: >>> f = 1.1 >>> decimal.Decimal(str(f)) Decimal("1.1") >>> decimal.Decimal('%.12f' % f) Decimal("1.100000000000") Once you have ‘Decimal’ instances, you can perform the usual mathematical operations on them. One limitation: exponentiation requires an integer exponent: >>> a = decimal.Decimal('35.72') >>> b = decimal.Decimal('1.73') >>> a+b Decimal("37.45") >>> a-b Decimal("33.99") >>> a*b Decimal("61.7956") >>> a/b Decimal("20.64739884393063583815028902") >>> a ** 2 Decimal("1275.9184") >>> a**b Traceback (most recent call last): ... decimal.InvalidOperation: x ** (non-integer) You can combine ‘Decimal’ instances with integers, but not with floating-point numbers: >>> a + 4 Decimal("39.72") >>> a + 4.5 Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: You can interact Decimal only with int, long or Decimal data types. >>> ‘Decimal’ numbers can be used with the *note math: 8e. and *note cmath: 18. modules, but note that they’ll be immediately converted to floating-point numbers before the operation is performed, resulting in a possible loss of precision and accuracy. You’ll also get back a regular floating-point number and not a ‘Decimal’. >>> import math, cmath >>> d = decimal.Decimal('123456789012.345') >>> math.sqrt(d) 351364.18288201344 >>> cmath.sqrt(-d) 351364.18288201344j ‘Decimal’ instances have a ‘sqrt()’ method that returns a ‘Decimal’, but if you need other things such as trigonometric functions you’ll have to implement them. >>> d.sqrt() Decimal("351364.1828820134592177245001")  File: python.info, Node: The Context type, Prev: The Decimal type, Up: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type 1.18.8.3 The ‘Context’ type ........................... Instances of the ‘Context’ class encapsulate several settings for decimal operations: * ‘prec’ is the precision, the number of decimal places. * ‘rounding’ specifies the rounding mode. The *note decimal: 36. module has constants for the various possibilities: ‘ROUND_DOWN’, ‘ROUND_CEILING’, ‘ROUND_HALF_EVEN’, and various others. * ‘traps’ is a dictionary specifying what happens on encountering certain error conditions: either an exception is raised or a value is returned. Some examples of error conditions are division by zero, loss of precision, and overflow. There’s a thread-local default context available by calling ‘getcontext()’; you can change the properties of this context to alter the default precision, rounding, or trap handling. The following example shows the effect of changing the precision of the default context: >>> decimal.getcontext().prec 28 >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7) Decimal("0.1428571428571428571428571429") >>> decimal.getcontext().prec = 9 >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(7) Decimal("0.142857143") The default action for error conditions is selectable; the module can either return a special value such as infinity or not-a-number, or exceptions can be raised: >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0) Traceback (most recent call last): ... decimal.DivisionByZero: x / 0 >>> decimal.getcontext().traps[decimal.DivisionByZero] = False >>> decimal.Decimal(1) / decimal.Decimal(0) Decimal("Infinity") >>> The ‘Context’ instance also has various methods for formatting numbers such as ‘to_eng_string()’ and ‘to_sci_string()’. For more information, see the documentation for the *note decimal: 36. module, which includes a quick-start tutorial and a reference. See also ........ PEP 327(1) - Decimal Data Type Written by Facundo Batista and implemented by Facundo Batista, Eric Price, Raymond Hettinger, Aahz, and Tim Peters. http://www.lahey.com/float.htm(2) The article uses Fortran code to illustrate many of the problems that floating-point inaccuracy can cause. ‘https://speleotrove.com/decimal/’ A description of a decimal-based representation. This representation is being proposed as a standard, and underlies the new Python decimal type. Much of this material was written by Mike Cowlishaw, designer of the Rexx language. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0327/ (2) https://web.archive.org/web/20230604072523/http://www.lahey.com/float.htm  File: python.info, Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports, Next: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions, Prev: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.9 PEP 328: Multi-line Imports ---------------------------------- One language change is a small syntactic tweak aimed at making it easier to import many names from a module. In a ‘from module import names’ statement, 'names' is a sequence of names separated by commas. If the sequence is very long, you can either write multiple imports from the same module, or you can use backslashes to escape the line endings like this: from SimpleXMLRPCServer import SimpleXMLRPCServer,\ SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler,\ CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler,\ resolve_dotted_attribute The syntactic change in Python 2.4 simply allows putting the names within parentheses. Python ignores newlines within a parenthesized expression, so the backslashes are no longer needed: from SimpleXMLRPCServer import (SimpleXMLRPCServer, SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler, resolve_dotted_attribute) The PEP also proposes that all *note import: 5de. statements be absolute imports, with a leading ‘.’ character to indicate a relative import. This part of the PEP was not implemented for Python 2.4, but was completed for Python 2.5. See also ........ PEP 328(1) - Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative Written by Aahz. Multi-line imports were implemented by Dima Dorfman. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions, Next: Other Language Changes<17>, Prev: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.10 PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions ------------------------------------------------------------ The *note locale: 86. modules lets Python software select various conversions and display conventions that are localized to a particular country or language. However, the module was careful to not change the numeric locale because various functions in Python’s implementation required that the numeric locale remain set to the ‘'C'’ locale. Often this was because the code was using the C library’s ‘atof()’ function. Not setting the numeric locale caused trouble for extensions that used third-party C libraries, however, because they wouldn’t have the correct locale set. The motivating example was GTK+, whose user interface widgets weren’t displaying numbers in the current locale. The solution described in the PEP is to add three new functions to the Python API that perform ASCII-only conversions, ignoring the locale setting: * ‘PyOS_ascii_strtod(str, ptr)’ and ‘PyOS_ascii_atof(str, ptr)’ both convert a string to a C double. * ‘PyOS_ascii_formatd(buffer, buf_len, format, d)’ converts a double to an ASCII string. The code for these functions came from the GLib library (https://developer-old.gnome.org/glib/2.26/(1)), whose developers kindly relicensed the relevant functions and donated them to the Python Software Foundation. The *note locale: 86. module can now change the numeric locale, letting extensions such as GTK+ produce the correct results. See also ........ PEP 331(2) - Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions Written by Christian R. Reis, and implemented by Gustavo Carneiro. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) http://web.archive.org/web/20210306104320/https://developer.gnome.org/glib/2.26/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0331/  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<17>, Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>, Prev: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.11 Other Language Changes ------------------------------ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.4 makes to the core Python language. * Decorators for functions and methods were added ( PEP 318(1)). * Built-in *note set(): 5d5. and *note frozenset(): 5d6. types were added ( PEP 218(2)). Other new built-ins include the ‘reversed(seq)’ function ( PEP 322(3)). * Generator expressions were added ( PEP 289(4)). * Certain numeric expressions no longer return values restricted to 32 or 64 bits ( PEP 237(5)). * You can now put parentheses around the list of names in a ‘from module import names’ statement ( PEP 328(6)). * The *note dict.update(): 142e. method now accepts the same argument forms as the *note dict: 258. constructor. This includes any mapping, any iterable of key/value pairs, and keyword arguments. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The string methods ‘ljust()’, ‘rjust()’, and ‘center()’ now take an optional argument for specifying a fill character other than a space. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Strings also gained an ‘rsplit()’ method that works like the ‘split()’ method but splits from the end of the string. (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.) >>> 'www.python.org'.split('.', 1) ['www', 'python.org'] 'www.python.org'.rsplit('.', 1) ['www.python', 'org'] * Three keyword parameters, 'cmp', 'key', and 'reverse', were added to the ‘sort()’ method of lists. These parameters make some common usages of ‘sort()’ simpler. All of these parameters are optional. For the 'cmp' parameter, the value should be a comparison function that takes two parameters and returns -1, 0, or +1 depending on how the parameters compare. This function will then be used to sort the list. Previously this was the only parameter that could be provided to ‘sort()’. 'key' should be a single-parameter function that takes a list element and returns a comparison key for the element. The list is then sorted using the comparison keys. The following example sorts a list case-insensitively: >>> L = ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D'] >>> L.sort() # Case-sensitive sort >>> L ['A', 'D', 'b', 'c'] >>> # Using 'key' parameter to sort list >>> L.sort(key=lambda x: x.lower()) >>> L ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D'] >>> # Old-fashioned way >>> L.sort(cmp=lambda x,y: cmp(x.lower(), y.lower())) >>> L ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D'] The last example, which uses the 'cmp' parameter, is the old way to perform a case-insensitive sort. It works but is slower than using a 'key' parameter. Using 'key' calls ‘lower()’ method once for each element in the list while using 'cmp' will call it twice for each comparison, so using 'key' saves on invocations of the ‘lower()’ method. For simple key functions and comparison functions, it is often possible to avoid a *note lambda: 128f. expression by using an unbound method instead. For example, the above case-insensitive sort is best written as: >>> L.sort(key=str.lower) >>> L ['A', 'b', 'c', 'D'] Finally, the 'reverse' parameter takes a Boolean value. If the value is true, the list will be sorted into reverse order. Instead of ‘L.sort(); L.reverse()’, you can now write ‘L.sort(reverse=True)’. The results of sorting are now guaranteed to be stable. This means that two entries with equal keys will be returned in the same order as they were input. For example, you can sort a list of people by name, and then sort the list by age, resulting in a list sorted by age where people with the same age are in name-sorted order. (All changes to ‘sort()’ contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * There is a new built-in function ‘sorted(iterable)’ that works like the in-place *note list.sort(): bcf. method but can be used in expressions. The differences are: * the input may be any iterable; * a newly formed copy is sorted, leaving the original intact; and * the expression returns the new sorted copy >>> L = [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5] >>> [10+i for i in sorted(L)] # usable in a list comprehension [11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19] >>> L # original is left unchanged [9,7,8,3,2,4,1,6,5] >>> sorted('Monty Python') # any iterable may be an input [' ', 'M', 'P', 'h', 'n', 'n', 'o', 'o', 't', 't', 'y', 'y'] >>> # List the contents of a dict sorted by key values >>> colormap = dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4, yellow=5) >>> for k, v in sorted(colormap.iteritems()): ... print k, v ... black 4 blue 2 green 3 red 1 yellow 5 (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’. The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5. * The interpreter gained a new switch, *note -m: 5dd, that takes a name, searches for the corresponding module on ‘sys.path’, and runs the module as a script. For example, you can now run the Python profiler with ‘python -m profile’. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.) * The ‘eval(expr, globals, locals)’ and ‘execfile(filename, globals, locals)’ functions and the ‘exec’ statement now accept any mapping type for the 'locals' parameter. Previously this had to be a regular Python dictionary. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note zip(): 7cb. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now return an empty list if called with no arguments. Previously they raised a *note TypeError: 534. exception. This makes them more suitable for use with variable length argument lists: >>> def transpose(array): ... return zip(*array) ... >>> transpose([(1,2,3), (4,5,6)]) [(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6)] >>> transpose([]) [] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’. The incomplete module object left behind would fool further imports of the same module into succeeding, leading to confusing errors. (Fixed by Tim Peters.) * *note None: 671. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Menu: * Optimizations: Optimizations<16>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0318/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0322/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<16>, Up: Other Language Changes<17> 1.18.11.1 Optimizations ....................... * The inner loops for list and tuple slicing were optimized and now run about one-third faster. The inner loops for dictionaries were also optimized, resulting in performance boosts for ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, ‘items()’, ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, and ‘iteritems()’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The machinery for growing and shrinking lists was optimized for speed and for space efficiency. Appending and popping from lists now runs faster due to more efficient code paths and less frequent use of the underlying system ‘realloc()’. List comprehensions also benefit. ‘list.extend()’ was also optimized and no longer converts its argument into a temporary list before extending the base list. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * *note list(): 60d, *note tuple(): 36b, *note map(): 860, *note filter(): 861, and *note zip(): 7cb. now run several times faster with non-sequence arguments that supply a ‘__len__()’ method. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The methods ‘list.__getitem__()’, ‘dict.__getitem__()’, and ‘dict.__contains__()’ are now implemented as ‘method_descriptor’ objects rather than ‘wrapper_descriptor’ objects. This form of access doubles their performance and makes them more suitable for use as arguments to functionals: ‘map(mydict.__getitem__, keylist)’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Added a new opcode, ‘LIST_APPEND’, that simplifies the generated bytecode for list comprehensions and speeds them up by about a third. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The peephole bytecode optimizer has been improved to produce shorter, faster bytecode; remarkably, the resulting bytecode is more readable. (Enhanced by Raymond Hettinger.) * String concatenations in statements of the form ‘s = s + "abc"’ and ‘s += "abc"’ are now performed more efficiently in certain circumstances. This optimization won’t be present in other Python implementations such as Jython, so you shouldn’t rely on it; using the ‘join()’ method of strings is still recommended when you want to efficiently glue a large number of strings together. (Contributed by Armin Rigo.) The net result of the 2.4 optimizations is that Python 2.4 runs the pystone benchmark around 5% faster than Python 2.3 and 35% faster than Python 2.2. (pystone is not a particularly good benchmark, but it’s the most commonly used measurement of Python’s performance. Your own applications may show greater or smaller benefits from Python 2.4.)  File: python.info, Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>, Next: Build and C API Changes<11>, Prev: Other Language Changes<17>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.12 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules --------------------------------------------- As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. * The ‘asyncore’ module’s ‘loop()’ function now has a 'count' parameter that lets you perform a limited number of passes through the polling loop. The default is still to loop forever. * The *note base64: e. module now has more complete RFC 3548(1) support for Base64, Base32, and Base16 encoding and decoding, including optional case folding and optional alternative alphabets. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw.) * The *note bisect: 11. module now has an underlying C implementation for improved performance. (Contributed by Dmitry Vasiliev.) * The CJKCodecs collections of East Asian codecs, maintained by Hye-Shik Chang, was integrated into 2.4. The new encodings are: * Chinese (PRC): gb2312, gbk, gb18030, big5hkscs, hz * Chinese (ROC): big5, cp950 * Japanese: cp932, euc-jis-2004, euc-jp, euc-jisx0213, iso-2022-jp, iso-2022-jp-1, iso-2022-jp-2, iso-2022-jp-3, iso-2022-jp-ext, iso-2022-jp-2004, shift-jis, shift-jisx0213, shift-jis-2004 * Korean: cp949, euc-kr, johab, iso-2022-kr * Some other new encodings were added: HP Roman8, ISO_8859-11, ISO_8859-16, PCTP-154, and TIS-620. * The UTF-8 and UTF-16 codecs now cope better with receiving partial input. Previously the ‘StreamReader’ class would try to read more data, making it impossible to resume decoding from the stream. The ‘read()’ method will now return as much data as it can and future calls will resume decoding where previous ones left off. (Implemented by Walter Dörwald.) * There is a new *note collections: 1d. module for various specialized collection datatypes. Currently it contains just one type, ‘deque’, a double-ended queue that supports efficiently adding and removing elements from either end: >>> from collections import deque >>> d = deque('ghi') # make a new deque with three items >>> d.append('j') # add a new entry to the right side >>> d.appendleft('f') # add a new entry to the left side >>> d # show the representation of the deque deque(['f', 'g', 'h', 'i', 'j']) >>> d.pop() # return and remove the rightmost item 'j' >>> d.popleft() # return and remove the leftmost item 'f' >>> list(d) # list the contents of the deque ['g', 'h', 'i'] >>> 'h' in d # search the deque True Several modules, such as the ‘Queue’ and *note threading: ed. modules, now take advantage of *note collections.deque: 5d8. for improved performance. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note ConfigParser: 22. classes have been enhanced slightly. The *note read(): 1431. method now returns a list of the files that were successfully parsed, and the *note set(): 1260. method raises *note TypeError: 534. if passed a 'value' argument that isn’t a string. (Contributed by John Belmonte and David Goodger.) * The *note curses: 2b. module now supports the ncurses extension ‘use_default_colors()’. On platforms where the terminal supports transparency, this makes it possible to use a transparent background. (Contributed by Jörg Lehmann.) * The *note difflib: 37. module now includes an ‘HtmlDiff’ class that creates an HTML table showing a side by side comparison of two versions of a text. (Contributed by Dan Gass.) * The *note email: 3b. package was updated to version 3.0, which dropped various deprecated APIs and removes support for Python versions earlier than 2.3. The 3.0 version of the package uses a new incremental parser for MIME messages, available in the ‘email.FeedParser’ module. The new parser doesn’t require reading the entire message into memory, and doesn’t raise exceptions if a message is malformed; instead it records any problems in the ‘defect’ attribute of the message. (Developed by Anthony Baxter, Barry Warsaw, Thomas Wouters, and others.) * The *note heapq: 69. module has been converted to C. The resulting tenfold improvement in speed makes the module suitable for handling high volumes of data. In addition, the module has two new functions ‘nlargest()’ and ‘nsmallest()’ that use heaps to find the N largest or smallest values in a dataset without the expense of a full sort. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note httplib: 6e. module now contains constants for HTTP status codes defined in various HTTP-related RFC documents. Constants have names such as ‘OK’, ‘CREATED’, ‘CONTINUE’, and ‘MOVED_PERMANENTLY’; use pydoc to get a full list. (Contributed by Andrew Eland.) * The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports IMAP’s THREAD command (contributed by Yves Dionne) and new ‘deleteacl()’ and ‘myrights()’ methods (contributed by Arnaud Mazin). * The *note itertools: 81. module gained a ‘groupby(iterable[, *func*])’ function. 'iterable' is something that can be iterated over to return a stream of elements, and the optional 'func' parameter is a function that takes an element and returns a key value; if omitted, the key is simply the element itself. ‘groupby()’ then groups the elements into subsequences which have matching values of the key, and returns a series of 2-tuples containing the key value and an iterator over the subsequence. Here’s an example to make this clearer. The 'key' function simply returns whether a number is even or odd, so the result of ‘groupby()’ is to return consecutive runs of odd or even numbers. >>> import itertools >>> L = [2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14] >>> for key_val, it in itertools.groupby(L, lambda x: x % 2): ... print key_val, list(it) ... 0 [2, 4, 6] 1 [7] 0 [8] 1 [9, 11] 0 [12, 14] >>> ‘groupby()’ is typically used with sorted input. The logic for ‘groupby()’ is similar to the Unix ‘uniq’ filter which makes it handy for eliminating, counting, or identifying duplicate elements: >>> word = 'abracadabra' >>> letters = sorted(word) # Turn string into a sorted list of letters >>> letters ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'b', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r', 'r'] >>> for k, g in itertools.groupby(letters): ... print k, list(g) ... a ['a', 'a', 'a', 'a', 'a'] b ['b', 'b'] c ['c'] d ['d'] r ['r', 'r'] >>> # List unique letters >>> [k for k, g in groupby(letters)] ['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'r'] >>> # Count letter occurrences >>> [(k, len(list(g))) for k, g in groupby(letters)] [('a', 5), ('b', 2), ('c', 1), ('d', 1), ('r', 2)] (Contributed by Hye-Shik Chang.) * *note itertools: 81. also gained a function named ‘tee(iterator, N)’ that returns 'N' independent iterators that replicate 'iterator'. If 'N' is omitted, the default is 2. >>> L = [1,2,3] >>> i1, i2 = itertools.tee(L) >>> i1,i2 (, ) >>> list(i1) # Run the first iterator to exhaustion [1, 2, 3] >>> list(i2) # Run the second iterator to exhaustion [1, 2, 3] Note that ‘tee()’ has to keep copies of the values returned by the iterator; in the worst case, it may need to keep all of them. This should therefore be used carefully if the leading iterator can run far ahead of the trailing iterator in a long stream of inputs. If the separation is large, then you might as well use *note list(): 60d. instead. When the iterators track closely with one another, ‘tee()’ is ideal. Possible applications include bookmarking, windowing, or lookahead iterators. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * A number of functions were added to the *note locale: 86. module, such as ‘bind_textdomain_codeset()’ to specify a particular encoding and a family of ‘l*gettext()’ functions that return messages in the chosen encoding. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.) * Some keyword arguments were added to the *note logging: 87. package’s ‘basicConfig()’ function to simplify log configuration. The default behavior is to log messages to standard error, but various keyword arguments can be specified to log to a particular file, change the logging format, or set the logging level. For example: import logging logging.basicConfig(filename='/var/log/application.log', level=0, # Log all messages format='%(levelname):%(process):%(thread):%(message)') Other additions to the *note logging: 87. package include a ‘log(level, msg)’ convenience method, as well as a ‘TimedRotatingFileHandler’ class that rotates its log files at a timed interval. The module already had ‘RotatingFileHandler’, which rotated logs once the file exceeded a certain size. Both classes derive from a new ‘BaseRotatingHandler’ class that can be used to implement other rotating handlers. (Changes implemented by Vinay Sajip.) * The *note marshal: 8d. module now shares interned strings on unpacking a data structure. This may shrink the size of certain pickle strings, but the primary effect is to make ‘.pyc’ files significantly smaller. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.) * The ‘nntplib’ module’s ‘NNTP’ class gained ‘description()’ and ‘descriptions()’ methods to retrieve newsgroup descriptions for a single group or for a range of groups. (Contributed by Jürgen A. Erhard.) * Two new functions were added to the *note operator: 9f. module, ‘attrgetter(attr)’ and ‘itemgetter(index)’. Both functions return callables that take a single argument and return the corresponding attribute or item; these callables make excellent data extractors when used with *note map(): 860. or *note sorted(): bce. For example: >>> L = [('c', 2), ('d', 1), ('a', 4), ('b', 3)] >>> map(operator.itemgetter(0), L) ['c', 'd', 'a', 'b'] >>> map(operator.itemgetter(1), L) [2, 1, 4, 3] >>> sorted(L, key=operator.itemgetter(1)) # Sort list by second tuple item [('d', 1), ('c', 2), ('b', 3), ('a', 4)] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note optparse: a0. module was updated in various ways. The module now passes its messages through *note gettext.gettext(): 1432, making it possible to internationalize Optik’s help and error messages. Help messages for options can now include the string ‘'%default'’, which will be replaced by the option’s default value. (Contributed by Greg Ward.) * The long-term plan is to deprecate the ‘rfc822’ module in some future Python release in favor of the *note email: 3b. package. To this end, the *note email.Utils.formatdate: 1433. function has been changed to make it usable as a replacement for ‘rfc822.formatdate()’. You may want to write new e-mail processing code with this in mind. (Change implemented by Anthony Baxter.) * A new ‘urandom(n)’ function was added to the *note os: a1. module, returning a string containing 'n' bytes of random data. This function provides access to platform-specific sources of randomness such as ‘/dev/urandom’ on Linux or the Windows CryptoAPI. (Contributed by Trevor Perrin.) * Another new function: ‘os.path.lexists(path)’ returns true if the file specified by 'path' exists, whether or not it’s a symbolic link. This differs from the existing ‘os.path.exists(path)’ function, which returns false if 'path' is a symlink that points to a destination that doesn’t exist. (Contributed by Beni Cherniavsky.) * A new ‘getsid()’ function was added to the *note posix: ad. module that underlies the *note os: a1. module. (Contributed by J. Raynor.) * The *note poplib: ac. module now supports POP over SSL. (Contributed by Hector Urtubia.) * The *note profile: af. module can now profile C extension functions. (Contributed by Nick Bastin.) * The *note random: b8. module has a new method called ‘getrandbits(N)’ that returns a long integer 'N' bits in length. The existing ‘randrange()’ method now uses ‘getrandbits()’ where appropriate, making generation of arbitrarily large random numbers more efficient. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The regular expression language accepted by the *note re: b9. module was extended with simple conditional expressions, written as ‘(?(group)A|B)’. 'group' is either a numeric group ID or a group name defined with ‘(?P...)’ earlier in the expression. If the specified group matched, the regular expression pattern 'A' will be tested against the string; if the group didn’t match, the pattern 'B' will be used instead. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.) * The *note re: b9. module is also no longer recursive, thanks to a massive amount of work by Gustavo Niemeyer. In a recursive regular expression engine, certain patterns result in a large amount of C stack space being consumed, and it was possible to overflow the stack. For example, if you matched a 30000-byte string of ‘a’ characters against the expression ‘(a|b)+’, one stack frame was consumed per character. Python 2.3 tried to check for stack overflow and raise a *note RuntimeError: 195. exception, but certain patterns could sidestep the checking and if you were unlucky Python could segfault. Python 2.4’s regular expression engine can match this pattern without problems. * The *note signal: c6. module now performs tighter error-checking on the parameters to the *note signal.signal(): 1128. function. For example, you can’t set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal; previous versions of Python would quietly accept this, but 2.4 will raise a *note RuntimeError: 195. exception. * Two new functions were added to the *note socket: cc. module. ‘socketpair()’ returns a pair of connected sockets and ‘getservbyport(port)’ looks up the service name for a given port number. (Contributed by Dave Cole and Barry Warsaw.) * The ‘sys.exitfunc()’ function has been deprecated. Code should be using the existing *note atexit: c. module, which correctly handles calling multiple exit functions. Eventually ‘sys.exitfunc()’ will become a purely internal interface, accessed only by *note atexit: c. * The *note tarfile: de. module now generates GNU-format tar files by default. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.) * The *note threading: ed. module now has an elegantly simple way to support thread-local data. The module contains a ‘local’ class whose attribute values are local to different threads. import threading data = threading.local() data.number = 42 data.url = ('www.python.org', 80) Other threads can assign and retrieve their own values for the ‘number’ and ‘url’ attributes. You can subclass ‘local’ to initialize attributes or to add methods. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.) * The *note timeit: ef. module now automatically disables periodic garbage collection during the timing loop. This change makes consecutive timings more comparable. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note weakref: 114. module now supports a wider variety of objects including Python functions, class instances, sets, frozensets, deques, arrays, files, sockets, and regular expression pattern objects. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module now supports a multi-call extension for transmitting multiple XML-RPC calls in a single HTTP operation. (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.) * The ‘mpz’, ‘rotor’, and ‘xreadlines’ modules have been removed. * Menu: * cookielib:: * doctest: doctest<5>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3548.html  File: python.info, Node: cookielib, Next: doctest<5>, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3> 1.18.12.1 cookielib ................... The *note cookielib: 70. library supports client-side handling for HTTP cookies, mirroring the *note Cookie: 71. module’s server-side cookie support. Cookies are stored in cookie jars; the library transparently stores cookies offered by the web server in the cookie jar, and fetches the cookie from the jar when connecting to the server. As in web browsers, policy objects control whether cookies are accepted or not. In order to store cookies across sessions, two implementations of cookie jars are provided: one that stores cookies in the Netscape format so applications can use the Mozilla or Lynx cookie files, and one that stores cookies in the same format as the Perl libwww library. *note urllib2: 10b. has been changed to interact with *note cookielib: 70.: ‘HTTPCookieProcessor’ manages a cookie jar that is used when accessing URLs. This module was contributed by John J. Lee.  File: python.info, Node: doctest<5>, Prev: cookielib, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3> 1.18.12.2 doctest ................. The *note doctest: 3a. module underwent considerable refactoring thanks to Edward Loper and Tim Peters. Testing can still be as simple as running *note doctest.testmod(): 1436, but the refactorings allow customizing the module’s operation in various ways The new ‘DocTestFinder’ class extracts the tests from a given object’s docstrings: def f (x, y): """>>> f(2,2) 4 >>> f(3,2) 6 """ return x*y finder = doctest.DocTestFinder() # Get list of DocTest instances tests = finder.find(f) The new ‘DocTestRunner’ class then runs individual tests and can produce a summary of the results: runner = doctest.DocTestRunner() for t in tests: tried, failed = runner.run(t) runner.summarize(verbose=1) The above example produces the following output: 1 items passed all tests: 2 tests in f 2 tests in 1 items. 2 passed and 0 failed. Test passed. ‘DocTestRunner’ uses an instance of the ‘OutputChecker’ class to compare the expected output with the actual output. This class takes a number of different flags that customize its behaviour; ambitious users can also write a completely new subclass of ‘OutputChecker’. The default output checker provides a number of handy features. For example, with the *note doctest.ELLIPSIS: 1437. option flag, an ellipsis (‘...’) in the expected output matches any substring, making it easier to accommodate outputs that vary in minor ways: def o (n): """>>> o(1) <__main__.C instance at 0x...> >>> """ Another special string, ‘’, matches a blank line: def p (n): """>>> p(1) >>> """ Another new capability is producing a diff-style display of the output by specifying the *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 1438. (unified diffs), *note doctest.REPORT_CDIFF: 1439. (context diffs), or *note doctest.REPORT_NDIFF: 143a. (delta-style) option flags. For example: def g (n): """>>> g(4) here is a lengthy >>>""" L = 'here is a rather lengthy list of words'.split() for word in L[:n]: print word Running the above function’s tests with *note doctest.REPORT_UDIFF: 1438. specified, you get the following output: ********************************************************************** File "t.py", line 15, in g Failed example: g(4) Differences (unified diff with -expected +actual): @@ -2,3 +2,3 @@ is a -lengthy +rather **********************************************************************  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<11>, Next: Porting to Python 2 4, Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.13 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Some of the changes to Python’s build process and to the C API are: * Three new convenience macros were added for common return values from extension functions: *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 143c, *note Py_RETURN_TRUE: 143d, and *note Py_RETURN_FALSE: 143e. (Contributed by Brett Cannon.) * Another new macro, *note Py_CLEAR: 575, decreases the reference count of 'obj' and sets 'obj' to the null pointer. (Contributed by Jim Fulton.) * A new function, ‘PyTuple_Pack(N, obj1, obj2, ..., objN)’, constructs tuples from a variable length argument list of Python objects. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * A new function, ‘PyDict_Contains(d, k)’, implements fast dictionary lookups without masking exceptions raised during the look-up process. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The Py_IS_NAN(X) macro returns 1 if its float or double argument 'X' is a NaN. (Contributed by Tim Peters.) * C code can avoid unnecessary locking by using the new ‘PyEval_ThreadsInitialized()’ function to tell if any thread operations have been performed. If this function returns false, no lock operations are needed. (Contributed by Nick Coghlan.) * A new function, *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37f, is the same as *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. but takes a ‘va_list’ instead of a number of arguments. (Contributed by Greg Chapman.) * A new method flag, *note METH_COEXIST: 143f, allows a function defined in slots to co-exist with a *note PyCFunction: 1440. having the same name. This can halve the access time for a method such as ‘set.__contains__()’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Python can now be built with additional profiling for the interpreter itself, intended as an aid to people developing the Python core. Providing ‘--enable-profiling’ to the ‘configure’ script will let you profile the interpreter with ‘gprof’, and providing the ‘--with-tsc’ switch enables profiling using the Pentium’s Time-Stamp-Counter register. Note that the ‘--with-tsc’ switch is slightly misnamed, because the profiling feature also works on the PowerPC platform, though that processor architecture doesn’t call that register “the TSC register”. (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.) * The ‘tracebackobject’ type has been renamed to ‘PyTracebackObject’. * Menu: * Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>, Up: Build and C API Changes<11> 1.18.13.1 Port-Specific Changes ............................... * The Windows port now builds under MSVC++ 7.1 as well as version 6. (Contributed by Martin von Löwis.)  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 2 4, Next: Acknowledgements<4>, Prev: Build and C API Changes<11>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.14 Porting to Python 2.4 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your code: * Left shifts and hexadecimal/octal constants that are too large no longer trigger a *note FutureWarning: 411. and return a value limited to 32 or 64 bits; instead they return a long integer. * Integer operations will no longer trigger an ‘OverflowWarning’. The ‘OverflowWarning’ warning will disappear in Python 2.5. * The *note zip(): 7cb. built-in function and ‘itertools.izip()’ now return an empty list instead of raising a *note TypeError: 534. exception if called with no arguments. * You can no longer compare the ‘date’ and *note datetime: 1cc. instances provided by the *note datetime: 30. module. Two instances of different classes will now always be unequal, and relative comparisons (‘<’, ‘>’) will raise a *note TypeError: 534. * ‘dircache.listdir()’ now passes exceptions to the caller instead of returning empty lists. * ‘LexicalHandler.startDTD()’ used to receive the public and system IDs in the wrong order. This has been corrected; applications relying on the wrong order need to be fixed. * *note fcntl.ioctl(): 1443. now warns if the 'mutate' argument is omitted and relevant. * The *note tarfile: de. module now generates GNU-format tar files by default. * Encountering a failure while importing a module no longer leaves a partially initialized module object in ‘sys.modules’. * *note None: 671. is now a constant; code that binds a new value to the name ‘None’ is now a syntax error. * The ‘signals.signal()’ function now raises a *note RuntimeError: 195. exception for certain illegal values; previously these errors would pass silently. For example, you can no longer set a handler on the ‘SIGKILL’ signal.  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<4>, Prev: Porting to Python 2 4, Up: What’s New in Python 2 4 1.18.15 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Koray Can, Hye-Shik Chang, Michael Dyck, Raymond Hettinger, Brian Hurt, Hamish Lawson, Fredrik Lundh, Sean Reifschneider, Sadruddin Rejeb.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 3, Next: What’s New in Python 2 2, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 4, Up: What’s New in Python 1.19 What’s New in Python 2.3 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling This article explains the new features in Python 2.3. Python 2.3 was released on July 29, 2003. The main themes for Python 2.3 are polishing some of the features added in 2.2, adding various small but useful enhancements to the core language, and expanding the standard library. The new object model introduced in the previous version has benefited from 18 months of bugfixes and from optimization efforts that have improved the performance of new-style classes. A few new built-in functions have been added such as *note sum(): 466. and *note enumerate(): 1448. The *note in: 2ee. operator can now be used for substring searches (e.g. ‘"ab" in "abc"’ returns *note True: c0d.). Some of the many new library features include Boolean, set, heap, and date/time data types, the ability to import modules from ZIP-format archives, metadata support for the long-awaited Python catalog, an updated version of IDLE, and modules for logging messages, wrapping text, parsing CSV files, processing command-line options, using BerkeleyDB databases… the list of new and enhanced modules is lengthy. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.3, such as the Python Library Reference and the Python Reference Manual. If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature. * Menu: * PEP 218; A Standard Set Datatype: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype. * PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators. * PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings. * PEP 273; Importing Modules from ZIP Archives: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives. * PEP 277; Unicode file name support for Windows NT: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT. * PEP 278; Universal Newline Support: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support. * PEP 279; enumerate(): PEP 279 enumerate. * PEP 282; The logging Package: PEP 282 The logging Package. * PEP 285; A Boolean Type: PEP 285 A Boolean Type. * PEP 293; Codec Error Handling Callbacks: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks. * PEP 301; Package Index and Metadata for Distutils: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils. * PEP 302; New Import Hooks: PEP 302 New Import Hooks. * PEP 305; Comma-separated Files: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files. * PEP 307; Pickle Enhancements: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements. * Extended Slices:: * Other Language Changes: Other Language Changes<18>. * New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. * Pymalloc; A Specialized Object Allocator: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator. * Build and C API Changes: Build and C API Changes<12>. * Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<2>. * Porting to Python 2.3: Porting to Python 2 3. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<5>.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype, Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.1 PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype --------------------------------------- The new ‘sets’ module contains an implementation of a set datatype. The ‘Set’ class is for mutable sets, sets that can have members added and removed. The ‘ImmutableSet’ class is for sets that can’t be modified, and instances of ‘ImmutableSet’ can therefore be used as dictionary keys. Sets are built on top of dictionaries, so the elements within a set must be hashable. Here’s a simple example: >>> import sets >>> S = sets.Set([1,2,3]) >>> S Set([1, 2, 3]) >>> 1 in S True >>> 0 in S False >>> S.add(5) >>> S.remove(3) >>> S Set([1, 2, 5]) >>> The union and intersection of sets can be computed with the *note union(): 144a. and *note intersection(): 144b. methods; an alternative notation uses the bitwise operators ‘&’ and ‘|’. Mutable sets also have in-place versions of these methods, ‘union_update()’ and *note intersection_update(): 144c. >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3]) >>> S2 = sets.Set([4,5,6]) >>> S1.union(S2) Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]) >>> S1 | S2 # Alternative notation Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]) >>> S1.intersection(S2) Set([]) >>> S1 & S2 # Alternative notation Set([]) >>> S1.union_update(S2) >>> S1 Set([1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]) >>> It’s also possible to take the symmetric difference of two sets. This is the set of all elements in the union that aren’t in the intersection. Another way of putting it is that the symmetric difference contains all elements that are in exactly one set. Again, there’s an alternative notation (‘^’), and an in-place version with the ungainly name *note symmetric_difference_update(): 144d. >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3,4]) >>> S2 = sets.Set([3,4,5,6]) >>> S1.symmetric_difference(S2) Set([1, 2, 5, 6]) >>> S1 ^ S2 Set([1, 2, 5, 6]) >>> There are also ‘issubset()’ and ‘issuperset()’ methods for checking whether one set is a subset or superset of another: >>> S1 = sets.Set([1,2,3]) >>> S2 = sets.Set([2,3]) >>> S2.issubset(S1) True >>> S1.issubset(S2) False >>> S1.issuperset(S2) True >>> See also ........ PEP 218(1) - Adding a Built-In Set Object Type PEP written by Greg V. Wilson. Implemented by Greg V. Wilson, Alex Martelli, and GvR. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0218/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators, Next: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings, Prev: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.2 PEP 255: Simple Generators --------------------------------- In Python 2.2, generators were added as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import generators’ directive. In 2.3 generators no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always present; this means that *note yield: 9cd. is now always a keyword. The rest of this section is a copy of the description of generators from the “What’s New in Python 2.2” document; if you read it back when Python 2.2 came out, you can skip the rest of this section. You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are created. When the function reaches a *note return: 9ce. statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller. A later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables. But, what if the local variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function? What if you could later resume the function where it left off? This is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions. Here’s the simplest example of a generator function: def generate_ints(N): for i in range(N): yield i A new keyword, *note yield: 9cd, was introduced for generators. Any function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as a result. When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value; instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol. On executing the *note yield: 9cd. statement, the generator outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 9ce. statement. The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local variables are preserved. On the next call to the generator’s ‘.next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after the ‘yield’ statement. (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement isn’t allowed inside the *note try: 6e4. block of a ‘try’…‘finally’ statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.) Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator: >>> gen = generate_ints(3) >>> gen >>> gen.next() 0 >>> gen.next() 1 >>> gen.next() 2 >>> gen.next() Traceback (most recent call last): File "stdin", line 1, in ? File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints StopIteration You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c = generate_ints(3)’. Inside a generator function, the *note return: 9ce. statement can only be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values. ‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a generator function. The end of the generator’s results can also be indicated by raising *note StopIteration: bfa. manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function. You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables. For example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 7d3. method increment ‘self.count’ and return it. However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much messier. ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more interesting examples. The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively. # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order. def inorder(t): if t: for x in inorder(t.left): yield x yield t.label for x in inorder(t.right): yield x Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice). The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of generators is central. In Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator. One example from “An Overview of the Icon Programming Language” at ‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what this looks like: sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor" if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i) In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring “or” is found: 3, 23, 33. In the *note if: 2ed. statement, ‘i’ is first assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon retries it with the second value of 23. 23 is greater than 5, so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen. Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central concept. Generators are considered part of the core Python language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data structure. See also ........ PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland. Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings, Next: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives, Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.3 PEP 263: Source Code Encodings ------------------------------------- Python source files can now be declared as being in different character set encodings. Encodings are declared by including a specially formatted comment in the first or second line of the source file. For example, a UTF-8 file can be declared with: #!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: UTF-8 -*- Without such an encoding declaration, the default encoding used is 7-bit ASCII. Executing or importing modules that contain string literals with 8-bit characters and have no encoding declaration will result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. being signalled by Python 2.3; in 2.4 this will be a syntax error. The encoding declaration only affects Unicode string literals, which will be converted to Unicode using the specified encoding. Note that Python identifiers are still restricted to ASCII characters, so you can’t have variable names that use characters outside of the usual alphanumerics. See also ........ PEP 263(1) - Defining Python Source Code Encodings Written by Marc-André Lemburg and Martin von Löwis; implemented by Suzuki Hisao and Martin von Löwis. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives, Next: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT, Prev: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.4 PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives --------------------------------------------------- The new *note zipimport: 132. module adds support for importing modules from a ZIP-format archive. You don’t need to import the module explicitly; it will be automatically imported if a ZIP archive’s filename is added to ‘sys.path’. For example: amk@nyman:~/src/python$ unzip -l /tmp/example.zip Archive: /tmp/example.zip Length Date Time Name -------- ---- ---- ---- 8467 11-26-02 22:30 jwzthreading.py -------- ------- 8467 1 file amk@nyman:~/src/python$ ./python Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32) >>> import sys >>> sys.path.insert(0, '/tmp/example.zip') # Add .zip file to front of path >>> import jwzthreading >>> jwzthreading.__file__ '/tmp/example.zip/jwzthreading.py' >>> An entry in ‘sys.path’ can now be the filename of a ZIP archive. The ZIP archive can contain any kind of files, but only files named ‘*.py’, ‘*.pyc’, or ‘*.pyo’ can be imported. If an archive only contains ‘*.py’ files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the corresponding ‘*.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t contain ‘*.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow. A path within the archive can also be specified to only import from a subdirectory; for example, the path ‘/tmp/example.zip/lib/’ would only import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive. See also ........ PEP 273(1) - Import Modules from Zip Archives Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(2), but uses an implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import hooks described in PEP 302(3). See section *note PEP 302; New Import Hooks: 1453. for a description of the new import hooks. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT, Next: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support, Prev: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.5 PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT -------------------------------------------------------- On Windows NT, 2000, and XP, the system stores file names as Unicode strings. Traditionally, Python has represented file names as byte strings, which is inadequate because it renders some file names inaccessible. Python now allows using arbitrary Unicode strings (within the limitations of the file system) for all functions that expect file names, most notably the *note open(): 517. built-in function. If a Unicode string is passed to *note os.listdir(): 10ee, Python now returns a list of Unicode strings. A new function, ‘os.getcwdu()’, returns the current directory as a Unicode string. Byte strings still work as file names, and on Windows Python will transparently convert them to Unicode using the ‘mbcs’ encoding. Other systems also allow Unicode strings as file names but convert them to byte strings before passing them to the system, which can cause a *note UnicodeError: 1296. to be raised. Applications can test whether arbitrary Unicode strings are supported as file names by checking *note os.path.supports_unicode_filenames: 1455, a Boolean value. Under MacOS, *note os.listdir(): 10ee. may now return Unicode filenames. See also ........ PEP 277(1) - Unicode file name support for Windows NT Written by Neil Hodgson; implemented by Neil Hodgson, Martin von Löwis, and Mark Hammond. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0277/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support, Next: PEP 279 enumerate, Prev: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.6 PEP 278: Universal Newline Support ----------------------------------------- The three major operating systems used today are Microsoft Windows, Apple’s Macintosh OS, and the various Unix derivatives. A minor irritation of cross-platform work is that these three platforms all use different characters to mark the ends of lines in text files. Unix uses the linefeed (ASCII character 10), MacOS uses the carriage return (ASCII character 13), and Windows uses a two-character sequence of a carriage return plus a newline. Python’s file objects can now support end of line conventions other than the one followed by the platform on which Python is running. Opening a file with the mode ‘'U'’ or ‘'rU'’ will open a file for reading in *note universal newlines: d3a. mode. All three line ending conventions will be translated to a ‘'\n'’ in the strings returned by the various file methods such as ‘read()’ and ‘readline()’. Universal newline support is also used when importing modules and when executing a file with the ‘execfile()’ function. This means that Python modules can be shared between all three operating systems without needing to convert the line-endings. This feature can be disabled when compiling Python by specifying the ‘--without-universal-newlines’ switch when running Python’s ‘configure’ script. See also ........ PEP 278(1) - Universal Newline Support Written and implemented by Jack Jansen. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 279 enumerate, Next: PEP 282 The logging Package, Prev: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.7 PEP 279: enumerate() --------------------------- A new built-in function, *note enumerate(): 1448, will make certain loops a bit clearer. ‘enumerate(thing)’, where 'thing' is either an iterator or a sequence, returns an iterator that will return ‘(0, thing[0])’, ‘(1, thing[1])’, ‘(2, thing[2])’, and so forth. A common idiom to change every element of a list looks like this: for i in range(len(L)): item = L[i] # ... compute some result based on item ... L[i] = result This can be rewritten using *note enumerate(): 1448. as: for i, item in enumerate(L): # ... compute some result based on item ... L[i] = result See also ........ PEP 279(1) - The enumerate() built-in function Written and implemented by Raymond D. Hettinger. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0279/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 282 The logging Package, Next: PEP 285 A Boolean Type, Prev: PEP 279 enumerate, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.8 PEP 282: The logging Package ----------------------------------- A standard package for writing logs, *note logging: 87, has been added to Python 2.3. It provides a powerful and flexible mechanism for generating logging output which can then be filtered and processed in various ways. A configuration file written in a standard format can be used to control the logging behavior of a program. Python includes handlers that will write log records to standard error or to a file or socket, send them to the system log, or even e-mail them to a particular address; of course, it’s also possible to write your own handler classes. The *note Logger: b4f. class is the primary class. Most application code will deal with one or more *note Logger: b4f. objects, each one used by a particular subsystem of the application. Each *note Logger: b4f. is identified by a name, and names are organized into a hierarchy using ‘.’ as the component separator. For example, you might have *note Logger: b4f. instances named ‘server’, ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’. The latter two instances are below ‘server’ in the hierarchy. This means that if you turn up the verbosity for ‘server’ or direct ‘server’ messages to a different handler, the changes will also apply to records logged to ‘server.auth’ and ‘server.network’. There’s also a root *note Logger: b4f. that’s the parent of all other loggers. For simple uses, the *note logging: 87. package contains some convenience functions that always use the root log: import logging logging.debug('Debugging information') logging.info('Informational message') logging.warning('Warning:config file %s not found', 'server.conf') logging.error('Error occurred') logging.critical('Critical error -- shutting down') This produces the following output: WARNING:root:Warning:config file server.conf not found ERROR:root:Error occurred CRITICAL:root:Critical error -- shutting down In the default configuration, informational and debugging messages are suppressed and the output is sent to standard error. You can enable the display of informational and debugging messages by calling the *note setLevel(): 145a. method on the root logger. Notice the *note warning(): 2f9. call’s use of string formatting operators; all of the functions for logging messages take the arguments ‘(msg, arg1, arg2, ...)’ and log the string resulting from ‘msg % (arg1, arg2, ...)’. There’s also an *note exception(): 145b. function that records the most recent traceback. Any of the other functions will also record the traceback if you specify a true value for the keyword argument 'exc_info'. def f(): try: 1/0 except: logging.exception('Problem recorded') f() This produces the following output: ERROR:root:Problem recorded Traceback (most recent call last): File "t.py", line 6, in f 1/0 ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero Slightly more advanced programs will use a logger other than the root logger. The ‘getLogger(name)’ function is used to get a particular log, creating it if it doesn’t exist yet. ‘getLogger(None)’ returns the root logger. log = logging.getLogger('server') ... log.info('Listening on port %i', port) ... log.critical('Disk full') ... Log records are usually propagated up the hierarchy, so a message logged to ‘server.auth’ is also seen by ‘server’ and ‘root’, but a *note Logger: b4f. can prevent this by setting its *note propagate: 145c. attribute to *note False: b37. There are more classes provided by the *note logging: 87. package that can be customized. When a *note Logger: b4f. instance is told to log a message, it creates a *note LogRecord: fe1. instance that is sent to any number of different *note Handler: 145d. instances. Loggers and handlers can also have an attached list of filters, and each filter can cause the *note LogRecord: fe1. to be ignored or can modify the record before passing it along. When they’re finally output, *note LogRecord: fe1. instances are converted to text by a *note Formatter: 145e. class. All of these classes can be replaced by your own specially written classes. With all of these features the *note logging: 87. package should provide enough flexibility for even the most complicated applications. This is only an incomplete overview of its features, so please see the package’s reference documentation for all of the details. Reading PEP 282(1) will also be helpful. See also ........ PEP 282(2) - A Logging System Written by Vinay Sajip and Trent Mick; implemented by Vinay Sajip. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0282/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 285 A Boolean Type, Next: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks, Prev: PEP 282 The logging Package, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.9 PEP 285: A Boolean Type ------------------------------ A Boolean type was added to Python 2.3. Two new constants were added to the ‘__builtin__’ module, *note True: c0d. and *note False: b37. (*note True: c0d. and *note False: b37. constants were added to the built-ins in Python 2.2.1, but the 2.2.1 versions are simply set to integer values of 1 and 0 and aren’t a different type.) The type object for this new type is named *note bool: 463.; the constructor for it takes any Python value and converts it to *note True: c0d. or *note False: b37. >>> bool(1) True >>> bool(0) False >>> bool([]) False >>> bool( (1,) ) True Most of the standard library modules and built-in functions have been changed to return Booleans. >>> obj = [] >>> hasattr(obj, 'append') True >>> isinstance(obj, list) True >>> isinstance(obj, tuple) False Python’s Booleans were added with the primary goal of making code clearer. For example, if you’re reading a function and encounter the statement ‘return 1’, you might wonder whether the ‘1’ represents a Boolean truth value, an index, or a coefficient that multiplies some other quantity. If the statement is ‘return True’, however, the meaning of the return value is quite clear. Python’s Booleans were 'not' added for the sake of strict type-checking. A very strict language such as Pascal would also prevent you performing arithmetic with Booleans, and would require that the expression in an *note if: 2ed. statement always evaluate to a Boolean result. Python is not this strict and never will be, as PEP 285(1) explicitly says. This means you can still use any expression in an ‘if’ statement, even ones that evaluate to a list or tuple or some random object. The Boolean type is a subclass of the *note int: 259. class so that arithmetic using a Boolean still works. >>> True + 1 2 >>> False + 1 1 >>> False * 75 0 >>> True * 75 75 To sum up *note True: c0d. and *note False: b37. in a sentence: they’re alternative ways to spell the integer values 1 and 0, with the single difference that *note str(): 447. and *note repr(): 7f9. return the strings ‘'True'’ and ‘'False'’ instead of ‘'1'’ and ‘'0'’. See also ........ PEP 285(2) - Adding a bool type Written and implemented by GvR. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0285/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks, Next: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils, Prev: PEP 285 A Boolean Type, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.10 PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks ----------------------------------------------- When encoding a Unicode string into a byte string, unencodable characters may be encountered. So far, Python has allowed specifying the error processing as either “strict” (raising *note UnicodeError: 1296.), “ignore” (skipping the character), or “replace” (using a question mark in the output string), with “strict” being the default behavior. It may be desirable to specify alternative processing of such errors, such as inserting an XML character reference or HTML entity reference into the converted string. Python now has a flexible framework to add different processing strategies. New error handlers can be added with *note codecs.register_error(): 1462, and codecs then can access the error handler with *note codecs.lookup_error(): 1463. An equivalent C API has been added for codecs written in C. The error handler gets the necessary state information such as the string being converted, the position in the string where the error was detected, and the target encoding. The handler can then either raise an exception or return a replacement string. Two additional error handlers have been implemented using this framework: “backslashreplace” uses Python backslash quoting to represent unencodable characters and “xmlcharrefreplace” emits XML character references. See also ........ PEP 293(1) - Codec Error Handling Callbacks Written and implemented by Walter Dörwald. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0293/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils, Next: PEP 302 New Import Hooks, Prev: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.11 PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils --------------------------------------------------------- Support for the long-requested Python catalog makes its first appearance in 2.3. The heart of the catalog is the new Distutils ‘register’ command. Running ‘python setup.py register’ will collect the metadata describing a package, such as its name, version, maintainer, description, &c., and send it to a central catalog server. The resulting catalog is available from ‘https://pypi.org’. To make the catalog a bit more useful, a new optional 'classifiers' keyword argument has been added to the Distutils ‘setup()’ function. A list of Trove(1)-style strings can be supplied to help classify the software. Here’s an example ‘setup.py’ with classifiers, written to be compatible with older versions of the Distutils: from distutils import core kw = {'name': "Quixote", 'version': "0.5.1", 'description': "A highly Pythonic Web application framework", # ... } if (hasattr(core, 'setup_keywords') and 'classifiers' in core.setup_keywords): kw['classifiers'] = \ ['Topic :: Internet :: WWW/HTTP :: Dynamic Content', 'Environment :: No Input/Output (Daemon)', 'Intended Audience :: Developers'], core.setup(**kw) The full list of classifiers can be obtained by running ‘python setup.py register --list-classifiers’. See also ........ PEP 301(2) - Package Index and Metadata for Distutils Written and implemented by Richard Jones. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) http://catb.org/~esr/trove/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0301/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks, Next: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files, Prev: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.12 PEP 302: New Import Hooks --------------------------------- While it’s been possible to write custom import hooks ever since the ‘ihooks’ module was introduced in Python 1.3, no one has ever been really happy with it because writing new import hooks is difficult and messy. There have been various proposed alternatives such as the ‘imputil’ and ‘iu’ modules, but none of them has ever gained much acceptance, and none of them were easily usable from C code. PEP 302(1) borrows ideas from its predecessors, especially from Gordon McMillan’s ‘iu’ module. Three new items are added to the *note sys: d9. module: * ‘sys.path_hooks’ is a list of callable objects; most often they’ll be classes. Each callable takes a string containing a path and either returns an importer object that will handle imports from this path or raises an *note ImportError: 415. exception if it can’t handle this path. * ‘sys.path_importer_cache’ caches importer objects for each path, so ‘sys.path_hooks’ will only need to be traversed once for each path. * ‘sys.meta_path’ is a list of importer objects that will be traversed before ‘sys.path’ is checked. This list is initially empty, but user code can add objects to it. Additional built-in and frozen modules can be imported by an object added to this list. Importer objects must have a single method, ‘find_module(fullname, path=None)’. 'fullname' will be a module or package name, e.g. ‘string’ or ‘distutils.core’. ‘find_module()’ must return a loader object that has a single method, ‘load_module(fullname)’, that creates and returns the corresponding module object. Pseudo-code for Python’s new import logic, therefore, looks something like this (simplified a bit; see PEP 302(2) for the full details): for mp in sys.meta_path: loader = mp(fullname) if loader is not None: = loader.load_module(fullname) for path in sys.path: for hook in sys.path_hooks: try: importer = hook(path) except ImportError: # ImportError, so try the other path hooks pass else: loader = importer.find_module(fullname) = loader.load_module(fullname) # Not found! raise ImportError See also ........ PEP 302(3) - New Import Hooks Written by Just van Rossum and Paul Moore. Implemented by Just van Rossum. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files, Next: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements, Prev: PEP 302 New Import Hooks, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.13 PEP 305: Comma-separated Files -------------------------------------- Comma-separated files are a format frequently used for exporting data from databases and spreadsheets. Python 2.3 adds a parser for comma-separated files. Comma-separated format is deceptively simple at first glance: Costs,150,200,3.95 Read a line and call ‘line.split(',')’: what could be simpler? But toss in string data that can contain commas, and things get more complicated: "Costs",150,200,3.95,"Includes taxes, shipping, and sundry items" A big ugly regular expression can parse this, but using the new *note csv: 29. package is much simpler: import csv input = open('datafile', 'rb') reader = csv.reader(input) for line in reader: print line The *note reader(): 482. function takes a number of different options. The field separator isn’t limited to the comma and can be changed to any character, and so can the quoting and line-ending characters. Different dialects of comma-separated files can be defined and registered; currently there are two dialects, both used by Microsoft Excel. A separate *note csv.writer: 483. class will generate comma-separated files from a succession of tuples or lists, quoting strings that contain the delimiter. See also ........ PEP 305(1) - CSV File API Written and implemented by Kevin Altis, Dave Cole, Andrew McNamara, Skip Montanaro, Cliff Wells. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0305/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements, Next: Extended Slices, Prev: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.14 PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements ------------------------------------ The *note pickle: a6. and ‘cPickle’ modules received some attention during the 2.3 development cycle. In 2.2, new-style classes could be pickled without difficulty, but they weren’t pickled very compactly; PEP 307(1) quotes a trivial example where a new-style class results in a pickled string three times longer than that for a classic class. The solution was to invent a new pickle protocol. The *note pickle.dumps(): 146b. function has supported a text-or-binary flag for a long time. In 2.3, this flag is redefined from a Boolean to an integer: 0 is the old text-mode pickle format, 1 is the old binary format, and now 2 is a new 2.3-specific format. A new constant, *note pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL: 146c, can be used to select the fanciest protocol available. Unpickling is no longer considered a safe operation. 2.2’s *note pickle: a6. provided hooks for trying to prevent unsafe classes from being unpickled (specifically, a ‘__safe_for_unpickling__’ attribute), but none of this code was ever audited and therefore it’s all been ripped out in 2.3. You should not unpickle untrusted data in any version of Python. To reduce the pickling overhead for new-style classes, a new interface for customizing pickling was added using three special methods: *note __getstate__(): 5d4, *note __setstate__(): 146d, and *note __getnewargs__(): 146e. Consult PEP 307(2) for the full semantics of these methods. As a way to compress pickles yet further, it’s now possible to use integer codes instead of long strings to identify pickled classes. The Python Software Foundation will maintain a list of standardized codes; there’s also a range of codes for private use. Currently no codes have been specified. See also ........ PEP 307(3) - Extensions to the pickle protocol Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum and Tim Peters. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0307/  File: python.info, Node: Extended Slices, Next: Other Language Changes<18>, Prev: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.15 Extended Slices ----------------------- Ever since Python 1.4, the slicing syntax has supported an optional third “step” or “stride” argument. For example, these are all legal Python syntax: ‘L[1:10:2]’, ‘L[:-1:1]’, ‘L[::-1]’. This was added to Python at the request of the developers of Numerical Python, which uses the third argument extensively. However, Python’s built-in list, tuple, and string sequence types have never supported this feature, raising a *note TypeError: 534. if you tried it. Michael Hudson contributed a patch to fix this shortcoming. For example, you can now easily extract the elements of a list that have even indexes: >>> L = range(10) >>> L[::2] [0, 2, 4, 6, 8] Negative values also work to make a copy of the same list in reverse order: >>> L[::-1] [9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, 0] This also works for tuples, arrays, and strings: >>> s='abcd' >>> s[::2] 'ac' >>> s[::-1] 'dcba' If you have a mutable sequence such as a list or an array you can assign to or delete an extended slice, but there are some differences between assignment to extended and regular slices. Assignment to a regular slice can be used to change the length of the sequence: >>> a = range(3) >>> a [0, 1, 2] >>> a[1:3] = [4, 5, 6] >>> a [0, 4, 5, 6] Extended slices aren’t this flexible. When assigning to an extended slice, the list on the right hand side of the statement must contain the same number of items as the slice it is replacing: >>> a = range(4) >>> a [0, 1, 2, 3] >>> a[::2] [0, 2] >>> a[::2] = [0, -1] >>> a [0, 1, -1, 3] >>> a[::2] = [0,1,2] Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ? ValueError: attempt to assign sequence of size 3 to extended slice of size 2 Deletion is more straightforward: >>> a = range(4) >>> a [0, 1, 2, 3] >>> a[::2] [0, 2] >>> del a[::2] >>> a [1, 3] One can also now pass slice objects to the *note __getitem__(): 285. methods of the built-in sequences: >>> range(10).__getitem__(slice(0, 5, 2)) [0, 2, 4] Or use slice objects directly in subscripts: >>> range(10)[slice(0, 5, 2)] [0, 2, 4] To simplify implementing sequences that support extended slicing, slice objects now have a method ‘indices(length)’ which, given the length of a sequence, returns a ‘(start, stop, step)’ tuple that can be passed directly to *note range(): 943. ‘indices()’ handles omitted and out-of-bounds indices in a manner consistent with regular slices (and this innocuous phrase hides a welter of confusing details!). The method is intended to be used like this: class FakeSeq: ... def calc_item(self, i): ... def __getitem__(self, item): if isinstance(item, slice): indices = item.indices(len(self)) return FakeSeq([self.calc_item(i) for i in range(*indices)]) else: return self.calc_item(i) From this example you can also see that the built-in *note slice: 465. object is now the type object for the slice type, and is no longer a function. This is consistent with Python 2.2, where *note int: 259, *note str: 447, etc., underwent the same change.  File: python.info, Node: Other Language Changes<18>, Next: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>, Prev: Extended Slices, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.16 Other Language Changes ------------------------------ Here are all of the changes that Python 2.3 makes to the core Python language. * The *note yield: 9cd. statement is now always a keyword, as described in section *note PEP 255; Simple Generators: 144f. of this document. * A new built-in function *note enumerate(): 1448. was added, as described in section *note PEP 279; enumerate(): 1458. of this document. * Two new constants, *note True: c0d. and *note False: b37. were added along with the built-in *note bool: 463. type, as described in section *note PEP 285; A Boolean Type: 1460. of this document. * The *note int(): 259. type constructor will now return a long integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 87f. when a string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an integer. This can lead to the paradoxical result that ‘isinstance(int(expression), int)’ is false, but that seems unlikely to cause problems in practice. * Built-in types now support the extended slicing syntax, as described in section *note Extended Slices: 1470. of this document. * A new built-in function, ‘sum(iterable, start=0)’, adds up the numeric items in the iterable object and returns their sum. *note sum(): 466. only accepts numbers, meaning that you can’t use it to concatenate a bunch of strings. (Contributed by Alex Martelli.) * ‘list.insert(pos, value)’ used to insert 'value' at the front of the list when 'pos' was negative. The behaviour has now been changed to be consistent with slice indexing, so when 'pos' is -1 the value will be inserted before the last element, and so forth. * ‘list.index(value)’, which searches for 'value' within the list and returns its index, now takes optional 'start' and 'stop' arguments to limit the search to only part of the list. * Dictionaries have a new method, ‘pop(key[, *default*])’, that returns the value corresponding to 'key' and removes that key/value pair from the dictionary. If the requested key isn’t present in the dictionary, 'default' is returned if it’s specified and *note KeyError: 33f. raised if it isn’t. >>> d = {1:2} >>> d {1: 2} >>> d.pop(4) Traceback (most recent call last): File "stdin", line 1, in ? KeyError: 4 >>> d.pop(1) 2 >>> d.pop(1) Traceback (most recent call last): File "stdin", line 1, in ? KeyError: 'pop(): dictionary is empty' >>> d {} >>> There’s also a new class method, ‘dict.fromkeys(iterable, value)’, that creates a dictionary with keys taken from the supplied iterator 'iterable' and all values set to 'value', defaulting to ‘None’. (Patches contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) Also, the *note dict(): 258. constructor now accepts keyword arguments to simplify creating small dictionaries: >>> dict(red=1, blue=2, green=3, black=4) {'blue': 2, 'black': 4, 'green': 3, 'red': 1} (Contributed by Just van Rossum.) * The *note assert: 968. statement no longer checks the ‘__debug__’ flag, so you can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’. Running Python with the *note -O: db4. switch will still generate code that doesn’t execute any assertions. * Most type objects are now callable, so you can use them to create new objects such as functions, classes, and modules. (This means that the ‘new’ module can be deprecated in a future Python version, because you can now use the type objects available in the *note types: 103. module.) For example, you can create a new module object with the following code: >>> import types >>> m = types.ModuleType('abc','docstring') >>> m >>> m.__doc__ 'docstring' * A new warning, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. was added to indicate features which are in the process of being deprecated. The warning will 'not' be printed by default. To check for use of features that will be deprecated in the future, supply *note -Walways;;PendingDeprecationWarning;;: 8c6. on the command line or use *note warnings.filterwarnings(): 1472. * The process of deprecating string-based exceptions, as in ‘raise "Error occurred"’, has begun. Raising a string will now trigger *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. warning. In a future version of Python, ‘None’ may finally become a keyword. * The ‘xreadlines()’ method of file objects, introduced in Python 2.1, is no longer necessary because files now behave as their own iterator. ‘xreadlines()’ was originally introduced as a faster way to loop over all the lines in a file, but now you can simply write ‘for line in file_obj’. File objects also have a new read-only ‘encoding’ attribute that gives the encoding used by the file; Unicode strings written to the file will be automatically converted to bytes using the given encoding. * The method resolution order used by new-style classes has changed, though you’ll only notice the difference if you have a really complicated inheritance hierarchy. Classic classes are unaffected by this change. Python 2.2 originally used a topological sort of a class’s ancestors, but 2.3 now uses the C3 algorithm as described in the paper "A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan"(1). To understand the motivation for this change, read Michele Simionato’s article *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1473, or read the thread on python-dev starting with the message at ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’. Samuele Pedroni first pointed out the problem and also implemented the fix by coding the C3 algorithm. * Python runs multithreaded programs by switching between threads after executing N bytecodes. The default value for N has been increased from 10 to 100 bytecodes, speeding up single-threaded applications by reducing the switching overhead. Some multithreaded applications may suffer slower response time, but that’s easily fixed by setting the limit back to a lower number using ‘sys.setcheckinterval(N)’. The limit can be retrieved with the new ‘sys.getcheckinterval()’ function. * One minor but far-reaching change is that the names of extension types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name. For example, in Python 2.2, if you created a socket and printed its ‘__class__’, you’d get this output: >>> s = socket.socket() >>> s.__class__ In 2.3, you get this: >>> s.__class__ * One of the noted incompatibilities between old- and new-style classes has been removed: you can now assign to the *note __name__: 1474. and *note __bases__: 1475. attributes of new-style classes. There are some restrictions on what can be assigned to ‘__bases__’ along the lines of those relating to assigning to an instance’s *note __class__: 1476. attribute. * Menu: * String Changes:: * Optimizations: Optimizations<17>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.19.3910  File: python.info, Node: String Changes, Next: Optimizations<17>, Up: Other Language Changes<18> 1.19.16.1 String Changes ........................ * The *note in: 2ee. operator now works differently for strings. Previously, when evaluating ‘X in Y’ where 'X' and 'Y' are strings, 'X' could only be a single character. That’s now changed; 'X' can be a string of any length, and ‘X in Y’ will return *note True: c0d. if 'X' is a substring of 'Y'. If 'X' is the empty string, the result is always *note True: c0d. >>> 'ab' in 'abcd' True >>> 'ad' in 'abcd' False >>> '' in 'abcd' True Note that this doesn’t tell you where the substring starts; if you need that information, use the *note find(): ea1. string method. * The *note strip(): 1478, *note lstrip(): 1479, and *note rstrip(): 147a. string methods now have an optional argument for specifying the characters to strip. The default is still to remove all whitespace characters: >>> ' abc '.strip() 'abc' >>> '><><><>'.strip('<>') 'abc' >>> '><><><>\n'.strip('<>') 'abc<><><>\n' >>> u'\u4000\u4001abc\u4000'.strip(u'\u4000') u'\u4001abc' >>> (Suggested by Simon Brunning and implemented by Walter Dörwald.) * The *note startswith(): ec4. and *note endswith(): ec5. string methods now accept negative numbers for the 'start' and 'end' parameters. * Another new string method is *note zfill(): 147b, originally a function in the *note string: d3. module. *note zfill(): 147b. pads a numeric string with zeros on the left until it’s the specified width. Note that the ‘%’ operator is still more flexible and powerful than *note zfill(): 147b. >>> '45'.zfill(4) '0045' >>> '12345'.zfill(4) '12345' >>> 'goofy'.zfill(6) '0goofy' (Contributed by Walter Dörwald.) * A new type object, ‘basestring’, has been added. Both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings inherit from this type, so ‘isinstance(obj, basestring)’ will return *note True: c0d. for either kind of string. It’s a completely abstract type, so you can’t create ‘basestring’ instances. * Interned strings are no longer immortal and will now be garbage-collected in the usual way when the only reference to them is from the internal dictionary of interned strings. (Implemented by Oren Tirosh.)  File: python.info, Node: Optimizations<17>, Prev: String Changes, Up: Other Language Changes<18> 1.19.16.2 Optimizations ....................... * The creation of new-style class instances has been made much faster; they’re now faster than classic classes! * The *note sort(): bcf. method of list objects has been extensively rewritten by Tim Peters, and the implementation is significantly faster. * Multiplication of large long integers is now much faster thanks to an implementation of Karatsuba multiplication, an algorithm that scales better than the 'O'('n'^2) required for the grade-school multiplication algorithm. (Original patch by Christopher A. Craig, and significantly reworked by Tim Peters.) * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode is now gone. This may provide a small speed increase, depending on your compiler’s idiosyncrasies. See section *note Other Changes and Fixes: 147d. for a longer explanation. (Removed by Michael Hudson.) * ‘xrange()’ objects now have their own iterator, making ‘for i in xrange(n)’ slightly faster than ‘for i in range(n)’. (Patch by Raymond Hettinger.) * A number of small rearrangements have been made in various hotspots to improve performance, such as inlining a function or removing some code. (Implemented mostly by GvR, but lots of people have contributed single changes.) The net result of the 2.3 optimizations is that Python 2.3 runs the pystone benchmark around 25% faster than Python 2.2.  File: python.info, Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>, Next: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator, Prev: Other Language Changes<18>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.17 New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules --------------------------------------------- As usual, Python’s standard library received a number of enhancements and bug fixes. Here’s a partial list of the most notable changes, sorted alphabetically by module name. Consult the ‘Misc/NEWS’ file in the source tree for a more complete list of changes, or look through the CVS logs for all the details. * The *note array: 7. module now supports arrays of Unicode characters using the ‘'u'’ format character. Arrays also now support using the ‘+=’ assignment operator to add another array’s contents, and the ‘*=’ assignment operator to repeat an array. (Contributed by Jason Orendorff.) * The ‘bsddb’ module has been replaced by version 4.1.6 of the PyBSDDB(1) package, providing a more complete interface to the transactional features of the BerkeleyDB library. The old version of the module has been renamed to ‘bsddb185’ and is no longer built automatically; you’ll have to edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to enable it. Note that the new ‘bsddb’ package is intended to be compatible with the old module, so be sure to file bugs if you discover any incompatibilities. When upgrading to Python 2.3, if the new interpreter is compiled with a new version of the underlying BerkeleyDB library, you will almost certainly have to convert your database files to the new version. You can do this fairly easily with the new scripts ‘db2pickle.py’ and ‘pickle2db.py’ which you will find in the distribution’s ‘Tools/scripts’ directory. If you’ve already been using the PyBSDDB package and importing it as ‘bsddb3’, you will have to change your ‘import’ statements to import it as ‘bsddb’. * The new *note bz2: 13. module is an interface to the bz2 data compression library. bz2-compressed data is usually smaller than corresponding *note zlib: 133.-compressed data. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.) * A set of standard date/time types has been added in the new *note datetime: 30. module. See the following section for more details. * The Distutils ‘Extension’ class now supports an extra constructor argument named 'depends' for listing additional source files that an extension depends on. This lets Distutils recompile the module if any of the dependency files are modified. For example, if ‘sampmodule.c’ includes the header file ‘sample.h’, you would create the ‘Extension’ object like this: ext = Extension("samp", sources=["sampmodule.c"], depends=["sample.h"]) Modifying ‘sample.h’ would then cause the module to be recompiled. (Contributed by Jeremy Hylton.) * Other minor changes to Distutils: it now checks for the *note CC: 147f, *note CFLAGS: 1480, ‘CPP’, *note LDFLAGS: 1481, and *note CPPFLAGS: 1482. environment variables, using them to override the settings in Python’s configuration (contributed by Robert Weber). * Previously the *note doctest: 3a. module would only search the docstrings of public methods and functions for test cases, but it now also examines private ones as well. The *note DocTestSuite(): df2. function creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. object from a set of *note doctest: 3a. tests. * The new ‘gc.get_referents(object)’ function returns a list of all the objects referenced by 'object'. * The *note getopt: 61. module gained a new function, *note gnu_getopt(): 1483, that supports the same arguments as the existing *note getopt(): 1484. function but uses GNU-style scanning mode. The existing *note getopt(): 1484. stops processing options as soon as a non-option argument is encountered, but in GNU-style mode processing continues, meaning that options and arguments can be mixed. For example: >>> getopt.getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v') ([('-f', 'filename')], ['output', '-v']) >>> getopt.gnu_getopt(['-f', 'filename', 'output', '-v'], 'f:v') ([('-f', 'filename'), ('-v', '')], ['output']) (Contributed by Peter Åstrand.) * The *note grp: 66, *note pwd: b2, and *note resource: bc. modules now return enhanced tuples: >>> import grp >>> g = grp.getgrnam('amk') >>> g.gr_name, g.gr_gid ('amk', 500) * The *note gzip: 67. module can now handle files exceeding 2 GiB. * The new *note heapq: 69. module contains an implementation of a heap queue algorithm. A heap is an array-like data structure that keeps items in a partially sorted order such that, for every index 'k', ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+1]’ and ‘heap[k] <= heap[2*k+2]’. This makes it quick to remove the smallest item, and inserting a new item while maintaining the heap property is 'O'(log 'n'). (See ‘https://xlinux.nist.gov/dads//HTML/priorityque.html’ for more information about the priority queue data structure.) The *note heapq: 69. module provides *note heappush(): 1485. and *note heappop(): 1486. functions for adding and removing items while maintaining the heap property on top of some other mutable Python sequence type. Here’s an example that uses a Python list: >>> import heapq >>> heap = [] >>> for item in [3, 7, 5, 11, 1]: ... heapq.heappush(heap, item) ... >>> heap [1, 3, 5, 11, 7] >>> heapq.heappop(heap) 1 >>> heapq.heappop(heap) 3 >>> heap [5, 7, 11] (Contributed by Kevin O’Connor.) * The IDLE integrated development environment has been updated using the code from the IDLEfork project (‘https://idlefork.sourceforge.net’). The most notable feature is that the code being developed is now executed in a subprocess, meaning that there’s no longer any need for manual ‘reload()’ operations. IDLE’s core code has been incorporated into the standard library as the *note idlelib: 73. package. * The *note imaplib: 74. module now supports IMAP over SSL. (Contributed by Piers Lauder and Tino Lange.) * The *note itertools: 81. contains a number of useful functions for use with iterators, inspired by various functions provided by the ML and Haskell languages. For example, ‘itertools.ifilter(predicate, iterator)’ returns all elements in the iterator for which the function ‘predicate()’ returns *note True: c0d, and ‘itertools.repeat(obj, N)’ returns ‘obj’ 'N' times. There are a number of other functions in the module; see the package’s reference documentation for details. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Two new functions in the *note math: 8e. module, ‘degrees(rads)’ and ‘radians(degs)’, convert between radians and degrees. Other functions in the *note math: 8e. module such as *note math.sin(): 1487. and *note math.cos(): 1488. have always required input values measured in radians. Also, an optional 'base' argument was added to *note math.log(): 1489. to make it easier to compute logarithms for bases other than ‘e’ and ‘10’. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * Several new POSIX functions (‘getpgid()’, ‘killpg()’, ‘lchown()’, ‘loadavg()’, ‘major()’, ‘makedev()’, ‘minor()’, and ‘mknod()’) were added to the *note posix: ad. module that underlies the *note os: a1. module. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer, Geert Jansen, and Denis S. Otkidach.) * In the *note os: a1. module, the ‘*stat()’ family of functions can now report fractions of a second in a timestamp. Such time stamps are represented as floats, similar to the value returned by *note time.time(): 256. During testing, it was found that some applications will break if time stamps are floats. For compatibility, when using the tuple interface of the *note stat_result: 148a. time stamps will be represented as integers. When using named fields (a feature first introduced in Python 2.2), time stamps are still represented as integers, unless ‘os.stat_float_times()’ is invoked to enable float return values: >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime 1034791200 >>> os.stat_float_times(True) >>> os.stat("/tmp").st_mtime 1034791200.6335014 In Python 2.4, the default will change to always returning floats. Application developers should enable this feature only if all their libraries work properly when confronted with floating-point time stamps, or if they use the tuple API. If used, the feature should be activated on an application level instead of trying to enable it on a per-use basis. * The *note optparse: a0. module contains a new parser for command-line arguments that can convert option values to a particular Python type and will automatically generate a usage message. See the following section for more details. * The old and never-documented ‘linuxaudiodev’ module has been deprecated, and a new version named ‘ossaudiodev’ has been added. The module was renamed because the OSS sound drivers can be used on platforms other than Linux, and the interface has also been tidied and brought up to date in various ways. (Contributed by Greg Ward and Nicholas FitzRoy-Dale.) * The new *note platform: aa. module contains a number of functions that try to determine various properties of the platform you’re running on. There are functions for getting the architecture, CPU type, the Windows OS version, and even the Linux distribution version. (Contributed by Marc-André Lemburg.) * The parser objects provided by the *note pyexpat: 126. module can now optionally buffer character data, resulting in fewer calls to your character data handler and therefore faster performance. Setting the parser object’s *note buffer_text: 148b. attribute to *note True: c0d. will enable buffering. * The ‘sample(population, k)’ function was added to the *note random: b8. module. 'population' is a sequence or ‘xrange’ object containing the elements of a population, and *note sample(): 741. chooses 'k' elements from the population without replacing chosen elements. 'k' can be any value up to ‘len(population)’. For example: >>> days = ['Mo', 'Tu', 'We', 'Th', 'Fr', 'St', 'Sn'] >>> random.sample(days, 3) # Choose 3 elements ['St', 'Sn', 'Th'] >>> random.sample(days, 7) # Choose 7 elements ['Tu', 'Th', 'Mo', 'We', 'St', 'Fr', 'Sn'] >>> random.sample(days, 7) # Choose 7 again ['We', 'Mo', 'Sn', 'Fr', 'Tu', 'St', 'Th'] >>> random.sample(days, 8) # Can't choose eight Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ? File "random.py", line 414, in sample raise ValueError, "sample larger than population" ValueError: sample larger than population >>> random.sample(xrange(1,10000,2), 10) # Choose ten odd nos. under 10000 [3407, 3805, 1505, 7023, 2401, 2267, 9733, 3151, 8083, 9195] The *note random: b8. module now uses a new algorithm, the Mersenne Twister, implemented in C. It’s faster and more extensively studied than the previous algorithm. (All changes contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The *note readline: ba. module also gained a number of new functions: *note get_history_item(): 148c, *note get_current_history_length(): 148d, and *note redisplay(): 148e. * The ‘rexec’ and ‘Bastion’ modules have been declared dead, and attempts to import them will fail with a *note RuntimeError: 195. New-style classes provide new ways to break out of the restricted execution environment provided by ‘rexec’, and no one has interest in fixing them or time to do so. If you have applications using ‘rexec’, rewrite them to use something else. (Sticking with Python 2.2 or 2.1 will not make your applications any safer because there are known bugs in the ‘rexec’ module in those versions. To repeat: if you’re using ‘rexec’, stop using it immediately.) * The ‘rotor’ module has been deprecated because the algorithm it uses for encryption is not believed to be secure. If you need encryption, use one of the several AES Python modules that are available separately. * The *note shutil: c5. module gained a ‘move(src, dest)’ function that recursively moves a file or directory to a new location. * Support for more advanced POSIX signal handling was added to the *note signal: c6. but then removed again as it proved impossible to make it work reliably across platforms. * The *note socket: cc. module now supports timeouts. You can call the ‘settimeout(t)’ method on a socket object to set a timeout of 't' seconds. Subsequent socket operations that take longer than 't' seconds to complete will abort and raise a *note socket.timeout: 830. exception. The original timeout implementation was by Tim O’Malley. Michael Gilfix integrated it into the Python *note socket: cc. module and shepherded it through a lengthy review. After the code was checked in, Guido van Rossum rewrote parts of it. (This is a good example of a collaborative development process in action.) * On Windows, the *note socket: cc. module now ships with Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) support. * The value of the C ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’ macro is now exposed at the Python level as ‘sys.api_version’. The current exception can be cleared by calling the new ‘sys.exc_clear()’ function. * The new *note tarfile: de. module allows reading from and writing to ‘tar’-format archive files. (Contributed by Lars Gustäbel.) * The new *note textwrap: ec. module contains functions for wrapping strings containing paragraphs of text. The ‘wrap(text, width)’ function takes a string and returns a list containing the text split into lines of no more than the chosen width. The ‘fill(text, width)’ function returns a single string, reformatted to fit into lines no longer than the chosen width. (As you can guess, *note fill(): 148f. is built on top of *note wrap(): 1490. For example: >>> import textwrap >>> paragraph = "Not a whit, we defy augury: ... more text ..." >>> textwrap.wrap(paragraph, 60) ["Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in", "the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it", ...] >>> print textwrap.fill(paragraph, 35) Not a whit, we defy augury: there's a special providence in the fall of a sparrow. If it be now, 'tis not to come; if it be not to come, it will be now; if it be not now, yet it will come: the readiness is all. >>> The module also contains a *note TextWrapper: fc8. class that actually implements the text wrapping strategy. Both the *note TextWrapper: fc8. class and the *note wrap(): 1490. and *note fill(): 148f. functions support a number of additional keyword arguments for fine-tuning the formatting; consult the module’s documentation for details. (Contributed by Greg Ward.) * The ‘thread’ and *note threading: ed. modules now have companion modules, ‘dummy_thread’ and ‘dummy_threading’, that provide a do-nothing implementation of the ‘thread’ module’s interface for platforms where threads are not supported. The intention is to simplify thread-aware modules (ones that 'don’t' rely on threads to run) by putting the following code at the top: try: import threading as _threading except ImportError: import dummy_threading as _threading In this example, ‘_threading’ is used as the module name to make it clear that the module being used is not necessarily the actual *note threading: ed. module. Code can call functions and use classes in ‘_threading’ whether or not threads are supported, avoiding an *note if: 2ed. statement and making the code slightly clearer. This module will not magically make multithreaded code run without threads; code that waits for another thread to return or to do something will simply hang forever. * The *note time: ee. module’s *note strptime(): 13f8. function has long been an annoyance because it uses the platform C library’s *note strptime(): 13f8. implementation, and different platforms sometimes have odd bugs. Brett Cannon contributed a portable implementation that’s written in pure Python and should behave identically on all platforms. * The new *note timeit: ef. module helps measure how long snippets of Python code take to execute. The ‘timeit.py’ file can be run directly from the command line, or the module’s *note Timer: 1491. class can be imported and used directly. Here’s a short example that figures out whether it’s faster to convert an 8-bit string to Unicode by appending an empty Unicode string to it or by using the ‘unicode()’ function: import timeit timer1 = timeit.Timer('unicode("abc")') timer2 = timeit.Timer('"abc" + u""') # Run three trials print timer1.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000) print timer2.repeat(repeat=3, number=100000) # On my laptop this outputs: # [0.36831796169281006, 0.37441694736480713, 0.35304892063140869] # [0.17574405670166016, 0.18193507194519043, 0.17565798759460449] * The ‘Tix’ module has received various bug fixes and updates for the current version of the Tix package. * The ‘Tkinter’ module now works with a thread-enabled version of Tcl. Tcl’s threading model requires that widgets only be accessed from the thread in which they’re created; accesses from another thread can cause Tcl to panic. For certain Tcl interfaces, ‘Tkinter’ will now automatically avoid this when a widget is accessed from a different thread by marshalling a command, passing it to the correct thread, and waiting for the results. Other interfaces can’t be handled automatically but ‘Tkinter’ will now raise an exception on such an access so that you can at least find out about the problem. See ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-December/031107.html’ for a more detailed explanation of this change. (Implemented by Martin von Löwis.) * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only strings. Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists. This behavior can be controlled through the ‘wantobjects()’ method of ‘tkapp’ objects. When using ‘_tkinter’ through the ‘Tkinter’ module (as most Tkinter applications will), this feature is always activated. It should not cause compatibility problems, since Tkinter would always convert string results to Python types where possible. If any incompatibilities are found, the old behavior can be restored by setting the ‘wantobjects’ variable in the ‘Tkinter’ module to false before creating the first ‘tkapp’ object. import Tkinter Tkinter.wantobjects = 0 Any breakage caused by this change should be reported as a bug. * The ‘UserDict’ module has a new ‘DictMixin’ class which defines all dictionary methods for classes that already have a minimum mapping interface. This greatly simplifies writing classes that need to be substitutable for dictionaries, such as the classes in the *note shelve: c3. module. Adding the mix-in as a superclass provides the full dictionary interface whenever the class defines *note __getitem__(): 285, *note __setitem__(): 12be, *note __delitem__(): 12bf, and ‘keys()’. For example: >>> import UserDict >>> class SeqDict(UserDict.DictMixin): ... """Dictionary lookalike implemented with lists.""" ... def __init__(self): ... self.keylist = [] ... self.valuelist = [] ... def __getitem__(self, key): ... try: ... i = self.keylist.index(key) ... except ValueError: ... raise KeyError ... return self.valuelist[i] ... def __setitem__(self, key, value): ... try: ... i = self.keylist.index(key) ... self.valuelist[i] = value ... except ValueError: ... self.keylist.append(key) ... self.valuelist.append(value) ... def __delitem__(self, key): ... try: ... i = self.keylist.index(key) ... except ValueError: ... raise KeyError ... self.keylist.pop(i) ... self.valuelist.pop(i) ... def keys(self): ... return list(self.keylist) ... >>> s = SeqDict() >>> dir(s) # See that other dictionary methods are implemented ['__cmp__', '__contains__', '__delitem__', '__doc__', '__getitem__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__len__', '__module__', '__repr__', '__setitem__', 'clear', 'get', 'has_key', 'items', 'iteritems', 'iterkeys', 'itervalues', 'keylist', 'keys', 'pop', 'popitem', 'setdefault', 'update', 'valuelist', 'values'] (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger.) * The DOM implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. can now generate XML output in a particular encoding by providing an optional encoding argument to the *note toxml(): 1492. and *note toprettyxml(): 1493. methods of DOM nodes. * The ‘xmlrpclib’ module now supports an XML-RPC extension for handling nil data values such as Python’s ‘None’. Nil values are always supported on unmarshalling an XML-RPC response. To generate requests containing ‘None’, you must supply a true value for the 'allow_none' parameter when creating a ‘Marshaller’ instance. * The new ‘DocXMLRPCServer’ module allows writing self-documenting XML-RPC servers. Run it in demo mode (as a program) to see it in action. Pointing the web browser to the RPC server produces pydoc-style documentation; pointing xmlrpclib to the server allows invoking the actual methods. (Contributed by Brian Quinlan.) * Support for internationalized domain names (RFCs 3454, 3490, 3491, and 3492) has been added. The “idna” encoding can be used to convert between a Unicode domain name and the ASCII-compatible encoding (ACE) of that name. >{}>{}> u"www.Alliancefrançaise.nu".encode("idna") 'www.xn--alliancefranaise-npb.nu' The *note socket: cc. module has also been extended to transparently convert Unicode hostnames to the ACE version before passing them to the C library. Modules that deal with hostnames such as ‘httplib’ and *note ftplib: 5e.) also support Unicode host names; ‘httplib’ also sends HTTP ‘Host’ headers using the ACE version of the domain name. *note urllib: 108. supports Unicode URLs with non-ASCII host names as long as the ‘path’ part of the URL is ASCII only. To implement this change, the *note stringprep: d4. module, the ‘mkstringprep’ tool and the ‘punycode’ encoding have been added. * Menu: * Date/Time Type:: * The optparse Module:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pybsddb.sourceforge.net  File: python.info, Node: Date/Time Type, Next: The optparse Module, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4> 1.19.17.1 Date/Time Type ........................ Date and time types suitable for expressing timestamps were added as the *note datetime: 30. module. The types don’t support different calendars or many fancy features, and just stick to the basics of representing time. The three primary types are: *note date: 1cd, representing a day, month, and year; *note time: 1ce, consisting of hour, minute, and second; and *note datetime: 1cc, which contains all the attributes of both *note date: 1cd. and *note time: 1ce. There’s also a *note timedelta: 9cf. class representing differences between two points in time, and time zone logic is implemented by classes inheriting from the abstract *note tzinfo: 5da. class. You can create instances of *note date: 1cd. and *note time: 1ce. by either supplying keyword arguments to the appropriate constructor, e.g. ‘datetime.date(year=1972, month=10, day=15)’, or by using one of a number of class methods. For example, the *note today(): 1495. class method returns the current local date. Once created, instances of the date/time classes are all immutable. There are a number of methods for producing formatted strings from objects: >>> import datetime >>> now = datetime.datetime.now() >>> now.isoformat() '2002-12-30T21:27:03.994956' >>> now.ctime() # Only available on date, datetime 'Mon Dec 30 21:27:03 2002' >>> now.strftime('%Y %d %b') '2002 30 Dec' The *note replace(): 1496. method allows modifying one or more fields of a *note date: 1cd. or *note datetime: 1cc. instance, returning a new instance: >>> d = datetime.datetime.now() >>> d datetime.datetime(2002, 12, 30, 22, 15, 38, 827738) >>> d.replace(year=2001, hour = 12) datetime.datetime(2001, 12, 30, 12, 15, 38, 827738) >>> Instances can be compared, hashed, and converted to strings (the result is the same as that of *note isoformat(): b30.). *note date: 1cd. and *note datetime: 1cc. instances can be subtracted from each other, and added to *note timedelta: 9cf. instances. The largest missing feature is that there’s no standard library support for parsing strings and getting back a *note date: 1cd. or *note datetime: 1cc. For more information, refer to the module’s reference documentation. (Contributed by Tim Peters.)  File: python.info, Node: The optparse Module, Prev: Date/Time Type, Up: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4> 1.19.17.2 The optparse Module ............................. The *note getopt: 61. module provides simple parsing of command-line arguments. The new *note optparse: a0. module (originally named Optik) provides more elaborate command-line parsing that follows the Unix conventions, automatically creates the output for ‘--help’, and can perform different actions for different options. You start by creating an instance of *note OptionParser: 1498. and telling it what your program’s options are. import sys from optparse import OptionParser op = OptionParser() op.add_option('-i', '--input', action='store', type='string', dest='input', help='set input filename') op.add_option('-l', '--length', action='store', type='int', dest='length', help='set maximum length of output') Parsing a command line is then done by calling the *note parse_args(): 1499. method. options, args = op.parse_args(sys.argv[1:]) print options print args This returns an object containing all of the option values, and a list of strings containing the remaining arguments. Invoking the script with the various arguments now works as you’d expect it to. Note that the length argument is automatically converted to an integer. $ ./python opt.py -i data arg1 ['arg1'] $ ./python opt.py --input=data --length=4 [] $ The help message is automatically generated for you: $ ./python opt.py --help usage: opt.py [options] options: -h, --help show this help message and exit -iINPUT, --input=INPUT set input filename -lLENGTH, --length=LENGTH set maximum length of output $ See the module’s documentation for more details. Optik was written by Greg Ward, with suggestions from the readers of the Getopt SIG.  File: python.info, Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator, Next: Build and C API Changes<12>, Prev: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.18 Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator ------------------------------------------------ Pymalloc, a specialized object allocator written by Vladimir Marangozov, was a feature added to Python 2.1. Pymalloc is intended to be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and to have less memory overhead for allocation patterns typical of Python programs. The allocator uses C’s ‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory and then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools. In 2.1 and 2.2, pymalloc was an experimental feature and wasn’t enabled by default; you had to explicitly enable it when compiling Python by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script. In 2.3, pymalloc has had further enhancements and is now enabled by default; you’ll have to supply ‘--without-pymalloc’ to disable it. This change is transparent to code written in Python; however, pymalloc may expose bugs in C extensions. Authors of C extension modules should test their code with pymalloc enabled, because some incorrect code may cause core dumps at runtime. There’s one particularly common error that causes problems. There are a number of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have previously just been aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions the error wouldn’t be noticeable. When the object allocator is enabled, these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and calling the wrong function to free memory may get you a core dump. For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68, it has to be freed using *note PyObject_Free(): c65, not ‘free()’. A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same problem. As part of this change, the confusing multiple interfaces for allocating memory have been consolidated down into two API families. Memory allocated with one family must not be manipulated with functions from the other family. There is one family for allocating chunks of memory and another family of functions specifically for allocating Python objects. * To allocate and free an undistinguished chunk of memory use the “raw memory” family: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b, and *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. * The “object memory” family is the interface to the pymalloc facility described above and is biased towards a large number of “small” allocations: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f, and *note PyObject_Free(): c65. * To allocate and free Python objects, use the “object” family *note PyObject_New: 985, *note PyObject_NewVar: 986, and *note PyObject_Del(): 149c. Thanks to lots of work by Tim Peters, pymalloc in 2.3 also provides debugging features to catch memory overwrites and doubled frees in both extension modules and in the interpreter itself. To enable this support, compile a debugging version of the Python interpreter by running ‘configure’ with ‘--with-pydebug’. To aid extension writers, a header file ‘Misc/pymemcompat.h’ is distributed with the source to Python 2.3 that allows Python extensions to use the 2.3 interfaces to memory allocation while compiling against any version of Python since 1.5.2. You would copy the file from Python’s source distribution and bundle it with the source of your extension. See also ........ ‘https://hg.python.org/cpython/file/default/Objects/obmalloc.c’ For the full details of the pymalloc implementation, see the comments at the top of the file ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ in the Python source code. The above link points to the file within the python.org SVN browser.  File: python.info, Node: Build and C API Changes<12>, Next: Other Changes and Fixes<2>, Prev: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.19 Build and C API Changes ------------------------------- Changes to Python’s build process and to the C API include: * The cycle detection implementation used by the garbage collection has proven to be stable, so it’s now been made mandatory. You can no longer compile Python without it, and the ‘--with-cycle-gc’ switch to ‘configure’ has been removed. * Python can now optionally be built as a shared library (‘libpython2.3.so’) by supplying ‘--enable-shared’ when running Python’s ‘configure’ script. (Contributed by Ondrej Palkovsky.) * The ‘DL_EXPORT’ and ‘DL_IMPORT’ macros are now deprecated. Initialization functions for Python extension modules should now be declared using the new macro *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149e, while the Python core will generally use the ‘PyAPI_FUNC’ and ‘PyAPI_DATA’ macros. * The interpreter can be compiled without any docstrings for the built-in functions and modules by supplying ‘--without-doc-strings’ to the ‘configure’ script. This makes the Python executable about 10% smaller, but will also mean that you can’t get help for Python’s built-ins. (Contributed by Gustavo Niemeyer.) * The ‘PyArg_NoArgs()’ macro is now deprecated, and code that uses it should be changed. For Python 2.2 and later, the method definition table can specify the *note METH_NOARGS: 149f. flag, signalling that there are no arguments, and the argument checking can then be removed. If compatibility with pre-2.2 versions of Python is important, the code could use ‘PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "")’ instead, but this will be slower than using *note METH_NOARGS: 149f. * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. accepts new format characters for various sizes of unsigned integers: ‘B’ for unsigned char, ‘H’ for unsigned short int, ‘I’ for unsigned int, and ‘K’ for unsigned long long. * A new function, ‘PyObject_DelItemString(mapping, char *key)’ was added as shorthand for ‘PyObject_DelItem(mapping, PyString_New(key))’. * File objects now manage their internal string buffer differently, increasing it exponentially when needed. This results in the benchmark tests in ‘Lib/test/test_bufio.py’ speeding up considerably (from 57 seconds to 1.7 seconds, according to one measurement). * It’s now possible to define class and static methods for a C extension type by setting either the *note METH_CLASS: 14a0. or *note METH_STATIC: 14a1. flags in a method’s *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. structure. * Python now includes a copy of the Expat XML parser’s source code, removing any dependence on a system version or local installation of Expat. * If you dynamically allocate type objects in your extension, you should be aware of a change in the rules relating to the *note __module__: 36f. and *note __name__: 1474. attributes. In summary, you will want to ensure the type’s dictionary contains a ‘'__module__'’ key; making the module name the part of the type name leading up to the final period will no longer have the desired effect. For more detail, read the API reference documentation or the source. * Menu: * Port-Specific Changes: Port-Specific Changes<3>.  File: python.info, Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>, Up: Build and C API Changes<12> 1.19.19.1 Port-Specific Changes ............................... Support for a port to IBM’s OS/2 using the EMX runtime environment was merged into the main Python source tree. EMX is a POSIX emulation layer over the OS/2 system APIs. The Python port for EMX tries to support all the POSIX-like capability exposed by the EMX runtime, and mostly succeeds; ‘fork()’ and *note fcntl(): 59. are restricted by the limitations of the underlying emulation layer. The standard OS/2 port, which uses IBM’s Visual Age compiler, also gained support for case-sensitive import semantics as part of the integration of the EMX port into CVS. (Contributed by Andrew MacIntyre.) On MacOS, most toolbox modules have been weaklinked to improve backward compatibility. This means that modules will no longer fail to load if a single routine is missing on the current OS version. Instead calling the missing routine will raise an exception. (Contributed by Jack Jansen.) The RPM spec files, found in the ‘Misc/RPM/’ directory in the Python source distribution, were updated for 2.3. (Contributed by Sean Reifschneider.) Other new platforms now supported by Python include AtheOS (‘http://www.atheos.cx/’), GNU/Hurd, and OpenVMS.  File: python.info, Node: Other Changes and Fixes<2>, Next: Porting to Python 2 3, Prev: Build and C API Changes<12>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.20 Other Changes and Fixes ------------------------------- As usual, there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered throughout the source tree. A search through the CVS change logs finds there were 523 patches applied and 514 bugs fixed between Python 2.2 and 2.3. Both figures are likely to be underestimates. Some of the more notable changes are: * If the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a5. environment variable is set, the Python interpreter will enter the interactive prompt after running a Python program, as if Python had been invoked with the *note -i: 14a6. option. The environment variable can be set before running the Python interpreter, or it can be set by the Python program as part of its execution. * The ‘regrtest.py’ script now provides a way to allow “all resources except 'foo'.” A resource name passed to the ‘-u’ option can now be prefixed with a hyphen (‘'-'’) to mean “remove this resource.” For example, the option ‘‘-uall,-bsddb’’ could be used to enable the use of all resources except ‘bsddb’. * The tools used to build the documentation now work under Cygwin as well as Unix. * The ‘SET_LINENO’ opcode has been removed. Back in the mists of time, this opcode was needed to produce line numbers in tracebacks and support trace functions (for, e.g., *note pdb: a5.). Since Python 1.5, the line numbers in tracebacks have been computed using a different mechanism that works with “python -O”. For Python 2.3 Michael Hudson implemented a similar scheme to determine when to call the trace function, removing the need for ‘SET_LINENO’ entirely. It would be difficult to detect any resulting difference from Python code, apart from a slight speed up when Python is run without *note -O: db4. C extensions that access the *note f_lineno: 7a7. field of frame objects should instead call ‘PyCode_Addr2Line(f->f_code, f->f_lasti)’. This will have the added effect of making the code work as desired under “python -O” in earlier versions of Python. A nifty new feature is that trace functions can now assign to the *note f_lineno: 7a7. attribute of frame objects, changing the line that will be executed next. A ‘jump’ command has been added to the *note pdb: a5. debugger taking advantage of this new feature. (Implemented by Richie Hindle.)  File: python.info, Node: Porting to Python 2 3, Next: Acknowledgements<5>, Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.21 Porting to Python 2.3 ----------------------------- This section lists previously described changes that may require changes to your code: * *note yield: 9cd. is now always a keyword; if it’s used as a variable name in your code, a different name must be chosen. * For strings 'X' and 'Y', ‘X in Y’ now works if 'X' is more than one character long. * The *note int(): 259. type constructor will now return a long integer instead of raising an *note OverflowError: 87f. when a string or floating-point number is too large to fit into an integer. * If you have Unicode strings that contain 8-bit characters, you must declare the file’s encoding (UTF-8, Latin-1, or whatever) by adding a comment to the top of the file. See section *note PEP 263; Source Code Encodings: 1451. for more information. * Calling Tcl methods through ‘_tkinter’ no longer returns only strings. Instead, if Tcl returns other objects those objects are converted to their Python equivalent, if one exists, or wrapped with a ‘_tkinter.Tcl_Obj’ object if no Python equivalent exists. * Large octal and hex literals such as ‘0xffffffff’ now trigger a *note FutureWarning: 411. Currently they’re stored as 32-bit numbers and result in a negative value, but in Python 2.4 they’ll become positive long integers. There are a few ways to fix this warning. If you really need a positive number, just add an ‘L’ to the end of the literal. If you’re trying to get a 32-bit integer with low bits set and have previously used an expression such as ‘~(1 << 31)’, it’s probably clearest to start with all bits set and clear the desired upper bits. For example, to clear just the top bit (bit 31), you could write ‘0xffffffffL &~(1L<<31)’. * You can no longer disable assertions by assigning to ‘__debug__’. * The Distutils ‘setup()’ function has gained various new keyword arguments such as 'depends'. Old versions of the Distutils will abort if passed unknown keywords. A solution is to check for the presence of the new ‘get_distutil_options()’ function in your ‘setup.py’ and only uses the new keywords with a version of the Distutils that supports them: from distutils import core kw = {'sources': 'foo.c', ...} if hasattr(core, 'get_distutil_options'): kw['depends'] = ['foo.h'] ext = Extension(**kw) * Using ‘None’ as a variable name will now result in a *note SyntaxWarning: 461. warning. * Names of extension types defined by the modules included with Python now contain the module and a ‘'.'’ in front of the type name.  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<5>, Prev: Porting to Python 2 3, Up: What’s New in Python 2 3 1.19.22 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Jeff Bauer, Simon Brunning, Brett Cannon, Michael Chermside, Andrew Dalke, Scott David Daniels, Fred L. Drake, Jr., David Fraser, Kelly Gerber, Raymond Hettinger, Michael Hudson, Chris Lambert, Detlef Lannert, Martin von Löwis, Andrew MacIntyre, Lalo Martins, Chad Netzer, Gustavo Niemeyer, Neal Norwitz, Hans Nowak, Chris Reedy, Francesco Ricciardi, Vinay Sajip, Neil Schemenauer, Roman Suzi, Jason Tishler, Just van Rossum.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 2, Next: What’s New in Python 2 1, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 3, Up: What’s New in Python 1.20 What’s New in Python 2.2 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling * Menu: * Introduction:: * PEPs 252 and 253; Type and Class Changes: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes. * PEP 234; Iterators: PEP 234 Iterators. * PEP 255; Simple Generators: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>. * PEP 237; Unifying Long Integers and Integers: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>. * PEP 238; Changing the Division Operator: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator. * Unicode Changes:: * PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes. * New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<3>. * Interpreter Changes and Fixes:: * Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<3>. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<6>.  File: python.info, Node: Introduction, Next: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.1 Introduction ------------------- This article explains the new features in Python 2.2.2, released on October 14, 2002. Python 2.2.2 is a bugfix release of Python 2.2, originally released on December 21, 2001. Python 2.2 can be thought of as the “cleanup release”. There are some features such as generators and iterators that are completely new, but most of the changes, significant and far-reaching though they may be, are aimed at cleaning up irregularities and dark corners of the language design. This article doesn’t attempt to provide a complete specification of the new features, but instead provides a convenient overview. For full details, you should refer to the documentation for Python 2.2, such as the Python Library Reference(1) and the Python Reference Manual(2). If you want to understand the complete implementation and design rationale for a change, refer to the PEP for a particular new feature. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/2.2/lib/lib.html (2) https://docs.python.org/2.2/ref/ref.html  File: python.info, Node: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes, Next: PEP 234 Iterators, Prev: Introduction, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.2 PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes ----------------------------------------------- The largest and most far-reaching changes in Python 2.2 are to Python’s model of objects and classes. The changes should be backward compatible, so it’s likely that your code will continue to run unchanged, but the changes provide some amazing new capabilities. Before beginning this, the longest and most complicated section of this article, I’ll provide an overview of the changes and offer some comments. A long time ago I wrote a web page listing flaws in Python’s design. One of the most significant flaws was that it’s impossible to subclass Python types implemented in C. In particular, it’s not possible to subclass built-in types, so you can’t just subclass, say, lists in order to add a single useful method to them. The ‘UserList’ module provides a class that supports all of the methods of lists and that can be subclassed further, but there’s lots of C code that expects a regular Python list and won’t accept a *note UserList: 14ae. instance. Python 2.2 fixes this, and in the process adds some exciting new capabilities. A brief summary: * You can subclass built-in types such as lists and even integers, and your subclasses should work in every place that requires the original type. * It’s now possible to define static and class methods, in addition to the instance methods available in previous versions of Python. * It’s also possible to automatically call methods on accessing or setting an instance attribute by using a new mechanism called 'properties'. Many uses of *note __getattr__(): 4cf. can be rewritten to use properties instead, making the resulting code simpler and faster. As a small side benefit, attributes can now have docstrings, too. * The list of legal attributes for an instance can be limited to a particular set using 'slots', making it possible to safeguard against typos and perhaps make more optimizations possible in future versions of Python. Some users have voiced concern about all these changes. Sure, they say, the new features are neat and lend themselves to all sorts of tricks that weren’t possible in previous versions of Python, but they also make the language more complicated. Some people have said that they’ve always recommended Python for its simplicity, and feel that its simplicity is being lost. Personally, I think there’s no need to worry. Many of the new features are quite esoteric, and you can write a lot of Python code without ever needed to be aware of them. Writing a simple class is no more difficult than it ever was, so you don’t need to bother learning or teaching them unless they’re actually needed. Some very complicated tasks that were previously only possible from C will now be possible in pure Python, and to my mind that’s all for the better. I’m not going to attempt to cover every single corner case and small change that were required to make the new features work. Instead this section will paint only the broad strokes. See section *note Related Links: 14af, “Related Links”, for further sources of information about Python 2.2’s new object model. * Menu: * Old and New Classes:: * Descriptors:: * Multiple Inheritance; The Diamond Rule: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule. * Attribute Access:: * Related Links::  File: python.info, Node: Old and New Classes, Next: Descriptors, Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes 1.20.2.1 Old and New Classes ............................ First, you should know that Python 2.2 really has two kinds of classes: classic or old-style classes, and new-style classes. The old-style class model is exactly the same as the class model in earlier versions of Python. All the new features described in this section apply only to new-style classes. This divergence isn’t intended to last forever; eventually old-style classes will be dropped, possibly in Python 3.0. So how do you define a new-style class? You do it by subclassing an existing new-style class. Most of Python’s built-in types, such as integers, lists, dictionaries, and even files, are new-style classes now. A new-style class named *note object: a8c, the base class for all built-in types, has also been added so if no built-in type is suitable, you can just subclass *note object: a8c.: class C(object): def __init__ (self): ... ... This means that *note class: 12ca. statements that don’t have any base classes are always classic classes in Python 2.2. (Actually you can also change this by setting a module-level variable named ‘__metaclass__’ — see PEP 253(1) for the details — but it’s easier to just subclass *note object: a8c.) The type objects for the built-in types are available as built-ins, named using a clever trick. Python has always had built-in functions named *note int(): 259, *note float(): 2f1, and *note str(): 447. In 2.2, they aren’t functions any more, but type objects that behave as factories when called. >>> int >>> int('123') 123 To make the set of types complete, new type objects such as *note dict(): 258. and ‘file()’ have been added. Here’s a more interesting example, adding a ‘lock()’ method to file objects: class LockableFile(file): def lock (self, operation, length=0, start=0, whence=0): import fcntl return fcntl.lockf(self.fileno(), operation, length, start, whence) The now-obsolete ‘posixfile’ module contained a class that emulated all of a file object’s methods and also added a ‘lock()’ method, but this class couldn’t be passed to internal functions that expected a built-in file, something which is possible with our new ‘LockableFile’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/  File: python.info, Node: Descriptors, Next: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule, Prev: Old and New Classes, Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes 1.20.2.2 Descriptors .................... In previous versions of Python, there was no consistent way to discover what attributes and methods were supported by an object. There were some informal conventions, such as defining ‘__members__’ and ‘__methods__’ attributes that were lists of names, but often the author of an extension type or a class wouldn’t bother to define them. You could fall back on inspecting the *note __dict__: 558. of an object, but when class inheritance or an arbitrary ‘__getattr__()’ hook were in use this could still be inaccurate. The one big idea underlying the new class model is that an API for describing the attributes of an object using 'descriptors' has been formalized. Descriptors specify the value of an attribute, stating whether it’s a method or a field. With the descriptor API, static methods and class methods become possible, as well as more exotic constructs. Attribute descriptors are objects that live inside class objects, and have a few attributes of their own: * *note __name__: 105f. is the attribute’s name. * *note __doc__: 927. is the attribute’s docstring. * ‘__get__(object)’ is a method that retrieves the attribute value from 'object'. * ‘__set__(object, value)’ sets the attribute on 'object' to 'value'. * ‘__delete__(object, value)’ deletes the 'value' attribute of 'object'. For example, when you write ‘obj.x’, the steps that Python actually performs are: descriptor = obj.__class__.x descriptor.__get__(obj) For methods, *note descriptor.__get__: 14b2. returns a temporary object that’s callable, and wraps up the instance and the method to be called on it. This is also why static methods and class methods are now possible; they have descriptors that wrap up just the method, or the method and the class. As a brief explanation of these new kinds of methods, static methods aren’t passed the instance, and therefore resemble regular functions. Class methods are passed the class of the object, but not the object itself. Static and class methods are defined like this: class C(object): def f(arg1, arg2): ... f = staticmethod(f) def g(cls, arg1, arg2): ... g = classmethod(g) The *note staticmethod(): 412. function takes the function ‘f()’, and returns it wrapped up in a descriptor so it can be stored in the class object. You might expect there to be special syntax for creating such methods (‘def static f’, ‘defstatic f()’, or something like that) but no such syntax has been defined yet; that’s been left for future versions of Python. More new features, such as slots and properties, are also implemented as new kinds of descriptors, and it’s not difficult to write a descriptor class that does something novel. For example, it would be possible to write a descriptor class that made it possible to write Eiffel-style preconditions and postconditions for a method. A class that used this feature might be defined like this: from eiffel import eiffelmethod class C(object): def f(self, arg1, arg2): # The actual function ... def pre_f(self): # Check preconditions ... def post_f(self): # Check postconditions ... f = eiffelmethod(f, pre_f, post_f) Note that a person using the new ‘eiffelmethod()’ doesn’t have to understand anything about descriptors. This is why I think the new features don’t increase the basic complexity of the language. There will be a few wizards who need to know about it in order to write ‘eiffelmethod()’ or the ZODB or whatever, but most users will just write code on top of the resulting libraries and ignore the implementation details.  File: python.info, Node: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule, Next: Attribute Access, Prev: Descriptors, Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes 1.20.2.3 Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule ............................................... Multiple inheritance has also been made more useful through changing the rules under which names are resolved. Consider this set of classes (diagram taken from PEP 253(1) by Guido van Rossum): class A: ^ ^ def save(self): ... / \ / \ / \ / \ class B class C: ^ ^ def save(self): ... \ / \ / \ / \ / class D The lookup rule for classic classes is simple but not very smart; the base classes are searched depth-first, going from left to right. A reference to ‘D.save()’ will search the classes ‘D’, ‘B’, and then ‘A’, where ‘save()’ would be found and returned. ‘C.save()’ would never be found at all. This is bad, because if ‘C’’s ‘save()’ method is saving some internal state specific to ‘C’, not calling it will result in that state never getting saved. New-style classes follow a different algorithm that’s a bit more complicated to explain, but does the right thing in this situation. (Note that Python 2.3 changes this algorithm to one that produces the same results in most cases, but produces more useful results for really complicated inheritance graphs.) 1. List all the base classes, following the classic lookup rule and include a class multiple times if it’s visited repeatedly. In the above example, the list of visited classes is [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘A’, ‘C’, ‘A’]. 2. Scan the list for duplicated classes. If any are found, remove all but one occurrence, leaving the 'last' one in the list. In the above example, the list becomes [‘D’, ‘B’, ‘C’, ‘A’] after dropping duplicates. Following this rule, referring to ‘D.save()’ will return ‘C.save()’, which is the behaviour we’re after. This lookup rule is the same as the one followed by Common Lisp. A new built-in function, *note super(): 4d7, provides a way to get at a class’s superclasses without having to reimplement Python’s algorithm. The most commonly used form will be ‘super(class, obj)’, which returns a bound superclass object (not the actual class object). This form will be used in methods to call a method in the superclass; for example, ‘D’’s ‘save()’ method would look like this: class D (B,C): def save (self): # Call superclass .save() super(D, self).save() # Save D's private information here ... *note super(): 4d7. can also return unbound superclass objects when called as ‘super(class)’ or ‘super(class1, class2)’, but this probably won’t often be useful. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/  File: python.info, Node: Attribute Access, Next: Related Links, Prev: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule, Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes 1.20.2.4 Attribute Access ......................... A fair number of sophisticated Python classes define hooks for attribute access using *note __getattr__(): 4cf.; most commonly this is done for convenience, to make code more readable by automatically mapping an attribute access such as ‘obj.parent’ into a method call such as ‘obj.get_parent’. Python 2.2 adds some new ways of controlling attribute access. First, ‘__getattr__(attr_name)’ is still supported by new-style classes, and nothing about it has changed. As before, it will be called when an attempt is made to access ‘obj.foo’ and no attribute named ‘foo’ is found in the instance’s dictionary. New-style classes also support a new method, ‘__getattribute__(attr_name)’. The difference between the two methods is that *note __getattribute__(): bd2. is 'always' called whenever any attribute is accessed, while the old *note __getattr__(): 4cf. is only called if ‘foo’ isn’t found in the instance’s dictionary. However, Python 2.2’s support for 'properties' will often be a simpler way to trap attribute references. Writing a ‘__getattr__()’ method is complicated because to avoid recursion you can’t use regular attribute accesses inside them, and instead have to mess around with the contents of *note __dict__: 558. *note __getattr__(): 4cf. methods also end up being called by Python when it checks for other methods such as *note __repr__(): 618. or ‘__coerce__()’, and so have to be written with this in mind. Finally, calling a function on every attribute access results in a sizable performance loss. *note property: 194. is a new built-in type that packages up three functions that get, set, or delete an attribute, and a docstring. For example, if you want to define a ‘size’ attribute that’s computed, but also settable, you could write: class C(object): def get_size (self): result = ... computation ... return result def set_size (self, size): ... compute something based on the size and set internal state appropriately ... # Define a property. The 'delete this attribute' # method is defined as None, so the attribute # can't be deleted. size = property(get_size, set_size, None, "Storage size of this instance") That is certainly clearer and easier to write than a pair of ‘__getattr__()’/‘__setattr__()’ methods that check for the ‘size’ attribute and handle it specially while retrieving all other attributes from the instance’s *note __dict__: 558. Accesses to ‘size’ are also the only ones which have to perform the work of calling a function, so references to other attributes run at their usual speed. Finally, it’s possible to constrain the list of attributes that can be referenced on an object using the new *note __slots__: 14b5. class attribute. Python objects are usually very dynamic; at any time it’s possible to define a new attribute on an instance by just doing ‘obj.new_attr=1’. A new-style class can define a class attribute named *note __slots__: 14b5. to limit the legal attributes to a particular set of names. An example will make this clear: >>> class C(object): ... __slots__ = ('template', 'name') ... >>> obj = C() >>> print obj.template None >>> obj.template = 'Test' >>> print obj.template Test >>> obj.newattr = None Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ? AttributeError: 'C' object has no attribute 'newattr' Note how you get an *note AttributeError: 348. on the attempt to assign to an attribute not listed in *note __slots__: 14b5.  File: python.info, Node: Related Links, Prev: Attribute Access, Up: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes 1.20.2.5 Related Links ...................... This section has just been a quick overview of the new features, giving enough of an explanation to start you programming, but many details have been simplified or ignored. Where should you go to get a more complete picture? The *note Descriptor Guide: 14b7. is a lengthy tutorial introduction to the descriptor features, written by Guido van Rossum. If my description has whetted your appetite, go read this tutorial next, because it goes into much more detail about the new features while still remaining quite easy to read. Next, there are two relevant PEPs, PEP 252(1) and PEP 253(2). PEP 252(3) is titled “Making Types Look More Like Classes”, and covers the descriptor API. PEP 253(4) is titled “Subtyping Built-in Types”, and describes the changes to type objects that make it possible to subtype built-in objects. PEP 253(5) is the more complicated PEP of the two, and at a few points the necessary explanations of types and meta-types may cause your head to explode. Both PEPs were written and implemented by Guido van Rossum, with substantial assistance from the rest of the Zope Corp. team. Finally, there’s the ultimate authority: the source code. Most of the machinery for the type handling is in ‘Objects/typeobject.c’, but you should only resort to it after all other avenues have been exhausted, including posting a question to python-list or python-dev. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0252/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0253/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 234 Iterators, Next: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>, Prev: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.3 PEP 234: Iterators ------------------------- Another significant addition to 2.2 is an iteration interface at both the C and Python levels. Objects can define how they can be looped over by callers. In Python versions up to 2.1, the usual way to make ‘for item in obj’ work is to define a *note __getitem__(): 285. method that looks something like this: def __getitem__(self, index): return *note __getitem__(): 285. is more properly used to define an indexing operation on an object so that you can write ‘obj[5]’ to retrieve the sixth element. It’s a bit misleading when you’re using this only to support *note for: 2ec. loops. Consider some file-like object that wants to be looped over; the 'index' parameter is essentially meaningless, as the class probably assumes that a series of *note __getitem__(): 285. calls will be made with 'index' incrementing by one each time. In other words, the presence of the *note __getitem__(): 285. method doesn’t mean that using ‘file[5]’ to randomly access the sixth element will work, though it really should. In Python 2.2, iteration can be implemented separately, and *note __getitem__(): 285. methods can be limited to classes that really do support random access. The basic idea of iterators is simple. A new built-in function, ‘iter(obj)’ or ‘iter(C, sentinel)’, is used to get an iterator. ‘iter(obj)’ returns an iterator for the object 'obj', while ‘iter(C, sentinel)’ returns an iterator that will invoke the callable object 'C' until it returns 'sentinel' to signal that the iterator is done. Python classes can define an ‘__iter__()’ method, which should create and return a new iterator for the object; if the object is its own iterator, this method can just return ‘self’. In particular, iterators will usually be their own iterators. Extension types implemented in C can implement a *note tp_iter: 14b9. function in order to return an iterator, and extension types that want to behave as iterators can define a *note tp_iternext: 14ba. function. So, after all this, what do iterators actually do? They have one required method, *note next(): 7d3, which takes no arguments and returns the next value. When there are no more values to be returned, calling *note next(): 7d3. should raise the *note StopIteration: bfa. exception. >>> L = [1,2,3] >>> i = iter(L) >>> print i >>> i.next() 1 >>> i.next() 2 >>> i.next() 3 >>> i.next() Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ? StopIteration >>> In 2.2, Python’s *note for: 2ec. statement no longer expects a sequence; it expects something for which *note iter(): 7d2. will return an iterator. For backward compatibility and convenience, an iterator is automatically constructed for sequences that don’t implement ‘__iter__()’ or a *note tp_iter: 14b9. slot, so ‘for i in [1,2,3]’ will still work. Wherever the Python interpreter loops over a sequence, it’s been changed to use the iterator protocol. This means you can do things like this: >>> L = [1,2,3] >>> i = iter(L) >>> a,b,c = i >>> a,b,c (1, 2, 3) Iterator support has been added to some of Python’s basic types. Calling *note iter(): 7d2. on a dictionary will return an iterator which loops over its keys: >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6, ... 'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12} >>> for key in m: print key, m[key] ... Mar 3 Feb 2 Aug 8 Sep 9 May 5 Jun 6 Jul 7 Jan 1 Apr 4 Nov 11 Dec 12 Oct 10 That’s just the default behaviour. If you want to iterate over keys, values, or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the ‘iterkeys()’, ‘itervalues()’, or ‘iteritems()’ methods to get an appropriate iterator. In a minor related change, the *note in: 2ee. operator now works on dictionaries, so ‘key in dict’ is now equivalent to ‘dict.has_key(key)’. Files also provide an iterator, which calls the *note readline(): ba. method until there are no more lines in the file. This means you can now read each line of a file using code like this: for line in file: # do something for each line ... Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it. An iterator object could provide such additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol only requires a *note next(): 7d3. method. See also ........ PEP 234(1) - Iterators Written by Ka-Ping Yee and GvR; implemented by the Python Labs crew, mostly by GvR and Tim Peters. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0234/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>, Next: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>, Prev: PEP 234 Iterators, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.4 PEP 255: Simple Generators --------------------------------- Generators are another new feature, one that interacts with the introduction of iterators. You’re doubtless familiar with how function calls work in Python or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are created. When the function reaches a *note return: 9ce. statement, the local variables are destroyed and the resulting value is returned to the caller. A later call to the same function will get a fresh new set of local variables. But, what if the local variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function? What if you could later resume the function where it left off? This is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions. Here’s the simplest example of a generator function: def generate_ints(N): for i in range(N): yield i A new keyword, *note yield: 9cd, was introduced for generators. Any function containing a ‘yield’ statement is a generator function; this is detected by Python’s bytecode compiler which compiles the function specially as a result. Because a new keyword was introduced, generators must be explicitly enabled in a module by including a ‘from __future__ import generators’ statement near the top of the module’s source code. In Python 2.3 this statement will become unnecessary. When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value; instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol. On executing the *note yield: 9cd. statement, the generator outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a *note return: 9ce. statement. The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local variables are preserved. On the next call to the generator’s ‘next()’ method, the function will resume executing immediately after the ‘yield’ statement. (For complicated reasons, the ‘yield’ statement isn’t allowed inside the ‘try’ block of a *note try: 6e4.…*note finally: 9ca. statement; read PEP 255(1) for a full explanation of the interaction between ‘yield’ and exceptions.) Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator: >>> gen = generate_ints(3) >>> gen >>> gen.next() 0 >>> gen.next() 1 >>> gen.next() 2 >>> gen.next() Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ? File "", line 2, in generate_ints StopIteration You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a,b,c = generate_ints(3)’. Inside a generator function, the *note return: 9ce. statement can only be used without a value, and signals the end of the procession of values; afterwards the generator cannot return any further values. ‘return’ with a value, such as ‘return 5’, is a syntax error inside a generator function. The end of the generator’s results can also be indicated by raising *note StopIteration: bfa. manually, or by just letting the flow of execution fall off the bottom of the function. You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables. For example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note next(): 7d3. method increment ‘self.count’ and return it. However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class would be much messier. ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ contains a number of more interesting examples. The simplest one implements an in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively. # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order. def inorder(t): if t: for x in inorder(t.left): yield x yield t.label for x in inorder(t.right): yield x Two other examples in ‘Lib/test/test_generators.py’ produce solutions for the N-Queens problem (placing $N$ queens on an $NxN$ chess board so that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (a route that takes a knight to every square of an $NxN$ chessboard without visiting any square twice). The idea of generators comes from other programming languages, especially Icon (‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/’), where the idea of generators is central. In Icon, every expression and function call behaves like a generator. One example from “An Overview of the Icon Programming Language” at ‘https://www2.cs.arizona.edu/icon/docs/ipd266.htm’ gives an idea of what this looks like: sentence := "Store it in the neighboring harbor" if (i := find("or", sentence)) > 5 then write(i) In Icon the ‘find()’ function returns the indexes at which the substring “or” is found: 3, 23, 33. In the *note if: 2ed. statement, ‘i’ is first assigned a value of 3, but 3 is less than 5, so the comparison fails, and Icon retries it with the second value of 23. 23 is greater than 5, so the comparison now succeeds, and the code prints the value 23 to the screen. Python doesn’t go nearly as far as Icon in adopting generators as a central concept. Generators are considered a new part of the core Python language, but learning or using them isn’t compulsory; if they don’t solve any problems that you have, feel free to ignore them. One novel feature of Python’s interface as compared to Icon’s is that a generator’s state is represented as a concrete object (the iterator) that can be passed around to other functions or stored in a data structure. See also ........ PEP 255(2) - Simple Generators Written by Neil Schemenauer, Tim Peters, Magnus Lie Hetland. Implemented mostly by Neil Schemenauer and Tim Peters, with other fixes from the Python Labs crew. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>, Next: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator, Prev: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.5 PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers --------------------------------------------------- In recent versions, the distinction between regular integers, which are 32-bit values on most machines, and long integers, which can be of arbitrary size, was becoming an annoyance. For example, on platforms that support files larger than ‘2**32’ bytes, the ‘tell()’ method of file objects has to return a long integer. However, there were various bits of Python that expected plain integers and would raise an error if a long integer was provided instead. For example, in Python 1.5, only regular integers could be used as a slice index, and ‘'abc'[1L:]’ would raise a *note TypeError: 534. exception with the message ‘slice index must be int’. Python 2.2 will shift values from short to long integers as required. The ‘L’ suffix is no longer needed to indicate a long integer literal, as now the compiler will choose the appropriate type. (Using the ‘L’ suffix will be discouraged in future 2.x versions of Python, triggering a warning in Python 2.4, and probably dropped in Python 3.0.) Many operations that used to raise an *note OverflowError: 87f. will now return a long integer as their result. For example: >>> 1234567890123 1234567890123L >>> 2 ** 64 18446744073709551616L In most cases, integers and long integers will now be treated identically. You can still distinguish them with the *note type(): d48. built-in function, but that’s rarely needed. See also ........ PEP 237(1) - Unifying Long Integers and Integers Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum. Implemented mostly by Guido van Rossum. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0237/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator, Next: Unicode Changes, Prev: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.6 PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator ---------------------------------------------- The most controversial change in Python 2.2 heralds the start of an effort to fix an old design flaw that’s been in Python from the beginning. Currently Python’s division operator, ‘/’, behaves like C’s division operator when presented with two integer arguments: it returns an integer result that’s truncated down when there would be a fractional part. For example, ‘3/2’ is 1, not 1.5, and ‘(-1)/2’ is -1, not -0.5. This means that the results of division can vary unexpectedly depending on the type of the two operands and because Python is dynamically typed, it can be difficult to determine the possible types of the operands. (The controversy is over whether this is 'really' a design flaw, and whether it’s worth breaking existing code to fix this. It’s caused endless discussions on python-dev, and in July 2001 erupted into a storm of acidly sarcastic postings on ‘comp.lang.python’. I won’t argue for either side here and will stick to describing what’s implemented in 2.2. Read PEP 238(1) for a summary of arguments and counter-arguments.) Because this change might break code, it’s being introduced very gradually. Python 2.2 begins the transition, but the switch won’t be complete until Python 3.0. First, I’ll borrow some terminology from PEP 238(2). “True division” is the division that most non-programmers are familiar with: 3/2 is 1.5, 1/4 is 0.25, and so forth. “Floor division” is what Python’s ‘/’ operator currently does when given integer operands; the result is the floor of the value returned by true division. “Classic division” is the current mixed behaviour of ‘/’; it returns the result of floor division when the operands are integers, and returns the result of true division when one of the operands is a floating-point number. Here are the changes 2.2 introduces: * A new operator, ‘//’, is the floor division operator. (Yes, we know it looks like C++’s comment symbol.) ‘//’ 'always' performs floor division no matter what the types of its operands are, so ‘1 // 2’ is 0 and ‘1.0 // 2.0’ is also 0.0. ‘//’ is always available in Python 2.2; you don’t need to enable it using a ‘__future__’ statement. * By including a ‘from __future__ import division’ in a module, the ‘/’ operator will be changed to return the result of true division, so ‘1/2’ is 0.5. Without the ‘__future__’ statement, ‘/’ still means classic division. The default meaning of ‘/’ will not change until Python 3.0. * Classes can define methods called *note __truediv__(): 14be. and *note __floordiv__(): 14bf. to overload the two division operators. At the C level, there are also slots in the *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9. structure so extension types can define the two operators. * Python 2.2 supports some command-line arguments for testing whether code will work with the changed division semantics. Running python with ‘-Q warn’ will cause a warning to be issued whenever division is applied to two integers. You can use this to find code that’s affected by the change and fix it. By default, Python 2.2 will simply perform classic division without a warning; the warning will be turned on by default in Python 2.3. See also ........ PEP 238(3) - Changing the Division Operator Written by Moshe Zadka and Guido van Rossum. Implemented by Guido van Rossum.. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Changes, Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes, Prev: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.7 Unicode Changes ---------------------- Python’s Unicode support has been enhanced a bit in 2.2. Unicode strings are usually stored as UCS-2, as 16-bit unsigned integers. Python 2.2 can also be compiled to use UCS-4, 32-bit unsigned integers, as its internal encoding by supplying ‘--enable-unicode=ucs4’ to the configure script. (It’s also possible to specify ‘--disable-unicode’ to completely disable Unicode support.) When built to use UCS-4 (a “wide Python”), the interpreter can natively handle Unicode characters from U+000000 to U+110000, so the range of legal values for the ‘unichr()’ function is expanded accordingly. Using an interpreter compiled to use UCS-2 (a “narrow Python”), values greater than 65535 will still cause ‘unichr()’ to raise a *note ValueError: 204. exception. This is all described in PEP 261(1), “Support for ‘wide’ Unicode characters”; consult it for further details. Another change is simpler to explain. Since their introduction, Unicode strings have supported an ‘encode()’ method to convert the string to a selected encoding such as UTF-8 or Latin-1. A symmetric ‘decode([*encoding*])’ method has been added to 8-bit strings (though not to Unicode strings) in 2.2. ‘decode()’ assumes that the string is in the specified encoding and decodes it, returning whatever is returned by the codec. Using this new feature, codecs have been added for tasks not directly related to Unicode. For example, codecs have been added for uu-encoding, MIME’s base64 encoding, and compression with the *note zlib: 133. module: >>> s = """Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose, ... and repetitive text. ... """ >>> data = s.encode('zlib') >>> data 'x\x9c\r\xc9\xc1\r\x80 \x10\x04\xc0?Ul...' >>> data.decode('zlib') 'Here is a lengthy piece of redundant, overly verbose,\nand repetitive text.\n' >>> print s.encode('uu') begin 666 M2&5R92!I=F5R8F]S92P*86YD(')E<&5T:71I=F4@=&5X="X* end >>> "sheesh".encode('rot-13') 'furrfu' To convert a class instance to Unicode, a ‘__unicode__()’ method can be defined by a class, analogous to ‘__str__()’. ‘encode()’, ‘decode()’, and ‘__unicode__()’ were implemented by Marc-André Lemburg. The changes to support using UCS-4 internally were implemented by Fredrik Lundh and Martin von Löwis. See also ........ PEP 261(2) - Support for ‘wide’ Unicode characters Written by Paul Prescod. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0261/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes, Next: New and Improved Modules<3>, Prev: Unicode Changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.8 PEP 227: Nested Scopes ----------------------------- In Python 2.1, statically nested scopes were added as an optional feature, to be enabled by a ‘from __future__ import nested_scopes’ directive. In 2.2 nested scopes no longer need to be specially enabled, and are now always present. The rest of this section is a copy of the description of nested scopes from my “What’s New in Python 2.1” document; if you read it when 2.1 came out, you can skip the rest of this section. The largest change introduced in Python 2.1, and made complete in 2.2, is to Python’s scoping rules. In Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace. This often surprised people because it didn’t match their intuitive expectations. For example, a nested recursive function definition doesn’t work: def f(): ... def g(value): ... return g(value-1) + 1 ... The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 43a. exception, because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace or in the module-level namespace. This isn’t much of a problem in practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 128f. expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice. In code which uses ‘lambda’ you can often find local variables being copied by passing them as the default values of arguments. def find(self, name): "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'" L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name, self.list_attribute) return L The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers greatly as a result. The most significant change to Python 2.2 is that static scoping has been added to the language to fix this problem. As a first effect, the ‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example. Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 1423, *note class: 12ca, or *note import: 5de. statements), references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope. A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the implementation, can be found in the PEP. This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first place. One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under certain conditions. The Python reference manual has said all along that ‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before. As part of the implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a containing scope. ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function definitions or *note lambda: 128f. expressions with free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note SyntaxError: 18d. exception. To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example: x = 1 def f(): # The next line is a syntax error exec 'x=2' def g(): return x Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’ would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be accessed by ‘g()’. This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor design anyway). See also ........ PEP 227(1) - Statically Nested Scopes Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/  File: python.info, Node: New and Improved Modules<3>, Next: Interpreter Changes and Fixes, Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.9 New and Improved Modules ------------------------------- * The *note xmlrpclib: 12e. module was contributed to the standard library by Fredrik Lundh, providing support for writing XML-RPC clients. XML-RPC is a simple remote procedure call protocol built on top of HTTP and XML. For example, the following snippet retrieves a list of RSS channels from the O’Reilly Network, and then lists the recent headlines for one channel: import xmlrpclib s = xmlrpclib.Server( 'http://www.oreillynet.com/meerkat/xml-rpc/server.php') channels = s.meerkat.getChannels() # channels is a list of dictionaries, like this: # [{'id': 4, 'title': 'Freshmeat Daily News'} # {'id': 190, 'title': '32Bits Online'}, # {'id': 4549, 'title': '3DGamers'}, ... ] # Get the items for one channel items = s.meerkat.getItems( {'channel': 4} ) # 'items' is another list of dictionaries, like this: # [{'link': 'http://freshmeat.net/releases/52719/', # 'description': 'A utility which converts HTML to XSL FO.', # 'title': 'html2fo 0.3 (Default)'}, ... ] The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 12f. module makes it easy to create straightforward XML-RPC servers. See ‘http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/’ for more information about XML-RPC. * The new *note hmac: 6a. module implements the HMAC algorithm described by RFC 2104(1). (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.) * Several functions that originally returned lengthy tuples now return pseudo-sequences that still behave like tuples but also have mnemonic attributes such as ‘memberst_mtime’ or *note tm_year: 14c3. The enhanced functions include *note stat(): 49c, *note fstat(): d8b, *note statvfs(): 10f0, and *note fstatvfs(): d8c. in the *note os: a1. module, and *note localtime(): 14c4, *note gmtime(): 11b2, and *note strptime(): 13f8. in the *note time: ee. module. For example, to obtain a file’s size using the old tuples, you’d end up writing something like ‘file_size = os.stat(filename)[stat.ST_SIZE]’, but now this can be written more clearly as ‘file_size = os.stat(filename).st_size’. The original patch for this feature was contributed by Nick Mathewson. * The Python profiler has been extensively reworked and various errors in its output have been corrected. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr. and Tim Peters.) * The *note socket: cc. module can be compiled to support IPv6; specify the ‘--enable-ipv6’ option to Python’s configure script. (Contributed by Jun-ichiro “itojun” Hagino.) * Two new format characters were added to the *note struct: d5. module for 64-bit integers on platforms that support the C long long type. ‘q’ is for a signed 64-bit integer, and ‘Q’ is for an unsigned one. The value is returned in Python’s long integer type. (Contributed by Tim Peters.) * In the interpreter’s interactive mode, there’s a new built-in function *note help(): 8d6. that uses the *note pydoc: b5. module introduced in Python 2.1 to provide interactive help. ‘help(object)’ displays any available help text about 'object'. *note help(): 8d6. with no argument puts you in an online help utility, where you can enter the names of functions, classes, or modules to read their help text. (Contributed by Guido van Rossum, using Ka-Ping Yee’s *note pydoc: b5. module.) * Various bugfixes and performance improvements have been made to the SRE engine underlying the *note re: b9. module. For example, the *note re.sub(): 2a5. and *note re.split(): 2a4. functions have been rewritten in C. Another contributed patch speeds up certain Unicode character ranges by a factor of two, and a new *note finditer(): 14c5. method that returns an iterator over all the non-overlapping matches in a given string. (SRE is maintained by Fredrik Lundh. The BIGCHARSET patch was contributed by Martin von Löwis.) * The *note smtplib: ca. module now supports RFC 2487(2), “Secure SMTP over TLS”, so it’s now possible to encrypt the SMTP traffic between a Python program and the mail transport agent being handed a message. *note smtplib: ca. also supports SMTP authentication. (Contributed by Gerhard Häring.) * The *note imaplib: 74. module, maintained by Piers Lauder, has support for several new extensions: the NAMESPACE extension defined in RFC 2342(3), SORT, GETACL and SETACL. (Contributed by Anthony Baxter and Michel Pelletier.) * The ‘rfc822’ module’s parsing of email addresses is now compliant with RFC 2822(4), an update to RFC 822(5). (The module’s name is 'not' going to be changed to ‘rfc2822’.) A new package, *note email: 3b, has also been added for parsing and generating e-mail messages. (Contributed by Barry Warsaw, and arising out of his work on Mailman.) * The *note difflib: 37. module now contains a new ‘Differ’ class for producing human-readable lists of changes (a “delta”) between two sequences of lines of text. There are also two generator functions, ‘ndiff()’ and ‘restore()’, which respectively return a delta from two sequences, or one of the original sequences from a delta. (Grunt work contributed by David Goodger, from ndiff.py code by Tim Peters who then did the generatorization.) * New constants ‘ascii_letters’, ‘ascii_lowercase’, and ‘ascii_uppercase’ were added to the *note string: d3. module. There were several modules in the standard library that used ‘string.letters’ to mean the ranges A-Za-z, but that assumption is incorrect when locales are in use, because ‘string.letters’ varies depending on the set of legal characters defined by the current locale. The buggy modules have all been fixed to use ‘ascii_letters’ instead. (Reported by an unknown person; fixed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.) * The *note mimetypes: 8f. module now makes it easier to use alternative MIME-type databases by the addition of a *note MimeTypes: 14c6. class, which takes a list of filenames to be parsed. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.) * A *note Timer: 114d. class was added to the *note threading: ed. module that allows scheduling an activity to happen at some future time. (Contributed by Itamar Shtull-Trauring.) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2104.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2487.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2342.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html  File: python.info, Node: Interpreter Changes and Fixes, Next: Other Changes and Fixes<3>, Prev: New and Improved Modules<3>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.10 Interpreter Changes and Fixes ------------------------------------- Some of the changes only affect people who deal with the Python interpreter at the C level because they’re writing Python extension modules, embedding the interpreter, or just hacking on the interpreter itself. If you only write Python code, none of the changes described here will affect you very much. * Profiling and tracing functions can now be implemented in C, which can operate at much higher speeds than Python-based functions and should reduce the overhead of profiling and tracing. This will be of interest to authors of development environments for Python. Two new C functions were added to Python’s API, *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c8. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d. The existing *note sys.setprofile(): 14c9. and *note sys.settrace(): 14ca. functions still exist, and have simply been changed to use the new C-level interface. (Contributed by Fred L. Drake, Jr.) * Another low-level API, primarily of interest to implementers of Python debuggers and development tools, was added. *note PyInterpreterState_Head(): 14cb. and *note PyInterpreterState_Next(): 14cc. let a caller walk through all the existing interpreter objects; *note PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead(): 14cd. and *note PyThreadState_Next(): 14ce. allow looping over all the thread states for a given interpreter. (Contributed by David Beazley.) * The C-level interface to the garbage collector has been changed to make it easier to write extension types that support garbage collection and to debug misuses of the functions. Various functions have slightly different semantics, so a bunch of functions had to be renamed. Extensions that use the old API will still compile but will 'not' participate in garbage collection, so updating them for 2.2 should be considered fairly high priority. To upgrade an extension module to the new API, perform the following steps: * Rename ‘Py_TPFLAGS_GC’ to *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. * Use *note PyObject_GC_New(): aa2. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa3. to allocate objects, and *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cf. to deallocate them. * Rename ‘PyObject_GC_Init()’ to *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14d0. and ‘PyObject_GC_Fini()’ to *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. * Remove ‘PyGC_HEAD_SIZE’ from object size calculations. * Remove calls to ‘PyObject_AS_GC()’ and ‘PyObject_FROM_GC()’. * A new ‘et’ format sequence was added to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.; ‘et’ takes both a parameter and an encoding name, and converts the parameter to the given encoding if the parameter turns out to be a Unicode string, or leaves it alone if it’s an 8-bit string, assuming it to already be in the desired encoding. This differs from the ‘es’ format character, which assumes that 8-bit strings are in Python’s default ASCII encoding and converts them to the specified new encoding. (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg, and used for the MBCS support on Windows described in the following section.) * A different argument parsing function, *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14d2, has been added that’s simpler and presumably faster. Instead of specifying a format string, the caller simply gives the minimum and maximum number of arguments expected, and a set of pointers to *note PyObject: 334.* variables that will be filled in with argument values. * Two new flags *note METH_NOARGS: 149f. and *note METH_O: 14d3. are available in method definition tables to simplify implementation of methods with no arguments or a single untyped argument. Calling such methods is more efficient than calling a corresponding method that uses *note METH_VARARGS: 14d4. Also, the old ‘METH_OLDARGS’ style of writing C methods is now officially deprecated. * Two new wrapper functions, *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d5. and *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14d6. were added to provide cross-platform implementations for the relatively new ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’ C lib APIs. In contrast to the standard ‘sprintf()’ and ‘vsprintf()’ functions, the Python versions check the bounds of the buffer used to protect against buffer overruns. (Contributed by M.-A. Lemburg.) * The *note _PyTuple_Resize(): 14d7. function has lost an unused parameter, so now it takes 2 parameters instead of 3. The third argument was never used, and can simply be discarded when porting code from earlier versions to Python 2.2.  File: python.info, Node: Other Changes and Fixes<3>, Next: Acknowledgements<6>, Prev: Interpreter Changes and Fixes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.11 Other Changes and Fixes ------------------------------- As usual there were a bunch of other improvements and bugfixes scattered throughout the source tree. A search through the CVS change logs finds there were 527 patches applied and 683 bugs fixed between Python 2.1 and 2.2; 2.2.1 applied 139 patches and fixed 143 bugs; 2.2.2 applied 106 patches and fixed 82 bugs. These figures are likely to be underestimates. Some of the more notable changes are: * The code for the MacOS port for Python, maintained by Jack Jansen, is now kept in the main Python CVS tree, and many changes have been made to support MacOS X. The most significant change is the ability to build Python as a framework, enabled by supplying the ‘--enable-framework’ option to the configure script when compiling Python. According to Jack Jansen, “This installs a self-contained Python installation plus the OS X framework “glue” into ‘/Library/Frameworks/Python.framework’ (or another location of choice). For now there is little immediate added benefit to this (actually, there is the disadvantage that you have to change your PATH to be able to find Python), but it is the basis for creating a full-blown Python application, porting the MacPython IDE, possibly using Python as a standard OSA scripting language and much more.” Most of the MacPython toolbox modules, which interface to MacOS APIs such as windowing, QuickTime, scripting, etc. have been ported to OS X, but they’ve been left commented out in ‘setup.py’. People who want to experiment with these modules can uncomment them manually. * Keyword arguments passed to built-in functions that don’t take them now cause a *note TypeError: 534. exception to be raised, with the message “'function' takes no keyword arguments”. * Weak references, added in Python 2.1 as an extension module, are now part of the core because they’re used in the implementation of new-style classes. The *note ReferenceError: 14d9. exception has therefore moved from the *note weakref: 114. module to become a built-in exception. * A new script, ‘Tools/scripts/cleanfuture.py’ by Tim Peters, automatically removes obsolete ‘__future__’ statements from Python source code. * An additional 'flags' argument has been added to the built-in function *note compile(): 192, so the behaviour of ‘__future__’ statements can now be correctly observed in simulated shells, such as those presented by IDLE and other development environments. This is described in PEP 264(1). (Contributed by Michael Hudson.) * The new license introduced with Python 1.6 wasn’t GPL-compatible. This is fixed by some minor textual changes to the 2.2 license, so it’s now legal to embed Python inside a GPLed program again. Note that Python itself is not GPLed, but instead is under a license that’s essentially equivalent to the BSD license, same as it always was. The license changes were also applied to the Python 2.0.1 and 2.1.1 releases. * When presented with a Unicode filename on Windows, Python will now convert it to an MBCS encoded string, as used by the Microsoft file APIs. As MBCS is explicitly used by the file APIs, Python’s choice of ASCII as the default encoding turns out to be an annoyance. On Unix, the locale’s character set is used if ‘locale.nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ is available. (Windows support was contributed by Mark Hammond with assistance from Marc-André Lemburg. Unix support was added by Martin von Löwis.) * Large file support is now enabled on Windows. (Contributed by Tim Peters.) * The ‘Tools/scripts/ftpmirror.py’ script now parses a ‘.netrc’ file, if you have one. (Contributed by Mike Romberg.) * Some features of the object returned by the ‘xrange()’ function are now deprecated, and trigger warnings when they’re accessed; they’ll disappear in Python 2.3. ‘xrange’ objects tried to pretend they were full sequence types by supporting slicing, sequence multiplication, and the *note in: 2ee. operator, but these features were rarely used and therefore buggy. The ‘tolist()’ method and the ‘start’, ‘stop’, and ‘step’ attributes are also being deprecated. At the C level, the fourth argument to the ‘PyRange_New()’ function, ‘repeat’, has also been deprecated. * There were a bunch of patches to the dictionary implementation, mostly to fix potential core dumps if a dictionary contains objects that sneakily changed their hash value, or mutated the dictionary they were contained in. For a while python-dev fell into a gentle rhythm of Michael Hudson finding a case that dumped core, Tim Peters fixing the bug, Michael finding another case, and round and round it went. * On Windows, Python can now be compiled with Borland C thanks to a number of patches contributed by Stephen Hansen, though the result isn’t fully functional yet. (But this 'is' progress…) * Another Windows enhancement: Wise Solutions generously offered PythonLabs use of their InstallerMaster 8.1 system. Earlier PythonLabs Windows installers used Wise 5.0a, which was beginning to show its age. (Packaged up by Tim Peters.) * Files ending in ‘.pyw’ can now be imported on Windows. ‘.pyw’ is a Windows-only thing, used to indicate that a script needs to be run using PYTHONW.EXE instead of PYTHON.EXE in order to prevent a DOS console from popping up to display the output. This patch makes it possible to import such scripts, in case they’re also usable as modules. (Implemented by David Bolen.) * On platforms where Python uses the C ‘dlopen()’ function to load extension modules, it’s now possible to set the flags used by ‘dlopen()’ using the *note sys.getdlopenflags(): 14da. and *note sys.setdlopenflags(): 1113. functions. (Contributed by Bram Stolk.) * The *note pow(): 9d2. built-in function no longer supports 3 arguments when floating-point numbers are supplied. ‘pow(x, y, z)’ returns ‘(x**y) % z’, but this is never useful for floating-point numbers, and the final result varies unpredictably depending on the platform. A call such as ‘pow(2.0, 8.0, 7.0)’ will now raise a *note TypeError: 534. exception. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0264/  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<6>, Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<3>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 2 1.20.12 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Fred Bremmer, Keith Briggs, Andrew Dalke, Fred L. Drake, Jr., Carel Fellinger, David Goodger, Mark Hammond, Stephen Hansen, Michael Hudson, Jack Jansen, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Fredrik Lundh, Michael McLay, Nick Mathewson, Paul Moore, Gustavo Niemeyer, Don O’Donnell, Joonas Paalasma, Tim Peters, Jens Quade, Tom Reinhardt, Neil Schemenauer, Guido van Rossum, Greg Ward, Edward Welbourne.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 1, Next: What’s New in Python 2 0, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 2, Up: What’s New in Python 1.21 What’s New in Python 2.1 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<2>. * PEP 227; Nested Scopes: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>. * PEP 236; __future__ Directives: PEP 236 __future__ Directives. * PEP 207; Rich Comparisons: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons. * PEP 230; Warning Framework: PEP 230 Warning Framework. * PEP 229; New Build System: PEP 229 New Build System. * PEP 205; Weak References: PEP 205 Weak References. * PEP 232; Function Attributes: PEP 232 Function Attributes. * PEP 235; Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms. * PEP 217; Interactive Display Hook: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook. * PEP 208; New Coercion Model: PEP 208 New Coercion Model. * PEP 241; Metadata in Python Packages: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages. * New and Improved Modules: New and Improved Modules<4>. * Other Changes and Fixes: Other Changes and Fixes<4>. * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<7>.  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<2>, Next: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.1 Introduction ------------------- This article explains the new features in Python 2.1. While there aren’t as many changes in 2.1 as there were in Python 2.0, there are still some pleasant surprises in store. 2.1 is the first release to be steered through the use of Python Enhancement Proposals, or PEPs, so most of the sizable changes have accompanying PEPs that provide more complete documentation and a design rationale for the change. This article doesn’t attempt to document the new features completely, but simply provides an overview of the new features for Python programmers. Refer to the Python 2.1 documentation, or to the specific PEP, for more details about any new feature that particularly interests you. One recent goal of the Python development team has been to accelerate the pace of new releases, with a new release coming every 6 to 9 months. 2.1 is the first release to come out at this faster pace, with the first alpha appearing in January, 3 months after the final version of 2.0 was released. The final release of Python 2.1 was made on April 17, 2001.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>, Next: PEP 236 __future__ Directives, Prev: Introduction<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.2 PEP 227: Nested Scopes ----------------------------- The largest change in Python 2.1 is to Python’s scoping rules. In Python 2.0, at any given time there are at most three namespaces used to look up variable names: local, module-level, and the built-in namespace. This often surprised people because it didn’t match their intuitive expectations. For example, a nested recursive function definition doesn’t work: def f(): ... def g(value): ... return g(value-1) + 1 ... The function ‘g()’ will always raise a *note NameError: 43a. exception, because the binding of the name ‘g’ isn’t in either its local namespace or in the module-level namespace. This isn’t much of a problem in practice (how often do you recursively define interior functions like this?), but this also made using the *note lambda: 128f. expression clumsier, and this was a problem in practice. In code which uses *note lambda: 128f. you can often find local variables being copied by passing them as the default values of arguments. def find(self, name): "Return list of any entries equal to 'name'" L = filter(lambda x, name=name: x == name, self.list_attribute) return L The readability of Python code written in a strongly functional style suffers greatly as a result. The most significant change to Python 2.1 is that static scoping has been added to the language to fix this problem. As a first effect, the ‘name=name’ default argument is now unnecessary in the above example. Put simply, when a given variable name is not assigned a value within a function (by an assignment, or the *note def: 1423, *note class: 12ca, or *note import: 5de. statements), references to the variable will be looked up in the local namespace of the enclosing scope. A more detailed explanation of the rules, and a dissection of the implementation, can be found in the PEP. This change may cause some compatibility problems for code where the same variable name is used both at the module level and as a local variable within a function that contains further function definitions. This seems rather unlikely though, since such code would have been pretty confusing to read in the first place. One side effect of the change is that the ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ statements have been made illegal inside a function scope under certain conditions. The Python reference manual has said all along that ‘from module import *’ is only legal at the top level of a module, but the CPython interpreter has never enforced this before. As part of the implementation of nested scopes, the compiler which turns Python source into bytecodes has to generate different code to access variables in a containing scope. ‘from module import *’ and ‘exec’ make it impossible for the compiler to figure this out, because they add names to the local namespace that are unknowable at compile time. Therefore, if a function contains function definitions or *note lambda: 128f. expressions with free variables, the compiler will flag this by raising a *note SyntaxError: 18d. exception. To make the preceding explanation a bit clearer, here’s an example: x = 1 def f(): # The next line is a syntax error exec 'x=2' def g(): return x Line 4 containing the ‘exec’ statement is a syntax error, since ‘exec’ would define a new local variable named ‘x’ whose value should be accessed by ‘g()’. This shouldn’t be much of a limitation, since ‘exec’ is rarely used in most Python code (and when it is used, it’s often a sign of a poor design anyway). Compatibility concerns have led to nested scopes being introduced gradually; in Python 2.1, they aren’t enabled by default, but can be turned on within a module by using a future statement as described in PEP 236(1). (See the following section for further discussion of PEP 236(2).) In Python 2.2, nested scopes will become the default and there will be no way to turn them off, but users will have had all of 2.1’s lifetime to fix any breakage resulting from their introduction. See also ........ PEP 227(3) - Statically Nested Scopes Written and implemented by Jeremy Hylton. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives, Next: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons, Prev: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.3 PEP 236: __future__ Directives ------------------------------------- The reaction to nested scopes was widespread concern about the dangers of breaking code with the 2.1 release, and it was strong enough to make the Pythoneers take a more conservative approach. This approach consists of introducing a convention for enabling optional functionality in release N that will become compulsory in release N+1. The syntax uses a ‘from...import’ statement using the reserved module name *note __future__: 0. Nested scopes can be enabled by the following statement: from __future__ import nested_scopes While it looks like a normal *note import: 5de. statement, it’s not; there are strict rules on where such a future statement can be put. They can only be at the top of a module, and must precede any Python code or regular ‘import’ statements. This is because such statements can affect how the Python bytecode compiler parses code and generates bytecode, so they must precede any statement that will result in bytecodes being produced. See also ........ PEP 236(1) - Back to the *note __future__: 0. Written by Tim Peters, and primarily implemented by Jeremy Hylton. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons, Next: PEP 230 Warning Framework, Prev: PEP 236 __future__ Directives, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.4 PEP 207: Rich Comparisons -------------------------------- In earlier versions, Python’s support for implementing comparisons on user-defined classes and extension types was quite simple. Classes could implement a ‘__cmp__()’ method that was given two instances of a class, and could only return 0 if they were equal or +1 or -1 if they weren’t; the method couldn’t raise an exception or return anything other than a Boolean value. Users of Numeric Python often found this model too weak and restrictive, because in the number-crunching programs that numeric Python is used for, it would be more useful to be able to perform elementwise comparisons of two matrices, returning a matrix containing the results of a given comparison for each element. If the two matrices are of different sizes, then the compare has to be able to raise an exception to signal the error. In Python 2.1, rich comparisons were added in order to support this need. Python classes can now individually overload each of the ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘>’, ‘>=’, ‘==’, and ‘!=’ operations. The new magic method names are: Operation Method name --------------------------------------------- ‘<’ *note __lt__(): 1292. ‘<=’ *note __le__(): 12fe. ‘>’ *note __gt__(): 12ff. ‘>=’ *note __ge__(): 1300. ‘==’ *note __eq__(): afa. ‘!=’ *note __ne__(): 14e2. (The magic methods are named after the corresponding Fortran operators ‘.LT.’. ‘.LE.’, &c. Numeric programmers are almost certainly quite familiar with these names and will find them easy to remember.) Each of these magic methods is of the form ‘method(self, other)’, where ‘self’ will be the object on the left-hand side of the operator, while ‘other’ will be the object on the right-hand side. For example, the expression ‘A < B’ will cause ‘A.__lt__(B)’ to be called. Each of these magic methods can return anything at all: a Boolean, a matrix, a list, or any other Python object. Alternatively they can raise an exception if the comparison is impossible, inconsistent, or otherwise meaningless. The built-in ‘cmp(A,B)’ function can use the rich comparison machinery, and now accepts an optional argument specifying which comparison operation to use; this is given as one of the strings ‘"<"’, ‘"<="’, ‘">"’, ‘">="’, ‘"=="’, or ‘"!="’. If called without the optional third argument, ‘cmp()’ will only return -1, 0, or +1 as in previous versions of Python; otherwise it will call the appropriate method and can return any Python object. There are also corresponding changes of interest to C programmers; there’s a new slot ‘tp_richcmp’ in type objects and an API for performing a given rich comparison. I won’t cover the C API here, but will refer you to PEP 207(1), or to 2.1’s C API documentation, for the full list of related functions. See also ........ PEP 207(2) - Rich Comparisons Written by Guido van Rossum, heavily based on earlier work by David Ascher, and implemented by Guido van Rossum. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0207/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework, Next: PEP 229 New Build System, Prev: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.5 PEP 230: Warning Framework --------------------------------- Over its 10 years of existence, Python has accumulated a certain number of obsolete modules and features along the way. It’s difficult to know when a feature is safe to remove, since there’s no way of knowing how much code uses it — perhaps no programs depend on the feature, or perhaps many do. To enable removing old features in a more structured way, a warning framework was added. When the Python developers want to get rid of a feature, it will first trigger a warning in the next version of Python. The following Python version can then drop the feature, and users will have had a full release cycle to remove uses of the old feature. Python 2.1 adds the warning framework to be used in this scheme. It adds a *note warnings: 112. module that provide functions to issue warnings, and to filter out warnings that you don’t want to be displayed. Third-party modules can also use this framework to deprecate old features that they no longer wish to support. For example, in Python 2.1 the ‘regex’ module is deprecated, so importing it causes a warning to be printed: >>> import regex __main__:1: DeprecationWarning: the regex module is deprecated; please use the re module >>> Warnings can be issued by calling the *note warnings.warn(): 14e4. function: warnings.warn("feature X no longer supported") The first parameter is the warning message; an additional optional parameters can be used to specify a particular warning category. Filters can be added to disable certain warnings; a regular expression pattern can be applied to the message or to the module name in order to suppress a warning. For example, you may have a program that uses the ‘regex’ module and not want to spare the time to convert it to use the *note re: b9. module right now. The warning can be suppressed by calling import warnings warnings.filterwarnings(action = 'ignore', message='.*regex module is deprecated', category=DeprecationWarning, module = '__main__') This adds a filter that will apply only to warnings of the class *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. triggered in the *note __main__: 1. module, and applies a regular expression to only match the message about the ‘regex’ module being deprecated, and will cause such warnings to be ignored. Warnings can also be printed only once, printed every time the offending code is executed, or turned into exceptions that will cause the program to stop (unless the exceptions are caught in the usual way, of course). Functions were also added to Python’s C API for issuing warnings; refer to PEP 230 or to Python’s API documentation for the details. See also ........ PEP 5(1) - Guidelines for Language Evolution Written by Paul Prescod, to specify procedures to be followed when removing old features from Python. The policy described in this PEP hasn’t been officially adopted, but the eventual policy probably won’t be too different from Prescod’s proposal. PEP 230(2) - Warning Framework Written and implemented by Guido van Rossum. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0230/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 229 New Build System, Next: PEP 205 Weak References, Prev: PEP 230 Warning Framework, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.6 PEP 229: New Build System -------------------------------- When compiling Python, the user had to go in and edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable various additional modules; the default set is relatively small and limited to modules that compile on most Unix platforms. This means that on Unix platforms with many more features, most notably Linux, Python installations often don’t contain all useful modules they could. Python 2.0 added the Distutils, a set of modules for distributing and installing extensions. In Python 2.1, the Distutils are used to compile much of the standard library of extension modules, autodetecting which ones are supported on the current machine. It’s hoped that this will make Python installations easier and more featureful. Instead of having to edit the ‘Modules/Setup’ file in order to enable modules, a ‘setup.py’ script in the top directory of the Python source distribution is run at build time, and attempts to discover which modules can be enabled by examining the modules and header files on the system. If a module is configured in ‘Modules/Setup’, the ‘setup.py’ script won’t attempt to compile that module and will defer to the ‘Modules/Setup’ file’s contents. This provides a way to specific any strange command-line flags or libraries that are required for a specific platform. In another far-reaching change to the build mechanism, Neil Schemenauer restructured things so Python now uses a single makefile that isn’t recursive, instead of makefiles in the top directory and in each of the ‘Python/’, ‘Parser/’, ‘Objects/’, and ‘Modules/’ subdirectories. This makes building Python faster and also makes hacking the Makefiles clearer and simpler. See also ........ PEP 229(1) - Using Distutils to Build Python Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0229/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 205 Weak References, Next: PEP 232 Function Attributes, Prev: PEP 229 New Build System, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.7 PEP 205: Weak References ------------------------------- Weak references, available through the *note weakref: 114. module, are a minor but useful new data type in the Python programmer’s toolbox. Storing a reference to an object (say, in a dictionary or a list) has the side effect of keeping that object alive forever. There are a few specific cases where this behaviour is undesirable, object caches being the most common one, and another being circular references in data structures such as trees. For example, consider a memoizing function that caches the results of another function ‘f(x)’ by storing the function’s argument and its result in a dictionary: _cache = {} def memoize(x): if _cache.has_key(x): return _cache[x] retval = f(x) # Cache the returned object _cache[x] = retval return retval This version works for simple things such as integers, but it has a side effect; the ‘_cache’ dictionary holds a reference to the return values, so they’ll never be deallocated until the Python process exits and cleans up. This isn’t very noticeable for integers, but if ‘f()’ returns an object, or a data structure that takes up a lot of memory, this can be a problem. Weak references provide a way to implement a cache that won’t keep objects alive beyond their time. If an object is only accessible through weak references, the object will be deallocated and the weak references will now indicate that the object it referred to no longer exists. A weak reference to an object 'obj' is created by calling ‘wr = weakref.ref(obj)’. The object being referred to is returned by calling the weak reference as if it were a function: ‘wr()’. It will return the referenced object, or ‘None’ if the object no longer exists. This makes it possible to write a ‘memoize()’ function whose cache doesn’t keep objects alive, by storing weak references in the cache. _cache = {} def memoize(x): if _cache.has_key(x): obj = _cache[x]() # If weak reference object still exists, # return it if obj is not None: return obj retval = f(x) # Cache a weak reference _cache[x] = weakref.ref(retval) return retval The *note weakref: 114. module also allows creating proxy objects which behave like weak references — an object referenced only by proxy objects is deallocated – but instead of requiring an explicit call to retrieve the object, the proxy transparently forwards all operations to the object as long as the object still exists. If the object is deallocated, attempting to use a proxy will cause a ‘weakref.ReferenceError’ exception to be raised. proxy = weakref.proxy(obj) proxy.attr # Equivalent to obj.attr proxy.meth() # Equivalent to obj.meth() del obj proxy.attr # raises weakref.ReferenceError See also ........ PEP 205(1) - Weak References Written and implemented by Fred L. Drake, Jr. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0205/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes, Next: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms, Prev: PEP 205 Weak References, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.8 PEP 232: Function Attributes ----------------------------------- In Python 2.1, functions can now have arbitrary information attached to them. People were often using docstrings to hold information about functions and methods, because the *note __doc__: 11cb. attribute was the only way of attaching any information to a function. For example, in the Zope web application server, functions are marked as safe for public access by having a docstring, and in John Aycock’s SPARK parsing framework, docstrings hold parts of the BNF grammar to be parsed. This overloading is unfortunate, since docstrings are really intended to hold a function’s documentation; for example, it means you can’t properly document functions intended for private use in Zope. Arbitrary attributes can now be set and retrieved on functions using the regular Python syntax: def f(): pass f.publish = 1 f.secure = 1 f.grammar = "A ::= B (C D)*" The dictionary containing attributes can be accessed as the function’s *note __dict__: 12c5. Unlike the *note __dict__: c5d. attribute of class instances, in functions you can actually assign a new dictionary to *note __dict__: 12c5, though the new value is restricted to a regular Python dictionary; you 'can’t' be tricky and set it to a ‘UserDict’ instance, or any other random object that behaves like a mapping. See also ........ PEP 232(1) - Function Attributes Written and implemented by Barry Warsaw. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0232/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms, Next: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook, Prev: PEP 232 Function Attributes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.9 PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms --------------------------------------------------------------- Some operating systems have filesystems that are case-insensitive, MacOS and Windows being the primary examples; on these systems, it’s impossible to distinguish the filenames ‘FILE.PY’ and ‘file.py’, even though they do store the file’s name in its original case (they’re case-preserving, too). In Python 2.1, the *note import: 5de. statement will work to simulate case-sensitivity on case-insensitive platforms. Python will now search for the first case-sensitive match by default, raising an *note ImportError: 415. if no such file is found, so ‘import file’ will not import a module named ‘FILE.PY’. Case-insensitive matching can be requested by setting the *note PYTHONCASEOK: 95c. environment variable before starting the Python interpreter.  File: python.info, Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook, Next: PEP 208 New Coercion Model, Prev: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.10 PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook ----------------------------------------- When using the Python interpreter interactively, the output of commands is displayed using the built-in *note repr(): 7f9. function. In Python 2.1, the variable *note sys.displayhook(): 14ea. can be set to a callable object which will be called instead of *note repr(): 7f9. For example, you can set it to a special pretty-printing function: >>> # Create a recursive data structure ... L = [1,2,3] >>> L.append(L) >>> L # Show Python's default output [1, 2, 3, [...]] >>> # Use pprint.pprint() as the display function ... import sys, pprint >>> sys.displayhook = pprint.pprint >>> L [1, 2, 3, ] >>> See also ........ PEP 217(1) - Display Hook for Interactive Use Written and implemented by Moshe Zadka. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0217/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model, Next: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages, Prev: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.11 PEP 208: New Coercion Model ----------------------------------- How numeric coercion is done at the C level was significantly modified. This will only affect the authors of C extensions to Python, allowing them more flexibility in writing extension types that support numeric operations. Extension types can now set the type flag ‘Py_TPFLAGS_CHECKTYPES’ in their ‘PyTypeObject’ structure to indicate that they support the new coercion model. In such extension types, the numeric slot functions can no longer assume that they’ll be passed two arguments of the same type; instead they may be passed two arguments of differing types, and can then perform their own internal coercion. If the slot function is passed a type it can’t handle, it can indicate the failure by returning a reference to the ‘Py_NotImplemented’ singleton value. The numeric functions of the other type will then be tried, and perhaps they can handle the operation; if the other type also returns ‘Py_NotImplemented’, then a *note TypeError: 534. will be raised. Numeric methods written in Python can also return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, causing the interpreter to act as if the method did not exist (perhaps raising a *note TypeError: 534, perhaps trying another object’s numeric methods). See also ........ PEP 208(1) - Reworking the Coercion Model Written and implemented by Neil Schemenauer, heavily based upon earlier work by Marc-André Lemburg. Read this to understand the fine points of how numeric operations will now be processed at the C level. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0208/  File: python.info, Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages, Next: New and Improved Modules<4>, Prev: PEP 208 New Coercion Model, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.12 PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages -------------------------------------------- A common complaint from Python users is that there’s no single catalog of all the Python modules in existence. T. Middleton’s Vaults of Parnassus at ‘www.vex.net/parnassus/’ (retired in February 2009, available in the Internet Archive Wayback Machine(1)) was the largest catalog of Python modules, but registering software at the Vaults is optional, and many people did not bother. As a first small step toward fixing the problem, Python software packaged using the Distutils ‘sdist’ command will include a file named ‘PKG-INFO’ containing information about the package such as its name, version, and author (metadata, in cataloguing terminology). PEP 241(2) contains the full list of fields that can be present in the ‘PKG-INFO’ file. As people began to package their software using Python 2.1, more and more packages will include metadata, making it possible to build automated cataloguing systems and experiment with them. With the result experience, perhaps it’ll be possible to design a really good catalog and then build support for it into Python 2.2. For example, the Distutils ‘sdist’ and ‘bdist_*’ commands could support an ‘upload’ option that would automatically upload your package to a catalog server. You can start creating packages containing ‘PKG-INFO’ even if you’re not using Python 2.1, since a new release of the Distutils will be made for users of earlier Python versions. Version 1.0.2 of the Distutils includes the changes described in PEP 241(3), as well as various bugfixes and enhancements. It will be available from the Distutils SIG at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/distutils-sig/’. See also ........ PEP 241(4) - Metadata for Python Software Packages Written and implemented by A.M. Kuchling. PEP 243(5) - Module Repository Upload Mechanism Written by Sean Reifschneider, this draft PEP describes a proposed mechanism for uploading Python packages to a central server. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://web.archive.org/web/20090130140102/http://www.vex.net/parnassus/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0241/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0243/  File: python.info, Node: New and Improved Modules<4>, Next: Other Changes and Fixes<4>, Prev: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.13 New and Improved Modules -------------------------------- * Ka-Ping Yee contributed two new modules: ‘inspect.py’, a module for getting information about live Python code, and ‘pydoc.py’, a module for interactively converting docstrings to HTML or text. As a bonus, ‘Tools/scripts/pydoc’, which is now automatically installed, uses ‘pydoc.py’ to display documentation given a Python module, package, or class name. For example, ‘pydoc xml.dom’ displays the following: Python Library Documentation: package xml.dom in xml NAME xml.dom - W3C Document Object Model implementation for Python. FILE /usr/local/lib/python2.1/xml/dom/__init__.pyc DESCRIPTION The Python mapping of the Document Object Model is documented in the Python Library Reference in the section on the xml.dom package. This package contains the following modules: ... ‘pydoc’ also includes a Tk-based interactive help browser. ‘pydoc’ quickly becomes addictive; try it out! * Two different modules for unit testing were added to the standard library. The *note doctest: 3a. module, contributed by Tim Peters, provides a testing framework based on running embedded examples in docstrings and comparing the results against the expected output. PyUnit, contributed by Steve Purcell, is a unit testing framework inspired by JUnit, which was in turn an adaptation of Kent Beck’s Smalltalk testing framework. See ‘https://pyunit.sourceforge.net/’ for more information about PyUnit. * The *note difflib: 37. module contains a class, *note SequenceMatcher: 1012, which compares two sequences and computes the changes required to transform one sequence into the other. For example, this module can be used to write a tool similar to the Unix ‘diff’ program, and in fact the sample program ‘Tools/scripts/ndiff.py’ demonstrates how to write such a script. * *note curses.panel: 2d, a wrapper for the panel library, part of ncurses and of SYSV curses, was contributed by Thomas Gellekum. The panel library provides windows with the additional feature of depth. Windows can be moved higher or lower in the depth ordering, and the panel library figures out where panels overlap and which sections are visible. * The PyXML package has gone through a few releases since Python 2.0, and Python 2.1 includes an updated version of the *note xml: 120. package. Some of the noteworthy changes include support for Expat 1.2 and later versions, the ability for Expat parsers to handle files in any encoding supported by Python, and various bugfixes for SAX, DOM, and the ‘minidom’ module. * Ping also contributed another hook for handling uncaught exceptions. *note sys.excepthook(): 807. can be set to a callable object. When an exception isn’t caught by any *note try: 6e4.…*note except: 18b. blocks, the exception will be passed to *note sys.excepthook(): 807, which can then do whatever it likes. At the Ninth Python Conference, Ping demonstrated an application for this hook: printing an extended traceback that not only lists the stack frames, but also lists the function arguments and the local variables for each frame. * Various functions in the *note time: ee. module, such as *note asctime(): 11d9. and *note localtime(): 14c4, require a floating-point argument containing the time in seconds since the epoch. The most common use of these functions is to work with the current time, so the floating-point argument has been made optional; when a value isn’t provided, the current time will be used. For example, log file entries usually need a string containing the current time; in Python 2.1, ‘time.asctime()’ can be used, instead of the lengthier ‘time.asctime(time.localtime(time.time()))’ that was previously required. This change was proposed and implemented by Thomas Wouters. * The *note ftplib: 5e. module now defaults to retrieving files in passive mode, because passive mode is more likely to work from behind a firewall. This request came from the Debian bug tracking system, since other Debian packages use *note ftplib: 5e. to retrieve files and then don’t work from behind a firewall. It’s deemed unlikely that this will cause problems for anyone, because Netscape defaults to passive mode and few people complain, but if passive mode is unsuitable for your application or network setup, call ‘set_pasv(0)’ on FTP objects to disable passive mode. * Support for raw socket access has been added to the *note socket: cc. module, contributed by Grant Edwards. * The *note pstats: b0. module now contains a simple interactive statistics browser for displaying timing profiles for Python programs, invoked when the module is run as a script. Contributed by Eric S. Raymond. * A new implementation-dependent function, ‘sys._getframe([depth])’, has been added to return a given frame object from the current call stack. *note sys._getframe(): 6dc. returns the frame at the top of the call stack; if the optional integer argument 'depth' is supplied, the function returns the frame that is 'depth' calls below the top of the stack. For example, ‘sys._getframe(1)’ returns the caller’s frame object. This function is only present in CPython, not in Jython or the .NET implementation. Use it for debugging, and resist the temptation to put it into production code.  File: python.info, Node: Other Changes and Fixes<4>, Next: Acknowledgements<7>, Prev: New and Improved Modules<4>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.14 Other Changes and Fixes ------------------------------- There were relatively few smaller changes made in Python 2.1 due to the shorter release cycle. A search through the CVS change logs turns up 117 patches applied, and 136 bugs fixed; both figures are likely to be underestimates. Some of the more notable changes are: * A specialized object allocator is now optionally available, that should be faster than the system ‘malloc()’ and have less memory overhead. The allocator uses C’s ‘malloc()’ function to get large pools of memory, and then fulfills smaller memory requests from these pools. It can be enabled by providing the ‘--with-pymalloc’ option to the ‘configure’ script; see ‘Objects/obmalloc.c’ for the implementation details. Authors of C extension modules should test their code with the object allocator enabled, because some incorrect code may break, causing core dumps at runtime. There are a bunch of memory allocation functions in Python’s C API that have previously been just aliases for the C library’s ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, meaning that if you accidentally called mismatched functions, the error wouldn’t be noticeable. When the object allocator is enabled, these functions aren’t aliases of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ any more, and calling the wrong function to free memory will get you a core dump. For example, if memory was allocated using *note PyMem_New: 14ef, it has to be freed using *note PyMem_Del(): 14f0, not ‘free()’. A few modules included with Python fell afoul of this and had to be fixed; doubtless there are more third-party modules that will have the same problem. The object allocator was contributed by Vladimir Marangozov. * The speed of line-oriented file I/O has been improved because people often complain about its lack of speed, and because it’s often been used as a naïve benchmark. The *note readline(): ba. method of file objects has therefore been rewritten to be much faster. The exact amount of the speedup will vary from platform to platform depending on how slow the C library’s ‘getc()’ was, but is around 66%, and potentially much faster on some particular operating systems. Tim Peters did much of the benchmarking and coding for this change, motivated by a discussion in comp.lang.python. A new module and method for file objects was also added, contributed by Jeff Epler. The new method, ‘xreadlines()’, is similar to the existing ‘xrange()’ built-in. ‘xreadlines()’ returns an opaque sequence object that only supports being iterated over, reading a line on every iteration but not reading the entire file into memory as the existing ‘readlines()’ method does. You’d use it like this: for line in sys.stdin.xreadlines(): # ... do something for each line ... ... For a fuller discussion of the line I/O changes, see the python-dev summary for January 1–15, 2001 at ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2001-January/’. * A new method, *note popitem(): 14f1, was added to dictionaries to enable destructively iterating through the contents of a dictionary; this can be faster for large dictionaries because there’s no need to construct a list containing all the keys or values. ‘D.popitem()’ removes a random ‘(key, value)’ pair from the dictionary ‘D’ and returns it as a 2-tuple. This was implemented mostly by Tim Peters and Guido van Rossum, after a suggestion and preliminary patch by Moshe Zadka. * Modules can now control which names are imported when ‘from module import *’ is used, by defining an ‘__all__’ attribute containing a list of names that will be imported. One common complaint is that if the module imports other modules such as *note sys: d9. or *note string: d3, ‘from module import *’ will add them to the importing module’s namespace. To fix this, simply list the public names in ‘__all__’: # List public names __all__ = ['Database', 'open'] A stricter version of this patch was first suggested and implemented by Ben Wolfson, but after some python-dev discussion, a weaker final version was checked in. * Applying *note repr(): 7f9. to strings previously used octal escapes for non-printable characters; for example, a newline was ‘'\012'’. This was a vestigial trace of Python’s C ancestry, but today octal is of very little practical use. Ka-Ping Yee suggested using hex escapes instead of octal ones, and using the ‘\n’, ‘\t’, ‘\r’ escapes for the appropriate characters, and implemented this new formatting. * Syntax errors detected at compile-time can now raise exceptions containing the filename and line number of the error, a pleasant side effect of the compiler reorganization done by Jeremy Hylton. * C extensions which import other modules have been changed to use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba, which means that they will use any import hooks that have been installed. This is also encouraged for third-party extensions that need to import some other module from C code. * The size of the Unicode character database was shrunk by another 340K thanks to Fredrik Lundh. * Some new ports were contributed: MacOS X (by Steven Majewski), Cygwin (by Jason Tishler); RISCOS (by Dietmar Schwertberger); Unixware 7 (by Billy G. Allie). And there’s the usual list of minor bugfixes, minor memory leaks, docstring edits, and other tweaks, too lengthy to be worth itemizing; see the CVS logs for the full details if you want them.  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<7>, Prev: Other Changes and Fixes<4>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 1 1.21.15 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on various drafts of this article: Graeme Cross, David Goodger, Jay Graves, Michael Hudson, Marc-André Lemburg, Fredrik Lundh, Neil Schemenauer, Thomas Wouters.  File: python.info, Node: What’s New in Python 2 0, Next: Changelog, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 1, Up: What’s New in Python 1.22 What’s New in Python 2.0 ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling and Moshe Zadka * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<3>. * What About Python 1.6?: What About Python 1 6?. * New Development Process:: * Unicode: Unicode<2>. * List Comprehensions:: * Augmented Assignment:: * String Methods:: * Garbage Collection of Cycles:: * Other Core Changes:: * Porting to 2.0: Porting to 2 0. * Extending/Embedding Changes:: * Distutils; Making Modules Easy to Install: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install. * XML Modules:: * Module changes:: * New modules:: * IDLE Improvements:: * Deleted and Deprecated Modules:: * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<8>.  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<3>, Next: What About Python 1 6?, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.1 Introduction ------------------- A new release of Python, version 2.0, was released on October 16, 2000. This article covers the exciting new features in 2.0, highlights some other useful changes, and points out a few incompatible changes that may require rewriting code. Python’s development never completely stops between releases, and a steady flow of bug fixes and improvements are always being submitted. A host of minor fixes, a few optimizations, additional docstrings, and better error messages went into 2.0; to list them all would be impossible, but they’re certainly significant. Consult the publicly available CVS logs if you want to see the full list. This progress is due to the five developers working for PythonLabs are now getting paid to spend their days fixing bugs, and also due to the improved communication resulting from moving to SourceForge.  File: python.info, Node: What About Python 1 6?, Next: New Development Process, Prev: Introduction<3>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.2 What About Python 1.6? ----------------------------- Python 1.6 can be thought of as the Contractual Obligations Python release. After the core development team left CNRI in May 2000, CNRI requested that a 1.6 release be created, containing all the work on Python that had been performed at CNRI. Python 1.6 therefore represents the state of the CVS tree as of May 2000, with the most significant new feature being Unicode support. Development continued after May, of course, so the 1.6 tree received a few fixes to ensure that it’s forward-compatible with Python 2.0. 1.6 is therefore part of Python’s evolution, and not a side branch. So, should you take much interest in Python 1.6? Probably not. The 1.6final and 2.0beta1 releases were made on the same day (September 5, 2000), the plan being to finalize Python 2.0 within a month or so. If you have applications to maintain, there seems little point in breaking things by moving to 1.6, fixing them, and then having another round of breakage within a month by moving to 2.0; you’re better off just going straight to 2.0. Most of the really interesting features described in this document are only in 2.0, because a lot of work was done between May and September.  File: python.info, Node: New Development Process, Next: Unicode<2>, Prev: What About Python 1 6?, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.3 New Development Process ------------------------------ The most important change in Python 2.0 may not be to the code at all, but to how Python is developed: in May 2000 the Python developers began using the tools made available by SourceForge for storing source code, tracking bug reports, and managing the queue of patch submissions. To report bugs or submit patches for Python 2.0, use the bug tracking and patch manager tools available from Python’s project page, located at ‘https://sourceforge.net/projects/python/’. The most important of the services now hosted at SourceForge is the Python CVS tree, the version-controlled repository containing the source code for Python. Previously, there were roughly 7 or so people who had write access to the CVS tree, and all patches had to be inspected and checked in by one of the people on this short list. Obviously, this wasn’t very scalable. By moving the CVS tree to SourceForge, it became possible to grant write access to more people; as of September 2000 there were 27 people able to check in changes, a fourfold increase. This makes possible large-scale changes that wouldn’t be attempted if they’d have to be filtered through the small group of core developers. For example, one day Peter Schneider-Kamp took it into his head to drop K&R C compatibility and convert the C source for Python to ANSI C. After getting approval on the python-dev mailing list, he launched into a flurry of checkins that lasted about a week, other developers joined in to help, and the job was done. If there were only 5 people with write access, probably that task would have been viewed as “nice, but not worth the time and effort needed” and it would never have gotten done. The shift to using SourceForge’s services has resulted in a remarkable increase in the speed of development. Patches now get submitted, commented on, revised by people other than the original submitter, and bounced back and forth between people until the patch is deemed worth checking in. Bugs are tracked in one central location and can be assigned to a specific person for fixing, and we can count the number of open bugs to measure progress. This didn’t come without a cost: developers now have more e-mail to deal with, more mailing lists to follow, and special tools had to be written for the new environment. For example, SourceForge sends default patch and bug notification e-mail messages that are completely unhelpful, so Ka-Ping Yee wrote an HTML screen-scraper that sends more useful messages. The ease of adding code caused a few initial growing pains, such as code was checked in before it was ready or without getting clear agreement from the developer group. The approval process that has emerged is somewhat similar to that used by the Apache group. Developers can vote +1, +0, -0, or -1 on a patch; +1 and -1 denote acceptance or rejection, while +0 and -0 mean the developer is mostly indifferent to the change, though with a slight positive or negative slant. The most significant change from the Apache model is that the voting is essentially advisory, letting Guido van Rossum, who has Benevolent Dictator For Life status, know what the general opinion is. He can still ignore the result of a vote, and approve or reject a change even if the community disagrees with him. Producing an actual patch is the last step in adding a new feature, and is usually easy compared to the earlier task of coming up with a good design. Discussions of new features can often explode into lengthy mailing list threads, making the discussion hard to follow, and no one can read every posting to python-dev. Therefore, a relatively formal process has been set up to write Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs), modelled on the internet RFC process. PEPs are draft documents that describe a proposed new feature, and are continually revised until the community reaches a consensus, either accepting or rejecting the proposal. Quoting from the introduction to PEP 1(1), “PEP Purpose and Guidelines”: PEP stands for Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python. The PEP should provide a concise technical specification of the feature and a rationale for the feature. We intend PEPs to be the primary mechanisms for proposing new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions. Read the rest of PEP 1(2) for the details of the PEP editorial process, style, and format. PEPs are kept in the Python CVS tree on SourceForge, though they’re not part of the Python 2.0 distribution, and are also available in HTML form from ‘https://peps.python.org/’. As of September 2000, there are 25 PEPs, ranging from PEP 201(3), “Lockstep Iteration”, to PEP 225, “Elementwise/Objectwise Operators”. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0201/  File: python.info, Node: Unicode<2>, Next: List Comprehensions, Prev: New Development Process, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.4 Unicode -------------- The largest new feature in Python 2.0 is a new fundamental data type: Unicode strings. Unicode uses 16-bit numbers to represent characters instead of the 8-bit number used by ASCII, meaning that 65,536 distinct characters can be supported. The final interface for Unicode support was arrived at through countless often-stormy discussions on the python-dev mailing list, and mostly implemented by Marc-André Lemburg, based on a Unicode string type implementation by Fredrik Lundh. A detailed explanation of the interface was written up as PEP 100(1), “Python Unicode Integration”. This article will simply cover the most significant points about the Unicode interfaces. In Python source code, Unicode strings are written as ‘u"string"’. Arbitrary Unicode characters can be written using a new escape sequence, ‘\uHHHH’, where 'HHHH' is a 4-digit hexadecimal number from 0000 to FFFF. The existing ‘\xHH’ escape sequence can also be used, and octal escapes can be used for characters up to U+01FF, which is represented by ‘\777’. Unicode strings, just like regular strings, are an immutable sequence type. They can be indexed and sliced, but not modified in place. Unicode strings have an ‘encode( [encoding] )’ method that returns an 8-bit string in the desired encoding. Encodings are named by strings, such as ‘'ascii'’, ‘'utf-8'’, ‘'iso-8859-1'’, or whatever. A codec API is defined for implementing and registering new encodings that are then available throughout a Python program. If an encoding isn’t specified, the default encoding is usually 7-bit ASCII, though it can be changed for your Python installation by calling the ‘sys.setdefaultencoding(encoding)’ function in a customized version of ‘site.py’. Combining 8-bit and Unicode strings always coerces to Unicode, using the default ASCII encoding; the result of ‘'a' + u'bc'’ is ‘u'abc'’. New built-in functions have been added, and existing built-ins modified to support Unicode: * ‘unichr(ch)’ returns a Unicode string 1 character long, containing the character 'ch'. * ‘ord(u)’, where 'u' is a 1-character regular or Unicode string, returns the number of the character as an integer. * ‘unicode(string [, encoding] [, errors] )’ creates a Unicode string from an 8-bit string. ‘encoding’ is a string naming the encoding to use. The ‘errors’ parameter specifies the treatment of characters that are invalid for the current encoding; passing ‘'strict'’ as the value causes an exception to be raised on any encoding error, while ‘'ignore'’ causes errors to be silently ignored and ‘'replace'’ uses U+FFFD, the official replacement character, in case of any problems. * The ‘exec’ statement, and various built-ins such as ‘eval()’, ‘getattr()’, and ‘setattr()’ will also accept Unicode strings as well as regular strings. (It’s possible that the process of fixing this missed some built-ins; if you find a built-in function that accepts strings but doesn’t accept Unicode strings at all, please report it as a bug.) A new module, *note unicodedata: 105, provides an interface to Unicode character properties. For example, ‘unicodedata.category(u'A')’ returns the 2-character string ‘Lu’, the ‘L’ denoting it’s a letter, and ‘u’ meaning that it’s uppercase. ‘unicodedata.bidirectional(u'\u0660')’ returns ‘AN’, meaning that U+0660 is an Arabic number. The *note codecs: 1b. module contains functions to look up existing encodings and register new ones. Unless you want to implement a new encoding, you’ll most often use the ‘codecs.lookup(encoding)’ function, which returns a 4-element tuple: ‘(encode_func, decode_func, stream_reader, stream_writer)’. * 'encode_func' is a function that takes a Unicode string, and returns a 2-tuple ‘(string, length)’. 'string' is an 8-bit string containing a portion (perhaps all) of the Unicode string converted into the given encoding, and 'length' tells you how much of the Unicode string was converted. * 'decode_func' is the opposite of 'encode_func', taking an 8-bit string and returning a 2-tuple ‘(ustring, length)’, consisting of the resulting Unicode string 'ustring' and the integer 'length' telling how much of the 8-bit string was consumed. * 'stream_reader' is a class that supports decoding input from a stream. 'stream_reader(file_obj)' returns an object that supports the ‘read()’, ‘readline()’, and ‘readlines()’ methods. These methods will all translate from the given encoding and return Unicode strings. * 'stream_writer', similarly, is a class that supports encoding output to a stream. 'stream_writer(file_obj)' returns an object that supports the ‘write()’ and ‘writelines()’ methods. These methods expect Unicode strings, translating them to the given encoding on output. For example, the following code writes a Unicode string into a file, encoding it as UTF-8: import codecs unistr = u'\u0660\u2000ab ...' (UTF8_encode, UTF8_decode, UTF8_streamreader, UTF8_streamwriter) = codecs.lookup('UTF-8') output = UTF8_streamwriter( open( '/tmp/output', 'wb') ) output.write( unistr ) output.close() The following code would then read UTF-8 input from the file: input = UTF8_streamreader( open( '/tmp/output', 'rb') ) print repr(input.read()) input.close() Unicode-aware regular expressions are available through the *note re: b9. module, which has a new underlying implementation called SRE written by Fredrik Lundh of Secret Labs AB. A ‘-U’ command line option was added which causes the Python compiler to interpret all string literals as Unicode string literals. This is intended to be used in testing and future-proofing your Python code, since some future version of Python may drop support for 8-bit strings and provide only Unicode strings. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0100/  File: python.info, Node: List Comprehensions, Next: Augmented Assignment, Prev: Unicode<2>, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.5 List Comprehensions -------------------------- Lists are a workhorse data type in Python, and many programs manipulate a list at some point. Two common operations on lists are to loop over them, and either pick out the elements that meet a certain criterion, or apply some function to each element. For example, given a list of strings, you might want to pull out all the strings containing a given substring, or strip off trailing whitespace from each line. The existing *note map(): 860. and *note filter(): 861. functions can be used for this purpose, but they require a function as one of their arguments. This is fine if there’s an existing built-in function that can be passed directly, but if there isn’t, you have to create a little function to do the required work, and Python’s scoping rules make the result ugly if the little function needs additional information. Take the first example in the previous paragraph, finding all the strings in the list containing a given substring. You could write the following to do it: # Given the list L, make a list of all strings # containing the substring S. sublist = filter( lambda s, substring=S: string.find(s, substring) != -1, L) Because of Python’s scoping rules, a default argument is used so that the anonymous function created by the *note lambda: 128f. expression knows what substring is being searched for. List comprehensions make this cleaner: sublist = [ s for s in L if string.find(s, S) != -1 ] List comprehensions have the form: [ expression for expr in sequence1 for expr2 in sequence2 ... for exprN in sequenceN if condition ] The ‘for’…‘in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over. The sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are 'not' iterated over in parallel, but from left to right; this is explained more clearly in the following paragraphs. The elements of the generated list will be the successive values of 'expression'. The final ‘if’ clause is optional; if present, 'expression' is only evaluated and added to the result if 'condition' is true. To make the semantics very clear, a list comprehension is equivalent to the following Python code: for expr1 in sequence1: for expr2 in sequence2: ... for exprN in sequenceN: if (condition): # Append the value of # the expression to the # resulting list. This means that when there are multiple ‘for’…‘in’ clauses, the resulting list will be equal to the product of the lengths of all the sequences. If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9 elements long: seq1 = 'abc' seq2 = (1,2,3) >>> [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2] [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)] To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if 'expression' is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses. The first list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is correct: # Syntax error [ x,y for x in seq1 for y in seq2] # Correct [ (x,y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2] The idea of list comprehensions originally comes from the functional programming language Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org’). Greg Ewing argued most effectively for adding them to Python and wrote the initial list comprehension patch, which was then discussed for a seemingly endless time on the python-dev mailing list and kept up-to-date by Skip Montanaro.  File: python.info, Node: Augmented Assignment, Next: String Methods, Prev: List Comprehensions, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.6 Augmented Assignment --------------------------- Augmented assignment operators, another long-requested feature, have been added to Python 2.0. Augmented assignment operators include ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, and so forth. For example, the statement ‘a += 2’ increments the value of the variable ‘a’ by 2, equivalent to the slightly lengthier ‘a = a + 2’. The full list of supported assignment operators is ‘+=’, ‘-=’, ‘*=’, ‘/=’, ‘%=’, ‘**=’, ‘&=’, ‘|=’, ‘^=’, ‘>>=’, and ‘<<=’. Python classes can override the augmented assignment operators by defining methods named ‘__iadd__()’, ‘__isub__()’, etc. For example, the following ‘Number’ class stores a number and supports using += to create a new instance with an incremented value. class Number: def __init__(self, value): self.value = value def __iadd__(self, increment): return Number( self.value + increment) n = Number(5) n += 3 print n.value The ‘__iadd__()’ special method is called with the value of the increment, and should return a new instance with an appropriately modified value; this return value is bound as the new value of the variable on the left-hand side. Augmented assignment operators were first introduced in the C programming language, and most C-derived languages, such as ‘awk’, C++, Java, Perl, and PHP also support them. The augmented assignment patch was implemented by Thomas Wouters.  File: python.info, Node: String Methods, Next: Garbage Collection of Cycles, Prev: Augmented Assignment, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.7 String Methods --------------------- Until now string-manipulation functionality was in the *note string: d3. module, which was usually a front-end for the ‘strop’ module written in C. The addition of Unicode posed a difficulty for the ‘strop’ module, because the functions would all need to be rewritten in order to accept either 8-bit or Unicode strings. For functions such as ‘string.replace()’, which takes 3 string arguments, that means eight possible permutations, and correspondingly complicated code. Instead, Python 2.0 pushes the problem onto the string type, making string manipulation functionality available through methods on both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings. >>> 'andrew'.capitalize() 'Andrew' >>> 'hostname'.replace('os', 'linux') 'hlinuxtname' >>> 'moshe'.find('sh') 2 One thing that hasn’t changed, a noteworthy April Fools’ joke notwithstanding, is that Python strings are immutable. Thus, the string methods return new strings, and do not modify the string on which they operate. The old *note string: d3. module is still around for backwards compatibility, but it mostly acts as a front-end to the new string methods. Two methods which have no parallel in pre-2.0 versions, although they did exist in JPython for quite some time, are ‘startswith()’ and ‘endswith()’. ‘s.startswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[:len(t)] == t’, while ‘s.endswith(t)’ is equivalent to ‘s[-len(t):] == t’. One other method which deserves special mention is ‘join()’. The ‘join()’ method of a string receives one parameter, a sequence of strings, and is equivalent to the ‘string.join()’ function from the old *note string: d3. module, with the arguments reversed. In other words, ‘s.join(seq)’ is equivalent to the old ‘string.join(seq, s)’.  File: python.info, Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles, Next: Other Core Changes, Prev: String Methods, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.8 Garbage Collection of Cycles ----------------------------------- The C implementation of Python uses reference counting to implement garbage collection. Every Python object maintains a count of the number of references pointing to itself, and adjusts the count as references are created or destroyed. Once the reference count reaches zero, the object is no longer accessible, since you need to have a reference to an object to access it, and if the count is zero, no references exist any longer. Reference counting has some pleasant properties: it’s easy to understand and implement, and the resulting implementation is portable, fairly fast, and reacts well with other libraries that implement their own memory handling schemes. The major problem with reference counting is that it sometimes doesn’t realise that objects are no longer accessible, resulting in a memory leak. This happens when there are cycles of references. Consider the simplest possible cycle, a class instance which has a reference to itself: instance = SomeClass() instance.myself = instance After the above two lines of code have been executed, the reference count of ‘instance’ is 2; one reference is from the variable named ‘'instance'’, and the other is from the ‘myself’ attribute of the instance. If the next line of code is ‘del instance’, what happens? The reference count of ‘instance’ is decreased by 1, so it has a reference count of 1; the reference in the ‘myself’ attribute still exists. Yet the instance is no longer accessible through Python code, and it could be deleted. Several objects can participate in a cycle if they have references to each other, causing all of the objects to be leaked. Python 2.0 fixes this problem by periodically executing a cycle detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects involved. A new *note gc: 60. module provides functions to perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tuning the collector’s parameters. Running the cycle detection algorithm takes some time, and therefore will result in some additional overhead. It is hoped that after we’ve gotten experience with the cycle collection from using 2.0, Python 2.1 will be able to minimize the overhead with careful tuning. It’s not yet obvious how much performance is lost, because benchmarking this is tricky and depends crucially on how often the program creates and destroys objects. The detection of cycles can be disabled when Python is compiled, if you can’t afford even a tiny speed penalty or suspect that the cycle collection is buggy, by specifying the ‘--without-cycle-gc’ switch when running the ‘configure’ script. Several people tackled this problem and contributed to a solution. An early implementation of the cycle detection approach was written by Toby Kelsey. The current algorithm was suggested by Eric Tiedemann during a visit to CNRI, and Guido van Rossum and Neil Schemenauer wrote two different implementations, which were later integrated by Neil. Lots of other people offered suggestions along the way; the March 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list contain most of the relevant discussion, especially in the threads titled “Reference cycle collection for Python” and “Finalization again”.  File: python.info, Node: Other Core Changes, Next: Porting to 2 0, Prev: Garbage Collection of Cycles, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.9 Other Core Changes ------------------------- Various minor changes have been made to Python’s syntax and built-in functions. None of the changes are very far-reaching, but they’re handy conveniences. * Menu: * Minor Language Changes:: * Changes to Built-in Functions::  File: python.info, Node: Minor Language Changes, Next: Changes to Built-in Functions, Up: Other Core Changes 1.22.9.1 Minor Language Changes ............................... A new syntax makes it more convenient to call a given function with a tuple of arguments and/or a dictionary of keyword arguments. In Python 1.5 and earlier, you’d use the ‘apply()’ built-in function: ‘apply(f, args, kw)’ calls the function ‘f()’ with the argument tuple 'args' and the keyword arguments in the dictionary 'kw'. ‘apply()’ is the same in 2.0, but thanks to a patch from Greg Ewing, ‘f(*args, **kw)’ is a shorter and clearer way to achieve the same effect. This syntax is symmetrical with the syntax for defining functions: def f(*args, **kw): # args is a tuple of positional args, # kw is a dictionary of keyword args ... The ‘print’ statement can now have its output directed to a file-like object by following the ‘print’ with ‘>> file’, similar to the redirection operator in Unix shells. Previously you’d either have to use the ‘write()’ method of the file-like object, which lacks the convenience and simplicity of ‘print’, or you could assign a new value to ‘sys.stdout’ and then restore the old value. For sending output to standard error, it’s much easier to write this: print >> sys.stderr, "Warning: action field not supplied" Modules can now be renamed on importing them, using the syntax ‘import module as name’ or ‘from module import name as othername’. The patch was submitted by Thomas Wouters. A new format style is available when using the ‘%’ operator; ‘%r’ will insert the *note repr(): 7f9. of its argument. This was also added from symmetry considerations, this time for symmetry with the existing ‘%s’ format style, which inserts the *note str(): 447. of its argument. For example, ‘'%r %s' % ('abc', 'abc')’ returns a string containing ‘'abc' abc’. Previously there was no way to implement a class that overrode Python’s built-in *note in: 2ee. operator and implemented a custom version. ‘obj in seq’ returns true if 'obj' is present in the sequence 'seq'; Python computes this by simply trying every index of the sequence until either 'obj' is found or an *note IndexError: 14ff. is encountered. Moshe Zadka contributed a patch which adds a ‘__contains__()’ magic method for providing a custom implementation for ‘in’. Additionally, new built-in objects written in C can define what ‘in’ means for them via a new slot in the sequence protocol. Earlier versions of Python used a recursive algorithm for deleting objects. Deeply nested data structures could cause the interpreter to fill up the C stack and crash; Christian Tismer rewrote the deletion logic to fix this problem. On a related note, comparing recursive objects recursed infinitely and crashed; Jeremy Hylton rewrote the code to no longer crash, producing a useful result instead. For example, after this code: a = [] b = [] a.append(a) b.append(b) The comparison ‘a==b’ returns true, because the two recursive data structures are isomorphic. See the thread “trashcan and PR#7” in the April 2000 archives of the python-dev mailing list for the discussion leading up to this implementation, and some useful relevant links. Note that comparisons can now also raise exceptions. In earlier versions of Python, a comparison operation such as ‘cmp(a,b)’ would always produce an answer, even if a user-defined ‘__cmp__()’ method encountered an error, since the resulting exception would simply be silently swallowed. Work has been done on porting Python to 64-bit Windows on the Itanium processor, mostly by Trent Mick of ActiveState. (Confusingly, ‘sys.platform’ is still ‘'win32'’ on Win64 because it seems that for ease of porting, MS Visual C++ treats code as 32 bit on Itanium.) PythonWin also supports Windows CE; see the Python CE page at ‘https://pythonce.sourceforge.net/’ for more information. Another new platform is Darwin/MacOS X; initial support for it is in Python 2.0. Dynamic loading works, if you specify “configure –with-dyld –with-suffix=.x”. Consult the README in the Python source distribution for more instructions. An attempt has been made to alleviate one of Python’s warts, the often-confusing *note NameError: 43a. exception when code refers to a local variable before the variable has been assigned a value. For example, the following code raises an exception on the ‘print’ statement in both 1.5.2 and 2.0; in 1.5.2 a *note NameError: 43a. exception is raised, while 2.0 raises a new *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. exception. *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. is a subclass of *note NameError: 43a, so any existing code that expects *note NameError: 43a. to be raised should still work. def f(): print "i=",i i = i + 1 f() Two new exceptions, *note TabError: 540. and *note IndentationError: 7a3, have been introduced. They’re both subclasses of *note SyntaxError: 18d, and are raised when Python code is found to be improperly indented.  File: python.info, Node: Changes to Built-in Functions, Prev: Minor Language Changes, Up: Other Core Changes 1.22.9.2 Changes to Built-in Functions ...................................... A new built-in, ‘zip(seq1, seq2, ...)’, has been added. *note zip(): 7cb. returns a list of tuples where each tuple contains the i-th element from each of the argument sequences. The difference between *note zip(): 7cb. and ‘map(None, seq1, seq2)’ is that *note map(): 860. pads the sequences with ‘None’ if the sequences aren’t all of the same length, while *note zip(): 7cb. truncates the returned list to the length of the shortest argument sequence. The *note int(): 259. and ‘long()’ functions now accept an optional “base” parameter when the first argument is a string. ‘int('123', 10)’ returns 123, while ‘int('123', 16)’ returns 291. ‘int(123, 16)’ raises a *note TypeError: 534. exception with the message “can’t convert non-string with explicit base”. A new variable holding more detailed version information has been added to the *note sys: d9. module. ‘sys.version_info’ is a tuple ‘(major, minor, micro, level, serial)’ For example, in a hypothetical 2.0.1beta1, ‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘(2, 0, 1, 'beta', 1)’. 'level' is a string such as ‘"alpha"’, ‘"beta"’, or ‘"final"’ for a final release. Dictionaries have an odd new method, ‘setdefault(key, default)’, which behaves similarly to the existing ‘get()’ method. However, if the key is missing, ‘setdefault()’ both returns the value of 'default' as ‘get()’ would do, and also inserts it into the dictionary as the value for 'key'. Thus, the following lines of code: if dict.has_key( key ): return dict[key] else: dict[key] = [] return dict[key] can be reduced to a single ‘return dict.setdefault(key, [])’ statement. The interpreter sets a maximum recursion depth in order to catch runaway recursion before filling the C stack and causing a core dump or GPF.. Previously this limit was fixed when you compiled Python, but in 2.0 the maximum recursion depth can be read and modified using *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4c0. and *note sys.setrecursionlimit(): 4bf. The default value is 1000, and a rough maximum value for a given platform can be found by running a new script, ‘Misc/find_recursionlimit.py’.  File: python.info, Node: Porting to 2 0, Next: Extending/Embedding Changes, Prev: Other Core Changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.10 Porting to 2.0 ---------------------- New Python releases try hard to be compatible with previous releases, and the record has been pretty good. However, some changes are considered useful enough, usually because they fix initial design decisions that turned out to be actively mistaken, that breaking backward compatibility can’t always be avoided. This section lists the changes in Python 2.0 that may cause old Python code to break. The change which will probably break the most code is tightening up the arguments accepted by some methods. Some methods would take multiple arguments and treat them as a tuple, particularly various list methods such as ‘append()’ and ‘insert()’. In earlier versions of Python, if ‘L’ is a list, ‘L.append( 1,2 )’ appends the tuple ‘(1,2)’ to the list. In Python 2.0 this causes a *note TypeError: 534. exception to be raised, with the message: ‘append requires exactly 1 argument; 2 given’. The fix is to simply add an extra set of parentheses to pass both values as a tuple: ‘L.append( (1,2) )’. The earlier versions of these methods were more forgiving because they used an old function in Python’s C interface to parse their arguments; 2.0 modernizes them to use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e, the current argument parsing function, which provides more helpful error messages and treats multi-argument calls as errors. If you absolutely must use 2.0 but can’t fix your code, you can edit ‘Objects/listobject.c’ and define the preprocessor symbol ‘NO_STRICT_LIST_APPEND’ to preserve the old behaviour; this isn’t recommended. Some of the functions in the *note socket: cc. module are still forgiving in this way. For example, ‘socket.connect( ('hostname', 25) )’ is the correct form, passing a tuple representing an IP address, but ‘socket.connect('hostname', 25)’ also works. *note socket.connect_ex: 1503. and *note socket.bind: 1504. are similarly easy-going. 2.0alpha1 tightened these functions up, but because the documentation actually used the erroneous multiple argument form, many people wrote code which would break with the stricter checking. GvR backed out the changes in the face of public reaction, so for the *note socket: cc. module, the documentation was fixed and the multiple argument form is simply marked as deprecated; it 'will' be tightened up again in a future Python version. The ‘\x’ escape in string literals now takes exactly 2 hex digits. Previously it would consume all the hex digits following the ‘x’ and take the lowest 8 bits of the result, so ‘\x123456’ was equivalent to ‘\x56’. The *note AttributeError: 348. and *note NameError: 43a. exceptions have a more friendly error message, whose text will be something like ‘'Spam' instance has no attribute 'eggs'’ or ‘name 'eggs' is not defined’. Previously the error message was just the missing attribute name ‘eggs’, and code written to take advantage of this fact will break in 2.0. Some work has been done to make integers and long integers a bit more interchangeable. In 1.5.2, large-file support was added for Solaris, to allow reading files larger than 2 GiB; this made the ‘tell()’ method of file objects return a long integer instead of a regular integer. Some code would subtract two file offsets and attempt to use the result to multiply a sequence or slice a string, but this raised a *note TypeError: 534. In 2.0, long integers can be used to multiply or slice a sequence, and it’ll behave as you’d intuitively expect it to; ‘3L * 'abc'’ produces ‘abcabcabc’, and ‘(0,1,2,3)[2L:4L]’ produces (2,3). Long integers can also be used in various contexts where previously only integers were accepted, such as in the ‘seek()’ method of file objects, and in the formats supported by the ‘%’ operator (‘%d’, ‘%i’, ‘%x’, etc.). For example, ‘"%d" % 2L**64’ will produce the string ‘18446744073709551616’. The subtlest long integer change of all is that the *note str(): 447. of a long integer no longer has a trailing ‘L’ character, though *note repr(): 7f9. still includes it. The ‘L’ annoyed many people who wanted to print long integers that looked just like regular integers, since they had to go out of their way to chop off the character. This is no longer a problem in 2.0, but code which does ‘str(longval)[:-1]’ and assumes the ‘L’ is there, will now lose the final digit. Taking the *note repr(): 7f9. of a float now uses a different formatting precision than *note str(): 447. *note repr(): 7f9. uses ‘%.17g’ format string for C’s ‘sprintf()’, while *note str(): 447. uses ‘%.12g’ as before. The effect is that *note repr(): 7f9. may occasionally show more decimal places than *note str(): 447, for certain numbers. For example, the number 8.1 can’t be represented exactly in binary, so ‘repr(8.1)’ is ‘'8.0999999999999996'’, while str(8.1) is ‘'8.1'’. The ‘-X’ command-line option, which turned all standard exceptions into strings instead of classes, has been removed; the standard exceptions will now always be classes. The ‘exceptions’ module containing the standard exceptions was translated from Python to a built-in C module, written by Barry Warsaw and Fredrik Lundh.  File: python.info, Node: Extending/Embedding Changes, Next: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install, Prev: Porting to 2 0, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.11 Extending/Embedding Changes ----------------------------------- Some of the changes are under the covers, and will only be apparent to people writing C extension modules or embedding a Python interpreter in a larger application. If you aren’t dealing with Python’s C API, you can safely skip this section. The version number of the Python C API was incremented, so C extensions compiled for 1.5.2 must be recompiled in order to work with 2.0. On Windows, it’s not possible for Python 2.0 to import a third party extension built for Python 1.5.x due to how Windows DLLs work, so Python will raise an exception and the import will fail. Users of Jim Fulton’s ExtensionClass module will be pleased to find out that hooks have been added so that ExtensionClasses are now supported by *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc. This means you no longer have to remember to write code such as ‘if type(obj) == myExtensionClass’, but can use the more natural ‘if isinstance(obj, myExtensionClass)’. The ‘Python/importdl.c’ file, which was a mass of #ifdefs to support dynamic loading on many different platforms, was cleaned up and reorganised by Greg Stein. ‘importdl.c’ is now quite small, and platform-specific code has been moved into a bunch of ‘Python/dynload_*.c’ files. Another cleanup: there were also a number of ‘my*.h’ files in the Include/ directory that held various portability hacks; they’ve been merged into a single file, ‘Include/pyport.h’. Vladimir Marangozov’s long-awaited malloc restructuring was completed, to make it easy to have the Python interpreter use a custom allocator instead of C’s standard ‘malloc()’. For documentation, read the comments in ‘Include/pymem.h’ and ‘Include/objimpl.h’. For the lengthy discussions during which the interface was hammered out, see the web archives of the ‘patches’ and ‘python-dev’ lists at python.org. Recent versions of the GUSI development environment for MacOS support POSIX threads. Therefore, Python’s POSIX threading support now works on the Macintosh. Threading support using the user-space GNU ‘pth’ library was also contributed. Threading support on Windows was enhanced, too. Windows supports thread locks that use kernel objects only in case of contention; in the common case when there’s no contention, they use simpler functions which are an order of magnitude faster. A threaded version of Python 1.5.2 on NT is twice as slow as an unthreaded version; with the 2.0 changes, the difference is only 10%. These improvements were contributed by Yakov Markovitch. Python 2.0’s source now uses only ANSI C prototypes, so compiling Python now requires an ANSI C compiler, and can no longer be done using a compiler that only supports K&R C. Previously the Python virtual machine used 16-bit numbers in its bytecode, limiting the size of source files. In particular, this affected the maximum size of literal lists and dictionaries in Python source; occasionally people who are generating Python code would run into this limit. A patch by Charles G. Waldman raises the limit from ‘2**16’ to ‘2**32’. Three new convenience functions intended for adding constants to a module’s dictionary at module initialization time were added: *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361, *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 1506, and *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 1507. Each of these functions takes a module object, a null-terminated C string containing the name to be added, and a third argument for the value to be assigned to the name. This third argument is, respectively, a Python object, a C long, or a C string. A wrapper API was added for Unix-style signal handlers. *note PyOS_getsig(): 1508. gets a signal handler and *note PyOS_setsig(): 1509. will set a new handler.  File: python.info, Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install, Next: XML Modules, Prev: Extending/Embedding Changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.12 Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install ------------------------------------------------- Before Python 2.0, installing modules was a tedious affair – there was no way to figure out automatically where Python is installed, or what compiler options to use for extension modules. Software authors had to go through an arduous ritual of editing Makefiles and configuration files, which only really work on Unix and leave Windows and MacOS unsupported. Python users faced wildly differing installation instructions which varied between different extension packages, which made administering a Python installation something of a chore. The SIG for distribution utilities, shepherded by Greg Ward, has created the Distutils, a system to make package installation much easier. They form the ‘distutils’ package, a new part of Python’s standard library. In the best case, installing a Python module from source will require the same steps: first you simply mean unpack the tarball or zip archive, and the run “‘python setup.py install’”. The platform will be automatically detected, the compiler will be recognized, C extension modules will be compiled, and the distribution installed into the proper directory. Optional command-line arguments provide more control over the installation process, the distutils package offers many places to override defaults – separating the build from the install, building or installing in non-default directories, and more. In order to use the Distutils, you need to write a ‘setup.py’ script. For the simple case, when the software contains only .py files, a minimal ‘setup.py’ can be just a few lines long: from distutils.core import setup setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0", py_modules = ["module1", "module2"]) The ‘setup.py’ file isn’t much more complicated if the software consists of a few packages: from distutils.core import setup setup (name = "foo", version = "1.0", packages = ["package", "package.subpackage"]) A C extension can be the most complicated case; here’s an example taken from the PyXML package: from distutils.core import setup, Extension expat_extension = Extension('xml.parsers.pyexpat', define_macros = [('XML_NS', None)], include_dirs = [ 'extensions/expat/xmltok', 'extensions/expat/xmlparse' ], sources = [ 'extensions/pyexpat.c', 'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmltok.c', 'extensions/expat/xmltok/xmlrole.c', ] ) setup (name = "PyXML", version = "0.5.4", ext_modules =[ expat_extension ] ) The Distutils can also take care of creating source and binary distributions. The “sdist” command, run by “‘python setup.py sdist’’, builds a source distribution such as ‘foo-1.0.tar.gz’. Adding new commands isn’t difficult, “bdist_rpm” and “bdist_wininst” commands have already been contributed to create an RPM distribution and a Windows installer for the software, respectively. Commands to create other distribution formats such as Debian packages and Solaris ‘.pkg’ files are in various stages of development. All this is documented in a new manual, 'Distributing Python Modules', that joins the basic set of Python documentation.  File: python.info, Node: XML Modules, Next: Module changes, Prev: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.13 XML Modules ------------------- Python 1.5.2 included a simple XML parser in the form of the ‘xmllib’ module, contributed by Sjoerd Mullender. Since 1.5.2’s release, two different interfaces for processing XML have become common: SAX2 (version 2 of the Simple API for XML) provides an event-driven interface with some similarities to ‘xmllib’, and the DOM (Document Object Model) provides a tree-based interface, transforming an XML document into a tree of nodes that can be traversed and modified. Python 2.0 includes a SAX2 interface and a stripped-down DOM interface as part of the *note xml: 120. package. Here we will give a brief overview of these new interfaces; consult the Python documentation or the source code for complete details. The Python XML SIG is also working on improved documentation. * Menu: * SAX2 Support:: * DOM Support:: * Relationship to PyXML::  File: python.info, Node: SAX2 Support, Next: DOM Support, Up: XML Modules 1.22.13.1 SAX2 Support ...................... SAX defines an event-driven interface for parsing XML. To use SAX, you must write a SAX handler class. Handler classes inherit from various classes provided by SAX, and override various methods that will then be called by the XML parser. For example, the *note startElement(): 150d. and *note endElement(): 150e. methods are called for every starting and end tag encountered by the parser, the *note characters(): 150f. method is called for every chunk of character data, and so forth. The advantage of the event-driven approach is that the whole document doesn’t have to be resident in memory at any one time, which matters if you are processing really huge documents. However, writing the SAX handler class can get very complicated if you’re trying to modify the document structure in some elaborate way. For example, this little example program defines a handler that prints a message for every starting and ending tag, and then parses the file ‘hamlet.xml’ using it: from xml import sax class SimpleHandler(sax.ContentHandler): def startElement(self, name, attrs): print 'Start of element:', name, attrs.keys() def endElement(self, name): print 'End of element:', name # Create a parser object parser = sax.make_parser() # Tell it what handler to use handler = SimpleHandler() parser.setContentHandler( handler ) # Parse a file! parser.parse( 'hamlet.xml' ) For more information, consult the Python documentation, or the XML HOWTO at ‘https://pyxml.sourceforge.net/topics/howto/xml-howto.html’.  File: python.info, Node: DOM Support, Next: Relationship to PyXML, Prev: SAX2 Support, Up: XML Modules 1.22.13.2 DOM Support ..................... The Document Object Model is a tree-based representation for an XML document. A top-level ‘Document’ instance is the root of the tree, and has a single child which is the top-level ‘Element’ instance. This ‘Element’ has children nodes representing character data and any sub-elements, which may have further children of their own, and so forth. Using the DOM you can traverse the resulting tree any way you like, access element and attribute values, insert and delete nodes, and convert the tree back into XML. The DOM is useful for modifying XML documents, because you can create a DOM tree, modify it by adding new nodes or rearranging subtrees, and then produce a new XML document as output. You can also construct a DOM tree manually and convert it to XML, which can be a more flexible way of producing XML output than simply writing ‘’…‘’ to a file. The DOM implementation included with Python lives in the *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. module. It’s a lightweight implementation of the Level 1 DOM with support for XML namespaces. The ‘parse()’ and ‘parseString()’ convenience functions are provided for generating a DOM tree: from xml.dom import minidom doc = minidom.parse('hamlet.xml') ‘doc’ is a ‘Document’ instance. ‘Document’, like all the other DOM classes such as ‘Element’ and ‘Text’, is a subclass of the ‘Node’ base class. All the nodes in a DOM tree therefore support certain common methods, such as ‘toxml()’ which returns a string containing the XML representation of the node and its children. Each class also has special methods of its own; for example, ‘Element’ and ‘Document’ instances have a method to find all child elements with a given tag name. Continuing from the previous 2-line example: perslist = doc.getElementsByTagName( 'PERSONA' ) print perslist[0].toxml() print perslist[1].toxml() For the 'Hamlet' XML file, the above few lines output: CLAUDIUS, king of Denmark. HAMLET, son to the late, and nephew to the present king. The root element of the document is available as ‘doc.documentElement’, and its children can be easily modified by deleting, adding, or removing nodes: root = doc.documentElement # Remove the first child root.removeChild( root.childNodes[0] ) # Move the new first child to the end root.appendChild( root.childNodes[0] ) # Insert the new first child (originally, # the third child) before the 20th child. root.insertBefore( root.childNodes[0], root.childNodes[20] ) Again, I will refer you to the Python documentation for a complete listing of the different ‘Node’ classes and their various methods.  File: python.info, Node: Relationship to PyXML, Prev: DOM Support, Up: XML Modules 1.22.13.3 Relationship to PyXML ............................... The XML Special Interest Group has been working on XML-related Python code for a while. Its code distribution, called PyXML, is available from the SIG’s web pages at ‘https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/xml-sig’. The PyXML distribution also used the package name ‘xml’. If you’ve written programs that used PyXML, you’re probably wondering about its compatibility with the 2.0 *note xml: 120. package. The answer is that Python 2.0’s *note xml: 120. package isn’t compatible with PyXML, but can be made compatible by installing a recent version PyXML. Many applications can get by with the XML support that is included with Python 2.0, but more complicated applications will require that the full PyXML package will be installed. When installed, PyXML versions 0.6.0 or greater will replace the *note xml: 120. package shipped with Python, and will be a strict superset of the standard package, adding a bunch of additional features. Some of the additional features in PyXML include: * 4DOM, a full DOM implementation from FourThought, Inc. * The xmlproc validating parser, written by Lars Marius Garshol. * The ‘sgmlop’ parser accelerator module, written by Fredrik Lundh.  File: python.info, Node: Module changes, Next: New modules, Prev: XML Modules, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.14 Module changes ---------------------- Lots of improvements and bugfixes were made to Python’s extensive standard library; some of the affected modules include *note readline: ba, *note ConfigParser: 22, ‘cgi’, *note calendar: 14, *note posix: ad, *note readline: ba, ‘xmllib’, ‘aifc’, ‘chunk’, *note wave: 113, *note random: b8, *note shelve: c3, and ‘nntplib’. Consult the CVS logs for the exact patch-by-patch details. Brian Gallew contributed OpenSSL support for the *note socket: cc. module. OpenSSL is an implementation of the Secure Socket Layer, which encrypts the data being sent over a socket. When compiling Python, you can edit ‘Modules/Setup’ to include SSL support, which adds an additional function to the *note socket: cc. module: ‘socket.ssl(socket, keyfile, certfile)’, which takes a socket object and returns an SSL socket. The *note httplib: 6e. and *note urllib: 108. modules were also changed to support ‘https://’ URLs, though no one has implemented FTP or SMTP over SSL. The *note httplib: 6e. module has been rewritten by Greg Stein to support HTTP/1.1. Backward compatibility with the 1.5 version of ‘httplib’ is provided, though using HTTP/1.1 features such as pipelining will require rewriting code to use a different set of interfaces. The ‘Tkinter’ module now supports Tcl/Tk version 8.1, 8.2, or 8.3, and support for the older 7.x versions has been dropped. The Tkinter module now supports displaying Unicode strings in Tk widgets. Also, Fredrik Lundh contributed an optimization which makes operations like ‘create_line’ and ‘create_polygon’ much faster, especially when using lots of coordinates. The *note curses: 2b. module has been greatly extended, starting from Oliver Andrich’s enhanced version, to provide many additional functions from ncurses and SYSV curses, such as colour, alternative character set support, pads, and mouse support. This means the module is no longer compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there don’t seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this category. As mentioned in the earlier discussion of 2.0’s Unicode support, the underlying implementation of the regular expressions provided by the *note re: b9. module has been changed. SRE, a new regular expression engine written by Fredrik Lundh and partially funded by Hewlett Packard, supports matching against both 8-bit strings and Unicode strings.  File: python.info, Node: New modules, Next: IDLE Improvements, Prev: Module changes, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.15 New modules ------------------- A number of new modules were added. We’ll simply list them with brief descriptions; consult the 2.0 documentation for the details of a particular module. * *note atexit: c.: For registering functions to be called before the Python interpreter exits. Code that currently sets ‘sys.exitfunc’ directly should be changed to use the *note atexit: c. module instead, importing *note atexit: c. and calling *note atexit.register(): 87b. with the function to be called on exit. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.) * *note codecs: 1b, ‘encodings’, *note unicodedata: 105.: Added as part of the new Unicode support. * *note filecmp: 5a.: Supersedes the old ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’ and ‘dircmp’ modules, which have now become deprecated. (Contributed by Gordon MacMillan and Moshe Zadka.) * *note gettext: 63.: This module provides internationalization (I18N) and localization (L10N) support for Python programs by providing an interface to the GNU gettext message catalog library. (Integrated by Barry Warsaw, from separate contributions by Martin von Löwis, Peter Funk, and James Henstridge.) * ‘linuxaudiodev’: Support for the ‘/dev/audio’ device on Linux, a twin to the existing ‘sunaudiodev’ module. (Contributed by Peter Bosch, with fixes by Jeremy Hylton.) * *note mmap: 90.: An interface to memory-mapped files on both Windows and Unix. A file’s contents can be mapped directly into memory, at which point it behaves like a mutable string, so its contents can be read and modified. They can even be passed to functions that expect ordinary strings, such as the *note re: b9. module. (Contributed by Sam Rushing, with some extensions by A.M. Kuchling.) * ‘pyexpat’: An interface to the Expat XML parser. (Contributed by Paul Prescod.) * *note robotparser: 10d.: Parse a ‘robots.txt’ file, which is used for writing web spiders that politely avoid certain areas of a web site. The parser accepts the contents of a ‘robots.txt’ file, builds a set of rules from it, and can then answer questions about the fetchability of a given URL. (Contributed by Skip Montanaro.) * *note tabnanny: dd.: A module/script to check Python source code for ambiguous indentation. (Contributed by Tim Peters.) * ‘UserString’: A base class useful for deriving objects that behave like strings. * *note webbrowser: 115.: A module that provides a platform independent way to launch a web browser on a specific URL. For each platform, various browsers are tried in a specific order. The user can alter which browser is launched by setting the 'BROWSER' environment variable. (Originally inspired by Eric S. Raymond’s patch to *note urllib: 108. which added similar functionality, but the final module comes from code originally implemented by Fred Drake as ‘Tools/idle/BrowserControl.py’, and adapted for the standard library by Fred.) * *note _winreg: 116.: An interface to the Windows registry. ‘_winreg’ is an adaptation of functions that have been part of PythonWin since 1995, but has now been added to the core distribution, and enhanced to support Unicode. ‘_winreg’ was written by Bill Tutt and Mark Hammond. * *note zipfile: 131.: A module for reading and writing ZIP-format archives. These are archives produced by ‘PKZIP’ on DOS/Windows or ‘zip’ on Unix, not to be confused with ‘gzip’-format files (which are supported by the *note gzip: 67. module) (Contributed by James C. Ahlstrom.) * ‘imputil’: A module that provides a simpler way for writing customized import hooks, in comparison to the existing ‘ihooks’ module. (Implemented by Greg Stein, with much discussion on python-dev along the way.)  File: python.info, Node: IDLE Improvements, Next: Deleted and Deprecated Modules, Prev: New modules, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.16 IDLE Improvements ------------------------- IDLE is the official Python cross-platform IDE, written using Tkinter. Python 2.0 includes IDLE 0.6, which adds a number of new features and improvements. A partial list: * UI improvements and optimizations, especially in the area of syntax highlighting and auto-indentation. * The class browser now shows more information, such as the top level functions in a module. * Tab width is now a user settable option. When opening an existing Python file, IDLE automatically detects the indentation conventions, and adapts. * There is now support for calling browsers on various platforms, used to open the Python documentation in a browser. * IDLE now has a command line, which is largely similar to the vanilla Python interpreter. * Call tips were added in many places. * IDLE can now be installed as a package. * In the editor window, there is now a line/column bar at the bottom. * Three new keystroke commands: Check module (‘Alt’-‘F5’), Import module (‘F5’) and Run script (‘Ctrl’-‘F5’).  File: python.info, Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules, Next: Acknowledgements<8>, Prev: IDLE Improvements, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.17 Deleted and Deprecated Modules -------------------------------------- A few modules have been dropped because they’re obsolete, or because there are now better ways to do the same thing. The ‘stdwin’ module is gone; it was for a platform-independent windowing toolkit that’s no longer developed. A number of modules have been moved to the ‘lib-old’ subdirectory: ‘cmp’, ‘cmpcache’, ‘dircmp’, ‘dump’, ‘find’, ‘grep’, ‘packmail’, ‘poly’, ‘util’, ‘whatsound’, ‘zmod’. If you have code which relies on a module that’s been moved to ‘lib-old’, you can simply add that directory to ‘sys.path’ to get them back, but you’re encouraged to update any code that uses these modules.  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<8>, Prev: Deleted and Deprecated Modules, Up: What’s New in Python 2 0 1.22.18 Acknowledgements ------------------------ The authors would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions on various drafts of this article: David Bolen, Mark Hammond, Gregg Hauser, Jeremy Hylton, Fredrik Lundh, Detlef Lannert, Aahz Maruch, Skip Montanaro, Vladimir Marangozov, Tobias Polzin, Guido van Rossum, Neil Schemenauer, and Russ Schmidt. The “Changelog” is an HTML version of the file built(1) from the contents of the Misc/NEWS.d(2) directory tree, which contains 'all' nontrivial changes to Python for the current version. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/blurb/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Misc/NEWS.d  File: python.info, Node: Changelog, Prev: What’s New in Python 2 0, Up: What’s New in Python 1.23 Changelog ============== * Menu: * Python 3.13.7 final: Python 3 13 7 final. * Python 3.13.6 final: Python 3 13 6 final. * Python 3.13.5 final: Python 3 13 5 final. * Python 3.13.4 final: Python 3 13 4 final. * Python 3.13.3 final: Python 3 13 3 final. * Python 3.13.2 final: Python 3 13 2 final. * Python 3.13.1 final: Python 3 13 1 final. * Python 3.13.0 final: Python 3 13 0 final. * Python 3.13.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 3. * Python 3.13.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 2. * Python 3.13.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 13 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.13.0 beta 4: Python 3 13 0 beta 4. * Python 3.13.0 beta 3: Python 3 13 0 beta 3. * Python 3.13.0 beta 2: Python 3 13 0 beta 2. * Python 3.13.0 beta 1: Python 3 13 0 beta 1. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 6: Python 3 13 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 5: Python 3 13 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 4: Python 3 13 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 3: Python 3 13 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 2: Python 3 13 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.13.0 alpha 1: Python 3 13 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.12.0 beta 1: Python 3 12 0 beta 1. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 7: Python 3 12 0 alpha 7. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 6: Python 3 12 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 5: Python 3 12 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 4: Python 3 12 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 3: Python 3 12 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 2: Python 3 12 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.12.0 alpha 1: Python 3 12 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.11.0 beta 1: Python 3 11 0 beta 1. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 7: Python 3 11 0 alpha 7. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 6: Python 3 11 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 5: Python 3 11 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 4: Python 3 11 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 3: Python 3 11 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 2: Python 3 11 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.11.0 alpha 1: Python 3 11 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.10.0 beta 1: Python 3 10 0 beta 1. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 7: Python 3 10 0 alpha 7. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 6: Python 3 10 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 5: Python 3 10 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 4: Python 3 10 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 3: Python 3 10 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 2: Python 3 10 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.10.0 alpha 1: Python 3 10 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.9.0 beta 1: Python 3 9 0 beta 1. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 6: Python 3 9 0 alpha 6. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 5: Python 3 9 0 alpha 5. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 4: Python 3 9 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 3: Python 3 9 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 2: Python 3 9 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.9.0 alpha 1: Python 3 9 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.8.0 beta 1: Python 3 8 0 beta 1. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 4: Python 3 8 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 3: Python 3 8 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 2: Python 3 8 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.8.0 alpha 1: Python 3 8 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.7.0 final: Python 3 7 0 final. * Python 3.7.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 7 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.7.0 beta 5: Python 3 7 0 beta 5. * Python 3.7.0 beta 4: Python 3 7 0 beta 4. * Python 3.7.0 beta 3: Python 3 7 0 beta 3. * Python 3.7.0 beta 2: Python 3 7 0 beta 2. * Python 3.7.0 beta 1: Python 3 7 0 beta 1. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 4: Python 3 7 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 3: Python 3 7 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 2: Python 3 7 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.7.0 alpha 1: Python 3 7 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.6.6 final: Python 3 6 6 final. * Python 3.6.6 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 6 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.5 final: Python 3 6 5 final. * Python 3.6.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 5 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.4 final: Python 3 6 4 final. * Python 3.6.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 4 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.3 final: Python 3 6 3 final. * Python 3.6.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 3 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.2 final: Python 3 6 2 final. * Python 3.6.2 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 2. * Python 3.6.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 2 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.1 final: Python 3 6 1 final. * Python 3.6.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 1 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.0 final: Python 3 6 0 final. * Python 3.6.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 2. * Python 3.6.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 6 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.6.0 beta 4: Python 3 6 0 beta 4. * Python 3.6.0 beta 3: Python 3 6 0 beta 3. * Python 3.6.0 beta 2: Python 3 6 0 beta 2. * Python 3.6.0 beta 1: Python 3 6 0 beta 1. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 4: Python 3 6 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 3: Python 3 6 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 2: Python 3 6 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.6.0 alpha 1: Python 3 6 0 alpha 1. * Python 3.5.5 final: Python 3 5 5 final. * Python 3.5.5 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 5 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.4 final: Python 3 5 4 final. * Python 3.5.4 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 4 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.3 final: Python 3 5 3 final. * Python 3.5.3 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 3 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.2 final: Python 3 5 2 final. * Python 3.5.2 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 2 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.1 final: Python 3 5 1 final. * Python 3.5.1 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 1 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.0 final: Python 3 5 0 final. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 4: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 4. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 3: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 3. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 2: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 2. * Python 3.5.0 release candidate 1: Python 3 5 0 release candidate 1. * Python 3.5.0 beta 4: Python 3 5 0 beta 4. * Python 3.5.0 beta 3: Python 3 5 0 beta 3. * Python 3.5.0 beta 2: Python 3 5 0 beta 2. * Python 3.5.0 beta 1: Python 3 5 0 beta 1. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 4: Python 3 5 0 alpha 4. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 3: Python 3 5 0 alpha 3. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 2: Python 3 5 0 alpha 2. * Python 3.5.0 alpha 1: Python 3 5 0 alpha 1.  File: python.info, Node: Python 3 13 7 final, Next: Python 3 13 6 final, Up: Changelog 1.23.1 Python 3.13.7 final -------------------------- 'Release date: 2025-08-14' * Menu: * Library:: * Documentation: Documentation<2>. * Core and Builtins::  File: python.info, Node: Library, Next: Documentation<2>, Up: Python 3 13 7 final 1.23.1.1 Library ................ - gh-137583(1): Fix a deadlock introduced in 3.13.6 when a call to *note ssl.SSLSocket.recv: da3. was blocked in one thread, and then another method on the object (such as *note ssl.SSLSocket.send: da6.) was subsequently called in another thread. - gh-137044(2): Return large limit values as positive integers instead of negative integers in *note resource.getrlimit(): 151b. Accept large values and reject negative values (except *note RLIM_INFINITY: 151c.) for limits in *note resource.setrlimit(): 151d. - gh-136914(3): Fix retrieval of *note doctest.DocTest.lineno: 151e. for objects decorated with *note functools.cache(): 151f. or *note functools.cached_property: 53e. - gh-131788(4): Make ‘ResourceTracker.send’ from *note multiprocessing: 94. re-entrant safe ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137583 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137044 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136914 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131788  File: python.info, Node: Documentation<2>, Next: Core and Builtins, Prev: Library, Up: Python 3 13 7 final 1.23.1.2 Documentation ...................... - gh-136155(1): We are now checking for fatal errors in EPUB builds in CI. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136155  File: python.info, Node: Core and Builtins, Prev: Documentation<2>, Up: Python 3 13 7 final 1.23.1.3 Core and Builtins .......................... - gh-137400(1): Fix a crash in the *note free threading: 1522. build when disabling profiling or tracing across all threads with *note PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads(): 55c. or *note PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads(): 41e. or their Python equivalents *note threading.settrace_all_threads(): 4c4. and *note threading.setprofile_all_threads(): 4c5. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137400  File: python.info, Node: Python 3 13 6 final, Next: Python 3 13 5 final, Prev: Python 3 13 7 final, Up: Changelog 1.23.2 Python 3.13.6 final -------------------------- 'Release date: 2025-08-06' * Menu: * macOS:: * Windows:: * Tools/Demos:: * Tests:: * Security:: * Library: Library<2>. * Documentation: Documentation<3>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<2>. * Build::  File: python.info, Node: macOS, Next: Windows, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.1 macOS .............. - gh-137450(1): macOS installer shell path management improvements: separate the installer ‘Shell profile updater’ postinstall script from the ‘Update Shell Profile.command’ to enable more robust error handling. - gh-137134(2): Update macOS installer to ship with SQLite version 3.50.4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137450 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134  File: python.info, Node: Windows, Next: Tools/Demos, Prev: macOS, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.2 Windows ................ - gh-137134(1): Update Windows installer to ship with SQLite 3.50.4. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137134  File: python.info, Node: Tools/Demos, Next: Tests, Prev: Windows, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.3 Tools/Demos .................... - gh-135968(1): Stubs for ‘strip’ are now provided as part of an iOS install. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135968  File: python.info, Node: Tests, Next: Security, Prev: Tools/Demos, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.4 Tests .............. - gh-135966(1): The iOS testbed now handles the ‘app_packages’ folder as a site directory. - gh-135494(2): Fix regrtest to support excluding tests from ‘--pgo’ tests. Patch by Victor Stinner. - gh-135489(3): Show verbose output for failing tests during PGO profiling step with –enable-optimizations. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135966 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135494 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135489  File: python.info, Node: Security, Next: Library<2>, Prev: Tests, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.5 Security ................. - gh-135661(1): Fix parsing start and end tags in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. according to the HTML5 standard. * Whitespaces no longer accepted between ‘’ does not end the script section. * Vertical tabulation (‘\v’) and non-ASCII whitespaces no longer recognized as whitespaces. The only whitespaces are ‘\t\n\r\f’ and space. * Null character (U+0000) no longer ends the tag name. * Attributes and slashes after the tag name in end tags are now ignored, instead of terminating after the first ‘>’ in quoted attribute value. E.g. ‘’. * Multiple slashes and whitespaces between the last attribute and closing ‘>’ are now ignored in both start and end tags. E.g. ‘’. * Multiple ‘=’ between attribute name and value are no longer collapsed. E.g. ‘’ produces attribute “foo” with value “=bar”. - gh-102555(2): Fix comment parsing in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. according to the HTML5 standard. ‘--!>’ now ends the comment. ‘-- >’ no longer ends the comment. Support abnormally ended empty comments ‘<-->’ and ‘<--->’. - gh-135462(3): Fix quadratic complexity in processing specially crafted input in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. End-of-file errors are now handled according to the HTML5 specs – comments and declarations are automatically closed, tags are ignored. - gh-118350(4): Fix support of escapable raw text mode (elements “textarea” and “title”) in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135661 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/102555 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135462 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/118350  File: python.info, Node: Library<2>, Next: Documentation<3>, Prev: Security, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.6 Library ................ - gh-132710(1): If possible, ensure that *note uuid.getnode(): ba7. returns the same result even across different processes. Previously, the result was constant only within the same process. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-137273(2): Fix debug assertion failure in *note locale.setlocale(): 2df. on Windows. - gh-137257(3): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 25.2 - gh-81325(4): *note tarfile.TarFile: 1202. now accepts a *note path-like: 2a2. when working on a tar archive. (Contributed by Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-81325(5).) - gh-130522(6): Fix unraisable *note TypeError: 534. raised during *note interpreter shutdown: 14e. in the *note threading: ed. module. - gh-130577(7): *note tarfile: de. now validates archives to ensure member offsets are non-negative. (Contributed by Alexander Enrique Urieles Nieto in gh-130577(8).) - gh-136549(9): Fix signature of *note threading.excepthook(): 847. - gh-136523(10): Fix *note wave.Wave_write: 2b9. emitting an unraisable when open raises. - gh-52876(11): Add missing ‘keepends’ (default ‘True’) parameter to ‘codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readline()’ and ‘codecs.StreamReaderWriter.readlines()’. - gh-85702(12): If ‘zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata’ is given a package without a resource a *note zoneinfo.ZoneInfoNotFoundError: 152a. is raised rather than a *note PermissionError: d42. Patch by Victor Stinner. - gh-134759(13): Fix *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. in *note email.message.Message.get_payload(): 11bf. when the payload to decode is a *note bytes: 1c2. object. Patch by Kliment Lamonov. - gh-136028(14): Fix parsing month names containing “İ” (U+0130, LATIN CAPITAL LETTER I WITH DOT ABOVE) in *note time.strptime(): 13f8. This affects locales az_AZ, ber_DZ, ber_MA and crh_UA. - gh-135995(15): In the palmos encoding, make byte ‘0x9b’ decode to ‘›’ (U+203A - SINGLE RIGHT-POINTING ANGLE QUOTATION MARK). - gh-53203(16): Fix *note time.strptime(): 13f8. for ‘%c’ and ‘%x’ formats on locales byn_ER, wal_ET and lzh_TW, and for ‘%X’ format on locales ar_SA, bg_BG and lzh_TW. - gh-91555(17): An earlier change, which was introduced in 3.13.4, has been reverted. It disabled logging for a logger during handling of log messages for that logger. Since the reversion, the behaviour should be as it was before 3.13.4. - gh-135878(18): Fixes a crash of *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. on *note free threading: 1522. builds, when several threads were calling its *note __repr__(): 618. method at the same time. - gh-135836(19): Fix *note IndexError: 14ff. in *note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5ff. that could occur when non-*note OSError: 413. exception is raised during connection and socket’s ‘close()’ raises ‘OSError’. - gh-135836(20): Fix *note IndexError: 14ff. in *note asyncio.loop.create_connection(): 5ff. that could occur when the Happy Eyeballs algorithm resulted in an empty exceptions list during connection attempts. - gh-135855(21): Raise *note TypeError: 534. instead of *note SystemError: 572. when ‘_interpreters.set___main___attrs()’ is passed a non-dict object. Patch by Brian Schubert. - gh-135815(22): *note netrc: 9b.: skip security checks if *note os.getuid(): 152b. is missing. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-135640(23): Address bug where it was possible to call *note xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree.write(): ff0. on an ElementTree object with an invalid root element. This behavior blanked the file passed to ‘write’ if it already existed. - gh-135444(24): Fix *note asyncio.DatagramTransport.sendto(): 1af. to account for datagram header size when data cannot be sent. - gh-135497(25): Fix *note os.getlogin(): 152c. failing for longer usernames on BSD-based platforms. - gh-135487(26): Fix ‘reprlib.Repr.repr_int()’ when given integers with more than *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 152d. digits. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-135335(27): *note multiprocessing: 94.: Flush ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ after preloading modules in the ‘forkserver’. - gh-135244(28): *note uuid: 110.: when the MAC address cannot be determined, the 48-bit node ID is now generated with a cryptographically-secure pseudo-random number generator (CSPRNG) as per RFC 9562, §6.10.3(29). This affects *note uuid1(): ba8. - gh-135069(30): Fix the “Invalid error handling” exception in ‘encodings.idna.IncrementalDecoder’ to correctly replace the ‘errors’ parameter. - gh-134698(31): Fix a crash when calling methods of *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. or *note ssl.SSLSocket: 8e9. across multiple threads. - gh-132124(32): On POSIX-compliant systems, ‘multiprocessing.util.get_temp_dir()’ now ignores ‘TMPDIR’ (and similar environment variables) if the path length of ‘AF_UNIX’ socket files exceeds the platform-specific maximum length when using the 'forkserver' start method. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-133439(33): Fix dot commands with trailing spaces are mistaken for multi-line SQL statements in the sqlite3 command-line interface. - gh-132969(34): Prevent the *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. executor thread, which remains running when *note shutdown(wait=False): 8ec, from attempting to adjust the pool’s worker processes after the object state has already been reset during shutdown. A combination of conditions, including a worker process having terminated abormally, resulted in an exception and a potential hang when the still-running executor thread attempted to replace dead workers within the pool. - gh-130664(35): Support the ‘'_'’ digit separator in formatting of the integral part of *note Decimal: 29f.’s. Patch by Sergey B Kirpichev. - gh-85702(36): If ‘zoneinfo._common.load_tzdata’ is given a package without a resource a ‘ZoneInfoNotFoundError’ is raised rather than a *note IsADirectoryError: 1052. - gh-130664(37): Handle corner-case for *note Fraction: 1e9.’s formatting: treat zero-padding (preceding the width field by a zero (‘'0'’) character) as an equivalent to a fill character of ‘'0'’ with an alignment type of ‘'='’, just as in case of *note float: 2f1.’s. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132710 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137273 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137257 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/81325 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130522 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130577 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136549 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136523 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/52876 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134759 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136028 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135995 (16) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/53203 (17) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91555 (18) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135878 (19) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836 (20) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135836 (21) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135855 (22) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135815 (23) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135640 (24) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135444 (25) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497 (26) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135487 (27) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135335 (28) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135244 (29) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc9562.html#section-6.10-3 (30) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135069 (31) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134698 (32) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132124 (33) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133439 (34) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132969 (35) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664 (36) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/85702 (37) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130664  File: python.info, Node: Documentation<3>, Next: Core and Builtins<2>, Prev: Library<2>, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.7 Documentation ...................... - gh-135171(1): Document that the *note iterator: 1ac. for the leftmost ‘for’ clause in the generator expression is created immediately. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171  File: python.info, Node: Core and Builtins<2>, Next: Build, Prev: Documentation<3>, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.8 Core and Builtins .......................... - gh-58124(1): Fix name of the Python encoding in Unicode errors of the code page codec: use “cp65000” and “cp65001” instead of “CP_UTF7” and “CP_UTF8” which are not valid Python code names. Patch by Victor Stinner. - gh-137314(2): Fixed a regression where raw f-strings incorrectly interpreted escape sequences in format specifications. Raw f-strings now properly preserve literal backslashes in format specs, matching the behavior from Python 3.11. For example, ‘rf"{obj:\xFF}"’ now correctly produces ‘'\\xFF'’ instead of ‘'ÿ'’. Patch by Pablo Galindo. - gh-136541(3): Fix some issues with the perf trampolines on x86-64 and aarch64. The trampolines were not being generated correctly for some cases, which could lead to the perf integration not working correctly. Patch by Pablo Galindo. - gh-109700(4): Fix memory error handling in *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 33b. - gh-78465(5): Fix error message for ‘cls.__new__(cls, ...)’ where ‘cls’ is not instantiable builtin or extension type (with ‘tp_new’ set to ‘NULL’). - gh-135871(6): Non-blocking mutex lock attempts now return immediately when the lock is busy instead of briefly spinning in the *note free threading: 1522. build. - gh-135607(7): Fix potential *note weakref: 114. races in an object’s destructor on the *note free threaded: 1522. build. - gh-135496(8): Fix typo in the f-string conversion type error (“exclamanation” -> “exclamation”). - gh-130077(9): Properly raise custom syntax errors when incorrect syntax containing names that are prefixes of soft keywords is encountered. Patch by Pablo Galindo. - gh-135148(10): Fixed a bug where f-string debug expressions (using =) would incorrectly strip out parts of strings containing escaped quotes and # characters. Patch by Pablo Galindo. - gh-133136(11): Limit excess memory usage in the *note free threading: 1522. build when a large dictionary or list is resized and accessed by multiple threads. - gh-132617(12): Fix *note dict.update(): 142e. modification check that could incorrectly raise a “dict mutated during update” error when a different dictionary was modified that happens to share the same underlying keys object. - gh-91153(13): Fix a crash when a *note bytearray: 53a. is concurrently mutated during item assignment. - gh-127971(14): Fix off-by-one read beyond the end of a string in string search. - gh-125723(15): Fix crash with ‘gi_frame.f_locals’ when generator frames outlive their generator. Patch by Mikhail Efimov. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/58124 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/137314 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/136541 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109700 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/78465 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135871 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135607 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135496 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130077 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135148 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133136 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/132617 (13) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91153 (14) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127971 (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/125723  File: python.info, Node: Build, Prev: Core and Builtins<2>, Up: Python 3 13 6 final 1.23.2.9 Build .............. - gh-135497(1): Fix the detection of ‘MAXLOGNAME’ in the ‘configure.ac’ script. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135497  File: python.info, Node: Python 3 13 5 final, Next: Python 3 13 4 final, Prev: Python 3 13 6 final, Up: Changelog 1.23.3 Python 3.13.5 final -------------------------- 'Release date: 2025-06-11' * Menu: * Windows: Windows<2>. * Tests: Tests<2>. * Library: Library<3>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<3>. * C API::  File: python.info, Node: Windows<2>, Next: Tests<2>, Up: Python 3 13 5 final 1.23.3.1 Windows ................ - gh-135151(1): Avoid distributing modified ‘pyconfig.h’ in the traditional installer. Extension module builds must always specify ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ when targeting the free-threaded runtime. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135151  File: python.info, Node: Tests<2>, Next: Library<3>, Prev: Windows<2>, Up: Python 3 13 5 final 1.23.3.2 Tests .............. - gh-135120(1): Add ‘test.support.subTests()’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135120  File: python.info, Node: Library<3>, Next: Core and Builtins<3>, Prev: Tests<2>, Up: Python 3 13 5 final 1.23.3.3 Library ................ - gh-133967(1): Do not normalize *note locale: 86. name ‘C.UTF-8’ to ‘en_US.UTF-8’. - gh-135326(2): Restore support of integer-like objects with ‘__index__()’ in *note random.getrandbits(): 1006. - gh-135321(3): Raise a correct exception for values greater than 0x7fffffff for the ‘BINSTRING’ opcode in the C implementation of *note pickle: a6. - gh-135276(4): Backported bugfixes in zipfile.Path from zipp 3.23. Fixed ‘.name’, ‘.stem’ and other basename-based properties on Windows when working with a zipfile on disk. - gh-134151(5): *note email: 3b.: Fix *note TypeError: 534. in *note email.utils.decode_params(): 1535. when sorting RFC 2231(6) continuations that contain an unnumbered section. - gh-134152(7): *note email: 3b.: Fix parsing of email message ID with invalid domain. - gh-127081(8): Fix libc thread safety issues with *note os: a1. by replacing ‘getlogin’ with ‘getlogin_r’ re-entrant version. - gh-131884(9): Fix formatting issues in *note json.dump(): d44. when both 'indent' and 'skipkeys' are used. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133967 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135326 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135321 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135276 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134151 (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2231.html (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134152 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127081 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/131884  File: python.info, Node: Core and Builtins<3>, Next: C API, Prev: Library<3>, Up: Python 3 13 5 final 1.23.3.4 Core and Builtins .......................... - gh-135171(1): Roll back changes to generator and list comprehensions that went into 3.13.4 to fix gh-127682(2), but which involved semantic and bytecode changes not appropriate for a bugfix release. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135171 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/127682  File: python.info, Node: C API, Prev: Core and Builtins<3>, Up: Python 3 13 5 final 1.23.3.5 C API .............. - gh-134989(1): Fix ‘Py_RETURN_NONE’, ‘Py_RETURN_TRUE’ and ‘Py_RETURN_FALSE’ macros in the limited C API 3.11 and older: don’t treat ‘Py_None’, ‘Py_True’ and ‘Py_False’ as immortal. Patch by Victor Stinner. - gh-134989(2): Implement *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1538. and *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1539. as macros in the limited C API 3.12 and older. Patch by Victor Stinner. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/134989  File: python.info, Node: Python 3 13 4 final, Next: Python 3 13 3 final, Prev: Python 3 13 5 final, Up: Changelog 1.23.4 Python 3.13.4 final -------------------------- 'Release date: 2025-06-03' * Menu: * Windows: Windows<3>. * Tests: Tests<3>. * Security: Security<2>. * Library: Library<4>. * IDLE: IDLE<3>. * Documentation: Documentation<4>. * Core and Builtins: Core and Builtins<4>. * C API: C API<2>. * Build: Build<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Windows<3>, Next: Tests<3>, Up: Python 3 13 4 final 1.23.4.1 Windows ................ - gh-130727(1): Fix a race in internal calls into WMI that can result in an “invalid handle” exception under high load. Patch by Chris Eibl. - gh-76023(2): Make *note os.path.realpath(): 227. ignore Windows error 1005 when in non-strict mode. - gh-133626(3): Ensures packages are not accidentally bundled into the traditional installer. - gh-133512(4): Add warnings to *note Python Launcher for Windows: 5ba. about use of subcommands belonging to the Python install manager. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/130727 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/76023 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133626 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133512  File: python.info, Node: Tests<3>, Next: Security<2>, Prev: Windows<3>, Up: Python 3 13 4 final 1.23.4.2 Tests .............. - gh-133744(1): Fix multiprocessing interrupt test. Add an event to synchronize the parent process with the child process: wait until the child process starts sleeping. Patch by Victor Stinner. - gh-133639(2): Fix ‘TestPyReplAutoindent.test_auto_indent_default()’ doesn’t run ‘input_code’. - gh-133131(3): The iOS testbed will now select the most recently released “SE-class” device for testing if a device isn’t explicitly specified. - gh-109981(4): The test helper that counts the list of open file descriptors now uses the optimised ‘/dev/fd’ approach on all Apple platforms, not just macOS. This avoids crashes caused by guarded file descriptors. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133744 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133639 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133131 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109981  File: python.info, Node: Security<2>, Next: Library<4>, Prev: Tests<3>, Up: Python 3 13 4 final 1.23.4.3 Security ................. - gh-135034(1): Fixes multiple issues that allowed ‘tarfile’ extraction filters (‘filter="data"’ and ‘filter="tar"’) to be bypassed using crafted symlinks and hard links. Addresses CVE 2024-12718(2), CVE 2025-4138(3), CVE 2025-4330(4), and CVE 2025-4517(5). - gh-133767(6): Fix use-after-free in the “unicode-escape” decoder with a non-“strict” error handler. - gh-128840(7): Short-circuit the processing of long IPv6 addresses early in *note ipaddress: 80. to prevent excessive memory consumption and a minor denial-of-service. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/135034 (2) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2024-12718 (3) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4138 (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4330 (5) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2025-4517 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/133767 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/128840  File: python.info, Node: Library<4>, Next: IDLE<3>, Prev: Security<2>, Up: Python 3 13 4 final 1.23.4.4 Library ................ - gh-134718(1): *note ast.dump(): 8e3. now only omits ‘None’ and ‘[]’ values if they are default values. - gh-128840(2): Fix parsing long IPv6 addresses with embedded IPv4 address. - gh-134696(3): Built-in HACL* and OpenSSL implementations of hash function constructors now correctly accept the same 'documented' named arguments. For instance, *note md5(): 153f. could be previously invoked as ‘md5(data=data)’ or ‘md5(string=string)’ depending on the underlying implementation but these calls were not compatible. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-134210(4): *note curses.window.getch(): 1540. now correctly handles signals. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-80334(5): *note multiprocessing.freeze_support(): 1541. now checks for work on any “spawn” start method platform rather than only on Windows. - gh-114177(6): Fix *note asyncio: a. to not close subprocess pipes which would otherwise error out when the event loop is already closed. - gh-134152(7): Fixed *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. that could occur during *note email: 3b. header parsing if an expected trailing delimiter is missing in some contexts. - gh-62184(8): Remove import of C implementation of *note io.FileIO: 1303. from Python implementation which has its own implementation - gh-133982(9): Emit *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. in the Python implementation of *note io: 7f. when the *note file-like object: 11b5. is not closed explicitly in the presence of multiple I/O layers. - gh-133890(10): The *note tarfile: de. module now handles *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. in the same way as *note OSError: 413. when cannot extract a member. - gh-134097(11): Fix interaction of the new *note REPL: 16a. and *note -X showrefcount: 176. command line option. - gh-133889(12): The generated directory listing page in *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. now only shows the decoded path component of the requested URL, and not the query and fragment. - gh-134098(13): Fix handling paths that end with a percent-encoded slash (‘%2f’ or ‘%2F’) in *note http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. - gh-134062(14): *note ipaddress: 80.: fix collisions in *note __hash__(): afb. for *note IPv4Network: 200. and *note IPv6Network: 201. objects. - gh-133745(15): In 3.13.3 we accidentally changed the signature of the asyncio ‘create_task()’ family of methods and how it calls a custom task factory in a backwards incompatible way. Since some 3rd party libraries have already made changes to work around the issue that might break if we simply reverted the changes, we’re instead changing things to be backwards compatible with 3.13.2 while still supporting those workarounds for 3.13.3. In particular, the special-casing of ‘name’ and ‘context’ is back (until 3.14) and consequently eager tasks may still find that their name hasn’t been set before they execute their first yielding await. - gh-71253(16): Raise *note ValueError: 204. in *note open(): 517. if 'opener' returns a negative file-descriptor in the Python implementation of *note io: 7f. to match the C implementation. - gh-77057(17): Fix handling of invalid markup declarations in *note html.parser.HTMLParser: 874. - gh-133489(18): *note random.getrandbits(): 1006. can now generate more that 2^31 bits. *note random.randbytes(): 1542. can now generate more that 256 MiB. - gh-133290(19): Fix attribute caching issue when setting *note ctypes._Pointer._type_: 1543. in the undocumented and deprecated ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function and the undocumented ‘set_type()’ method. - gh-132876(20): ‘ldexp()’ on Windows doesn’t round subnormal results before Windows 11, but should. Python’s *note math.ldexp(): 1544. wrapper now does round them, so results may change slightly, in rare cases of very small results, on Windows versions before 11. - gh-133089(21): Use original timeout value for *note subprocess.TimeoutExpired: 1545. when the func *note subprocess.run(): b86. is called with a timeout instead of sometimes a confusing partial remaining time out value used internally on the final ‘wait()’. - gh-133009(22): *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Fix a crash in *note Element.__deepcopy__: 1546. when the element is concurrently mutated. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-132995(23): Bump the version of pip bundled in ensurepip to version 25.1.1 - gh-132017(24): Fix error when ‘pyrepl’ is suspended, then resumed and terminated. - gh-132673(25): Fix a crash when using ‘_align_ = 0’ and ‘_fields_ = []’ in a *note ctypes.Structure: 1d4. - gh-132527(26): Include the valid typecode ‘w’ in the error message when an invalid typecode is passed to *note array.array: 1a0. - gh-132439(27): Fix ‘PyREPL’ on Windows: characters entered via AltGr are swallowed. Patch by Chris Eibl. - gh-132429(28): Fix support of Bluetooth sockets on NetBSD and DragonFly BSD. - gh-132106(29): *note QueueListener.start: 1547. now raises a *note RuntimeError: 195. if the listener is already started. - gh-132417(30): Fix a ‘NULL’ pointer dereference when a C function called using *note ctypes: 2a. with ‘restype’ *note py_object: 1403. returns ‘NULL’. - gh-132385(31): Fix instance error suggestions trigger potential exceptions in *note object.__getattr__(): 4cf. in *note traceback: fe. - gh-132308(32): A *note traceback.TracebackException: 25e. now correctly renders the ‘__context__’ and ‘__cause__’ attributes from *note falsey: 1548. *note Exception: 9d9, and the ‘exceptions’ attribute from falsey *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. - gh-132250(33): Fixed the *note SystemError: 572. in *note cProfile: 27. when locating the actual C function of a method raises an exception. - gh-132063(34): Prevent exceptions that evaluate as falsey (namely, when their ‘__bool__’ method returns ‘False’ or their ‘__len__’ method returns 0) from being ignored by *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. and *note concurrent.futures.ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. - gh-119605(35): Respect ‘follow_wrapped’ for ‘__init__()’ and ‘__new__()’ methods when getting the class signature for a class with *note inspect.signature(): 733. Preserve class signature after wrapping with *note warnings.deprecated(): 160. Patch by Xuehai Pan. - gh-91555(36): Ignore log messages generated during handling of log messages, to avoid deadlock or infinite recursion. [NOTE: This change has since been reverted.] - gh-131434(37): Improve error reporting for incorrect format in *note time.strptime(): 13f8. - gh-131127(38): Systems using LibreSSL now successfully build. - gh-130999(39): Avoid exiting the new REPL and offer suggestions even if there are non-string candidates when errors occur. - gh-130941(40): Fix *note configparser.ConfigParser: 1c8. parsing empty interpolation with ‘allow_no_value’ set to ‘True’. - gh-129098(41): Fix REPL traceback reporting when using *note compile(): 192. with an inexisting file. Patch by Bénédikt Tran. - gh-130631(42): ‘http.cookiejar.join_header_words()’ is now more similar to the original Perl version. It now quotes the same set of characters and always quote values that end with ‘"\n"’. - gh-129719(43): Fix missing ‘socket.CAN_RAW_ERR_FILTER’ constant in the socket module on Linux systems. It was missing since Python 3.11. - gh-124096(44): Turn on virtual terminal mode and enable bracketed paste in REPL on Windows console. (If the terminal does not support bracketed paste, enabling it does nothing.) - gh-122559(45): Remove ‘__reduce__()’ and ‘__reduce_ex__()’ methods that always raise *note TypeError: 534. in the C implementation of *note io.FileIO: 1303, *note io.BufferedReader: 1200, *note io.BufferedWriter: 1549. and *note io.BufferedRandom: 154a. and replace them with default ‘__getstate__()’ methods that raise ‘TypeError’. This restores fine details of behavior of Python 3.11 and older versions. - gh-122179(46): *note hashlib.file_digest(): 640. now raises *note BlockingIOError: 1050. when no data is available during non-blocking I/O. Before, it added spurious null bytes to the digest. - gh-86155(47): *note html.parser.HTMLParser.close(): 154b. no longer loses data when the ‘’ and ‘’). -- Method: HTMLParser.handle_entityref (name) This method is called to process a named character reference of the form ‘&name;’ (e.g. ‘>’), where 'name' is a general entity reference (e.g. ‘'gt'’). This method is never called if 'convert_charrefs' is ‘True’. -- Method: HTMLParser.handle_charref (name) This method is called to process decimal and hexadecimal numeric character references of the form ‘&#NNN;’ and ‘&#xNNN;’. For example, the decimal equivalent for ‘>’ is ‘>’, whereas the hexadecimal is ‘>’; in this case the method will receive ‘'62'’ or ‘'x3E'’. This method is never called if 'convert_charrefs' is ‘True’. -- Method: HTMLParser.handle_comment (data) This method is called when a comment is encountered (e.g. ‘’). For example, the comment ‘’ will cause this method to be called with the argument ‘' comment '’. The content of Internet Explorer conditional comments (condcoms) will also be sent to this method, so, for ‘’, this method will receive ‘'[if IE 9]>IE9-specific content’). The 'decl' parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration inside the ‘’ markup (e.g. ‘'DOCTYPE html'’). -- Method: HTMLParser.handle_pi (data) Method called when a processing instruction is encountered. The 'data' parameter will contain the entire processing instruction. For example, for the processing instruction ‘’, this method would be called as ‘handle_pi("proc color='red'")’. It is intended to be overridden by a derived class; the base class implementation does nothing. Note: The *note HTMLParser: 874. class uses the SGML syntactic rules for processing instructions. An XHTML processing instruction using the trailing ‘'?'’ will cause the ‘'?'’ to be included in 'data'. -- Method: HTMLParser.unknown_decl (data) This method is called when an unrecognized declaration is read by the parser. The 'data' parameter will be the entire contents of the declaration inside the ‘’ markup. It is sometimes useful to be overridden by a derived class. The base class implementation does nothing.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<24>, Prev: HTMLParser Methods, Up: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser 5.21.2.3 Examples ................. The following class implements a parser that will be used to illustrate more examples: from html.parser import HTMLParser from html.entities import name2codepoint class MyHTMLParser(HTMLParser): def handle_starttag(self, tag, attrs): print("Start tag:", tag) for attr in attrs: print(" attr:", attr) def handle_endtag(self, tag): print("End tag :", tag) def handle_data(self, data): print("Data :", data) def handle_comment(self, data): print("Comment :", data) def handle_entityref(self, name): c = chr(name2codepoint[name]) print("Named ent:", c) def handle_charref(self, name): if name.startswith('x'): c = chr(int(name[1:], 16)) else: c = chr(int(name)) print("Num ent :", c) def handle_decl(self, data): print("Decl :", data) parser = MyHTMLParser() Parsing a doctype: >>> parser.feed('') Decl : DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01//EN" "http://www.w3.org/TR/html4/strict.dtd" Parsing an element with a few attributes and a title: >>> parser.feed('The Python logo') Start tag: img attr: ('src', 'python-logo.png') attr: ('alt', 'The Python logo') >>> >>> parser.feed('

Python

') Start tag: h1 Data : Python End tag : h1 The content of ‘script’ and ‘style’ elements is returned as is, without further parsing: >>> parser.feed('') Start tag: style attr: ('type', 'text/css') Data : #python { color: green } End tag : style >>> parser.feed('') Start tag: script attr: ('type', 'text/javascript') Data : alert("hello!"); End tag : script Parsing comments: >>> parser.feed('' ... '') Comment : a comment Comment : [if IE 9]>IE-specific content'’): >>> parser = MyHTMLParser() >>> parser.feed('>>>') Data : >>> >>> parser = MyHTMLParser(convert_charrefs=False) >>> parser.feed('>>>') Named ent: > Num ent : > Num ent : > Feeding incomplete chunks to *note feed(): 375c. works, but *note handle_data(): 3763. might be called more than once (unless 'convert_charrefs' is set to ‘True’): >>> for chunk in ['buff', 'ered', ' text']: ... parser.feed(chunk) ... Start tag: span Data : buff Data : ered Data : text End tag : span Parsing invalid HTML (e.g. unquoted attributes) also works: >>> parser.feed('

tag soup

') Start tag: p Start tag: a attr: ('class', 'link') attr: ('href', '#main') Data : tag soup End tag : p End tag : a  File: python.info, Node: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities, Next: XML Processing Modules, Prev: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.3 ‘html.entities’ — Definitions of HTML general entities ------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/html/entities.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module defines four dictionaries, *note html5: 10c8, *note name2codepoint: 376e, *note codepoint2name: 376f, and *note entitydefs: 3770. -- Data: html.entities.html5 A dictionary that maps HTML5 named character references (2) to the equivalent Unicode character(s), e.g. ‘html5['gt;'] == '>'’. Note that the trailing semicolon is included in the name (e.g. ‘'gt;'’), however some of the names are accepted by the standard even without the semicolon: in this case the name is present with and without the ‘';'’. See also *note html.unescape(): 957. Added in version 3.3. -- Data: html.entities.entitydefs A dictionary mapping XHTML 1.0 entity definitions to their replacement text in ISO Latin-1. -- Data: html.entities.name2codepoint A dictionary that maps HTML4 entity names to the Unicode code points. -- Data: html.entities.codepoint2name A dictionary that maps Unicode code points to HTML4 entity names. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/html/entities.py (2) See ‘https://html.spec.whatwg.org/multipage/named-characters.html#named-character-references’  File: python.info, Node: XML Processing Modules, Next: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API, Prev: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.4 XML Processing Modules ----------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/(1) __________________________________________________________________ Python’s interfaces for processing XML are grouped in the ‘xml’ package. Note: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. It is important to note that modules in the *note xml: 120. package require that there be at least one SAX-compliant XML parser available. The Expat parser is included with Python, so the *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. module will always be available. The documentation for the *note xml.dom: 121. and *note xml.sax: 129. packages are the definition of the Python bindings for the DOM and SAX interfaces. The XML handling submodules are: * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: the ElementTree API, a simple and lightweight XML processor * *note xml.dom: 121.: the DOM API definition * *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.: a minimal DOM implementation * *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123.: support for building partial DOM trees * *note xml.sax: 129.: SAX2 base classes and convenience functions * *note xml.parsers.expat: 126.: the Expat parser binding * Menu: * XML security:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/  File: python.info, Node: XML security, Up: XML Processing Modules 5.21.4.1 XML security ..................... An attacker can abuse XML features to carry out denial of service attacks, access local files, generate network connections to other machines, or circumvent firewalls. Expat versions lower that 2.6.0 may be vulnerable to “billion laughs”, “quadratic blowup” and “large tokens”. Python may be vulnerable if it uses such older versions of Expat as a system-provided library. Check ‘pyexpat.EXPAT_VERSION’. *note xmlrpc: 12d. is 'vulnerable' to the “decompression bomb” attack. billion laughs / exponential entity expansion The Billion Laughs(1) attack – also known as exponential entity expansion – uses multiple levels of nested entities. Each entity refers to another entity several times, and the final entity definition contains a small string. The exponential expansion results in several gigabytes of text and consumes lots of memory and CPU time. quadratic blowup entity expansion A quadratic blowup attack is similar to a Billion Laughs(2) attack; it abuses entity expansion, too. Instead of nested entities it repeats one large entity with a couple of thousand chars over and over again. The attack isn’t as efficient as the exponential case but it avoids triggering parser countermeasures that forbid deeply nested entities. decompression bomb Decompression bombs (aka ZIP bomb(3)) apply to all XML libraries that can parse compressed XML streams such as gzipped HTTP streams or LZMA-compressed files. For an attacker it can reduce the amount of transmitted data by three magnitudes or more. large tokens Expat needs to re-parse unfinished tokens; without the protection introduced in Expat 2.6.0, this can lead to quadratic runtime that can be used to cause denial of service in the application parsing XML. The issue is known as CVE 2023-52425(4). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billion_laughs (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip_bomb (4) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2023-52425  File: python.info, Node: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API, Next: xml dom — The Document Object Model API, Prev: XML Processing Modules, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.5 ‘xml.etree.ElementTree’ — The ElementTree XML API -------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module implements a simple and efficient API for parsing and creating XML data. Changed in version 3.3: This module will use a fast implementation whenever available. Deprecated since version 3.3: The ‘xml.etree.cElementTree’ module is deprecated. Note: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. * Menu: * Tutorial: Tutorial<3>. * XPath support:: * Reference: Reference<4>. * XInclude support:: * Reference: Reference<5>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/etree/ElementTree.py  File: python.info, Node: Tutorial<3>, Next: XPath support, Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 5.21.5.1 Tutorial ................. This is a short tutorial for using *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. (‘ET’ in short). The goal is to demonstrate some of the building blocks and basic concepts of the module. * Menu: * XML tree and elements:: * Parsing XML:: * Pull API for non-blocking parsing:: * Finding interesting elements:: * Modifying an XML File:: * Building XML documents:: * Parsing XML with Namespaces::  File: python.info, Node: XML tree and elements, Next: Parsing XML, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.2 XML tree and elements .............................. XML is an inherently hierarchical data format, and the most natural way to represent it is with a tree. ‘ET’ has two classes for this purpose - *note ElementTree: 94e. represents the whole XML document as a tree, and *note Element: 30a. represents a single node in this tree. Interactions with the whole document (reading and writing to/from files) are usually done on the *note ElementTree: 94e. level. Interactions with a single XML element and its sub-elements are done on the *note Element: 30a. level.  File: python.info, Node: Parsing XML, Next: Pull API for non-blocking parsing, Prev: XML tree and elements, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.3 Parsing XML .................... We’ll be using the fictive ‘country_data.xml’ XML document as the sample data for this section: 1 2008 141100 4 2011 59900 68 2011 13600 We can import this data by reading from a file: import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET tree = ET.parse('country_data.xml') root = tree.getroot() Or directly from a string: root = ET.fromstring(country_data_as_string) *note fromstring(): 377d. parses XML from a string directly into an *note Element: 30a, which is the root element of the parsed tree. Other parsing functions may create an *note ElementTree: 94e. Check the documentation to be sure. As an *note Element: 30a, ‘root’ has a tag and a dictionary of attributes: >>> root.tag 'data' >>> root.attrib {} It also has children nodes over which we can iterate: >>> for child in root: ... print(child.tag, child.attrib) ... country {'name': 'Liechtenstein'} country {'name': 'Singapore'} country {'name': 'Panama'} Children are nested, and we can access specific child nodes by index: >>> root[0][1].text '2008' Note: Not all elements of the XML input will end up as elements of the parsed tree. Currently, this module skips over any XML comments, processing instructions, and document type declarations in the input. Nevertheless, trees built using this module’s API rather than parsing from XML text can have comments and processing instructions in them; they will be included when generating XML output. A document type declaration may be accessed by passing a custom *note TreeBuilder: a54. instance to the *note XMLParser: a53. constructor.  File: python.info, Node: Pull API for non-blocking parsing, Next: Finding interesting elements, Prev: Parsing XML, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.4 Pull API for non-blocking parsing .......................................... Most parsing functions provided by this module require the whole document to be read at once before returning any result. It is possible to use an *note XMLParser: a53. and feed data into it incrementally, but it is a push API that calls methods on a callback target, which is too low-level and inconvenient for most needs. Sometimes what the user really wants is to be able to parse XML incrementally, without blocking operations, while enjoying the convenience of fully constructed *note Element: 30a. objects. The most powerful tool for doing this is *note XMLPullParser: fec. It does not require a blocking read to obtain the XML data, and is instead fed with data incrementally with *note XMLPullParser.feed(): 377f. calls. To get the parsed XML elements, call *note XMLPullParser.read_events(): 3780. Here is an example: >>> parser = ET.XMLPullParser(['start', 'end']) >>> parser.feed('sometext') >>> list(parser.read_events()) [('start', )] >>> parser.feed(' more text') >>> for event, elem in parser.read_events(): ... print(event) ... print(elem.tag, 'text=', elem.text) ... end mytag text= sometext more text The obvious use case is applications that operate in a non-blocking fashion where the XML data is being received from a socket or read incrementally from some storage device. In such cases, blocking reads are unacceptable. Because it’s so flexible, *note XMLPullParser: fec. can be inconvenient to use for simpler use-cases. If you don’t mind your application blocking on reading XML data but would still like to have incremental parsing capabilities, take a look at *note iterparse(): 275. It can be useful when you’re reading a large XML document and don’t want to hold it wholly in memory. Where 'immediate' feedback through events is wanted, calling method *note XMLPullParser.flush(): 272. can help reduce delay; please make sure to study the related security notes.  File: python.info, Node: Finding interesting elements, Next: Modifying an XML File, Prev: Pull API for non-blocking parsing, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.5 Finding interesting elements ..................................... *note Element: 30a. has some useful methods that help iterate recursively over all the sub-tree below it (its children, their children, and so on). For example, *note Element.iter(): 1342.: >>> for neighbor in root.iter('neighbor'): ... print(neighbor.attrib) ... {'name': 'Austria', 'direction': 'E'} {'name': 'Switzerland', 'direction': 'W'} {'name': 'Malaysia', 'direction': 'N'} {'name': 'Costa Rica', 'direction': 'W'} {'name': 'Colombia', 'direction': 'E'} *note Element.findall(): 1567. finds only elements with a tag which are direct children of the current element. *note Element.find(): 1565. finds the 'first' child with a particular tag, and *note Element.text: 3782. accesses the element’s text content. *note Element.get(): 3783. accesses the element’s attributes: >>> for country in root.findall('country'): ... rank = country.find('rank').text ... name = country.get('name') ... print(name, rank) ... Liechtenstein 1 Singapore 4 Panama 68 More sophisticated specification of which elements to look for is possible by using *note XPath: bad.  File: python.info, Node: Modifying an XML File, Next: Building XML documents, Prev: Finding interesting elements, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.6 Modifying an XML File .............................. *note ElementTree: 94e. provides a simple way to build XML documents and write them to files. The *note ElementTree.write(): ff0. method serves this purpose. Once created, an *note Element: 30a. object may be manipulated by directly changing its fields (such as *note Element.text: 3782.), adding and modifying attributes (*note Element.set(): 3785. method), as well as adding new children (for example with *note Element.append(): 3786.). Let’s say we want to add one to each country’s rank, and add an ‘updated’ attribute to the rank element: >>> for rank in root.iter('rank'): ... new_rank = int(rank.text) + 1 ... rank.text = str(new_rank) ... rank.set('updated', 'yes') ... >>> tree.write('output.xml') Our XML now looks like this: 2 2008 141100 5 2011 59900 69 2011 13600 We can remove elements using *note Element.remove(): 1569. Let’s say we want to remove all countries with a rank higher than 50: >>> for country in root.findall('country'): ... # using root.findall() to avoid removal during traversal ... rank = int(country.find('rank').text) ... if rank > 50: ... root.remove(country) ... >>> tree.write('output.xml') Note that concurrent modification while iterating can lead to problems, just like when iterating and modifying Python lists or dicts. Therefore, the example first collects all matching elements with ‘root.findall()’, and only then iterates over the list of matches. Our XML now looks like this: 2 2008 141100 5 2011 59900  File: python.info, Node: Building XML documents, Next: Parsing XML with Namespaces, Prev: Modifying an XML File, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.7 Building XML documents ............................... The *note SubElement(): 3788. function also provides a convenient way to create new sub-elements for a given element: >>> a = ET.Element('a') >>> b = ET.SubElement(a, 'b') >>> c = ET.SubElement(a, 'c') >>> d = ET.SubElement(c, 'd') >>> ET.dump(a)  File: python.info, Node: Parsing XML with Namespaces, Prev: Building XML documents, Up: Tutorial<3> 5.21.5.8 Parsing XML with Namespaces .................................... If the XML input has namespaces(1), tags and attributes with prefixes in the form ‘prefix:sometag’ get expanded to ‘{uri}sometag’ where the 'prefix' is replaced by the full 'URI'. Also, if there is a default namespace(2), that full URI gets prepended to all of the non-prefixed tags. Here is an XML example that incorporates two namespaces, one with the prefix “fictional” and the other serving as the default namespace: John Cleese Lancelot Archie Leach Eric Idle Sir Robin Gunther Commander Clement One way to search and explore this XML example is to manually add the URI to every tag or attribute in the xpath of a *note find(): 1565. or *note findall(): 1567.: root = fromstring(xml_text) for actor in root.findall('{http://people.example.com}actor'): name = actor.find('{http://people.example.com}name') print(name.text) for char in actor.findall('{http://characters.example.com}character'): print(' |-->', char.text) A better way to search the namespaced XML example is to create a dictionary with your own prefixes and use those in the search functions: ns = {'real_person': 'http://people.example.com', 'role': 'http://characters.example.com'} for actor in root.findall('real_person:actor', ns): name = actor.find('real_person:name', ns) print(name.text) for char in actor.findall('role:character', ns): print(' |-->', char.text) These two approaches both output: John Cleese |--> Lancelot |--> Archie Leach Eric Idle |--> Sir Robin |--> Gunther |--> Commander Clement ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML_namespace (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-names/#defaulting  File: python.info, Node: XPath support, Next: Reference<4>, Prev: Tutorial<3>, Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 5.21.5.9 XPath support ...................... This module provides limited support for XPath expressions(1) for locating elements in a tree. The goal is to support a small subset of the abbreviated syntax; a full XPath engine is outside the scope of the module. * Menu: * Example: Example<8>. * Supported XPath syntax:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xpath  File: python.info, Node: Example<8>, Next: Supported XPath syntax, Up: XPath support 5.21.5.10 Example ................. Here’s an example that demonstrates some of the XPath capabilities of the module. We’ll be using the ‘countrydata’ XML document from the *note Parsing XML: 377b. section: import xml.etree.ElementTree as ET root = ET.fromstring(countrydata) # Top-level elements root.findall(".") # All 'neighbor' grand-children of 'country' children of the top-level # elements root.findall("./country/neighbor") # Nodes with name='Singapore' that have a 'year' child root.findall(".//year/..[@name='Singapore']") # 'year' nodes that are children of nodes with name='Singapore' root.findall(".//*[@name='Singapore']/year") # All 'neighbor' nodes that are the second child of their parent root.findall(".//neighbor[2]") For XML with namespaces, use the usual qualified ‘{namespace}tag’ notation: # All dublin-core "title" tags in the document root.findall(".//{http://purl.org/dc/elements/1.1/}title")  File: python.info, Node: Supported XPath syntax, Prev: Example<8>, Up: XPath support 5.21.5.11 Supported XPath syntax ................................ Syntax Meaning --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘tag’ Selects all child elements with the given tag. For example, ‘spam’ selects all child elements named ‘spam’, and ‘spam/egg’ selects all grandchildren named ‘egg’ in all children named ‘spam’. ‘{namespace}*’ selects all tags in the given namespace, ‘{*}spam’ selects tags named ‘spam’ in any (or no) namespace, and ‘{}*’ only selects tags that are not in a namespace. Changed in version 3.8: Support for star-wildcards was added. ‘*’ Selects all child elements, including comments and processing instructions. For example, ‘*/egg’ selects all grandchildren named ‘egg’. ‘.’ Selects the current node. This is mostly useful at the beginning of the path, to indicate that it’s a relative path. ‘//’ Selects all subelements, on all levels beneath the current element. For example, ‘.//egg’ selects all ‘egg’ elements in the entire tree. ‘..’ Selects the parent element. Returns ‘None’ if the path attempts to reach the ancestors of the start element (the element ‘find’ was called on). ‘[@attrib]’ Selects all elements that have the given attribute. ‘[@attrib='value']’ Selects all elements for which the given attribute has the given value. The value cannot contain quotes. ‘[@attrib!='value']’ Selects all elements for which the given attribute does not have the given value. The value cannot contain quotes. Added in version 3.10. ‘[tag]’ Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’. Only immediate children are supported. ‘[.='text']’ Selects all elements whose complete text content, including descendants, equals the given ‘text’. Added in version 3.7. ‘[.!='text']’ Selects all elements whose complete text content, including descendants, does not equal the given ‘text’. Added in version 3.10. ‘[tag='text']’ Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose complete text content, including descendants, equals the given ‘text’. ‘[tag!='text']’ Selects all elements that have a child named ‘tag’ whose complete text content, including descendants, does not equal the given ‘text’. Added in version 3.10. ‘[position]’ Selects all elements that are located at the given position. The position can be either an integer (1 is the first position), the expression ‘last()’ (for the last position), or a position relative to the last position (e.g. ‘last()-1’). Predicates (expressions within square brackets) must be preceded by a tag name, an asterisk, or another predicate. ‘position’ predicates must be preceded by a tag name.  File: python.info, Node: Reference<4>, Next: XInclude support, Prev: XPath support, Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 5.21.5.12 Reference ................... * Menu: * Functions: Functions<9>.  File: python.info, Node: Functions<9>, Up: Reference<4> 5.21.5.13 Functions ................... -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.canonicalize (xml_data=None, *, out=None, from_file=None, **options) C14N 2.0(1) transformation function. Canonicalization is a way to normalise XML output in a way that allows byte-by-byte comparisons and digital signatures. It reduces the freedom that XML serializers have and instead generates a more constrained XML representation. The main restrictions regard the placement of namespace declarations, the ordering of attributes, and ignorable whitespace. This function takes an XML data string ('xml_data') or a file path or file-like object ('from_file') as input, converts it to the canonical form, and writes it out using the 'out' file(-like) object, if provided, or returns it as a text string if not. The output file receives text, not bytes. It should therefore be opened in text mode with ‘utf-8’ encoding. Typical uses: xml_data = "..." print(canonicalize(xml_data)) with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file: canonicalize(xml_data, out=out_file) with open("c14n_output.xml", mode='w', encoding='utf-8') as out_file: canonicalize(from_file="inputfile.xml", out=out_file) The configuration 'options' are as follows: - 'with_comments': set to true to include comments (default: false) - 'strip_text': set to true to strip whitespace before and after text content (default: false) - 'rewrite_prefixes': set to true to replace namespace prefixes by “n{number}” (default: false) - 'qname_aware_tags': a set of qname aware tag names in which prefixes should be replaced in text content (default: empty) - 'qname_aware_attrs': a set of qname aware attribute names in which prefixes should be replaced in text content (default: empty) - 'exclude_attrs': a set of attribute names that should not be serialised - 'exclude_tags': a set of tag names that should not be serialised In the option list above, “a set” refers to any collection or iterable of strings, no ordering is expected. Added in version 3.8. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.Comment (text=None) Comment element factory. This factory function creates a special element that will be serialized as an XML comment by the standard serializer. The comment string can be either a bytestring or a Unicode string. 'text' is a string containing the comment string. Returns an element instance representing a comment. Note that *note XMLParser: a53. skips over comments in the input instead of creating comment objects for them. An *note ElementTree: 94e. will only contain comment nodes if they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the *note Element: 30a. methods. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.dump (elem) Writes an element tree or element structure to sys.stdout. This function should be used for debugging only. The exact output format is implementation dependent. In this version, it’s written as an ordinary XML file. 'elem' is an element tree or an individual element. Changed in version 3.8: The *note dump(): 3792. function now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstring (text, parser=None) Parses an XML section from a string constant. Same as *note XML(): 3793. 'text' is a string containing XML data. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. Returns an *note Element: 30a. instance. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.fromstringlist (sequence, parser=None) Parses an XML document from a sequence of string fragments. 'sequence' is a list or other sequence containing XML data fragments. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. Returns an *note Element: 30a. instance. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.indent (tree, space=' ', level=0) Appends whitespace to the subtree to indent the tree visually. This can be used to generate pretty-printed XML output. 'tree' can be an Element or ElementTree. 'space' is the whitespace string that will be inserted for each indentation level, two space characters by default. For indenting partial subtrees inside of an already indented tree, pass the initial indentation level as 'level'. Added in version 3.9. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.iselement (element) Check if an object appears to be a valid element object. 'element' is an element instance. Return ‘True’ if this is an element object. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.iterparse (source, events=None, parser=None) Parses an XML section into an element tree incrementally, and reports what’s going on to the user. 'source' is a filename or *note file object: 11b5. containing XML data. 'events' is a sequence of events to report back. The supported events are the strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and ‘"end-ns"’ (the “ns” events are used to get detailed namespace information). If 'events' is omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are reported. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. 'parser' must be a subclass of *note XMLParser: a53. and can only use the default *note TreeBuilder: a54. as a target. Returns an *note iterator: 1ac. providing ‘(event, elem)’ pairs; it has a ‘root’ attribute that references the root element of the resulting XML tree once 'source' is fully read. The iterator has the ‘close()’ method that closes the internal file object if 'source' is a filename. Note that while *note iterparse(): 275. builds the tree incrementally, it issues blocking reads on 'source' (or the file it names). As such, it’s unsuitable for applications where blocking reads can’t be made. For fully non-blocking parsing, see *note XMLPullParser: fec. Note: *note iterparse(): 275. only guarantees that it has seen the “>” character of a starting tag when it emits a “start” event, so the attributes are defined, but the contents of the text and tail attributes are undefined at that point. The same applies to the element children; they may or may not be present. If you need a fully populated element, look for “end” events instead. Deprecated since version 3.4: The 'parser' argument. Changed in version 3.8: The ‘comment’ and ‘pi’ events were added. Changed in version 3.13: Added the ‘close()’ method. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.parse (source, parser=None) Parses an XML section into an element tree. 'source' is a filename or file object containing XML data. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. Returns an *note ElementTree: 94e. instance. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.ProcessingInstruction (target, text=None) PI element factory. This factory function creates a special element that will be serialized as an XML processing instruction. 'target' is a string containing the PI target. 'text' is a string containing the PI contents, if given. Returns an element instance, representing a processing instruction. Note that *note XMLParser: a53. skips over processing instructions in the input instead of creating PI objects for them. An *note ElementTree: 94e. will only contain processing instruction nodes if they have been inserted into to the tree using one of the *note Element: 30a. methods. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.register_namespace (prefix, uri) Registers a namespace prefix. The registry is global, and any existing mapping for either the given prefix or the namespace URI will be removed. 'prefix' is a namespace prefix. 'uri' is a namespace uri. Tags and attributes in this namespace will be serialized with the given prefix, if at all possible. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.SubElement (parent, tag, attrib={}, **extra) Subelement factory. This function creates an element instance, and appends it to an existing element. The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either bytestrings or Unicode strings. 'parent' is the parent element. 'tag' is the subelement name. 'attrib' is an optional dictionary, containing element attributes. 'extra' contains additional attributes, given as keyword arguments. Returns an element instance. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostring (element, encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True) Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all subelements. 'element' is an *note Element: 30a. instance. 'encoding' (2) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a bytestring is generated). 'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’). 'xml_declaration', 'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning as in *note ElementTree.write(): ff0. Returns an (optionally) encoded string containing the XML data. Changed in version 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter. Changed in version 3.8: Added the 'xml_declaration' and 'default_namespace' parameters. Changed in version 3.8: The *note tostring(): fee. function now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.tostringlist (element, encoding='us-ascii', method='xml', *, xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None, short_empty_elements=True) Generates a string representation of an XML element, including all subelements. 'element' is an *note Element: 30a. instance. 'encoding' (3) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). Use ‘encoding="unicode"’ to generate a Unicode string (otherwise, a bytestring is generated). 'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’). 'xml_declaration', 'default_namespace' and 'short_empty_elements' has the same meaning as in *note ElementTree.write(): ff0. Returns a list of (optionally) encoded strings containing the XML data. It does not guarantee any specific sequence, except that ‘b"".join(tostringlist(element)) == tostring(element)’. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter. Changed in version 3.8: Added the 'xml_declaration' and 'default_namespace' parameters. Changed in version 3.8: The *note tostringlist(): fef. function now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.XML (text, parser=None) Parses an XML section from a string constant. This function can be used to embed “XML literals” in Python code. 'text' is a string containing XML data. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. Returns an *note Element: 30a. instance. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLID (text, parser=None) Parses an XML section from a string constant, and also returns a dictionary which maps from element id:s to elements. 'text' is a string containing XML data. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. Returns a tuple containing an *note Element: 30a. instance and a dictionary. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/ (2) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not. See ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and ‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’. (3) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not. See ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and ‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.  File: python.info, Node: XInclude support, Next: Reference<5>, Prev: Reference<4>, Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 5.21.5.14 XInclude support .......................... This module provides limited support for XInclude directives(1), via the *note xml.etree.ElementInclude: 124. helper module. This module can be used to insert subtrees and text strings into element trees, based on information in the tree. * Menu: * Example: Example<9>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xinclude/  File: python.info, Node: Example<9>, Up: XInclude support 5.21.5.15 Example ................. Here’s an example that demonstrates use of the XInclude module. To include an XML document in the current document, use the ‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element and set the 'parse' attribute to ‘"xml"’, and use the 'href' attribute to specify the document to include. By default, the 'href' attribute is treated as a file name. You can use custom loaders to override this behaviour. Also note that the standard helper does not support XPointer syntax. To process this file, load it as usual, and pass the root element to the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module: from xml.etree import ElementTree, ElementInclude tree = ElementTree.parse("document.xml") root = tree.getroot() ElementInclude.include(root) The ElementInclude module replaces the ‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element with the root element from the 'source.xml' document. The result might look something like this: This is a paragraph. If the 'parse' attribute is omitted, it defaults to “xml”. The href attribute is required. To include a text document, use the ‘{http://www.w3.org/2001/XInclude}include’ element, and set the 'parse' attribute to “text”: Copyright (c) . The result might look something like: Copyright (c) 2003.  File: python.info, Node: Reference<5>, Prev: XInclude support, Up: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API 5.21.5.16 Reference ................... * Menu: * Functions: Functions<10>. * Element Objects:: * ElementTree Objects:: * QName Objects:: * TreeBuilder Objects:: * XMLParser Objects:: * XMLPullParser Objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<19>.  File: python.info, Node: Functions<10>, Next: Element Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.17 Functions ................... -- Function: xml.etree.ElementInclude.default_loader (href, parse, encoding=None) Default loader. This default loader reads an included resource from disk. 'href' is a URL. 'parse' is for parse mode either “xml” or “text”. 'encoding' is an optional text encoding. If not given, encoding is ‘utf-8’. Returns the expanded resource. If the parse mode is ‘"xml"’, this is an *note Element: 30a. instance. If the parse mode is ‘"text"’, this is a string. If the loader fails, it can return ‘None’ or raise an exception. -- Function: xml.etree.ElementInclude.include (elem, loader=None, base_url=None, max_depth=6) This function expands XInclude directives in-place in tree pointed by 'elem'. 'elem' is either the root *note Element: 30a. or an *note ElementTree: 94e. instance to find such element. 'loader' is an optional resource loader. If omitted, it defaults to *note default_loader(): 379f. If given, it should be a callable that implements the same interface as *note default_loader(): 379f. 'base_url' is base URL of the original file, to resolve relative include file references. 'max_depth' is the maximum number of recursive inclusions. Limited to reduce the risk of malicious content explosion. Pass ‘None’ to disable the limitation. Changed in version 3.9: Added the 'base_url' and 'max_depth' parameters.  File: python.info, Node: Element Objects, Next: ElementTree Objects, Prev: Functions<10>, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.18 Element Objects ......................... -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.Element (tag, attrib={}, **extra) Element class. This class defines the Element interface, and provides a reference implementation of this interface. The element name, attribute names, and attribute values can be either bytestrings or Unicode strings. 'tag' is the element name. 'attrib' is an optional dictionary, containing element attributes. 'extra' contains additional attributes, given as keyword arguments. -- Attribute: tag A string identifying what kind of data this element represents (the element type, in other words). -- Attribute: text -- Attribute: tail These attributes can be used to hold additional data associated with the element. Their values are usually strings but may be any application-specific object. If the element is created from an XML file, the 'text' attribute holds either the text between the element’s start tag and its first child or end tag, or ‘None’, and the 'tail' attribute holds either the text between the element’s end tag and the next tag, or ‘None’. For the XML data 1234 the 'a' element has ‘None’ for both 'text' and 'tail' attributes, the 'b' element has 'text' ‘"1"’ and 'tail' ‘"4"’, the 'c' element has 'text' ‘"2"’ and 'tail' ‘None’, and the 'd' element has 'text' ‘None’ and 'tail' ‘"3"’. To collect the inner text of an element, see *note itertext(): 11c7, for example ‘"".join(element.itertext())’. Applications may store arbitrary objects in these attributes. -- Attribute: attrib A dictionary containing the element’s attributes. Note that while the 'attrib' value is always a real mutable Python dictionary, an ElementTree implementation may choose to use another internal representation, and create the dictionary only if someone asks for it. To take advantage of such implementations, use the dictionary methods below whenever possible. The following dictionary-like methods work on the element attributes. -- Method: clear () Resets an element. This function removes all subelements, clears all attributes, and sets the text and tail attributes to ‘None’. -- Method: get (key, default=None) Gets the element attribute named 'key'. Returns the attribute value, or 'default' if the attribute was not found. -- Method: items () Returns the element attributes as a sequence of (name, value) pairs. The attributes are returned in an arbitrary order. -- Method: keys () Returns the elements attribute names as a list. The names are returned in an arbitrary order. -- Method: set (key, value) Set the attribute 'key' on the element to 'value'. The following methods work on the element’s children (subelements). -- Method: append (subelement) Adds the element 'subelement' to the end of this element’s internal list of subelements. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if 'subelement' is not an *note Element: 30a. -- Method: extend (subelements) Appends 'subelements' from an iterable of elements. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if a subelement is not an *note Element: 30a. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: find (match, namespaces=None) Finds the first subelement matching 'match'. 'match' may be a tag name or a *note path: bad. Returns an element instance or ‘None’. 'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name. Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move all unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given namespace. -- Method: findall (match, namespaces=None) Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path: bad. Returns a list containing all matching elements in document order. 'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name. Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move all unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given namespace. -- Method: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None) Finds text for the first subelement matching 'match'. 'match' may be a tag name or a *note path: bad. Returns the text content of the first matching element, or 'default' if no element was found. Note that if the matching element has no text content an empty string is returned. 'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name. Pass ‘''’ as prefix to move all unprefixed tag names in the expression into the given namespace. -- Method: insert (index, subelement) Inserts 'subelement' at the given position in this element. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if 'subelement' is not an *note Element: 30a. -- Method: iter (tag=None) Creates a tree *note iterator: 1ac. with the current element as the root. The iterator iterates over this element and all elements below it, in document (depth first) order. If 'tag' is not ‘None’ or ‘'*'’, only elements whose tag equals 'tag' are returned from the iterator. If the tree structure is modified during iteration, the result is undefined. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: iterfind (match, namespaces=None) Finds all matching subelements, by tag name or *note path: bad. Returns an iterable yielding all matching elements in document order. 'namespaces' is an optional mapping from namespace prefix to full name. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: itertext () Creates a text iterator. The iterator loops over this element and all subelements, in document order, and returns all inner text. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: makeelement (tag, attrib) Creates a new element object of the same type as this element. Do not call this method, use the *note SubElement(): 3788. factory function instead. -- Method: remove (subelement) Removes 'subelement' from the element. Unlike the find* methods this method compares elements based on the instance identity, not on tag value or contents. *note Element: 30a. objects also support the following sequence type methods for working with subelements: *note __delitem__(): 12bf, *note __getitem__(): 285, *note __setitem__(): 12be, *note __len__(): 1f63. Caution: Elements with no subelements will test as ‘False’. In a future release of Python, all elements will test as ‘True’ regardless of whether subelements exist. Instead, prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests.: element = root.find('foo') if not element: # careful! print("element not found, or element has no subelements") if element is None: print("element not found") Changed in version 3.12: Testing the truth value of an Element emits *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Prior to Python 3.8, the serialisation order of the XML attributes of elements was artificially made predictable by sorting the attributes by their name. Based on the now guaranteed ordering of dicts, this arbitrary reordering was removed in Python 3.8 to preserve the order in which attributes were originally parsed or created by user code. In general, user code should try not to depend on a specific ordering of attributes, given that the XML Information Set(1) explicitly excludes the attribute order from conveying information. Code should be prepared to deal with any ordering on input. In cases where deterministic XML output is required, e.g. for cryptographic signing or test data sets, canonical serialisation is available with the *note canonicalize(): 3790. function. In cases where canonical output is not applicable but a specific attribute order is still desirable on output, code should aim for creating the attributes directly in the desired order, to avoid perceptual mismatches for readers of the code. In cases where this is difficult to achieve, a recipe like the following can be applied prior to serialisation to enforce an order independently from the Element creation: def reorder_attributes(root): for el in root.iter(): attrib = el.attrib if len(attrib) > 1: # adjust attribute order, e.g. by sorting attribs = sorted(attrib.items()) attrib.clear() attrib.update(attribs) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-infoset/  File: python.info, Node: ElementTree Objects, Next: QName Objects, Prev: Element Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.19 ElementTree Objects ............................. -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree (element=None, file=None) ElementTree wrapper class. This class represents an entire element hierarchy, and adds some extra support for serialization to and from standard XML. 'element' is the root element. The tree is initialized with the contents of the XML 'file' if given. -- Method: _setroot (element) Replaces the root element for this tree. This discards the current contents of the tree, and replaces it with the given element. Use with care. 'element' is an element instance. -- Method: find (match, namespaces=None) Same as *note Element.find(): 1565, starting at the root of the tree. -- Method: findall (match, namespaces=None) Same as *note Element.findall(): 1567, starting at the root of the tree. -- Method: findtext (match, default=None, namespaces=None) Same as *note Element.findtext(): 1566, starting at the root of the tree. -- Method: getroot () Returns the root element for this tree. -- Method: iter (tag=None) Creates and returns a tree iterator for the root element. The iterator loops over all elements in this tree, in section order. 'tag' is the tag to look for (default is to return all elements). -- Method: iterfind (match, namespaces=None) Same as *note Element.iterfind(): 11c6, starting at the root of the tree. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: parse (source, parser=None) Loads an external XML section into this element tree. 'source' is a file name or *note file object: 11b5. 'parser' is an optional parser instance. If not given, the standard *note XMLParser: a53. parser is used. Returns the section root element. -- Method: write (file, encoding='us-ascii', xml_declaration=None, default_namespace=None, method='xml', *, short_empty_elements=True) Writes the element tree to a file, as XML. 'file' is a file name, or a *note file object: 11b5. opened for writing. 'encoding' (1) is the output encoding (default is US-ASCII). 'xml_declaration' controls if an XML declaration should be added to the file. Use ‘False’ for never, ‘True’ for always, ‘None’ for only if not US-ASCII or UTF-8 or Unicode (default is ‘None’). 'default_namespace' sets the default XML namespace (for “xmlns”). 'method' is either ‘"xml"’, ‘"html"’ or ‘"text"’ (default is ‘"xml"’). The keyword-only 'short_empty_elements' parameter controls the formatting of elements that contain no content. If ‘True’ (the default), they are emitted as a single self-closed tag, otherwise they are emitted as a pair of start/end tags. The output is either a string (*note str: 447.) or binary (*note bytes: 1c2.). This is controlled by the 'encoding' argument. If 'encoding' is ‘"unicode"’, the output is a string; otherwise, it’s binary. Note that this may conflict with the type of 'file' if it’s an open *note file object: 11b5.; make sure you do not try to write a string to a binary stream and vice versa. Changed in version 3.4: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter. Changed in version 3.8: The *note write(): ff0. method now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. This is the XML file that is going to be manipulated: Example page

Moved to example.org or example.com.

Example of changing the attribute “target” of every link in first paragraph: >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import ElementTree >>> tree = ElementTree() >>> tree.parse("index.xhtml") >>> p = tree.find("body/p") # Finds first occurrence of tag p in body >>> p >>> links = list(p.iter("a")) # Returns list of all links >>> links [, ] >>> for i in links: # Iterates through all found links ... i.attrib["target"] = "blank" ... >>> tree.write("output.xhtml") ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not. See ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and ‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.  File: python.info, Node: QName Objects, Next: TreeBuilder Objects, Prev: ElementTree Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.20 QName Objects ....................... -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.QName (text_or_uri, tag=None) QName wrapper. This can be used to wrap a QName attribute value, in order to get proper namespace handling on output. 'text_or_uri' is a string containing the QName value, in the form {uri}local, or, if the tag argument is given, the URI part of a QName. If 'tag' is given, the first argument is interpreted as a URI, and this argument is interpreted as a local name. *note QName: 37b6. instances are opaque.  File: python.info, Node: TreeBuilder Objects, Next: XMLParser Objects, Prev: QName Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.21 TreeBuilder Objects ............................. -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder (element_factory=None, *, comment_factory=None, pi_factory=None, insert_comments=False, insert_pis=False) Generic element structure builder. This builder converts a sequence of start, data, end, comment and pi method calls to a well-formed element structure. You can use this class to build an element structure using a custom XML parser, or a parser for some other XML-like format. 'element_factory', when given, must be a callable accepting two positional arguments: a tag and a dict of attributes. It is expected to return a new element instance. The 'comment_factory' and 'pi_factory' functions, when given, should behave like the *note Comment(): 3791. and *note ProcessingInstruction(): 3797. functions to create comments and processing instructions. When not given, the default factories will be used. When 'insert_comments' and/or 'insert_pis' is true, comments/pis will be inserted into the tree if they appear within the root element (but not outside of it). -- Method: close () Flushes the builder buffers, and returns the toplevel document element. Returns an *note Element: 30a. instance. -- Method: data (data) Adds text to the current element. 'data' is a string. This should be either a bytestring, or a Unicode string. -- Method: end (tag) Closes the current element. 'tag' is the element name. Returns the closed element. -- Method: start (tag, attrs) Opens a new element. 'tag' is the element name. 'attrs' is a dictionary containing element attributes. Returns the opened element. -- Method: comment (text) Creates a comment with the given 'text'. If ‘insert_comments’ is true, this will also add it to the tree. Added in version 3.8. -- Method: pi (target, text) Creates a process instruction with the given 'target' name and 'text'. If ‘insert_pis’ is true, this will also add it to the tree. Added in version 3.8. In addition, a custom *note TreeBuilder: a54. object can provide the following methods: -- Method: doctype (name, pubid, system) Handles a doctype declaration. 'name' is the doctype name. 'pubid' is the public identifier. 'system' is the system identifier. This method does not exist on the default *note TreeBuilder: a54. class. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: start_ns (prefix, uri) Is called whenever the parser encounters a new namespace declaration, before the ‘start()’ callback for the opening element that defines it. 'prefix' is ‘''’ for the default namespace and the declared namespace prefix name otherwise. 'uri' is the namespace URI. Added in version 3.8. -- Method: end_ns (prefix) Is called after the ‘end()’ callback of an element that declared a namespace prefix mapping, with the name of the 'prefix' that went out of scope. Added in version 3.8. -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.C14NWriterTarget (write, *, with_comments=False, strip_text=False, rewrite_prefixes=False, qname_aware_tags=None, qname_aware_attrs=None, exclude_attrs=None, exclude_tags=None) A C14N 2.0(1) writer. Arguments are the same as for the *note canonicalize(): 3790. function. This class does not build a tree but translates the callback events directly into a serialised form using the 'write' function. Added in version 3.8. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2/  File: python.info, Node: XMLParser Objects, Next: XMLPullParser Objects, Prev: TreeBuilder Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.22 XMLParser Objects ........................... -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser (*, target=None, encoding=None) This class is the low-level building block of the module. It uses *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. for efficient, event-based parsing of XML. It can be fed XML data incrementally with the *note feed(): 37c2. method, and parsing events are translated to a push API - by invoking callbacks on the 'target' object. If 'target' is omitted, the standard *note TreeBuilder: a54. is used. If 'encoding' (1) is given, the value overrides the encoding specified in the XML file. Changed in version 3.8: Parameters are now *note keyword-only: 2a7. The 'html' argument is no longer supported. -- Method: close () Finishes feeding data to the parser. Returns the result of calling the ‘close()’ method of the 'target' passed during construction; by default, this is the toplevel document element. -- Method: feed (data) Feeds data to the parser. 'data' is encoded data. -- Method: flush () Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular with Expat >=2.6.0. The implementation of *note flush(): 271. temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently enabled) and triggers a reparse. Disabling reparse deferral has security consequences; please see *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 274. for details. Note that *note flush(): 271. has been backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix. Check for availability of *note flush(): 271. using *note hasattr(): 4ce. if used in code running across a variety of Python versions. Added in version 3.13. *note XMLParser.feed(): 37c2. calls 'target"s ‘start(tag, attrs_dict)’ method for each opening tag, its ‘end(tag)’ method for each closing tag, and data is processed by method ‘data(data)’. For further supported callback methods, see the *note TreeBuilder: a54. class. *note XMLParser.close(): 37c3. calls 'target"s method ‘close()’. *note XMLParser: a53. can be used not only for building a tree structure. This is an example of counting the maximum depth of an XML file: >>> from xml.etree.ElementTree import XMLParser >>> class MaxDepth: # The target object of the parser ... maxDepth = 0 ... depth = 0 ... def start(self, tag, attrib): # Called for each opening tag. ... self.depth += 1 ... if self.depth > self.maxDepth: ... self.maxDepth = self.depth ... def end(self, tag): # Called for each closing tag. ... self.depth -= 1 ... def data(self, data): ... pass # We do not need to do anything with data. ... def close(self): # Called when all data has been parsed. ... return self.maxDepth ... >>> target = MaxDepth() >>> parser = XMLParser(target=target) >>> exampleXml = """ ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... """ >>> parser.feed(exampleXml) >>> parser.close() 4 ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not. See ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and ‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.  File: python.info, Node: XMLPullParser Objects, Next: Exceptions<19>, Prev: XMLParser Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.23 XMLPullParser Objects ............................... -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser (events=None) A pull parser suitable for non-blocking applications. Its input-side API is similar to that of *note XMLParser: a53, but instead of pushing calls to a callback target, *note XMLPullParser: fec. collects an internal list of parsing events and lets the user read from it. 'events' is a sequence of events to report back. The supported events are the strings ‘"start"’, ‘"end"’, ‘"comment"’, ‘"pi"’, ‘"start-ns"’ and ‘"end-ns"’ (the “ns” events are used to get detailed namespace information). If 'events' is omitted, only ‘"end"’ events are reported. -- Method: feed (data) Feed the given bytes data to the parser. -- Method: flush () Triggers parsing of any previously fed unparsed data, which can be used to ensure more immediate feedback, in particular with Expat >=2.6.0. The implementation of *note flush(): 272. temporarily disables reparse deferral with Expat (if currently enabled) and triggers a reparse. Disabling reparse deferral has security consequences; please see *note xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 274. for details. Note that *note flush(): 272. has been backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix. Check for availability of *note flush(): 272. using *note hasattr(): 4ce. if used in code running across a variety of Python versions. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: close () Signal the parser that the data stream is terminated. Unlike *note XMLParser.close(): 37c3, this method always returns *note None: 671. Any events not yet retrieved when the parser is closed can still be read with *note read_events(): 3780. -- Method: read_events () Return an iterator over the events which have been encountered in the data fed to the parser. The iterator yields ‘(event, elem)’ pairs, where 'event' is a string representing the type of event (e.g. ‘"end"’) and 'elem' is the encountered *note Element: 30a. object, or other context value as follows. * ‘start’, ‘end’: the current Element. * ‘comment’, ‘pi’: the current comment / processing instruction * ‘start-ns’: a tuple ‘(prefix, uri)’ naming the declared namespace mapping. * ‘end-ns’: *note None: 671. (this may change in a future version) Events provided in a previous call to *note read_events(): 3780. will not be yielded again. Events are consumed from the internal queue only when they are retrieved from the iterator, so multiple readers iterating in parallel over iterators obtained from *note read_events(): 3780. will have unpredictable results. Note: *note XMLPullParser: fec. only guarantees that it has seen the “>” character of a starting tag when it emits a “start” event, so the attributes are defined, but the contents of the text and tail attributes are undefined at that point. The same applies to the element children; they may or may not be present. If you need a fully populated element, look for “end” events instead. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.8: The ‘comment’ and ‘pi’ events were added.  File: python.info, Node: Exceptions<19>, Prev: XMLPullParser Objects, Up: Reference<5> 5.21.5.24 Exceptions .................... -- Class: xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError XML parse error, raised by the various parsing methods in this module when parsing fails. The string representation of an instance of this exception will contain a user-friendly error message. In addition, it will have the following attributes available: -- Attribute: code A numeric error code from the expat parser. See the documentation of *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. for the list of error codes and their meanings. -- Attribute: position A tuple of 'line', 'column' numbers, specifying where the error occurred.  File: python.info, Node: xml dom — The Document Object Model API, Next: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation, Prev: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.6 ‘xml.dom’ — The Document Object Model API ------------------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The Document Object Model, or “DOM,” is a cross-language API from the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) for accessing and modifying XML documents. A DOM implementation presents an XML document as a tree structure, or allows client code to build such a structure from scratch. It then gives access to the structure through a set of objects which provided well-known interfaces. The DOM is extremely useful for random-access applications. SAX only allows you a view of one bit of the document at a time. If you are looking at one SAX element, you have no access to another. If you are looking at a text node, you have no access to a containing element. When you write a SAX application, you need to keep track of your program’s position in the document somewhere in your own code. SAX does not do it for you. Also, if you need to look ahead in the XML document, you are just out of luck. Some applications are simply impossible in an event driven model with no access to a tree. Of course you could build some sort of tree yourself in SAX events, but the DOM allows you to avoid writing that code. The DOM is a standard tree representation for XML data. The Document Object Model is being defined by the W3C in stages, or “levels” in their terminology. The Python mapping of the API is substantially based on the DOM Level 2 recommendation. DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. How this is accomplished is not covered at all by DOM Level 1, and Level 2 provides only limited improvements: There is a ‘DOMImplementation’ object class which provides access to ‘Document’ creation methods, but no way to access an XML reader/parser/Document builder in an implementation-independent way. There is also no well-defined way to access these methods without an existing ‘Document’ object. In Python, each DOM implementation will provide a function *note getDOMImplementation(): 37cc. DOM Level 3 adds a Load/Store specification, which defines an interface to the reader, but this is not yet available in the Python standard library. Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your XML document through its properties and methods. These properties are defined in the DOM specification; this portion of the reference manual describes the interpretation of the specification in Python. The specification provided by the W3C defines the DOM API for Java, ECMAScript, and OMG IDL. The Python mapping defined here is based in large part on the IDL version of the specification, but strict compliance is not required (though implementations are free to support the strict mapping from IDL). See section *note Conformance: 37cd. for a detailed discussion of mapping requirements. See also ........ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Specification(2) The W3C recommendation upon which the Python DOM API is based. Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(3) The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. Python Language Mapping Specification(4) This specifies the mapping from OMG IDL to Python. * Menu: * Module Contents: Module Contents<4>. * Objects in the DOM:: * Conformance:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/__init__.py (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/2000/REC-DOM-Level-2-Core-20001113/ (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/ (4) https://www.omg.org/spec/PYTH/1.2/PDF  File: python.info, Node: Module Contents<4>, Next: Objects in the DOM, Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API 5.21.6.1 Module Contents ........................ The *note xml.dom: 121. contains the following functions: -- Function: xml.dom.registerDOMImplementation (name, factory) Register the 'factory' function with the name 'name'. The factory function should return an object which implements the ‘DOMImplementation’ interface. The factory function can return the same object every time, or a new one for each call, as appropriate for the specific implementation (e.g. if that implementation supports some customization). -- Function: xml.dom.getDOMImplementation (name=None, features=()) Return a suitable DOM implementation. The 'name' is either well-known, the module name of a DOM implementation, or ‘None’. If it is not ‘None’, imports the corresponding module and returns a ‘DOMImplementation’ object if the import succeeds. If no name is given, and if the environment variable ‘PYTHON_DOM’ is set, this variable is used to find the implementation. If name is not given, this examines the available implementations to find one with the required feature set. If no implementation can be found, raise an *note ImportError: 415. The features list must be a sequence of ‘(feature, version)’ pairs which are passed to the ‘hasFeature()’ method on available ‘DOMImplementation’ objects. Some convenience constants are also provided: -- Data: xml.dom.EMPTY_NAMESPACE The value used to indicate that no namespace is associated with a node in the DOM. This is typically found as the ‘namespaceURI’ of a node, or used as the 'namespaceURI' parameter to a namespaces-specific method. -- Data: xml.dom.XML_NAMESPACE The namespace URI associated with the reserved prefix ‘xml’, as defined by Namespaces in XML(1) (section 4). -- Data: xml.dom.XMLNS_NAMESPACE The namespace URI for namespace declarations, as defined by Document Object Model (DOM) Level 2 Core Specification(2) (section 1.1.8). -- Data: xml.dom.XHTML_NAMESPACE The URI of the XHTML namespace as defined by XHTML 1.0: The Extensible HyperText Markup Language(3) (section 3.1.1). In addition, *note xml.dom: 121. contains a base ‘Node’ class and the DOM exception classes. The ‘Node’ class provided by this module does not implement any of the methods or attributes defined by the DOM specification; concrete DOM implementations must provide those. The ‘Node’ class provided as part of this module does provide the constants used for the ‘nodeType’ attribute on concrete ‘Node’ objects; they are located within the class rather than at the module level to conform with the DOM specifications. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/ (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/DOM-Level-2-Core/core.html (3) https://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/  File: python.info, Node: Objects in the DOM, Next: Conformance, Prev: Module Contents<4>, Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API 5.21.6.2 Objects in the DOM ........................... The definitive documentation for the DOM is the DOM specification from the W3C. Note that DOM attributes may also be manipulated as nodes instead of as simple strings. It is fairly rare that you must do this, however, so this usage is not yet documented. Interface Section Purpose ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘DOMImplementation’ *note DOMImplementation Objects: 37d6. Interface to the underlying implementation. ‘Node’ *note Node Objects: 37d7. Base interface for most objects in a document. ‘NodeList’ *note NodeList Objects: 37d8. Interface for a sequence of nodes. ‘DocumentType’ *note DocumentType Objects: 37d9. Information about the declarations needed to process a document. ‘Document’ *note Document Objects: 37da. Object which represents an entire document. ‘Element’ *note Element Objects: 37db. Element nodes in the document hierarchy. ‘Attr’ *note Attr Objects: 37dc. Attribute value nodes on element nodes. ‘Comment’ *note Comment Objects: 37dd. Representation of comments in the source document. ‘Text’ *note Text and CDATASection Objects: 37de.Nodes containing textual content from the document. ‘ProcessingInstruction’ *note ProcessingInstruction Objects: 37df.Processing instruction representation. An additional section describes the exceptions defined for working with the DOM in Python. * Menu: * DOMImplementation Objects:: * Node Objects:: * NodeList Objects:: * DocumentType Objects:: * Document Objects:: * Element Objects: Element Objects<2>. * Attr Objects:: * NamedNodeMap Objects:: * Comment Objects:: * Text and CDATASection Objects:: * ProcessingInstruction Objects:: * Exceptions: Exceptions<20>.  File: python.info, Node: DOMImplementation Objects, Next: Node Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.3 DOMImplementation Objects .................................. The ‘DOMImplementation’ interface provides a way for applications to determine the availability of particular features in the DOM they are using. DOM Level 2 added the ability to create new ‘Document’ and ‘DocumentType’ objects using the ‘DOMImplementation’ as well. -- Method: DOMImplementation.hasFeature (feature, version) Return ‘True’ if the feature identified by the pair of strings 'feature' and 'version' is implemented. -- Method: DOMImplementation.createDocument (namespaceUri, qualifiedName, doctype) Return a new ‘Document’ object (the root of the DOM), with a child ‘Element’ object having the given 'namespaceUri' and 'qualifiedName'. The 'doctype' must be a ‘DocumentType’ object created by *note createDocumentType(): 37e3, or ‘None’. In the Python DOM API, the first two arguments can also be ‘None’ in order to indicate that no ‘Element’ child is to be created. -- Method: DOMImplementation.createDocumentType (qualifiedName, publicId, systemId) Return a new ‘DocumentType’ object that encapsulates the given 'qualifiedName', 'publicId', and 'systemId' strings, representing the information contained in an XML document type declaration.  File: python.info, Node: Node Objects, Next: NodeList Objects, Prev: DOMImplementation Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.4 Node Objects ..................... All of the components of an XML document are subclasses of ‘Node’. -- Attribute: Node.nodeType An integer representing the node type. Symbolic constants for the types are on the ‘Node’ object: ‘ELEMENT_NODE’, ‘ATTRIBUTE_NODE’, ‘TEXT_NODE’, ‘CDATA_SECTION_NODE’, ‘ENTITY_NODE’, ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’, ‘COMMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_NODE’, ‘DOCUMENT_TYPE_NODE’, ‘NOTATION_NODE’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.parentNode The parent of the current node, or ‘None’ for the document node. The value is always a ‘Node’ object or ‘None’. For ‘Element’ nodes, this will be the parent element, except for the root element, in which case it will be the ‘Document’ object. For ‘Attr’ nodes, this is always ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.attributes A ‘NamedNodeMap’ of attribute objects. Only elements have actual values for this; others provide ‘None’ for this attribute. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.previousSibling The node that immediately precedes this one with the same parent. For instance the element with an end-tag that comes just before the 'self' element’s start-tag. Of course, XML documents are made up of more than just elements so the previous sibling could be text, a comment, or something else. If this node is the first child of the parent, this attribute will be ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.nextSibling The node that immediately follows this one with the same parent. See also *note previousSibling: 37e8. If this is the last child of the parent, this attribute will be ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.childNodes A list of nodes contained within this node. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.firstChild The first child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.lastChild The last child of the node, if there are any, or ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.localName The part of the ‘tagName’ following the colon if there is one, else the entire ‘tagName’. The value is a string. -- Attribute: Node.prefix The part of the ‘tagName’ preceding the colon if there is one, else the empty string. The value is a string, or ‘None’. -- Attribute: Node.namespaceURI The namespace associated with the element name. This will be a string or ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.nodeName This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for details. You can always get the information you would get here from another property such as the ‘tagName’ property for elements or the ‘name’ property for attributes. For all node types, the value of this attribute will be either a string or ‘None’. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Node.nodeValue This has a different meaning for each node type; see the DOM specification for details. The situation is similar to that with *note nodeName: 37f0. The value is a string or ‘None’. -- Method: Node.hasAttributes () Return ‘True’ if the node has any attributes. -- Method: Node.hasChildNodes () Return ‘True’ if the node has any child nodes. -- Method: Node.isSameNode (other) Return ‘True’ if 'other' refers to the same node as this node. This is especially useful for DOM implementations which use any sort of proxy architecture (because more than one object can refer to the same node). Note: This is based on a proposed DOM Level 3 API which is still in the “working draft” stage, but this particular interface appears uncontroversial. Changes from the W3C will not necessarily affect this method in the Python DOM interface (though any new W3C API for this would also be supported). -- Method: Node.appendChild (newChild) Add a new child node to this node at the end of the list of children, returning 'newChild'. If the node was already in the tree, it is removed first. -- Method: Node.insertBefore (newChild, refChild) Insert a new child node before an existing child. It must be the case that 'refChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note ValueError: 204. is raised. 'newChild' is returned. If 'refChild' is ‘None’, it inserts 'newChild' at the end of the children’s list. -- Method: Node.removeChild (oldChild) Remove a child node. 'oldChild' must be a child of this node; if not, *note ValueError: 204. is raised. 'oldChild' is returned on success. If 'oldChild' will not be used further, its ‘unlink()’ method should be called. -- Method: Node.replaceChild (newChild, oldChild) Replace an existing node with a new node. It must be the case that 'oldChild' is a child of this node; if not, *note ValueError: 204. is raised. -- Method: Node.normalize () Join adjacent text nodes so that all stretches of text are stored as single ‘Text’ instances. This simplifies processing text from a DOM tree for many applications. -- Method: Node.cloneNode (deep) Clone this node. Setting 'deep' means to clone all child nodes as well. This returns the clone.  File: python.info, Node: NodeList Objects, Next: DocumentType Objects, Prev: Node Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.5 NodeList Objects ......................... A ‘NodeList’ represents a sequence of nodes. These objects are used in two ways in the DOM Core recommendation: an ‘Element’ object provides one as its list of child nodes, and the ‘getElementsByTagName()’ and ‘getElementsByTagNameNS()’ methods of ‘Node’ return objects with this interface to represent query results. The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines one method and one attribute for these objects: -- Method: NodeList.item (i) Return the 'i'’th item from the sequence, if there is one, or ‘None’. The index 'i' is not allowed to be less than zero or greater than or equal to the length of the sequence. -- Attribute: NodeList.length The number of nodes in the sequence. In addition, the Python DOM interface requires that some additional support is provided to allow ‘NodeList’ objects to be used as Python sequences. All ‘NodeList’ implementations must include support for *note __len__(): 1f63. and *note __getitem__(): 285.; this allows iteration over the ‘NodeList’ in *note for: 2ec. statements and proper support for the *note len(): 62a. built-in function. If a DOM implementation supports modification of the document, the ‘NodeList’ implementation must also support the *note __setitem__(): 12be. and *note __delitem__(): 12bf. methods.  File: python.info, Node: DocumentType Objects, Next: Document Objects, Prev: NodeList Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.6 DocumentType Objects ............................. Information about the notations and entities declared by a document (including the external subset if the parser uses it and can provide the information) is available from a ‘DocumentType’ object. The ‘DocumentType’ for a document is available from the ‘Document’ object’s ‘doctype’ attribute; if there is no ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration for the document, the document’s ‘doctype’ attribute will be set to ‘None’ instead of an instance of this interface. ‘DocumentType’ is a specialization of ‘Node’, and adds the following attributes: -- Attribute: DocumentType.publicId The public identifier for the external subset of the document type definition. This will be a string or ‘None’. -- Attribute: DocumentType.systemId The system identifier for the external subset of the document type definition. This will be a URI as a string, or ‘None’. -- Attribute: DocumentType.internalSubset A string giving the complete internal subset from the document. This does not include the brackets which enclose the subset. If the document has no internal subset, this should be ‘None’. -- Attribute: DocumentType.name The name of the root element as given in the ‘DOCTYPE’ declaration, if present. -- Attribute: DocumentType.entities This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of external entities. For entity names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided (others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation). This may be ‘None’ if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no entities are defined. -- Attribute: DocumentType.notations This is a ‘NamedNodeMap’ giving the definitions of notations. For notation names defined more than once, only the first definition is provided (others are ignored as required by the XML recommendation). This may be ‘None’ if the information is not provided by the parser, or if no notations are defined.  File: python.info, Node: Document Objects, Next: Element Objects<2>, Prev: DocumentType Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.7 Document Objects ......................... A ‘Document’ represents an entire XML document, including its constituent elements, attributes, processing instructions, comments etc. Remember that it inherits properties from ‘Node’. -- Attribute: Document.documentElement The one and only root element of the document. -- Method: Document.createElement (tagName) Create and return a new element node. The element is not inserted into the document when it is created. You need to explicitly insert it with one of the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or ‘appendChild()’. -- Method: Document.createElementNS (namespaceURI, tagName) Create and return a new element with a namespace. The 'tagName' may have a prefix. The element is not inserted into the document when it is created. You need to explicitly insert it with one of the other methods such as ‘insertBefore()’ or ‘appendChild()’. -- Method: Document.createTextNode (data) Create and return a text node containing the data passed as a parameter. As with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the tree. -- Method: Document.createComment (data) Create and return a comment node containing the data passed as a parameter. As with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the tree. -- Method: Document.createProcessingInstruction (target, data) Create and return a processing instruction node containing the 'target' and 'data' passed as parameters. As with the other creation methods, this one does not insert the node into the tree. -- Method: Document.createAttribute (name) Create and return an attribute node. This method does not associate the attribute node with any particular element. You must use ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use the newly created attribute instance. -- Method: Document.createAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qualifiedName) Create and return an attribute node with a namespace. The 'tagName' may have a prefix. This method does not associate the attribute node with any particular element. You must use ‘setAttributeNode()’ on the appropriate ‘Element’ object to use the newly created attribute instance. -- Method: Document.getElementsByTagName (tagName) Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children, etc.) with a particular element type name. -- Method: Document.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName) Search for all descendants (direct children, children’s children, etc.) with a particular namespace URI and localname. The localname is the part of the namespace after the prefix.  File: python.info, Node: Element Objects<2>, Next: Attr Objects, Prev: Document Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.8 Element Objects ........................ ‘Element’ is a subclass of ‘Node’, so inherits all the attributes of that class. -- Attribute: Element.tagName The element type name. In a namespace-using document it may have colons in it. The value is a string. -- Method: Element.getElementsByTagName (tagName) Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class. -- Method: Element.getElementsByTagNameNS (namespaceURI, localName) Same as equivalent method in the ‘Document’ class. -- Method: Element.hasAttribute (name) Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by 'name'. -- Method: Element.hasAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName) Return ‘True’ if the element has an attribute named by 'namespaceURI' and 'localName'. -- Method: Element.getAttribute (name) Return the value of the attribute named by 'name' as a string. If no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the attribute had no value. -- Method: Element.getAttributeNode (attrname) Return the ‘Attr’ node for the attribute named by 'attrname'. -- Method: Element.getAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName) Return the value of the attribute named by 'namespaceURI' and 'localName' as a string. If no such attribute exists, an empty string is returned, as if the attribute had no value. -- Method: Element.getAttributeNodeNS (namespaceURI, localName) Return an attribute value as a node, given a 'namespaceURI' and 'localName'. -- Method: Element.removeAttribute (name) Remove an attribute by name. If there is no matching attribute, a *note NotFoundErr: 381b. is raised. -- Method: Element.removeAttributeNode (oldAttr) Remove and return 'oldAttr' from the attribute list, if present. If 'oldAttr' is not present, *note NotFoundErr: 381b. is raised. -- Method: Element.removeAttributeNS (namespaceURI, localName) Remove an attribute by name. Note that it uses a localName, not a qname. No exception is raised if there is no matching attribute. -- Method: Element.setAttribute (name, value) Set an attribute value from a string. -- Method: Element.setAttributeNode (newAttr) Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if necessary if the ‘name’ attribute matches. If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned. If 'newAttr' is already in use, *note InuseAttributeErr: 3820. will be raised. -- Method: Element.setAttributeNodeNS (newAttr) Add a new attribute node to the element, replacing an existing attribute if necessary if the ‘namespaceURI’ and ‘localName’ attributes match. If a replacement occurs, the old attribute node will be returned. If 'newAttr' is already in use, *note InuseAttributeErr: 3820. will be raised. -- Method: Element.setAttributeNS (namespaceURI, qname, value) Set an attribute value from a string, given a 'namespaceURI' and a 'qname'. Note that a qname is the whole attribute name. This is different than above.  File: python.info, Node: Attr Objects, Next: NamedNodeMap Objects, Prev: Element Objects<2>, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.9 Attr Objects ..................... ‘Attr’ inherits from ‘Node’, so inherits all its attributes. -- Attribute: Attr.name The attribute name. In a namespace-using document it may include a colon. -- Attribute: Attr.localName The part of the name following the colon if there is one, else the entire name. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: Attr.prefix The part of the name preceding the colon if there is one, else the empty string. -- Attribute: Attr.value The text value of the attribute. This is a synonym for the ‘nodeValue’ attribute.  File: python.info, Node: NamedNodeMap Objects, Next: Comment Objects, Prev: Attr Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.10 NamedNodeMap Objects .............................. ‘NamedNodeMap’ does 'not' inherit from ‘Node’. -- Attribute: NamedNodeMap.length The length of the attribute list. -- Method: NamedNodeMap.item (index) Return an attribute with a particular index. The order you get the attributes in is arbitrary but will be consistent for the life of a DOM. Each item is an attribute node. Get its value with the ‘value’ attribute. There are also experimental methods that give this class more mapping behavior. You can use them or you can use the standardized ‘getAttribute*()’ family of methods on the ‘Element’ objects.  File: python.info, Node: Comment Objects, Next: Text and CDATASection Objects, Prev: NamedNodeMap Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.11 Comment Objects ......................... ‘Comment’ represents a comment in the XML document. It is a subclass of ‘Node’, but cannot have child nodes. -- Attribute: Comment.data The content of the comment as a string. The attribute contains all characters between the leading ‘’, but does not include them.  File: python.info, Node: Text and CDATASection Objects, Next: ProcessingInstruction Objects, Prev: Comment Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.12 Text and CDATASection Objects ....................................... The ‘Text’ interface represents text in the XML document. If the parser and DOM implementation support the DOM’s XML extension, portions of the text enclosed in CDATA marked sections are stored in ‘CDATASection’ objects. These two interfaces are identical, but provide different values for the ‘nodeType’ attribute. These interfaces extend the ‘Node’ interface. They cannot have child nodes. -- Attribute: Text.data The content of the text node as a string. Note: The use of a ‘CDATASection’ node does not indicate that the node represents a complete CDATA marked section, only that the content of the node was part of a CDATA section. A single CDATA section may be represented by more than one node in the document tree. There is no way to determine whether two adjacent ‘CDATASection’ nodes represent different CDATA marked sections.  File: python.info, Node: ProcessingInstruction Objects, Next: Exceptions<20>, Prev: Text and CDATASection Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.13 ProcessingInstruction Objects ....................................... Represents a processing instruction in the XML document; this inherits from the ‘Node’ interface and cannot have child nodes. -- Attribute: ProcessingInstruction.target The content of the processing instruction up to the first whitespace character. This is a read-only attribute. -- Attribute: ProcessingInstruction.data The content of the processing instruction following the first whitespace character.  File: python.info, Node: Exceptions<20>, Prev: ProcessingInstruction Objects, Up: Objects in the DOM 5.21.6.14 Exceptions .................... The DOM Level 2 recommendation defines a single exception, *note DOMException: 3835, and a number of constants that allow applications to determine what sort of error occurred. *note DOMException: 3835. instances carry a *note code: 1a. attribute that provides the appropriate value for the specific exception. The Python DOM interface provides the constants, but also expands the set of exceptions so that a specific exception exists for each of the exception codes defined by the DOM. The implementations must raise the appropriate specific exception, each of which carries the appropriate value for the *note code: 1a. attribute. -- Exception: xml.dom.DOMException Base exception class used for all specific DOM exceptions. This exception class cannot be directly instantiated. -- Exception: xml.dom.DomstringSizeErr Raised when a specified range of text does not fit into a string. This is not known to be used in the Python DOM implementations, but may be received from DOM implementations not written in Python. -- Exception: xml.dom.HierarchyRequestErr Raised when an attempt is made to insert a node where the node type is not allowed. -- Exception: xml.dom.IndexSizeErr Raised when an index or size parameter to a method is negative or exceeds the allowed values. -- Exception: xml.dom.InuseAttributeErr Raised when an attempt is made to insert an ‘Attr’ node that is already present elsewhere in the document. -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidAccessErr Raised if a parameter or an operation is not supported on the underlying object. -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidCharacterErr This exception is raised when a string parameter contains a character that is not permitted in the context it’s being used in by the XML 1.0 recommendation. For example, attempting to create an ‘Element’ node with a space in the element type name will cause this error to be raised. -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidModificationErr Raised when an attempt is made to modify the type of a node. -- Exception: xml.dom.InvalidStateErr Raised when an attempt is made to use an object that is not defined or is no longer usable. -- Exception: xml.dom.NamespaceErr If an attempt is made to change any object in a way that is not permitted with regard to the Namespaces in XML(1) recommendation, this exception is raised. -- Exception: xml.dom.NotFoundErr Exception when a node does not exist in the referenced context. For example, ‘NamedNodeMap.removeNamedItem()’ will raise this if the node passed in does not exist in the map. -- Exception: xml.dom.NotSupportedErr Raised when the implementation does not support the requested type of object or operation. -- Exception: xml.dom.NoDataAllowedErr This is raised if data is specified for a node which does not support data. -- Exception: xml.dom.NoModificationAllowedErr Raised on attempts to modify an object where modifications are not allowed (such as for read-only nodes). -- Exception: xml.dom.SyntaxErr Raised when an invalid or illegal string is specified. -- Exception: xml.dom.WrongDocumentErr Raised when a node is inserted in a different document than it currently belongs to, and the implementation does not support migrating the node from one document to the other. The exception codes defined in the DOM recommendation map to the exceptions described above according to this table: Constant Exception --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘DOMSTRING_SIZE_ERR’ *note DomstringSizeErr: 3836. ‘HIERARCHY_REQUEST_ERR’ *note HierarchyRequestErr: 3837. ‘INDEX_SIZE_ERR’ *note IndexSizeErr: 3838. ‘INUSE_ATTRIBUTE_ERR’ *note InuseAttributeErr: 3820. ‘INVALID_ACCESS_ERR’ *note InvalidAccessErr: 3839. ‘INVALID_CHARACTER_ERR’ *note InvalidCharacterErr: 383a. ‘INVALID_MODIFICATION_ERR’ *note InvalidModificationErr: 383b. ‘INVALID_STATE_ERR’ *note InvalidStateErr: 383c. ‘NAMESPACE_ERR’ *note NamespaceErr: 383d. ‘NOT_FOUND_ERR’ *note NotFoundErr: 381b. ‘NOT_SUPPORTED_ERR’ *note NotSupportedErr: 383e. ‘NO_DATA_ALLOWED_ERR’ *note NoDataAllowedErr: 383f. ‘NO_MODIFICATION_ALLOWED_ERR’ *note NoModificationAllowedErr: 3840. ‘SYNTAX_ERR’ *note SyntaxErr: 3841. ‘WRONG_DOCUMENT_ERR’ *note WrongDocumentErr: 3842. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-xml-names/  File: python.info, Node: Conformance, Prev: Objects in the DOM, Up: xml dom — The Document Object Model API 5.21.6.15 Conformance ..................... This section describes the conformance requirements and relationships between the Python DOM API, the W3C DOM recommendations, and the OMG IDL mapping for Python. * Menu: * Type Mapping:: * Accessor Methods::  File: python.info, Node: Type Mapping, Next: Accessor Methods, Up: Conformance 5.21.6.16 Type Mapping ...................... The IDL types used in the DOM specification are mapped to Python types according to the following table. IDL Type Python Type ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘boolean’ ‘bool’ or ‘int’ ‘int’ ‘int’ ‘long int’ ‘int’ ‘unsigned int’ ‘int’ ‘DOMString’ ‘str’ or ‘bytes’ ‘null’ ‘None’  File: python.info, Node: Accessor Methods, Prev: Type Mapping, Up: Conformance 5.21.6.17 Accessor Methods .......................... The mapping from OMG IDL to Python defines accessor functions for IDL ‘attribute’ declarations in much the way the Java mapping does. Mapping the IDL declarations readonly attribute string someValue; attribute string anotherValue; yields three accessor functions: a “get” method for ‘someValue’ (‘_get_someValue()’), and “get” and “set” methods for ‘anotherValue’ (‘_get_anotherValue()’ and ‘_set_anotherValue()’). The mapping, in particular, does not require that the IDL attributes are accessible as normal Python attributes: ‘object.someValue’ is 'not' required to work, and may raise an *note AttributeError: 348. The Python DOM API, however, 'does' require that normal attribute access work. This means that the typical surrogates generated by Python IDL compilers are not likely to work, and wrapper objects may be needed on the client if the DOM objects are accessed via CORBA. While this does require some additional consideration for CORBA DOM clients, the implementers with experience using DOM over CORBA from Python do not consider this a problem. Attributes that are declared ‘readonly’ may not restrict write access in all DOM implementations. In the Python DOM API, accessor functions are not required. If provided, they should take the form defined by the Python IDL mapping, but these methods are considered unnecessary since the attributes are accessible directly from Python. “Set” accessors should never be provided for ‘readonly’ attributes. The IDL definitions do not fully embody the requirements of the W3C DOM API, such as the notion of certain objects, such as the return value of ‘getElementsByTagName()’, being “live”. The Python DOM API does not require implementations to enforce such requirements.  File: python.info, Node: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation, Next: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees, Prev: xml dom — The Document Object Model API, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.7 ‘xml.dom.minidom’ — Minimal DOM implementation ----------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. is a minimal implementation of the Document Object Model interface, with an API similar to that in other languages. It is intended to be simpler than the full DOM and also significantly smaller. Users who are not already proficient with the DOM should consider using the *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. module for their XML processing instead. Note: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. DOM applications typically start by parsing some XML into a DOM. With *note xml.dom.minidom: 122, this is done through the parse functions: from xml.dom.minidom import parse, parseString dom1 = parse('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml') # parse an XML file by name datasource = open('c:\\temp\\mydata.xml') dom2 = parse(datasource) # parse an open file dom3 = parseString('Some data some more data') The *note parse(): 384a. function can take either a filename or an open file object. -- Function: xml.dom.minidom.parse (filename_or_file, parser=None, bufsize=None) Return a ‘Document’ from the given input. 'filename_or_file' may be either a file name, or a file-like object. 'parser', if given, must be a SAX2 parser object. This function will change the document handler of the parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration (like setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance. If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 384b. function instead: -- Function: xml.dom.minidom.parseString (string, parser=None) Return a ‘Document’ that represents the 'string'. This method creates an *note io.StringIO: f22. object for the string and passes that on to *note parse(): 384a. Both functions return a ‘Document’ object representing the content of the document. What the *note parse(): 384a. and *note parseString(): 384b. functions do is connect an XML parser with a “DOM builder” that can accept parse events from any SAX parser and convert them into a DOM tree. The name of the functions are perhaps misleading, but are easy to grasp when learning the interfaces. The parsing of the document will be completed before these functions return; it’s simply that these functions do not provide a parser implementation themselves. You can also create a ‘Document’ by calling a method on a “DOM Implementation” object. You can get this object either by calling the ‘getDOMImplementation()’ function in the *note xml.dom: 121. package or the *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. module. Once you have a ‘Document’, you can add child nodes to it to populate the DOM: from xml.dom.minidom import getDOMImplementation impl = getDOMImplementation() newdoc = impl.createDocument(None, "some_tag", None) top_element = newdoc.documentElement text = newdoc.createTextNode('Some textual content.') top_element.appendChild(text) Once you have a DOM document object, you can access the parts of your XML document through its properties and methods. These properties are defined in the DOM specification. The main property of the document object is the ‘documentElement’ property. It gives you the main element in the XML document: the one that holds all others. Here is an example program: dom3 = parseString("Some data") assert dom3.documentElement.tagName == "myxml" When you are finished with a DOM tree, you may optionally call the ‘unlink()’ method to encourage early cleanup of the now-unneeded objects. ‘unlink()’ is an *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.-specific extension to the DOM API that renders the node and its descendants essentially useless. Otherwise, Python’s garbage collector will eventually take care of the objects in the tree. See also ........ Document Object Model (DOM) Level 1 Specification(2) The W3C recommendation for the DOM supported by *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. * Menu: * DOM Objects:: * DOM Example:: * minidom and the DOM standard:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/minidom.py (2) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-DOM-Level-1/  File: python.info, Node: DOM Objects, Next: DOM Example, Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 5.21.7.1 DOM Objects .................... The definition of the DOM API for Python is given as part of the *note xml.dom: 121. module documentation. This section lists the differences between the API and *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. -- Method: Node.unlink () Break internal references within the DOM so that it will be garbage collected on versions of Python without cyclic GC. Even when cyclic GC is available, using this can make large amounts of memory available sooner, so calling this on DOM objects as soon as they are no longer needed is good practice. This only needs to be called on the ‘Document’ object, but may be called on child nodes to discard children of that node. You can avoid calling this method explicitly by using the *note with: 5ce. statement. The following code will automatically unlink 'dom' when the ‘with’ block is exited: with xml.dom.minidom.parse(datasource) as dom: ... # Work with dom. -- Method: Node.writexml (writer, indent='', addindent='', newl='', encoding=None, standalone=None) Write XML to the writer object. The writer receives texts but not bytes as input, it should have a ‘write()’ method which matches that of the file object interface. The 'indent' parameter is the indentation of the current node. The 'addindent' parameter is the incremental indentation to use for subnodes of the current one. The 'newl' parameter specifies the string to use to terminate newlines. For the ‘Document’ node, an additional keyword argument 'encoding' can be used to specify the encoding field of the XML header. Similarly, explicitly stating the 'standalone' argument causes the standalone document declarations to be added to the prologue of the XML document. If the value is set to ‘True’, ‘standalone="yes"’ is added, otherwise it is set to ‘"no"’. Not stating the argument will omit the declaration from the document. Changed in version 3.8: The *note writexml(): 384f. method now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. Changed in version 3.9: The 'standalone' parameter was added. -- Method: Node.toxml (encoding=None, standalone=None) Return a string or byte string containing the XML represented by the DOM node. With an explicit 'encoding' (1) argument, the result is a byte string in the specified encoding. With no 'encoding' argument, the result is a Unicode string, and the XML declaration in the resulting string does not specify an encoding. Encoding this string in an encoding other than UTF-8 is likely incorrect, since UTF-8 is the default encoding of XML. The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml(): 384f. Changed in version 3.8: The *note toxml(): 1492. method now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. Changed in version 3.9: The 'standalone' parameter was added. -- Method: Node.toprettyxml (indent='\t', newl='\n', encoding=None, standalone=None) Return a pretty-printed version of the document. 'indent' specifies the indentation string and defaults to a tabulator; 'newl' specifies the string emitted at the end of each line and defaults to ‘\n’. The 'encoding' argument behaves like the corresponding argument of *note toxml(): 1492. The 'standalone' argument behaves exactly as in *note writexml(): 384f. Changed in version 3.8: The *note toprettyxml(): 1493. method now preserves the attribute order specified by the user. Changed in version 3.9: The 'standalone' parameter was added. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The encoding name included in the XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not valid in an XML document’s declaration, even though Python accepts it as an encoding name. See ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and ‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’.  File: python.info, Node: DOM Example, Next: minidom and the DOM standard, Prev: DOM Objects, Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 5.21.7.2 DOM Example .................... This example program is a fairly realistic example of a simple program. In this particular case, we do not take much advantage of the flexibility of the DOM. import xml.dom.minidom document = """\ Demo slideshow Slide title This is a demo Of a program for processing slides Another demo slide It is important To have more than one slide """ dom = xml.dom.minidom.parseString(document) def getText(nodelist): rc = [] for node in nodelist: if node.nodeType == node.TEXT_NODE: rc.append(node.data) return ''.join(rc) def handleSlideshow(slideshow): print("") handleSlideshowTitle(slideshow.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]) slides = slideshow.getElementsByTagName("slide") handleToc(slides) handleSlides(slides) print("") def handleSlides(slides): for slide in slides: handleSlide(slide) def handleSlide(slide): handleSlideTitle(slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0]) handlePoints(slide.getElementsByTagName("point")) def handleSlideshowTitle(title): print(f"{getText(title.childNodes)}") def handleSlideTitle(title): print(f"

{getText(title.childNodes)}

") def handlePoints(points): print("
    ") for point in points: handlePoint(point) print("
") def handlePoint(point): print(f"
  • {getText(point.childNodes)}
    • ") def handleToc(slides): for slide in slides: title = slide.getElementsByTagName("title")[0] print(f"

    {getText(title.childNodes)}

    ") handleSlideshow(dom)  File: python.info, Node: minidom and the DOM standard, Prev: DOM Example, Up: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation 5.21.7.3 minidom and the DOM standard ..................................... The *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. module is essentially a DOM 1.0-compatible DOM with some DOM 2 features (primarily namespace features). Usage of the DOM interface in Python is straight-forward. The following mapping rules apply: * Interfaces are accessed through instance objects. Applications should not instantiate the classes themselves; they should use the creator functions available on the ‘Document’ object. Derived interfaces support all operations (and attributes) from the base interfaces, plus any new operations. * Operations are used as methods. Since the DOM uses only *note in: 2ee. parameters, the arguments are passed in normal order (from left to right). There are no optional arguments. ‘void’ operations return ‘None’. * IDL attributes map to instance attributes. For compatibility with the OMG IDL language mapping for Python, an attribute ‘foo’ can also be accessed through accessor methods ‘_get_foo()’ and ‘_set_foo()’. ‘readonly’ attributes must not be changed; this is not enforced at runtime. * The types ‘short int’, ‘unsigned int’, ‘unsigned long long’, and ‘boolean’ all map to Python integer objects. * The type ‘DOMString’ maps to Python strings. *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. supports either bytes or strings, but will normally produce strings. Values of type ‘DOMString’ may also be ‘None’ where allowed to have the IDL ‘null’ value by the DOM specification from the W3C. * ‘const’ declarations map to variables in their respective scope (e.g. ‘xml.dom.minidom.Node.PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION_NODE’); they must not be changed. * ‘DOMException’ is currently not supported in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. Instead, *note xml.dom.minidom: 122. uses standard Python exceptions such as *note TypeError: 534. and *note AttributeError: 348. * ‘NodeList’ objects are implemented using Python’s built-in list type. These objects provide the interface defined in the DOM specification, but with earlier versions of Python they do not support the official API. They are, however, much more “Pythonic” than the interface defined in the W3C recommendations. The following interfaces have no implementation in *note xml.dom.minidom: 122.: * ‘DOMTimeStamp’ * ‘EntityReference’ Most of these reflect information in the XML document that is not of general utility to most DOM users.  File: python.info, Node: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees, Next: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers, Prev: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.8 ‘xml.dom.pulldom’ — Support for building partial DOM trees ----------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note xml.dom.pulldom: 123. module provides a “pull parser” which can also be asked to produce DOM-accessible fragments of the document where necessary. The basic concept involves pulling “events” from a stream of incoming XML and processing them. In contrast to SAX which also employs an event-driven processing model together with callbacks, the user of a pull parser is responsible for explicitly pulling events from the stream, looping over those events until either processing is finished or an error condition occurs. Note: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. Changed in version 3.7.1: The SAX parser no longer processes general external entities by default to increase security by default. To enable processing of external entities, pass a custom parser instance in: from xml.dom.pulldom import parse from xml.sax import make_parser from xml.sax.handler import feature_external_ges parser = make_parser() parser.setFeature(feature_external_ges, True) parse(filename, parser=parser) Example: from xml.dom import pulldom doc = pulldom.parse('sales_items.xml') for event, node in doc: if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'item': if int(node.getAttribute('price')) > 50: doc.expandNode(node) print(node.toxml()) ‘event’ is a constant and can be one of: * ‘START_ELEMENT’ * ‘END_ELEMENT’ * ‘COMMENT’ * ‘START_DOCUMENT’ * ‘END_DOCUMENT’ * ‘CHARACTERS’ * ‘PROCESSING_INSTRUCTION’ * ‘IGNORABLE_WHITESPACE’ ‘node’ is an object of type ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’, ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’. Since the document is treated as a “flat” stream of events, the document “tree” is implicitly traversed and the desired elements are found regardless of their depth in the tree. In other words, one does not need to consider hierarchical issues such as recursive searching of the document nodes, although if the context of elements were important, one would either need to maintain some context-related state (i.e. remembering where one is in the document at any given point) or to make use of the *note DOMEventStream.expandNode(): 3856. method and switch to DOM-related processing. -- Class: xml.dom.pulldom.PullDom (documentFactory=None) Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 3858. -- Class: xml.dom.pulldom.SAX2DOM (documentFactory=None) Subclass of *note xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler: 3858. -- Function: xml.dom.pulldom.parse (stream_or_string, parser=None, bufsize=None) Return a *note DOMEventStream: 730. from the given input. 'stream_or_string' may be either a file name, or a file-like object. 'parser', if given, must be an *note XMLReader: 385b. object. This function will change the document handler of the parser and activate namespace support; other parser configuration (like setting an entity resolver) must have been done in advance. If you have XML in a string, you can use the *note parseString(): 385c. function instead: -- Function: xml.dom.pulldom.parseString (string, parser=None) Return a *note DOMEventStream: 730. that represents the (Unicode) 'string'. -- Data: xml.dom.pulldom.default_bufsize Default value for the 'bufsize' parameter to *note parse(): 385a. The value of this variable can be changed before calling *note parse(): 385a. and the new value will take effect. * Menu: * DOMEventStream Objects:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/dom/pulldom.py  File: python.info, Node: DOMEventStream Objects, Up: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees 5.21.8.1 DOMEventStream Objects ............................... -- Class: xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream (stream, parser, bufsize) Changed in version 3.11: Support for *note __getitem__(): 285. method has been removed. -- Method: getEvent () Return a tuple containing 'event' and the current 'node' as ‘xml.dom.minidom.Document’ if event equals ‘START_DOCUMENT’, ‘xml.dom.minidom.Element’ if event equals ‘START_ELEMENT’ or ‘END_ELEMENT’ or ‘xml.dom.minidom.Text’ if event equals ‘CHARACTERS’. The current node does not contain information about its children, unless *note expandNode(): 3856. is called. -- Method: expandNode (node) Expands all children of 'node' into 'node'. Example: from xml.dom import pulldom xml = 'Foo

    Some text

    and more

    ' doc = pulldom.parseString(xml) for event, node in doc: if event == pulldom.START_ELEMENT and node.tagName == 'p': # Following statement only prints '

    ' print(node.toxml()) doc.expandNode(node) # Following statement prints node with all its children '

    Some text

    and more

    ' print(node.toxml()) -- Method: reset ()  File: python.info, Node: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers, Next: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers, Prev: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.9 ‘xml.sax’ — Support for SAX2 parsers ------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note xml.sax: 129. package provides a number of modules which implement the Simple API for XML (SAX) interface for Python. The package itself provides the SAX exceptions and the convenience functions which will be most used by users of the SAX API. Note: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. Changed in version 3.7.1: The SAX parser no longer processes general external entities by default to increase security. Before, the parser created network connections to fetch remote files or loaded local files from the file system for DTD and entities. The feature can be enabled again with method *note setFeature(): 3864. on the parser object and argument *note feature_external_ges: 3865. The convenience functions are: -- Function: xml.sax.make_parser (parser_list=[]) Create and return a SAX *note XMLReader: 385b. object. The first parser found will be used. If 'parser_list' is provided, it must be an iterable of strings which name modules that have a function named ‘create_parser()’. Modules listed in 'parser_list' will be used before modules in the default list of parsers. Changed in version 3.8: The 'parser_list' argument can be any iterable, not just a list. -- Function: xml.sax.parse (filename_or_stream, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler()) Create a SAX parser and use it to parse a document. The document, passed in as 'filename_or_stream', can be a filename or a file object. The 'handler' parameter needs to be a SAX *note ContentHandler: 3858. instance. If 'error_handler' is given, it must be a SAX *note ErrorHandler: 3866. instance; if omitted, *note SAXParseException: 3867. will be raised on all errors. There is no return value; all work must be done by the 'handler' passed in. -- Function: xml.sax.parseString (string, handler, error_handler=handler.ErrorHandler()) Similar to *note parse(): 1a03, but parses from a buffer 'string' received as a parameter. 'string' must be a *note str: 447. instance or a *note bytes-like object: d2d. Changed in version 3.5: Added support of *note str: 447. instances. A typical SAX application uses three kinds of objects: readers, handlers and input sources. “Reader” in this context is another term for parser, i.e. some piece of code that reads the bytes or characters from the input source, and produces a sequence of events. The events then get distributed to the handler objects, i.e. the reader invokes a method on the handler. A SAX application must therefore obtain a reader object, create or open the input sources, create the handlers, and connect these objects all together. As the final step of preparation, the reader is called to parse the input. During parsing, methods on the handler objects are called based on structural and syntactic events from the input data. For these objects, only the interfaces are relevant; they are normally not instantiated by the application itself. Since Python does not have an explicit notion of interface, they are formally introduced as classes, but applications may use implementations which do not inherit from the provided classes. The *note InputSource: e94, *note Locator: 3868, ‘Attributes’, ‘AttributesNS’, and *note XMLReader: 385b. interfaces are defined in the module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c. The handler interfaces are defined in *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. For convenience, *note InputSource: e94. (which is often instantiated directly) and the handler classes are also available from *note xml.sax: 129. These interfaces are described below. In addition to these classes, *note xml.sax: 129. provides the following exception classes. -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXException (msg, exception=None) Encapsulate an XML error or warning. This class can contain basic error or warning information from either the XML parser or the application: it can be subclassed to provide additional functionality or to add localization. Note that although the handlers defined in the *note ErrorHandler: 3866. interface receive instances of this exception, it is not required to actually raise the exception — it is also useful as a container for information. When instantiated, 'msg' should be a human-readable description of the error. The optional 'exception' parameter, if given, should be ‘None’ or an exception that was caught by the parsing code and is being passed along as information. This is the base class for the other SAX exception classes. -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXParseException (msg, exception, locator) Subclass of *note SAXException: 3869. raised on parse errors. Instances of this class are passed to the methods of the SAX *note ErrorHandler: 3866. interface to provide information about the parse error. This class supports the SAX *note Locator: 3868. interface as well as the *note SAXException: 3869. interface. -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXNotRecognizedException (msg, exception=None) Subclass of *note SAXException: 3869. raised when a SAX *note XMLReader: 385b. is confronted with an unrecognized feature or property. SAX applications and extensions may use this class for similar purposes. -- Exception: xml.sax.SAXNotSupportedException (msg, exception=None) Subclass of *note SAXException: 3869. raised when a SAX *note XMLReader: 385b. is asked to enable a feature that is not supported, or to set a property to a value that the implementation does not support. SAX applications and extensions may use this class for similar purposes. See also ........ SAX: The Simple API for XML(2) This site is the focal point for the definition of the SAX API. It provides a Java implementation and online documentation. Links to implementations and historical information are also available. Module *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. Definitions of the interfaces for application-provided objects. Module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. Convenience functions for use in SAX applications. Module *note xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c. Definitions of the interfaces for parser-provided objects. * Menu: * SAXException Objects:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/__init__.py (2) http://www.saxproject.org/  File: python.info, Node: SAXException Objects, Up: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers 5.21.9.1 SAXException Objects ............................. The *note SAXException: 3869. exception class supports the following methods: -- Method: SAXException.getMessage () Return a human-readable message describing the error condition. -- Method: SAXException.getException () Return an encapsulated exception object, or ‘None’.  File: python.info, Node: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers, Next: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities, Prev: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.10 ‘xml.sax.handler’ — Base classes for SAX handlers --------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/handler.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The SAX API defines five kinds of handlers: content handlers, DTD handlers, error handlers, entity resolvers and lexical handlers. Applications normally only need to implement those interfaces whose events they are interested in; they can implement the interfaces in a single object or in multiple objects. Handler implementations should inherit from the base classes provided in the module *note xml.sax.handler: 12a, so that all methods get default implementations. -- Class: xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler This is the main callback interface in SAX, and the one most important to applications. The order of events in this interface mirrors the order of the information in the document. -- Class: xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler Handle DTD events. This interface specifies only those DTD events required for basic parsing (unparsed entities and attributes). -- Class: xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver Basic interface for resolving entities. If you create an object implementing this interface, then register the object with your Parser, the parser will call the method in your object to resolve all external entities. -- Class: xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler Interface used by the parser to present error and warning messages to the application. The methods of this object control whether errors are immediately converted to exceptions or are handled in some other way. -- Class: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler Interface used by the parser to represent low frequency events which may not be of interest to many applications. In addition to these classes, *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. provides symbolic constants for the feature and property names. -- Data: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespaces value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespaces"’ true: Perform Namespace processing. false: Optionally do not perform Namespace processing (implies namespace-prefixes; default). access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.feature_namespace_prefixes value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/namespace-prefixes"’ true: Report the original prefixed names and attributes used for Namespace declarations. false: Do not report attributes used for Namespace declarations, and optionally do not report original prefixed names (default). access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.feature_string_interning value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/string-interning"’ true: All element names, prefixes, attribute names, Namespace URIs, and local names are interned using the built-in intern function. false: Names are not necessarily interned, although they may be (default). access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.feature_validation value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/validation"’ true: Report all validation errors (implies external-general-entities and external-parameter-entities). false: Do not report validation errors. access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_ges value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-general-entities"’ true: Include all external general (text) entities. false: Do not include external general entities. access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.feature_external_pes value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/features/external-parameter-entities"’ true: Include all external parameter entities, including the external DTD subset. false: Do not include any external parameter entities, even the external DTD subset. access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.all_features List of all features. -- Data: xml.sax.handler.property_lexical_handler value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler"’ data type: xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler (not supported in Python 2) description: An optional extension handler for lexical events like comments. access: read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.property_declaration_handler value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/declaration-handler"’ data type: xml.sax.sax2lib.DeclHandler (not supported in Python 2) description: An optional extension handler for DTD-related events other than notations and unparsed entities. access: read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.property_dom_node value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/dom-node"’ data type: org.w3c.dom.Node (not supported in Python 2) description: When parsing, the current DOM node being visited if this is a DOM iterator; when not parsing, the root DOM node for iteration. access: (parsing) read-only; (not parsing) read/write -- Data: xml.sax.handler.property_xml_string value: ‘"http://xml.org/sax/properties/xml-string"’ data type: Bytes description: The literal string of characters that was the source for the current event. access: read-only -- Data: xml.sax.handler.all_properties List of all known property names. * Menu: * ContentHandler Objects:: * DTDHandler Objects:: * EntityResolver Objects:: * ErrorHandler Objects:: * LexicalHandler Objects:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/handler.py  File: python.info, Node: ContentHandler Objects, Next: DTDHandler Objects, Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 5.21.10.1 ContentHandler Objects ................................ Users are expected to subclass *note ContentHandler: 3858. to support their application. The following methods are called by the parser on the appropriate events in the input document: -- Method: ContentHandler.setDocumentLocator (locator) Called by the parser to give the application a locator for locating the origin of document events. SAX parsers are strongly encouraged (though not absolutely required) to supply a locator: if it does so, it must supply the locator to the application by invoking this method before invoking any of the other methods in the DocumentHandler interface. The locator allows the application to determine the end position of any document-related event, even if the parser is not reporting an error. Typically, the application will use this information for reporting its own errors (such as character content that does not match an application’s business rules). The information returned by the locator is probably not sufficient for use with a search engine. Note that the locator will return correct information only during the invocation of the events in this interface. The application should not attempt to use it at any other time. -- Method: ContentHandler.startDocument () Receive notification of the beginning of a document. The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, before any other methods in this interface or in DTDHandler (except for *note setDocumentLocator(): 3881.). -- Method: ContentHandler.endDocument () Receive notification of the end of a document. The SAX parser will invoke this method only once, and it will be the last method invoked during the parse. The parser shall not invoke this method until it has either abandoned parsing (because of an unrecoverable error) or reached the end of input. -- Method: ContentHandler.startPrefixMapping (prefix, uri) Begin the scope of a prefix-URI Namespace mapping. The information from this event is not necessary for normal Namespace processing: the SAX XML reader will automatically replace prefixes for element and attribute names when the ‘feature_namespaces’ feature is enabled (the default). There are cases, however, when applications need to use prefixes in character data or in attribute values, where they cannot safely be expanded automatically; the *note startPrefixMapping(): 3884. and *note endPrefixMapping(): 3885. events supply the information to the application to expand prefixes in those contexts itself, if necessary. Note that *note startPrefixMapping(): 3884. and *note endPrefixMapping(): 3885. events are not guaranteed to be properly nested relative to each-other: all *note startPrefixMapping(): 3884. events will occur before the corresponding *note startElement(): 150d. event, and all *note endPrefixMapping(): 3885. events will occur after the corresponding *note endElement(): 150e. event, but their order is not guaranteed. -- Method: ContentHandler.endPrefixMapping (prefix) End the scope of a prefix-URI mapping. See *note startPrefixMapping(): 3884. for details. This event will always occur after the corresponding *note endElement(): 150e. event, but the order of *note endPrefixMapping(): 3885. events is not otherwise guaranteed. -- Method: ContentHandler.startElement (name, attrs) Signals the start of an element in non-namespace mode. The 'name' parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name of the element type as a string and the 'attrs' parameter holds an object of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see *note The Attributes Interface: 3886.) containing the attributes of the element. The object passed as 'attrs' may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes. To keep a copy of the attributes, use the *note copy(): 25. method of the 'attrs' object. -- Method: ContentHandler.endElement (name) Signals the end of an element in non-namespace mode. The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type, just as with the *note startElement(): 150d. event. -- Method: ContentHandler.startElementNS (name, qname, attrs) Signals the start of an element in namespace mode. The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type as a ‘(uri, localname)’ tuple, the 'qname' parameter contains the raw XML 1.0 name used in the source document, and the 'attrs' parameter holds an instance of the ‘AttributesNS’ interface (see *note The AttributesNS Interface: 3888.) containing the attributes of the element. If no namespace is associated with the element, the 'uri' component of 'name' will be ‘None’. The object passed as 'attrs' may be re-used by the parser; holding on to a reference to it is not a reliable way to keep a copy of the attributes. To keep a copy of the attributes, use the *note copy(): 25. method of the 'attrs' object. Parsers may set the 'qname' parameter to ‘None’, unless the ‘feature_namespace_prefixes’ feature is activated. -- Method: ContentHandler.endElementNS (name, qname) Signals the end of an element in namespace mode. The 'name' parameter contains the name of the element type, just as with the *note startElementNS(): 3887. method, likewise the 'qname' parameter. -- Method: ContentHandler.characters (content) Receive notification of character data. The Parser will call this method to report each chunk of character data. SAX parsers may return all contiguous character data in a single chunk, or they may split it into several chunks; however, all of the characters in any single event must come from the same external entity so that the Locator provides useful information. 'content' may be a string or bytes instance; the ‘expat’ reader module always produces strings. Note: The earlier SAX 1 interface provided by the Python XML Special Interest Group used a more Java-like interface for this method. Since most parsers used from Python did not take advantage of the older interface, the simpler signature was chosen to replace it. To convert old code to the new interface, use 'content' instead of slicing content with the old 'offset' and 'length' parameters. -- Method: ContentHandler.ignorableWhitespace (whitespace) Receive notification of ignorable whitespace in element content. Validating Parsers must use this method to report each chunk of ignorable whitespace (see the W3C XML 1.0 recommendation, section 2.10): non-validating parsers may also use this method if they are capable of parsing and using content models. SAX parsers may return all contiguous whitespace in a single chunk, or they may split it into several chunks; however, all of the characters in any single event must come from the same external entity, so that the Locator provides useful information. -- Method: ContentHandler.processingInstruction (target, data) Receive notification of a processing instruction. The Parser will invoke this method once for each processing instruction found: note that processing instructions may occur before or after the main document element. A SAX parser should never report an XML declaration (XML 1.0, section 2.8) or a text declaration (XML 1.0, section 4.3.1) using this method. -- Method: ContentHandler.skippedEntity (name) Receive notification of a skipped entity. The Parser will invoke this method once for each entity skipped. Non-validating processors may skip entities if they have not seen the declarations (because, for example, the entity was declared in an external DTD subset). All processors may skip external entities, depending on the values of the ‘feature_external_ges’ and the ‘feature_external_pes’ properties.  File: python.info, Node: DTDHandler Objects, Next: EntityResolver Objects, Prev: ContentHandler Objects, Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 5.21.10.2 DTDHandler Objects ............................ *note DTDHandler: 3872. instances provide the following methods: -- Method: DTDHandler.notationDecl (name, publicId, systemId) Handle a notation declaration event. -- Method: DTDHandler.unparsedEntityDecl (name, publicId, systemId, ndata) Handle an unparsed entity declaration event.  File: python.info, Node: EntityResolver Objects, Next: ErrorHandler Objects, Prev: DTDHandler Objects, Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 5.21.10.3 EntityResolver Objects ................................ -- Method: EntityResolver.resolveEntity (publicId, systemId) Resolve the system identifier of an entity and return either the system identifier to read from as a string, or an InputSource to read from. The default implementation returns 'systemId'.  File: python.info, Node: ErrorHandler Objects, Next: LexicalHandler Objects, Prev: EntityResolver Objects, Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 5.21.10.4 ErrorHandler Objects .............................. Objects with this interface are used to receive error and warning information from the *note XMLReader: 385b. If you create an object that implements this interface, then register the object with your *note XMLReader: 385b, the parser will call the methods in your object to report all warnings and errors. There are three levels of errors available: warnings, (possibly) recoverable errors, and unrecoverable errors. All methods take a *note SAXParseException: 3867. as the only parameter. Errors and warnings may be converted to an exception by raising the passed-in exception object. -- Method: ErrorHandler.error (exception) Called when the parser encounters a recoverable error. If this method does not raise an exception, parsing may continue, but further document information should not be expected by the application. Allowing the parser to continue may allow additional errors to be discovered in the input document. -- Method: ErrorHandler.fatalError (exception) Called when the parser encounters an error it cannot recover from; parsing is expected to terminate when this method returns. -- Method: ErrorHandler.warning (exception) Called when the parser presents minor warning information to the application. Parsing is expected to continue when this method returns, and document information will continue to be passed to the application. Raising an exception in this method will cause parsing to end.  File: python.info, Node: LexicalHandler Objects, Prev: ErrorHandler Objects, Up: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers 5.21.10.5 LexicalHandler Objects ................................ Optional SAX2 handler for lexical events. This handler is used to obtain lexical information about an XML document. Lexical information includes information describing the document encoding used and XML comments embedded in the document, as well as section boundaries for the DTD and for any CDATA sections. The lexical handlers are used in the same manner as content handlers. Set the LexicalHandler of an XMLReader by using the setProperty method with the property identifier ‘'http://xml.org/sax/properties/lexical-handler'’. -- Method: LexicalHandler.comment (content) Reports a comment anywhere in the document (including the DTD and outside the document element). -- Method: LexicalHandler.startDTD (name, public_id, system_id) Reports the start of the DTD declarations if the document has an associated DTD. -- Method: LexicalHandler.endDTD () Reports the end of DTD declaration. -- Method: LexicalHandler.startCDATA () Reports the start of a CDATA marked section. The contents of the CDATA marked section will be reported through the characters handler. -- Method: LexicalHandler.endCDATA () Reports the end of a CDATA marked section.  File: python.info, Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities, Next: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers, Prev: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.11 ‘xml.sax.saxutils’ — SAX Utilities ------------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The module *note xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. contains a number of classes and functions that are commonly useful when creating SAX applications, either in direct use, or as base classes. -- Function: xml.sax.saxutils.escape (data, entities={}) Escape ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, and ‘'>'’ in a string of data. You can escape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional 'entities' parameter. The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value. The characters ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’ and ‘'>'’ are always escaped, even if 'entities' is provided. Note: This function should only be used to escape characters that can’t be used directly in XML. Do not use this function as a general string translation function. -- Function: xml.sax.saxutils.unescape (data, entities={}) Unescape ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, and ‘'>'’ in a string of data. You can unescape other strings of data by passing a dictionary as the optional 'entities' parameter. The keys and values must all be strings; each key will be replaced with its corresponding value. ‘'&'’, ‘'<'’, and ‘'>'’ are always unescaped, even if 'entities' is provided. -- Function: xml.sax.saxutils.quoteattr (data, entities={}) Similar to *note escape(): 38a2, but also prepares 'data' to be used as an attribute value. The return value is a quoted version of 'data' with any additional required replacements. *note quoteattr(): 38a4. will select a quote character based on the content of 'data', attempting to avoid encoding any quote characters in the string. If both single- and double-quote characters are already in 'data', the double-quote characters will be encoded and 'data' will be wrapped in double-quotes. The resulting string can be used directly as an attribute value: >>> print("" % quoteattr("ab ' cd \" ef")) This function is useful when generating attribute values for HTML or any SGML using the reference concrete syntax. -- Class: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLGenerator (out=None, encoding='iso-8859-1', short_empty_elements=False) This class implements the *note ContentHandler: 3858. interface by writing SAX events back into an XML document. In other words, using an *note XMLGenerator: 38a5. as the content handler will reproduce the original document being parsed. 'out' should be a file-like object which will default to 'sys.stdout'. 'encoding' is the encoding of the output stream which defaults to ‘'iso-8859-1'’. 'short_empty_elements' controls the formatting of elements that contain no content: if ‘False’ (the default) they are emitted as a pair of start/end tags, if set to ‘True’ they are emitted as a single self-closed tag. Changed in version 3.2: Added the 'short_empty_elements' parameter. -- Class: xml.sax.saxutils.XMLFilterBase (base) This class is designed to sit between an *note XMLReader: 385b. and the client application’s event handlers. By default, it does nothing but pass requests up to the reader and events on to the handlers unmodified, but subclasses can override specific methods to modify the event stream or the configuration requests as they pass through. -- Function: xml.sax.saxutils.prepare_input_source (source, base='') This function takes an input source and an optional base URL and returns a fully resolved *note InputSource: e94. object ready for reading. The input source can be given as a string, a file-like object, or an *note InputSource: e94. object; parsers will use this function to implement the polymorphic 'source' argument to their *note parse(): 38a8. method. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/saxutils.py  File: python.info, Node: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers, Next: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat, Prev: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.12 ‘xml.sax.xmlreader’ — Interface for XML parsers ------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ SAX parsers implement the *note XMLReader: 385b. interface. They are implemented in a Python module, which must provide a function ‘create_parser()’. This function is invoked by *note xml.sax.make_parser(): 1a3a. with no arguments to create a new parser object. -- Class: xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader Base class which can be inherited by SAX parsers. -- Class: xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser In some cases, it is desirable not to parse an input source at once, but to feed chunks of the document as they get available. Note that the reader will normally not read the entire file, but read it in chunks as well; still ‘parse()’ won’t return until the entire document is processed. So these interfaces should be used if the blocking behaviour of ‘parse()’ is not desirable. When the parser is instantiated it is ready to begin accepting data from the feed method immediately. After parsing has been finished with a call to close the reset method must be called to make the parser ready to accept new data, either from feed or using the parse method. Note that these methods must 'not' be called during parsing, that is, after parse has been called and before it returns. By default, the class also implements the parse method of the XMLReader interface using the feed, close and reset methods of the IncrementalParser interface as a convenience to SAX 2.0 driver writers. -- Class: xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator Interface for associating a SAX event with a document location. A locator object will return valid results only during calls to DocumentHandler methods; at any other time, the results are unpredictable. If information is not available, methods may return ‘None’. -- Class: xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource (system_id=None) Encapsulation of the information needed by the *note XMLReader: 385b. to read entities. This class may include information about the public identifier, system identifier, byte stream (possibly with character encoding information) and/or the character stream of an entity. Applications will create objects of this class for use in the *note XMLReader.parse(): 38a8. method and for returning from EntityResolver.resolveEntity. An *note InputSource: e94. belongs to the application, the *note XMLReader: 385b. is not allowed to modify *note InputSource: e94. objects passed to it from the application, although it may make copies and modify those. -- Class: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesImpl (attrs) This is an implementation of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see section *note The Attributes Interface: 3886.). This is a dictionary-like object which represents the element attributes in a ‘startElement()’ call. In addition to the most useful dictionary operations, it supports a number of other methods as described by the interface. Objects of this class should be instantiated by readers; 'attrs' must be a dictionary-like object containing a mapping from attribute names to attribute values. -- Class: xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNSImpl (attrs, qnames) Namespace-aware variant of *note AttributesImpl: 38ac, which will be passed to ‘startElementNS()’. It is derived from *note AttributesImpl: 38ac, but understands attribute names as two-tuples of 'namespaceURI' and 'localname'. In addition, it provides a number of methods expecting qualified names as they appear in the original document. This class implements the ‘AttributesNS’ interface (see section *note The AttributesNS Interface: 3888.). * Menu: * XMLReader Objects:: * IncrementalParser Objects:: * Locator Objects:: * InputSource Objects:: * The Attributes Interface:: * The AttributesNS Interface:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xml/sax/xmlreader.py  File: python.info, Node: XMLReader Objects, Next: IncrementalParser Objects, Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 5.21.12.1 XMLReader Objects ........................... The *note XMLReader: 385b. interface supports the following methods: -- Method: XMLReader.parse (source) Process an input source, producing SAX events. The 'source' object can be a system identifier (a string identifying the input source – typically a file name or a URL), a *note pathlib.Path: 22b. or *note path-like: 2a2. object, or an *note InputSource: e94. object. When *note parse(): 38a8. returns, the input is completely processed, and the parser object can be discarded or reset. Changed in version 3.5: Added support of character streams. Changed in version 3.8: Added support of path-like objects. -- Method: XMLReader.getContentHandler () Return the current *note ContentHandler: 3858. -- Method: XMLReader.setContentHandler (handler) Set the current *note ContentHandler: 3858. If no *note ContentHandler: 3858. is set, content events will be discarded. -- Method: XMLReader.getDTDHandler () Return the current *note DTDHandler: 3872. -- Method: XMLReader.setDTDHandler (handler) Set the current *note DTDHandler: 3872. If no *note DTDHandler: 3872. is set, DTD events will be discarded. -- Method: XMLReader.getEntityResolver () Return the current *note EntityResolver: 3873. -- Method: XMLReader.setEntityResolver (handler) Set the current *note EntityResolver: 3873. If no *note EntityResolver: 3873. is set, attempts to resolve an external entity will result in opening the system identifier for the entity, and fail if it is not available. -- Method: XMLReader.getErrorHandler () Return the current *note ErrorHandler: 3866. -- Method: XMLReader.setErrorHandler (handler) Set the current error handler. If no *note ErrorHandler: 3866. is set, errors will be raised as exceptions, and warnings will be printed. -- Method: XMLReader.setLocale (locale) Allow an application to set the locale for errors and warnings. SAX parsers are not required to provide localization for errors and warnings; if they cannot support the requested locale, however, they must raise a SAX exception. Applications may request a locale change in the middle of a parse. -- Method: XMLReader.getFeature (featurename) Return the current setting for feature 'featurename'. If the feature is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised. The well-known featurenames are listed in the module *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. -- Method: XMLReader.setFeature (featurename, value) Set the 'featurename' to 'value'. If the feature is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised. If the feature or its setting is not supported by the parser, 'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised. -- Method: XMLReader.getProperty (propertyname) Return the current setting for property 'propertyname'. If the property is not recognized, a ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised. The well-known propertynames are listed in the module *note xml.sax.handler: 12a. -- Method: XMLReader.setProperty (propertyname, value) Set the 'propertyname' to 'value'. If the property is not recognized, ‘SAXNotRecognizedException’ is raised. If the property or its setting is not supported by the parser, 'SAXNotSupportedException' is raised.  File: python.info, Node: IncrementalParser Objects, Next: Locator Objects, Prev: XMLReader Objects, Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 5.21.12.2 IncrementalParser Objects ................................... Instances of *note IncrementalParser: 38ab. offer the following additional methods: -- Method: IncrementalParser.feed (data) Process a chunk of 'data'. -- Method: IncrementalParser.close () Assume the end of the document. That will check well-formedness conditions that can be checked only at the end, invoke handlers, and may clean up resources allocated during parsing. -- Method: IncrementalParser.reset () This method is called after close has been called to reset the parser so that it is ready to parse new documents. The results of calling parse or feed after close without calling reset are undefined.  File: python.info, Node: Locator Objects, Next: InputSource Objects, Prev: IncrementalParser Objects, Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 5.21.12.3 Locator Objects ......................... Instances of *note Locator: 3868. provide these methods: -- Method: Locator.getColumnNumber () Return the column number where the current event begins. -- Method: Locator.getLineNumber () Return the line number where the current event begins. -- Method: Locator.getPublicId () Return the public identifier for the current event. -- Method: Locator.getSystemId () Return the system identifier for the current event.  File: python.info, Node: InputSource Objects, Next: The Attributes Interface, Prev: Locator Objects, Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 5.21.12.4 InputSource Objects ............................. -- Method: InputSource.setPublicId (id) Sets the public identifier of this *note InputSource: e94. -- Method: InputSource.getPublicId () Returns the public identifier of this *note InputSource: e94. -- Method: InputSource.setSystemId (id) Sets the system identifier of this *note InputSource: e94. -- Method: InputSource.getSystemId () Returns the system identifier of this *note InputSource: e94. -- Method: InputSource.setEncoding (encoding) Sets the character encoding of this *note InputSource: e94. The encoding must be a string acceptable for an XML encoding declaration (see section 4.3.3 of the XML recommendation). The encoding attribute of the *note InputSource: e94. is ignored if the *note InputSource: e94. also contains a character stream. -- Method: InputSource.getEncoding () Get the character encoding of this InputSource. -- Method: InputSource.setByteStream (bytefile) Set the byte stream (a *note binary file: 1c87.) for this input source. The SAX parser will ignore this if there is also a character stream specified, but it will use a byte stream in preference to opening a URI connection itself. If the application knows the character encoding of the byte stream, it should set it with the setEncoding method. -- Method: InputSource.getByteStream () Get the byte stream for this input source. The getEncoding method will return the character encoding for this byte stream, or ‘None’ if unknown. -- Method: InputSource.setCharacterStream (charfile) Set the character stream (a *note text file: 1c86.) for this input source. If there is a character stream specified, the SAX parser will ignore any byte stream and will not attempt to open a URI connection to the system identifier. -- Method: InputSource.getCharacterStream () Get the character stream for this input source.  File: python.info, Node: The Attributes Interface, Next: The AttributesNS Interface, Prev: InputSource Objects, Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 5.21.12.5 The ‘Attributes’ Interface .................................... ‘Attributes’ objects implement a portion of the *note mapping protocol: 11ae, including the methods ‘copy()’, ‘get()’, *note __contains__(): 1f5e, ‘items()’, ‘keys()’, and ‘values()’. The following methods are also provided: -- Method: Attributes.getLength () Return the number of attributes. -- Method: Attributes.getNames () Return the names of the attributes. -- Method: Attributes.getType (name) Returns the type of the attribute 'name', which is normally ‘'CDATA'’. -- Method: Attributes.getValue (name) Return the value of attribute 'name'.  File: python.info, Node: The AttributesNS Interface, Prev: The Attributes Interface, Up: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 5.21.12.6 The ‘AttributesNS’ Interface ...................................... This interface is a subtype of the ‘Attributes’ interface (see section *note The Attributes Interface: 3886.). All methods supported by that interface are also available on ‘AttributesNS’ objects. The following methods are also available: -- Method: AttributesNS.getValueByQName (name) Return the value for a qualified name. -- Method: AttributesNS.getNameByQName (name) Return the ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair for a qualified 'name'. -- Method: AttributesNS.getQNameByName (name) Return the qualified name for a ‘(namespace, localname)’ pair. -- Method: AttributesNS.getQNames () Return the qualified names of all attributes.  File: python.info, Node: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat, Prev: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers, Up: Structured Markup Processing Tools 5.21.13 ‘xml.parsers.expat’ — Fast XML parsing using Expat ---------------------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ Note: If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. The *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. module is a Python interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser. The module provides a single extension type, ‘xmlparser’, that represents the current state of an XML parser. After an ‘xmlparser’ object has been created, various attributes of the object can be set to handler functions. When an XML document is then fed to the parser, the handler functions are called for the character data and markup in the XML document. This module uses the ‘pyexpat’ module to provide access to the Expat parser. Direct use of the ‘pyexpat’ module is deprecated. This module provides one exception and one type object: -- Exception: xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError The exception raised when Expat reports an error. See section *note ExpatError Exceptions: 38df. for more information on interpreting Expat errors. -- Exception: xml.parsers.expat.error Alias for *note ExpatError: 126c. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.XMLParserType The type of the return values from the *note ParserCreate(): 38e2. function. The *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. module contains two functions: -- Function: xml.parsers.expat.ErrorString (errno) Returns an explanatory string for a given error number 'errno'. -- Function: xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate (encoding=None, namespace_separator=None) Creates and returns a new ‘xmlparser’ object. 'encoding', if specified, must be a string naming the encoding used by the XML data. Expat doesn’t support as many encodings as Python does, and its repertoire of encodings can’t be extended; it supports UTF-8, UTF-16, ISO-8859-1 (Latin1), and ASCII. If 'encoding' (1) is given it will override the implicit or explicit encoding of the document. Expat can optionally do XML namespace processing for you, enabled by providing a value for 'namespace_separator'. The value must be a one-character string; a *note ValueError: 204. will be raised if the string has an illegal length (‘None’ is considered the same as omission). When namespace processing is enabled, element type names and attribute names that belong to a namespace will be expanded. The element name passed to the element handlers ‘StartElementHandler’ and ‘EndElementHandler’ will be the concatenation of the namespace URI, the namespace separator character, and the local part of the name. If the namespace separator is a zero byte (‘chr(0)’) then the namespace URI and the local part will be concatenated without any separator. For example, if 'namespace_separator' is set to a space character (‘' '’) and the following document is parsed: ‘StartElementHandler’ will receive the following strings for each element: http://default-namespace.org/ root http://www.python.org/ns/ elem1 elem2 Due to limitations in the ‘Expat’ library used by ‘pyexpat’, the ‘xmlparser’ instance returned can only be used to parse a single XML document. Call ‘ParserCreate’ for each document to provide unique parser instances. See also ........ The Expat XML Parser(2) Home page of the Expat project. * Menu: * XMLParser Objects: XMLParser Objects<2>. * ExpatError Exceptions:: * Example: Example<10>. * Content Model Descriptions:: * Expat error constants:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The encoding string included in XML output should conform to the appropriate standards. For example, “UTF-8” is valid, but “UTF8” is not. See ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/2006/REC-xml11-20060816/#NT-EncodingDecl’ and ‘https://www.iana.org/assignments/character-sets/character-sets.xhtml’. (2) http://www.libexpat.org/  File: python.info, Node: XMLParser Objects<2>, Next: ExpatError Exceptions, Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 5.21.13.1 XMLParser Objects ........................... ‘xmlparser’ objects have the following methods: -- Method: xmlparser.Parse (data[, isfinal]) Parses the contents of the string 'data', calling the appropriate handler functions to process the parsed data. 'isfinal' must be true on the final call to this method; it allows the parsing of a single file in fragments, not the submission of multiple files. 'data' can be the empty string at any time. -- Method: xmlparser.ParseFile (file) Parse XML data reading from the object 'file'. 'file' only needs to provide the ‘read(nbytes)’ method, returning the empty string when there’s no more data. -- Method: xmlparser.SetBase (base) Sets the base to be used for resolving relative URIs in system identifiers in declarations. Resolving relative identifiers is left to the application: this value will be passed through as the 'base' argument to the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 38e9, *note NotationDeclHandler(): 38ea, and *note UnparsedEntityDeclHandler(): 38eb. functions. -- Method: xmlparser.GetBase () Returns a string containing the base set by a previous call to *note SetBase(): 38e8, or ‘None’ if *note SetBase(): 38e8. hasn’t been called. -- Method: xmlparser.GetInputContext () Returns the input data that generated the current event as a string. The data is in the encoding of the entity which contains the text. When called while an event handler is not active, the return value is ‘None’. -- Method: xmlparser.ExternalEntityParserCreate (context[, encoding]) Create a “child” parser which can be used to parse an external parsed entity referred to by content parsed by the parent parser. The 'context' parameter should be the string passed to the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler(): 38e9. handler function, described below. The child parser is created with the *note ordered_attributes: 38ef. and *note specified_attributes: 38f0. set to the values of this parser. -- Method: xmlparser.SetParamEntityParsing (flag) Control parsing of parameter entities (including the external DTD subset). Possible 'flag' values are ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_NEVER’, ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_UNLESS_STANDALONE’ and ‘XML_PARAM_ENTITY_PARSING_ALWAYS’. Return true if setting the flag was successful. -- Method: xmlparser.UseForeignDTD ([flag]) Calling this with a true value for 'flag' (the default) will cause Expat to call the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 38e9. with *note None: 671. for all arguments to allow an alternate DTD to be loaded. If the document does not contain a document type declaration, the *note ExternalEntityRefHandler: 38e9. will still be called, but the *note StartDoctypeDeclHandler: 38f3. and *note EndDoctypeDeclHandler: 38f4. will not be called. Passing a false value for 'flag' will cancel a previous call that passed a true value, but otherwise has no effect. This method can only be called before the *note Parse(): 38e6. or *note ParseFile(): 38e7. methods are called; calling it after either of those have been called causes *note ExpatError: 126c. to be raised with the *note code: 1a. attribute set to ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING]’. -- Method: xmlparser.SetReparseDeferralEnabled (enabled) Warning: Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ has security implications, as detailed below; please make sure to understand these consequences prior to using the ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled’ method. Expat 2.6.0 introduced a security mechanism called “reparse deferral” where instead of causing denial of service through quadratic runtime from reparsing large tokens, reparsing of unfinished tokens is now delayed by default until a sufficient amount of input is reached. Due to this delay, registered handlers may — depending of the sizing of input chunks pushed to Expat — no longer be called right after pushing new input to the parser. Where immediate feedback and taking over responsibility of protecting against denial of service from large tokens are both wanted, calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(False)’ disables reparse deferral for the current Expat parser instance, temporarily or altogether. Calling ‘SetReparseDeferralEnabled(True)’ allows re-enabling reparse deferral. Note that *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 274. has been backported to some prior releases of CPython as a security fix. Check for availability of *note SetReparseDeferralEnabled(): 274. using *note hasattr(): 4ce. if used in code running across a variety of Python versions. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: xmlparser.GetReparseDeferralEnabled () Returns whether reparse deferral is currently enabled for the given Expat parser instance. Added in version 3.13. ‘xmlparser’ objects have the following attributes: -- Attribute: xmlparser.buffer_size The size of the buffer used when *note buffer_text: 148b. is true. A new buffer size can be set by assigning a new integer value to this attribute. When the size is changed, the buffer will be flushed. -- Attribute: xmlparser.buffer_text Setting this to true causes the ‘xmlparser’ object to buffer textual content returned by Expat to avoid multiple calls to the *note CharacterDataHandler(): 38f6. callback whenever possible. This can improve performance substantially since Expat normally breaks character data into chunks at every line ending. This attribute is false by default, and may be changed at any time. Note that when it is false, data that does not contain newlines may be chunked too. -- Attribute: xmlparser.buffer_used If *note buffer_text: 148b. is enabled, the number of bytes stored in the buffer. These bytes represent UTF-8 encoded text. This attribute has no meaningful interpretation when *note buffer_text: 148b. is false. -- Attribute: xmlparser.ordered_attributes Setting this attribute to a non-zero integer causes the attributes to be reported as a list rather than a dictionary. The attributes are presented in the order found in the document text. For each attribute, two list entries are presented: the attribute name and the attribute value. (Older versions of this module also used this format.) By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time. -- Attribute: xmlparser.specified_attributes If set to a non-zero integer, the parser will report only those attributes which were specified in the document instance and not those which were derived from attribute declarations. Applications which set this need to be especially careful to use what additional information is available from the declarations as needed to comply with the standards for the behavior of XML processors. By default, this attribute is false; it may be changed at any time. The following attributes contain values relating to the most recent error encountered by an ‘xmlparser’ object, and will only have correct values once a call to ‘Parse()’ or ‘ParseFile()’ has raised an *note xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError: 126c. exception. -- Attribute: xmlparser.ErrorByteIndex Byte index at which an error occurred. -- Attribute: xmlparser.ErrorCode Numeric code specifying the problem. This value can be passed to the *note ErrorString(): 38e3. function, or compared to one of the constants defined in the ‘errors’ object. -- Attribute: xmlparser.ErrorColumnNumber Column number at which an error occurred. -- Attribute: xmlparser.ErrorLineNumber Line number at which an error occurred. The following attributes contain values relating to the current parse location in an ‘xmlparser’ object. During a callback reporting a parse event they indicate the location of the first of the sequence of characters that generated the event. When called outside of a callback, the position indicated will be just past the last parse event (regardless of whether there was an associated callback). -- Attribute: xmlparser.CurrentByteIndex Current byte index in the parser input. -- Attribute: xmlparser.CurrentColumnNumber Current column number in the parser input. -- Attribute: xmlparser.CurrentLineNumber Current line number in the parser input. Here is the list of handlers that can be set. To set a handler on an ‘xmlparser’ object 'o', use ‘o.handlername = func’. 'handlername' must be taken from the following list, and 'func' must be a callable object accepting the correct number of arguments. The arguments are all strings, unless otherwise stated. -- Method: xmlparser.XmlDeclHandler (version, encoding, standalone) Called when the XML declaration is parsed. The XML declaration is the (optional) declaration of the applicable version of the XML recommendation, the encoding of the document text, and an optional “standalone” declaration. 'version' and 'encoding' will be strings, and 'standalone' will be ‘1’ if the document is declared standalone, ‘0’ if it is declared not to be standalone, or ‘-1’ if the standalone clause was omitted. This is only available with Expat version 1.95.0 or newer. -- Method: xmlparser.StartDoctypeDeclHandler (doctypeName, systemId, publicId, has_internal_subset) Called when Expat begins parsing the document type declaration (‘'’. -- Method: xmlparser.StartCdataSectionHandler () Called at the start of a CDATA section. This and *note EndCdataSectionHandler: 3906. are needed to be able to identify the syntactical start and end for CDATA sections. -- Method: xmlparser.EndCdataSectionHandler () Called at the end of a CDATA section. -- Method: xmlparser.DefaultHandler (data) Called for any characters in the XML document for which no applicable handler has been specified. This means characters that are part of a construct which could be reported, but for which no handler has been supplied. -- Method: xmlparser.DefaultHandlerExpand (data) This is the same as the *note DefaultHandler(): 390b, but doesn’t inhibit expansion of internal entities. The entity reference will not be passed to the default handler. -- Method: xmlparser.NotStandaloneHandler () Called if the XML document hasn’t been declared as being a standalone document. This happens when there is an external subset or a reference to a parameter entity, but the XML declaration does not set standalone to ‘yes’ in an XML declaration. If this handler returns ‘0’, then the parser will raise an ‘XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE’ error. If this handler is not set, no exception is raised by the parser for this condition. -- Method: xmlparser.ExternalEntityRefHandler (context, base, systemId, publicId) Called for references to external entities. 'base' is the current base, as set by a previous call to *note SetBase(): 38e8. The public and system identifiers, 'systemId' and 'publicId', are strings if given; if the public identifier is not given, 'publicId' will be ‘None’. The 'context' value is opaque and should only be used as described below. For external entities to be parsed, this handler must be implemented. It is responsible for creating the sub-parser using ‘ExternalEntityParserCreate(context)’, initializing it with the appropriate callbacks, and parsing the entity. This handler should return an integer; if it returns ‘0’, the parser will raise an ‘XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING’ error, otherwise parsing will continue. If this handler is not provided, external entities are reported by the *note DefaultHandler: 390b. callback, if provided.  File: python.info, Node: ExpatError Exceptions, Next: Example<10>, Prev: XMLParser Objects<2>, Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 5.21.13.2 ExpatError Exceptions ............................... *note ExpatError: 126c. exceptions have a number of interesting attributes: -- Attribute: ExpatError.code Expat’s internal error number for the specific error. The *note errors.messages: 3910. dictionary maps these error numbers to Expat’s error messages. For example: from xml.parsers.expat import ParserCreate, ExpatError, errors p = ParserCreate() try: p.Parse(some_xml_document) except ExpatError as err: print("Error:", errors.messages[err.code]) The *note errors: 127. module also provides error message constants and a dictionary *note codes: 3911. mapping these messages back to the error codes, see below. -- Attribute: ExpatError.lineno Line number on which the error was detected. The first line is numbered ‘1’. -- Attribute: ExpatError.offset Character offset into the line where the error occurred. The first column is numbered ‘0’.  File: python.info, Node: Example<10>, Next: Content Model Descriptions, Prev: ExpatError Exceptions, Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 5.21.13.3 Example ................. The following program defines three handlers that just print out their arguments. import xml.parsers.expat # 3 handler functions def start_element(name, attrs): print('Start element:', name, attrs) def end_element(name): print('End element:', name) def char_data(data): print('Character data:', repr(data)) p = xml.parsers.expat.ParserCreate() p.StartElementHandler = start_element p.EndElementHandler = end_element p.CharacterDataHandler = char_data p.Parse(""" Text goes here More text """, 1) The output from this program is: Start element: parent {'id': 'top'} Start element: child1 {'name': 'paul'} Character data: 'Text goes here' End element: child1 Character data: '\n' Start element: child2 {'name': 'fred'} Character data: 'More text' End element: child2 Character data: '\n' End element: parent  File: python.info, Node: Content Model Descriptions, Next: Expat error constants, Prev: Example<10>, Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 5.21.13.4 Content Model Descriptions .................................... Content models are described using nested tuples. Each tuple contains four values: the type, the quantifier, the name, and a tuple of children. Children are simply additional content model descriptions. The values of the first two fields are constants defined in the *note xml.parsers.expat.model: 128. module. These constants can be collected in two groups: the model type group and the quantifier group. The constants in the model type group are: -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_ANY The element named by the model name was declared to have a content model of ‘ANY’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_CHOICE The named element allows a choice from a number of options; this is used for content models such as ‘(A | B | C)’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_EMPTY Elements which are declared to be ‘EMPTY’ have this model type. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_MIXED -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_NAME -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CTYPE_SEQ Models which represent a series of models which follow one after the other are indicated with this model type. This is used for models such as ‘(A, B, C)’. The constants in the quantifier group are: -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_NONE No modifier is given, so it can appear exactly once, as for ‘A’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_OPT The model is optional: it can appear once or not at all, as for ‘A?’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_PLUS The model must occur one or more times (like ‘A+’). -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.model.XML_CQUANT_REP The model must occur zero or more times, as for ‘A*’.  File: python.info, Node: Expat error constants, Prev: Content Model Descriptions, Up: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat 5.21.13.5 Expat error constants ............................... The following constants are provided in the *note xml.parsers.expat.errors: 127. module. These constants are useful in interpreting some of the attributes of the ‘ExpatError’ exception objects raised when an error has occurred. Since for backwards compatibility reasons, the constants’ value is the error 'message' and not the numeric error 'code', you do this by comparing its *note code: 1a. attribute with ‘errors.codes[errors.XML_ERROR_CONSTANT_NAME]’. The ‘errors’ module has the following attributes: -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.codes A dictionary mapping string descriptions to their error codes. Added in version 3.2. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.messages A dictionary mapping numeric error codes to their string descriptions. Added in version 3.2. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF An entity reference in an attribute value referred to an external entity instead of an internal entity. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF A character reference referred to a character which is illegal in XML (for example, character ‘0’, or ‘‘�’’). -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF An entity reference referred to an entity which was declared with a notation, so cannot be parsed. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE An attribute was used more than once in a start tag. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN Raised when an input byte could not properly be assigned to a character; for example, a NUL byte (value ‘0’) in a UTF-8 input stream. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT Something other than whitespace occurred after the document element. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI An XML declaration was found somewhere other than the start of the input data. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS The document contains no elements (XML requires all documents to contain exactly one top-level element).. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY Expat was not able to allocate memory internally. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF A parameter entity reference was found where it was not allowed. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR An incomplete character was found in the input. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF An entity reference contained another reference to the same entity; possibly via a different name, and possibly indirectly. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SYNTAX Some unspecified syntax error was encountered. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH An end tag did not match the innermost open start tag. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN Some token (such as a start tag) was not closed before the end of the stream or the next token was encountered. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY A reference was made to an entity which was not defined. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING The document encoding is not supported by Expat. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION A CDATA marked section was not closed. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE The parser determined that the document was not “standalone” though it declared itself to be in the XML declaration, and the ‘NotStandaloneHandler’ was set and returned ‘0’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD An operation was requested that requires DTD support to be compiled in, but Expat was configured without DTD support. This should never be reported by a standard build of the *note xml.parsers.expat: 126. module. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING A behavioral change was requested after parsing started that can only be changed before parsing has started. This is (currently) only raised by ‘UseForeignDTD()’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX An undeclared prefix was found when namespace processing was enabled. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX The document attempted to remove the namespace declaration associated with a prefix. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE A parameter entity contained incomplete markup. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_XML_DECL The document contained no document element at all. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL There was an error parsing a text declaration in an external entity. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_PUBLICID Characters were found in the public id that are not allowed. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED The requested operation was made on a suspended parser, but isn’t allowed. This includes attempts to provide additional input or to stop the parser. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED An attempt to resume the parser was made when the parser had not been suspended. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_ABORTED This should not be reported to Python applications. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_FINISHED The requested operation was made on a parser which was finished parsing input, but isn’t allowed. This includes attempts to provide additional input or to stop the parser. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML An attempt was made to undeclare reserved namespace prefix ‘xml’ or to bind it to another namespace URI. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS An attempt was made to declare or undeclare reserved namespace prefix ‘xmlns’. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI An attempt was made to bind the URI of one the reserved namespace prefixes ‘xml’ and ‘xmlns’ to another namespace prefix. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT This should not be reported to Python applications. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER This should not be reported to Python applications. -- Data: xml.parsers.expat.errors.XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH The limit on input amplification factor (from DTD and entities) has been breached.  File: python.info, Node: Internet Protocols and Support, Next: Multimedia Services, Prev: Structured Markup Processing Tools, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.22 Internet Protocols and Support =================================== The modules described in this chapter implement internet protocols and support for related technology. They are all implemented in Python. Most of these modules require the presence of the system-dependent module *note socket: cc, which is currently supported on most popular platforms. Here is an overview: * Menu: * webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller:: * wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation:: * urllib — URL handling modules:: * urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. * urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. * urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. * urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. * urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. * http — HTTP modules:: * http.client — HTTP protocol client: http client — HTTP protocol client. * ftplib — FTP protocol client:: * poplib — POP3 protocol client:: * imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client:: * smtplib — SMTP protocol client:: * uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122:: * socketserver — A framework for network servers:: * http.server — HTTP servers: http server — HTTP servers. * http.cookies — HTTP state management: http cookies — HTTP state management. * http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. * xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules:: * xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access. * xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers. * ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library::  File: python.info, Node: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller, Next: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.1 ‘webbrowser’ — Convenient web-browser controller ------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/webbrowser.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note webbrowser: 115. module provides a high-level interface to allow displaying web-based documents to users. Under most circumstances, simply calling the *note open(): 394a. function from this module will do the right thing. Under Unix, graphical browsers are preferred under X11, but text-mode browsers will be used if graphical browsers are not available or an X11 display isn’t available. If text-mode browsers are used, the calling process will block until the user exits the browser. If the environment variable ‘BROWSER’ exists, it is interpreted as the *note os.pathsep: 1d44.-separated list of browsers to try ahead of the platform defaults. When the value of a list part contains the string ‘%s’, then it is interpreted as a literal browser command line to be used with the argument URL substituted for ‘%s’; if the part does not contain ‘%s’, it is simply interpreted as the name of the browser to launch. (2) For non-Unix platforms, or when a remote browser is available on Unix, the controlling process will not wait for the user to finish with the browser, but allow the remote browser to maintain its own windows on the display. If remote browsers are not available on Unix, the controlling process will launch a new browser and wait. On iOS, the ‘BROWSER’ environment variable, as well as any arguments controlling autoraise, browser preference, and new tab/window creation will be ignored. Web pages will 'always' be opened in the user’s preferred browser, in a new tab, with the browser being brought to the foreground. The use of the *note webbrowser: 115. module on iOS requires the *note ctypes: 2a. module. If *note ctypes: 2a. isn’t available, calls to *note open(): 394a. will fail. The script ‘webbrowser’ can be used as a command-line interface for the module. It accepts a URL as the argument. It accepts the following optional parameters: -- Option: -n, --new-window Opens the URL in a new browser window, if possible. -- Option: -t, --new-tab Opens the URL in a new browser tab. The options are, naturally, mutually exclusive. Usage example: python -m webbrowser -t "https://www.python.org" *note Availability: 1d54.: not WASI, not Android. The following exception is defined: -- Exception: webbrowser.Error Exception raised when a browser control error occurs. The following functions are defined: -- Function: webbrowser.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True) Display 'url' using the default browser. If 'new' is 0, the 'url' is opened in the same browser window if possible. If 'new' is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible. If 'new' is 2, a new browser page (“tab”) is opened if possible. If 'autoraise' is ‘True’, the window is raised if possible (note that under many window managers this will occur regardless of the setting of this variable). Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’ otherwise. Note that on some platforms, trying to open a filename using this function, may work and start the operating system’s associated program. However, this is neither supported nor portable. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘webbrowser.open’ with argument ‘url’. -- Function: webbrowser.open_new (url) Open 'url' in a new window of the default browser, if possible, otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser window. Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: webbrowser.open_new_tab (url) Open 'url' in a new page (“tab”) of the default browser, if possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new(): 3950. Returns ‘True’ if a browser was successfully launched, ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: webbrowser.get (using=None) Return a controller object for the browser type 'using'. If 'using' is ‘None’, return a controller for a default browser appropriate to the caller’s environment. -- Function: webbrowser.register (name, constructor, instance=None, *, preferred=False) Register the browser type 'name'. Once a browser type is registered, the *note get(): 3952. function can return a controller for that browser type. If 'instance' is not provided, or is ‘None’, 'constructor' will be called without parameters to create an instance when needed. If 'instance' is provided, 'constructor' will never be called, and may be ‘None’. Setting 'preferred' to ‘True’ makes this browser a preferred result for a *note get(): 3952. call with no argument. Otherwise, this entry point is only useful if you plan to either set the ‘BROWSER’ variable or call *note get(): 3952. with a nonempty argument matching the name of a handler you declare. Changed in version 3.7: 'preferred' keyword-only parameter was added. A number of browser types are predefined. This table gives the type names that may be passed to the *note get(): 3952. function and the corresponding instantiations for the controller classes, all defined in this module. Type Name Class Name Notes --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘'mozilla'’ ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’ ‘'firefox'’ ‘Mozilla('mozilla')’ ‘'epiphany'’ ‘Epiphany('epiphany')’ ‘'kfmclient'’ ‘Konqueror()’ (1) ‘'konqueror'’ ‘Konqueror()’ (1) ‘'kfm'’ ‘Konqueror()’ (1) ‘'opera'’ ‘Opera()’ ‘'links'’ ‘GenericBrowser('links')’ ‘'elinks'’ ‘Elinks('elinks')’ ‘'lynx'’ ‘GenericBrowser('lynx')’ ‘'w3m'’ ‘GenericBrowser('w3m')’ ‘'windows-default'’ ‘WindowsDefault’ (2) ‘'macosx'’ ‘MacOSXOSAScript('default')’ (3) ‘'safari'’ ‘MacOSXOSAScript('safari')’ (3) ‘'google-chrome'’ ‘Chrome('google-chrome')’ ‘'chrome'’ ‘Chrome('chrome')’ ‘'chromium'’ ‘Chromium('chromium')’ ‘'chromium-browser'’ ‘Chromium('chromium-browser')’ ‘'iosbrowser'’ ‘IOSBrowser’ (4) Notes: 1. “Konqueror” is the file manager for the KDE desktop environment for Unix, and only makes sense to use if KDE is running. Some way of reliably detecting KDE would be nice; the ‘KDEDIR’ variable is not sufficient. Note also that the name “kfm” is used even when using the ‘konqueror’ command with KDE 2 — the implementation selects the best strategy for running Konqueror. 2. Only on Windows platforms. 3. Only on macOS. 4. Only on iOS. Added in version 3.2: A new ‘MacOSXOSAScript’ class has been added and is used on Mac instead of the previous ‘MacOSX’ class. This adds support for opening browsers not currently set as the OS default. Added in version 3.3: Support for Chrome/Chromium has been added. Changed in version 3.12: Support for several obsolete browsers has been removed. Removed browsers include Grail, Mosaic, Netscape, Galeon, Skipstone, Iceape, and Firefox versions 35 and below. Changed in version 3.13: Support for iOS has been added. Here are some simple examples: url = 'https://docs.python.org/' # Open URL in a new tab, if a browser window is already open. webbrowser.open_new_tab(url) # Open URL in new window, raising the window if possible. webbrowser.open_new(url) * Menu: * Browser Controller Objects:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/webbrowser.py (2) Executables named here without a full path will be searched in the directories given in the ‘PATH’ environment variable.  File: python.info, Node: Browser Controller Objects, Up: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller 5.22.1.1 Browser Controller Objects ................................... Browser controllers provide the *note name: 299. attribute, and the following three methods which parallel module-level convenience functions: -- Attribute: controller.name System-dependent name for the browser. -- Method: controller.open (url, new=0, autoraise=True) Display 'url' using the browser handled by this controller. If 'new' is 1, a new browser window is opened if possible. If 'new' is 2, a new browser page (“tab”) is opened if possible. -- Method: controller.open_new (url) Open 'url' in a new window of the browser handled by this controller, if possible, otherwise, open 'url' in the only browser window. Alias *note open_new(): 3950. -- Method: controller.open_new_tab (url) Open 'url' in a new page (“tab”) of the browser handled by this controller, if possible, otherwise equivalent to *note open_new(): 3950.  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation, Next: urllib — URL handling modules, Prev: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.2 ‘wsgiref’ — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation -------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/wsgiref(1) __________________________________________________________________ The Web Server Gateway Interface (WSGI) is a standard interface between web server software and web applications written in Python. Having a standard interface makes it easy to use an application that supports WSGI with a number of different web servers. Only authors of web servers and programming frameworks need to know every detail and corner case of the WSGI design. You don’t need to understand every detail of WSGI just to install a WSGI application or to write a web application using an existing framework. *note wsgiref: 118. is a reference implementation of the WSGI specification that can be used to add WSGI support to a web server or framework. It provides utilities for manipulating WSGI environment variables and response headers, base classes for implementing WSGI servers, a demo HTTP server that serves WSGI applications, types for static type checking, and a validation tool that checks WSGI servers and applications for conformance to the WSGI specification ( PEP 3333(2)). See wsgi.readthedocs.io(3) for more information about WSGI, and links to tutorials and other resources. * Menu: * wsgiref.util – WSGI environment utilities: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. * wsgiref.headers – WSGI response header tools: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. * wsgiref.simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. * wsgiref.validate — WSGI conformance checker: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. * wsgiref.handlers – server/gateway base classes: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. * wsgiref.types – WSGI types for static type checking: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. * Examples: Examples<25>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/wsgiref (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (3) https://wsgi.readthedocs.io/  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities, Next: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.1 ‘wsgiref.util’ – WSGI environment utilities .................................................... This module provides a variety of utility functions for working with WSGI environments. A WSGI environment is a dictionary containing HTTP request variables as described in PEP 3333(1). All of the functions taking an 'environ' parameter expect a WSGI-compliant dictionary to be supplied; please see PEP 3333(2) for a detailed specification and *note WSGIEnvironment: 395c. for a type alias that can be used in type annotations. -- Function: wsgiref.util.guess_scheme (environ) Return a guess for whether ‘wsgi.url_scheme’ should be “http” or “https”, by checking for a ‘HTTPS’ environment variable in the 'environ' dictionary. The return value is a string. This function is useful when creating a gateway that wraps CGI or a CGI-like protocol such as FastCGI. Typically, servers providing such protocols will include a ‘HTTPS’ variable with a value of “1”, “yes”, or “on” when a request is received via SSL. So, this function returns “https” if such a value is found, and “http” otherwise. -- Function: wsgiref.util.request_uri (environ, include_query=True) Return the full request URI, optionally including the query string, using the algorithm found in the “URL Reconstruction” section of PEP 3333(3). If 'include_query' is false, the query string is not included in the resulting URI. -- Function: wsgiref.util.application_uri (environ) Similar to *note request_uri(): 395e, except that the ‘PATH_INFO’ and ‘QUERY_STRING’ variables are ignored. The result is the base URI of the application object addressed by the request. -- Function: wsgiref.util.shift_path_info (environ) Shift a single name from ‘PATH_INFO’ to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ and return the name. The 'environ' dictionary is 'modified' in-place; use a copy if you need to keep the original ‘PATH_INFO’ or ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ intact. If there are no remaining path segments in ‘PATH_INFO’, ‘None’ is returned. Typically, this routine is used to process each portion of a request URI path, for example to treat the path as a series of dictionary keys. This routine modifies the passed-in environment to make it suitable for invoking another WSGI application that is located at the target URI. For example, if there is a WSGI application at ‘/foo’, and the request URI path is ‘/foo/bar/baz’, and the WSGI application at ‘/foo’ calls *note shift_path_info(): 3960, it will receive the string “bar”, and the environment will be updated to be suitable for passing to a WSGI application at ‘/foo/bar’. That is, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ will change from ‘/foo’ to ‘/foo/bar’, and ‘PATH_INFO’ will change from ‘/bar/baz’ to ‘/baz’. When ‘PATH_INFO’ is just a “/”, this routine returns an empty string and appends a trailing slash to ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, even though empty path segments are normally ignored, and ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ doesn’t normally end in a slash. This is intentional behavior, to ensure that an application can tell the difference between URIs ending in ‘/x’ from ones ending in ‘/x/’ when using this routine to do object traversal. -- Function: wsgiref.util.setup_testing_defaults (environ) Update 'environ' with trivial defaults for testing purposes. This routine adds various parameters required for WSGI, including ‘HTTP_HOST’, ‘SERVER_NAME’, ‘SERVER_PORT’, ‘REQUEST_METHOD’, ‘SCRIPT_NAME’, ‘PATH_INFO’, and all of the PEP 3333(4)-defined ‘wsgi.*’ variables. It only supplies default values, and does not replace any existing settings for these variables. This routine is intended to make it easier for unit tests of WSGI servers and applications to set up dummy environments. It should NOT be used by actual WSGI servers or applications, since the data is fake! Example usage (see also *note demo_app(): 3962. for another example): from wsgiref.util import setup_testing_defaults from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server # A relatively simple WSGI application. It's going to print out the # environment dictionary after being updated by setup_testing_defaults def simple_app(environ, start_response): setup_testing_defaults(environ) status = '200 OK' headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain; charset=utf-8')] start_response(status, headers) ret = [("%s: %s\n" % (key, value)).encode("utf-8") for key, value in environ.items()] return ret with make_server('', 8000, simple_app) as httpd: print("Serving on port 8000...") httpd.serve_forever() In addition to the environment functions above, the *note wsgiref.util: 11d. module also provides these miscellaneous utilities: -- Function: wsgiref.util.is_hop_by_hop (header_name) Return ‘True’ if ‘header_name’ is an HTTP/1.1 “Hop-by-Hop” header, as defined by RFC 2616(5). -- Class: wsgiref.util.FileWrapper (filelike, blksize=8192) A concrete implementation of the *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3963. protocol used to convert a file-like object to an *note iterator: 1ac. The resulting objects are *note iterable: 121a.s. As the object is iterated over, the optional 'blksize' parameter will be repeatedly passed to the 'filelike' object’s ‘read()’ method to obtain bytestrings to yield. When ‘read()’ returns an empty bytestring, iteration is ended and is not resumable. If 'filelike' has a ‘close()’ method, the returned object will also have a ‘close()’ method, and it will invoke the 'filelike' object’s ‘close()’ method when called. Example usage: from io import StringIO from wsgiref.util import FileWrapper # We're using a StringIO-buffer for as the file-like object filelike = StringIO("This is an example file-like object"*10) wrapper = FileWrapper(filelike, blksize=5) for chunk in wrapper: print(chunk) Changed in version 3.11: Support for *note __getitem__(): 285. method has been removed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools, Next: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server, Prev: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.2 ‘wsgiref.headers’ – WSGI response header tools ....................................................... This module provides a single class, *note Headers: e91, for convenient manipulation of WSGI response headers using a mapping-like interface. -- Class: wsgiref.headers.Headers ([headers]) Create a mapping-like object wrapping 'headers', which must be a list of header name/value tuples as described in PEP 3333(1). The default value of 'headers' is an empty list. *note Headers: e91. objects support typical mapping operations including *note __getitem__(): 285, *note get(): 2242, *note __setitem__(): 12be, *note setdefault(): 1072, *note __delitem__(): 12bf. and *note __contains__(): 1f5e. For each of these methods, the key is the header name (treated case-insensitively), and the value is the first value associated with that header name. Setting a header deletes any existing values for that header, then adds a new value at the end of the wrapped header list. Headers’ existing order is generally maintained, with new headers added to the end of the wrapped list. Unlike a dictionary, *note Headers: e91. objects do not raise an error when you try to get or delete a key that isn’t in the wrapped header list. Getting a nonexistent header just returns ‘None’, and deleting a nonexistent header does nothing. *note Headers: e91. objects also support ‘keys()’, ‘values()’, and ‘items()’ methods. The lists returned by ‘keys()’ and ‘items()’ can include the same key more than once if there is a multi-valued header. The ‘len()’ of a *note Headers: e91. object is the same as the length of its ‘items()’, which is the same as the length of the wrapped header list. In fact, the ‘items()’ method just returns a copy of the wrapped header list. Calling ‘bytes()’ on a *note Headers: e91. object returns a formatted bytestring suitable for transmission as HTTP response headers. Each header is placed on a line with its value, separated by a colon and a space. Each line is terminated by a carriage return and line feed, and the bytestring is terminated with a blank line. In addition to their mapping interface and formatting features, *note Headers: e91. objects also have the following methods for querying and adding multi-valued headers, and for adding headers with MIME parameters: -- Method: get_all (name) Return a list of all the values for the named header. The returned list will be sorted in the order they appeared in the original header list or were added to this instance, and may contain duplicates. Any fields deleted and re-inserted are always appended to the header list. If no fields exist with the given name, returns an empty list. -- Method: add_header (name, value, **_params) Add a (possibly multi-valued) header, with optional MIME parameters specified via keyword arguments. 'name' is the header field to add. Keyword arguments can be used to set MIME parameters for the header field. Each parameter must be a string or ‘None’. Underscores in parameter names are converted to dashes, since dashes are illegal in Python identifiers, but many MIME parameter names include dashes. If the parameter value is a string, it is added to the header value parameters in the form ‘name="value"’. If it is ‘None’, only the parameter name is added. (This is used for MIME parameters without a value.) Example usage: h.add_header('content-disposition', 'attachment', filename='bud.gif') The above will add a header that looks like this: Content-Disposition: attachment; filename="bud.gif" Changed in version 3.5: 'headers' parameter is optional. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server, Next: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker, Prev: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.3 ‘wsgiref.simple_server’ – a simple WSGI HTTP server ............................................................ This module implements a simple HTTP server (based on *note http.server: 72.) that serves WSGI applications. Each server instance serves a single WSGI application on a given host and port. If you want to serve multiple applications on a single host and port, you should create a WSGI application that parses ‘PATH_INFO’ to select which application to invoke for each request. (E.g., using the ‘shift_path_info()’ function from *note wsgiref.util: 11d.) -- Function: wsgiref.simple_server.make_server (host, port, app, server_class=WSGIServer, handler_class=WSGIRequestHandler) Create a new WSGI server listening on 'host' and 'port', accepting connections for 'app'. The return value is an instance of the supplied 'server_class', and will process requests using the specified 'handler_class'. 'app' must be a WSGI application object, as defined by PEP 3333(1). Example usage: from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server, demo_app with make_server('', 8000, demo_app) as httpd: print("Serving HTTP on port 8000...") # Respond to requests until process is killed httpd.serve_forever() # Alternative: serve one request, then exit httpd.handle_request() -- Function: wsgiref.simple_server.demo_app (environ, start_response) This function is a small but complete WSGI application that returns a text page containing the message “Hello world!” and a list of the key/value pairs provided in the 'environ' parameter. It’s useful for verifying that a WSGI server (such as *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11b.) is able to run a simple WSGI application correctly. The 'start_response' callable should follow the *note StartResponse: 3969. protocol. -- Class: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass) Create a *note WSGIServer: 396a. instance. 'server_address' should be a ‘(host,port)’ tuple, and 'RequestHandlerClass' should be the subclass of *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. that will be used to process requests. You do not normally need to call this constructor, as the *note make_server(): 3968. function can handle all the details for you. *note WSGIServer: 396a. is a subclass of *note http.server.HTTPServer: 396b, so all of its methods (such as ‘serve_forever()’ and ‘handle_request()’) are available. *note WSGIServer: 396a. also provides these WSGI-specific methods: -- Method: set_app (application) Sets the callable 'application' as the WSGI application that will receive requests. -- Method: get_app () Returns the currently set application callable. Normally, however, you do not need to use these additional methods, as *note set_app(): 396c. is normally called by *note make_server(): 3968, and the *note get_app(): 396d. exists mainly for the benefit of request handler instances. -- Class: wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler (request, client_address, server) Create an HTTP handler for the given 'request' (i.e. a socket), 'client_address' (a ‘(host,port)’ tuple), and 'server' (*note WSGIServer: 396a. instance). You do not need to create instances of this class directly; they are automatically created as needed by *note WSGIServer: 396a. objects. You can, however, subclass this class and supply it as a 'handler_class' to the *note make_server(): 3968. function. Some possibly relevant methods for overriding in subclasses: -- Method: get_environ () Return a *note WSGIEnvironment: 395c. dictionary for a request. The default implementation copies the contents of the *note WSGIServer: 396a. object’s ‘base_environ’ dictionary attribute and then adds various headers derived from the HTTP request. Each call to this method should return a new dictionary containing all of the relevant CGI environment variables as specified in PEP 3333(2). -- Method: get_stderr () Return the object that should be used as the ‘wsgi.errors’ stream. The default implementation just returns ‘sys.stderr’. -- Method: handle () Process the HTTP request. The default implementation creates a handler instance using a *note wsgiref.handlers: 119. class to implement the actual WSGI application interface. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker, Next: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes, Prev: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.4 ‘wsgiref.validate’ — WSGI conformance checker ...................................................... When creating new WSGI application objects, frameworks, servers, or middleware, it can be useful to validate the new code’s conformance using *note wsgiref.validate: 11e. This module provides a function that creates WSGI application objects that validate communications between a WSGI server or gateway and a WSGI application object, to check both sides for protocol conformance. Note that this utility does not guarantee complete PEP 3333(1) compliance; an absence of errors from this module does not necessarily mean that errors do not exist. However, if this module does produce an error, then it is virtually certain that either the server or application is not 100% compliant. This module is based on the ‘paste.lint’ module from Ian Bicking’s “Python Paste” library. -- Function: wsgiref.validate.validator (application) Wrap 'application' and return a new WSGI application object. The returned application will forward all requests to the original 'application', and will check that both the 'application' and the server invoking it are conforming to the WSGI specification and to RFC 2616(2). Any detected nonconformance results in an *note AssertionError: 6a5. being raised; note, however, that how these errors are handled is server-dependent. For example, *note wsgiref.simple_server: 11b. and other servers based on *note wsgiref.handlers: 119. (that don’t override the error handling methods to do something else) will simply output a message that an error has occurred, and dump the traceback to ‘sys.stderr’ or some other error stream. This wrapper may also generate output using the *note warnings: 112. module to indicate behaviors that are questionable but which may not actually be prohibited by PEP 3333(3). Unless they are suppressed using Python command-line options or the *note warnings: 112. API, any such warnings will be written to ‘sys.stderr’ ('not' ‘wsgi.errors’, unless they happen to be the same object). Example usage: from wsgiref.validate import validator from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server # Our callable object which is intentionally not compliant to the # standard, so the validator is going to break def simple_app(environ, start_response): status = '200 OK' # HTTP Status headers = [('Content-type', 'text/plain')] # HTTP Headers start_response(status, headers) # This is going to break because we need to return a list, and # the validator is going to inform us return b"Hello World" # This is the application wrapped in a validator validator_app = validator(simple_app) with make_server('', 8000, validator_app) as httpd: print("Listening on port 8000....") httpd.serve_forever() ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes, Next: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking, Prev: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.5 ‘wsgiref.handlers’ – server/gateway base classes ......................................................... This module provides base handler classes for implementing WSGI servers and gateways. These base classes handle most of the work of communicating with a WSGI application, as long as they are given a CGI-like environment, along with input, output, and error streams. -- Class: wsgiref.handlers.CGIHandler CGI-based invocation via ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, ‘sys.stderr’ and ‘os.environ’. This is useful when you have a WSGI application and want to run it as a CGI script. Simply invoke ‘CGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke. This class is a subclass of *note BaseCGIHandler: 3976. that sets ‘wsgi.run_once’ to true, ‘wsgi.multithread’ to false, and ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ to true, and always uses *note sys: d9. and *note os: a1. to obtain the necessary CGI streams and environment. -- Class: wsgiref.handlers.IISCGIHandler A specialized alternative to *note CGIHandler: 3975, for use when deploying on Microsoft’s IIS web server, without having set the config allowPathInfo option (IIS>=7) or metabase allowPathInfoForScriptMappings (IIS<7). By default, IIS gives a ‘PATH_INFO’ that duplicates the ‘SCRIPT_NAME’ at the front, causing problems for WSGI applications that wish to implement routing. This handler strips any such duplicated path. IIS can be configured to pass the correct ‘PATH_INFO’, but this causes another bug where ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ is wrong. Luckily this variable is rarely used and is not guaranteed by WSGI. On IIS<7, though, the setting can only be made on a vhost level, affecting all other script mappings, many of which break when exposed to the ‘PATH_TRANSLATED’ bug. For this reason IIS<7 is almost never deployed with the fix (Even IIS7 rarely uses it because there is still no UI for it.). There is no way for CGI code to tell whether the option was set, so a separate handler class is provided. It is used in the same way as *note CGIHandler: 3975, i.e., by calling ‘IISCGIHandler().run(app)’, where ‘app’ is the WSGI application object you wish to invoke. Added in version 3.2. -- Class: wsgiref.handlers.BaseCGIHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr, environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False) Similar to *note CGIHandler: 3975, but instead of using the *note sys: d9. and *note os: a1. modules, the CGI environment and I/O streams are specified explicitly. The 'multithread' and 'multiprocess' values are used to set the ‘wsgi.multithread’ and ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ flags for any applications run by the handler instance. This class is a subclass of *note SimpleHandler: 3978. intended for use with software other than HTTP “origin servers”. If you are writing a gateway protocol implementation (such as CGI, FastCGI, SCGI, etc.) that uses a ‘Status:’ header to send an HTTP status, you probably want to subclass this instead of *note SimpleHandler: 3978. -- Class: wsgiref.handlers.SimpleHandler (stdin, stdout, stderr, environ, multithread=True, multiprocess=False) Similar to *note BaseCGIHandler: 3976, but designed for use with HTTP origin servers. If you are writing an HTTP server implementation, you will probably want to subclass this instead of *note BaseCGIHandler: 3976. This class is a subclass of *note BaseHandler: 19ef. It overrides the ‘__init__()’, *note get_stdin(): 3979, *note get_stderr(): 397a, *note add_cgi_vars(): 397b, *note _write(): 397c, and *note _flush(): 397d. methods to support explicitly setting the environment and streams via the constructor. The supplied environment and streams are stored in the ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’, ‘stderr’, and ‘environ’ attributes. The *note write(): cdb. method of 'stdout' should write each chunk in full, like *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. -- Class: wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler This is an abstract base class for running WSGI applications. Each instance will handle a single HTTP request, although in principle you could create a subclass that was reusable for multiple requests. *note BaseHandler: 19ef. instances have only one method intended for external use: -- Method: run (app) Run the specified WSGI application, 'app'. All of the other *note BaseHandler: 19ef. methods are invoked by this method in the process of running the application, and thus exist primarily to allow customizing the process. The following methods MUST be overridden in a subclass: -- Method: _write (data) Buffer the bytes 'data' for transmission to the client. It’s okay if this method actually transmits the data; *note BaseHandler: 19ef. just separates write and flush operations for greater efficiency when the underlying system actually has such a distinction. -- Method: _flush () Force buffered data to be transmitted to the client. It’s okay if this method is a no-op (i.e., if *note _write(): 397c. actually sends the data). -- Method: get_stdin () Return an object compatible with *note InputStream: 397f. suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.input’ of the request currently being processed. -- Method: get_stderr () Return an object compatible with *note ErrorStream: 3980. suitable for use as the ‘wsgi.errors’ of the request currently being processed. -- Method: add_cgi_vars () Insert CGI variables for the current request into the ‘environ’ attribute. Here are some other methods and attributes you may wish to override. This list is only a summary, however, and does not include every method that can be overridden. You should consult the docstrings and source code for additional information before attempting to create a customized *note BaseHandler: 19ef. subclass. Attributes and methods for customizing the WSGI environment: -- Attribute: wsgi_multithread The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multithread’ environment variable. It defaults to true in *note BaseHandler: 19ef, but may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses. -- Attribute: wsgi_multiprocess The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.multiprocess’ environment variable. It defaults to true in *note BaseHandler: 19ef, but may have a different default (or be set by the constructor) in the other subclasses. -- Attribute: wsgi_run_once The value to be used for the ‘wsgi.run_once’ environment variable. It defaults to false in *note BaseHandler: 19ef, but *note CGIHandler: 3975. sets it to true by default. -- Attribute: os_environ The default environment variables to be included in every request’s WSGI environment. By default, this is a copy of ‘os.environ’ at the time that *note wsgiref.handlers: 119. was imported, but subclasses can either create their own at the class or instance level. Note that the dictionary should be considered read-only, since the default value is shared between multiple classes and instances. -- Attribute: server_software If the *note origin_server: 3986. attribute is set, this attribute’s value is used to set the default ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ WSGI environment variable, and also to set a default ‘Server:’ header in HTTP responses. It is ignored for handlers (such as *note BaseCGIHandler: 3976. and *note CGIHandler: 3975.) that are not HTTP origin servers. Changed in version 3.3: The term “Python” is replaced with implementation specific term like “CPython”, “Jython” etc. -- Method: get_scheme () Return the URL scheme being used for the current request. The default implementation uses the ‘guess_scheme()’ function from *note wsgiref.util: 11d. to guess whether the scheme should be “http” or “https”, based on the current request’s ‘environ’ variables. -- Method: setup_environ () Set the ‘environ’ attribute to a fully populated WSGI environment. The default implementation uses all of the above methods and attributes, plus the *note get_stdin(): 3979, *note get_stderr(): 397a, and *note add_cgi_vars(): 397b. methods and the *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 3989. attribute. It also inserts a ‘SERVER_SOFTWARE’ key if not present, as long as the *note origin_server: 3986. attribute is a true value and the *note server_software: 3985. attribute is set. Methods and attributes for customizing exception handling: -- Method: log_exception (exc_info) Log the 'exc_info' tuple in the server log. 'exc_info' is a ‘(type, value, traceback)’ tuple. The default implementation simply writes the traceback to the request’s ‘wsgi.errors’ stream and flushes it. Subclasses can override this method to change the format or retarget the output, mail the traceback to an administrator, or whatever other action may be deemed suitable. -- Attribute: traceback_limit The maximum number of frames to include in tracebacks output by the default *note log_exception(): 398a. method. If ‘None’, all frames are included. -- Method: error_output (environ, start_response) This method is a WSGI application to generate an error page for the user. It is only invoked if an error occurs before headers are sent to the client. This method can access the current error using ‘sys.exception()’, and should pass that information to 'start_response' when calling it (as described in the “Error Handling” section of PEP 3333(1)). In particular, the 'start_response' callable should follow the *note StartResponse: 3969. protocol. The default implementation just uses the *note error_status: 398d, *note error_headers: 398e, and *note error_body: 398f. attributes to generate an output page. Subclasses can override this to produce more dynamic error output. Note, however, that it’s not recommended from a security perspective to spit out diagnostics to any old user; ideally, you should have to do something special to enable diagnostic output, which is why the default implementation doesn’t include any. -- Attribute: error_status The HTTP status used for error responses. This should be a status string as defined in PEP 3333(2); it defaults to a 500 code and message. -- Attribute: error_headers The HTTP headers used for error responses. This should be a list of WSGI response headers (‘(name, value)’ tuples), as described in PEP 3333(3). The default list just sets the content type to ‘text/plain’. -- Attribute: error_body The error response body. This should be an HTTP response body bytestring. It defaults to the plain text, “A server error occurred. Please contact the administrator.” Methods and attributes for PEP 3333(4)’s “Optional Platform-Specific File Handling” feature: -- Attribute: wsgi_file_wrapper A ‘wsgi.file_wrapper’ factory, compatible with *note wsgiref.types.FileWrapper: 3963, or ‘None’. The default value of this attribute is the *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 731. class. -- Method: sendfile () Override to implement platform-specific file transmission. This method is called only if the application’s return value is an instance of the class specified by the *note wsgi_file_wrapper: 3989. attribute. It should return a true value if it was able to successfully transmit the file, so that the default transmission code will not be executed. The default implementation of this method just returns a false value. Miscellaneous methods and attributes: -- Attribute: origin_server This attribute should be set to a true value if the handler’s *note _write(): 397c. and *note _flush(): 397d. are being used to communicate directly to the client, rather than via a CGI-like gateway protocol that wants the HTTP status in a special ‘Status:’ header. This attribute’s default value is true in *note BaseHandler: 19ef, but false in *note BaseCGIHandler: 3976. and *note CGIHandler: 3975. -- Attribute: http_version If *note origin_server: 3986. is true, this string attribute is used to set the HTTP version of the response set to the client. It defaults to ‘"1.0"’. -- Function: wsgiref.handlers.read_environ () Transcode CGI variables from ‘os.environ’ to PEP 3333(5) “bytes in unicode” strings, returning a new dictionary. This function is used by *note CGIHandler: 3975. and *note IISCGIHandler: 3977. in place of directly using ‘os.environ’, which is not necessarily WSGI-compliant on all platforms and web servers using Python 3 – specifically, ones where the OS’s actual environment is Unicode (i.e. Windows), or ones where the environment is bytes, but the system encoding used by Python to decode it is anything other than ISO-8859-1 (e.g. Unix systems using UTF-8). If you are implementing a CGI-based handler of your own, you probably want to use this routine instead of just copying values out of ‘os.environ’ directly. Added in version 3.2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/  File: python.info, Node: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking, Next: Examples<25>, Prev: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.6 ‘wsgiref.types’ – WSGI types for static type checking .............................................................. This module provides various types for static type checking as described in PEP 3333(1). Added in version 3.11. -- Class: wsgiref.types.StartResponse A *note typing.Protocol: 266. describing start_response()(2) callables ( PEP 3333(3)). -- Data: wsgiref.types.WSGIEnvironment A type alias describing a WSGI environment dictionary. -- Data: wsgiref.types.WSGIApplication A type alias describing a WSGI application callable. -- Class: wsgiref.types.InputStream A *note typing.Protocol: 266. describing a WSGI Input Stream(4). -- Class: wsgiref.types.ErrorStream A *note typing.Protocol: 266. describing a WSGI Error Stream(5). -- Class: wsgiref.types.FileWrapper A *note typing.Protocol: 266. describing a file wrapper(6). See *note wsgiref.util.FileWrapper: 731. for a concrete implementation of this protocol. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#the-start-response-callable (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#input-and-error-streams (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3333/#optional-platform-specific-file-handling  File: python.info, Node: Examples<25>, Prev: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking, Up: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation 5.22.2.7 Examples ................. This is a working “Hello World” WSGI application, where the 'start_response' callable should follow the *note StartResponse: 3969. protocol: """ Every WSGI application must have an application object - a callable object that accepts two arguments. For that purpose, we're going to use a function (note that you're not limited to a function, you can use a class for example). The first argument passed to the function is a dictionary containing CGI-style environment variables and the second variable is the callable object. """ from wsgiref.simple_server import make_server def hello_world_app(environ, start_response): status = "200 OK" # HTTP Status headers = [("Content-type", "text/plain; charset=utf-8")] # HTTP Headers start_response(status, headers) # The returned object is going to be printed return [b"Hello World"] with make_server("", 8000, hello_world_app) as httpd: print("Serving on port 8000...") # Serve until process is killed httpd.serve_forever() Example of a WSGI application serving the current directory, accept optional directory and port number (default: 8000) on the command line: """ Small wsgiref based web server. Takes a path to serve from and an optional port number (defaults to 8000), then tries to serve files. MIME types are guessed from the file names, 404 errors are raised if the file is not found. """ import mimetypes import os import sys from wsgiref import simple_server, util def app(environ, respond): # Get the file name and MIME type fn = os.path.join(path, environ["PATH_INFO"][1:]) if "." not in fn.split(os.path.sep)[-1]: fn = os.path.join(fn, "index.html") mime_type = mimetypes.guess_file_type(fn)[0] # Return 200 OK if file exists, otherwise 404 Not Found if os.path.exists(fn): respond("200 OK", [("Content-Type", mime_type)]) return util.FileWrapper(open(fn, "rb")) else: respond("404 Not Found", [("Content-Type", "text/plain")]) return [b"not found"] if __name__ == "__main__": # Get the path and port from command-line arguments path = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) > 1 else os.getcwd() port = int(sys.argv[2]) if len(sys.argv) > 2 else 8000 # Make and start the server until control-c httpd = simple_server.make_server("", port, app) print(f"Serving {path} on port {port}, control-C to stop") try: httpd.serve_forever() except KeyboardInterrupt: print("Shutting down.") httpd.server_close()  File: python.info, Node: urllib — URL handling modules, Next: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs, Prev: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.3 ‘urllib’ — URL handling modules -------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/urllib/(1) __________________________________________________________________ ‘urllib’ is a package that collects several modules for working with URLs: * *note urllib.request: 10b. for opening and reading URLs * *note urllib.error: 109. containing the exceptions raised by *note urllib.request: 10b. * *note urllib.parse: 10a. for parsing URLs * *note urllib.robotparser: 10d. for parsing ‘robots.txt’ files ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/  File: python.info, Node: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs, Next: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib, Prev: urllib — URL handling modules, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.4 ‘urllib.request’ — Extensible library for opening URLs ------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/urllib/request.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note urllib.request: 10b. module defines functions and classes which help in opening URLs (mostly HTTP) in a complex world — basic and digest authentication, redirections, cookies and more. See also ........ The Requests package(2) is recommended for a higher-level HTTP client interface. Warning: On macOS it is unsafe to use this module in programs using *note os.fork(): 197. because the *note getproxies(): 3999. implementation for macOS uses a higher-level system API. Set the environment variable ‘no_proxy’ to ‘*’ to avoid this problem (e.g. ‘os.environ["no_proxy"] = "*"’). *note Availability: 1d54.: not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. for more information. The *note urllib.request: 10b. module defines the following functions: -- Function: urllib.request.urlopen (url, data=None[, timeout], *, context=None) Open 'url', which can be either a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL, or a *note Request: fd3. object. 'data' must be an object specifying additional data to be sent to the server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed. See *note Request: fd3. for details. urllib.request module uses HTTP/1.1 and includes ‘Connection:close’ header in its HTTP requests. The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). This actually only works for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections. If 'context' is specified, it must be a *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. instance describing the various SSL options. See *note HTTPSConnection: b41. for more details. This function always returns an object which can work as a *note context manager: 5d0. and has the properties 'url', 'headers', and 'status'. See *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 399a. for more detail on these properties. For HTTP and HTTPS URLs, this function returns a *note http.client.HTTPResponse: 10c4. object slightly modified. In addition to the three new methods above, the msg attribute contains the same information as the *note reason: 399b. attribute — the reason phrase returned by server — instead of the response headers as it is specified in the documentation for *note HTTPResponse: 10c4. For FTP, file, and data URLs and requests explicitly handled by legacy *note URLopener: 308. and *note FancyURLopener: 309. classes, this function returns a *note urllib.response.addinfourl: 399a. object. Raises *note URLError: 399c. on protocol errors. Note that ‘None’ may be returned if no handler handles the request (though the default installed global *note OpenerDirector: 399d. uses *note UnknownHandler: 399e. to ensure this never happens). In addition, if proxy settings are detected (for example, when a ‘*_proxy’ environment variable like ‘http_proxy’ is set), *note ProxyHandler: 19cf. is default installed and makes sure the requests are handled through the proxy. The legacy ‘urllib.urlopen’ function from Python 2.6 and earlier has been discontinued; *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 295. corresponds to the old ‘urllib2.urlopen’. Proxy handling, which was done by passing a dictionary parameter to ‘urllib.urlopen’, can be obtained by using *note ProxyHandler: 19cf. objects. The default opener raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘urllib.Request’ with arguments ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’ taken from the request object. Changed in version 3.2: 'cafile' and 'capath' were added. HTTPS virtual hosts are now supported if possible (that is, if *note ssl.HAS_SNI: 3480. is true). 'data' can be an iterable object. Changed in version 3.3: 'cadefault' was added. Changed in version 3.4.3: 'context' was added. Changed in version 3.10: HTTPS connection now send an ALPN extension with protocol indicator ‘http/1.1’ when no 'context' is given. Custom 'context' should set ALPN protocols with *note set_alpn_protocols(): e5f. Changed in version 3.13: Remove 'cafile', 'capath' and 'cadefault' parameters: use the 'context' parameter instead. -- Function: urllib.request.install_opener (opener) Install an *note OpenerDirector: 399d. instance as the default global opener. Installing an opener is only necessary if you want urlopen to use that opener; otherwise, simply call *note OpenerDirector.open(): fd7. instead of *note urlopen(): 295. The code does not check for a real *note OpenerDirector: 399d, and any class with the appropriate interface will work. -- Function: urllib.request.build_opener ([handler, ...]) Return an *note OpenerDirector: 399d. instance, which chains the handlers in the order given. 'handler's can be either instances of *note BaseHandler: 39a1, or subclasses of *note BaseHandler: 39a1. (in which case it must be possible to call the constructor without any parameters). Instances of the following classes will be in front of the 'handler's, unless the 'handler's contain them, instances of them or subclasses of them: *note ProxyHandler: 19cf. (if proxy settings are detected), *note UnknownHandler: 399e, *note HTTPHandler: 39a2, *note HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 39a3, *note HTTPRedirectHandler: 39a4, *note FTPHandler: 39a5, *note FileHandler: 39a6, *note HTTPErrorProcessor: 39a7. If the Python installation has SSL support (i.e., if the *note ssl: d0. module can be imported), *note HTTPSHandler: 1216. will also be added. A *note BaseHandler: 39a1. subclass may also change its ‘handler_order’ attribute to modify its position in the handlers list. -- Function: urllib.request.pathname2url (path) Convert the given local path to a ‘file:’ URL. This function uses *note quote(): ba3. function to encode the path. For historical reasons, the return value omits the ‘file:’ scheme prefix. This example shows the function being used on Windows: >>> from urllib.request import pathname2url >>> path = 'C:\\Program Files' >>> 'file:' + pathname2url(path) 'file:///C:/Program%20Files' -- Function: urllib.request.url2pathname (url) Convert the given ‘file:’ URL to a local path. This function uses *note unquote(): 1785. to decode the URL. For historical reasons, the given value 'must' omit the ‘file:’ scheme prefix. This example shows the function being used on Windows: >>> from urllib.request import url2pathname >>> url = 'file:///C:/Program%20Files' >>> url2pathname(url.removeprefix('file:')) 'C:\\Program Files' -- Function: urllib.request.getproxies () This helper function returns a dictionary of scheme to proxy server URL mappings. It scans the environment for variables named ‘_proxy’, in a case insensitive approach, for all operating systems first, and when it cannot find it, looks for proxy information from System Configuration for macOS and Windows Systems Registry for Windows. If both lowercase and uppercase environment variables exist (and disagree), lowercase is preferred. Note: If the environment variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set, which usually indicates your script is running in a CGI environment, the environment variable ‘HTTP_PROXY’ (uppercase ‘_PROXY’) will be ignored. This is because that variable can be injected by a client using the “Proxy:” HTTP header. If you need to use an HTTP proxy in a CGI environment, either use ‘ProxyHandler’ explicitly, or make sure the variable name is in lowercase (or at least the ‘_proxy’ suffix). The following classes are provided: -- Class: urllib.request.Request (url, data=None, headers={}, origin_req_host=None, unverifiable=False, method=None) This class is an abstraction of a URL request. 'url' should be a string containing a valid, properly encoded URL. 'data' must be an object specifying additional data to send to the server, or ‘None’ if no such data is needed. Currently HTTP requests are the only ones that use 'data'. The supported object types include bytes, file-like objects, and iterables of bytes-like objects. If no ‘Content-Length’ nor ‘Transfer-Encoding’ header field has been provided, *note HTTPHandler: 39a2. will set these headers according to the type of 'data'. ‘Content-Length’ will be used to send bytes objects, while ‘Transfer-Encoding: chunked’ as specified in RFC 7230(3), Section 3.3.1 will be used to send files and other iterables. For an HTTP POST request method, 'data' should be a buffer in the standard ‘application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ format. The *note urllib.parse.urlencode(): e8e. function takes a mapping or sequence of 2-tuples and returns an ASCII string in this format. It should be encoded to bytes before being used as the 'data' parameter. 'headers' should be a dictionary, and will be treated as if *note add_header(): 39a8. was called with each key and value as arguments. This is often used to “spoof” the ‘User-Agent’ header value, which is used by a browser to identify itself – some HTTP servers only allow requests coming from common browsers as opposed to scripts. For example, Mozilla Firefox may identify itself as ‘"Mozilla/5.0 (X11; U; Linux i686) Gecko/20071127 Firefox/2.0.0.11"’, while *note urllib: 108.’s default user agent string is ‘"Python-urllib/2.6"’ (on Python 2.6). All header keys are sent in camel case. An appropriate ‘Content-Type’ header should be included if the 'data' argument is present. If this header has not been provided and 'data' is not ‘None’, ‘Content-Type: application/x-www-form-urlencoded’ will be added as a default. The next two arguments are only of interest for correct handling of third-party HTTP cookies: 'origin_req_host' should be the request-host of the origin transaction, as defined by RFC 2965(4). It defaults to ‘http.cookiejar.request_host(self)’. This is the host name or IP address of the original request that was initiated by the user. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, this should be the request-host of the request for the page containing the image. 'unverifiable' should indicate whether the request is unverifiable, as defined by RFC 2965(5). It defaults to ‘False’. An unverifiable request is one whose URL the user did not have the option to approve. For example, if the request is for an image in an HTML document, and the user had no option to approve the automatic fetching of the image, this should be true. 'method' should be a string that indicates the HTTP request method that will be used (e.g. ‘'HEAD'’). If provided, its value is stored in the *note method: fd4. attribute and is used by *note get_method(): 115d. The default is ‘'GET'’ if 'data' is ‘None’ or ‘'POST'’ otherwise. Subclasses may indicate a different default method by setting the *note method: fd4. attribute in the class itself. Note: The request will not work as expected if the data object is unable to deliver its content more than once (e.g. a file or an iterable that can produce the content only once) and the request is retried for HTTP redirects or authentication. The 'data' is sent to the HTTP server right away after the headers. There is no support for a 100-continue expectation in the library. Changed in version 3.3: *note Request.method: fd4. argument is added to the Request class. Changed in version 3.4: Default *note Request.method: fd4. may be indicated at the class level. Changed in version 3.6: Do not raise an error if the ‘Content-Length’ has not been provided and 'data' is neither ‘None’ nor a bytes object. Fall back to use chunked transfer encoding instead. -- Class: urllib.request.OpenerDirector The *note OpenerDirector: 399d. class opens URLs via *note BaseHandler: 39a1.s chained together. It manages the chaining of handlers, and recovery from errors. -- Class: urllib.request.BaseHandler This is the base class for all registered handlers — and handles only the simple mechanics of registration. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPDefaultErrorHandler A class which defines a default handler for HTTP error responses; all responses are turned into *note HTTPError: fd9. exceptions. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler A class to handle redirections. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor (cookiejar=None) A class to handle HTTP Cookies. -- Class: urllib.request.ProxyHandler (proxies=None) Cause requests to go through a proxy. If 'proxies' is given, it must be a dictionary mapping protocol names to URLs of proxies. The default is to read the list of proxies from the environment variables ‘_proxy’. If no proxy environment variables are set, then in a Windows environment proxy settings are obtained from the registry’s Internet Settings section, and in a macOS environment proxy information is retrieved from the System Configuration Framework. To disable autodetected proxy pass an empty dictionary. The ‘no_proxy’ environment variable can be used to specify hosts which shouldn’t be reached via proxy; if set, it should be a comma-separated list of hostname suffixes, optionally with ‘:port’ appended, for example ‘cern.ch,ncsa.uiuc.edu,some.host:8080’. Note: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note getproxies(): 3999. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm Keep a database of ‘(realm, uri) -> (user, password)’ mappings. A realm of ‘None’ is considered a catch-all realm, which is searched if no other realm fits. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth A variant of *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ab. that also has a database of ‘uri -> is_authenticated’ mappings. Can be used by a BasicAuth handler to determine when to send authentication credentials immediately instead of waiting for a ‘401’ response first. Added in version 3.5. -- Class: urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None) This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. 'password_mgr', if given, should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 39ac. for information on the interface that must be supported. If 'passwd_mgr' also provides ‘is_authenticated’ and ‘update_authenticated’ methods (see *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects: 39ad.), then the handler will use the ‘is_authenticated’ result for a given URI to determine whether or not to send authentication credentials with the request. If ‘is_authenticated’ returns ‘True’ for the URI, credentials are sent. If ‘is_authenticated’ is ‘False’, credentials are not sent, and then if a ‘401’ response is received the request is re-sent with the authentication credentials. If authentication succeeds, ‘update_authenticated’ is called to set ‘is_authenticated’ ‘True’ for the URI, so that subsequent requests to the URI or any of its super-URIs will automatically include the authentication credentials. Added in version 3.5: Added ‘is_authenticated’ support. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None) Handle authentication with the remote host. 'password_mgr', if given, should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 39ac. for information on the interface that must be supported. HTTPBasicAuthHandler will raise a *note ValueError: 204. when presented with a wrong Authentication scheme. -- Class: urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler (password_mgr=None) Handle authentication with the proxy. 'password_mgr', if given, should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 39ac. for information on the interface that must be supported. -- Class: urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None) This is a mixin class that helps with HTTP authentication, both to the remote host and to a proxy. 'password_mgr', if given, should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 39ac. for information on the interface that must be supported. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None) Handle authentication with the remote host. 'password_mgr', if given, should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 39ac. for information on the interface that must be supported. When both Digest Authentication Handler and Basic Authentication Handler are both added, Digest Authentication is always tried first. If the Digest Authentication returns a 40x response again, it is sent to Basic Authentication handler to Handle. This Handler method will raise a *note ValueError: 204. when presented with an authentication scheme other than Digest or Basic. Changed in version 3.3: Raise *note ValueError: 204. on unsupported Authentication Scheme. -- Class: urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler (password_mgr=None) Handle authentication with the proxy. 'password_mgr', if given, should be something that is compatible with *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa.; refer to section *note HTTPPasswordMgr Objects: 39ac. for information on the interface that must be supported. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPHandler A class to handle opening of HTTP URLs. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPSHandler (debuglevel=0, context=None, check_hostname=None) A class to handle opening of HTTPS URLs. 'context' and 'check_hostname' have the same meaning as in *note http.client.HTTPSConnection: b41. Changed in version 3.2: 'context' and 'check_hostname' were added. -- Class: urllib.request.FileHandler Open local files. -- Class: urllib.request.DataHandler Open data URLs. Added in version 3.4. -- Class: urllib.request.FTPHandler Open FTP URLs. -- Class: urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler Open FTP URLs, keeping a cache of open FTP connections to minimize delays. -- Class: urllib.request.UnknownHandler A catch-all class to handle unknown URLs. -- Class: urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor Process HTTP error responses. * Menu: * Request Objects:: * OpenerDirector Objects:: * BaseHandler Objects:: * HTTPRedirectHandler Objects:: * HTTPCookieProcessor Objects:: * ProxyHandler Objects:: * HTTPPasswordMgr Objects:: * HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects:: * AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects:: * HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects:: * ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects:: * AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects:: * HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects:: * ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects:: * HTTPHandler Objects:: * HTTPSHandler Objects:: * FileHandler Objects:: * DataHandler Objects:: * FTPHandler Objects:: * CacheFTPHandler Objects:: * UnknownHandler Objects:: * HTTPErrorProcessor Objects:: * Examples: Examples<26>. * Legacy interface:: * urllib.request Restrictions: urllib request Restrictions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/urllib/request.py (2) https://requests.readthedocs.io/en/master/ (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7230.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html  File: python.info, Node: Request Objects, Next: OpenerDirector Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.1 Request Objects ........................ The following methods describe *note Request: fd3.’s public interface, and so all may be overridden in subclasses. It also defines several public attributes that can be used by clients to inspect the parsed request. -- Attribute: Request.full_url The original URL passed to the constructor. Changed in version 3.4. Request.full_url is a property with setter, getter and a deleter. Getting *note full_url: fd5. returns the original request URL with the fragment, if it was present. -- Attribute: Request.type The URI scheme. -- Attribute: Request.host The URI authority, typically a host, but may also contain a port separated by a colon. -- Attribute: Request.origin_req_host The original host for the request, without port. -- Attribute: Request.selector The URI path. If the *note Request: fd3. uses a proxy, then selector will be the full URL that is passed to the proxy. -- Attribute: Request.data The entity body for the request, or ‘None’ if not specified. Changed in version 3.4: Changing value of *note Request.data: fd6. now deletes “Content-Length” header if it was previously set or calculated. -- Attribute: Request.unverifiable boolean, indicates whether the request is unverifiable as defined by RFC 2965(1). -- Attribute: Request.method The HTTP request method to use. By default its value is *note None: 671, which means that *note get_method(): 115d. will do its normal computation of the method to be used. Its value can be set (thus overriding the default computation in *note get_method(): 115d.) either by providing a default value by setting it at the class level in a *note Request: fd3. subclass, or by passing a value in to the *note Request: fd3. constructor via the 'method' argument. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: A default value can now be set in subclasses; previously it could only be set via the constructor argument. -- Method: Request.get_method () Return a string indicating the HTTP request method. If *note Request.method: fd4. is not ‘None’, return its value, otherwise return ‘'GET'’ if *note Request.data: fd6. is ‘None’, or ‘'POST'’ if it’s not. This is only meaningful for HTTP requests. Changed in version 3.3: get_method now looks at the value of *note Request.method: fd4. -- Method: Request.add_header (key, val) Add another header to the request. Headers are currently ignored by all handlers except HTTP handlers, where they are added to the list of headers sent to the server. Note that there cannot be more than one header with the same name, and later calls will overwrite previous calls in case the 'key' collides. Currently, this is no loss of HTTP functionality, since all headers which have meaning when used more than once have a (header-specific) way of gaining the same functionality using only one header. Note that headers added using this method are also added to redirected requests. -- Method: Request.add_unredirected_header (key, header) Add a header that will not be added to a redirected request. -- Method: Request.has_header (header) Return whether the instance has the named header (checks both regular and unredirected). -- Method: Request.remove_header (header) Remove named header from the request instance (both from regular and unredirected headers). Added in version 3.4. -- Method: Request.get_full_url () Return the URL given in the constructor. Changed in version 3.4. Returns *note Request.full_url: fd5. -- Method: Request.set_proxy (host, type) Prepare the request by connecting to a proxy server. The 'host' and 'type' will replace those of the instance, and the instance’s selector will be the original URL given in the constructor. -- Method: Request.get_header (header_name, default=None) Return the value of the given header. If the header is not present, return the default value. -- Method: Request.header_items () Return a list of tuples (header_name, header_value) of the Request headers. Changed in version 3.4: The request methods add_data, has_data, get_data, get_type, get_host, get_selector, get_origin_req_host and is_unverifiable that were deprecated since 3.3 have been removed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html  File: python.info, Node: OpenerDirector Objects, Next: BaseHandler Objects, Prev: Request Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.2 OpenerDirector Objects ............................... *note OpenerDirector: 399d. instances have the following methods: -- Method: OpenerDirector.add_handler (handler) 'handler' should be an instance of *note BaseHandler: 39a1. The following methods are searched, and added to the possible chains (note that HTTP errors are a special case). Note that, in the following, 'protocol' should be replaced with the actual protocol to handle, for example ‘http_response()’ would be the HTTP protocol response handler. Also 'type' should be replaced with the actual HTTP code, for example ‘http_error_404()’ would handle HTTP 404 errors. * ‘_open()’ — signal that the handler knows how to open 'protocol' URLs. See *note BaseHandler._open(): 39c2. for more information. * ‘http_error_()’ — signal that the handler knows how to handle HTTP errors with HTTP error code 'type'. See *note BaseHandler.http_error_(): 39c3. for more information. * ‘_error()’ — signal that the handler knows how to handle errors from (non-‘http’) 'protocol'. * ‘_request()’ — signal that the handler knows how to pre-process 'protocol' requests. See *note BaseHandler._request(): 39c4. for more information. * ‘_response()’ — signal that the handler knows how to post-process 'protocol' responses. See *note BaseHandler._response(): 39c5. for more information. -- Method: OpenerDirector.open (url, data=None[, timeout]) Open the given 'url' (which can be a request object or a string), optionally passing the given 'data'. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of *note urlopen(): 295. (which simply calls the *note open(): 517. method on the currently installed global *note OpenerDirector: 399d.). The optional 'timeout' parameter specifies a timeout in seconds for blocking operations like the connection attempt (if not specified, the global default timeout setting will be used). The timeout feature actually works only for HTTP, HTTPS and FTP connections. -- Method: OpenerDirector.error (proto, *args) Handle an error of the given protocol. This will call the registered error handlers for the given protocol with the given arguments (which are protocol specific). The HTTP protocol is a special case which uses the HTTP response code to determine the specific error handler; refer to the ‘http_error_()’ methods of the handler classes. Return values and exceptions raised are the same as those of *note urlopen(): 295. OpenerDirector objects open URLs in three stages: The order in which these methods are called within each stage is determined by sorting the handler instances. 1. Every handler with a method named like ‘_request()’ has that method called to pre-process the request. 2. Handlers with a method named like ‘_open()’ are called to handle the request. This stage ends when a handler either returns a non-*note None: 671. value (ie. a response), or raises an exception (usually *note URLError: 399c.). Exceptions are allowed to propagate. In fact, the above algorithm is first tried for methods named *note default_open(): 39c7. If all such methods return *note None: 671, the algorithm is repeated for methods named like ‘_open()’. If all such methods return *note None: 671, the algorithm is repeated for methods named *note unknown_open(): 39c8. Note that the implementation of these methods may involve calls of the parent *note OpenerDirector: 399d. instance’s *note open(): fd7. and *note error(): 39c6. methods. 3. Every handler with a method named like ‘_response()’ has that method called to post-process the response.  File: python.info, Node: BaseHandler Objects, Next: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects, Prev: OpenerDirector Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.3 BaseHandler Objects ............................ *note BaseHandler: 39a1. objects provide a couple of methods that are directly useful, and others that are meant to be used by derived classes. These are intended for direct use: -- Method: BaseHandler.add_parent (director) Add a director as parent. -- Method: BaseHandler.close () Remove any parents. The following attribute and methods should only be used by classes derived from *note BaseHandler: 39a1. Note: The convention has been adopted that subclasses defining ‘_request()’ or ‘_response()’ methods are named ‘*Processor’; all others are named ‘*Handler’. -- Attribute: BaseHandler.parent A valid *note OpenerDirector: 399d, which can be used to open using a different protocol, or handle errors. -- Method: BaseHandler.default_open (req) This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs. This method, if implemented, will be called by the parent *note OpenerDirector: 399d. It should return a file-like object as described in the return value of the *note open(): fd7. method of *note OpenerDirector: 399d, or ‘None’. It should raise *note URLError: 399c, unless a truly exceptional thing happens (for example, *note MemoryError: 1576. should not be mapped to *note URLError: 399c.). This method will be called before any protocol-specific open method. -- Method: BaseHandler._open(req) This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but subclasses should define it if they want to handle URLs with the given protocol. This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note OpenerDirector: 399d. Return values should be the same as for *note default_open(): 39c7. -- Method: BaseHandler.unknown_open (req) This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but subclasses should define it if they want to catch all URLs with no specific registered handler to open it. This method, if implemented, will be called by the *note parent: 39cd. *note OpenerDirector: 399d. Return values should be the same as for *note default_open(): 39c7. -- Method: BaseHandler.http_error_default (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but subclasses should override it if they intend to provide a catch-all for otherwise unhandled HTTP errors. It will be called automatically by the *note OpenerDirector: 399d. getting the error, and should not normally be called in other circumstances. *note OpenerDirector: 399d. will call this method with five positional arguments: 1. a *note Request: fd3. object, 2. a file-like object with the HTTP error body, 3. the three-digit code of the error, as a string, 4. the user-visible explanation of the code, as a string, and 5. the headers of the error, as a mapping object. Return values and exceptions raised should be the same as those of *note urlopen(): 295. -- Method: BaseHandler.http_error_(req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) 'nnn' should be a three-digit HTTP error code. This method is also not defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but will be called, if it exists, on an instance of a subclass, when an HTTP error with code 'nnn' occurs. Subclasses should override this method to handle specific HTTP errors. Arguments, return values and exceptions raised should be the same as for *note http_error_default(): 39ce. -- Method: BaseHandler._request(req) This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but subclasses should define it if they want to pre-process requests of the given protocol. This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note OpenerDirector: 399d. 'req' will be a *note Request: fd3. object. The return value should be a *note Request: fd3. object. -- Method: BaseHandler._response(req, response) This method is 'not' defined in *note BaseHandler: 39a1, but subclasses should define it if they want to post-process responses of the given protocol. This method, if defined, will be called by the parent *note OpenerDirector: 399d. 'req' will be a *note Request: fd3. object. 'response' will be an object implementing the same interface as the return value of *note urlopen(): 295. The return value should implement the same interface as the return value of *note urlopen(): 295.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects, Next: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects, Prev: BaseHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.4 HTTPRedirectHandler Objects .................................... Note: Some HTTP redirections require action from this module’s client code. If this is the case, *note HTTPError: fd9. is raised. See RFC 2616(1) for details of the precise meanings of the various redirection codes. An *note HTTPError: fd9. exception raised as a security consideration if the HTTPRedirectHandler is presented with a redirected URL which is not an HTTP, HTTPS or FTP URL. -- Method: HTTPRedirectHandler.redirect_request (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs, newurl) Return a *note Request: fd3. or ‘None’ in response to a redirect. This is called by the default implementations of the ‘http_error_30*()’ methods when a redirection is received from the server. If a redirection should take place, return a new *note Request: fd3. to allow ‘http_error_30*()’ to perform the redirect to 'newurl'. Otherwise, raise *note HTTPError: fd9. if no other handler should try to handle this URL, or return ‘None’ if you can’t but another handler might. Note: The default implementation of this method does not strictly follow RFC 2616(2), which says that 301 and 302 responses to ‘POST’ requests must not be automatically redirected without confirmation by the user. In reality, browsers do allow automatic redirection of these responses, changing the POST to a ‘GET’, and the default implementation reproduces this behavior. -- Method: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_301 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) Redirect to the ‘Location:’ or ‘URI:’ URL. This method is called by the parent *note OpenerDirector: 399d. when getting an HTTP ‘moved permanently’ response. -- Method: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_302 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) The same as *note http_error_301(): 39d2, but called for the ‘found’ response. -- Method: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_303 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) The same as *note http_error_301(): 39d2, but called for the ‘see other’ response. -- Method: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_307 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) The same as *note http_error_301(): 39d2, but called for the ‘temporary redirect’ response. It does not allow changing the request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’. -- Method: HTTPRedirectHandler.http_error_308 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) The same as *note http_error_301(): 39d2, but called for the ‘permanent redirect’ response. It does not allow changing the request method from ‘POST’ to ‘GET’. Added in version 3.11. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html  File: python.info, Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects, Next: ProxyHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.5 HTTPCookieProcessor Objects .................................... *note HTTPCookieProcessor: 39a9. instances have one attribute: -- Attribute: HTTPCookieProcessor.cookiejar The *note http.cookiejar.CookieJar: 39da. in which cookies are stored.  File: python.info, Node: ProxyHandler Objects, Next: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects, Prev: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.6 ProxyHandler Objects ............................. -- Method: ProxyHandler._open(request) The *note ProxyHandler: 19cf. will have a method ‘_open()’ for every 'protocol' which has a proxy in the 'proxies' dictionary given in the constructor. The method will modify requests to go through the proxy, by calling ‘request.set_proxy()’, and call the next handler in the chain to actually execute the protocol.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects, Next: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects, Prev: ProxyHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.7 HTTPPasswordMgr Objects ................................ These methods are available on *note HTTPPasswordMgr: 39aa. and *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ab. objects. -- Method: HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd) 'uri' can be either a single URI, or a sequence of URIs. 'realm', 'user' and 'passwd' must be strings. This causes ‘(user, passwd)’ to be used as authentication tokens when authentication for 'realm' and a super-URI of any of the given URIs is given. -- Method: HTTPPasswordMgr.find_user_password (realm, authuri) Get user/password for given realm and URI, if any. This method will return ‘(None, None)’ if there is no matching user/password. For *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ab. objects, the realm ‘None’ will be searched if the given 'realm' has no matching user/password.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects, Next: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.8 HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects ............................................. This password manager extends *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ab. to support tracking URIs for which authentication credentials should always be sent. -- Method: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.add_password (realm, uri, user, passwd, is_authenticated=False) 'realm', 'uri', 'user', 'passwd' are as for *note HTTPPasswordMgr.add_password(): 39de. 'is_authenticated' sets the initial value of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given URI or list of URIs. If 'is_authenticated' is specified as ‘True’, 'realm' is ignored. -- Method: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.find_user_password (realm, authuri) Same as for *note HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm: 39ab. objects -- Method: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.update_authenticated (self, uri, is_authenticated=False) Update the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given 'uri' or list of URIs. -- Method: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth.is_authenticated (self, authuri) Returns the current state of the ‘is_authenticated’ flag for the given URI.  File: python.info, Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects, Next: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.9 AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects ......................................... -- Method: AbstractBasicAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq, host, req, headers) Handle an authentication request by getting a user/password pair, and re-trying the request. 'authreq' should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, 'host' specifies the URL and path to authenticate for, 'req' should be the (failed) *note Request: fd3. object, and 'headers' should be the error headers. 'host' is either an authority (e.g. ‘"python.org"’) or a URL containing an authority component (e.g. ‘"http://python.org/"’). In either case, the authority must not contain a userinfo component (so, ‘"python.org"’ and ‘"python.org:80"’ are fine, ‘"joe:password@python.org"’ is not).  File: python.info, Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects, Next: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects, Prev: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.10 HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects ...................................... -- Method: HTTPBasicAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) Retry the request with authentication information, if available.  File: python.info, Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects, Next: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.11 ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects ....................................... -- Method: ProxyBasicAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) Retry the request with authentication information, if available.  File: python.info, Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects, Next: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects, Prev: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.12 AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects ........................................... -- Method: AbstractDigestAuthHandler.http_error_auth_reqed (authreq, host, req, headers) 'authreq' should be the name of the header where the information about the realm is included in the request, 'host' should be the host to authenticate to, 'req' should be the (failed) *note Request: fd3. object, and 'headers' should be the error headers.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects, Next: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects, Prev: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.13 HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects ....................................... -- Method: HTTPDigestAuthHandler.http_error_401 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) Retry the request with authentication information, if available.  File: python.info, Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects, Next: HTTPHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.14 ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects ........................................ -- Method: ProxyDigestAuthHandler.http_error_407 (req, fp, code, msg, hdrs) Retry the request with authentication information, if available.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPHandler Objects, Next: HTTPSHandler Objects, Prev: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.15 HTTPHandler Objects ............................. -- Method: HTTPHandler.http_open (req) Send an HTTP request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on ‘req.data’.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPSHandler Objects, Next: FileHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.16 HTTPSHandler Objects .............................. -- Method: HTTPSHandler.https_open (req) Send an HTTPS request, which can be either GET or POST, depending on ‘req.data’.  File: python.info, Node: FileHandler Objects, Next: DataHandler Objects, Prev: HTTPSHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.17 FileHandler Objects ............................. -- Method: FileHandler.file_open (req) Open the file locally, if there is no host name, or the host name is ‘'localhost'’. Changed in version 3.2: This method is applicable only for local hostnames. When a remote hostname is given, a *note URLError: 399c. is raised.  File: python.info, Node: DataHandler Objects, Next: FTPHandler Objects, Prev: FileHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.18 DataHandler Objects ............................. -- Method: DataHandler.data_open (req) Read a data URL. This kind of URL contains the content encoded in the URL itself. The data URL syntax is specified in RFC 2397(1). This implementation ignores white spaces in base64 encoded data URLs so the URL may be wrapped in whatever source file it comes from. But even though some browsers don’t mind about a missing padding at the end of a base64 encoded data URL, this implementation will raise a *note ValueError: 204. in that case. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2397.html  File: python.info, Node: FTPHandler Objects, Next: CacheFTPHandler Objects, Prev: DataHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.19 FTPHandler Objects ............................ -- Method: FTPHandler.ftp_open (req) Open the FTP file indicated by 'req'. The login is always done with empty username and password.  File: python.info, Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects, Next: UnknownHandler Objects, Prev: FTPHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.20 CacheFTPHandler Objects ................................. *note CacheFTPHandler: 1728. objects are *note FTPHandler: 39a5. objects with the following additional methods: -- Method: CacheFTPHandler.setTimeout (t) Set timeout of connections to 't' seconds. -- Method: CacheFTPHandler.setMaxConns (m) Set maximum number of cached connections to 'm'.  File: python.info, Node: UnknownHandler Objects, Next: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects, Prev: CacheFTPHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.21 UnknownHandler Objects ................................ -- Method: UnknownHandler.unknown_open () Raise a *note URLError: 399c. exception.  File: python.info, Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects, Next: Examples<26>, Prev: UnknownHandler Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.22 HTTPErrorProcessor Objects .................................... -- Method: HTTPErrorProcessor.http_response (request, response) Process HTTP error responses. For 200 error codes, the response object is returned immediately. For non-200 error codes, this simply passes the job on to the ‘http_error_()’ handler methods, via *note OpenerDirector.error(): 39c6. Eventually, *note HTTPDefaultErrorHandler: 39a3. will raise an *note HTTPError: fd9. if no other handler handles the error. -- Method: HTTPErrorProcessor.https_response (request, response) Process HTTPS error responses. The behavior is same as *note http_response(): 3a0d.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<26>, Next: Legacy interface, Prev: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects, Up: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs 5.22.4.23 Examples .................. In addition to the examples below, more examples are given in *note HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package: 3a11. This example gets the python.org main page and displays the first 300 bytes of it: >>> import urllib.request >>> with urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') as f: ... print(f.read(300)) ... b'\n\n\n >> import urllib.request >>> f = urllib.request.urlopen('http://www.python.org/') >>> try: ... print(f.read(100).decode('utf-8')) ... finally: ... f.close() ... | UnixStreamServer | +-----------+ +------------------+ | v +-----------+ +--------------------+ | UDPServer |------->| UnixDatagramServer | +-----------+ +--------------------+ Note that *note UnixDatagramServer: 3b3b. derives from *note UDPServer: 3b39, not from *note UnixStreamServer: 3b3a. — the only difference between an IP and a Unix server is the address family. -- Class: socketserver.ForkingMixIn -- Class: socketserver.ThreadingMixIn Forking and threading versions of each type of server can be created using these mix-in classes. For instance, *note ThreadingUDPServer: 3b40. is created as follows: class ThreadingUDPServer(ThreadingMixIn, UDPServer): pass The mix-in class comes first, since it overrides a method defined in *note UDPServer: 3b39. Setting the various attributes also changes the behavior of the underlying server mechanism. *note ForkingMixIn: b77. and the Forking classes mentioned below are only available on POSIX platforms that support *note fork(): 197. -- Attribute: block_on_close *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3b3e. waits until all child processes complete, except if *note block_on_close: bfd. attribute is ‘False’. *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3b3e. waits until all non-daemon threads complete, except if *note block_on_close: bfd. attribute is ‘False’. -- Attribute: daemon_threads For *note ThreadingMixIn: b78. use daemonic threads by setting *note ThreadingMixIn.daemon_threads: 3b41. to ‘True’ to not wait until threads complete. Changed in version 3.7: *note ForkingMixIn.server_close: 3b3e. and *note ThreadingMixIn.server_close: 3b3e. now waits until all child processes and non-daemonic threads complete. Add a new *note ForkingMixIn.block_on_close: bfd. class attribute to opt-in for the pre-3.7 behaviour. -- Class: socketserver.ForkingTCPServer -- Class: socketserver.ForkingUDPServer -- Class: socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer -- Class: socketserver.ThreadingUDPServer -- Class: socketserver.ForkingUnixStreamServer -- Class: socketserver.ForkingUnixDatagramServer -- Class: socketserver.ThreadingUnixStreamServer -- Class: socketserver.ThreadingUnixDatagramServer These classes are pre-defined using the mix-in classes. Added in version 3.12: The ‘ForkingUnixStreamServer’ and ‘ForkingUnixDatagramServer’ classes were added. To implement a service, you must derive a class from *note BaseRequestHandler: 3b3c. and redefine its *note handle(): 3b3d. method. You can then run various versions of the service by combining one of the server classes with your request handler class. The request handler class must be different for datagram or stream services. This can be hidden by using the handler subclasses *note StreamRequestHandler: cda. or *note DatagramRequestHandler: 3b49. Of course, you still have to use your head! For instance, it makes no sense to use a forking server if the service contains state in memory that can be modified by different requests, since the modifications in the child process would never reach the initial state kept in the parent process and passed to each child. In this case, you can use a threading server, but you will probably have to use locks to protect the integrity of the shared data. On the other hand, if you are building an HTTP server where all data is stored externally (for instance, in the file system), a synchronous class will essentially render the service “deaf” while one request is being handled – which may be for a very long time if a client is slow to receive all the data it has requested. Here a threading or forking server is appropriate. In some cases, it may be appropriate to process part of a request synchronously, but to finish processing in a forked child depending on the request data. This can be implemented by using a synchronous server and doing an explicit fork in the request handler class *note handle(): 3b3d. method. Another approach to handling multiple simultaneous requests in an environment that supports neither threads nor *note fork(): 197. (or where these are too expensive or inappropriate for the service) is to maintain an explicit table of partially finished requests and to use *note selectors: c2. to decide which request to work on next (or whether to handle a new incoming request). This is particularly important for stream services where each client can potentially be connected for a long time (if threads or subprocesses cannot be used).  File: python.info, Node: Server Objects<2>, Next: Request Handler Objects, Prev: Server Creation Notes, Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers 5.22.16.2 Server Objects ........................ -- Class: socketserver.BaseServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass) This is the superclass of all Server objects in the module. It defines the interface, given below, but does not implement most of the methods, which is done in subclasses. The two parameters are stored in the respective *note server_address: 3b4b. and *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b4c. attributes. -- Method: fileno () Return an integer file descriptor for the socket on which the server is listening. This function is most commonly passed to *note selectors: c2, to allow monitoring multiple servers in the same process. -- Method: handle_request () Process a single request. This function calls the following methods in order: *note get_request(): 3b4e, *note verify_request(): 3b4f, and *note process_request(): 3b50. If the user-provided *note handle(): 3b3d. method of the handler class raises an exception, the server’s *note handle_error(): d41. method will be called. If no request is received within *note timeout: 1313. seconds, *note handle_timeout(): 1314. will be called and *note handle_request(): 1315. will return. -- Method: serve_forever (poll_interval=0.5) Handle requests until an explicit *note shutdown(): 1a34. request. Poll for shutdown every 'poll_interval' seconds. Ignores the *note timeout: 1313. attribute. It also calls *note service_actions(): 1132, which may be used by a subclass or mixin to provide actions specific to a given service. For example, the *note ForkingMixIn: b77. class uses *note service_actions(): 1132. to clean up zombie child processes. Changed in version 3.3: Added ‘service_actions’ call to the ‘serve_forever’ method. -- Method: service_actions () This is called in the *note serve_forever(): 1133. loop. This method can be overridden by subclasses or mixin classes to perform actions specific to a given service, such as cleanup actions. Added in version 3.3. -- Method: shutdown () Tell the *note serve_forever(): 1133. loop to stop and wait until it does. *note shutdown(): 1a34. must be called while *note serve_forever(): 1133. is running in a different thread otherwise it will deadlock. -- Method: server_close () Clean up the server. May be overridden. -- Attribute: address_family The family of protocols to which the server’s socket belongs. Common examples are *note socket.AF_INET: 181c, *note socket.AF_INET6: 181d, and *note socket.AF_UNIX: 181e. Subclass the TCP or UDP server classes in this module with class attribute ‘address_family = AF_INET6’ set if you want IPv6 server classes. -- Attribute: RequestHandlerClass The user-provided request handler class; an instance of this class is created for each request. -- Attribute: server_address The address on which the server is listening. The format of addresses varies depending on the protocol family; see the documentation for the *note socket: cc. module for details. For internet protocols, this is a tuple containing a string giving the address, and an integer port number: ‘('127.0.0.1', 80)’, for example. -- Attribute: socket The socket object on which the server will listen for incoming requests. The server classes support the following class variables: -- Attribute: allow_reuse_address Whether the server will allow the reuse of an address. This defaults to *note False: b37, and can be set in subclasses to change the policy. -- Attribute: request_queue_size The size of the request queue. If it takes a long time to process a single request, any requests that arrive while the server is busy are placed into a queue, up to *note request_queue_size: 3b54. requests. Once the queue is full, further requests from clients will get a “Connection denied” error. The default value is usually 5, but this can be overridden by subclasses. -- Attribute: socket_type The type of socket used by the server; *note socket.SOCK_STREAM: 12e6. and *note socket.SOCK_DGRAM: 12e5. are two common values. -- Attribute: timeout Timeout duration, measured in seconds, or *note None: 671. if no timeout is desired. If *note handle_request(): 1315. receives no incoming requests within the timeout period, the *note handle_timeout(): 1314. method is called. There are various server methods that can be overridden by subclasses of base server classes like *note TCPServer: 1312.; these methods aren’t useful to external users of the server object. -- Method: finish_request (request, client_address) Actually processes the request by instantiating *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b4c. and calling its *note handle(): 3b3d. method. -- Method: get_request () Must accept a request from the socket, and return a 2-tuple containing the 'new' socket object to be used to communicate with the client, and the client’s address. -- Method: handle_error (request, client_address) This function is called if the *note handle(): 3b3d. method of a *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b4c. instance raises an exception. The default action is to print the traceback to standard error and continue handling further requests. Changed in version 3.6: Now only called for exceptions derived from the *note Exception: 9d9. class. -- Method: handle_timeout () This function is called when the *note timeout: 1313. attribute has been set to a value other than *note None: 671. and the timeout period has passed with no requests being received. The default action for forking servers is to collect the status of any child processes that have exited, while in threading servers this method does nothing. -- Method: process_request (request, client_address) Calls *note finish_request(): 3b56. to create an instance of the *note RequestHandlerClass: 3b4c. If desired, this function can create a new process or thread to handle the request; the *note ForkingMixIn: b77. and *note ThreadingMixIn: b78. classes do this. -- Method: server_activate () Called by the server’s constructor to activate the server. The default behavior for a TCP server just invokes *note listen(): e59. on the server’s socket. May be overridden. -- Method: server_bind () Called by the server’s constructor to bind the socket to the desired address. May be overridden. -- Method: verify_request (request, client_address) Must return a Boolean value; if the value is *note True: c0d, the request will be processed, and if it’s *note False: b37, the request will be denied. This function can be overridden to implement access controls for a server. The default implementation always returns *note True: c0d. Changed in version 3.6: Support for the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol was added. Exiting the context manager is equivalent to calling *note server_close(): 3b3e.  File: python.info, Node: Request Handler Objects, Next: Examples<28>, Prev: Server Objects<2>, Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers 5.22.16.3 Request Handler Objects ................................. -- Class: socketserver.BaseRequestHandler This is the superclass of all request handler objects. It defines the interface, given below. A concrete request handler subclass must define a new *note handle(): 3b3d. method, and can override any of the other methods. A new instance of the subclass is created for each request. -- Method: setup () Called before the *note handle(): 3b3d. method to perform any initialization actions required. The default implementation does nothing. -- Method: handle () This function must do all the work required to service a request. The default implementation does nothing. Several instance attributes are available to it; the request is available as *note request: 3b59.; the client address as *note client_address: 3b5a.; and the server instance as *note server: 3b5b, in case it needs access to per-server information. The type of *note request: 3b59. is different for datagram or stream services. For stream services, *note request: 3b59. is a socket object; for datagram services, *note request: 3b59. is a pair of string and socket. -- Method: finish () Called after the *note handle(): 3b3d. method to perform any clean-up actions required. The default implementation does nothing. If *note setup(): 3b58. raises an exception, this function will not be called. -- Attribute: request The 'new' *note socket.socket: da0. object to be used to communicate with the client. -- Attribute: client_address Client address returned by *note BaseServer.get_request(): 3b4e. -- Attribute: server *note BaseServer: 1131. object used for handling the request. -- Class: socketserver.StreamRequestHandler -- Class: socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler These *note BaseRequestHandler: 3b3c. subclasses override the *note setup(): 3b58. and *note finish(): 3b5c. methods, and provide *note rfile: 3b5d. and *note wfile: 3b5e. attributes. -- Attribute: rfile A file object from which receives the request is read. Support the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. readable interface. -- Attribute: wfile A file object to which the reply is written. Support the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. writable interface Changed in version 3.6: *note wfile: 3b5e. also supports the *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. writable interface.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<28>, Prev: Request Handler Objects, Up: socketserver — A framework for network servers 5.22.16.4 Examples .................. * Menu: * socketserver.TCPServer Example: socketserver TCPServer Example. * socketserver.UDPServer Example: socketserver UDPServer Example. * Asynchronous Mixins::  File: python.info, Node: socketserver TCPServer Example, Next: socketserver UDPServer Example, Up: Examples<28> 5.22.16.5 ‘socketserver.TCPServer’ Example .......................................... This is the server side: import socketserver class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): """ The request handler class for our server. It is instantiated once per connection to the server, and must override the handle() method to implement communication to the client. """ def handle(self): # self.request is the TCP socket connected to the client pieces = [b''] total = 0 while b'\n' not in pieces[-1] and total < 10_000: pieces.append(self.request.recv(2000)) total += len(pieces[-1]) self.data = b''.join(pieces) print(f"Received from {self.client_address[0]}:") print(self.data.decode("utf-8")) # just send back the same data, but upper-cased self.request.sendall(self.data.upper()) # after we return, the socket will be closed. if __name__ == "__main__": HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999 # Create the server, binding to localhost on port 9999 with socketserver.TCPServer((HOST, PORT), MyTCPHandler) as server: # Activate the server; this will keep running until you # interrupt the program with Ctrl-C server.serve_forever() An alternative request handler class that makes use of streams (file-like objects that simplify communication by providing the standard file interface): class MyTCPHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler): def handle(self): # self.rfile is a file-like object created by the handler. # We can now use e.g. readline() instead of raw recv() calls. # We limit ourselves to 10000 bytes to avoid abuse by the sender. self.data = self.rfile.readline(10000).rstrip() print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:") print(self.data.decode("utf-8")) # Likewise, self.wfile is a file-like object used to write back # to the client self.wfile.write(self.data.upper()) The difference is that the ‘readline()’ call in the second handler will call ‘recv()’ multiple times until it encounters a newline character, while the first handler had to use a ‘recv()’ loop to accumulate data until a newline itself. If it had just used a single ‘recv()’ without the loop it would just have returned what has been received so far from the client. TCP is stream based: data arrives in the order it was sent, but there no correlation between client ‘send()’ or ‘sendall()’ calls and the number of ‘recv()’ calls on the server required to receive it. This is the client side: import socket import sys HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999 data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:]) # Create a socket (SOCK_STREAM means a TCP socket) with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock: # Connect to server and send data sock.connect((HOST, PORT)) sock.sendall(bytes(data, "utf-8")) sock.sendall(b"\n") # Receive data from the server and shut down received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8") print("Sent: ", data) print("Received:", received) The output of the example should look something like this: Server: $ python TCPServer.py 127.0.0.1 wrote: b'hello world with TCP' 127.0.0.1 wrote: b'python is nice' Client: $ python TCPClient.py hello world with TCP Sent: hello world with TCP Received: HELLO WORLD WITH TCP $ python TCPClient.py python is nice Sent: python is nice Received: PYTHON IS NICE  File: python.info, Node: socketserver UDPServer Example, Next: Asynchronous Mixins, Prev: socketserver TCPServer Example, Up: Examples<28> 5.22.16.6 ‘socketserver.UDPServer’ Example .......................................... This is the server side: import socketserver class MyUDPHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): """ This class works similar to the TCP handler class, except that self.request consists of a pair of data and client socket, and since there is no connection the client address must be given explicitly when sending data back via sendto(). """ def handle(self): data = self.request[0].strip() socket = self.request[1] print(f"{self.client_address[0]} wrote:") print(data) socket.sendto(data.upper(), self.client_address) if __name__ == "__main__": HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999 with socketserver.UDPServer((HOST, PORT), MyUDPHandler) as server: server.serve_forever() This is the client side: import socket import sys HOST, PORT = "localhost", 9999 data = " ".join(sys.argv[1:]) # SOCK_DGRAM is the socket type to use for UDP sockets sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_DGRAM) # As you can see, there is no connect() call; UDP has no connections. # Instead, data is directly sent to the recipient via sendto(). sock.sendto(bytes(data + "\n", "utf-8"), (HOST, PORT)) received = str(sock.recv(1024), "utf-8") print("Sent: ", data) print("Received:", received) The output of the example should look exactly like for the TCP server example.  File: python.info, Node: Asynchronous Mixins, Prev: socketserver UDPServer Example, Up: Examples<28> 5.22.16.7 Asynchronous Mixins ............................. To build asynchronous handlers, use the *note ThreadingMixIn: b78. and *note ForkingMixIn: b77. classes. An example for the *note ThreadingMixIn: b78. class: import socket import threading import socketserver class ThreadedTCPRequestHandler(socketserver.BaseRequestHandler): def handle(self): data = str(self.request.recv(1024), 'ascii') cur_thread = threading.current_thread() response = bytes("{}: {}".format(cur_thread.name, data), 'ascii') self.request.sendall(response) class ThreadedTCPServer(socketserver.ThreadingMixIn, socketserver.TCPServer): pass def client(ip, port, message): with socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) as sock: sock.connect((ip, port)) sock.sendall(bytes(message, 'ascii')) response = str(sock.recv(1024), 'ascii') print("Received: {}".format(response)) if __name__ == "__main__": # Port 0 means to select an arbitrary unused port HOST, PORT = "localhost", 0 server = ThreadedTCPServer((HOST, PORT), ThreadedTCPRequestHandler) with server: ip, port = server.server_address # Start a thread with the server -- that thread will then start one # more thread for each request server_thread = threading.Thread(target=server.serve_forever) # Exit the server thread when the main thread terminates server_thread.daemon = True server_thread.start() print("Server loop running in thread:", server_thread.name) client(ip, port, "Hello World 1") client(ip, port, "Hello World 2") client(ip, port, "Hello World 3") server.shutdown() The output of the example should look something like this: $ python ThreadedTCPServer.py Server loop running in thread: Thread-1 Received: Thread-2: Hello World 1 Received: Thread-3: Hello World 2 Received: Thread-4: Hello World 3 The *note ForkingMixIn: b77. class is used in the same way, except that the server will spawn a new process for each request. Available only on POSIX platforms that support *note fork(): 197.  File: python.info, Node: http server — HTTP servers, Next: http cookies — HTTP state management, Prev: socketserver — A framework for network servers, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.17 ‘http.server’ — HTTP servers ------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/http/server.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module defines classes for implementing HTTP servers. Warning: *note http.server: 72. is not recommended for production. It only implements *note basic security checks: 3b65. *note Availability: 1d54.: not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. for more information. One class, *note HTTPServer: 396b, is a *note socketserver.TCPServer: 1312. subclass. It creates and listens at the HTTP socket, dispatching the requests to a handler. Code to create and run the server looks like this: def run(server_class=HTTPServer, handler_class=BaseHTTPRequestHandler): server_address = ('', 8000) httpd = server_class(server_address, handler_class) httpd.serve_forever() -- Class: http.server.HTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass) This class builds on the *note TCPServer: 1312. class by storing the server address as instance variables named ‘server_name’ and ‘server_port’. The server is accessible by the handler, typically through the handler’s ‘server’ instance variable. -- Class: http.server.ThreadingHTTPServer (server_address, RequestHandlerClass) This class is identical to HTTPServer but uses threads to handle requests by using the *note ThreadingMixIn: b78. This is useful to handle web browsers pre-opening sockets, on which *note HTTPServer: 396b. would wait indefinitely. Added in version 3.7. The *note HTTPServer: 396b. and *note ThreadingHTTPServer: b44. must be given a 'RequestHandlerClass' on instantiation, of which this module provides three different variants: -- Class: http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address, server) This class is used to handle the HTTP requests that arrive at the server. By itself, it cannot respond to any actual HTTP requests; it must be subclassed to handle each request method (e.g. GET or POST). *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. provides a number of class and instance variables, and methods for use by subclasses. The handler will parse the request and the headers, then call a method specific to the request type. The method name is constructed from the request. For example, for the request method ‘SPAM’, the ‘do_SPAM()’ method will be called with no arguments. All of the relevant information is stored in instance variables of the handler. Subclasses should not need to override or extend the ‘__init__()’ method. *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. has the following instance variables: -- Attribute: client_address Contains a tuple of the form ‘(host, port)’ referring to the client’s address. -- Attribute: server Contains the server instance. -- Attribute: close_connection Boolean that should be set before *note handle_one_request(): 3b69. returns, indicating if another request may be expected, or if the connection should be shut down. -- Attribute: requestline Contains the string representation of the HTTP request line. The terminating CRLF is stripped. This attribute should be set by *note handle_one_request(): 3b69. If no valid request line was processed, it should be set to the empty string. -- Attribute: command Contains the command (request type). For example, ‘'GET'’. -- Attribute: path Contains the request path. If query component of the URL is present, then ‘path’ includes the query. Using the terminology of RFC 3986(2), ‘path’ here includes ‘hier-part’ and the ‘query’. -- Attribute: request_version Contains the version string from the request. For example, ‘'HTTP/1.0'’. -- Attribute: headers Holds an instance of the class specified by the *note MessageClass: 3b6e. class variable. This instance parses and manages the headers in the HTTP request. The *note parse_headers(): 1a48. function from *note http.client: 6f. is used to parse the headers and it requires that the HTTP request provide a valid RFC 2822(3) style header. -- Attribute: rfile An *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. input stream, ready to read from the start of the optional input data. -- Attribute: wfile Contains the output stream for writing a response back to the client. Proper adherence to the HTTP protocol must be used when writing to this stream in order to achieve successful interoperation with HTTP clients. Changed in version 3.6: This is an *note io.BufferedIOBase: 690. stream. *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. has the following attributes: -- Attribute: server_version Specifies the server software version. You may want to override this. The format is multiple whitespace-separated strings, where each string is of the form name[/version]. For example, ‘'BaseHTTP/0.2'’. -- Attribute: sys_version Contains the Python system version, in a form usable by the *note version_string: 3b73. method and the *note server_version: 3b71. class variable. For example, ‘'Python/1.4'’. -- Attribute: error_message_format Specifies a format string that should be used by *note send_error(): f4b. method for building an error response to the client. The string is filled by default with variables from *note responses: 3a3a. based on the status code that passed to *note send_error(): f4b. -- Attribute: error_content_type Specifies the Content-Type HTTP header of error responses sent to the client. The default value is ‘'text/html'’. -- Attribute: protocol_version Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant. It is sent in responses to let the client know the server’s communication capabilities for future requests. If set to ‘'HTTP/1.1'’, the server will permit HTTP persistent connections; however, your server 'must' then include an accurate ‘Content-Length’ header (using *note send_header(): 3b77.) in all of its responses to clients. For backwards compatibility, the setting defaults to ‘'HTTP/1.0'’. -- Attribute: MessageClass Specifies an *note email.message.Message: 27e.-like class to parse HTTP headers. Typically, this is not overridden, and it defaults to *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a51. -- Attribute: responses This attribute contains a mapping of error code integers to two-element tuples containing a short and long message. For example, ‘{code: (shortmessage, longmessage)}’. The 'shortmessage' is usually used as the 'message' key in an error response, and 'longmessage' as the 'explain' key. It is used by *note send_response_only(): 3b78. and *note send_error(): f4b. methods. A *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. instance has the following methods: -- Method: handle () Calls *note handle_one_request(): 3b69. once (or, if persistent connections are enabled, multiple times) to handle incoming HTTP requests. You should never need to override it; instead, implement appropriate ‘do_*()’ methods. -- Method: handle_one_request () This method will parse and dispatch the request to the appropriate ‘do_*()’ method. You should never need to override it. -- Method: handle_expect_100 () When an HTTP/1.1 conformant server receives an ‘Expect: 100-continue’ request header it responds back with a ‘100 Continue’ followed by ‘200 OK’ headers. This method can be overridden to raise an error if the server does not want the client to continue. For e.g. server can choose to send ‘417 Expectation Failed’ as a response header and ‘return False’. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: send_error (code, message=None, explain=None) Sends and logs a complete error reply to the client. The numeric 'code' specifies the HTTP error code, with 'message' as an optional, short, human readable description of the error. The 'explain' argument can be used to provide more detailed information about the error; it will be formatted using the *note error_message_format: 3b74. attribute and emitted, after a complete set of headers, as the response body. The *note responses: 3a3a. attribute holds the default values for 'message' and 'explain' that will be used if no value is provided; for unknown codes the default value for both is the string ‘???’. The body will be empty if the method is HEAD or the response code is one of the following: ‘1XX’, ‘204 No Content’, ‘205 Reset Content’, ‘304 Not Modified’. Changed in version 3.4: The error response includes a Content-Length header. Added the 'explain' argument. -- Method: send_response (code, message=None) Adds a response header to the headers buffer and logs the accepted request. The HTTP response line is written to the internal buffer, followed by 'Server' and 'Date' headers. The values for these two headers are picked up from the *note version_string(): 3b73. and *note date_time_string(): 3b7c. methods, respectively. If the server does not intend to send any other headers using the *note send_header(): 3b77. method, then *note send_response(): 3b7b. should be followed by an *note end_headers(): 10c2. call. Changed in version 3.3: Headers are stored to an internal buffer and *note end_headers(): 10c2. needs to be called explicitly. -- Method: send_header (keyword, value) Adds the HTTP header to an internal buffer which will be written to the output stream when either *note end_headers(): 10c2. or *note flush_headers(): 10c3. is invoked. 'keyword' should specify the header keyword, with 'value' specifying its value. Note that, after the send_header calls are done, *note end_headers(): 10c2. MUST BE called in order to complete the operation. Changed in version 3.2: Headers are stored in an internal buffer. -- Method: send_response_only (code, message=None) Sends the response header only, used for the purposes when ‘100 Continue’ response is sent by the server to the client. The headers not buffered and sent directly the output stream.If the 'message' is not specified, the HTTP message corresponding the response 'code' is sent. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: end_headers () Adds a blank line (indicating the end of the HTTP headers in the response) to the headers buffer and calls *note flush_headers(): 10c3. Changed in version 3.2: The buffered headers are written to the output stream. -- Method: flush_headers () Finally send the headers to the output stream and flush the internal headers buffer. Added in version 3.3. -- Method: log_request (code='-', size='-') Logs an accepted (successful) request. 'code' should specify the numeric HTTP code associated with the response. If a size of the response is available, then it should be passed as the 'size' parameter. -- Method: log_error (...) Logs an error when a request cannot be fulfilled. By default, it passes the message to *note log_message(): 3b7f, so it takes the same arguments ('format' and additional values). -- Method: log_message (format, ...) Logs an arbitrary message to ‘sys.stderr’. This is typically overridden to create custom error logging mechanisms. The 'format' argument is a standard printf-style format string, where the additional arguments to *note log_message(): 3b7f. are applied as inputs to the formatting. The client ip address and current date and time are prefixed to every message logged. -- Method: version_string () Returns the server software’s version string. This is a combination of the *note server_version: 3b71. and *note sys_version: 3b72. attributes. -- Method: date_time_string (timestamp=None) Returns the date and time given by 'timestamp' (which must be ‘None’ or in the format returned by *note time.time(): 256.), formatted for a message header. If 'timestamp' is omitted, it uses the current date and time. The result looks like ‘'Sun, 06 Nov 1994 08:49:37 GMT'’. -- Method: log_date_time_string () Returns the current date and time, formatted for logging. -- Method: address_string () Returns the client address. Changed in version 3.3: Previously, a name lookup was performed. To avoid name resolution delays, it now always returns the IP address. -- Class: http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address, server, directory=None) This class serves files from the directory 'directory' and below, or the current directory if 'directory' is not provided, directly mapping the directory structure to HTTP requests. Changed in version 3.7: Added the 'directory' parameter. Changed in version 3.9: The 'directory' parameter accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. A lot of the work, such as parsing the request, is done by the base class *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. This class implements the *note do_GET(): 3b82. and *note do_HEAD(): 3b83. functions. The following are defined as class-level attributes of *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43.: -- Attribute: server_version This will be ‘"SimpleHTTP/" + __version__’, where ‘__version__’ is defined at the module level. -- Attribute: extensions_map A dictionary mapping suffixes into MIME types, contains custom overrides for the default system mappings. The mapping is used case-insensitively, and so should contain only lower-cased keys. Changed in version 3.9: This dictionary is no longer filled with the default system mappings, but only contains overrides. The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. class defines the following methods: -- Method: do_HEAD () This method serves the ‘'HEAD'’ request type: it sends the headers it would send for the equivalent ‘GET’ request. See the *note do_GET(): 3b82. method for a more complete explanation of the possible headers. -- Method: do_GET () The request is mapped to a local file by interpreting the request as a path relative to the current working directory. If the request was mapped to a directory, the directory is checked for a file named ‘index.html’ or ‘index.htm’ (in that order). If found, the file’s contents are returned; otherwise a directory listing is generated by calling the ‘list_directory()’ method. This method uses *note os.listdir(): 10ee. to scan the directory, and returns a ‘404’ error response if the *note listdir(): 10ee. fails. If the request was mapped to a file, it is opened. Any *note OSError: 413. exception in opening the requested file is mapped to a ‘404’, ‘'File not found'’ error. If there was an ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header in the request, and the file was not modified after this time, a ‘304’, ‘'Not Modified'’ response is sent. Otherwise, the content type is guessed by calling the ‘guess_type()’ method, which in turn uses the 'extensions_map' variable, and the file contents are returned. A ‘'Content-type:'’ header with the guessed content type is output, followed by a ‘'Content-Length:'’ header with the file’s size and a ‘'Last-Modified:'’ header with the file’s modification time. Then follows a blank line signifying the end of the headers, and then the contents of the file are output. For example usage, see the implementation of the ‘test’ function in Lib/http/server.py(4). Changed in version 3.7: Support of the ‘'If-Modified-Since'’ header. The *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. class can be used in the following manner in order to create a very basic webserver serving files relative to the current directory: import http.server import socketserver PORT = 8000 Handler = http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler with socketserver.TCPServer(("", PORT), Handler) as httpd: print("serving at port", PORT) httpd.serve_forever() *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. can also be subclassed to enhance behavior, such as using different index file names by overriding the class attribute ‘index_pages’. -- Class: http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler (request, client_address, server) This class is used to serve either files or output of CGI scripts from the current directory and below. Note that mapping HTTP hierarchic structure to local directory structure is exactly as in *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. Note: CGI scripts run by the *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. class cannot execute redirects (HTTP code 302), because code 200 (script output follows) is sent prior to execution of the CGI script. This pre-empts the status code. The class will however, run the CGI script, instead of serving it as a file, if it guesses it to be a CGI script. Only directory-based CGI are used — the other common server configuration is to treat special extensions as denoting CGI scripts. The ‘do_GET()’ and ‘do_HEAD()’ functions are modified to run CGI scripts and serve the output, instead of serving files, if the request leads to somewhere below the ‘cgi_directories’ path. The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. defines the following data member: -- Attribute: cgi_directories This defaults to ‘['/cgi-bin', '/htbin']’ and describes directories to treat as containing CGI scripts. The *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. defines the following method: -- Method: do_POST () This method serves the ‘'POST'’ request type, only allowed for CGI scripts. Error 501, “Can only POST to CGI scripts”, is output when trying to POST to a non-CGI url. Note that CGI scripts will be run with UID of user nobody, for security reasons. Problems with the CGI script will be translated to error 403. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. is being removed in 3.15. CGI has not been considered a good way to do things for well over a decade. This code has been unmaintained for a while now and sees very little practical use. Retaining it could lead to further *note security considerations: 3b65. * Menu: * Command-line interface: Command-line interface<2>. * Security considerations: Security considerations<3>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/server.py (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3986.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2822.html (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/server.py  File: python.info, Node: Command-line interface<2>, Next: Security considerations<3>, Up: http server — HTTP servers 5.22.17.1 Command-line interface ................................ *note http.server: 72. can also be invoked directly using the *note -m: 5dd. switch of the interpreter. The following example illustrates how to serve files relative to the current directory: python -m http.server [OPTIONS] [port] The following options are accepted: -- Option: port The server listens to port 8000 by default. The default can be overridden by passing the desired port number as an argument: python -m http.server 9000 -- Option: -b, --bind
    Specifies a specific address to which it should bind. Both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses are supported. By default, the server binds itself to all interfaces. For example, the following command causes the server to bind to localhost only: python -m http.server --bind 127.0.0.1 Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.8: Support IPv6 in the ‘--bind’ option. -- Option: -d, --directory Specifies a directory to which it should serve the files. By default, the server uses the current directory. For example, the following command uses a specific directory: python -m http.server --directory /tmp/ Added in version 3.7. -- Option: -p, --protocol Specifies the HTTP version to which the server is conformant. By default, the server is conformant to HTTP/1.0. For example, the following command runs an HTTP/1.1 conformant server: python -m http.server --protocol HTTP/1.1 Added in version 3.11. -- Option: --cgi *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. can be enabled in the command line by passing the ‘--cgi’ option: python -m http.server --cgi Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: *note http.server: 72. command line ‘--cgi’ support is being removed because *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. is being removed. Warning: *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. and the ‘--cgi’ command-line option are not intended for use by untrusted clients and may be vulnerable to exploitation. Always use within a secure environment.  File: python.info, Node: Security considerations<3>, Prev: Command-line interface<2>, Up: http server — HTTP servers 5.22.17.2 Security considerations ................................. *note SimpleHTTPRequestHandler: b43. will follow symbolic links when handling requests, this makes it possible for files outside of the specified directory to be served. Earlier versions of Python did not scrub control characters from the log messages emitted to stderr from ‘python -m http.server’ or the default *note BaseHTTPRequestHandler: 10c1. ‘.log_message’ implementation. This could allow remote clients connecting to your server to send nefarious control codes to your terminal. Changed in version 3.12: Control characters are scrubbed in stderr logs.  File: python.info, Node: http cookies — HTTP state management, Next: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients, Prev: http server — HTTP servers, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.18 ‘http.cookies’ — HTTP state management ---------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/http/cookies.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note http.cookies: 71. module defines classes for abstracting the concept of cookies, an HTTP state management mechanism. It supports both simple string-only cookies, and provides an abstraction for having any serializable data-type as cookie value. The module formerly strictly applied the parsing rules described in the RFC 2109(2) and RFC 2068(3) specifications. It has since been discovered that MSIE 3.0x didn’t follow the character rules outlined in those specs; many current-day browsers and servers have also relaxed parsing rules when it comes to cookie handling. As a result, this module now uses parsing rules that are a bit less strict than they once were. The character set, *note string.ascii_letters: 12b6, *note string.digits: 22c2. and ‘!#$%&'*+-.^_`|~:’ denote the set of valid characters allowed by this module in a cookie name (as *note key: c01.). Changed in version 3.3: Allowed ‘:’ as a valid cookie name character. Note: On encountering an invalid cookie, *note CookieError: 3b94. is raised, so if your cookie data comes from a browser you should always prepare for invalid data and catch *note CookieError: 3b94. on parsing. -- Exception: http.cookies.CookieError Exception failing because of RFC 2109(4) invalidity: incorrect attributes, incorrect ‘Set-Cookie’ header, etc. -- Class: http.cookies.BaseCookie ([input]) This class is a dictionary-like object whose keys are strings and whose values are *note Morsel: c04. instances. Note that upon setting a key to a value, the value is first converted to a *note Morsel: c04. containing the key and the value. If 'input' is given, it is passed to the *note load(): 3b96. method. -- Class: http.cookies.SimpleCookie ([input]) This class derives from *note BaseCookie: 3b95. and overrides *note value_decode(): 3b97. and *note value_encode(): 3b98. ‘SimpleCookie’ supports strings as cookie values. When setting the value, ‘SimpleCookie’ calls the builtin *note str(): 447. to convert the value to a string. Values received from HTTP are kept as strings. See also ........ Module *note http.cookiejar: 70. HTTP cookie handling for web 'clients'. The *note http.cookiejar: 70. and *note http.cookies: 71. modules do not depend on each other. RFC 2109(5) - HTTP State Management Mechanism This is the state management specification implemented by this module. * Menu: * Cookie Objects:: * Morsel Objects:: * Example: Example<12>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/cookies.py (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2068.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html  File: python.info, Node: Cookie Objects, Next: Morsel Objects, Up: http cookies — HTTP state management 5.22.18.1 Cookie Objects ........................ -- Method: BaseCookie.value_decode (val) Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’ from a string representation. ‘real_value’ can be any type. This method does no decoding in *note BaseCookie: 3b95. — it exists so it can be overridden. -- Method: BaseCookie.value_encode (val) Return a tuple ‘(real_value, coded_value)’. 'val' can be any type, but ‘coded_value’ will always be converted to a string. This method does no encoding in *note BaseCookie: 3b95. — it exists so it can be overridden. In general, it should be the case that *note value_encode(): 3b98. and *note value_decode(): 3b97. are inverses on the range of 'value_decode'. -- Method: BaseCookie.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:', sep='\r\n') Return a string representation suitable to be sent as HTTP headers. 'attrs' and 'header' are sent to each *note Morsel: c04.’s *note output(): 3b9c. method. 'sep' is used to join the headers together, and is by default the combination ‘'\r\n'’ (CRLF). -- Method: BaseCookie.js_output (attrs=None) Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP headers was sent. The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 3b9b. -- Method: BaseCookie.load (rawdata) If 'rawdata' is a string, parse it as an ‘HTTP_COOKIE’ and add the values found there as *note Morsel: c04.s. If it is a dictionary, it is equivalent to: for k, v in rawdata.items(): cookie[k] = v  File: python.info, Node: Morsel Objects, Next: Example<12>, Prev: Cookie Objects, Up: http cookies — HTTP state management 5.22.18.2 Morsel Objects ........................ -- Class: http.cookies.Morsel Abstract a key/value pair, which has some RFC 2109(1) attributes. Morsels are dictionary-like objects, whose set of keys is constant — the valid RFC 2109(2) attributes, which are: -- Attribute: expires -- Attribute: path -- Attribute: comment -- Attribute: domain -- Attribute: max-age -- Attribute: secure -- Attribute: version -- Attribute: httponly -- Attribute: samesite The attribute *note httponly: 139c. specifies that the cookie is only transferred in HTTP requests, and is not accessible through JavaScript. This is intended to mitigate some forms of cross-site scripting. The attribute *note samesite: 3ba6. controls when the browser sends the cookie with cross-site requests. This helps to mitigate CSRF attacks. Valid values are “Strict” (only sent with same-site requests), “Lax” (sent with same-site requests and top-level navigations), and “None” (sent with same-site and cross-site requests). When using “None”, the “secure” attribute must also be set, as required by modern browsers. The keys are case-insensitive and their default value is ‘''’. Changed in version 3.5: ‘__eq__()’ now takes *note key: c01. and *note value: c02. into account. Changed in version 3.7: Attributes *note key: c01, *note value: c02. and *note coded_value: c03. are read-only. Use *note set(): c05. for setting them. Changed in version 3.8: Added support for the *note samesite: 3ba6. attribute. -- Attribute: Morsel.value The value of the cookie. -- Attribute: Morsel.coded_value The encoded value of the cookie — this is what should be sent. -- Attribute: Morsel.key The name of the cookie. -- Method: Morsel.set (key, value, coded_value) Set the 'key', 'value' and 'coded_value' attributes. -- Method: Morsel.isReservedKey (K) Whether 'K' is a member of the set of keys of a *note Morsel: c04. -- Method: Morsel.output (attrs=None, header='Set-Cookie:') Return a string representation of the Morsel, suitable to be sent as an HTTP header. By default, all the attributes are included, unless 'attrs' is given, in which case it should be a list of attributes to use. 'header' is by default ‘"Set-Cookie:"’. -- Method: Morsel.js_output (attrs=None) Return an embeddable JavaScript snippet, which, if run on a browser which supports JavaScript, will act the same as if the HTTP header was sent. The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 3b9c. -- Method: Morsel.OutputString (attrs=None) Return a string representing the Morsel, without any surrounding HTTP or JavaScript. The meaning for 'attrs' is the same as in *note output(): 3b9c. -- Method: Morsel.update (values) Update the values in the Morsel dictionary with the values in the dictionary 'values'. Raise an error if any of the keys in the 'values' dict is not a valid RFC 2109(3) attribute. Changed in version 3.5: an error is raised for invalid keys. -- Method: Morsel.copy (value) Return a shallow copy of the Morsel object. Changed in version 3.5: return a Morsel object instead of a dict. -- Method: Morsel.setdefault (key, value=None) Raise an error if key is not a valid RFC 2109(4) attribute, otherwise behave the same as *note dict.setdefault(): 1072. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html  File: python.info, Node: Example<12>, Prev: Morsel Objects, Up: http cookies — HTTP state management 5.22.18.3 Example ................. The following example demonstrates how to use the *note http.cookies: 71. module. >>> from http import cookies >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C["fig"] = "newton" >>> C["sugar"] = "wafer" >>> print(C) # generate HTTP headers Set-Cookie: fig=newton Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer >>> print(C.output()) # same thing Set-Cookie: fig=newton Set-Cookie: sugar=wafer >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C["rocky"] = "road" >>> C["rocky"]["path"] = "/cookie" >>> print(C.output(header="Cookie:")) Cookie: rocky=road; Path=/cookie >>> print(C.output(attrs=[], header="Cookie:")) Cookie: rocky=road >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C.load("chips=ahoy; vienna=finger") # load from a string (HTTP header) >>> print(C) Set-Cookie: chips=ahoy Set-Cookie: vienna=finger >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C.load('keebler="E=everybody; L=\\"Loves\\"; fudge=\\012;";') >>> print(C) Set-Cookie: keebler="E=everybody; L=\"Loves\"; fudge=\012;" >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C["oreo"] = "doublestuff" >>> C["oreo"]["path"] = "/" >>> print(C) Set-Cookie: oreo=doublestuff; Path=/ >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C["twix"] = "none for you" >>> C["twix"].value 'none for you' >>> C = cookies.SimpleCookie() >>> C["number"] = 7 # equivalent to C["number"] = str(7) >>> C["string"] = "seven" >>> C["number"].value '7' >>> C["string"].value 'seven' >>> print(C) Set-Cookie: number=7 Set-Cookie: string=seven  File: python.info, Node: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients, Next: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules, Prev: http cookies — HTTP state management, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.19 ‘http.cookiejar’ — Cookie handling for HTTP clients ----------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/http/cookiejar.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note http.cookiejar: 70. module defines classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies. It is useful for accessing web sites that require small pieces of data – 'cookies' – to be set on the client machine by an HTTP response from a web server, and then returned to the server in later HTTP requests. Both the regular Netscape cookie protocol and the protocol defined by RFC 2965(2) are handled. RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default. RFC 2109(3) cookies are parsed as Netscape cookies and subsequently treated either as Netscape or RFC 2965 cookies according to the ‘policy’ in effect. Note that the great majority of cookies on the internet are Netscape cookies. *note http.cookiejar: 70. attempts to follow the de-facto Netscape cookie protocol (which differs substantially from that set out in the original Netscape specification), including taking note of the ‘max-age’ and ‘port’ cookie-attributes introduced with RFC 2965. Note: The various named parameters found in ‘Set-Cookie’ and ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers (eg. ‘domain’ and ‘expires’) are conventionally referred to as 'attributes'. To distinguish them from Python attributes, the documentation for this module uses the term 'cookie-attribute' instead. The module defines the following exception: -- Exception: http.cookiejar.LoadError Instances of *note FileCookieJar: 3bb0. raise this exception on failure to load cookies from a file. *note LoadError: 3baf. is a subclass of *note OSError: 413. Changed in version 3.3: *note LoadError: 3baf. used to be a subtype of *note IOError: 104b, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 413. The following classes are provided: -- Class: http.cookiejar.CookieJar (policy=None) 'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. interface. The *note CookieJar: 39da. class stores HTTP cookies. It extracts cookies from HTTP requests, and returns them in HTTP responses. *note CookieJar: 39da. instances automatically expire contained cookies when necessary. Subclasses are also responsible for storing and retrieving cookies from a file or database. -- Class: http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None, policy=None) 'policy' is an object implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. interface. For the other arguments, see the documentation for the corresponding attributes. A *note CookieJar: 39da. which can load cookies from, and perhaps save cookies to, a file on disk. Cookies are 'NOT' loaded from the named file until either the *note load(): 3bb2. or *note revert(): 3bb3. method is called. Subclasses of this class are documented in section *note FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers: 3bb4. This should not be initialized directly – use its subclasses below instead. Changed in version 3.8: The filename parameter supports a *note path-like object: 2a2. -- Class: http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy This class is responsible for deciding whether each cookie should be accepted from / returned to the server. -- Class: http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy (blocked_domains=None, allowed_domains=None, netscape=True, rfc2965=False, rfc2109_as_netscape=None, hide_cookie2=False, strict_domain=False, strict_rfc2965_unverifiable=True, strict_ns_unverifiable=False, strict_ns_domain=DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal, strict_ns_set_initial_dollar=False, strict_ns_set_path=False, secure_protocols=('https', 'wss')) Constructor arguments should be passed as keyword arguments only. 'blocked_domains' is a sequence of domain names that we never accept cookies from, nor return cookies to. 'allowed_domains' if not *note None: 671, this is a sequence of the only domains for which we accept and return cookies. 'secure_protocols' is a sequence of protocols for which secure cookies can be added to. By default 'https' and 'wss' (secure websocket) are considered secure protocols. For all other arguments, see the documentation for *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. and *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. objects. *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. implements the standard accept / reject rules for Netscape and RFC 2965(4) cookies. By default, RFC 2109(5) cookies (ie. cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header with a version cookie-attribute of 1) are treated according to the RFC 2965 rules. However, if RFC 2965 handling is turned off or *note rfc2109_as_netscape: 3bb5. is ‘True’, RFC 2109 cookies are ‘downgraded’ by the *note CookieJar: 39da. instance to Netscape cookies, by setting the ‘version’ attribute of the *note Cookie: 3bb6. instance to 0. *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. also provides some parameters to allow some fine-tuning of policy. -- Class: http.cookiejar.Cookie This class represents Netscape, RFC 2109(6) and RFC 2965(7) cookies. It is not expected that users of *note http.cookiejar: 70. construct their own *note Cookie: 3bb6. instances. Instead, if necessary, call ‘make_cookies()’ on a *note CookieJar: 39da. instance. See also ........ Module *note urllib.request: 10b. URL opening with automatic cookie handling. Module *note http.cookies: 71. HTTP cookie classes, principally useful for server-side code. The *note http.cookiejar: 70. and *note http.cookies: 71. modules do not depend on each other. ‘https://curl.se/rfc/cookie_spec.html’ The specification of the original Netscape cookie protocol. Though this is still the dominant protocol, the ‘Netscape cookie protocol’ implemented by all the major browsers (and *note http.cookiejar: 70.) only bears a passing resemblance to the one sketched out in ‘cookie_spec.html’. RFC 2109(8) - HTTP State Management Mechanism Obsoleted by RFC 2965(9). Uses ‘Set-Cookie’ with version=1. RFC 2965(10) - HTTP State Management Mechanism The Netscape protocol with the bugs fixed. Uses ‘Set-Cookie2’ in place of ‘Set-Cookie’. Not widely used. ‘https://kristol.org/cookie/errata.html’ Unfinished errata to RFC 2965(11). RFC 2964(12) - Use of HTTP State Management * Menu: * CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects:: * FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers:: * CookiePolicy Objects:: * DefaultCookiePolicy Objects:: * Cookie Objects: Cookie Objects<2>. * Examples: Examples<29>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/http/cookiejar.py (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (9) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (10) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2964.html  File: python.info, Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects, Next: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers, Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 5.22.19.1 CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects ............................................. *note CookieJar: 39da. objects support the *note iterator: 1ac. protocol for iterating over contained *note Cookie: 3bb6. objects. *note CookieJar: 39da. has the following methods: -- Method: CookieJar.add_cookie_header (request) Add correct ‘Cookie’ header to 'request'. If policy allows (ie. the ‘rfc2965’ and ‘hide_cookie2’ attributes of the *note CookieJar: 39da.’s *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. instance are true and false respectively), the ‘Cookie2’ header is also added when appropriate. The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: fd3. instance) must support the methods ‘get_full_url()’, ‘has_header()’, ‘get_header()’, ‘header_items()’, ‘add_unredirected_header()’ and the attributes ‘host’, ‘type’, ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’ as documented by *note urllib.request: 10b. Changed in version 3.3: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’ attribute. Dependency on a deprecated method ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed. -- Method: CookieJar.extract_cookies (response, request) Extract cookies from HTTP 'response' and store them in the *note CookieJar: 39da, where allowed by policy. The *note CookieJar: 39da. will look for allowable ‘Set-Cookie’ and ‘Set-Cookie2’ headers in the 'response' argument, and store cookies as appropriate (subject to the *note CookiePolicy.set_ok(): 3bbb. method’s approval). The 'response' object (usually the result of a call to *note urllib.request.urlopen(): 295, or similar) should support an ‘info()’ method, which returns an *note email.message.Message: 27e. instance. The 'request' object (usually a *note urllib.request.Request: fd3. instance) must support the method ‘get_full_url()’ and the attributes ‘host’, ‘unverifiable’ and ‘origin_req_host’, as documented by *note urllib.request: 10b. The request is used to set default values for cookie-attributes as well as for checking that the cookie is allowed to be set. Changed in version 3.3: 'request' object needs ‘origin_req_host’ attribute. Dependency on a deprecated method ‘get_origin_req_host()’ has been removed. -- Method: CookieJar.set_policy (policy) Set the *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. instance to be used. -- Method: CookieJar.make_cookies (response, request) Return sequence of *note Cookie: 3bb6. objects extracted from 'response' object. See the documentation for *note extract_cookies(): 3bba. for the interfaces required of the 'response' and 'request' arguments. -- Method: CookieJar.set_cookie_if_ok (cookie, request) Set a *note Cookie: 3bb6. if policy says it’s OK to do so. -- Method: CookieJar.set_cookie (cookie) Set a *note Cookie: 3bb6, without checking with policy to see whether or not it should be set. -- Method: CookieJar.clear ([domain[, path[, name]]]) Clear some cookies. If invoked without arguments, clear all cookies. If given a single argument, only cookies belonging to that 'domain' will be removed. If given two arguments, cookies belonging to the specified 'domain' and URL 'path' are removed. If given three arguments, then the cookie with the specified 'domain', 'path' and 'name' is removed. Raises *note KeyError: 33f. if no matching cookie exists. -- Method: CookieJar.clear_session_cookies () Discard all session cookies. Discards all contained cookies that have a true ‘discard’ attribute (usually because they had either no ‘max-age’ or ‘expires’ cookie-attribute, or an explicit ‘discard’ cookie-attribute). For interactive browsers, the end of a session usually corresponds to closing the browser window. Note that the ‘save()’ method won’t save session cookies anyway, unless you ask otherwise by passing a true 'ignore_discard' argument. *note FileCookieJar: 3bb0. implements the following additional methods: -- Method: FileCookieJar.save (filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False) Save cookies to a file. This base class raises *note NotImplementedError: 22a. Subclasses may leave this method unimplemented. 'filename' is the name of file in which to save cookies. If 'filename' is not specified, ‘self.filename’ is used (whose default is the value passed to the constructor, if any); if ‘self.filename’ is *note None: 671, *note ValueError: 204. is raised. 'ignore_discard': save even cookies set to be discarded. 'ignore_expires': save even cookies that have expired The file is overwritten if it already exists, thus wiping all the cookies it contains. Saved cookies can be restored later using the *note load(): 3bb2. or *note revert(): 3bb3. methods. -- Method: FileCookieJar.load (filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False) Load cookies from a file. Old cookies are kept unless overwritten by newly loaded ones. Arguments are as for *note save(): 3bc2. The named file must be in the format understood by the class, or *note LoadError: 3baf. will be raised. Also, *note OSError: 413. may be raised, for example if the file does not exist. Changed in version 3.3: *note IOError: 104b. used to be raised, it is now an alias of *note OSError: 413. -- Method: FileCookieJar.revert (filename=None, ignore_discard=False, ignore_expires=False) Clear all cookies and reload cookies from a saved file. *note revert(): 3bb3. can raise the same exceptions as *note load(): 3bb2. If there is a failure, the object’s state will not be altered. *note FileCookieJar: 3bb0. instances have the following public attributes: -- Attribute: FileCookieJar.filename Filename of default file in which to keep cookies. This attribute may be assigned to. -- Attribute: FileCookieJar.delayload If true, load cookies lazily from disk. This attribute should not be assigned to. This is only a hint, since this only affects performance, not behaviour (unless the cookies on disk are changing). A *note CookieJar: 39da. object may ignore it. None of the *note FileCookieJar: 3bb0. classes included in the standard library lazily loads cookies.  File: python.info, Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers, Next: CookiePolicy Objects, Prev: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects, Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 5.22.19.2 FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers ..................................................................... The following *note CookieJar: 39da. subclasses are provided for reading and writing. -- Class: http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None, policy=None) A *note FileCookieJar: 3bb0. that can load from and save cookies to disk in the Mozilla ‘cookies.txt’ file format (which is also used by curl and the Lynx and Netscape browsers). Note: This loses information about RFC 2965(1) cookies, and also about newer or non-standard cookie-attributes such as ‘port’. Warning: Back up your cookies before saving if you have cookies whose loss / corruption would be inconvenient (there are some subtleties which may lead to slight changes in the file over a load / save round-trip). Also note that cookies saved while Mozilla is running will get clobbered by Mozilla. -- Class: http.cookiejar.LWPCookieJar (filename=None, delayload=None, policy=None) A *note FileCookieJar: 3bb0. that can load from and save cookies to disk in format compatible with the libwww-perl library’s ‘Set-Cookie3’ file format. This is convenient if you want to store cookies in a human-readable file. Changed in version 3.8: The filename parameter supports a *note path-like object: 2a2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html  File: python.info, Node: CookiePolicy Objects, Next: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects, Prev: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers, Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 5.22.19.3 CookiePolicy Objects .............................. Objects implementing the *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. interface have the following methods: -- Method: CookiePolicy.set_ok (cookie, request) Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be accepted from server. 'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 3bb6. instance. 'request' is an object implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note CookieJar.extract_cookies(): 3bba. -- Method: CookiePolicy.return_ok (cookie, request) Return boolean value indicating whether cookie should be returned to server. 'cookie' is a *note Cookie: 3bb6. instance. 'request' is an object implementing the interface defined by the documentation for *note CookieJar.add_cookie_header(): 3bb9. -- Method: CookiePolicy.domain_return_ok (domain, request) Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie domain. This method is an optimization. It removes the need for checking every cookie with a particular domain (which might involve reading many files). Returning true from *note domain_return_ok(): 3bcb. and *note path_return_ok(): 3bcc. leaves all the work to *note return_ok(): 3bca. If *note domain_return_ok(): 3bcb. returns true for the cookie domain, *note path_return_ok(): 3bcc. is called for the cookie path. Otherwise, *note path_return_ok(): 3bcc. and *note return_ok(): 3bca. are never called for that cookie domain. If *note path_return_ok(): 3bcc. returns true, *note return_ok(): 3bca. is called with the *note Cookie: 3bb6. object itself for a full check. Otherwise, *note return_ok(): 3bca. is never called for that cookie path. Note that *note domain_return_ok(): 3bcb. is called for every 'cookie' domain, not just for the 'request' domain. For example, the function might be called with both ‘".example.com"’ and ‘"www.example.com"’ if the request domain is ‘"www.example.com"’. The same goes for *note path_return_ok(): 3bcc. The 'request' argument is as documented for *note return_ok(): 3bca. -- Method: CookiePolicy.path_return_ok (path, request) Return ‘False’ if cookies should not be returned, given cookie path. See the documentation for *note domain_return_ok(): 3bcb. In addition to implementing the methods above, implementations of the *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. interface must also supply the following attributes, indicating which protocols should be used, and how. All of these attributes may be assigned to. -- Attribute: CookiePolicy.netscape Implement Netscape protocol. -- Attribute: CookiePolicy.rfc2965 Implement RFC 2965(1) protocol. -- Attribute: CookiePolicy.hide_cookie2 Don’t add ‘Cookie2’ header to requests (the presence of this header indicates to the server that we understand RFC 2965(2) cookies). The most useful way to define a *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. class is by subclassing from *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. and overriding some or all of the methods above. *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. itself may be used as a ‘null policy’ to allow setting and receiving any and all cookies (this is unlikely to be useful). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html  File: python.info, Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects, Next: Cookie Objects<2>, Prev: CookiePolicy Objects, Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 5.22.19.4 DefaultCookiePolicy Objects ..................................... Implements the standard rules for accepting and returning cookies. Both RFC 2965(1) and Netscape cookies are covered. RFC 2965 handling is switched off by default. The easiest way to provide your own policy is to override this class and call its methods in your overridden implementations before adding your own additional checks: import http.cookiejar class MyCookiePolicy(http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy): def set_ok(self, cookie, request): if not http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy.set_ok(self, cookie, request): return False if i_dont_want_to_store_this_cookie(cookie): return False return True In addition to the features required to implement the *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. interface, this class allows you to block and allow domains from setting and receiving cookies. There are also some strictness switches that allow you to tighten up the rather loose Netscape protocol rules a little bit (at the cost of blocking some benign cookies). A domain blocklist and allowlist is provided (both off by default). Only domains not in the blocklist and present in the allowlist (if the allowlist is active) participate in cookie setting and returning. Use the 'blocked_domains' constructor argument, and ‘blocked_domains()’ and ‘set_blocked_domains()’ methods (and the corresponding argument and methods for 'allowed_domains'). If you set an allowlist, you can turn it off again by setting it to *note None: 671. Domains in block or allow lists that do not start with a dot must equal the cookie domain to be matched. For example, ‘"example.com"’ matches a blocklist entry of ‘"example.com"’, but ‘"www.example.com"’ does not. Domains that do start with a dot are matched by more specific domains too. For example, both ‘"www.example.com"’ and ‘"www.coyote.example.com"’ match ‘".example.com"’ (but ‘"example.com"’ itself does not). IP addresses are an exception, and must match exactly. For example, if blocked_domains contains ‘"192.168.1.2"’ and ‘".168.1.2"’, 192.168.1.2 is blocked, but 193.168.1.2 is not. *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. implements the following additional methods: -- Method: DefaultCookiePolicy.blocked_domains () Return the sequence of blocked domains (as a tuple). -- Method: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_blocked_domains (blocked_domains) Set the sequence of blocked domains. -- Method: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_blocked (domain) Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is on the blocklist for setting or receiving cookies. -- Method: DefaultCookiePolicy.allowed_domains () Return *note None: 671, or the sequence of allowed domains (as a tuple). -- Method: DefaultCookiePolicy.set_allowed_domains (allowed_domains) Set the sequence of allowed domains, or *note None: 671. -- Method: DefaultCookiePolicy.is_not_allowed (domain) Return ‘True’ if 'domain' is not on the allowlist for setting or receiving cookies. *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. instances have the following attributes, which are all initialised from the constructor arguments of the same name, and which may all be assigned to. -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.rfc2109_as_netscape If true, request that the *note CookieJar: 39da. instance downgrade RFC 2109(2) cookies (ie. cookies received in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header with a version cookie-attribute of 1) to Netscape cookies by setting the version attribute of the *note Cookie: 3bb6. instance to 0. The default value is *note None: 671, in which case RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded if and only if RFC 2965(3) handling is turned off. Therefore, RFC 2109 cookies are downgraded by default. General strictness switches: -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_domain Don’t allow sites to set two-component domains with country-code top-level domains like ‘.co.uk’, ‘.gov.uk’, ‘.co.nz’.etc. This is far from perfect and isn’t guaranteed to work! RFC 2965(4) protocol strictness switches: -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_rfc2965_unverifiable Follow RFC 2965(5) rules on unverifiable transactions (usually, an unverifiable transaction is one resulting from a redirect or a request for an image hosted on another site). If this is false, cookies are 'never' blocked on the basis of verifiability Netscape protocol strictness switches: -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_unverifiable Apply RFC 2965(6) rules on unverifiable transactions even to Netscape cookies. -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_domain Flags indicating how strict to be with domain-matching rules for Netscape cookies. See below for acceptable values. -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_initial_dollar Ignore cookies in Set-Cookie: headers that have names starting with ‘'$'’. -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.strict_ns_set_path Don’t allow setting cookies whose path doesn’t path-match request URI. *note strict_ns_domain: 3bdb. is a collection of flags. Its value is constructed by or-ing together (for example, ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’ means both flags are set). -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNoDots When setting cookies, the ‘host prefix’ must not contain a dot (eg. ‘www.foo.bar.com’ can’t set a cookie for ‘.bar.com’, because ‘www.foo’ contains a dot). -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrictNonDomain Cookies that did not explicitly specify a ‘domain’ cookie-attribute can only be returned to a domain equal to the domain that set the cookie (eg. ‘spam.example.com’ won’t be returned cookies from ‘example.com’ that had no ‘domain’ cookie-attribute). -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainRFC2965Match When setting cookies, require a full RFC 2965(7) domain-match. The following attributes are provided for convenience, and are the most useful combinations of the above flags: -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainLiberal Equivalent to 0 (ie. all of the above Netscape domain strictness flags switched off). -- Attribute: DefaultCookiePolicy.DomainStrict Equivalent to ‘DomainStrictNoDots|DomainStrictNonDomain’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (5) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (6) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html  File: python.info, Node: Cookie Objects<2>, Next: Examples<29>, Prev: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects, Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 5.22.19.5 Cookie Objects ........................ *note Cookie: 3bb6. instances have Python attributes roughly corresponding to the standard cookie-attributes specified in the various cookie standards. The correspondence is not one-to-one, because there are complicated rules for assigning default values, because the ‘max-age’ and ‘expires’ cookie-attributes contain equivalent information, and because RFC 2109(1) cookies may be ‘downgraded’ by *note http.cookiejar: 70. from version 1 to version 0 (Netscape) cookies. Assignment to these attributes should not be necessary other than in rare circumstances in a *note CookiePolicy: 3bb1. method. The class does not enforce internal consistency, so you should know what you’re doing if you do that. -- Attribute: Cookie.version Integer or *note None: 671. Netscape cookies have *note version: 3be4. 0. RFC 2965(2) and RFC 2109(3) cookies have a ‘version’ cookie-attribute of 1. However, note that *note http.cookiejar: 70. may ‘downgrade’ RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case *note version: 3be4. is 0. -- Attribute: Cookie.name Cookie name (a string). -- Attribute: Cookie.value Cookie value (a string), or *note None: 671. -- Attribute: Cookie.port String representing a port or a set of ports (eg. ‘80’, or ‘80,8080’), or *note None: 671. -- Attribute: Cookie.domain Cookie domain (a string). -- Attribute: Cookie.path Cookie path (a string, eg. ‘'/acme/rocket_launchers'’). -- Attribute: Cookie.secure ‘True’ if cookie should only be returned over a secure connection. -- Attribute: Cookie.expires Integer expiry date in seconds since epoch, or *note None: 671. See also the *note is_expired(): 3bec. method. -- Attribute: Cookie.discard ‘True’ if this is a session cookie. -- Attribute: Cookie.comment String comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or *note None: 671. -- Attribute: Cookie.comment_url URL linking to a comment from the server explaining the function of this cookie, or *note None: 671. -- Attribute: Cookie.rfc2109 ‘True’ if this cookie was received as an RFC 2109(4) cookie (ie. the cookie arrived in a ‘Set-Cookie’ header, and the value of the Version cookie-attribute in that header was 1). This attribute is provided because *note http.cookiejar: 70. may ‘downgrade’ RFC 2109 cookies to Netscape cookies, in which case *note version: 3be4. is 0. -- Attribute: Cookie.port_specified ‘True’ if a port or set of ports was explicitly specified by the server (in the ‘Set-Cookie’ / ‘Set-Cookie2’ header). -- Attribute: Cookie.domain_specified ‘True’ if a domain was explicitly specified by the server. -- Attribute: Cookie.domain_initial_dot ‘True’ if the domain explicitly specified by the server began with a dot (‘'.'’). Cookies may have additional non-standard cookie-attributes. These may be accessed using the following methods: -- Method: Cookie.has_nonstandard_attr (name) Return ‘True’ if cookie has the named cookie-attribute. -- Method: Cookie.get_nonstandard_attr (name, default=None) If cookie has the named cookie-attribute, return its value. Otherwise, return 'default'. -- Method: Cookie.set_nonstandard_attr (name, value) Set the value of the named cookie-attribute. The *note Cookie: 3bb6. class also defines the following method: -- Method: Cookie.is_expired (now=None) ‘True’ if cookie has passed the time at which the server requested it should expire. If 'now' is given (in seconds since the epoch), return whether the cookie has expired at the specified time. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2109.html  File: python.info, Node: Examples<29>, Prev: Cookie Objects<2>, Up: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients 5.22.19.6 Examples .................. The first example shows the most common usage of *note http.cookiejar: 70.: import http.cookiejar, urllib.request cj = http.cookiejar.CookieJar() opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj)) r = opener.open("http://example.com/") This example illustrates how to open a URL using your Netscape, Mozilla, or Lynx cookies (assumes Unix/Netscape convention for location of the cookies file): import os, http.cookiejar, urllib.request cj = http.cookiejar.MozillaCookieJar() cj.load(os.path.join(os.path.expanduser("~"), ".netscape", "cookies.txt")) opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj)) r = opener.open("http://example.com/") The next example illustrates the use of *note DefaultCookiePolicy: 1a10. Turn on RFC 2965(1) cookies, be more strict about domains when setting and returning Netscape cookies, and block some domains from setting cookies or having them returned: import urllib.request from http.cookiejar import CookieJar, DefaultCookiePolicy policy = DefaultCookiePolicy( rfc2965=True, strict_ns_domain=Policy.DomainStrict, blocked_domains=["ads.net", ".ads.net"]) cj = CookieJar(policy) opener = urllib.request.build_opener(urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor(cj)) r = opener.open("http://example.com/") ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2965.html  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules, Next: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access, Prev: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.20 ‘xmlrpc’ — XMLRPC server and client modules --------------------------------------------------- XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP as a transport. With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data. ‘xmlrpc’ is a package that collects server and client modules implementing XML-RPC. The modules are: * *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. * *note xmlrpc.server: 12f.  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access, Next: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers, Prev: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.21 ‘xmlrpc.client’ — XML-RPC client access ----------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/client.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ XML-RPC is a Remote Procedure Call method that uses XML passed via HTTP(S) as a transport. With it, a client can call methods with parameters on a remote server (the server is named by a URI) and get back structured data. This module supports writing XML-RPC client code; it handles all the details of translating between conformable Python objects and XML on the wire. Warning: The *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. module is not secure against maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. Changed in version 3.5: For HTTPS URIs, *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. now performs all the necessary certificate and hostname checks by default. *note Availability: 1d54.: not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. for more information. -- Class: xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy (uri, transport=None, encoding=None, verbose=False, allow_none=False, use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False, *, headers=(), context=None) A *note ServerProxy: a56. instance is an object that manages communication with a remote XML-RPC server. The required first argument is a URI (Uniform Resource Indicator), and will normally be the URL of the server. The optional second argument is a transport factory instance; by default it is an internal ‘SafeTransport’ instance for https: URLs and an internal HTTP ‘Transport’ instance otherwise. The optional third argument is an encoding, by default UTF-8. The optional fourth argument is a debugging flag. The following parameters govern the use of the returned proxy instance. If 'allow_none' is true, the Python constant ‘None’ will be translated into XML; the default behaviour is for ‘None’ to raise a *note TypeError: 534. This is a commonly used extension to the XML-RPC specification, but isn’t supported by all clients and servers; see http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php(2) for a description. The 'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause date/time values to be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. objects and binary data to be presented as *note bytes: 1c2. objects; this flag is false by default. *note datetime.datetime: 1cc, *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. objects may be passed to calls. The 'headers' parameter is an optional sequence of HTTP headers to send with each request, expressed as a sequence of 2-tuples representing the header name and value. (e.g. ‘[('Header-Name', 'value')]’). If an HTTPS URL is provided, 'context' may be *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. and configures the SSL settings of the underlying HTTPS connection. The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types' but it applies only to date/time values. Changed in version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added. Changed in version 3.8: The 'headers' parameter was added. Both the HTTP and HTTPS transports support the URL syntax extension for HTTP Basic Authentication: ‘http://user:pass@host:port/path’. The ‘user:pass’ portion will be base64-encoded as an HTTP ‘Authorization’ header, and sent to the remote server as part of the connection process when invoking an XML-RPC method. You only need to use this if the remote server requires a Basic Authentication user and password. The returned instance is a proxy object with methods that can be used to invoke corresponding RPC calls on the remote server. If the remote server supports the introspection API, the proxy can also be used to query the remote server for the methods it supports (service discovery) and fetch other server-associated metadata. Types that are conformable (e.g. that can be marshalled through XML), include the following (and except where noted, they are unmarshalled as the same Python type): XML-RPC type Python type --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘boolean’ *note bool: 463. ‘int’, ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i4’, *note int: 259. in range from -2147483648 to 2147483647. ‘i8’ or ‘biginteger’ Values get the ‘’ tag. ‘double’ or ‘float’ *note float: 2f1. Values get the ‘’ tag. ‘string’ *note str: 447. ‘array’ *note list: 60d. or *note tuple: 36b. containing conformable elements. Arrays are returned as *note lists: 60d. ‘struct’ *note dict: 258. Keys must be strings, values may be any conformable type. Objects of user-defined classes can be passed in; only their *note __dict__: 558. attribute is transmitted. ‘dateTime.iso8601’ *note DateTime: 13af. or *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. Returned type depends on values of 'use_builtin_types' and 'use_datetime' flags. ‘base64’ *note Binary: 3bfc, *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. Returned type depends on the value of the 'use_builtin_types' flag. ‘nil’ The ‘None’ constant. Passing is allowed only if 'allow_none' is true. ‘bigdecimal’ *note decimal.Decimal: 29f. Returned type only. This is the full set of data types supported by XML-RPC. Method calls may also raise a special *note Fault: 3bfd. instance, used to signal XML-RPC server errors, or *note ProtocolError: 3bfe. used to signal an error in the HTTP/HTTPS transport layer. Both *note Fault: 3bfd. and *note ProtocolError: 3bfe. derive from a base class called ‘Error’. Note that the xmlrpc client module currently does not marshal instances of subclasses of built-in types. When passing strings, characters special to XML such as ‘<’, ‘>’, and ‘&’ will be automatically escaped. However, it’s the caller’s responsibility to ensure that the string is free of characters that aren’t allowed in XML, such as the control characters with ASCII values between 0 and 31 (except, of course, tab, newline and carriage return); failing to do this will result in an XML-RPC request that isn’t well-formed XML. If you have to pass arbitrary bytes via XML-RPC, use *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. classes or the *note Binary: 3bfc. wrapper class described below. ‘Server’ is retained as an alias for *note ServerProxy: a56. for backwards compatibility. New code should use *note ServerProxy: a56. Changed in version 3.5: Added the 'context' argument. Changed in version 3.6: Added support of type tags with prefixes (e.g. ‘ex:nil’). Added support of unmarshalling additional types used by Apache XML-RPC implementation for numerics: ‘i1’, ‘i2’, ‘i8’, ‘biginteger’, ‘float’ and ‘bigdecimal’. See ‘https://ws.apache.org/xmlrpc/types.html’ for a description. See also ........ XML-RPC HOWTO(3) A good description of XML-RPC operation and client software in several languages. Contains pretty much everything an XML-RPC client developer needs to know. XML-RPC Introspection(4) Describes the XML-RPC protocol extension for introspection. XML-RPC Specification(5) The official specification. * Menu: * ServerProxy Objects:: * DateTime Objects:: * Binary Objects:: * Fault Objects:: * ProtocolError Objects:: * MultiCall Objects:: * Convenience Functions:: * Example of Client Usage:: * Example of Client and Server Usage:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xmlrpc/client.py (2) https://web.archive.org/web/20130120074804/http://ontosys.com/xml-rpc/extensions.php (3) https://tldp.org/HOWTO/XML-RPC-HOWTO/index.html (4) https://xmlrpc-c.sourceforge.io/introspection.html (5) http://xmlrpc.scripting.com/spec.html  File: python.info, Node: ServerProxy Objects, Next: DateTime Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.1 ServerProxy Objects ............................. A *note ServerProxy: a56. instance has a method corresponding to each remote procedure call accepted by the XML-RPC server. Calling the method performs an RPC, dispatched by both name and argument signature (e.g. the same method name can be overloaded with multiple argument signatures). The RPC finishes by returning a value, which may be either returned data in a conformant type or a *note Fault: 3bfd. or *note ProtocolError: 3bfe. object indicating an error. Servers that support the XML introspection API support some common methods grouped under the reserved ‘system’ attribute: -- Method: ServerProxy.system.listMethods () This method returns a list of strings, one for each (non-system) method supported by the XML-RPC server. -- Method: ServerProxy.system.methodSignature (name) This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC server. It returns an array of possible signatures for this method. A signature is an array of types. The first of these types is the return type of the method, the rest are parameters. Because multiple signatures (ie. overloading) is permitted, this method returns a list of signatures rather than a singleton. Signatures themselves are restricted to the top level parameters expected by a method. For instance if a method expects one array of structs as a parameter, and it returns a string, its signature is simply “string, array”. If it expects three integers and returns a string, its signature is “string, int, int, int”. If no signature is defined for the method, a non-array value is returned. In Python this means that the type of the returned value will be something other than list. -- Method: ServerProxy.system.methodHelp (name) This method takes one parameter, the name of a method implemented by the XML-RPC server. It returns a documentation string describing the use of that method. If no such string is available, an empty string is returned. The documentation string may contain HTML markup. Changed in version 3.5: Instances of *note ServerProxy: a56. support the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol for closing the underlying transport. A working example follows. The server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer def is_even(n): return n % 2 == 0 server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) print("Listening on port 8000...") server.register_function(is_even, "is_even") server.serve_forever() The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client with xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") as proxy: print("3 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(3))) print("100 is even: %s" % str(proxy.is_even(100)))  File: python.info, Node: DateTime Objects, Next: Binary Objects, Prev: ServerProxy Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.2 DateTime Objects .......................... -- Class: xmlrpc.client.DateTime This class may be initialized with seconds since the epoch, a time tuple, an ISO 8601 time/date string, or a *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. instance. It has the following methods, supported mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code: -- Method: decode (string) Accept a string as the instance’s new time value. -- Method: encode (out) Write the XML-RPC encoding of this *note DateTime: 13af. item to the 'out' stream object. It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through *note rich comparison: 1292. and *note __repr__(): 618. methods. A working example follows. The server code: import datetime from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer import xmlrpc.client def today(): today = datetime.datetime.today() return xmlrpc.client.DateTime(today) server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) print("Listening on port 8000...") server.register_function(today, "today") server.serve_forever() The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client import datetime proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") today = proxy.today() # convert the ISO8601 string to a datetime object converted = datetime.datetime.strptime(today.value, "%Y%m%dT%H:%M:%S") print("Today: %s" % converted.strftime("%d.%m.%Y, %H:%M"))  File: python.info, Node: Binary Objects, Next: Fault Objects, Prev: DateTime Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.3 Binary Objects ........................ -- Class: xmlrpc.client.Binary This class may be initialized from bytes data (which may include NULs). The primary access to the content of a *note Binary: 3bfc. object is provided by an attribute: -- Attribute: data The binary data encapsulated by the *note Binary: 3bfc. instance. The data is provided as a *note bytes: 1c2. object. *note Binary: 3bfc. objects have the following methods, supported mainly for internal use by the marshalling/unmarshalling code: -- Method: decode (bytes) Accept a base64 *note bytes: 1c2. object and decode it as the instance’s new data. -- Method: encode (out) Write the XML-RPC base 64 encoding of this binary item to the 'out' stream object. The encoded data will have newlines every 76 characters as per RFC 2045 section 6.8(1), which was the de facto standard base64 specification when the XML-RPC spec was written. It also supports certain of Python’s built-in operators through *note __eq__(): afa. and *note __ne__(): 14e2. methods. Example usage of the binary objects. We’re going to transfer an image over XMLRPC: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer import xmlrpc.client def python_logo(): with open("python_logo.jpg", "rb") as handle: return xmlrpc.client.Binary(handle.read()) server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) print("Listening on port 8000...") server.register_function(python_logo, 'python_logo') server.serve_forever() The client gets the image and saves it to a file: import xmlrpc.client proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") with open("fetched_python_logo.jpg", "wb") as handle: handle.write(proxy.python_logo().data) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2045.html#section-6.8  File: python.info, Node: Fault Objects, Next: ProtocolError Objects, Prev: Binary Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.4 Fault Objects ....................... -- Class: xmlrpc.client.Fault A *note Fault: 3bfd. object encapsulates the content of an XML-RPC fault tag. Fault objects have the following attributes: -- Attribute: faultCode An int indicating the fault type. -- Attribute: faultString A string containing a diagnostic message associated with the fault. In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a *note Fault: 3bfd. by returning a complex type object. The server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer # A marshalling error is going to occur because we're returning a # complex number def add(x, y): return x+y+0j server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) print("Listening on port 8000...") server.register_function(add, 'add') server.serve_forever() The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") try: proxy.add(2, 5) except xmlrpc.client.Fault as err: print("A fault occurred") print("Fault code: %d" % err.faultCode) print("Fault string: %s" % err.faultString)  File: python.info, Node: ProtocolError Objects, Next: MultiCall Objects, Prev: Fault Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.5 ProtocolError Objects ............................... -- Class: xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError A *note ProtocolError: 3bfe. object describes a protocol error in the underlying transport layer (such as a 404 ‘not found’ error if the server named by the URI does not exist). It has the following attributes: -- Attribute: url The URI or URL that triggered the error. -- Attribute: errcode The error code. -- Attribute: errmsg The error message or diagnostic string. -- Attribute: headers A dict containing the headers of the HTTP/HTTPS request that triggered the error. In the following example we’re going to intentionally cause a *note ProtocolError: 3bfe. by providing an invalid URI: import xmlrpc.client # create a ServerProxy with a URI that doesn't respond to XMLRPC requests proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://google.com/") try: proxy.some_method() except xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError as err: print("A protocol error occurred") print("URL: %s" % err.url) print("HTTP/HTTPS headers: %s" % err.headers) print("Error code: %d" % err.errcode) print("Error message: %s" % err.errmsg)  File: python.info, Node: MultiCall Objects, Next: Convenience Functions, Prev: ProtocolError Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.6 MultiCall Objects ........................... The *note MultiCall: 3c18. object provides a way to encapsulate multiple calls to a remote server into a single request (1). -- Class: xmlrpc.client.MultiCall (server) Create an object used to boxcar method calls. 'server' is the eventual target of the call. Calls can be made to the result object, but they will immediately return ‘None’, and only store the call name and parameters in the *note MultiCall: 3c18. object. Calling the object itself causes all stored calls to be transmitted as a single ‘system.multicall’ request. The result of this call is a *note generator: 105a.; iterating over this generator yields the individual results. A usage example of this class follows. The server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer def add(x, y): return x + y def subtract(x, y): return x - y def multiply(x, y): return x * y def divide(x, y): return x // y # A simple server with simple arithmetic functions server = SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) print("Listening on port 8000...") server.register_multicall_functions() server.register_function(add, 'add') server.register_function(subtract, 'subtract') server.register_function(multiply, 'multiply') server.register_function(divide, 'divide') server.serve_forever() The client code for the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client proxy = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000/") multicall = xmlrpc.client.MultiCall(proxy) multicall.add(7, 3) multicall.subtract(7, 3) multicall.multiply(7, 3) multicall.divide(7, 3) result = multicall() print("7+3=%d, 7-3=%d, 7*3=%d, 7//3=%d" % tuple(result)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This approach has been first presented in a discussion on xmlrpc.com (https://web.archive.org/web/20060624230303/http://www.xmlrpc.com/discuss/msgReader$1208?mode=topic).  File: python.info, Node: Convenience Functions, Next: Example of Client Usage, Prev: MultiCall Objects, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.7 Convenience Functions ............................... -- Function: xmlrpc.client.dumps (params, methodname=None, methodresponse=None, encoding=None, allow_none=False) Convert 'params' into an XML-RPC request. or into a response if 'methodresponse' is true. 'params' can be either a tuple of arguments or an instance of the *note Fault: 3bfd. exception class. If 'methodresponse' is true, only a single value can be returned, meaning that 'params' must be of length 1. 'encoding', if supplied, is the encoding to use in the generated XML; the default is UTF-8. Python’s *note None: 671. value cannot be used in standard XML-RPC; to allow using it via an extension, provide a true value for 'allow_none'. -- Function: xmlrpc.client.loads (data, use_datetime=False, use_builtin_types=False) Convert an XML-RPC request or response into Python objects, a ‘(params, methodname)’. 'params' is a tuple of argument; 'methodname' is a string, or ‘None’ if no method name is present in the packet. If the XML-RPC packet represents a fault condition, this function will raise a *note Fault: 3bfd. exception. The 'use_builtin_types' flag can be used to cause date/time values to be presented as *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. objects and binary data to be presented as *note bytes: 1c2. objects; this flag is false by default. The obsolete 'use_datetime' flag is similar to 'use_builtin_types' but it applies only to date/time values. Changed in version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added.  File: python.info, Node: Example of Client Usage, Next: Example of Client and Server Usage, Prev: Convenience Functions, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.8 Example of Client Usage ................................. # simple test program (from the XML-RPC specification) from xmlrpc.client import ServerProxy, Error # server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") # local server with ServerProxy("http://betty.userland.com") as proxy: print(proxy) try: print(proxy.examples.getStateName(41)) except Error as v: print("ERROR", v) To access an XML-RPC server through a HTTP proxy, you need to define a custom transport. The following example shows how: import http.client import xmlrpc.client class ProxiedTransport(xmlrpc.client.Transport): def set_proxy(self, host, port=None, headers=None): self.proxy = host, port self.proxy_headers = headers def make_connection(self, host): connection = http.client.HTTPConnection(*self.proxy) connection.set_tunnel(host, headers=self.proxy_headers) self._connection = host, connection return connection transport = ProxiedTransport() transport.set_proxy('proxy-server', 8080) server = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://betty.userland.com', transport=transport) print(server.examples.getStateName(41))  File: python.info, Node: Example of Client and Server Usage, Prev: Example of Client Usage, Up: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access 5.22.21.9 Example of Client and Server Usage ............................................ See *note SimpleXMLRPCServer Example: 3c1e.  File: python.info, Node: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers, Next: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library, Prev: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.22 ‘xmlrpc.server’ — Basic XML-RPC servers ----------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/xmlrpc/server.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. module provides a basic server framework for XML-RPC servers written in Python. Servers can either be free standing, using *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c21, or embedded in a CGI environment, using *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c22. Warning: The *note xmlrpc.server: 12f. module is not secure against maliciously constructed data. If you need to parse untrusted or unauthenticated data, see *note XML security: 3774. *note Availability: 1d54.: not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. for more information. -- Class: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer (addr, requestHandler=SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=False) Create a new server instance. This class provides methods for registration of functions that can be called by the XML-RPC protocol. The 'requestHandler' parameter should be a factory for request handler instances; it defaults to *note SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler: 131a. The 'addr' and 'requestHandler' parameters are passed to the *note socketserver.TCPServer: 1312. constructor. If 'logRequests' is true (the default), requests will be logged; setting this parameter to false will turn off logging. The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed on to *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned from the server. The 'bind_and_activate' parameter controls whether ‘server_bind()’ and ‘server_activate()’ are called immediately by the constructor; it defaults to true. Setting it to false allows code to manipulate the 'allow_reuse_address' class variable before the address is bound. The 'use_builtin_types' parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 1400. function and controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false. Changed in version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added. -- Class: xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (allow_none=False, encoding=None, use_builtin_types=False) Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment. The 'allow_none' and 'encoding' parameters are passed on to *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. and control the XML-RPC responses that will be returned from the server. The 'use_builtin_types' parameter is passed to the *note loads(): 1400. function and controls which types are processed when date/times values or binary data are received; it defaults to false. Changed in version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added. -- Class: xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler Create a new request handler instance. This request handler supports ‘POST’ requests and modifies logging so that the 'logRequests' parameter to the *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c21. constructor parameter is honored. * Menu: * SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects:: * CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler:: * Documenting XMLRPC server:: * DocXMLRPCServer Objects:: * DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/xmlrpc/server.py  File: python.info, Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects, Next: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler, Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers 5.22.22.1 SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects .................................... The *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c21. class is based on *note socketserver.TCPServer: 1312. and provides a means of creating simple, stand alone XML-RPC servers. -- Method: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_function (function=None, name=None) Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests. If 'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with 'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 12c7. will be used. 'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python identifiers, including the period character. This method can also be used as a decorator. When used as a decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to register 'function' under 'name'. If no 'name' is given, *note function.__name__: 12c7. will be used. Changed in version 3.7: *note register_function(): 3c25. can be used as a decorator. -- Method: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_instance (instance, allow_dotted_names=False) Register an object which is used to expose method names which have not been registered using *note register_function(): 3c25. If 'instance' contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the requested method name and the parameters from the request. Its API is ‘def _dispatch(self, method, params)’ (note that 'params' does not represent a variable argument list). If it calls an underlying function to perform its task, that function is called as ‘func(*params)’, expanding the parameter list. The return value from ‘_dispatch()’ is returned to the client as the result. If 'instance' does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for an attribute matching the name of the requested method. If the optional 'allow_dotted_names' argument is true and the instance does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, then if the requested method name contains periods, each component of the method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a simple hierarchical search is performed. The value found from this search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the return value is passed back to the client. Warning: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows intruders to access your module’s global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine. Only use this option on a secure, closed network. -- Method: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_introspection_functions () Registers the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’, ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’. -- Method: SimpleXMLRPCServer.register_multicall_functions () Registers the XML-RPC multicall function system.multicall. -- Attribute: SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler.rpc_paths An attribute value that must be a tuple listing valid path portions of the URL for receiving XML-RPC requests. Requests posted to other paths will result in a 404 “no such page” HTTP error. If this tuple is empty, all paths will be considered valid. The default value is ‘('/', '/RPC2')’. * Menu: * SimpleXMLRPCServer Example::  File: python.info, Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Example, Up: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects 5.22.22.2 SimpleXMLRPCServer Example .................................... Server code: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler # Restrict to a particular path. class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler): rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',) # Create server with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000), requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server: server.register_introspection_functions() # Register pow() function; this will use the value of # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'. server.register_function(pow) # Register a function under a different name def adder_function(x, y): return x + y server.register_function(adder_function, 'add') # Register an instance; all the methods of the instance are # published as XML-RPC methods (in this case, just 'mul'). class MyFuncs: def mul(self, x, y): return x * y server.register_instance(MyFuncs()) # Run the server's main loop server.serve_forever() The following client code will call the methods made available by the preceding server: import xmlrpc.client s = xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy('http://localhost:8000') print(s.pow(2,3)) # Returns 2**3 = 8 print(s.add(2,3)) # Returns 5 print(s.mul(5,2)) # Returns 5*2 = 10 # Print list of available methods print(s.system.listMethods()) ‘register_function()’ can also be used as a decorator. The previous server example can register functions in a decorator way: from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCServer from xmlrpc.server import SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler class RequestHandler(SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler): rpc_paths = ('/RPC2',) with SimpleXMLRPCServer(('localhost', 8000), requestHandler=RequestHandler) as server: server.register_introspection_functions() # Register pow() function; this will use the value of # pow.__name__ as the name, which is just 'pow'. server.register_function(pow) # Register a function under a different name, using # register_function as a decorator. *name* can only be given # as a keyword argument. @server.register_function(name='add') def adder_function(x, y): return x + y # Register a function under function.__name__. @server.register_function def mul(x, y): return x * y server.serve_forever() The following example included in the ‘Lib/xmlrpc/server.py’ module shows a server allowing dotted names and registering a multicall function. Warning: Enabling the 'allow_dotted_names' option allows intruders to access your module’s global variables and may allow intruders to execute arbitrary code on your machine. Only use this example only within a secure, closed network. import datetime class ExampleService: def getData(self): return '42' class currentTime: @staticmethod def getCurrentTime(): return datetime.datetime.now() with SimpleXMLRPCServer(("localhost", 8000)) as server: server.register_function(pow) server.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add') server.register_instance(ExampleService(), allow_dotted_names=True) server.register_multicall_functions() print('Serving XML-RPC on localhost port 8000') try: server.serve_forever() except KeyboardInterrupt: print("\nKeyboard interrupt received, exiting.") sys.exit(0) This ExampleService demo can be invoked from the command line: python -m xmlrpc.server The client that interacts with the above server is included in ‘Lib/xmlrpc/client.py’: server = ServerProxy("http://localhost:8000") try: print(server.currentTime.getCurrentTime()) except Error as v: print("ERROR", v) multi = MultiCall(server) multi.getData() multi.pow(2,9) multi.add(1,2) try: for response in multi(): print(response) except Error as v: print("ERROR", v) This client which interacts with the demo XMLRPC server can be invoked as: python -m xmlrpc.client  File: python.info, Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler, Next: Documenting XMLRPC server, Prev: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects, Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers 5.22.22.3 CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler ................................. The *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c22. class can be used to handle XML-RPC requests sent to Python CGI scripts. -- Method: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_function (function=None, name=None) Register a function that can respond to XML-RPC requests. If 'name' is given, it will be the method name associated with 'function', otherwise *note function.__name__: 12c7. will be used. 'name' is a string, and may contain characters not legal in Python identifiers, including the period character. This method can also be used as a decorator. When used as a decorator, 'name' can only be given as a keyword argument to register 'function' under 'name'. If no 'name' is given, *note function.__name__: 12c7. will be used. Changed in version 3.7: *note register_function(): 3c2c. can be used as a decorator. -- Method: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_instance (instance) Register an object which is used to expose method names which have not been registered using *note register_function(): 3c2c. If instance contains a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is called with the requested method name and the parameters from the request; the return value is returned to the client as the result. If instance does not have a ‘_dispatch()’ method, it is searched for an attribute matching the name of the requested method; if the requested method name contains periods, each component of the method name is searched for individually, with the effect that a simple hierarchical search is performed. The value found from this search is then called with the parameters from the request, and the return value is passed back to the client. -- Method: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_introspection_functions () Register the XML-RPC introspection functions ‘system.listMethods’, ‘system.methodHelp’ and ‘system.methodSignature’. -- Method: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.register_multicall_functions () Register the XML-RPC multicall function ‘system.multicall’. -- Method: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.handle_request (request_text=None) Handle an XML-RPC request. If 'request_text' is given, it should be the POST data provided by the HTTP server, otherwise the contents of stdin will be used. Example: class MyFuncs: def mul(self, x, y): return x * y handler = CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler() handler.register_function(pow) handler.register_function(lambda x,y: x+y, 'add') handler.register_introspection_functions() handler.register_instance(MyFuncs()) handler.handle_request()  File: python.info, Node: Documenting XMLRPC server, Next: DocXMLRPCServer Objects, Prev: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler, Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers 5.22.22.4 Documenting XMLRPC server ................................... These classes extend the above classes to serve HTML documentation in response to HTTP GET requests. Servers can either be free standing, using *note DocXMLRPCServer: 19bd, or embedded in a CGI environment, using *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c32. -- Class: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer (addr, requestHandler=DocXMLRPCRequestHandler, logRequests=True, allow_none=False, encoding=None, bind_and_activate=True, use_builtin_types=True) Create a new server instance. All parameters have the same meaning as for *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c21.; 'requestHandler' defaults to *note DocXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c33. Changed in version 3.3: The 'use_builtin_types' flag was added. -- Class: xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler Create a new instance to handle XML-RPC requests in a CGI environment. -- Class: xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCRequestHandler Create a new request handler instance. This request handler supports XML-RPC POST requests, documentation GET requests, and modifies logging so that the 'logRequests' parameter to the *note DocXMLRPCServer: 19bd. constructor parameter is honored.  File: python.info, Node: DocXMLRPCServer Objects, Next: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler, Prev: Documenting XMLRPC server, Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers 5.22.22.5 DocXMLRPCServer Objects ................................. The *note DocXMLRPCServer: 19bd. class is derived from *note SimpleXMLRPCServer: 3c21. and provides a means of creating self-documenting, stand alone XML-RPC servers. HTTP POST requests are handled as XML-RPC method calls. HTTP GET requests are handled by generating pydoc-style HTML documentation. This allows a server to provide its own web-based documentation. -- Method: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_title (server_title) Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation. This title will be used inside the HTML “title” element. -- Method: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_name (server_name) Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation. This name will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a “h1” element. -- Method: DocXMLRPCServer.set_server_documentation (server_documentation) Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation. This description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in the documentation.  File: python.info, Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler, Prev: DocXMLRPCServer Objects, Up: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers 5.22.22.6 DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler .................................... The *note DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c32. class is derived from *note CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler: 3c22. and provides a means of creating self-documenting, XML-RPC CGI scripts. HTTP POST requests are handled as XML-RPC method calls. HTTP GET requests are handled by generating pydoc-style HTML documentation. This allows a server to provide its own web-based documentation. -- Method: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_title (server_title) Set the title used in the generated HTML documentation. This title will be used inside the HTML “title” element. -- Method: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_name (server_name) Set the name used in the generated HTML documentation. This name will appear at the top of the generated documentation inside a “h1” element. -- Method: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler.set_server_documentation (server_documentation) Set the description used in the generated HTML documentation. This description will appear as a paragraph, below the server name, in the documentation.  File: python.info, Node: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library, Prev: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers, Up: Internet Protocols and Support 5.22.23 ‘ipaddress’ — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library ---------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/ipaddress.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ *note ipaddress: 80. provides the capabilities to create, manipulate and operate on IPv4 and IPv6 addresses and networks. The functions and classes in this module make it straightforward to handle various tasks related to IP addresses, including checking whether or not two hosts are on the same subnet, iterating over all hosts in a particular subnet, checking whether or not a string represents a valid IP address or network definition, and so on. This is the full module API reference—for an overview and introduction, see *note An introduction to the ipaddress module: 3c3f. Added in version 3.3. * Menu: * Convenience factory functions:: * IP Addresses:: * IP Network definitions:: * Interface objects:: * Other Module Level Functions:: * Custom Exceptions:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ipaddress.py  File: python.info, Node: Convenience factory functions, Next: IP Addresses, Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library 5.22.23.1 Convenience factory functions ....................................... The *note ipaddress: 80. module provides factory functions to conveniently create IP addresses, networks and interfaces: -- Function: ipaddress.ip_address (address) Return an *note IPv4Address: 1fe. or *note IPv6Address: 1ff. object depending on the IP address passed as argument. Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be considered to be IPv4 by default. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address. >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.168.0.1') IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::') IPv6Address('2001:db8::') -- Function: ipaddress.ip_network (address, strict=True) Return an *note IPv4Network: 200. or *note IPv6Network: 201. object depending on the IP address passed as argument. 'address' is a string or integer representing the IP network. Either IPv4 or IPv6 networks may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be considered to be IPv4 by default. 'strict' is passed to *note IPv4Network: 200. or *note IPv6Network: 201. constructor. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address, or if the network has host bits set. >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.168.0.0/28') IPv4Network('192.168.0.0/28') -- Function: ipaddress.ip_interface (address) Return an *note IPv4Interface: 180d. or *note IPv6Interface: 180e. object depending on the IP address passed as argument. 'address' is a string or integer representing the IP address. Either IPv4 or IPv6 addresses may be supplied; integers less than ‘2**32’ will be considered to be IPv4 by default. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if 'address' does not represent a valid IPv4 or IPv6 address. One downside of these convenience functions is that the need to handle both IPv4 and IPv6 formats means that error messages provide minimal information on the precise error, as the functions don’t know whether the IPv4 or IPv6 format was intended. More detailed error reporting can be obtained by calling the appropriate version specific class constructors directly.  File: python.info, Node: IP Addresses, Next: IP Network definitions, Prev: Convenience factory functions, Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library 5.22.23.2 IP Addresses ...................... * Menu: * Address objects:: * Conversion to Strings and Integers:: * Operators: Operators<3>.  File: python.info, Node: Address objects, Next: Conversion to Strings and Integers, Up: IP Addresses 5.22.23.3 Address objects ......................... The *note IPv4Address: 1fe. and *note IPv6Address: 1ff. objects share a lot of common attributes. Some attributes that are only meaningful for IPv6 addresses are also implemented by *note IPv4Address: 1fe. objects, in order to make it easier to write code that handles both IP versions correctly. Address objects are *note hashable: 60c, so they can be used as keys in dictionaries. -- Class: ipaddress.IPv4Address (address) Construct an IPv4 address. An *note AddressValueError: 3c46. is raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv4 address. The following constitutes a valid IPv4 address: 1. A string in decimal-dot notation, consisting of four decimal integers in the inclusive range 0–255, separated by dots (e.g. ‘192.168.0.1’). Each integer represents an octet (byte) in the address. Leading zeroes are not tolerated to prevent confusion with octal notation. 2. An integer that fits into 32 bits. 3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c2. object of length 4 (most significant octet first). >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(3232235521) IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(b'\xC0\xA8\x00\x01') IPv4Address('192.168.0.1') Changed in version 3.8: Leading zeros are tolerated, even in ambiguous cases that look like octal notation. Changed in version 3.9.5: Leading zeros are no longer tolerated and are treated as an error. IPv4 address strings are now parsed as strict as glibc *note inet_pton(): 962. -- Attribute: version The appropriate version number: ‘4’ for IPv4, ‘6’ for IPv6. -- Attribute: max_prefixlen The total number of bits in the address representation for this version: ‘32’ for IPv4, ‘128’ for IPv6. The prefix defines the number of leading bits in an address that are compared to determine whether or not an address is part of a network. -- Attribute: compressed -- Attribute: exploded The string representation in dotted decimal notation. Leading zeroes are never included in the representation. As IPv4 does not define a shorthand notation for addresses with octets set to zero, these two attributes are always the same as ‘str(addr)’ for IPv4 addresses. Exposing these attributes makes it easier to write display code that can handle both IPv4 and IPv6 addresses. -- Attribute: packed The binary representation of this address - a *note bytes: 1c2. object of the appropriate length (most significant octet first). This is 4 bytes for IPv4 and 16 bytes for IPv6. -- Attribute: reverse_pointer The name of the reverse DNS PTR record for the IP address, e.g.: >>> ipaddress.ip_address("127.0.0.1").reverse_pointer '1.0.0.127.in-addr.arpa' >>> ipaddress.ip_address("2001:db8::1").reverse_pointer '1.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.0.8.b.d.0.1.0.0.2.ip6.arpa' This is the name that could be used for performing a PTR lookup, not the resolved hostname itself. Added in version 3.5. -- Attribute: is_multicast ‘True’ if the address is reserved for multicast use. See RFC 3171(1) (for IPv4) or RFC 2373(2) (for IPv6). -- Attribute: is_private ‘True’ if the address is defined as not globally reachable by iana-ipv4-special-registry(3) (for IPv4) or iana-ipv6-special-registry(4) (for IPv6) with the following exceptions: * ‘is_private’ is ‘False’ for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’) * For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses and the following condition holds (see *note IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3c4e.): address.is_private == address.ipv4_mapped.is_private ‘is_private’ has value opposite to *note is_global: f5a, except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range) where they are both ‘False’. Changed in version 3.13: Fixed some false positives and false negatives. * ‘192.0.0.0/24’ is considered private with the exception of ‘192.0.0.9/32’ and ‘192.0.0.10/32’ (previously: only the ‘192.0.0.0/29’ sub-range was considered private). * ‘64:ff9b:1::/48’ is considered private. * ‘2002::/16’ is considered private. * There are exceptions within ‘2001::/23’ (otherwise considered private): ‘2001:1::1/128’, ‘2001:1::2/128’, ‘2001:3::/32’, ‘2001:4:112::/48’, ‘2001:20::/28’, ‘2001:30::/28’. The exceptions are not considered private. -- Attribute: is_global ‘True’ if the address is defined as globally reachable by iana-ipv4-special-registry(5) (for IPv4) or iana-ipv6-special-registry(6) (for IPv6) with the following exception: For IPv4-mapped IPv6-addresses the ‘is_private’ value is determined by the semantics of the underlying IPv4 addresses and the following condition holds (see *note IPv6Address.ipv4_mapped: 3c4e.): address.is_global == address.ipv4_mapped.is_global ‘is_global’ has value opposite to *note is_private: 1649, except for the shared address space (‘100.64.0.0/10’ range) where they are both ‘False’. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.13: Fixed some false positives and false negatives, see *note is_private: 1649. for details. -- Attribute: is_unspecified ‘True’ if the address is unspecified. See RFC 5735(7) (for IPv4) or RFC 2373(8) (for IPv6). -- Attribute: is_reserved ‘True’ if the address is noted as reserved by the IETF. For IPv4, this is only ‘240.0.0.0/4’, the ‘Reserved’ address block. For IPv6, this is all addresses allocated(9) as ‘Reserved by IETF’ for future use. Note: For IPv4, ‘is_reserved’ is not related to the address block value of the ‘Reserved-by-Protocol’ column in iana-ipv4-special-registry(10). Caution: For IPv6, ‘fec0::/10’ a former Site-Local scoped address prefix is currently excluded from that list (see *note is_site_local: 3c51. & RFC 3879(11)). -- Attribute: is_loopback ‘True’ if this is a loopback address. See RFC 3330(12) (for IPv4) or RFC 2373(13) (for IPv6). -- Attribute: is_link_local ‘True’ if the address is reserved for link-local usage. See RFC 3927(14). -- Attribute: ipv6_mapped *note IPv4Address: 1fe. object representing the IPv4-mapped IPv6 address. See RFC 4291(15). Added in version 3.13. -- Method: IPv4Address.__format__ (fmt) Returns a string representation of the IP address, controlled by an explicit format string. 'fmt' can be one of the following: ‘'s'’, the default option, equivalent to *note str(): 447, ‘'b'’ for a zero-padded binary string, ‘'X'’ or ‘'x'’ for an uppercase or lowercase hexadecimal representation, or ‘'n'’, which is equivalent to ‘'b'’ for IPv4 addresses and ‘'x'’ for IPv6. For binary and hexadecimal representations, the form specifier ‘'#'’ and the grouping option ‘'_'’ are available. ‘__format__’ is used by ‘format’, ‘str.format’ and f-strings. >>> format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')) '192.168.0.1' >>> '{:#b}'.format(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')) '0b11000000101010000000000000000001' >>> f'{ipaddress.IPv6Address("2001:db8::1000"):s}' '2001:db8::1000' >>> format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000'), '_X') '2001_0DB8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000' >>> '{:#_n}'.format(ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000')) '0x2001_0db8_0000_0000_0000_0000_0000_1000' Added in version 3.9. -- Class: ipaddress.IPv6Address (address) Construct an IPv6 address. An *note AddressValueError: 3c46. is raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv6 address. The following constitutes a valid IPv6 address: 1. A string consisting of eight groups of four hexadecimal digits, each group representing 16 bits. The groups are separated by colons. This describes an 'exploded' (longhand) notation. The string can also be 'compressed' (shorthand notation) by various means. See RFC 4291(16) for details. For example, ‘"0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0abc:0007:0def"’ can be compressed to ‘"::abc:7:def"’. Optionally, the string may also have a scope zone ID, expressed with a suffix ‘%scope_id’. If present, the scope ID must be non-empty, and may not contain ‘%’. See RFC 4007(17) for details. For example, ‘fe80::1234%1’ might identify address ‘fe80::1234’ on the first link of the node. 2. An integer that fits into 128 bits. 3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c2. object of length 16, big-endian. >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') IPv6Address('2001:db8::1000') >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1') IPv6Address('ff02::5678%1') -- Attribute: compressed The short form of the address representation, with leading zeroes in groups omitted and the longest sequence of groups consisting entirely of zeroes collapsed to a single empty group. This is also the value returned by ‘str(addr)’ for IPv6 addresses. -- Attribute: exploded The long form of the address representation, with all leading zeroes and groups consisting entirely of zeroes included. For the following attributes and methods, see the corresponding documentation of the *note IPv4Address: 1fe. class: -- Attribute: packed -- Attribute: reverse_pointer -- Attribute: version -- Attribute: max_prefixlen -- Attribute: is_multicast -- Attribute: is_private -- Attribute: is_global Added in version 3.4. -- Attribute: is_unspecified -- Attribute: is_reserved -- Attribute: is_loopback -- Attribute: is_link_local -- Attribute: is_site_local ‘True’ if the address is reserved for site-local usage. Note that the site-local address space has been deprecated by RFC 3879(18). Use *note is_private: 1649. to test if this address is in the space of unique local addresses as defined by RFC 4193(19). -- Attribute: ipv4_mapped For addresses that appear to be IPv4 mapped addresses (starting with ‘::FFFF/96’), this property will report the embedded IPv4 address. For any other address, this property will be ‘None’. -- Attribute: scope_id For scoped addresses as defined by RFC 4007(20), this property identifies the particular zone of the address’s scope that the address belongs to, as a string. When no scope zone is specified, this property will be ‘None’. -- Attribute: sixtofour For addresses that appear to be 6to4 addresses (starting with ‘2002::/16’) as defined by RFC 3056(21), this property will report the embedded IPv4 address. For any other address, this property will be ‘None’. -- Attribute: teredo For addresses that appear to be Teredo addresses (starting with ‘2001::/32’) as defined by RFC 4380(22), this property will report the embedded ‘(server, client)’ IP address pair. For any other address, this property will be ‘None’. -- Method: IPv6Address.__format__ (fmt) Refer to the corresponding method documentation in *note IPv4Address: 1fe. Added in version 3.9. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3171.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html (3) https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml (4) https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml (5) https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml (6) https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv6-special-registry/iana-ipv6-special-registry.xhtml (7) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5735.html (8) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html (9) https://www.iana.org/assignments/ipv6-address-space/ipv6-address-space.xhtml (10) https://www.iana.org/assignments/iana-ipv4-special-registry/iana-ipv4-special-registry.xhtml (11) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html (12) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3330.html (13) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2373.html (14) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3927.html (15) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html (16) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4291.html (17) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html (18) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3879.html (19) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4193.html (20) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4007.html (21) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3056.html (22) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4380.html  File: python.info, Node: Conversion to Strings and Integers, Next: Operators<3>, Prev: Address objects, Up: IP Addresses 5.22.23.4 Conversion to Strings and Integers ............................................ To interoperate with networking interfaces such as the socket module, addresses must be converted to strings or integers. This is handled using the *note str(): 447. and *note int(): 259. builtin functions: >>> str(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')) '192.168.0.1' >>> int(ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.168.0.1')) 3232235521 >>> str(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')) '::1' >>> int(ipaddress.IPv6Address('::1')) 1 Note that IPv6 scoped addresses are converted to integers without scope zone ID.  File: python.info, Node: Operators<3>, Prev: Conversion to Strings and Integers, Up: IP Addresses 5.22.23.5 Operators ................... Address objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6). * Menu: * Comparison operators:: * Arithmetic operators::  File: python.info, Node: Comparison operators, Next: Arithmetic operators, Up: Operators<3> 5.22.23.6 Comparison operators .............................. Address objects can be compared with the usual set of comparison operators. Same IPv6 addresses with different scope zone IDs are not equal. Some examples: >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') > IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') True >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') == IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') False >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') != IPv4Address('127.0.0.1') True >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234') == IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') False >>> IPv6Address('fe80::1234%1') != IPv6Address('fe80::1234%2') True  File: python.info, Node: Arithmetic operators, Prev: Comparison operators, Up: Operators<3> 5.22.23.7 Arithmetic operators .............................. Integers can be added to or subtracted from address objects. Some examples: >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') + 3 IPv4Address('127.0.0.5') >>> IPv4Address('127.0.0.2') - 3 IPv4Address('126.255.255.255') >>> IPv4Address('255.255.255.255') + 1 Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ipaddress.AddressValueError: 4294967296 (>= 2**32) is not permitted as an IPv4 address  File: python.info, Node: IP Network definitions, Next: Interface objects, Prev: IP Addresses, Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library 5.22.23.8 IP Network definitions ................................ The *note IPv4Network: 200. and *note IPv6Network: 201. objects provide a mechanism for defining and inspecting IP network definitions. A network definition consists of a 'mask' and a 'network address', and as such defines a range of IP addresses that equal the network address when masked (binary AND) with the mask. For example, a network definition with the mask ‘255.255.255.0’ and the network address ‘192.168.1.0’ consists of IP addresses in the inclusive range ‘192.168.1.0’ to ‘192.168.1.255’. * Menu: * Prefix, net mask and host mask: Prefix net mask and host mask. * Network objects:: * Operators: Operators<4>.  File: python.info, Node: Prefix net mask and host mask, Next: Network objects, Up: IP Network definitions 5.22.23.9 Prefix, net mask and host mask ........................................ There are several equivalent ways to specify IP network masks. A 'prefix' ‘/’ is a notation that denotes how many high-order bits are set in the network mask. A 'net mask' is an IP address with some number of high-order bits set. Thus the prefix ‘/24’ is equivalent to the net mask ‘255.255.255.0’ in IPv4, or ‘ffff:ff00::’ in IPv6. In addition, a 'host mask' is the logical inverse of a 'net mask', and is sometimes used (for example in Cisco access control lists) to denote a network mask. The host mask equivalent to ‘/24’ in IPv4 is ‘0.0.0.255’.  File: python.info, Node: Network objects, Next: Operators<4>, Prev: Prefix net mask and host mask, Up: IP Network definitions 5.22.23.10 Network objects .......................... All attributes implemented by address objects are implemented by network objects as well. In addition, network objects implement additional attributes. All of these are common between *note IPv4Network: 200. and *note IPv6Network: 201, so to avoid duplication they are only documented for *note IPv4Network: 200. Network objects are *note hashable: 60c, so they can be used as keys in dictionaries. -- Class: ipaddress.IPv4Network (address, strict=True) Construct an IPv4 network definition. 'address' can be one of the following: 1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional mask, separated by a slash (‘/’). The IP address is the network address, and the mask can be either a single number, which means it’s a 'prefix', or a string representation of an IPv4 address. If it’s the latter, the mask is interpreted as a 'net mask' if it starts with a non-zero field, or as a 'host mask' if it starts with a zero field, with the single exception of an all-zero mask which is treated as a 'net mask'. If no mask is provided, it’s considered to be ‘/32’. For example, the following 'address' specifications are equivalent: ‘192.168.1.0/24’, ‘192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0’ and ‘192.168.1.0/0.0.0.255’. 2. An integer that fits into 32 bits. This is equivalent to a single-address network, with the network address being 'address' and the mask being ‘/32’. 3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c2. object of length 4, big-endian. The interpretation is similar to an integer 'address'. 4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address description is either a string, a 32-bits integer, a 4-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv4Address object; and the netmask is either an integer representing the prefix length (e.g. ‘24’) or a string representing the prefix mask (e.g. ‘255.255.255.0’). An *note AddressValueError: 3c46. is raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv4 address. A *note NetmaskValueError: 3c68. is raised if the mask is not valid for an IPv4 address. If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied address, then *note ValueError: 204. is raised. Otherwise, the host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network address. Unless stated otherwise, all network methods accepting other network/address objects will raise *note TypeError: 534. if the argument’s IP version is incompatible to ‘self’. Changed in version 3.5: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address' constructor parameter. -- Attribute: version -- Attribute: max_prefixlen Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note IPv4Address: 1fe. -- Attribute: is_multicast -- Attribute: is_private -- Attribute: is_unspecified -- Attribute: is_reserved -- Attribute: is_loopback -- Attribute: is_link_local These attributes are true for the network as a whole if they are true for both the network address and the broadcast address. -- Attribute: network_address The network address for the network. The network address and the prefix length together uniquely define a network. -- Attribute: broadcast_address The broadcast address for the network. Packets sent to the broadcast address should be received by every host on the network. -- Attribute: hostmask The host mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 1fe. object. -- Attribute: netmask The net mask, as an *note IPv4Address: 1fe. object. -- Attribute: with_prefixlen -- Attribute: compressed -- Attribute: exploded A string representation of the network, with the mask in prefix notation. ‘with_prefixlen’ and ‘compressed’ are always the same as ‘str(network)’. ‘exploded’ uses the exploded form the network address. -- Attribute: with_netmask A string representation of the network, with the mask in net mask notation. -- Attribute: with_hostmask A string representation of the network, with the mask in host mask notation. -- Attribute: num_addresses The total number of addresses in the network. -- Attribute: prefixlen Length of the network prefix, in bits. -- Method: hosts () Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network. The usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the network address itself and the network broadcast address. For networks with a mask length of 31, the network address and network broadcast address are also included in the result. Networks with a mask of 32 will return a list containing the single host address. >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/29').hosts()) [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.2'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.3'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.4'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.5'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.6')] >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/31').hosts()) [IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')] >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').hosts()) [IPv4Address('192.0.2.1')] -- Method: overlaps (other) ‘True’ if this network is partly or wholly contained in 'other' or 'other' is wholly contained in this network. -- Method: address_exclude (network) Computes the network definitions resulting from removing the given 'network' from this one. Returns an iterator of network objects. Raises *note ValueError: 204. if 'network' is not completely contained in this network. >>> n1 = ip_network('192.0.2.0/28') >>> n2 = ip_network('192.0.2.1/32') >>> list(n1.address_exclude(n2)) [IPv4Network('192.0.2.8/29'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.4/30'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.2/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32')] -- Method: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) The subnets that join to make the current network definition, depending on the argument values. 'prefixlen_diff' is the amount our prefix length should be increased by. 'new_prefix' is the desired new prefix of the subnets; it must be larger than our prefix. One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and 'new_prefix' must be set. Returns an iterator of network objects. >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets()) [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')] >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(prefixlen_diff=2)) [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')] >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=26)) [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.64/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/26'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.192/26')] >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=23)) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in raise ValueError('new prefix must be longer') ValueError: new prefix must be longer >>> list(ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').subnets(new_prefix=25)) [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')] -- Method: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) The supernet containing this network definition, depending on the argument values. 'prefixlen_diff' is the amount our prefix length should be decreased by. 'new_prefix' is the desired new prefix of the supernet; it must be smaller than our prefix. One and only one of 'prefixlen_diff' and 'new_prefix' must be set. Returns a single network object. >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet() IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/23') >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(prefixlen_diff=2) IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/22') >>> ip_network('192.0.2.0/24').supernet(new_prefix=20) IPv4Network('192.0.0.0/20') -- Method: subnet_of (other) Return ‘True’ if this network is a subnet of 'other'. >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24') >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30') >>> b.subnet_of(a) True Added in version 3.7. -- Method: supernet_of (other) Return ‘True’ if this network is a supernet of 'other'. >>> a = ip_network('192.168.1.0/24') >>> b = ip_network('192.168.1.128/30') >>> a.supernet_of(b) True Added in version 3.7. -- Method: compare_networks (other) Compare this network to 'other'. In this comparison only the network addresses are considered; host bits aren’t. Returns either ‘-1’, ‘0’ or ‘1’. >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.2/32')) -1 >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.0/32')) 1 >>> ip_network('192.0.2.1/32').compare_networks(ip_network('192.0.2.1/32')) 0 Deprecated since version 3.7: It uses the same ordering and comparison algorithm as “<”, “==”, and “>” -- Class: ipaddress.IPv6Network (address, strict=True) Construct an IPv6 network definition. 'address' can be one of the following: 1. A string consisting of an IP address and an optional prefix length, separated by a slash (‘/’). The IP address is the network address, and the prefix length must be a single number, the 'prefix'. If no prefix length is provided, it’s considered to be ‘/128’. Note that currently expanded netmasks are not supported. That means ‘2001:db00::0/24’ is a valid argument while ‘2001:db00::0/ffff:ff00::’ is not. 2. An integer that fits into 128 bits. This is equivalent to a single-address network, with the network address being 'address' and the mask being ‘/128’. 3. An integer packed into a *note bytes: 1c2. object of length 16, big-endian. The interpretation is similar to an integer 'address'. 4. A two-tuple of an address description and a netmask, where the address description is either a string, a 128-bits integer, a 16-bytes packed integer, or an existing IPv6Address object; and the netmask is an integer representing the prefix length. An *note AddressValueError: 3c46. is raised if 'address' is not a valid IPv6 address. A *note NetmaskValueError: 3c68. is raised if the mask is not valid for an IPv6 address. If 'strict' is ‘True’ and host bits are set in the supplied address, then *note ValueError: 204. is raised. Otherwise, the host bits are masked out to determine the appropriate network address. Changed in version 3.5: Added the two-tuple form for the 'address' constructor parameter. -- Attribute: version -- Attribute: max_prefixlen -- Attribute: is_multicast -- Attribute: is_private -- Attribute: is_unspecified -- Attribute: is_reserved -- Attribute: is_loopback -- Attribute: is_link_local -- Attribute: network_address -- Attribute: broadcast_address -- Attribute: hostmask -- Attribute: netmask -- Attribute: with_prefixlen -- Attribute: compressed -- Attribute: exploded -- Attribute: with_netmask -- Attribute: with_hostmask -- Attribute: num_addresses -- Attribute: prefixlen -- Method: hosts () Returns an iterator over the usable hosts in the network. The usable hosts are all the IP addresses that belong to the network, except the Subnet-Router anycast address. For networks with a mask length of 127, the Subnet-Router anycast address is also included in the result. Networks with a mask of 128 will return a list containing the single host address. -- Method: overlaps (other) -- Method: address_exclude (network) -- Method: subnets (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) -- Method: supernet (prefixlen_diff=1, new_prefix=None) -- Method: subnet_of (other) -- Method: supernet_of (other) -- Method: compare_networks (other) Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note IPv4Network: 200. -- Attribute: is_site_local These attribute is true for the network as a whole if it is true for both the network address and the broadcast address.  File: python.info, Node: Operators<4>, Prev: Network objects, Up: IP Network definitions 5.22.23.11 Operators .................... Network objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6). * Menu: * Logical operators:: * Iteration:: * Networks as containers of addresses::  File: python.info, Node: Logical operators, Next: Iteration, Up: Operators<4> 5.22.23.12 Logical operators ............................ Network objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators. Network objects are ordered first by network address, then by net mask.  File: python.info, Node: Iteration, Next: Networks as containers of addresses, Prev: Logical operators, Up: Operators<4> 5.22.23.13 Iteration .................... Network objects can be iterated to list all the addresses belonging to the network. For iteration, 'all' hosts are returned, including unusable hosts (for usable hosts, use the *note hosts(): 3c7c. method). An example: >>> for addr in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28'): ... addr ... IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') IPv4Address('192.0.2.2') IPv4Address('192.0.2.3') IPv4Address('192.0.2.4') IPv4Address('192.0.2.5') IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') IPv4Address('192.0.2.7') IPv4Address('192.0.2.8') IPv4Address('192.0.2.9') IPv4Address('192.0.2.10') IPv4Address('192.0.2.11') IPv4Address('192.0.2.12') IPv4Address('192.0.2.13') IPv4Address('192.0.2.14') IPv4Address('192.0.2.15')  File: python.info, Node: Networks as containers of addresses, Prev: Iteration, Up: Operators<4> 5.22.23.14 Networks as containers of addresses .............................................. Network objects can act as containers of addresses. Some examples: >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[0] IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') >>> IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28')[15] IPv4Address('192.0.2.15') >>> IPv4Address('192.0.2.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28') True >>> IPv4Address('192.0.3.6') in IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/28') False  File: python.info, Node: Interface objects, Next: Other Module Level Functions, Prev: IP Network definitions, Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library 5.22.23.15 Interface objects ............................ Interface objects are *note hashable: 60c, so they can be used as keys in dictionaries. -- Class: ipaddress.IPv4Interface (address) Construct an IPv4 interface. The meaning of 'address' is as in the constructor of *note IPv4Network: 200, except that arbitrary host addresses are always accepted. *note IPv4Interface: 180d. is a subclass of *note IPv4Address: 1fe, so it inherits all the attributes from that class. In addition, the following attributes are available: -- Attribute: ip The address (*note IPv4Address: 1fe.) without network information. >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') >>> interface.ip IPv4Address('192.0.2.5') -- Attribute: network The network (*note IPv4Network: 200.) this interface belongs to. >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') >>> interface.network IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') -- Attribute: with_prefixlen A string representation of the interface with the mask in prefix notation. >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') >>> interface.with_prefixlen '192.0.2.5/24' -- Attribute: with_netmask A string representation of the interface with the network as a net mask. >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') >>> interface.with_netmask '192.0.2.5/255.255.255.0' -- Attribute: with_hostmask A string representation of the interface with the network as a host mask. >>> interface = IPv4Interface('192.0.2.5/24') >>> interface.with_hostmask '192.0.2.5/0.0.0.255' -- Class: ipaddress.IPv6Interface (address) Construct an IPv6 interface. The meaning of 'address' is as in the constructor of *note IPv6Network: 201, except that arbitrary host addresses are always accepted. *note IPv6Interface: 180e. is a subclass of *note IPv6Address: 1ff, so it inherits all the attributes from that class. In addition, the following attributes are available: -- Attribute: ip -- Attribute: network -- Attribute: with_prefixlen -- Attribute: with_netmask -- Attribute: with_hostmask Refer to the corresponding attribute documentation in *note IPv4Interface: 180d. * Menu: * Operators: Operators<5>.  File: python.info, Node: Operators<5>, Up: Interface objects 5.22.23.16 Operators .................... Interface objects support some operators. Unless stated otherwise, operators can only be applied between compatible objects (i.e. IPv4 with IPv4, IPv6 with IPv6). * Menu: * Logical operators: Logical operators<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Logical operators<2>, Up: Operators<5> 5.22.23.17 Logical operators ............................ Interface objects can be compared with the usual set of logical operators. For equality comparison (‘==’ and ‘!=’), both the IP address and network must be the same for the objects to be equal. An interface will not compare equal to any address or network object. For ordering (‘<’, ‘>’, etc) the rules are different. Interface and address objects with the same IP version can be compared, and the address objects will always sort before the interface objects. Two interface objects are first compared by their networks and, if those are the same, then by their IP addresses.  File: python.info, Node: Other Module Level Functions, Next: Custom Exceptions, Prev: Interface objects, Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library 5.22.23.18 Other Module Level Functions ....................................... The module also provides the following module level functions: -- Function: ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed (address) Represent an address as 4 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order. 'address' is an integer representation of an IPv4 IP address. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an IPv4 IP address. >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985) IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') >>> ipaddress.v4_int_to_packed(3221225985) b'\xc0\x00\x02\x01' -- Function: ipaddress.v6_int_to_packed (address) Represent an address as 16 packed bytes in network (big-endian) order. 'address' is an integer representation of an IPv6 IP address. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if the integer is negative or too large to be an IPv6 IP address. -- Function: ipaddress.summarize_address_range (first, last) Return an iterator of the summarized network range given the first and last IP addresses. 'first' is the first *note IPv4Address: 1fe. or *note IPv6Address: 1ff. in the range and 'last' is the last *note IPv4Address: 1fe. or *note IPv6Address: 1ff. in the range. A *note TypeError: 534. is raised if 'first' or 'last' are not IP addresses or are not of the same version. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if 'last' is not greater than 'first' or if 'first' address version is not 4 or 6. >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ipaddress.summarize_address_range( ... ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.0'), ... ipaddress.IPv4Address('192.0.2.130'))] [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/31'), IPv4Network('192.0.2.130/32')] -- Function: ipaddress.collapse_addresses (addresses) Return an iterator of the collapsed *note IPv4Network: 200. or *note IPv6Network: 201. objects. 'addresses' is an *note iterable: 121a. of *note IPv4Network: 200. or *note IPv6Network: 201. objects. A *note TypeError: 534. is raised if 'addresses' contains mixed version objects. >>> [ipaddr for ipaddr in ... ipaddress.collapse_addresses([ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/25'), ... ipaddress.IPv4Network('192.0.2.128/25')])] [IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24')] -- Function: ipaddress.get_mixed_type_key (obj) Return a key suitable for sorting between networks and addresses. Address and Network objects are not sortable by default; they’re fundamentally different, so the expression: IPv4Address('192.0.2.0') <= IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') doesn’t make sense. There are some times however, where you may wish to have *note ipaddress: 80. sort these anyway. If you need to do this, you can use this function as the 'key' argument to *note sorted(): bce. 'obj' is either a network or address object.  File: python.info, Node: Custom Exceptions, Prev: Other Module Level Functions, Up: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library 5.22.23.19 Custom Exceptions ............................ To support more specific error reporting from class constructors, the module defines the following exceptions: -- Exception: ipaddress.AddressValueError (ValueError) Any value error related to the address. -- Exception: ipaddress.NetmaskValueError (ValueError) Any value error related to the net mask.  File: python.info, Node: Multimedia Services, Next: Internationalization, Prev: Internet Protocols and Support, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.23 Multimedia Services ======================== The modules described in this chapter implement various algorithms or interfaces that are mainly useful for multimedia applications. They are available at the discretion of the installation. Here’s an overview: * Menu: * wave — Read and write WAV files:: * colorsys — Conversions between color systems::  File: python.info, Node: wave — Read and write WAV files, Next: colorsys — Conversions between color systems, Up: Multimedia Services 5.23.1 ‘wave’ — Read and write WAV files ---------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/wave.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note wave: 113. module provides a convenient interface to the Waveform Audio “WAVE” (or “WAV”) file format. Only uncompressed PCM encoded wave files are supported. Changed in version 3.12: Support for ‘WAVE_FORMAT_EXTENSIBLE’ headers was added, provided that the extended format is ‘KSDATAFORMAT_SUBTYPE_PCM’. The *note wave: 113. module defines the following function and exception: -- Function: wave.open (file, mode=None) If 'file' is a string, open the file by that name, otherwise treat it as a file-like object. 'mode' can be: ‘'rb'’ Read only mode. ‘'wb'’ Write only mode. Note that it does not allow read/write WAV files. A 'mode' of ‘'rb'’ returns a *note Wave_read: 2b8. object, while a 'mode' of ‘'wb'’ returns a *note Wave_write: 2b9. object. If 'mode' is omitted and a file-like object is passed as 'file', ‘file.mode’ is used as the default value for 'mode'. If you pass in a file-like object, the wave object will not close it when its ‘close()’ method is called; it is the caller’s responsibility to close the file object. The *note open(): 94b. function may be used in a *note with: 5ce. statement. When the ‘with’ block completes, the *note Wave_read.close(): 3cb9. or *note Wave_write.close(): 3cba. method is called. Changed in version 3.4: Added support for unseekable files. -- Exception: wave.Error An error raised when something is impossible because it violates the WAV specification or hits an implementation deficiency. * Menu: * Wave_read Objects:: * Wave_write Objects:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/wave.py  File: python.info, Node: Wave_read Objects, Next: Wave_write Objects, Up: wave — Read and write WAV files 5.23.1.1 Wave_read Objects .......................... -- Class: wave.Wave_read Read a WAV file. Wave_read objects, as returned by *note open(): 94b, have the following methods: -- Method: close () Close the stream if it was opened by *note wave: 113, and make the instance unusable. This is called automatically on object collection. -- Method: getnchannels () Returns number of audio channels (‘1’ for mono, ‘2’ for stereo). -- Method: getsampwidth () Returns sample width in bytes. -- Method: getframerate () Returns sampling frequency. -- Method: getnframes () Returns number of audio frames. -- Method: getcomptype () Returns compression type (‘'NONE'’ is the only supported type). -- Method: getcompname () Human-readable version of *note getcomptype(): 3cc2. Usually ‘'not compressed'’ parallels ‘'NONE'’. -- Method: getparams () Returns a *note namedtuple(): 1ca. ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, equivalent to output of the ‘get*()’ methods. -- Method: readframes (n) Reads and returns at most 'n' frames of audio, as a *note bytes: 1c2. object. -- Method: rewind () Rewind the file pointer to the beginning of the audio stream. The following two methods are defined for compatibility with the old ‘aifc’ module, and don’t do anything interesting. -- Method: getmarkers () Returns ‘None’. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The method only existed for compatibility with the ‘aifc’ module which has been removed in Python 3.13. -- Method: getmark (id) Raise an error. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The method only existed for compatibility with the ‘aifc’ module which has been removed in Python 3.13. The following two methods define a term “position” which is compatible between them, and is otherwise implementation dependent. -- Method: setpos (pos) Set the file pointer to the specified position. -- Method: tell () Return current file pointer position.  File: python.info, Node: Wave_write Objects, Prev: Wave_read Objects, Up: wave — Read and write WAV files 5.23.1.2 Wave_write Objects ........................... -- Class: wave.Wave_write Write a WAV file. Wave_write objects, as returned by *note open(): 94b. For seekable output streams, the ‘wave’ header will automatically be updated to reflect the number of frames actually written. For unseekable streams, the 'nframes' value must be accurate when the first frame data is written. An accurate 'nframes' value can be achieved either by calling *note setnframes(): 3cca. or *note setparams(): 3ccb. with the number of frames that will be written before *note close(): 3cba. is called and then using *note writeframesraw(): fe5. to write the frame data, or by calling *note writeframes(): fe6. with all of the frame data to be written. In the latter case *note writeframes(): fe6. will calculate the number of frames in the data and set 'nframes' accordingly before writing the frame data. Changed in version 3.4: Added support for unseekable files. Wave_write objects have the following methods: -- Method: close () Make sure 'nframes' is correct, and close the file if it was opened by *note wave: 113. This method is called upon object collection. It will raise an exception if the output stream is not seekable and 'nframes' does not match the number of frames actually written. -- Method: setnchannels (n) Set the number of channels. -- Method: setsampwidth (n) Set the sample width to 'n' bytes. -- Method: setframerate (n) Set the frame rate to 'n'. Changed in version 3.2: A non-integral input to this method is rounded to the nearest integer. -- Method: setnframes (n) Set the number of frames to 'n'. This will be changed later if the number of frames actually written is different (this update attempt will raise an error if the output stream is not seekable). -- Method: setcomptype (type, name) Set the compression type and description. At the moment, only compression type ‘NONE’ is supported, meaning no compression. -- Method: setparams (tuple) The 'tuple' should be ‘(nchannels, sampwidth, framerate, nframes, comptype, compname)’, with values valid for the ‘set*()’ methods. Sets all parameters. -- Method: tell () Return current position in the file, with the same disclaimer for the *note Wave_read.tell(): 3cc8. and *note Wave_read.setpos(): 3cc7. methods. -- Method: writeframesraw (data) Write audio frames, without correcting 'nframes'. Changed in version 3.4: Any *note bytes-like object: d2d. is now accepted. -- Method: writeframes (data) Write audio frames and make sure 'nframes' is correct. It will raise an error if the output stream is not seekable and the total number of frames that have been written after 'data' has been written does not match the previously set value for 'nframes'. Changed in version 3.4: Any *note bytes-like object: d2d. is now accepted. Note that it is invalid to set any parameters after calling *note writeframes(): fe6. or *note writeframesraw(): fe5, and any attempt to do so will raise *note wave.Error: 3cbb.  File: python.info, Node: colorsys — Conversions between color systems, Prev: wave — Read and write WAV files, Up: Multimedia Services 5.23.2 ‘colorsys’ — Conversions between color systems ----------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/colorsys.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note colorsys: 1f. module defines bidirectional conversions of color values between colors expressed in the RGB (Red Green Blue) color space used in computer monitors and three other coordinate systems: YIQ, HLS (Hue Lightness Saturation) and HSV (Hue Saturation Value). Coordinates in all of these color spaces are floating-point values. In the YIQ space, the Y coordinate is between 0 and 1, but the I and Q coordinates can be positive or negative. In all other spaces, the coordinates are all between 0 and 1. See also ........ More information about color spaces can be found at ‘https://poynton.ca/ColorFAQ.html’ and ‘https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/color-spaces.htm’. The *note colorsys: 1f. module defines the following functions: -- Function: colorsys.rgb_to_yiq (r, g, b) Convert the color from RGB coordinates to YIQ coordinates. -- Function: colorsys.yiq_to_rgb (y, i, q) Convert the color from YIQ coordinates to RGB coordinates. -- Function: colorsys.rgb_to_hls (r, g, b) Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HLS coordinates. -- Function: colorsys.hls_to_rgb (h, l, s) Convert the color from HLS coordinates to RGB coordinates. -- Function: colorsys.rgb_to_hsv (r, g, b) Convert the color from RGB coordinates to HSV coordinates. -- Function: colorsys.hsv_to_rgb (h, s, v) Convert the color from HSV coordinates to RGB coordinates. Example: >>> import colorsys >>> colorsys.rgb_to_hsv(0.2, 0.4, 0.4) (0.5, 0.5, 0.4) >>> colorsys.hsv_to_rgb(0.5, 0.5, 0.4) (0.2, 0.4, 0.4) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/colorsys.py  File: python.info, Node: Internationalization, Next: Program Frameworks, Prev: Multimedia Services, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.24 Internationalization ========================= The modules described in this chapter help you write software that is independent of language and locale by providing mechanisms for selecting a language to be used in program messages or by tailoring output to match local conventions. The list of modules described in this chapter is: * Menu: * gettext — Multilingual internationalization services:: * locale — Internationalization services::  File: python.info, Node: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services, Next: locale — Internationalization services, Up: Internationalization 5.24.1 ‘gettext’ — Multilingual internationalization services ------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/gettext.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note gettext: 63. module provides internationalization (I18N) and localization (L10N) services for your Python modules and applications. It supports both the GNU ‘gettext’ message catalog API and a higher level, class-based API that may be more appropriate for Python files. The interface described below allows you to write your module and application messages in one natural language, and provide a catalog of translated messages for running under different natural languages. Some hints on localizing your Python modules and applications are also given. * Menu: * GNU gettext API:: * Class-based API:: * Internationalizing your programs and modules:: * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<9>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/gettext.py  File: python.info, Node: GNU gettext API, Next: Class-based API, Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services 5.24.1.1 GNU ‘gettext’ API .......................... The *note gettext: 63. module defines the following API, which is very similar to the GNU ‘gettext’ API. If you use this API you will affect the translation of your entire application globally. Often this is what you want if your application is monolingual, with the choice of language dependent on the locale of your user. If you are localizing a Python module, or if your application needs to switch languages on the fly, you probably want to use the class-based API instead. -- Function: gettext.bindtextdomain (domain, localedir=None) Bind the 'domain' to the locale directory 'localedir'. More concretely, *note gettext: 63. will look for binary ‘.mo’ files for the given domain using the path (on Unix): ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’, where 'language' is searched for in the environment variables ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’, ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’ respectively. If 'localedir' is omitted or ‘None’, then the current binding for 'domain' is returned. (1) -- Function: gettext.textdomain (domain=None) Change or query the current global domain. If 'domain' is ‘None’, then the current global domain is returned, otherwise the global domain is set to 'domain', which is returned. -- Function: gettext.gettext (message) Return the localized translation of 'message', based on the current global domain, language, and locale directory. This function is usually aliased as ‘_()’ in the local namespace (see examples below). -- Function: gettext.dgettext (domain, message) Like *note gettext(): 1432, but look the message up in the specified 'domain'. -- Function: gettext.ngettext (singular, plural, n) Like *note gettext(): 1432, but consider plural forms. If a translation is found, apply the plural formula to 'n', and return the resulting message (some languages have more than two plural forms). If no translation is found, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1; return 'plural' otherwise. The Plural formula is taken from the catalog header. It is a C or Python expression that has a free variable 'n'; the expression evaluates to the index of the plural in the catalog. See the GNU gettext documentation(2) for the precise syntax to be used in ‘.po’ files and the formulas for a variety of languages. -- Function: gettext.dngettext (domain, singular, plural, n) Like *note ngettext(): 3ce1, but look the message up in the specified 'domain'. -- Function: gettext.pgettext (context, message) -- Function: gettext.dpgettext (domain, context, message) -- Function: gettext.npgettext (context, singular, plural, n) -- Function: gettext.dnpgettext (domain, context, singular, plural, n) Similar to the corresponding functions without the ‘p’ in the prefix (that is, *note gettext(): 63, *note dgettext(): 3ce0, *note ngettext(): 3ce1, *note dngettext(): 3ce2.), but the translation is restricted to the given message 'context'. Added in version 3.8. Note that GNU ‘gettext’ also defines a ‘dcgettext()’ method, but this was deemed not useful and so it is currently unimplemented. Here’s an example of typical usage for this API: import gettext gettext.bindtextdomain('myapplication', '/path/to/my/language/directory') gettext.textdomain('myapplication') _ = gettext.gettext # ... print(_('This is a translatable string.')) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The default locale directory is system dependent; for example, on Red Hat Linux it is ‘/usr/share/locale’, but on Solaris it is ‘/usr/lib/locale’. The ‘gettext’ module does not try to support these system dependent defaults; instead its default is ‘`sys.base_prefix'/share/locale’ (see *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb.). For this reason, it is always best to call *note bindtextdomain(): 3cde. with an explicit absolute path at the start of your application. (2) https://www.gnu.org/software/gettext/manual/gettext.html  File: python.info, Node: Class-based API, Next: Internationalizing your programs and modules, Prev: GNU gettext API, Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services 5.24.1.2 Class-based API ........................ The class-based API of the *note gettext: 63. module gives you more flexibility and greater convenience than the GNU ‘gettext’ API. It is the recommended way of localizing your Python applications and modules. ‘gettext’ defines a *note GNUTranslations: 3ce7. class which implements the parsing of GNU ‘.mo’ format files, and has methods for returning strings. Instances of this class can also install themselves in the built-in namespace as the function ‘_()’. -- Function: gettext.find (domain, localedir=None, languages=None, all=False) This function implements the standard ‘.mo’ file search algorithm. It takes a 'domain', identical to what *note textdomain(): 3cdf. takes. Optional 'localedir' is as in *note bindtextdomain(): 3cde. Optional 'languages' is a list of strings, where each string is a language code. If 'localedir' is not given, then the default system locale directory is used. (1) If 'languages' is not given, then the following environment variables are searched: ‘LANGUAGE’, ‘LC_ALL’, ‘LC_MESSAGES’, and ‘LANG’. The first one returning a non-empty value is used for the 'languages' variable. The environment variables should contain a colon separated list of languages, which will be split on the colon to produce the expected list of language code strings. *note find(): 3ce8. then expands and normalizes the languages, and then iterates through them, searching for an existing file built of these components: ‘`localedir'/`language'/LC_MESSAGES/`domain'.mo’ The first such file name that exists is returned by *note find(): 3ce8. If no such file is found, then ‘None’ is returned. If 'all' is given, it returns a list of all file names, in the order in which they appear in the languages list or the environment variables. -- Function: gettext.translation (domain, localedir=None, languages=None, class_=None, fallback=False) Return a ‘*Translations’ instance based on the 'domain', 'localedir', and 'languages', which are first passed to *note find(): 3ce8. to get a list of the associated ‘.mo’ file paths. Instances with identical ‘.mo’ file names are cached. The actual class instantiated is 'class_' if provided, otherwise *note GNUTranslations: 3ce7. The class’s constructor must take a single *note file object: 11b5. argument. If multiple files are found, later files are used as fallbacks for earlier ones. To allow setting the fallback, *note copy.copy(): 52f. is used to clone each translation object from the cache; the actual instance data is still shared with the cache. If no ‘.mo’ file is found, this function raises *note OSError: 413. if 'fallback' is false (which is the default), and returns a *note NullTranslations: 3ce9. instance if 'fallback' is true. Changed in version 3.3: *note IOError: 104b. used to be raised, it is now an alias of *note OSError: 413. Changed in version 3.11: 'codeset' parameter is removed. -- Function: gettext.install (domain, localedir=None, *, names=None) This installs the function ‘_()’ in Python’s builtins namespace, based on 'domain' and 'localedir' which are passed to the function *note translation(): a79. For the 'names' parameter, please see the description of the translation object’s *note install(): 3cea. method. As seen below, you usually mark the strings in your application that are candidates for translation, by wrapping them in a call to the ‘_()’ function, like this: print(_('This string will be translated.')) For convenience, you want the ‘_()’ function to be installed in Python’s builtins namespace, so it is easily accessible in all modules of your application. Changed in version 3.11: 'names' is now a keyword-only parameter. * Menu: * The NullTranslations class:: * The GNUTranslations class:: * Solaris message catalog support:: * The Catalog constructor:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) See the footnote for *note bindtextdomain(): 3cde. above.  File: python.info, Node: The NullTranslations class, Next: The GNUTranslations class, Up: Class-based API 5.24.1.3 The ‘NullTranslations’ class ..................................... Translation classes are what actually implement the translation of original source file message strings to translated message strings. The base class used by all translation classes is *note NullTranslations: 3ce9.; this provides the basic interface you can use to write your own specialized translation classes. Here are the methods of ‘NullTranslations’: -- Class: gettext.NullTranslations (fp=None) Takes an optional *note file object: 11b5. 'fp', which is ignored by the base class. Initializes “protected” instance variables '_info' and '_charset' which are set by derived classes, as well as '_fallback', which is set through *note add_fallback(): 3cec. It then calls ‘self._parse(fp)’ if 'fp' is not ‘None’. -- Method: _parse (fp) No-op in the base class, this method takes file object 'fp', and reads the data from the file, initializing its message catalog. If you have an unsupported message catalog file format, you should override this method to parse your format. -- Method: add_fallback (fallback) Add 'fallback' as the fallback object for the current translation object. A translation object should consult the fallback if it cannot provide a translation for a given message. -- Method: gettext (message) If a fallback has been set, forward ‘gettext()’ to the fallback. Otherwise, return 'message'. Overridden in derived classes. -- Method: ngettext (singular, plural, n) If a fallback has been set, forward ‘ngettext()’ to the fallback. Otherwise, return 'singular' if 'n' is 1; return 'plural' otherwise. Overridden in derived classes. -- Method: pgettext (context, message) If a fallback has been set, forward *note pgettext(): 9f4. to the fallback. Otherwise, return the translated message. Overridden in derived classes. Added in version 3.8. -- Method: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n) If a fallback has been set, forward *note npgettext(): 3ce4. to the fallback. Otherwise, return the translated message. Overridden in derived classes. Added in version 3.8. -- Method: info () Return a dictionary containing the metadata found in the message catalog file. -- Method: charset () Return the encoding of the message catalog file. -- Method: install (names=None) This method installs *note gettext(): 3cee. into the built-in namespace, binding it to ‘_’. If the 'names' parameter is given, it must be a sequence containing the names of functions you want to install in the builtins namespace in addition to ‘_()’. Supported names are ‘'gettext'’, ‘'ngettext'’, ‘'pgettext'’, and ‘'npgettext'’. Note that this is only one way, albeit the most convenient way, to make the ‘_()’ function available to your application. Because it affects the entire application globally, and specifically the built-in namespace, localized modules should never install ‘_()’. Instead, they should use this code to make ‘_()’ available to their module: import gettext t = gettext.translation('mymodule', ...) _ = t.gettext This puts ‘_()’ only in the module’s global namespace and so only affects calls within this module. Changed in version 3.8: Added ‘'pgettext'’ and ‘'npgettext'’.  File: python.info, Node: The GNUTranslations class, Next: Solaris message catalog support, Prev: The NullTranslations class, Up: Class-based API 5.24.1.4 The ‘GNUTranslations’ class .................................... The ‘gettext’ module provides one additional class derived from *note NullTranslations: 3ce9.: *note GNUTranslations: 3ce7. This class overrides ‘_parse()’ to enable reading GNU ‘gettext’ format ‘.mo’ files in both big-endian and little-endian format. *note GNUTranslations: 3ce7. parses optional metadata out of the translation catalog. It is convention with GNU ‘gettext’ to include metadata as the translation for the empty string. This metadata is in RFC 822(1)-style ‘key: value’ pairs, and should contain the ‘Project-Id-Version’ key. If the key ‘Content-Type’ is found, then the ‘charset’ property is used to initialize the “protected” ‘_charset’ instance variable, defaulting to ‘None’ if not found. If the charset encoding is specified, then all message ids and message strings read from the catalog are converted to Unicode using this encoding, else ASCII is assumed. Since message ids are read as Unicode strings too, all ‘*gettext()’ methods will assume message ids as Unicode strings, not byte strings. The entire set of key/value pairs are placed into a dictionary and set as the “protected” ‘_info’ instance variable. If the ‘.mo’ file’s magic number is invalid, the major version number is unexpected, or if other problems occur while reading the file, instantiating a *note GNUTranslations: 3ce7. class can raise *note OSError: 413. -- Class: gettext.GNUTranslations The following methods are overridden from the base class implementation: -- Method: gettext (message) Look up the 'message' id in the catalog and return the corresponding message string, as a Unicode string. If there is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id, and a fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the fallback’s *note gettext(): 3cee. method. Otherwise, the 'message' id is returned. -- Method: ngettext (singular, plural, n) Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id. 'singular' is used as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while 'n' is used to determine which plural form to use. The returned message string is a Unicode string. If the message id is not found in the catalog, and a fallback is specified, the request is forwarded to the fallback’s *note ngettext(): 3cef. method. Otherwise, when 'n' is 1 'singular' is returned, and 'plural' is returned in all other cases. Here is an example: n = len(os.listdir('.')) cat = GNUTranslations(somefile) message = cat.ngettext( 'There is %(num)d file in this directory', 'There are %(num)d files in this directory', n) % {'num': n} -- Method: pgettext (context, message) Look up the 'context' and 'message' id in the catalog and return the corresponding message string, as a Unicode string. If there is no entry in the catalog for the 'message' id and 'context', and a fallback has been set, the look up is forwarded to the fallback’s *note pgettext(): 9f4. method. Otherwise, the 'message' id is returned. Added in version 3.8. -- Method: npgettext (context, singular, plural, n) Do a plural-forms lookup of a message id. 'singular' is used as the message id for purposes of lookup in the catalog, while 'n' is used to determine which plural form to use. If the message id for 'context' is not found in the catalog, and a fallback is specified, the request is forwarded to the fallback’s *note npgettext(): 3ce4. method. Otherwise, when 'n' is 1 'singular' is returned, and 'plural' is returned in all other cases. Added in version 3.8. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc822.html  File: python.info, Node: Solaris message catalog support, Next: The Catalog constructor, Prev: The GNUTranslations class, Up: Class-based API 5.24.1.5 Solaris message catalog support ........................................ The Solaris operating system defines its own binary ‘.mo’ file format, but since no documentation can be found on this format, it is not supported at this time.  File: python.info, Node: The Catalog constructor, Prev: Solaris message catalog support, Up: Class-based API 5.24.1.6 The Catalog constructor ................................ GNOME uses a version of the *note gettext: 63. module by James Henstridge, but this version has a slightly different API. Its documented usage was: import gettext cat = gettext.Catalog(domain, localedir) _ = cat.gettext print(_('hello world')) For compatibility with this older module, the function ‘Catalog()’ is an alias for the *note translation(): a79. function described above. One difference between this module and Henstridge’s: his catalog objects supported access through a mapping API, but this appears to be unused and so is not currently supported.  File: python.info, Node: Internationalizing your programs and modules, Next: Acknowledgements<9>, Prev: Class-based API, Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services 5.24.1.7 Internationalizing your programs and modules ..................................................... Internationalization (I18N) refers to the operation by which a program is made aware of multiple languages. Localization (L10N) refers to the adaptation of your program, once internationalized, to the local language and cultural habits. In order to provide multilingual messages for your Python programs, you need to take the following steps: 1. prepare your program or module by specially marking translatable strings 2. run a suite of tools over your marked files to generate raw messages catalogs 3. create language-specific translations of the message catalogs 4. use the *note gettext: 63. module so that message strings are properly translated In order to prepare your code for I18N, you need to look at all the strings in your files. Any string that needs to be translated should be marked by wrapping it in ‘_('...')’ — that is, a call to the function *note _: 63. For example: filename = 'mylog.txt' message = _('writing a log message') with open(filename, 'w') as fp: fp.write(message) In this example, the string ‘'writing a log message'’ is marked as a candidate for translation, while the strings ‘'mylog.txt'’ and ‘'w'’ are not. There are a few tools to extract the strings meant for translation. The original GNU ‘gettext’ only supported C or C++ source code but its extended version ‘xgettext’ scans code written in a number of languages, including Python, to find strings marked as translatable. Babel(1) is a Python internationalization library that includes a ‘pybabel’ script to extract and compile message catalogs. François Pinard’s program called ‘xpot’ does a similar job and is available as part of his po-utils package(2). (Python also includes pure-Python versions of these programs, called ‘pygettext.py’ and ‘msgfmt.py’; some Python distributions will install them for you. ‘pygettext.py’ is similar to ‘xgettext’, but only understands Python source code and cannot handle other programming languages such as C or C++. ‘pygettext.py’ supports a command-line interface similar to ‘xgettext’; for details on its use, run ‘pygettext.py --help’. ‘msgfmt.py’ is binary compatible with GNU ‘msgfmt’. With these two programs, you may not need the GNU ‘gettext’ package to internationalize your Python applications.) ‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’, and similar tools generate ‘.po’ files that are message catalogs. They are structured human-readable files that contain every marked string in the source code, along with a placeholder for the translated versions of these strings. Copies of these ‘.po’ files are then handed over to the individual human translators who write translations for every supported natural language. They send back the completed language-specific versions as a ‘.po’ file that’s compiled into a machine-readable ‘.mo’ binary catalog file using the ‘msgfmt’ program. The ‘.mo’ files are used by the *note gettext: 63. module for the actual translation processing at run-time. How you use the *note gettext: 63. module in your code depends on whether you are internationalizing a single module or your entire application. The next two sections will discuss each case. * Menu: * Localizing your module:: * Localizing your application:: * Changing languages on the fly:: * Deferred translations:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://babel.pocoo.org/ (2) https://github.com/pinard/po-utils  File: python.info, Node: Localizing your module, Next: Localizing your application, Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules 5.24.1.8 Localizing your module ............................... If you are localizing your module, you must take care not to make global changes, e.g. to the built-in namespace. You should not use the GNU ‘gettext’ API but instead the class-based API. Let’s say your module is called “spam” and the module’s various natural language translation ‘.mo’ files reside in ‘/usr/share/locale’ in GNU ‘gettext’ format. Here’s what you would put at the top of your module: import gettext t = gettext.translation('spam', '/usr/share/locale') _ = t.gettext  File: python.info, Node: Localizing your application, Next: Changing languages on the fly, Prev: Localizing your module, Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules 5.24.1.9 Localizing your application .................................... If you are localizing your application, you can install the ‘_()’ function globally into the built-in namespace, usually in the main driver file of your application. This will let all your application-specific files just use ‘_('...')’ without having to explicitly install it in each file. In the simple case then, you need only add the following bit of code to the main driver file of your application: import gettext gettext.install('myapplication') If you need to set the locale directory, you can pass it into the *note install(): a7a. function: import gettext gettext.install('myapplication', '/usr/share/locale')  File: python.info, Node: Changing languages on the fly, Next: Deferred translations, Prev: Localizing your application, Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules 5.24.1.10 Changing languages on the fly ....................................... If your program needs to support many languages at the same time, you may want to create multiple translation instances and then switch between them explicitly, like so: import gettext lang1 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['en']) lang2 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['fr']) lang3 = gettext.translation('myapplication', languages=['de']) # start by using language1 lang1.install() # ... time goes by, user selects language 2 lang2.install() # ... more time goes by, user selects language 3 lang3.install()  File: python.info, Node: Deferred translations, Prev: Changing languages on the fly, Up: Internationalizing your programs and modules 5.24.1.11 Deferred translations ............................... In most coding situations, strings are translated where they are coded. Occasionally however, you need to mark strings for translation, but defer actual translation until later. A classic example is: animals = ['mollusk', 'albatross', 'rat', 'penguin', 'python', ] # ... for a in animals: print(a) Here, you want to mark the strings in the ‘animals’ list as being translatable, but you don’t actually want to translate them until they are printed. Here is one way you can handle this situation: def _(message): return message animals = [_('mollusk'), _('albatross'), _('rat'), _('penguin'), _('python'), ] del _ # ... for a in animals: print(_(a)) This works because the dummy definition of ‘_()’ simply returns the string unchanged. And this dummy definition will temporarily override any definition of ‘_()’ in the built-in namespace (until the *note del: 17a6. command). Take care, though if you have a previous definition of ‘_()’ in the local namespace. Note that the second use of ‘_()’ will not identify “a” as being translatable to the ‘gettext’ program, because the parameter is not a string literal. Another way to handle this is with the following example: def N_(message): return message animals = [N_('mollusk'), N_('albatross'), N_('rat'), N_('penguin'), N_('python'), ] # ... for a in animals: print(_(a)) In this case, you are marking translatable strings with the function ‘N_()’, which won’t conflict with any definition of ‘_()’. However, you will need to teach your message extraction program to look for translatable strings marked with ‘N_()’. ‘xgettext’, ‘pygettext’, ‘pybabel extract’, and ‘xpot’ all support this through the use of the ‘-k’ command-line switch. The choice of ‘N_()’ here is totally arbitrary; it could have just as easily been ‘MarkThisStringForTranslation()’.  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<9>, Prev: Internationalizing your programs and modules, Up: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services 5.24.1.12 Acknowledgements .......................... The following people contributed code, feedback, design suggestions, previous implementations, and valuable experience to the creation of this module: * Peter Funk * James Henstridge * Juan David Ibáñez Palomar * Marc-André Lemburg * Martin von Löwis * François Pinard * Barry Warsaw * Gustavo Niemeyer  File: python.info, Node: locale — Internationalization services, Prev: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services, Up: Internationalization 5.24.2 ‘locale’ — Internationalization services ----------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/locale.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note locale: 86. module opens access to the POSIX locale database and functionality. The POSIX locale mechanism allows programmers to deal with certain cultural issues in an application, without requiring the programmer to know all the specifics of each country where the software is executed. The *note locale: 86. module is implemented on top of the ‘_locale’ module, which in turn uses an ANSI C locale implementation if available. The *note locale: 86. module defines the following exception and functions: -- Exception: locale.Error Exception raised when the locale passed to *note setlocale(): 2df. is not recognized. -- Function: locale.setlocale (category, locale=None) If 'locale' is given and not ‘None’, *note setlocale(): 2df. modifies the locale setting for the 'category'. The available categories are listed in the data description below. 'locale' may be a *note string: 3d04, or a pair, language code and encoding. An empty string specifies the user’s default settings. If the modification of the locale fails, the exception *note Error: 3d03. is raised. If successful, the new locale setting is returned. If 'locale' is a pair, it is converted to a locale name using the locale aliasing engine. The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 3d04, but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier. The language code and encoding can be ‘None’. If 'locale' is omitted or ‘None’, the current setting for 'category' is returned. *note setlocale(): 2df. is not thread-safe on most systems. Applications typically start with a call of import locale locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '') This sets the locale for all categories to the user’s default setting (typically specified in the ‘LANG’ environment variable). If the locale is not changed thereafter, using multithreading should not cause problems. -- Function: locale.localeconv () Returns the database of the local conventions as a dictionary. This dictionary has the following strings as keys: Category Key Meaning ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d05. ‘'decimal_point'’ Decimal point character. ‘'grouping'’ Sequence of numbers specifying which relative positions the ‘'thousands_sep'’ is expected. If the sequence is terminated with *note CHAR_MAX: 3d06, no further grouping is performed. If the sequence terminates with a ‘0’, the last group size is repeatedly used. ‘'thousands_sep'’ Character used between groups. *note LC_MONETARY: 3d07. ‘'int_curr_symbol'’ International currency symbol. ‘'currency_symbol'’ Local currency symbol. ‘'p_cs_precedes/n_cs_precedes'’ Whether the currency symbol precedes the value (for positive resp. negative values). ‘'p_sep_by_space/n_sep_by_space'’ Whether the currency symbol is separated from the value by a space (for positive resp. negative values). ‘'mon_decimal_point'’ Decimal point used for monetary values. ‘'frac_digits'’ Number of fractional digits used in local formatting of monetary values. ‘'int_frac_digits'’ Number of fractional digits used in international formatting of monetary values. ‘'mon_thousands_sep'’ Group separator used for monetary values. ‘'mon_grouping'’ Equivalent to ‘'grouping'’, used for monetary values. ‘'positive_sign'’ Symbol used to annotate a positive monetary value. ‘'negative_sign'’ Symbol used to annotate a negative monetary value. ‘'p_sign_posn/n_sign_posn'’ The position of the sign (for positive resp. negative values), see below. All numeric values can be set to *note CHAR_MAX: 3d06. to indicate that there is no value specified in this locale. The possible values for ‘'p_sign_posn'’ and ‘'n_sign_posn'’ are given below. Value Explanation ----------------------------------------------------------------- ‘0’ Currency and value are surrounded by parentheses. ‘1’ The sign should precede the value and currency symbol. ‘2’ The sign should follow the value and currency symbol. ‘3’ The sign should immediately precede the value. ‘4’ The sign should immediately follow the value. ‘CHAR_MAX’ Nothing is specified in this locale. The function temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale or the ‘LC_MONETARY’ locale if locales are different and numeric or monetary strings are non-ASCII. This temporary change affects other threads. Changed in version 3.7: The function now temporarily sets the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale to the ‘LC_NUMERIC’ locale in some cases. -- Function: locale.nl_langinfo (option) Return some locale-specific information as a string. This function is not available on all systems, and the set of possible options might also vary across platforms. The possible argument values are numbers, for which symbolic constants are available in the locale module. The *note nl_langinfo(): 3d08. function accepts one of the following keys. Most descriptions are taken from the corresponding description in the GNU C library. -- Data: locale.CODESET Get a string with the name of the character encoding used in the selected locale. -- Data: locale.D_T_FMT Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent date and time in a locale-specific way. -- Data: locale.D_FMT Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent a date in a locale-specific way. -- Data: locale.T_FMT Get a string that can be used as a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent a time in a locale-specific way. -- Data: locale.T_FMT_AMPM Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent time in the am/pm format. -- Data: locale.DAY_1 -- Data: locale.DAY_2 -- Data: locale.DAY_3 -- Data: locale.DAY_4 -- Data: locale.DAY_5 -- Data: locale.DAY_6 -- Data: locale.DAY_7 Get the name of the n-th day of the week. Note: This follows the US convention of *note DAY_1: 3d0e. being Sunday, not the international convention (ISO 8601) that Monday is the first day of the week. -- Data: locale.ABDAY_1 -- Data: locale.ABDAY_2 -- Data: locale.ABDAY_3 -- Data: locale.ABDAY_4 -- Data: locale.ABDAY_5 -- Data: locale.ABDAY_6 -- Data: locale.ABDAY_7 Get the abbreviated name of the n-th day of the week. -- Data: locale.MON_1 -- Data: locale.MON_2 -- Data: locale.MON_3 -- Data: locale.MON_4 -- Data: locale.MON_5 -- Data: locale.MON_6 -- Data: locale.MON_7 -- Data: locale.MON_8 -- Data: locale.MON_9 -- Data: locale.MON_10 -- Data: locale.MON_11 -- Data: locale.MON_12 Get the name of the n-th month. -- Data: locale.ABMON_1 -- Data: locale.ABMON_2 -- Data: locale.ABMON_3 -- Data: locale.ABMON_4 -- Data: locale.ABMON_5 -- Data: locale.ABMON_6 -- Data: locale.ABMON_7 -- Data: locale.ABMON_8 -- Data: locale.ABMON_9 -- Data: locale.ABMON_10 -- Data: locale.ABMON_11 -- Data: locale.ABMON_12 Get the abbreviated name of the n-th month. -- Data: locale.RADIXCHAR Get the radix character (decimal dot, decimal comma, etc.). -- Data: locale.THOUSEP Get the separator character for thousands (groups of three digits). -- Data: locale.YESEXPR Get a regular expression that can be used with the regex function to recognize a positive response to a yes/no question. -- Data: locale.NOEXPR Get a regular expression that can be used with the ‘regex(3)’ function to recognize a negative response to a yes/no question. Note: The regular expressions for *note YESEXPR: 3d36. and *note NOEXPR: 3d37. use syntax suitable for the ‘regex’ function from the C library, which might differ from the syntax used in *note re: b9. -- Data: locale.CRNCYSTR Get the currency symbol, preceded by “-” if the symbol should appear before the value, “+” if the symbol should appear after the value, or “.” if the symbol should replace the radix character. -- Data: locale.ERA Get a string which describes how years are counted and displayed for each era in a locale. Most locales do not define this value. An example of a locale which does define this value is the Japanese one. In Japan, the traditional representation of dates includes the name of the era corresponding to the then-emperor’s reign. Normally it should not be necessary to use this value directly. Specifying the ‘E’ modifier in their format strings causes the *note time.strftime(): 11db. function to use this information. The format of the returned string is specified in 'The Open Group Base Specifications Issue 8', paragraph 7.3.5.2 LC_TIME C-Language Access(2). -- Data: locale.ERA_D_T_FMT Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent date and time in a locale-specific era-based way. -- Data: locale.ERA_D_FMT Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent a date in a locale-specific era-based way. -- Data: locale.ERA_T_FMT Get a format string for *note time.strftime(): 11db. to represent a time in a locale-specific era-based way. -- Data: locale.ALT_DIGITS Get a string consisting of up to 100 semicolon-separated symbols used to represent the values 0 to 99 in a locale-specific way. In most locales this is an empty string. -- Function: locale.getdefaultlocale ([envvars]) Tries to determine the default locale settings and returns them as a tuple of the form ‘(language code, encoding)’. According to POSIX, a program which has not called ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ runs using the portable ‘'C'’ locale. Calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’ lets it use the default locale as defined by the ‘LANG’ variable. Since we do not want to interfere with the current locale setting we thus emulate the behavior in the way described above. To maintain compatibility with other platforms, not only the ‘LANG’ variable is tested, but a list of variables given as envvars parameter. The first found to be defined will be used. 'envvars' defaults to the search path used in GNU gettext; it must always contain the variable name ‘'LANG'’. The GNU gettext search path contains ‘'LC_ALL'’, ‘'LC_CTYPE'’, ‘'LANG'’ and ‘'LANGUAGE'’, in that order. The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 3d04, but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier. The language code and encoding may be ‘None’ if their values cannot be determined. The “C” locale is represented as ‘(None, None)’. Deprecated since version 3.11, will be removed in version 3.15. -- Function: locale.getlocale (category=LC_CTYPE) Returns the current setting for the given locale category as a tuple containing the language code and encoding. 'category' may be one of the ‘LC_*’ values except *note LC_ALL: 3d3e. It defaults to *note LC_CTYPE: 3d3f. The language code has the same format as a *note locale name: 3d04, but without encoding and ‘@’-modifier. The language code and encoding may be ‘None’ if their values cannot be determined. The “C” locale is represented as ‘(None, None)’. -- Function: locale.getpreferredencoding (do_setlocale=True) Return the *note locale encoding: 244. used for text data, according to user preferences. User preferences are expressed differently on different systems, and might not be available programmatically on some systems, so this function only returns a guess. On some systems, it is necessary to invoke *note setlocale(): 2df. to obtain the user preferences, so this function is not thread-safe. If invoking setlocale is not necessary or desired, 'do_setlocale' should be set to ‘False’. On Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. is enabled, always return ‘'utf-8'’, the *note locale encoding: 244. and the 'do_setlocale' argument are ignored. The *note Python preinitialization: 3d40. configures the LC_CTYPE locale. See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Changed in version 3.7: The function now always returns ‘"utf-8"’ on Android or if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. is enabled. -- Function: locale.getencoding () Get the current *note locale encoding: 244.: * On Android and VxWorks, return ‘"utf-8"’. * On Unix, return the encoding of the current *note LC_CTYPE: 3d3f. locale. Return ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty string: for example, if the current LC_CTYPE locale is not supported. * On Windows, return the ANSI code page. The *note Python preinitialization: 3d40. configures the LC_CTYPE locale. See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. This function is similar to *note getpreferredencoding(False): 536. except this function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: locale.normalize (localename) Returns a normalized locale code for the given locale name. The returned locale code is formatted for use with *note setlocale(): 2df. If normalization fails, the original name is returned unchanged. If the given encoding is not known, the function defaults to the default encoding for the locale code just like *note setlocale(): 2df. -- Function: locale.strcoll (string1, string2) Compares two strings according to the current *note LC_COLLATE: 3d43. setting. As any other compare function, returns a negative, or a positive value, or ‘0’, depending on whether 'string1' collates before or after 'string2' or is equal to it. -- Function: locale.strxfrm (string) Transforms a string to one that can be used in locale-aware comparisons. For example, ‘strxfrm(s1) < strxfrm(s2)’ is equivalent to ‘strcoll(s1, s2) < 0’. This function can be used when the same string is compared repeatedly, e.g. when collating a sequence of strings. -- Function: locale.format_string (format, val, grouping=False, monetary=False) Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d05. setting. The format follows the conventions of the ‘%’ operator. For floating-point values, the decimal point is modified if appropriate. If 'grouping' is ‘True’, also takes the grouping into account. If 'monetary' is true, the conversion uses monetary thousands separator and grouping strings. Processes formatting specifiers as in ‘format % val’, but takes the current locale settings into account. Changed in version 3.7: The 'monetary' keyword parameter was added. -- Function: locale.currency (val, symbol=True, grouping=False, international=False) Formats a number 'val' according to the current *note LC_MONETARY: 3d07. settings. The returned string includes the currency symbol if 'symbol' is true, which is the default. If 'grouping' is ‘True’ (which is not the default), grouping is done with the value. If 'international' is ‘True’ (which is not the default), the international currency symbol is used. Note: This function will not work with the ‘C’ locale, so you have to set a locale via *note setlocale(): 2df. first. -- Function: locale.str (float) Formats a floating-point number using the same format as the built-in function ‘str(float)’, but takes the decimal point into account. -- Function: locale.delocalize (string) Converts a string into a normalized number string, following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d05. settings. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: locale.localize (string, grouping=False, monetary=False) Converts a normalized number string into a formatted string following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d05. settings. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: locale.atof (string, func=float) Converts a string to a number, following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d05. settings, by calling 'func' on the result of calling *note delocalize(): e24. on 'string'. -- Function: locale.atoi (string) Converts a string to an integer, following the *note LC_NUMERIC: 3d05. conventions. -- Data: locale.LC_CTYPE Locale category for the character type functions. Most importantly, this category defines the text encoding, i.e. how bytes are interpreted as Unicode codepoints. See PEP 538(3) and PEP 540(4) for how this variable might be automatically coerced to ‘C.UTF-8’ to avoid issues created by invalid settings in containers or incompatible settings passed over remote SSH connections. Python doesn’t internally use locale-dependent character transformation functions from ‘ctype.h’. Instead, an internal ‘pyctype.h’ provides locale-independent equivalents like ‘Py_TOLOWER’. -- Data: locale.LC_COLLATE Locale category for sorting strings. The functions *note strcoll(): 3d42. and *note strxfrm(): 3d44. of the *note locale: 86. module are affected. -- Data: locale.LC_TIME Locale category for the formatting of time. The function *note time.strftime(): 11db. follows these conventions. -- Data: locale.LC_MONETARY Locale category for formatting of monetary values. The available options are available from the *note localeconv(): bfe. function. -- Data: locale.LC_MESSAGES Locale category for message display. Python currently does not support application specific locale-aware messages. Messages displayed by the operating system, like those returned by *note os.strerror(): 2b2f. might be affected by this category. This value may not be available on operating systems not conforming to the POSIX standard, most notably Windows. -- Data: locale.LC_NUMERIC Locale category for formatting numbers. The functions *note format_string(): 51a, *note atoi(): 3d49, *note atof(): 3d48. and *note str(): 3d46. of the *note locale: 86. module are affected by that category. All other numeric formatting operations are not affected. -- Data: locale.LC_ALL Combination of all locale settings. If this flag is used when the locale is changed, setting the locale for all categories is attempted. If that fails for any category, no category is changed at all. When the locale is retrieved using this flag, a string indicating the setting for all categories is returned. This string can be later used to restore the settings. -- Data: locale.CHAR_MAX This is a symbolic constant used for different values returned by *note localeconv(): bfe. Example: >>> import locale >>> loc = locale.getlocale() # get current locale # use German locale; name might vary with platform >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'de_DE') >>> locale.strcoll('f\xe4n', 'foo') # compare a string containing an umlaut >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, '') # use user's preferred locale >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, 'C') # use default (C) locale >>> locale.setlocale(locale.LC_ALL, loc) # restore saved locale * Menu: * Background, details, hints, tips and caveats: Background details hints tips and caveats. * Locale names:: * For extension writers and programs that embed Python:: * Access to message catalogs:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/locale.py (2) https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap07.html#tag_07_03_05_02 (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/  File: python.info, Node: Background details hints tips and caveats, Next: Locale names, Up: locale — Internationalization services 5.24.2.1 Background, details, hints, tips and caveats ..................................................... The C standard defines the locale as a program-wide property that may be relatively expensive to change. On top of that, some implementations are broken in such a way that frequent locale changes may cause core dumps. This makes the locale somewhat painful to use correctly. Initially, when a program is started, the locale is the ‘C’ locale, no matter what the user’s preferred locale is. There is one exception: the *note LC_CTYPE: 3d3f. category is changed at startup to set the current locale encoding to the user’s preferred locale encoding. The program must explicitly say that it wants the user’s preferred locale settings for other categories by calling ‘setlocale(LC_ALL, '')’. It is generally a bad idea to call *note setlocale(): 2df. in some library routine, since as a side effect it affects the entire program. Saving and restoring it is almost as bad: it is expensive and affects other threads that happen to run before the settings have been restored. If, when coding a module for general use, you need a locale independent version of an operation that is affected by the locale (such as certain formats used with *note time.strftime(): 11db.), you will have to find a way to do it without using the standard library routine. Even better is convincing yourself that using locale settings is okay. Only as a last resort should you document that your module is not compatible with non-‘C’ locale settings. The only way to perform numeric operations according to the locale is to use the special functions defined by this module: *note atof(): 3d48, *note atoi(): 3d49, *note format_string(): 51a, *note str(): 3d46. There is no way to perform case conversions and character classifications according to the locale. For (Unicode) text strings these are done according to the character value only, while for byte strings, the conversions and classifications are done according to the ASCII value of the byte, and bytes whose high bit is set (i.e., non-ASCII bytes) are never converted or considered part of a character class such as letter or whitespace.  File: python.info, Node: Locale names, Next: For extension writers and programs that embed Python, Prev: Background details hints tips and caveats, Up: locale — Internationalization services 5.24.2.2 Locale names ..................... The format of the locale name is platform dependent, and the set of supported locales can depend on the system configuration. On Posix platforms, it usually has the format (1): language ["_" territory] ["." charset] ["@" modifier] where 'language' is a two- or three-letter language code from ISO 639(2), 'territory' is a two-letter country or region code from ISO 3166(3), 'charset' is a locale encoding, and 'modifier' is a script name, a language subtag, a sort order identifier, or other locale modifier (for example, “latin”, “valencia”, “stroke” and “euro”). On Windows, several formats are supported. (4) (5) A subset of IETF BCP 47(6) tags: language ["-" script] ["-" territory] ["." charset] language ["-" script] "-" territory "-" modifier where 'language' and 'territory' have the same meaning as in Posix, 'script' is a four-letter script code from ISO 15924(7), and 'modifier' is a language subtag, a sort order identifier or custom modifier (for example, “valencia”, “stroke” or “x-python”). Both hyphen (‘'-'’) and underscore (‘'_'’) separators are supported. Only UTF-8 encoding is allowed for BCP 47 tags. Windows also supports locale names in the format: language ["_" territory] ["." charset] where 'language' and 'territory' are full names, such as “English” and “United States”, and 'charset' is either a code page number (for example, “1252”) or UTF-8. Only the underscore separator is supported in this format. The “C” locale is supported on all platforms. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) IEEE Std 1003.1-2024; 8.2 Internationalization Variables (https://pubs.opengroup.org/onlinepubs/9799919799/basedefs/V1_chap08.html#tag_08_02) (2) https://www.iso.org/iso-639-language-code (3) https://www.iso.org/iso-3166-country-codes.html (4) UCRT Locale names, Languages, and Country/Region strings (https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/cpp/c-runtime-library/locale-names-languages-and-country-region-strings) (5) Locale Names (https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/win32/intl/locale-names) (6) https://www.rfc-editor.org/info/bcp47 (7) https://www.unicode.org/iso15924/  File: python.info, Node: For extension writers and programs that embed Python, Next: Access to message catalogs, Prev: Locale names, Up: locale — Internationalization services 5.24.2.3 For extension writers and programs that embed Python ............................................................. Extension modules should never call *note setlocale(): 2df, except to find out what the current locale is. But since the return value can only be used portably to restore it, that is not very useful (except perhaps to find out whether or not the locale is ‘C’). When Python code uses the *note locale: 86. module to change the locale, this also affects the embedding application. If the embedding application doesn’t want this to happen, it should remove the ‘_locale’ extension module (which does all the work) from the table of built-in modules in the ‘config.c’ file, and make sure that the ‘_locale’ module is not accessible as a shared library.  File: python.info, Node: Access to message catalogs, Prev: For extension writers and programs that embed Python, Up: locale — Internationalization services 5.24.2.4 Access to message catalogs ................................... -- Function: locale.gettext (msg) -- Function: locale.dgettext (domain, msg) -- Function: locale.dcgettext (domain, msg, category) -- Function: locale.textdomain (domain) -- Function: locale.bindtextdomain (domain, dir) -- Function: locale.bind_textdomain_codeset (domain, codeset) The locale module exposes the C library’s gettext interface on systems that provide this interface. It consists of the functions *note gettext(): 63, *note dgettext(): 3d53, *note dcgettext(): 3d54, *note textdomain(): 3d55, *note bindtextdomain(): 3d56, and *note bind_textdomain_codeset(): 3d57. These are similar to the same functions in the *note gettext: 63. module, but use the C library’s binary format for message catalogs, and the C library’s search algorithms for locating message catalogs. Python applications should normally find no need to invoke these functions, and should use *note gettext: 63. instead. A known exception to this rule are applications that link with additional C libraries which internally invoke C functions ‘gettext’ or ‘dcgettext’. For these applications, it may be necessary to bind the text domain, so that the libraries can properly locate their message catalogs.  File: python.info, Node: Program Frameworks, Next: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk, Prev: Internationalization, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.25 Program Frameworks ======================= The modules described in this chapter are frameworks that will largely dictate the structure of your program. Currently the modules described here are all oriented toward writing command-line interfaces. The full list of modules described in this chapter is: * Menu: * turtle — Turtle graphics:: * cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters:: * shlex — Simple lexical analysis::  File: python.info, Node: turtle — Turtle graphics, Next: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters, Up: Program Frameworks 5.25.1 ‘turtle’ — Turtle graphics --------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/turtle.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<11>. * Get started:: * Tutorial: Tutorial<4>. * How to…:: * Turtle graphics reference:: * Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions:: * Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions:: * Public classes:: * Explanation: Explanation<2>. * Help and configuration:: * turtledemo — Demo scripts:: * Changes since Python 2.6: Changes since Python 2 6. * Changes since Python 3.0: Changes since Python 3 0. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/turtle.py  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<11>, Next: Get started, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.1 Introduction ..................... Turtle graphics is an implementation of the popular geometric drawing tools introduced in Logo(1), developed by Wally Feurzeig, Seymour Papert and Cynthia Solomon in 1967. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtle_(robot)  File: python.info, Node: Get started, Next: Tutorial<4>, Prev: Introduction<11>, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.2 Get started .................... Imagine a robotic turtle starting at (0, 0) in the x-y plane. After an ‘import turtle’, give it the command ‘turtle.forward(15)’, and it moves (on-screen!) 15 pixels in the direction it is facing, drawing a line as it moves. Give it the command ‘turtle.right(25)’, and it rotates in-place 25 degrees clockwise. Turtle star ........... Turtle can draw intricate shapes using programs that repeat simple moves. [image src="python-figures/turtle-star.png"] In Python, turtle graphics provides a representation of a physical “turtle” (a little robot with a pen) that draws on a sheet of paper on the floor. It’s an effective and well-proven way for learners to encounter programming concepts and interaction with software, as it provides instant, visible feedback. It also provides convenient access to graphical output in general. Turtle drawing was originally created as an educational tool, to be used by teachers in the classroom. For the programmer who needs to produce some graphical output it can be a way to do that without the overhead of introducing more complex or external libraries into their work.  File: python.info, Node: Tutorial<4>, Next: How to…, Prev: Get started, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.3 Tutorial ................. New users should start here. In this tutorial we’ll explore some of the basics of turtle drawing. * Menu: * Starting a turtle environment:: * Basic drawing:: * Making algorithmic patterns::  File: python.info, Node: Starting a turtle environment, Next: Basic drawing, Up: Tutorial<4> 5.25.1.4 Starting a turtle environment ...................................... In a Python shell, import all the objects of the ‘turtle’ module: from turtle import * If you run into a ‘No module named '_tkinter'’ error, you’ll have to install the *note Tk interface package: f0. on your system.  File: python.info, Node: Basic drawing, Next: Making algorithmic patterns, Prev: Starting a turtle environment, Up: Tutorial<4> 5.25.1.5 Basic drawing ...................... Send the turtle forward 100 steps: forward(100) You should see (most likely, in a new window on your display) a line drawn by the turtle, heading East. Change the direction of the turtle, so that it turns 120 degrees left (anti-clockwise): left(120) Let’s continue by drawing a triangle: forward(100) left(120) forward(100) Notice how the turtle, represented by an arrow, points in different directions as you steer it. Experiment with those commands, and also with ‘backward()’ and ‘right()’. * Menu: * Pen control:: * The turtle’s position::  File: python.info, Node: Pen control, Next: The turtle’s position, Up: Basic drawing 5.25.1.6 Pen control .................... Try changing the color - for example, ‘color('blue')’ - and width of the line - for example, ‘width(3)’ - and then drawing again. You can also move the turtle around without drawing, by lifting up the pen: ‘up()’ before moving. To start drawing again, use ‘down()’.  File: python.info, Node: The turtle’s position, Prev: Pen control, Up: Basic drawing 5.25.1.7 The turtle’s position .............................. Send your turtle back to its starting-point (useful if it has disappeared off-screen): home() The home position is at the center of the turtle’s screen. If you ever need to know them, get the turtle’s x-y coordinates with: pos() Home is at ‘(0, 0)’. And after a while, it will probably help to clear the window so we can start anew: clearscreen()  File: python.info, Node: Making algorithmic patterns, Prev: Basic drawing, Up: Tutorial<4> 5.25.1.8 Making algorithmic patterns .................................... Using loops, it’s possible to build up geometric patterns: for steps in range(100): for c in ('blue', 'red', 'green'): color(c) forward(steps) right(30) - which of course, are limited only by the imagination! Let’s draw the star shape at the top of this page. We want red lines, filled in with yellow: color('red') fillcolor('yellow') Just as ‘up()’ and ‘down()’ determine whether lines will be drawn, filling can be turned on and off: begin_fill() Next we’ll create a loop: while True: forward(200) left(170) if abs(pos()) < 1: break ‘abs(pos()) < 1’ is a good way to know when the turtle is back at its home position. Finally, complete the filling: end_fill() (Note that filling only actually takes place when you give the ‘end_fill()’ command.)  File: python.info, Node: How to…, Next: Turtle graphics reference, Prev: Tutorial<4>, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.9 How to… ................ This section covers some typical turtle use-cases and approaches. * Menu: * Get started as quickly as possible:: * Use the turtle module namespace:: * Use turtle graphics in a script:: * Use object-oriented turtle graphics::  File: python.info, Node: Get started as quickly as possible, Next: Use the turtle module namespace, Up: How to… 5.25.1.10 Get started as quickly as possible ............................................ One of the joys of turtle graphics is the immediate, visual feedback that’s available from simple commands - it’s an excellent way to introduce children to programming ideas, with a minimum of overhead (not just children, of course). The turtle module makes this possible by exposing all its basic functionality as functions, available with ‘from turtle import *’. The *note turtle graphics tutorial: 3d5f. covers this approach. It’s worth noting that many of the turtle commands also have even more terse equivalents, such as ‘fd()’ for *note forward(): 3d69. These are especially useful when working with learners for whom typing is not a skill. You’ll need to have the *note Tk interface package: f0. installed on your system for turtle graphics to work. Be warned that this is not always straightforward, so check this in advance if you’re planning to use turtle graphics with a learner.  File: python.info, Node: Use the turtle module namespace, Next: Use turtle graphics in a script, Prev: Get started as quickly as possible, Up: How to… 5.25.1.11 Use the ‘turtle’ module namespace ........................................... Using ‘from turtle import *’ is convenient - but be warned that it imports a rather large collection of objects, and if you’re doing anything but turtle graphics you run the risk of a name conflict (this becomes even more an issue if you’re using turtle graphics in a script where other modules might be imported). The solution is to use ‘import turtle’ - ‘fd()’ becomes ‘turtle.fd()’, ‘width()’ becomes ‘turtle.width()’ and so on. (If typing “turtle” over and over again becomes tedious, use for example ‘import turtle as t’ instead.)  File: python.info, Node: Use turtle graphics in a script, Next: Use object-oriented turtle graphics, Prev: Use the turtle module namespace, Up: How to… 5.25.1.12 Use turtle graphics in a script ......................................... It’s recommended to use the ‘turtle’ module namespace as described immediately above, for example: import turtle as t from random import random for i in range(100): steps = int(random() * 100) angle = int(random() * 360) t.right(angle) t.fd(steps) Another step is also required though - as soon as the script ends, Python will also close the turtle’s window. Add: t.mainloop() to the end of the script. The script will now wait to be dismissed and will not exit until it is terminated, for example by closing the turtle graphics window.  File: python.info, Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics, Prev: Use turtle graphics in a script, Up: How to… 5.25.1.13 Use object-oriented turtle graphics ............................................. See also ........ *note Explanation of the object-oriented interface: 3d6e. Other than for very basic introductory purposes, or for trying things out as quickly as possible, it’s more usual and much more powerful to use the object-oriented approach to turtle graphics. For example, this allows multiple turtles on screen at once. In this approach, the various turtle commands are methods of objects (mostly of ‘Turtle’ objects). You 'can' use the object-oriented approach in the shell, but it would be more typical in a Python script. The example above then becomes: from turtle import Turtle from random import random t = Turtle() for i in range(100): steps = int(random() * 100) angle = int(random() * 360) t.right(angle) t.fd(steps) t.screen.mainloop() Note the last line. ‘t.screen’ is an instance of the *note Screen: 3d6f. that a Turtle instance exists on; it’s created automatically along with the turtle. The turtle’s screen can be customised, for example: t.screen.title('Object-oriented turtle demo') t.screen.bgcolor("orange")  File: python.info, Node: Turtle graphics reference, Next: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions, Prev: How to…, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.14 Turtle graphics reference ................................... Note: In the following documentation the argument list for functions is given. Methods, of course, have the additional first argument 'self' which is omitted here. * Menu: * Turtle methods:: * Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen::  File: python.info, Node: Turtle methods, Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen, Up: Turtle graphics reference 5.25.1.15 Turtle methods ........................ Turtle motion Move and draw *note forward(): 3d69. | *note fd(): 3d72. *note backward(): 3d73. | *note bk(): 3d74. | *note back(): 3d75. *note right(): 3d76. | *note rt(): 3d77. *note left(): 3d78. | *note lt(): 3d79. *note goto(): 3d7a. | *note setpos(): 3d7b. | *note setposition(): 3d7c. *note teleport(): 1726. *note setx(): 3d7d. *note sety(): 3d7e. *note setheading(): 3d7f. | *note seth(): 3d80. *note home(): 3d81. *note circle(): 3d82. *note dot(): 3d83. *note stamp(): 3d84. *note clearstamp(): 3d85. *note clearstamps(): 3d86. *note undo(): 3d87. *note speed(): 3d88. Tell Turtle’s state *note position(): 3d89. | *note pos(): 3d8a. *note towards(): 3d8b. *note xcor(): 3d8c. *note ycor(): 3d8d. *note heading(): 3d8e. *note distance(): 3d8f. Setting and measurement *note degrees(): 3d90. *note radians(): 3d91. Pen control Drawing state *note pendown(): 3d92. | *note pd(): 3d93. | *note down(): 3d94. *note penup(): 3d95. | *note pu(): 3d96. | *note up(): 3d97. *note pensize(): 3d98. | *note width(): 3d99. *note pen(): 3d9a. *note isdown(): 3d9b. Color control *note color(): 3d9c. *note pencolor(): 3d9d. *note fillcolor(): 3d9e. Filling *note filling(): 3d9f. *note begin_fill(): 3da0. *note end_fill(): 3da1. More drawing control *note reset(): 3da2. *note clear(): 3da3. *note write(): 3da4. Turtle state Visibility *note showturtle(): 3da5. | *note st(): 3da6. *note hideturtle(): 3da7. | *note ht(): 3da8. *note isvisible(): 3da9. Appearance *note shape(): 3daa. *note resizemode(): 3dab. *note shapesize(): 3dac. | *note turtlesize(): 3dad. *note shearfactor(): 3dae. *note tiltangle(): 720. *note tilt(): 3daf. *note shapetransform(): 3db0. *note get_shapepoly(): 3db1. Using events *note onclick(): 3db2. *note onrelease(): 3db3. *note ondrag(): 3db4. Special Turtle methods *note begin_poly(): 3db5. *note end_poly(): 3db6. *note get_poly(): 3db7. *note clone(): 3db8. *note getturtle(): 3db9. | *note getpen(): 3dba. *note getscreen(): 3dbb. *note setundobuffer(): 3dbc. *note undobufferentries(): 3dbd.  File: python.info, Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen, Prev: Turtle methods, Up: Turtle graphics reference 5.25.1.16 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen ........................................ Window control *note bgcolor(): 3dbf. *note bgpic(): 3dc0. *note clearscreen(): 3dc1. *note resetscreen(): 3dc2. *note screensize(): 3dc3. *note setworldcoordinates(): 3dc4. Animation control *note delay(): 3dc5. *note tracer(): 3dc6. *note update(): 3dc7. Using screen events *note listen(): 3dc8. *note onkey(): 3dc9. | *note onkeyrelease(): 3dca. *note onkeypress(): 3dcb. *note onclick(): 3db2. | *note onscreenclick(): 3dcc. *note ontimer(): 3dcd. *note mainloop(): 3dce. | *note done(): 3dcf. Settings and special methods *note mode(): 3dd0. *note colormode(): 3dd1. *note getcanvas(): 3dd2. *note getshapes(): 3dd3. *note register_shape(): 3dd4. | *note addshape(): 3dd5. *note turtles(): 3dd6. *note window_height(): 3dd7. *note window_width(): 3dd8. Input methods *note textinput(): 18c2. *note numinput(): 18c3. Methods specific to Screen *note bye(): 3dd9. *note exitonclick(): 3dda. *note setup(): 3ddb. *note title(): 3ddc.  File: python.info, Node: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions, Next: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions, Prev: Turtle graphics reference, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.17 Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions ................................................................. Most of the examples in this section refer to a Turtle instance called ‘turtle’. * Menu: * Turtle motion:: * Tell Turtle’s state:: * Settings for measurement:: * Pen control: Pen control<2>. * Turtle state:: * Using events:: * Special Turtle methods:: * Compound shapes::  File: python.info, Node: Turtle motion, Next: Tell Turtle’s state, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.18 Turtle motion ....................... -- Function: turtle.forward (distance) -- Function: turtle.fd (distance) Parameters: ‘distance’ – a number (integer or float) Move the turtle forward by the specified 'distance', in the direction the turtle is headed. >>> turtle.position() (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.forward(25) >>> turtle.position() (25.00,0.00) >>> turtle.forward(-75) >>> turtle.position() (-50.00,0.00) -- Function: turtle.back (distance) -- Function: turtle.bk (distance) -- Function: turtle.backward (distance) Parameters: ‘distance’ – a number Move the turtle backward by 'distance', opposite to the direction the turtle is headed. Do not change the turtle’s heading. >>> turtle.position() (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.backward(30) >>> turtle.position() (-30.00,0.00) -- Function: turtle.right (angle) -- Function: turtle.rt (angle) Parameters: ‘angle’ – a number (integer or float) Turn turtle right by 'angle' units. (Units are by default degrees, but can be set via the *note degrees(): 3d90. and *note radians(): 3d91. functions.) Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode, see *note mode(): 3dd0. >>> turtle.heading() 22.0 >>> turtle.right(45) >>> turtle.heading() 337.0 -- Function: turtle.left (angle) -- Function: turtle.lt (angle) Parameters: ‘angle’ – a number (integer or float) Turn turtle left by 'angle' units. (Units are by default degrees, but can be set via the *note degrees(): 3d90. and *note radians(): 3d91. functions.) Angle orientation depends on the turtle mode, see *note mode(): 3dd0. >>> turtle.heading() 22.0 >>> turtle.left(45) >>> turtle.heading() 67.0 -- Function: turtle.goto (x, y=None) -- Function: turtle.setpos (x, y=None) -- Function: turtle.setposition (x, y=None) Parameters: * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers * ‘y’ – a number or ‘None’ If 'y' is ‘None’, 'x' must be a pair of coordinates or a *note Vec2D: 3ddf. (e.g. as returned by *note pos(): 3d8a.). Move turtle to an absolute position. If the pen is down, draw line. Do not change the turtle’s orientation. >>> tp = turtle.pos() >>> tp (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.setpos(60,30) >>> turtle.pos() (60.00,30.00) >>> turtle.setpos((20,80)) >>> turtle.pos() (20.00,80.00) >>> turtle.setpos(tp) >>> turtle.pos() (0.00,0.00) -- Function: turtle.teleport (x, y=None, *, fill_gap=False) Parameters: * ‘x’ – a number or ‘None’ * ‘y’ – a number or ‘None’ * ‘fill_gap’ – a boolean Move turtle to an absolute position. Unlike goto(x, y), a line will not be drawn. The turtle’s orientation does not change. If currently filling, the polygon(s) teleported from will be filled after leaving, and filling will begin again after teleporting. This can be disabled with fill_gap=True, which makes the imaginary line traveled during teleporting act as a fill barrier like in goto(x, y). >>> tp = turtle.pos() >>> tp (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.teleport(60) >>> turtle.pos() (60.00,0.00) >>> turtle.teleport(y=10) >>> turtle.pos() (60.00,10.00) >>> turtle.teleport(20, 30) >>> turtle.pos() (20.00,30.00) Added in version 3.12. -- Function: turtle.setx (x) Parameters: ‘x’ – a number (integer or float) Set the turtle’s first coordinate to 'x', leave second coordinate unchanged. >>> turtle.position() (0.00,240.00) >>> turtle.setx(10) >>> turtle.position() (10.00,240.00) -- Function: turtle.sety (y) Parameters: ‘y’ – a number (integer or float) Set the turtle’s second coordinate to 'y', leave first coordinate unchanged. >>> turtle.position() (0.00,40.00) >>> turtle.sety(-10) >>> turtle.position() (0.00,-10.00) -- Function: turtle.setheading (to_angle) -- Function: turtle.seth (to_angle) Parameters: ‘to_angle’ – a number (integer or float) Set the orientation of the turtle to 'to_angle'. Here are some common directions in degrees: standard mode logo mode ------------------------------------------------- 0 - east 0 - north 90 - north 90 - east 180 - west 180 - south 270 - south 270 - west >>> turtle.setheading(90) >>> turtle.heading() 90.0 -- Function: turtle.home () Move turtle to the origin – coordinates (0,0) – and set its heading to its start-orientation (which depends on the mode, see *note mode(): 3dd0.). >>> turtle.heading() 90.0 >>> turtle.position() (0.00,-10.00) >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.position() (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.heading() 0.0 -- Function: turtle.circle (radius, extent=None, steps=None) Parameters: * ‘radius’ – a number * ‘extent’ – a number (or ‘None’) * ‘steps’ – an integer (or ‘None’) Draw a circle with given 'radius'. The center is 'radius' units left of the turtle; 'extent' – an angle – determines which part of the circle is drawn. If 'extent' is not given, draw the entire circle. If 'extent' is not a full circle, one endpoint of the arc is the current pen position. Draw the arc in counterclockwise direction if 'radius' is positive, otherwise in clockwise direction. Finally the direction of the turtle is changed by the amount of 'extent'. As the circle is approximated by an inscribed regular polygon, 'steps' determines the number of steps to use. If not given, it will be calculated automatically. May be used to draw regular polygons. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.position() (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.heading() 0.0 >>> turtle.circle(50) >>> turtle.position() (-0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.heading() 0.0 >>> turtle.circle(120, 180) # draw a semicircle >>> turtle.position() (0.00,240.00) >>> turtle.heading() 180.0 -- Function: turtle.dot (size=None, *color) Parameters: * ‘size’ – an integer >= 1 (if given) * ‘color’ – a colorstring or a numeric color tuple Draw a circular dot with diameter 'size', using 'color'. If 'size' is not given, the maximum of pensize+4 and 2*pensize is used. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.dot() >>> turtle.fd(50); turtle.dot(20, "blue"); turtle.fd(50) >>> turtle.position() (100.00,-0.00) >>> turtle.heading() 0.0 -- Function: turtle.stamp () Stamp a copy of the turtle shape onto the canvas at the current turtle position. Return a stamp_id for that stamp, which can be used to delete it by calling ‘clearstamp(stamp_id)’. >>> turtle.color("blue") >>> stamp_id = turtle.stamp() >>> turtle.fd(50) -- Function: turtle.clearstamp (stampid) Parameters: ‘stampid’ – an integer, must be return value of previous *note stamp(): 3d84. call Delete stamp with given 'stampid'. >>> turtle.position() (150.00,-0.00) >>> turtle.color("blue") >>> astamp = turtle.stamp() >>> turtle.fd(50) >>> turtle.position() (200.00,-0.00) >>> turtle.clearstamp(astamp) >>> turtle.position() (200.00,-0.00) -- Function: turtle.clearstamps (n=None) Parameters: ‘n’ – an integer (or ‘None’) Delete all or first/last 'n' of turtle’s stamps. If 'n' is ‘None’, delete all stamps, if 'n' > 0 delete first 'n' stamps, else if 'n' < 0 delete last 'n' stamps. >>> for i in range(8): ... unused_stamp_id = turtle.stamp() ... turtle.fd(30) >>> turtle.clearstamps(2) >>> turtle.clearstamps(-2) >>> turtle.clearstamps() -- Function: turtle.undo () Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s). Number of available undo actions is determined by the size of the undobuffer. >>> for i in range(4): ... turtle.fd(50); turtle.lt(80) ... >>> for i in range(8): ... turtle.undo() -- Function: turtle.speed (speed=None) Parameters: ‘speed’ – an integer in the range 0..10 or a speedstring (see below) Set the turtle’s speed to an integer value in the range 0..10. If no argument is given, return current speed. If input is a number greater than 10 or smaller than 0.5, speed is set to 0. Speedstrings are mapped to speedvalues as follows: * “fastest”: 0 * “fast”: 10 * “normal”: 6 * “slow”: 3 * “slowest”: 1 Speeds from 1 to 10 enforce increasingly faster animation of line drawing and turtle turning. Attention: 'speed' = 0 means that 'no' animation takes place. forward/back makes turtle jump and likewise left/right make the turtle turn instantly. >>> turtle.speed() 3 >>> turtle.speed('normal') >>> turtle.speed() 6 >>> turtle.speed(9) >>> turtle.speed() 9  File: python.info, Node: Tell Turtle’s state, Next: Settings for measurement, Prev: Turtle motion, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.19 Tell Turtle’s state ............................. -- Function: turtle.position () -- Function: turtle.pos () Return the turtle’s current location (x,y) (as a *note Vec2D: 3ddf. vector). >>> turtle.pos() (440.00,-0.00) -- Function: turtle.towards (x, y=None) Parameters: * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance * ‘y’ – a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’ Return the angle between the line from turtle position to position specified by (x,y), the vector or the other turtle. This depends on the turtle’s start orientation which depends on the mode - “standard”/”world” or “logo”. >>> turtle.goto(10, 10) >>> turtle.towards(0,0) 225.0 -- Function: turtle.xcor () Return the turtle’s x coordinate. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.left(50) >>> turtle.forward(100) >>> turtle.pos() (64.28,76.60) >>> print(round(turtle.xcor(), 5)) 64.27876 -- Function: turtle.ycor () Return the turtle’s y coordinate. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.left(60) >>> turtle.forward(100) >>> print(turtle.pos()) (50.00,86.60) >>> print(round(turtle.ycor(), 5)) 86.60254 -- Function: turtle.heading () Return the turtle’s current heading (value depends on the turtle mode, see *note mode(): 3dd0.). >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.left(67) >>> turtle.heading() 67.0 -- Function: turtle.distance (x, y=None) Parameters: * ‘x’ – a number or a pair/vector of numbers or a turtle instance * ‘y’ – a number if 'x' is a number, else ‘None’ Return the distance from the turtle to (x,y), the given vector, or the given other turtle, in turtle step units. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.distance(30,40) 50.0 >>> turtle.distance((30,40)) 50.0 >>> joe = Turtle() >>> joe.forward(77) >>> turtle.distance(joe) 77.0  File: python.info, Node: Settings for measurement, Next: Pen control<2>, Prev: Tell Turtle’s state, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.20 Settings for measurement .................................. -- Function: turtle.degrees (fullcircle=360.0) Parameters: ‘fullcircle’ – a number Set angle measurement units, i.e. set number of “degrees” for a full circle. Default value is 360 degrees. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.left(90) >>> turtle.heading() 90.0 >>> # Change angle measurement unit to grad (also known as gon, >>> # grade, or gradian and equals 1/100-th of the right angle.) >>> turtle.degrees(400.0) >>> turtle.heading() 100.0 >>> turtle.degrees(360) >>> turtle.heading() 90.0 -- Function: turtle.radians () Set the angle measurement units to radians. Equivalent to ‘degrees(2*math.pi)’. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.left(90) >>> turtle.heading() 90.0 >>> turtle.radians() >>> turtle.heading() 1.5707963267948966  File: python.info, Node: Pen control<2>, Next: Turtle state, Prev: Settings for measurement, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.21 Pen control ..................... * Menu: * Drawing state:: * Color control:: * Filling:: * More drawing control::  File: python.info, Node: Drawing state, Next: Color control, Up: Pen control<2> 5.25.1.22 Drawing state ....................... -- Function: turtle.pendown () -- Function: turtle.pd () -- Function: turtle.down () Pull the pen down – drawing when moving. -- Function: turtle.penup () -- Function: turtle.pu () -- Function: turtle.up () Pull the pen up – no drawing when moving. -- Function: turtle.pensize (width=None) -- Function: turtle.width (width=None) Parameters: ‘width’ – a positive number Set the line thickness to 'width' or return it. If resizemode is set to “auto” and turtleshape is a polygon, that polygon is drawn with the same line thickness. If no argument is given, the current pensize is returned. >>> turtle.pensize() 1 >>> turtle.pensize(10) # from here on lines of width 10 are drawn -- Function: turtle.pen (pen=None, **pendict) Parameters: * ‘pen’ – a dictionary with some or all of the below listed keys * ‘pendict’ – one or more keyword-arguments with the below listed keys as keywords Return or set the pen’s attributes in a “pen-dictionary” with the following key/value pairs: * “shown”: True/False * “pendown”: True/False * “pencolor”: color-string or color-tuple * “fillcolor”: color-string or color-tuple * “pensize”: positive number * “speed”: number in range 0..10 * “resizemode”: “auto” or “user” or “noresize” * “stretchfactor”: (positive number, positive number) * “outline”: positive number * “tilt”: number This dictionary can be used as argument for a subsequent call to *note pen(): 3d9a. to restore the former pen-state. Moreover one or more of these attributes can be provided as keyword-arguments. This can be used to set several pen attributes in one statement. >>> turtle.pen(fillcolor="black", pencolor="red", pensize=10) >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items()) [('fillcolor', 'black'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red'), ('pendown', True), ('pensize', 10), ('resizemode', 'noresize'), ('shearfactor', 0.0), ('shown', True), ('speed', 9), ('stretchfactor', (1.0, 1.0)), ('tilt', 0.0)] >>> penstate=turtle.pen() >>> turtle.color("yellow", "") >>> turtle.penup() >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3] [('fillcolor', ''), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'yellow')] >>> turtle.pen(penstate, fillcolor="green") >>> sorted(turtle.pen().items())[:3] [('fillcolor', 'green'), ('outline', 1), ('pencolor', 'red')] -- Function: turtle.isdown () Return ‘True’ if pen is down, ‘False’ if it’s up. >>> turtle.penup() >>> turtle.isdown() False >>> turtle.pendown() >>> turtle.isdown() True  File: python.info, Node: Color control, Next: Filling, Prev: Drawing state, Up: Pen control<2> 5.25.1.23 Color control ....................... -- Function: turtle.pencolor (*args) Return or set the pencolor. Four input formats are allowed: ‘pencolor()’ Return the current pencolor as color specification string or as a tuple (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call. ‘pencolor(colorstring)’ Set pencolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or ‘"#33cc8c"’. ‘pencolor((r, g, b))’ Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of 'r', 'g', and 'b'. Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see *note colormode(): 3dd1.). ‘pencolor(r, g, b)’ Set pencolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and 'b'. Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range 0..colormode. If turtleshape is a polygon, the outline of that polygon is drawn with the newly set pencolor. >>> colormode() 1.0 >>> turtle.pencolor() 'red' >>> turtle.pencolor("brown") >>> turtle.pencolor() 'brown' >>> tup = (0.2, 0.8, 0.55) >>> turtle.pencolor(tup) >>> turtle.pencolor() (0.2, 0.8, 0.5490196078431373) >>> colormode(255) >>> turtle.pencolor() (51.0, 204.0, 140.0) >>> turtle.pencolor('#32c18f') >>> turtle.pencolor() (50.0, 193.0, 143.0) -- Function: turtle.fillcolor (*args) Return or set the fillcolor. Four input formats are allowed: ‘fillcolor()’ Return the current fillcolor as color specification string, possibly in tuple format (see example). May be used as input to another color/pencolor/fillcolor call. ‘fillcolor(colorstring)’ Set fillcolor to 'colorstring', which is a Tk color specification string, such as ‘"red"’, ‘"yellow"’, or ‘"#33cc8c"’. ‘fillcolor((r, g, b))’ Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by the tuple of 'r', 'g', and 'b'. Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range 0..colormode, where colormode is either 1.0 or 255 (see *note colormode(): 3dd1.). ‘fillcolor(r, g, b)’ Set fillcolor to the RGB color represented by 'r', 'g', and 'b'. Each of 'r', 'g', and 'b' must be in the range 0..colormode. If turtleshape is a polygon, the interior of that polygon is drawn with the newly set fillcolor. >>> turtle.fillcolor("violet") >>> turtle.fillcolor() 'violet' >>> turtle.pencolor() (50.0, 193.0, 143.0) >>> turtle.fillcolor((50, 193, 143)) # Integers, not floats >>> turtle.fillcolor() (50.0, 193.0, 143.0) >>> turtle.fillcolor('#ffffff') >>> turtle.fillcolor() (255.0, 255.0, 255.0) -- Function: turtle.color (*args) Return or set pencolor and fillcolor. Several input formats are allowed. They use 0 to 3 arguments as follows: ‘color()’ Return the current pencolor and the current fillcolor as a pair of color specification strings or tuples as returned by *note pencolor(): 3d9d. and *note fillcolor(): 3d9e. ‘color(colorstring)’, ‘color((r,g,b))’, ‘color(r,g,b)’ Inputs as in *note pencolor(): 3d9d, set both, fillcolor and pencolor, to the given value. ‘color(colorstring1, colorstring2)’, ‘color((r1,g1,b1), (r2,g2,b2))’ Equivalent to ‘pencolor(colorstring1)’ and ‘fillcolor(colorstring2)’ and analogously if the other input format is used. If turtleshape is a polygon, outline and interior of that polygon is drawn with the newly set colors. >>> turtle.color("red", "green") >>> turtle.color() ('red', 'green') >>> color("#285078", "#a0c8f0") >>> color() ((40.0, 80.0, 120.0), (160.0, 200.0, 240.0)) See also: Screen method *note colormode(): 3dd1.  File: python.info, Node: Filling, Next: More drawing control, Prev: Color control, Up: Pen control<2> 5.25.1.24 Filling ................. -- Function: turtle.filling () Return fillstate (‘True’ if filling, ‘False’ else). >>> turtle.begin_fill() >>> if turtle.filling(): ... turtle.pensize(5) ... else: ... turtle.pensize(3) -- Function: turtle.begin_fill () To be called just before drawing a shape to be filled. -- Function: turtle.end_fill () Fill the shape drawn after the last call to *note begin_fill(): 3da0. Whether or not overlap regions for self-intersecting polygons or multiple shapes are filled depends on the operating system graphics, type of overlap, and number of overlaps. For example, the Turtle star above may be either all yellow or have some white regions. >>> turtle.color("black", "red") >>> turtle.begin_fill() >>> turtle.circle(80) >>> turtle.end_fill()  File: python.info, Node: More drawing control, Prev: Filling, Up: Pen control<2> 5.25.1.25 More drawing control .............................. -- Function: turtle.reset () Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen, re-center the turtle and set variables to the default values. >>> turtle.goto(0,-22) >>> turtle.left(100) >>> turtle.position() (0.00,-22.00) >>> turtle.heading() 100.0 >>> turtle.reset() >>> turtle.position() (0.00,0.00) >>> turtle.heading() 0.0 -- Function: turtle.clear () Delete the turtle’s drawings from the screen. Do not move turtle. State and position of the turtle as well as drawings of other turtles are not affected. -- Function: turtle.write (arg, move=False, align='left', font=('Arial', 8, 'normal')) Parameters: * ‘arg’ – object to be written to the TurtleScreen * ‘move’ – True/False * ‘align’ – one of the strings “left”, “center” or right” * ‘font’ – a triple (fontname, fontsize, fonttype) Write text - the string representation of 'arg' - at the current turtle position according to 'align' (“left”, “center” or “right”) and with the given font. If 'move' is true, the pen is moved to the bottom-right corner of the text. By default, 'move' is ‘False’. >>> turtle.write("Home = ", True, align="center") >>> turtle.write((0,0), True)  File: python.info, Node: Turtle state, Next: Using events, Prev: Pen control<2>, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.26 Turtle state ...................... * Menu: * Visibility:: * Appearance::  File: python.info, Node: Visibility, Next: Appearance, Up: Turtle state 5.25.1.27 Visibility .................... -- Function: turtle.hideturtle () -- Function: turtle.ht () Make the turtle invisible. It’s a good idea to do this while you’re in the middle of doing some complex drawing, because hiding the turtle speeds up the drawing observably. >>> turtle.hideturtle() -- Function: turtle.showturtle () -- Function: turtle.st () Make the turtle visible. >>> turtle.showturtle() -- Function: turtle.isvisible () Return ‘True’ if the Turtle is shown, ‘False’ if it’s hidden. >>> turtle.hideturtle() >>> turtle.isvisible() False >>> turtle.showturtle() >>> turtle.isvisible() True  File: python.info, Node: Appearance, Prev: Visibility, Up: Turtle state 5.25.1.28 Appearance .................... -- Function: turtle.shape (name=None) Parameters: ‘name’ – a string which is a valid shapename Set turtle shape to shape with given 'name' or, if name is not given, return name of current shape. Shape with 'name' must exist in the TurtleScreen’s shape dictionary. Initially there are the following polygon shapes: “arrow”, “turtle”, “circle”, “square”, “triangle”, “classic”. To learn about how to deal with shapes see Screen method *note register_shape(): 3dd4. >>> turtle.shape() 'classic' >>> turtle.shape("turtle") >>> turtle.shape() 'turtle' -- Function: turtle.resizemode (rmode=None) Parameters: ‘rmode’ – one of the strings “auto”, “user”, “noresize” Set resizemode to one of the values: “auto”, “user”, “noresize”. If 'rmode' is not given, return current resizemode. Different resizemodes have the following effects: - “auto”: adapts the appearance of the turtle corresponding to the value of pensize. - “user”: adapts the appearance of the turtle according to the values of stretchfactor and outlinewidth (outline), which are set by *note shapesize(): 3dac. - “noresize”: no adaption of the turtle’s appearance takes place. ‘resizemode("user")’ is called by *note shapesize(): 3dac. when used with arguments. >>> turtle.resizemode() 'noresize' >>> turtle.resizemode("auto") >>> turtle.resizemode() 'auto' -- Function: turtle.shapesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None) -- Function: turtle.turtlesize (stretch_wid=None, stretch_len=None, outline=None) Parameters: * ‘stretch_wid’ – positive number * ‘stretch_len’ – positive number * ‘outline’ – positive number Return or set the pen’s attributes x/y-stretchfactors and/or outline. Set resizemode to “user”. If and only if resizemode is set to “user”, the turtle will be displayed stretched according to its stretchfactors: 'stretch_wid' is stretchfactor perpendicular to its orientation, 'stretch_len' is stretchfactor in direction of its orientation, 'outline' determines the width of the shape’s outline. >>> turtle.shapesize() (1.0, 1.0, 1) >>> turtle.resizemode("user") >>> turtle.shapesize(5, 5, 12) >>> turtle.shapesize() (5, 5, 12) >>> turtle.shapesize(outline=8) >>> turtle.shapesize() (5, 5, 8) -- Function: turtle.shearfactor (shear=None) Parameters: ‘shear’ – number (optional) Set or return the current shearfactor. Shear the turtleshape according to the given shearfactor shear, which is the tangent of the shear angle. Do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). If shear is not given: return the current shearfactor, i. e. the tangent of the shear angle, by which lines parallel to the heading of the turtle are sheared. >>> turtle.shape("circle") >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2) >>> turtle.shearfactor(0.5) >>> turtle.shearfactor() 0.5 -- Function: turtle.tilt (angle) Parameters: ‘angle’ – a number Rotate the turtleshape by 'angle' from its current tilt-angle, but do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). >>> turtle.reset() >>> turtle.shape("circle") >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2) >>> turtle.tilt(30) >>> turtle.fd(50) >>> turtle.tilt(30) >>> turtle.fd(50) -- Function: turtle.tiltangle (angle=None) Parameters: ‘angle’ – a number (optional) Set or return the current tilt-angle. If angle is given, rotate the turtleshape to point in the direction specified by angle, regardless of its current tilt-angle. Do 'not' change the turtle’s heading (direction of movement). If angle is not given: return the current tilt-angle, i. e. the angle between the orientation of the turtleshape and the heading of the turtle (its direction of movement). >>> turtle.reset() >>> turtle.shape("circle") >>> turtle.shapesize(5,2) >>> turtle.tilt(45) >>> turtle.tiltangle() 45.0 -- Function: turtle.shapetransform (t11=None, t12=None, t21=None, t22=None) Parameters: * ‘t11’ – a number (optional) * ‘t12’ – a number (optional) * ‘t21’ – a number (optional) * ‘t12’ – a number (optional) Set or return the current transformation matrix of the turtle shape. If none of the matrix elements are given, return the transformation matrix as a tuple of 4 elements. Otherwise set the given elements and transform the turtleshape according to the matrix consisting of first row t11, t12 and second row t21, t22. The determinant t11 * t22 - t12 * t21 must not be zero, otherwise an error is raised. Modify stretchfactor, shearfactor and tiltangle according to the given matrix. >>> turtle = Turtle() >>> turtle.shape("square") >>> turtle.shapesize(4,2) >>> turtle.shearfactor(-0.5) >>> turtle.shapetransform() (4.0, -1.0, -0.0, 2.0) -- Function: turtle.get_shapepoly () Return the current shape polygon as tuple of coordinate pairs. This can be used to define a new shape or components of a compound shape. >>> turtle.shape("square") >>> turtle.shapetransform(4, -1, 0, 2) >>> turtle.get_shapepoly() ((50, -20), (30, 20), (-50, 20), (-30, -20))  File: python.info, Node: Using events, Next: Special Turtle methods, Prev: Turtle state, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.29 Using events ...................... -- Function: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button) * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this turtle. If 'fun' is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed. Example for the anonymous turtle, i.e. the procedural way: >>> def turn(x, y): ... left(180) ... >>> onclick(turn) # Now clicking into the turtle will turn it. >>> onclick(None) # event-binding will be removed -- Function: turtle.onrelease (fun, btn=1, add=None) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button) * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind 'fun' to mouse-button-release events on this turtle. If 'fun' is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed. >>> class MyTurtle(Turtle): ... def glow(self,x,y): ... self.fillcolor("red") ... def unglow(self,x,y): ... self.fillcolor("") ... >>> turtle = MyTurtle() >>> turtle.onclick(turtle.glow) # clicking on turtle turns fillcolor red, >>> turtle.onrelease(turtle.unglow) # releasing turns it to transparent. -- Function: turtle.ondrag (fun, btn=1, add=None) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button) * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind 'fun' to mouse-move events on this turtle. If 'fun' is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed. Remark: Every sequence of mouse-move-events on a turtle is preceded by a mouse-click event on that turtle. >>> turtle.ondrag(turtle.goto) Subsequently, clicking and dragging the Turtle will move it across the screen thereby producing handdrawings (if pen is down).  File: python.info, Node: Special Turtle methods, Next: Compound shapes, Prev: Using events, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.30 Special Turtle methods ................................ -- Function: turtle.begin_poly () Start recording the vertices of a polygon. Current turtle position is first vertex of polygon. -- Function: turtle.end_poly () Stop recording the vertices of a polygon. Current turtle position is last vertex of polygon. This will be connected with the first vertex. -- Function: turtle.get_poly () Return the last recorded polygon. >>> turtle.home() >>> turtle.begin_poly() >>> turtle.fd(100) >>> turtle.left(20) >>> turtle.fd(30) >>> turtle.left(60) >>> turtle.fd(50) >>> turtle.end_poly() >>> p = turtle.get_poly() >>> register_shape("myFavouriteShape", p) -- Function: turtle.clone () Create and return a clone of the turtle with same position, heading and turtle properties. >>> mick = Turtle() >>> joe = mick.clone() -- Function: turtle.getturtle () -- Function: turtle.getpen () Return the Turtle object itself. Only reasonable use: as a function to return the “anonymous turtle”: >>> pet = getturtle() >>> pet.fd(50) >>> pet -- Function: turtle.getscreen () Return the *note TurtleScreen: 3dec. object the turtle is drawing on. TurtleScreen methods can then be called for that object. >>> ts = turtle.getscreen() >>> ts >>> ts.bgcolor("pink") -- Function: turtle.setundobuffer (size) Parameters: ‘size’ – an integer or ‘None’ Set or disable undobuffer. If 'size' is an integer, an empty undobuffer of given size is installed. 'size' gives the maximum number of turtle actions that can be undone by the *note undo(): 3d87. method/function. If 'size' is ‘None’, the undobuffer is disabled. >>> turtle.setundobuffer(42) -- Function: turtle.undobufferentries () Return number of entries in the undobuffer. >>> while undobufferentries(): ... undo()  File: python.info, Node: Compound shapes, Prev: Special Turtle methods, Up: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions 5.25.1.31 Compound shapes ......................... To use compound turtle shapes, which consist of several polygons of different color, you must use the helper class *note Shape: 3def. explicitly as described below: 1. Create an empty Shape object of type “compound”. 2. Add as many components to this object as desired, using the *note addcomponent(): 3df0. method. For example: >>> s = Shape("compound") >>> poly1 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5)) >>> s.addcomponent(poly1, "red", "blue") >>> poly2 = ((0,0),(10,-5),(-10,-5)) >>> s.addcomponent(poly2, "blue", "red") 3. Now add the Shape to the Screen’s shapelist and use it: >>> register_shape("myshape", s) >>> shape("myshape") Note: The *note Shape: 3def. class is used internally by the *note register_shape(): 3dd4. method in different ways. The application programmer has to deal with the Shape class 'only' when using compound shapes like shown above!  File: python.info, Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions, Next: Public classes, Prev: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.32 Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions .................................................................... Most of the examples in this section refer to a TurtleScreen instance called ‘screen’. * Menu: * Window control:: * Animation control:: * Using screen events:: * Input methods:: * Settings and special methods:: * Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen.  File: python.info, Node: Window control, Next: Animation control, Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 5.25.1.33 Window control ........................ -- Function: turtle.bgcolor (*args) Parameters: ‘args’ – a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers Set or return background color of the TurtleScreen. >>> screen.bgcolor("orange") >>> screen.bgcolor() 'orange' >>> screen.bgcolor("#800080") >>> screen.bgcolor() (128.0, 0.0, 128.0) -- Function: turtle.bgpic (picname=None) Parameters: ‘picname’ – a string, name of a gif-file or ‘"nopic"’, or ‘None’ Set background image or return name of current backgroundimage. If 'picname' is a filename, set the corresponding image as background. If 'picname' is ‘"nopic"’, delete background image, if present. If 'picname' is ‘None’, return the filename of the current backgroundimage. >>> screen.bgpic() 'nopic' >>> screen.bgpic("landscape.gif") >>> screen.bgpic() "landscape.gif" -- Function: turtle.clear () Note: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name ‘clearscreen’. The global function ‘clear’ is a different one derived from the Turtle method ‘clear’. -- Function: turtle.clearscreen () Delete all drawings and all turtles from the TurtleScreen. Reset the now empty TurtleScreen to its initial state: white background, no background image, no event bindings and tracing on. -- Function: turtle.reset () Note: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name ‘resetscreen’. The global function ‘reset’ is another one derived from the Turtle method ‘reset’. -- Function: turtle.resetscreen () Reset all Turtles on the Screen to their initial state. -- Function: turtle.screensize (canvwidth=None, canvheight=None, bg=None) Parameters: * ‘canvwidth’ – positive integer, new width of canvas in pixels * ‘canvheight’ – positive integer, new height of canvas in pixels * ‘bg’ – colorstring or color-tuple, new background color If no arguments are given, return current (canvaswidth, canvasheight). Else resize the canvas the turtles are drawing on. Do not alter the drawing window. To observe hidden parts of the canvas, use the scrollbars. With this method, one can make visible those parts of a drawing which were outside the canvas before. >>> screen.screensize() (400, 300) >>> screen.screensize(2000,1500) >>> screen.screensize() (2000, 1500) e.g. to search for an erroneously escaped turtle ;-) -- Function: turtle.setworldcoordinates (llx, lly, urx, ury) Parameters: * ‘llx’ – a number, x-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas * ‘lly’ – a number, y-coordinate of lower left corner of canvas * ‘urx’ – a number, x-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas * ‘ury’ – a number, y-coordinate of upper right corner of canvas Set up user-defined coordinate system and switch to mode “world” if necessary. This performs a ‘screen.reset()’. If mode “world” is already active, all drawings are redrawn according to the new coordinates. 'ATTENTION': in user-defined coordinate systems angles may appear distorted. >>> screen.reset() >>> screen.setworldcoordinates(-50,-7.5,50,7.5) >>> for _ in range(72): ... left(10) ... >>> for _ in range(8): ... left(45); fd(2) # a regular octagon  File: python.info, Node: Animation control, Next: Using screen events, Prev: Window control, Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 5.25.1.34 Animation control ........................... -- Function: turtle.delay (delay=None) Parameters: ‘delay’ – positive integer Set or return the drawing 'delay' in milliseconds. (This is approximately the time interval between two consecutive canvas updates.) The longer the drawing delay, the slower the animation. Optional argument: >>> screen.delay() 10 >>> screen.delay(5) >>> screen.delay() 5 -- Function: turtle.tracer (n=None, delay=None) Parameters: * ‘n’ – nonnegative integer * ‘delay’ – nonnegative integer Turn turtle animation on/off and set delay for update drawings. If 'n' is given, only each n-th regular screen update is really performed. (Can be used to accelerate the drawing of complex graphics.) When called without arguments, returns the currently stored value of n. Second argument sets delay value (see *note delay(): 3dc5.). >>> screen.tracer(8, 25) >>> dist = 2 >>> for i in range(200): ... fd(dist) ... rt(90) ... dist += 2 -- Function: turtle.update () Perform a TurtleScreen update. To be used when tracer is turned off. See also the RawTurtle/Turtle method *note speed(): 3d88.  File: python.info, Node: Using screen events, Next: Input methods, Prev: Animation control, Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 5.25.1.35 Using screen events ............................. -- Function: turtle.listen (xdummy=None, ydummy=None) Set focus on TurtleScreen (in order to collect key-events). Dummy arguments are provided in order to be able to pass *note listen(): 3dc8. to the onclick method. -- Function: turtle.onkey (fun, key) -- Function: turtle.onkeyrelease (fun, key) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments or ‘None’ * ‘key’ – a string: key (e.g. “a”) or key-symbol (e.g. “space”) Bind 'fun' to key-release event of key. If 'fun' is ‘None’, event bindings are removed. Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen must have the focus. (See method *note listen(): 3dc8.) >>> def f(): ... fd(50) ... lt(60) ... >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up") >>> screen.listen() -- Function: turtle.onkeypress (fun, key=None) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments or ‘None’ * ‘key’ – a string: key (e.g. “a”) or key-symbol (e.g. “space”) Bind 'fun' to key-press event of key if key is given, or to any key-press-event if no key is given. Remark: in order to be able to register key-events, TurtleScreen must have focus. (See method *note listen(): 3dc8.) >>> def f(): ... fd(50) ... >>> screen.onkey(f, "Up") >>> screen.listen() -- Function: turtle.onclick (fun, btn=1, add=None) -- Function: turtle.onscreenclick (fun, btn=1, add=None) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with two arguments which will be called with the coordinates of the clicked point on the canvas * ‘btn’ – number of the mouse-button, defaults to 1 (left mouse button) * ‘add’ – ‘True’ or ‘False’ – if ‘True’, a new binding will be added, otherwise it will replace a former binding Bind 'fun' to mouse-click events on this screen. If 'fun' is ‘None’, existing bindings are removed. Example for a TurtleScreen instance named ‘screen’ and a Turtle instance named ‘turtle’: >>> screen.onclick(turtle.goto) # Subsequently clicking into the TurtleScreen will >>> # make the turtle move to the clicked point. >>> screen.onclick(None) # remove event binding again Note: This TurtleScreen method is available as a global function only under the name ‘onscreenclick’. The global function ‘onclick’ is another one derived from the Turtle method ‘onclick’. -- Function: turtle.ontimer (fun, t=0) Parameters: * ‘fun’ – a function with no arguments * ‘t’ – a number >= 0 Install a timer that calls 'fun' after 't' milliseconds. >>> running = True >>> def f(): ... if running: ... fd(50) ... lt(60) ... screen.ontimer(f, 250) >>> f() ### makes the turtle march around >>> running = False -- Function: turtle.mainloop () -- Function: turtle.done () Starts event loop - calling Tkinter’s mainloop function. Must be the last statement in a turtle graphics program. Must 'not' be used if a script is run from within IDLE in -n mode (No subprocess) - for interactive use of turtle graphics. >>> screen.mainloop()  File: python.info, Node: Input methods, Next: Settings and special methods, Prev: Using screen events, Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 5.25.1.36 Input methods ....................... -- Function: turtle.textinput (title, prompt) Parameters: * ‘title’ – string * ‘prompt’ – string Pop up a dialog window for input of a string. Parameter title is the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what information to input. Return the string input. If the dialog is canceled, return ‘None’. >>> screen.textinput("NIM", "Name of first player:") -- Function: turtle.numinput (title, prompt, default=None, minval=None, maxval=None) Parameters: * ‘title’ – string * ‘prompt’ – string * ‘default’ – number (optional) * ‘minval’ – number (optional) * ‘maxval’ – number (optional) Pop up a dialog window for input of a number. title is the title of the dialog window, prompt is a text mostly describing what numerical information to input. default: default value, minval: minimum value for input, maxval: maximum value for input. The number input must be in the range minval .. maxval if these are given. If not, a hint is issued and the dialog remains open for correction. Return the number input. If the dialog is canceled, return ‘None’. >>> screen.numinput("Poker", "Your stakes:", 1000, minval=10, maxval=10000)  File: python.info, Node: Settings and special methods, Next: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen, Prev: Input methods, Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 5.25.1.37 Settings and special methods ...................................... -- Function: turtle.mode (mode=None) Parameters: ‘mode’ – one of the strings “standard”, “logo” or “world” Set turtle mode (“standard”, “logo” or “world”) and perform reset. If mode is not given, current mode is returned. Mode “standard” is compatible with old *note turtle: 101. Mode “logo” is compatible with most Logo turtle graphics. Mode “world” uses user-defined “world coordinates”. 'Attention': in this mode angles appear distorted if ‘x/y’ unit-ratio doesn’t equal 1. Mode Initial turtle heading positive angles ----------------------------------------------------------------------- “standard” to the right (east) counterclockwise “logo” upward (north) clockwise >>> mode("logo") # resets turtle heading to north >>> mode() 'logo' -- Function: turtle.colormode (cmode=None) Parameters: ‘cmode’ – one of the values 1.0 or 255 Return the colormode or set it to 1.0 or 255. Subsequently 'r', 'g', 'b' values of color triples have to be in the range 0..*cmode*. >>> screen.colormode(1) >>> turtle.pencolor(240, 160, 80) Traceback (most recent call last): ... TurtleGraphicsError: bad color sequence: (240, 160, 80) >>> screen.colormode() 1.0 >>> screen.colormode(255) >>> screen.colormode() 255 >>> turtle.pencolor(240,160,80) -- Function: turtle.getcanvas () Return the Canvas of this TurtleScreen. Useful for insiders who know what to do with a Tkinter Canvas. >>> cv = screen.getcanvas() >>> cv -- Function: turtle.getshapes () Return a list of names of all currently available turtle shapes. >>> screen.getshapes() ['arrow', 'blank', 'circle', ..., 'turtle'] -- Function: turtle.register_shape (name, shape=None) -- Function: turtle.addshape (name, shape=None) There are three different ways to call this function: 1. 'name' is the name of a gif-file and 'shape' is ‘None’: Install the corresponding image shape. >>> screen.register_shape("turtle.gif") Note: Image shapes 'do not' rotate when turning the turtle, so they do not display the heading of the turtle! 2. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a tuple of pairs of coordinates: Install the corresponding polygon shape. >>> screen.register_shape("triangle", ((5,-3), (0,5), (-5,-3))) 3. 'name' is an arbitrary string and 'shape' is a (compound) *note Shape: 3def. object: Install the corresponding compound shape. Add a turtle shape to TurtleScreen’s shapelist. Only thusly registered shapes can be used by issuing the command ‘shape(shapename)’. -- Function: turtle.turtles () Return the list of turtles on the screen. >>> for turtle in screen.turtles(): ... turtle.color("red") -- Function: turtle.window_height () Return the height of the turtle window. >>> screen.window_height() 480 -- Function: turtle.window_width () Return the width of the turtle window. >>> screen.window_width() 640  File: python.info, Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen, Prev: Settings and special methods, Up: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions 5.25.1.38 Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen ..................................................................... -- Function: turtle.bye () Shut the turtlegraphics window. -- Function: turtle.exitonclick () Bind ‘bye()’ method to mouse clicks on the Screen. If the value “using_IDLE” in the configuration dictionary is ‘False’ (default value), also enter mainloop. Remark: If IDLE with the ‘-n’ switch (no subprocess) is used, this value should be set to ‘True’ in ‘turtle.cfg’. In this case IDLE’s own mainloop is active also for the client script. -- Function: turtle.setup (width=_CFG['width'], height=_CFG['height'], startx=_CFG['leftright'], starty=_CFG['topbottom']) Set the size and position of the main window. Default values of arguments are stored in the configuration dictionary and can be changed via a ‘turtle.cfg’ file. Parameters: * ‘width’ – if an integer, a size in pixels, if a float, a fraction of the screen; default is 50% of screen * ‘height’ – if an integer, the height in pixels, if a float, a fraction of the screen; default is 75% of screen * ‘startx’ – if positive, starting position in pixels from the left edge of the screen, if negative from the right edge, if ‘None’, center window horizontally * ‘starty’ – if positive, starting position in pixels from the top edge of the screen, if negative from the bottom edge, if ‘None’, center window vertically >>> screen.setup (width=200, height=200, startx=0, starty=0) >>> # sets window to 200x200 pixels, in upper left of screen >>> screen.setup(width=.75, height=0.5, startx=None, starty=None) >>> # sets window to 75% of screen by 50% of screen and centers -- Function: turtle.title (titlestring) Parameters: ‘titlestring’ – a string that is shown in the titlebar of the turtle graphics window Set title of turtle window to 'titlestring'. >>> screen.title("Welcome to the turtle zoo!")  File: python.info, Node: Public classes, Next: Explanation<2>, Prev: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.39 Public classes ........................ -- Class: turtle.RawTurtle (canvas) -- Class: turtle.RawPen (canvas) Parameters: ‘canvas’ – a ‘tkinter.Canvas’, a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3dfc. or a *note TurtleScreen: 3dec. Create a turtle. The turtle has all methods described above as “methods of Turtle/RawTurtle”. -- Class: turtle.Turtle Subclass of RawTurtle, has the same interface but draws on a default *note Screen: 3d6f. object created automatically when needed for the first time. -- Class: turtle.TurtleScreen (cv) Parameters: ‘cv’ – a ‘tkinter.Canvas’ Provides screen oriented methods like *note bgcolor(): 3dbf. etc. that are described above. -- Class: turtle.Screen Subclass of TurtleScreen, with *note four methods added: 3df8. -- Class: turtle.ScrolledCanvas (master) Parameters: ‘master’ – some Tkinter widget to contain the ScrolledCanvas, i.e. a Tkinter-canvas with scrollbars added Used by class Screen, which thus automatically provides a ScrolledCanvas as playground for the turtles. -- Class: turtle.Shape (type_, data) Parameters: ‘type_’ – one of the strings “polygon”, “image”, “compound” Data structure modeling shapes. The pair ‘(type_, data)’ must follow this specification: 'type_' 'data' ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- “polygon” a polygon-tuple, i.e. a tuple of pairs of coordinates “image” an image (in this form only used internally!) “compound” ‘None’ (a compound shape has to be constructed using the *note addcomponent(): 3df0. method) -- Method: addcomponent (poly, fill, outline=None) Parameters: * ‘poly’ – a polygon, i.e. a tuple of pairs of numbers * ‘fill’ – a color the 'poly' will be filled with * ‘outline’ – a color for the poly’s outline (if given) Example: >>> poly = ((0,0),(10,-5),(0,10),(-10,-5)) >>> s = Shape("compound") >>> s.addcomponent(poly, "red", "blue") >>> # ... add more components and then use register_shape() See *note Compound shapes: 3dee. -- Class: turtle.Vec2D (x, y) A two-dimensional vector class, used as a helper class for implementing turtle graphics. May be useful for turtle graphics programs too. Derived from tuple, so a vector is a tuple! Provides (for 'a', 'b' vectors, 'k' number): * ‘a + b’ vector addition * ‘a - b’ vector subtraction * ‘a * b’ inner product * ‘k * a’ and ‘a * k’ multiplication with scalar * ‘abs(a)’ absolute value of a * ‘a.rotate(angle)’ rotation  File: python.info, Node: Explanation<2>, Next: Help and configuration, Prev: Public classes, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.40 Explanation ..................... A turtle object draws on a screen object, and there a number of key classes in the turtle object-oriented interface that can be used to create them and relate them to each other. A *note Turtle: 3dfd. instance will automatically create a *note Screen: 3d6f. instance if one is not already present. ‘Turtle’ is a subclass of *note RawTurtle: 3dfa, which 'doesn’t' automatically create a drawing surface - a 'canvas' will need to be provided or created for it. The 'canvas' can be a ‘tkinter.Canvas’, *note ScrolledCanvas: 3dfc. or *note TurtleScreen: 3dec. *note TurtleScreen: 3dec. is the basic drawing surface for a turtle. *note Screen: 3d6f. is a subclass of ‘TurtleScreen’, and includes *note some additional methods: 3df8. for managing its appearance (including size and title) and behaviour. ‘TurtleScreen’’s constructor needs a ‘tkinter.Canvas’ or a *note ScrolledCanvas: 3dfc. as an argument. The functional interface for turtle graphics uses the various methods of ‘Turtle’ and ‘TurtleScreen’/‘Screen’. Behind the scenes, a screen object is automatically created whenever a function derived from a ‘Screen’ method is called. Similarly, a turtle object is automatically created whenever any of the functions derived from a Turtle method is called. To use multiple turtles on a screen, the object-oriented interface must be used.  File: python.info, Node: Help and configuration, Next: turtledemo — Demo scripts, Prev: Explanation<2>, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.41 Help and configuration ................................ * Menu: * How to use help:: * Translation of docstrings into different languages:: * How to configure Screen and Turtles::  File: python.info, Node: How to use help, Next: Translation of docstrings into different languages, Up: Help and configuration 5.25.1.42 How to use help ......................... The public methods of the Screen and Turtle classes are documented extensively via docstrings. So these can be used as online-help via the Python help facilities: - When using IDLE, tooltips show the signatures and first lines of the docstrings of typed in function-/method calls. - Calling *note help(): 8d6. on methods or functions displays the docstrings: >>> help(Screen.bgcolor) Help on method bgcolor in module turtle: bgcolor(self, *args) unbound turtle.Screen method Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen. Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers. >>> screen.bgcolor("orange") >>> screen.bgcolor() "orange" >>> screen.bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5) >>> screen.bgcolor() "#800080" >>> help(Turtle.penup) Help on method penup in module turtle: penup(self) unbound turtle.Turtle method Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving. Aliases: penup | pu | up No argument >>> turtle.penup() - The docstrings of the functions which are derived from methods have a modified form: >>> help(bgcolor) Help on function bgcolor in module turtle: bgcolor(*args) Set or return backgroundcolor of the TurtleScreen. Arguments (if given): a color string or three numbers in the range 0..colormode or a 3-tuple of such numbers. Example:: >>> bgcolor("orange") >>> bgcolor() "orange" >>> bgcolor(0.5,0,0.5) >>> bgcolor() "#800080" >>> help(penup) Help on function penup in module turtle: penup() Pull the pen up -- no drawing when moving. Aliases: penup | pu | up No argument Example: >>> penup() These modified docstrings are created automatically together with the function definitions that are derived from the methods at import time.  File: python.info, Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages, Next: How to configure Screen and Turtles, Prev: How to use help, Up: Help and configuration 5.25.1.43 Translation of docstrings into different languages ............................................................ There is a utility to create a dictionary the keys of which are the method names and the values of which are the docstrings of the public methods of the classes Screen and Turtle. -- Function: turtle.write_docstringdict (filename='turtle_docstringdict') Parameters: ‘filename’ – a string, used as filename Create and write docstring-dictionary to a Python script with the given filename. This function has to be called explicitly (it is not used by the turtle graphics classes). The docstring dictionary will be written to the Python script ‘`filename'.py’. It is intended to serve as a template for translation of the docstrings into different languages. If you (or your students) want to use *note turtle: 101. with online help in your native language, you have to translate the docstrings and save the resulting file as e.g. ‘turtle_docstringdict_german.py’. If you have an appropriate entry in your ‘turtle.cfg’ file this dictionary will be read in at import time and will replace the original English docstrings. At the time of this writing there are docstring dictionaries in German and in Italian. (Requests please to .)  File: python.info, Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles, Prev: Translation of docstrings into different languages, Up: Help and configuration 5.25.1.44 How to configure Screen and Turtles ............................................. The built-in default configuration mimics the appearance and behaviour of the old turtle module in order to retain best possible compatibility with it. If you want to use a different configuration which better reflects the features of this module or which better fits to your needs, e.g. for use in a classroom, you can prepare a configuration file ‘turtle.cfg’ which will be read at import time and modify the configuration according to its settings. The built in configuration would correspond to the following ‘turtle.cfg’: width = 0.5 height = 0.75 leftright = None topbottom = None canvwidth = 400 canvheight = 300 mode = standard colormode = 1.0 delay = 10 undobuffersize = 1000 shape = classic pencolor = black fillcolor = black resizemode = noresize visible = True language = english exampleturtle = turtle examplescreen = screen title = Python Turtle Graphics using_IDLE = False Short explanation of selected entries: - The first four lines correspond to the arguments of the *note Screen.setup: 3ddb. method. - Line 5 and 6 correspond to the arguments of the method *note Screen.screensize: 3dc3. - 'shape' can be any of the built-in shapes, e.g: arrow, turtle, etc. For more info try ‘help(shape)’. - If you want to use no fill color (i.e. make the turtle transparent), you have to write ‘fillcolor = ""’ (but all nonempty strings must not have quotes in the cfg file). - If you want to reflect the turtle its state, you have to use ‘resizemode = auto’. - If you set e.g. ‘language = italian’ the docstringdict ‘turtle_docstringdict_italian.py’ will be loaded at import time (if present on the import path, e.g. in the same directory as *note turtle: 101.). - The entries 'exampleturtle' and 'examplescreen' define the names of these objects as they occur in the docstrings. The transformation of method-docstrings to function-docstrings will delete these names from the docstrings. - 'using_IDLE': Set this to ‘True’ if you regularly work with IDLE and its ‘-n’ switch (“no subprocess”). This will prevent *note exitonclick(): 3dda. to enter the mainloop. There can be a ‘turtle.cfg’ file in the directory where *note turtle: 101. is stored and an additional one in the current working directory. The latter will override the settings of the first one. The ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory contains a ‘turtle.cfg’ file. You can study it as an example and see its effects when running the demos (preferably not from within the demo-viewer).  File: python.info, Node: turtledemo — Demo scripts, Next: Changes since Python 2 6, Prev: Help and configuration, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.45 ‘turtledemo’ — Demo scripts ..................................... The *note turtledemo: 102. package includes a set of demo scripts. These scripts can be run and viewed using the supplied demo viewer as follows: python -m turtledemo Alternatively, you can run the demo scripts individually. For example, python -m turtledemo.bytedesign The *note turtledemo: 102. package directory contains: - A demo viewer ‘__main__.py’ which can be used to view the sourcecode of the scripts and run them at the same time. - Multiple scripts demonstrating different features of the *note turtle: 101. module. Examples can be accessed via the Examples menu. They can also be run standalone. - A ‘turtle.cfg’ file which serves as an example of how to write and use such files. The demo scripts are: Name Description Features ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ bytedesign complex classical turtle *note tracer(): 3dc6, graphics pattern delay, *note update(): 3dc7. chaos graphs Verhulst dynamics, shows world coordinates that computer’s computations can generate results sometimes against the common sense expectations clock analog clock showing time of turtles as clock’s hands, your computer ontimer colormixer experiment with r, g, b *note ondrag(): 3db4. forest 3 breadth-first trees randomization fractalcurves Hilbert & Koch curves recursion lindenmayer ethnomathematics (indian kolams) L-System minimal_hanoi Towers of Hanoi Rectangular Turtles as Hanoi discs (shape, shapesize) nim play the classical nim game with turtles as nimsticks, three heaps of sticks against event driven (mouse, the computer. keyboard) paint super minimalistic drawing *note onclick(): 3db2. program peace elementary turtle: appearance and animation penrose aperiodic tiling with kites and *note stamp(): 3d84. darts planet_and_moon simulation of gravitational compound shapes, system *note Vec2D: 3ddf. rosette a pattern from the wikipedia *note clone(): 3db8, article on turtle graphics *note undo(): 3d87. round_dance dancing turtles rotating compound shapes, clone pairwise in opposite direction shapesize, tilt, get_shapepoly, update sorting_animate visual demonstration of simple alignment, different sorting methods randomization tree a (graphical) breadth first tree *note clone(): 3db8. (using generators) two_canvases simple design turtles on two canvases yinyang another elementary example *note circle(): 3d82. Have fun!  File: python.info, Node: Changes since Python 2 6, Next: Changes since Python 3 0, Prev: turtledemo — Demo scripts, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.46 Changes since Python 2.6 .................................. - The methods *note Turtle.tracer: 3dc6, *note Turtle.window_width: 3dd8. and *note Turtle.window_height: 3dd7. have been eliminated. Methods with these names and functionality are now available only as methods of *note Screen: 3d6f. The functions derived from these remain available. (In fact already in Python 2.6 these methods were merely duplications of the corresponding *note TurtleScreen: 3dec./*note Screen: 3d6f. methods.) - The method ‘Turtle.fill()’ has been eliminated. The behaviour of *note begin_fill(): 3da0. and *note end_fill(): 3da1. have changed slightly: now every filling process must be completed with an ‘end_fill()’ call. - A method *note Turtle.filling: 3d9f. has been added. It returns a boolean value: ‘True’ if a filling process is under way, ‘False’ otherwise. This behaviour corresponds to a ‘fill()’ call without arguments in Python 2.6.  File: python.info, Node: Changes since Python 3 0, Prev: Changes since Python 2 6, Up: turtle — Turtle graphics 5.25.1.47 Changes since Python 3.0 .................................. - The *note Turtle: 3dfd. methods *note shearfactor(): 3dae, *note shapetransform(): 3db0. and *note get_shapepoly(): 3db1. have been added. Thus the full range of regular linear transforms is now available for transforming turtle shapes. *note tiltangle(): 720. has been enhanced in functionality: it now can be used to get or set the tilt angle. - The *note Screen: 3d6f. method *note onkeypress(): 3dcb. has been added as a complement to *note onkey(): 3dc9. As the latter binds actions to the key release event, an alias: *note onkeyrelease(): 3dca. was also added for it. - The method *note Screen.mainloop: 3dce. has been added, so there is no longer a need to use the standalone *note mainloop(): 3dce. function when working with *note Screen: 3d6f. and *note Turtle: 3dfd. objects. - Two input methods have been added: *note Screen.textinput: 18c2. and *note Screen.numinput: 18c3. These pop up input dialogs and return strings and numbers respectively. - Two example scripts ‘tdemo_nim.py’ and ‘tdemo_round_dance.py’ have been added to the ‘Lib/turtledemo’ directory.  File: python.info, Node: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters, Next: shlex — Simple lexical analysis, Prev: turtle — Turtle graphics, Up: Program Frameworks 5.25.2 ‘cmd’ — Support for line-oriented command interpreters ------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/cmd.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note Cmd: 16c5. class provides a simple framework for writing line-oriented command interpreters. These are often useful for test harnesses, administrative tools, and prototypes that will later be wrapped in a more sophisticated interface. -- Class: cmd.Cmd (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None) A *note Cmd: 16c5. instance or subclass instance is a line-oriented interpreter framework. There is no good reason to instantiate *note Cmd: 16c5. itself; rather, it’s useful as a superclass of an interpreter class you define yourself in order to inherit *note Cmd: 16c5.’s methods and encapsulate action methods. The optional argument 'completekey' is the *note readline: ba. name of a completion key; it defaults to ‘Tab’. If 'completekey' is not *note None: 671. and *note readline: ba. is available, command completion is done automatically. The default, ‘'tab'’, is treated specially, so that it refers to the ‘Tab’ key on every *note readline.backend: 16af. Specifically, if *note readline.backend: 16af. is ‘editline’, ‘Cmd’ will use ‘'^I'’ instead of ‘'tab'’. Note that other values are not treated this way, and might only work with a specific backend. The optional arguments 'stdin' and 'stdout' specify the input and output file objects that the Cmd instance or subclass instance will use for input and output. If not specified, they will default to *note sys.stdin: 539. and *note sys.stdout: ad6. If you want a given 'stdin' to be used, make sure to set the instance’s *note use_rawinput: 3e09. attribute to ‘False’, otherwise 'stdin' will be ignored. Changed in version 3.13: ‘completekey='tab'’ is replaced by ‘'^I'’ for ‘editline’. * Menu: * Cmd Objects:: * Cmd Example:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/cmd.py  File: python.info, Node: Cmd Objects, Next: Cmd Example, Up: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters 5.25.2.1 Cmd Objects .................... A *note Cmd: 16c5. instance has the following methods: -- Method: Cmd.cmdloop (intro=None) Repeatedly issue a prompt, accept input, parse an initial prefix off the received input, and dispatch to action methods, passing them the remainder of the line as argument. The optional argument is a banner or intro string to be issued before the first prompt (this overrides the *note intro: 3e0d. class attribute). If the *note readline: ba. module is loaded, input will automatically inherit ‘bash’-like history-list editing (e.g. ‘Control’-‘P’ scrolls back to the last command, ‘Control’-‘N’ forward to the next one, ‘Control’-‘F’ moves the cursor to the right non-destructively, ‘Control’-‘B’ moves the cursor to the left non-destructively, etc.). An end-of-file on input is passed back as the string ‘'EOF'’. An interpreter instance will recognize a command name ‘foo’ if and only if it has a method ‘do_foo()’. As a special case, a line beginning with the character ‘'?'’ is dispatched to the method *note do_help(): 16b4. As another special case, a line beginning with the character ‘'!'’ is dispatched to the method ‘do_shell()’ (if such a method is defined). This method will return when the *note postcmd(): 3e0e. method returns a true value. The 'stop' argument to *note postcmd(): 3e0e. is the return value from the command’s corresponding ‘do_*()’ method. If completion is enabled, completing commands will be done automatically, and completing of commands args is done by calling ‘complete_foo()’ with arguments 'text', 'line', 'begidx', and 'endidx'. 'text' is the string prefix we are attempting to match: all returned matches must begin with it. 'line' is the current input line with leading whitespace removed, 'begidx' and 'endidx' are the beginning and ending indexes of the prefix text, which could be used to provide different completion depending upon which position the argument is in. -- Method: Cmd.do_help (arg) All subclasses of *note Cmd: 16c5. inherit a predefined ‘do_help()’. This method, called with an argument ‘'bar'’, invokes the corresponding method ‘help_bar()’, and if that is not present, prints the docstring of ‘do_bar()’, if available. With no argument, ‘do_help()’ lists all available help topics (that is, all commands with corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods or commands that have docstrings), and also lists any undocumented commands. -- Method: Cmd.onecmd (str) Interpret the argument as though it had been typed in response to the prompt. This may be overridden, but should not normally need to be; see the *note precmd(): 3e10. and *note postcmd(): 3e0e. methods for useful execution hooks. The return value is a flag indicating whether interpretation of commands by the interpreter should stop. If there is a ‘do_*()’ method for the command 'str', the return value of that method is returned, otherwise the return value from the *note default(): 3e11. method is returned. -- Method: Cmd.emptyline () Method called when an empty line is entered in response to the prompt. If this method is not overridden, it repeats the last nonempty command entered. -- Method: Cmd.default (line) Method called on an input line when the command prefix is not recognized. If this method is not overridden, it prints an error message and returns. -- Method: Cmd.completedefault (text, line, begidx, endidx) Method called to complete an input line when no command-specific ‘complete_*()’ method is available. By default, it returns an empty list. -- Method: Cmd.columnize (list, displaywidth=80) Method called to display a list of strings as a compact set of columns. Each column is only as wide as necessary. Columns are separated by two spaces for readability. -- Method: Cmd.precmd (line) Hook method executed just before the command line 'line' is interpreted, but after the input prompt is generated and issued. This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 16c5.; it exists to be overridden by subclasses. The return value is used as the command which will be executed by the *note onecmd(): 3e0f. method; the *note precmd(): 3e10. implementation may re-write the command or simply return 'line' unchanged. -- Method: Cmd.postcmd (stop, line) Hook method executed just after a command dispatch is finished. This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 16c5.; it exists to be overridden by subclasses. 'line' is the command line which was executed, and 'stop' is a flag which indicates whether execution will be terminated after the call to *note postcmd(): 3e0e.; this will be the return value of the *note onecmd(): 3e0f. method. The return value of this method will be used as the new value for the internal flag which corresponds to 'stop'; returning false will cause interpretation to continue. -- Method: Cmd.preloop () Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3e0c. is called. This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 16c5.; it exists to be overridden by subclasses. -- Method: Cmd.postloop () Hook method executed once when *note cmdloop(): 3e0c. is about to return. This method is a stub in *note Cmd: 16c5.; it exists to be overridden by subclasses. Instances of *note Cmd: 16c5. subclasses have some public instance variables: -- Attribute: Cmd.prompt The prompt issued to solicit input. -- Attribute: Cmd.identchars The string of characters accepted for the command prefix. -- Attribute: Cmd.lastcmd The last nonempty command prefix seen. -- Attribute: Cmd.cmdqueue A list of queued input lines. The cmdqueue list is checked in *note cmdloop(): 3e0c. when new input is needed; if it is nonempty, its elements will be processed in order, as if entered at the prompt. -- Attribute: Cmd.intro A string to issue as an intro or banner. May be overridden by giving the *note cmdloop(): 3e0c. method an argument. -- Attribute: Cmd.doc_header The header to issue if the help output has a section for documented commands. -- Attribute: Cmd.misc_header The header to issue if the help output has a section for miscellaneous help topics (that is, there are ‘help_*()’ methods without corresponding ‘do_*()’ methods). -- Attribute: Cmd.undoc_header The header to issue if the help output has a section for undocumented commands (that is, there are ‘do_*()’ methods without corresponding ‘help_*()’ methods). -- Attribute: Cmd.ruler The character used to draw separator lines under the help-message headers. If empty, no ruler line is drawn. It defaults to ‘'='’. -- Attribute: Cmd.use_rawinput A flag, defaulting to true. If true, *note cmdloop(): 3e0c. uses *note input(): 12cb. to display a prompt and read the next command; if false, *note sys.stdout.write(): ad6. and *note sys.stdin.readline(): 539. are used. (This means that by importing *note readline: ba, on systems that support it, the interpreter will automatically support ‘Emacs’-like line editing and command-history keystrokes.)  File: python.info, Node: Cmd Example, Prev: Cmd Objects, Up: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters 5.25.2.2 Cmd Example .................... The *note cmd: 19. module is mainly useful for building custom shells that let a user work with a program interactively. This section presents a simple example of how to build a shell around a few of the commands in the *note turtle: 101. module. Basic turtle commands such as *note forward(): 3d69. are added to a *note Cmd: 16c5. subclass with method named ‘do_forward()’. The argument is converted to a number and dispatched to the turtle module. The docstring is used in the help utility provided by the shell. The example also includes a basic record and playback facility implemented with the *note precmd(): 3e10. method which is responsible for converting the input to lowercase and writing the commands to a file. The ‘do_playback()’ method reads the file and adds the recorded commands to the *note cmdqueue: 3e19. for immediate playback: import cmd, sys from turtle import * class TurtleShell(cmd.Cmd): intro = 'Welcome to the turtle shell. Type help or ? to list commands.\n' prompt = '(turtle) ' file = None # ----- basic turtle commands ----- def do_forward(self, arg): 'Move the turtle forward by the specified distance: FORWARD 10' forward(*parse(arg)) def do_right(self, arg): 'Turn turtle right by given number of degrees: RIGHT 20' right(*parse(arg)) def do_left(self, arg): 'Turn turtle left by given number of degrees: LEFT 90' left(*parse(arg)) def do_goto(self, arg): 'Move turtle to an absolute position with changing orientation. GOTO 100 200' goto(*parse(arg)) def do_home(self, arg): 'Return turtle to the home position: HOME' home() def do_circle(self, arg): 'Draw circle with given radius an options extent and steps: CIRCLE 50' circle(*parse(arg)) def do_position(self, arg): 'Print the current turtle position: POSITION' print('Current position is %d %d\n' % position()) def do_heading(self, arg): 'Print the current turtle heading in degrees: HEADING' print('Current heading is %d\n' % (heading(),)) def do_color(self, arg): 'Set the color: COLOR BLUE' color(arg.lower()) def do_undo(self, arg): 'Undo (repeatedly) the last turtle action(s): UNDO' def do_reset(self, arg): 'Clear the screen and return turtle to center: RESET' reset() def do_bye(self, arg): 'Stop recording, close the turtle window, and exit: BYE' print('Thank you for using Turtle') self.close() bye() return True # ----- record and playback ----- def do_record(self, arg): 'Save future commands to filename: RECORD rose.cmd' self.file = open(arg, 'w') def do_playback(self, arg): 'Playback commands from a file: PLAYBACK rose.cmd' self.close() with open(arg) as f: self.cmdqueue.extend(f.read().splitlines()) def precmd(self, line): line = line.lower() if self.file and 'playback' not in line: print(line, file=self.file) return line def close(self): if self.file: self.file.close() self.file = None def parse(arg): 'Convert a series of zero or more numbers to an argument tuple' return tuple(map(int, arg.split())) if __name__ == '__main__': TurtleShell().cmdloop() Here is a sample session with the turtle shell showing the help functions, using blank lines to repeat commands, and the simple record and playback facility: Welcome to the turtle shell. Type help or ? to list commands. (turtle) ? Documented commands (type help ): ======================================== bye color goto home playback record right circle forward heading left position reset undo (turtle) help forward Move the turtle forward by the specified distance: FORWARD 10 (turtle) record spiral.cmd (turtle) position Current position is 0 0 (turtle) heading Current heading is 0 (turtle) reset (turtle) circle 20 (turtle) right 30 (turtle) circle 40 (turtle) right 30 (turtle) circle 60 (turtle) right 30 (turtle) circle 80 (turtle) right 30 (turtle) circle 100 (turtle) right 30 (turtle) circle 120 (turtle) right 30 (turtle) circle 120 (turtle) heading Current heading is 180 (turtle) forward 100 (turtle) (turtle) right 90 (turtle) forward 100 (turtle) (turtle) right 90 (turtle) forward 400 (turtle) right 90 (turtle) forward 500 (turtle) right 90 (turtle) forward 400 (turtle) right 90 (turtle) forward 300 (turtle) playback spiral.cmd Current position is 0 0 Current heading is 0 Current heading is 180 (turtle) bye Thank you for using Turtle  File: python.info, Node: shlex — Simple lexical analysis, Prev: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters, Up: Program Frameworks 5.25.3 ‘shlex’ — Simple lexical analysis ---------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/shlex.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note shlex: ccd. class makes it easy to write lexical analyzers for simple syntaxes resembling that of the Unix shell. This will often be useful for writing minilanguages, (for example, in run control files for Python applications) or for parsing quoted strings. The *note shlex: c4. module defines the following functions: -- Function: shlex.split (s, comments=False, posix=True) Split the string 's' using shell-like syntax. If 'comments' is *note False: b37. (the default), the parsing of comments in the given string will be disabled (setting the *note commenters: 3e22. attribute of the *note shlex: ccd. instance to the empty string). This function operates in POSIX mode by default, but uses non-POSIX mode if the 'posix' argument is false. Changed in version 3.12: Passing ‘None’ for 's' argument now raises an exception, rather than reading *note sys.stdin: 539. -- Function: shlex.join (split_command) Concatenate the tokens of the list 'split_command' and return a string. This function is the inverse of *note split(): 538. >>> from shlex import join >>> print(join(['echo', '-n', 'Multiple words'])) echo -n 'Multiple words' The returned value is shell-escaped to protect against injection vulnerabilities (see *note quote(): 27f.). Added in version 3.8. -- Function: shlex.quote (s) Return a shell-escaped version of the string 's'. The returned value is a string that can safely be used as one token in a shell command line, for cases where you cannot use a list. Warning: The ‘shlex’ module is 'only designed for Unix shells'. The *note quote(): 27f. function is not guaranteed to be correct on non-POSIX compliant shells or shells from other operating systems such as Windows. Executing commands quoted by this module on such shells can open up the possibility of a command injection vulnerability. Consider using functions that pass command arguments with lists such as *note subprocess.run(): b86. with ‘shell=False’. This idiom would be unsafe: >>> filename = 'somefile; rm -rf ~' >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(filename) >>> print(command) # executed by a shell: boom! ls -l somefile; rm -rf ~ *note quote(): 27f. lets you plug the security hole: >>> from shlex import quote >>> command = 'ls -l {}'.format(quote(filename)) >>> print(command) ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~' >>> remote_command = 'ssh home {}'.format(quote(command)) >>> print(remote_command) ssh home 'ls -l '"'"'somefile; rm -rf ~'"'"'' The quoting is compatible with UNIX shells and with *note split(): 538.: >>> from shlex import split >>> remote_command = split(remote_command) >>> remote_command ['ssh', 'home', "ls -l 'somefile; rm -rf ~'"] >>> command = split(remote_command[-1]) >>> command ['ls', '-l', 'somefile; rm -rf ~'] Added in version 3.3. The *note shlex: c4. module defines the following class: -- Class: shlex.shlex (instream=None, infile=None, posix=False, punctuation_chars=False) A *note shlex: ccd. instance or subclass instance is a lexical analyzer object. The initialization argument, if present, specifies where to read characters from. It must be a file-/stream-like object with *note read(): 1c85. and *note readline(): 1cbd. methods, or a string. If no argument is given, input will be taken from ‘sys.stdin’. The second optional argument is a filename string, which sets the initial value of the *note infile: 3e23. attribute. If the 'instream' argument is omitted or equal to ‘sys.stdin’, this second argument defaults to “stdin”. The 'posix' argument defines the operational mode: when 'posix' is not true (default), the *note shlex: ccd. instance will operate in compatibility mode. When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex: ccd. will try to be as close as possible to the POSIX shell parsing rules. The 'punctuation_chars' argument provides a way to make the behaviour even closer to how real shells parse. This can take a number of values: the default value, ‘False’, preserves the behaviour seen under Python 3.5 and earlier. If set to ‘True’, then parsing of the characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters (considered punctuation characters) is returned as a single token. If set to a non-empty string of characters, those characters will be used as the punctuation characters. Any characters in the *note wordchars: 3e24. attribute that appear in 'punctuation_chars' will be removed from *note wordchars: 3e24. See *note Improved Compatibility with Shells: cce. for more information. 'punctuation_chars' can be set only upon *note shlex: ccd. instance creation and can’t be modified later. Changed in version 3.6: The 'punctuation_chars' parameter was added. See also ........ Module *note configparser: 22. Parser for configuration files similar to the Windows ‘.ini’ files. * Menu: * shlex Objects:: * Parsing Rules:: * Improved Compatibility with Shells:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/shlex.py  File: python.info, Node: shlex Objects, Next: Parsing Rules, Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis 5.25.3.1 shlex Objects ...................... A *note shlex: ccd. instance has the following methods: -- Method: shlex.get_token () Return a token. If tokens have been stacked using *note push_token(): 3e28, pop a token off the stack. Otherwise, read one from the input stream. If reading encounters an immediate end-of-file, *note eof: 3e29. is returned (the empty string (‘''’) in non-POSIX mode, and ‘None’ in POSIX mode). -- Method: shlex.push_token (str) Push the argument onto the token stack. -- Method: shlex.read_token () Read a raw token. Ignore the pushback stack, and do not interpret source requests. (This is not ordinarily a useful entry point, and is documented here only for the sake of completeness.) -- Method: shlex.sourcehook (filename) When *note shlex: ccd. detects a source request (see *note source: 3e2c. below) this method is given the following token as argument, and expected to return a tuple consisting of a filename and an open file-like object. Normally, this method first strips any quotes off the argument. If the result is an absolute pathname, or there was no previous source request in effect, or the previous source was a stream (such as ‘sys.stdin’), the result is left alone. Otherwise, if the result is a relative pathname, the directory part of the name of the file immediately before it on the source inclusion stack is prepended (this behavior is like the way the C preprocessor handles ‘#include "file.h"’). The result of the manipulations is treated as a filename, and returned as the first component of the tuple, with *note open(): 517. called on it to yield the second component. (Note: this is the reverse of the order of arguments in instance initialization!) This hook is exposed so that you can use it to implement directory search paths, addition of file extensions, and other namespace hacks. There is no corresponding ‘close’ hook, but a shlex instance will call the *note close(): 1f8. method of the sourced input stream when it returns EOF. For more explicit control of source stacking, use the *note push_source(): 3e2d. and *note pop_source(): 3e2e. methods. -- Method: shlex.push_source (newstream, newfile=None) Push an input source stream onto the input stack. If the filename argument is specified it will later be available for use in error messages. This is the same method used internally by the *note sourcehook(): 3e2b. method. -- Method: shlex.pop_source () Pop the last-pushed input source from the input stack. This is the same method used internally when the lexer reaches EOF on a stacked input stream. -- Method: shlex.error_leader (infile=None, lineno=None) This method generates an error message leader in the format of a Unix C compiler error label; the format is ‘'"%s", line %d: '’, where the ‘%s’ is replaced with the name of the current source file and the ‘%d’ with the current input line number (the optional arguments can be used to override these). This convenience is provided to encourage *note shlex: c4. users to generate error messages in the standard, parseable format understood by Emacs and other Unix tools. Instances of *note shlex: ccd. subclasses have some public instance variables which either control lexical analysis or can be used for debugging: -- Attribute: shlex.commenters The string of characters that are recognized as comment beginners. All characters from the comment beginner to end of line are ignored. Includes just ‘'#'’ by default. -- Attribute: shlex.wordchars The string of characters that will accumulate into multi-character tokens. By default, includes all ASCII alphanumerics and underscore. In POSIX mode, the accented characters in the Latin-1 set are also included. If *note punctuation_chars: 19d0. is not empty, the characters ‘~-./*?=’, which can appear in filename specifications and command line parameters, will also be included in this attribute, and any characters which appear in ‘punctuation_chars’ will be removed from ‘wordchars’ if they are present there. If *note whitespace_split: 3e30. is set to ‘True’, this will have no effect. -- Attribute: shlex.whitespace Characters that will be considered whitespace and skipped. Whitespace bounds tokens. By default, includes space, tab, linefeed and carriage-return. -- Attribute: shlex.escape Characters that will be considered as escape. This will be only used in POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'\'’ by default. -- Attribute: shlex.quotes Characters that will be considered string quotes. The token accumulates until the same quote is encountered again (thus, different quote types protect each other as in the shell.) By default, includes ASCII single and double quotes. -- Attribute: shlex.escapedquotes Characters in *note quotes: 3e33. that will interpret escape characters defined in *note escape: 3e32. This is only used in POSIX mode, and includes just ‘'"'’ by default. -- Attribute: shlex.whitespace_split If ‘True’, tokens will only be split in whitespaces. This is useful, for example, for parsing command lines with *note shlex: ccd, getting tokens in a similar way to shell arguments. When used in combination with *note punctuation_chars: 19d0, tokens will be split on whitespace in addition to those characters. Changed in version 3.8: The *note punctuation_chars: 19d0. attribute was made compatible with the *note whitespace_split: 3e30. attribute. -- Attribute: shlex.infile The name of the current input file, as initially set at class instantiation time or stacked by later source requests. It may be useful to examine this when constructing error messages. -- Attribute: shlex.instream The input stream from which this *note shlex: ccd. instance is reading characters. -- Attribute: shlex.source This attribute is ‘None’ by default. If you assign a string to it, that string will be recognized as a lexical-level inclusion request similar to the ‘source’ keyword in various shells. That is, the immediately following token will be opened as a filename and input will be taken from that stream until EOF, at which point the *note close(): 1f8. method of that stream will be called and the input source will again become the original input stream. Source requests may be stacked any number of levels deep. -- Attribute: shlex.debug If this attribute is numeric and ‘1’ or more, a *note shlex: ccd. instance will print verbose progress output on its behavior. If you need to use this, you can read the module source code to learn the details. -- Attribute: shlex.lineno Source line number (count of newlines seen so far plus one). -- Attribute: shlex.token The token buffer. It may be useful to examine this when catching exceptions. -- Attribute: shlex.eof Token used to determine end of file. This will be set to the empty string (‘''’), in non-POSIX mode, and to ‘None’ in POSIX mode. -- Attribute: shlex.punctuation_chars A read-only property. Characters that will be considered punctuation. Runs of punctuation characters will be returned as a single token. However, note that no semantic validity checking will be performed: for example, ‘>>>’ could be returned as a token, even though it may not be recognised as such by shells. Added in version 3.6.  File: python.info, Node: Parsing Rules, Next: Improved Compatibility with Shells, Prev: shlex Objects, Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis 5.25.3.2 Parsing Rules ...................... When operating in non-POSIX mode, *note shlex: ccd. will try to obey to the following rules. * Quote characters are not recognized within words (‘Do"Not"Separate’ is parsed as the single word ‘Do"Not"Separate’); * Escape characters are not recognized; * Enclosing characters in quotes preserve the literal value of all characters within the quotes; * Closing quotes separate words (‘"Do"Separate’ is parsed as ‘"Do"’ and ‘Separate’); * If *note whitespace_split: 3e30. is ‘False’, any character not declared to be a word character, whitespace, or a quote will be returned as a single-character token. If it is ‘True’, *note shlex: ccd. will only split words in whitespaces; * EOF is signaled with an empty string (‘''’); * It’s not possible to parse empty strings, even if quoted. When operating in POSIX mode, *note shlex: ccd. will try to obey to the following parsing rules. * Quotes are stripped out, and do not separate words (‘"Do"Not"Separate"’ is parsed as the single word ‘DoNotSeparate’); * Non-quoted escape characters (e.g. ‘'\'’) preserve the literal value of the next character that follows; * Enclosing characters in quotes which are not part of *note escapedquotes: 3e34. (e.g. ‘"'"’) preserve the literal value of all characters within the quotes; * Enclosing characters in quotes which are part of *note escapedquotes: 3e34. (e.g. ‘'"'’) preserves the literal value of all characters within the quotes, with the exception of the characters mentioned in *note escape: 3e32. The escape characters retain its special meaning only when followed by the quote in use, or the escape character itself. Otherwise the escape character will be considered a normal character. * EOF is signaled with a *note None: 671. value; * Quoted empty strings (‘''’) are allowed.  File: python.info, Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells, Prev: Parsing Rules, Up: shlex — Simple lexical analysis 5.25.3.3 Improved Compatibility with Shells ........................................... Added in version 3.6. The *note shlex: c4. class provides compatibility with the parsing performed by common Unix shells like ‘bash’, ‘dash’, and ‘sh’. To take advantage of this compatibility, specify the ‘punctuation_chars’ argument in the constructor. This defaults to ‘False’, which preserves pre-3.6 behaviour. However, if it is set to ‘True’, then parsing of the characters ‘();<>|&’ is changed: any run of these characters is returned as a single token. While this is short of a full parser for shells (which would be out of scope for the standard library, given the multiplicity of shells out there), it does allow you to perform processing of command lines more easily than you could otherwise. To illustrate, you can see the difference in the following snippet: >>> import shlex >>> text = "a && b; c && d || e; f >'abc'; (def \"ghi\")" >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True) >>> s.whitespace_split = True >>> list(s) ['a', '&&', 'b;', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e;', 'f', '>abc;', '(def', 'ghi)'] >>> s = shlex.shlex(text, posix=True, punctuation_chars=True) >>> s.whitespace_split = True >>> list(s) ['a', '&&', 'b', ';', 'c', '&&', 'd', '||', 'e', ';', 'f', '>', 'abc', ';', '(', 'def', 'ghi', ')'] Of course, tokens will be returned which are not valid for shells, and you’ll need to implement your own error checks on the returned tokens. Instead of passing ‘True’ as the value for the punctuation_chars parameter, you can pass a string with specific characters, which will be used to determine which characters constitute punctuation. For example: >>> import shlex >>> s = shlex.shlex("a && b || c", punctuation_chars="|") >>> list(s) ['a', '&', '&', 'b', '||', 'c'] Note: When ‘punctuation_chars’ is specified, the *note wordchars: 3e24. attribute is augmented with the characters ‘~-./*?=’. That is because these characters can appear in file names (including wildcards) and command-line arguments (e.g. ‘--color=auto’). Hence: >>> import shlex >>> s = shlex.shlex('~/a && b-c --color=auto || d *.py?', ... punctuation_chars=True) >>> list(s) ['~/a', '&&', 'b-c', '--color=auto', '||', 'd', '*.py?'] However, to match the shell as closely as possible, it is recommended to always use ‘posix’ and *note whitespace_split: 3e30. when using *note punctuation_chars: 19d0, which will negate *note wordchars: 3e24. entirely. For best effect, ‘punctuation_chars’ should be set in conjunction with ‘posix=True’. (Note that ‘posix=False’ is the default for *note shlex: ccd.)  File: python.info, Node: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk, Next: Development Tools, Prev: Program Frameworks, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.26 Graphical User Interfaces with Tk ====================================== Tk/Tcl has long been an integral part of Python. It provides a robust and platform independent windowing toolkit, that is available to Python programmers using the *note tkinter: f0. package, and its extension, the *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module. The *note tkinter: f0. package is a thin object-oriented layer on top of Tcl/Tk. To use *note tkinter: f0, you don’t need to write Tcl code, but you will need to consult the Tk documentation, and occasionally the Tcl documentation. *note tkinter: f0. is a set of wrappers that implement the Tk widgets as Python classes. *note tkinter: f0.’s chief virtues are that it is fast, and that it usually comes bundled with Python. Although its standard documentation is weak, good material is available, which includes: references, tutorials, a book and others. *note tkinter: f0. is also famous for having an outdated look and feel, which has been vastly improved in Tk 8.5. Nevertheless, there are many other GUI libraries that you could be interested in. The Python wiki lists several alternative GUI frameworks and tools(1). * Menu: * tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk:: * tkinter.colorchooser — Color choosing dialog: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog. * tkinter.font — Tkinter font wrapper: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. * Tkinter Dialogs:: * tkinter.messagebox — Tkinter message prompts: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. * tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget. * tkinter.dnd — Drag and drop support: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. * tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets. * IDLE — Python editor and shell: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming  File: python.info, Node: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk, Next: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.1 ‘tkinter’ — Python interface to Tcl/Tk --------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/__init__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter: f0. package (“Tk interface”) is the standard Python interface to the Tcl/Tk GUI toolkit. Both Tk and *note tkinter: f0. are available on most Unix platforms, including macOS, as well as on Windows systems. Running ‘python -m tkinter’ from the command line should open a window demonstrating a simple Tk interface, letting you know that *note tkinter: f0. is properly installed on your system, and also showing what version of Tcl/Tk is installed, so you can read the Tcl/Tk documentation specific to that version. Tkinter supports a range of Tcl/Tk versions, built either with or without thread support. The official Python binary release bundles Tcl/Tk 8.6 threaded. See the source code for the *note _tkinter: 3. module for more information about supported versions. Tkinter is not a thin wrapper, but adds a fair amount of its own logic to make the experience more pythonic. This documentation will concentrate on these additions and changes, and refer to the official Tcl/Tk documentation for details that are unchanged. Note: Tcl/Tk 8.5 (2007) introduced a modern set of themed user interface components along with a new API to use them. Both old and new APIs are still available. Most documentation you will find online still uses the old API and can be woefully outdated. See also ........ * TkDocs(2) Extensive tutorial on creating user interfaces with Tkinter. Explains key concepts, and illustrates recommended approaches using the modern API. * Tkinter 8.5 reference: a GUI for Python(3) Reference documentation for Tkinter 8.5 detailing available classes, methods, and options. Tcl/Tk Resources: * Tk commands(4) Comprehensive reference to each of the underlying Tcl/Tk commands used by Tkinter. * Tcl/Tk Home Page(5) Additional documentation, and links to Tcl/Tk core development. Books: * Modern Tkinter for Busy Python Developers(6) By Mark Roseman. (ISBN 978-1999149567) * Python GUI programming with Tkinter(7) By Alan D. Moore. (ISBN 978-1788835886) * Programming Python(8) By Mark Lutz; has excellent coverage of Tkinter. (ISBN 978-0596158101) * Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)(9) By John Ousterhout, inventor of Tcl/Tk, and Ken Jones; does not cover Tkinter. (ISBN 978-0321336330) * Menu: * Architecture:: * Tkinter Modules:: * Tkinter Life Preserver:: * Threading model:: * Handy Reference:: * File Handlers:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/__init__.py (2) https://tkdocs.com/ (3) https://www.tkdocs.com/shipman/ (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm (5) https://www.tcl.tk (6) https://tkdocs.com/book.html (7) https://www.packtpub.com/en-us/product/python-gui-programming-with-tkinter-9781788835886 (8) https://learning-python.com/about-pp4e.html (9) https://www.amazon.com/exec/obidos/ASIN/032133633X  File: python.info, Node: Architecture, Next: Tkinter Modules, Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 5.26.1.1 Architecture ..................... Tcl/Tk is not a single library but rather consists of a few distinct modules, each with separate functionality and its own official documentation. Python’s binary releases also ship an add-on module together with it. Tcl Tcl is a dynamic interpreted programming language, just like Python. Though it can be used on its own as a general-purpose programming language, it is most commonly embedded into C applications as a scripting engine or an interface to the Tk toolkit. The Tcl library has a C interface to create and manage one or more instances of a Tcl interpreter, run Tcl commands and scripts in those instances, and add custom commands implemented in either Tcl or C. Each interpreter has an event queue, and there are facilities to send events to it and process them. Unlike Python, Tcl’s execution model is designed around cooperative multitasking, and Tkinter bridges this difference (see *note Threading model: 3e42. for details). Tk Tk is a Tcl package(1) implemented in C that adds custom commands to create and manipulate GUI widgets. Each *note Tk: 1636. object embeds its own Tcl interpreter instance with Tk loaded into it. Tk’s widgets are very customizable, though at the cost of a dated appearance. Tk uses Tcl’s event queue to generate and process GUI events. Ttk Themed Tk (Ttk) is a newer family of Tk widgets that provide a much better appearance on different platforms than many of the classic Tk widgets. Ttk is distributed as part of Tk, starting with Tk version 8.5. Python bindings are provided in a separate module, *note tkinter.ttk: f9. Internally, Tk and Ttk use facilities of the underlying operating system, i.e., Xlib on Unix/X11, Cocoa on macOS, GDI on Windows. When your Python application uses a class in Tkinter, e.g., to create a widget, the *note tkinter: f0. module first assembles a Tcl/Tk command string. It passes that Tcl command string to an internal *note _tkinter: 3. binary module, which then calls the Tcl interpreter to evaluate it. The Tcl interpreter will then call into the Tk and/or Ttk packages, which will in turn make calls to Xlib, Cocoa, or GDI. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.tcl-lang.org/37432  File: python.info, Node: Tkinter Modules, Next: Tkinter Life Preserver, Prev: Architecture, Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 5.26.1.2 Tkinter Modules ........................ Support for Tkinter is spread across several modules. Most applications will need the main *note tkinter: f0. module, as well as the *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module, which provides the modern themed widget set and API: from tkinter import * from tkinter import ttk -- Class: tkinter.Tk (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=True, sync=False, use=None) Construct a toplevel Tk widget, which is usually the main window of an application, and initialize a Tcl interpreter for this widget. Each instance has its own associated Tcl interpreter. The *note Tk: 1636. class is typically instantiated using all default values. However, the following keyword arguments are currently recognized: 'screenName' When given (as a string), sets the ‘DISPLAY’ environment variable. (X11 only) 'baseName' Name of the profile file. By default, 'baseName' is derived from the program name (‘sys.argv[0]’). 'className' Name of the widget class. Used as a profile file and also as the name with which Tcl is invoked ('argv0' in 'interp'). 'useTk' If ‘True’, initialize the Tk subsystem. The *note tkinter.Tcl(): 3e44. function sets this to ‘False’. 'sync' If ‘True’, execute all X server commands synchronously, so that errors are reported immediately. Can be used for debugging. (X11 only) 'use' Specifies the 'id' of the window in which to embed the application, instead of it being created as an independent toplevel window. 'id' must be specified in the same way as the value for the -use option for toplevel widgets (that is, it has a form like that returned by ‘winfo_id()’). Note that on some platforms this will only work correctly if 'id' refers to a Tk frame or toplevel that has its -container option enabled. *note Tk: 1636. reads and interprets profile files, named ‘.`className'.tcl’ and ‘.`baseName'.tcl’, into the Tcl interpreter and calls *note exec(): 17f. on the contents of ‘.`className'.py’ and ‘.`baseName'.py’. The path for the profile files is the ‘HOME’ environment variable or, if that isn’t defined, then *note os.curdir: 27e4. -- Attribute: tk The Tk application object created by instantiating *note Tk: 1636. This provides access to the Tcl interpreter. Each widget that is attached the same instance of *note Tk: 1636. has the same value for its *note tk: 3e45. attribute. -- Attribute: master The widget object that contains this widget. For *note Tk: 1636, the 'master' is *note None: 671. because it is the main window. The terms 'master' and 'parent' are similar and sometimes used interchangeably as argument names; however, calling ‘winfo_parent()’ returns a string of the widget name whereas *note master: 3e46. returns the object. 'parent'/'child' reflects the tree-like relationship while 'master'/'slave' reflects the container structure. -- Attribute: children The immediate descendants of this widget as a *note dict: 258. with the child widget names as the keys and the child instance objects as the values. -- Function: tkinter.Tcl (screenName=None, baseName=None, className='Tk', useTk=False) The *note Tcl(): 3e44. function is a factory function which creates an object much like that created by the *note Tk: 1636. class, except that it does not initialize the Tk subsystem. This is most often useful when driving the Tcl interpreter in an environment where one doesn’t want to create extraneous toplevel windows, or where one cannot (such as Unix/Linux systems without an X server). An object created by the *note Tcl(): 3e44. object can have a Toplevel window created (and the Tk subsystem initialized) by calling its ‘loadtk()’ method. The modules that provide Tk support include: *note tkinter: f0. Main Tkinter module. *note tkinter.colorchooser: f1. Dialog to let the user choose a color. *note tkinter.commondialog: f2. Base class for the dialogs defined in the other modules listed here. *note tkinter.filedialog: f4. Common dialogs to allow the user to specify a file to open or save. *note tkinter.font: f5. Utilities to help work with fonts. *note tkinter.messagebox: f6. Access to standard Tk dialog boxes. *note tkinter.scrolledtext: f7. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar built in. *note tkinter.simpledialog: f8. Basic dialogs and convenience functions. *note tkinter.ttk: f9. Themed widget set introduced in Tk 8.5, providing modern alternatives for many of the classic widgets in the main *note tkinter: f0. module. Additional modules: *note _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk. It is automatically imported by the main *note tkinter: f0. module, and should never be used directly by application programmers. It is usually a shared library (or DLL), but might in some cases be statically linked with the Python interpreter. *note idlelib: 73. Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment (IDLE). Based on *note tkinter: f0. ‘tkinter.constants’ Symbolic constants that can be used in place of strings when passing various parameters to Tkinter calls. Automatically imported by the main *note tkinter: f0. module. *note tkinter.dnd: f3. (experimental) Drag-and-drop support for *note tkinter: f0. This will become deprecated when it is replaced with the Tk DND. *note turtle: 101. Turtle graphics in a Tk window.  File: python.info, Node: Tkinter Life Preserver, Next: Threading model, Prev: Tkinter Modules, Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 5.26.1.3 Tkinter Life Preserver ............................... This section is not designed to be an exhaustive tutorial on either Tk or Tkinter. For that, refer to one of the external resources noted earlier. Instead, this section provides a very quick orientation to what a Tkinter application looks like, identifies foundational Tk concepts, and explains how the Tkinter wrapper is structured. The remainder of this section will help you to identify the classes, methods, and options you’ll need in your Tkinter application, and where to find more detailed documentation on them, including in the official Tcl/Tk reference manual. * Menu: * A Hello World Program:: * Important Tk Concepts:: * Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk:: * How do I…? What option does…?:: * Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual::  File: python.info, Node: A Hello World Program, Next: Important Tk Concepts, Up: Tkinter Life Preserver 5.26.1.4 A Hello World Program .............................. We’ll start by walking through a “Hello World” application in Tkinter. This isn’t the smallest one we could write, but has enough to illustrate some key concepts you’ll need to know. from tkinter import * from tkinter import ttk root = Tk() frm = ttk.Frame(root, padding=10) frm.grid() ttk.Label(frm, text="Hello World!").grid(column=0, row=0) ttk.Button(frm, text="Quit", command=root.destroy).grid(column=1, row=0) root.mainloop() After the imports, the next line creates an instance of the ‘Tk’ class, which initializes Tk and creates its associated Tcl interpreter. It also creates a toplevel window, known as the root window, which serves as the main window of the application. The following line creates a frame widget, which in this case will contain a label and a button we’ll create next. The frame is fit inside the root window. The next line creates a label widget holding a static text string. The ‘grid()’ method is used to specify the relative layout (position) of the label within its containing frame widget, similar to how tables in HTML work. A button widget is then created, and placed to the right of the label. When pressed, it will call the ‘destroy()’ method of the root window. Finally, the ‘mainloop()’ method puts everything on the display, and responds to user input until the program terminates.  File: python.info, Node: Important Tk Concepts, Next: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk, Prev: A Hello World Program, Up: Tkinter Life Preserver 5.26.1.5 Important Tk Concepts .............................. Even this simple program illustrates the following key Tk concepts: widgets A Tkinter user interface is made up of individual 'widgets'. Each widget is represented as a Python object, instantiated from classes like ‘ttk.Frame’, ‘ttk.Label’, and ‘ttk.Button’. widget hierarchy Widgets are arranged in a 'hierarchy'. The label and button were contained within a frame, which in turn was contained within the root window. When creating each 'child' widget, its 'parent' widget is passed as the first argument to the widget constructor. configuration options Widgets have 'configuration options', which modify their appearance and behavior, such as the text to display in a label or button. Different classes of widgets will have different sets of options. geometry management Widgets aren’t automatically added to the user interface when they are created. A 'geometry manager' like ‘grid’ controls where in the user interface they are placed. event loop Tkinter reacts to user input, changes from your program, and even refreshes the display only when actively running an 'event loop'. If your program isn’t running the event loop, your user interface won’t update.  File: python.info, Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk, Next: How do I…? What option does…?, Prev: Important Tk Concepts, Up: Tkinter Life Preserver 5.26.1.6 Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk ............................................... When your application uses Tkinter’s classes and methods, internally Tkinter is assembling strings representing Tcl/Tk commands, and executing those commands in the Tcl interpreter attached to your application’s ‘Tk’ instance. Whether it’s trying to navigate reference documentation, trying to find the right method or option, adapting some existing code, or debugging your Tkinter application, there are times that it will be useful to understand what those underlying Tcl/Tk commands look like. To illustrate, here is the Tcl/Tk equivalent of the main part of the Tkinter script above. ttk::frame .frm -padding 10 grid .frm grid [ttk::label .frm.lbl -text "Hello World!"] -column 0 -row 0 grid [ttk::button .frm.btn -text "Quit" -command "destroy ."] -column 1 -row 0 Tcl’s syntax is similar to many shell languages, where the first word is the command to be executed, with arguments to that command following it, separated by spaces. Without getting into too many details, notice the following: * The commands used to create widgets (like ‘ttk::frame’) correspond to widget classes in Tkinter. * Tcl widget options (like ‘-text’) correspond to keyword arguments in Tkinter. * Widgets are referred to by a 'pathname' in Tcl (like ‘.frm.btn’), whereas Tkinter doesn’t use names but object references. * A widget’s place in the widget hierarchy is encoded in its (hierarchical) pathname, which uses a ‘.’ (dot) as a path separator. The pathname for the root window is just ‘.’ (dot). In Tkinter, the hierarchy is defined not by pathname but by specifying the parent widget when creating each child widget. * Operations which are implemented as separate 'commands' in Tcl (like ‘grid’ or ‘destroy’) are represented as 'methods' on Tkinter widget objects. As you’ll see shortly, at other times Tcl uses what appear to be method calls on widget objects, which more closely mirror what would is used in Tkinter.  File: python.info, Node: How do I…? What option does…?, Next: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual, Prev: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk, Up: Tkinter Life Preserver 5.26.1.7 How do I…? What option does…? ...................................... If you’re not sure how to do something in Tkinter, and you can’t immediately find it in the tutorial or reference documentation you’re using, there are a few strategies that can be helpful. First, remember that the details of how individual widgets work may vary across different versions of both Tkinter and Tcl/Tk. If you’re searching documentation, make sure it corresponds to the Python and Tcl/Tk versions installed on your system. When searching for how to use an API, it helps to know the exact name of the class, option, or method that you’re using. Introspection, either in an interactive Python shell or with *note print(): f70, can help you identify what you need. To find out what configuration options are available on any widget, call its ‘configure()’ method, which returns a dictionary containing a variety of information about each object, including its default and current values. Use ‘keys()’ to get just the names of each option. btn = ttk.Button(frm, ...) print(btn.configure().keys()) As most widgets have many configuration options in common, it can be useful to find out which are specific to a particular widget class. Comparing the list of options to that of a simpler widget, like a frame, is one way to do that. print(set(btn.configure().keys()) - set(frm.configure().keys())) Similarly, you can find the available methods for a widget object using the standard *note dir(): 62e. function. If you try it, you’ll see there are over 200 common widget methods, so again identifying those specific to a widget class is helpful. print(dir(btn)) print(set(dir(btn)) - set(dir(frm)))  File: python.info, Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual, Prev: How do I…? What option does…?, Up: Tkinter Life Preserver 5.26.1.8 Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual ............................................... As noted, the official Tk commands(1) reference manual (man pages) is often the most accurate description of what specific operations on widgets do. Even when you know the name of the option or method that you need, you may still have a few places to look. While all operations in Tkinter are implemented as method calls on widget objects, you’ve seen that many Tcl/Tk operations appear as commands that take a widget pathname as its first parameter, followed by optional parameters, e.g. destroy . grid .frm.btn -column 0 -row 0 Others, however, look more like methods called on a widget object (in fact, when you create a widget in Tcl/Tk, it creates a Tcl command with the name of the widget pathname, with the first parameter to that command being the name of a method to call). .frm.btn invoke .frm.lbl configure -text "Goodbye" In the official Tcl/Tk reference documentation, you’ll find most operations that look like method calls on the man page for a specific widget (e.g., you’ll find the ‘invoke()’ method on the ttk::button(2) man page), while functions that take a widget as a parameter often have their own man page (e.g., grid(3)). You’ll find many common options and methods in the options(4) or ttk::widget(5) man pages, while others are found in the man page for a specific widget class. You’ll also find that many Tkinter methods have compound names, e.g., ‘winfo_x()’, ‘winfo_height()’, ‘winfo_viewable()’. You’d find documentation for all of these in the winfo(6) man page. Note: Somewhat confusingly, there are also methods on all Tkinter widgets that don’t actually operate on the widget, but operate at a global scope, independent of any widget. Examples are methods for accessing the clipboard or the system bell. (They happen to be implemented as methods in the base ‘Widget’ class that all Tkinter widgets inherit from). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/contents.htm (2) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_button.htm (3) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/grid.htm (4) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/options.htm (5) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/ttk_widget.htm (6) https://www.tcl.tk/man/tcl8.6/TkCmd/winfo.htm  File: python.info, Node: Threading model, Next: Handy Reference, Prev: Tkinter Life Preserver, Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 5.26.1.9 Threading model ........................ Python and Tcl/Tk have very different threading models, which *note tkinter: f0. tries to bridge. If you use threads, you may need to be aware of this. A Python interpreter may have many threads associated with it. In Tcl, multiple threads can be created, but each thread has a separate Tcl interpreter instance associated with it. Threads can also create more than one interpreter instance, though each interpreter instance can be used only by the one thread that created it. Each ‘Tk’ object created by *note tkinter: f0. contains a Tcl interpreter. It also keeps track of which thread created that interpreter. Calls to *note tkinter: f0. can be made from any Python thread. Internally, if a call comes from a thread other than the one that created the ‘Tk’ object, an event is posted to the interpreter’s event queue, and when executed, the result is returned to the calling Python thread. Tcl/Tk applications are normally event-driven, meaning that after initialization, the interpreter runs an event loop (i.e. ‘Tk.mainloop()’) and responds to events. Because it is single-threaded, event handlers must respond quickly, otherwise they will block other events from being processed. To avoid this, any long-running computations should not run in an event handler, but are either broken into smaller pieces using timers, or run in another thread. This is different from many GUI toolkits where the GUI runs in a completely separate thread from all application code including event handlers. If the Tcl interpreter is not running the event loop and processing events, any *note tkinter: f0. calls made from threads other than the one running the Tcl interpreter will fail. A number of special cases exist: * Tcl/Tk libraries can be built so they are not thread-aware. In this case, *note tkinter: f0. calls the library from the originating Python thread, even if this is different than the thread that created the Tcl interpreter. A global lock ensures only one call occurs at a time. * While *note tkinter: f0. allows you to create more than one instance of a ‘Tk’ object (with its own interpreter), all interpreters that are part of the same thread share a common event queue, which gets ugly fast. In practice, don’t create more than one instance of ‘Tk’ at a time. Otherwise, it’s best to create them in separate threads and ensure you’re running a thread-aware Tcl/Tk build. * Blocking event handlers are not the only way to prevent the Tcl interpreter from reentering the event loop. It is even possible to run multiple nested event loops or abandon the event loop entirely. If you’re doing anything tricky when it comes to events or threads, be aware of these possibilities. * There are a few select *note tkinter: f0. functions that presently work only when called from the thread that created the Tcl interpreter.  File: python.info, Node: Handy Reference, Next: File Handlers, Prev: Threading model, Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 5.26.1.10 Handy Reference ......................... * Menu: * Setting Options:: * The Packer:: * Packer Options:: * Coupling Widget Variables:: * The Window Manager:: * Tk Option Data Types:: * Bindings and Events:: * The index Parameter:: * Images::  File: python.info, Node: Setting Options, Next: The Packer, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.11 Setting Options ......................... Options control things like the color and border width of a widget. Options can be set in three ways: At object creation time, using keyword arguments fred = Button(self, fg="red", bg="blue") After object creation, treating the option name like a dictionary index fred["fg"] = "red" fred["bg"] = "blue" Use the config() method to update multiple attrs subsequent to object creation fred.config(fg="red", bg="blue") For a complete explanation of a given option and its behavior, see the Tk man pages for the widget in question. Note that the man pages list “STANDARD OPTIONS” and “WIDGET SPECIFIC OPTIONS” for each widget. The former is a list of options that are common to many widgets, the latter are the options that are idiosyncratic to that particular widget. The Standard Options are documented on the ‘options(3)(1)’ man page. No distinction between standard and widget-specific options is made in this document. Some options don’t apply to some kinds of widgets. Whether a given widget responds to a particular option depends on the class of the widget; buttons have a ‘command’ option, labels do not. The options supported by a given widget are listed in that widget’s man page, or can be queried at runtime by calling the ‘config()’ method without arguments, or by calling the ‘keys()’ method on that widget. The return value of these calls is a dictionary whose key is the name of the option as a string (for example, ‘'relief'’) and whose values are 5-tuples. Some options, like ‘bg’ are synonyms for common options with long names (‘bg’ is shorthand for “background”). Passing the ‘config()’ method the name of a shorthand option will return a 2-tuple, not 5-tuple. The 2-tuple passed back will contain the name of the synonym and the “real” option (such as ‘('bg', 'background')’). Index Meaning Example --------------------------------------------------------------------- 0 option name ‘'relief'’ 1 option name for database lookup ‘'relief'’ 2 option class for database lookup ‘'Relief'’ 3 default value ‘'raised'’ 4 current value ‘'groove'’ Example: >>> print(fred.config()) {'relief': ('relief', 'relief', 'Relief', 'raised', 'groove')} Of course, the dictionary printed will include all the options available and their values. This is meant only as an example. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/options(3)  File: python.info, Node: The Packer, Next: Packer Options, Prev: Setting Options, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.12 The Packer .................... The packer is one of Tk’s geometry-management mechanisms. Geometry managers are used to specify the relative positioning of widgets within their container - their mutual 'master'. In contrast to the more cumbersome 'placer' (which is used less commonly, and we do not cover here), the packer takes qualitative relationship specification - 'above', 'to the left of', 'filling', etc - and works everything out to determine the exact placement coordinates for you. The size of any 'master' widget is determined by the size of the “slave widgets” inside. The packer is used to control where slave widgets appear inside the master into which they are packed. You can pack widgets into frames, and frames into other frames, in order to achieve the kind of layout you desire. Additionally, the arrangement is dynamically adjusted to accommodate incremental changes to the configuration, once it is packed. Note that widgets do not appear until they have had their geometry specified with a geometry manager. It’s a common early mistake to leave out the geometry specification, and then be surprised when the widget is created but nothing appears. A widget will appear only after it has had, for example, the packer’s ‘pack()’ method applied to it. The pack() method can be called with keyword-option/value pairs that control where the widget is to appear within its container, and how it is to behave when the main application window is resized. Here are some examples: fred.pack() # defaults to side = "top" fred.pack(side="left") fred.pack(expand=1)  File: python.info, Node: Packer Options, Next: Coupling Widget Variables, Prev: The Packer, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.13 Packer Options ........................ For more extensive information on the packer and the options that it can take, see the man pages and page 183 of John Ousterhout’s book. anchor Anchor type. Denotes where the packer is to place each slave in its parcel. expand Boolean, ‘0’ or ‘1’. fill Legal values: ‘'x'’, ‘'y'’, ‘'both'’, ‘'none'’. ipadx and ipady A distance - designating internal padding on each side of the slave widget. padx and pady A distance - designating external padding on each side of the slave widget. side Legal values are: ‘'left'’, ‘'right'’, ‘'top'’, ‘'bottom'’.  File: python.info, Node: Coupling Widget Variables, Next: The Window Manager, Prev: Packer Options, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.14 Coupling Widget Variables ................................... The current-value setting of some widgets (like text entry widgets) can be connected directly to application variables by using special options. These options are ‘variable’, ‘textvariable’, ‘onvalue’, ‘offvalue’, and ‘value’. This connection works both ways: if the variable changes for any reason, the widget it’s connected to will be updated to reflect the new value. Unfortunately, in the current implementation of *note tkinter: f0. it is not possible to hand over an arbitrary Python variable to a widget through a ‘variable’ or ‘textvariable’ option. The only kinds of variables for which this works are variables that are subclassed from a class called Variable, defined in *note tkinter: f0. There are many useful subclasses of Variable already defined: ‘StringVar’, ‘IntVar’, ‘DoubleVar’, and ‘BooleanVar’. To read the current value of such a variable, call the ‘get()’ method on it, and to change its value you call the ‘set()’ method. If you follow this protocol, the widget will always track the value of the variable, with no further intervention on your part. For example: import tkinter as tk class App(tk.Frame): def __init__(self, master): super().__init__(master) self.pack() self.entrythingy = tk.Entry() self.entrythingy.pack() # Create the application variable. self.contents = tk.StringVar() # Set it to some value. self.contents.set("this is a variable") # Tell the entry widget to watch this variable. self.entrythingy["textvariable"] = self.contents # Define a callback for when the user hits return. # It prints the current value of the variable. self.entrythingy.bind('', self.print_contents) def print_contents(self, event): print("Hi. The current entry content is:", self.contents.get()) root = tk.Tk() myapp = App(root) myapp.mainloop()  File: python.info, Node: The Window Manager, Next: Tk Option Data Types, Prev: Coupling Widget Variables, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.15 The Window Manager ............................ In Tk, there is a utility command, ‘wm’, for interacting with the window manager. Options to the ‘wm’ command allow you to control things like titles, placement, icon bitmaps, and the like. In *note tkinter: f0, these commands have been implemented as methods on the ‘Wm’ class. Toplevel widgets are subclassed from the ‘Wm’ class, and so can call the ‘Wm’ methods directly. To get at the toplevel window that contains a given widget, you can often just refer to the widget’s master. Of course if the widget has been packed inside of a frame, the master won’t represent a toplevel window. To get at the toplevel window that contains an arbitrary widget, you can call the ‘_root()’ method. This method begins with an underscore to denote the fact that this function is part of the implementation, and not an interface to Tk functionality. Here are some examples of typical usage: import tkinter as tk class App(tk.Frame): def __init__(self, master=None): super().__init__(master) self.pack() # create the application myapp = App() # # here are method calls to the window manager class # myapp.master.title("My Do-Nothing Application") myapp.master.maxsize(1000, 400) # start the program myapp.mainloop()  File: python.info, Node: Tk Option Data Types, Next: Bindings and Events, Prev: The Window Manager, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.16 Tk Option Data Types .............................. anchor Legal values are points of the compass: ‘"n"’, ‘"ne"’, ‘"e"’, ‘"se"’, ‘"s"’, ‘"sw"’, ‘"w"’, ‘"nw"’, and also ‘"center"’. bitmap There are eight built-in, named bitmaps: ‘'error'’, ‘'gray25'’, ‘'gray50'’, ‘'hourglass'’, ‘'info'’, ‘'questhead'’, ‘'question'’, ‘'warning'’. To specify an X bitmap filename, give the full path to the file, preceded with an ‘@’, as in ‘"@/usr/contrib/bitmap/gumby.bit"’. boolean You can pass integers 0 or 1 or the strings ‘"yes"’ or ‘"no"’. callback This is any Python function that takes no arguments. For example: def print_it(): print("hi there") fred["command"] = print_it color Colors can be given as the names of X colors in the rgb.txt file, or as strings representing RGB values in 4 bit: ‘"#RGB"’, 8 bit: ‘"#RRGGBB"’, 12 bit: ‘"#RRRGGGBBB"’, or 16 bit: ‘"#RRRRGGGGBBBB"’ ranges, where R,G,B here represent any legal hex digit. See page 160 of Ousterhout’s book for details. cursor The standard X cursor names from ‘cursorfont.h’ can be used, without the ‘XC_’ prefix. For example to get a hand cursor (‘XC_hand2’), use the string ‘"hand2"’. You can also specify a bitmap and mask file of your own. See page 179 of Ousterhout’s book. distance Screen distances can be specified in either pixels or absolute distances. Pixels are given as numbers and absolute distances as strings, with the trailing character denoting units: ‘c’ for centimetres, ‘i’ for inches, ‘m’ for millimetres, ‘p’ for printer’s points. For example, 3.5 inches is expressed as ‘"3.5i"’. font Tk uses a list font name format, such as ‘{courier 10 bold}’. Font sizes with positive numbers are measured in points; sizes with negative numbers are measured in pixels. geometry This is a string of the form ‘widthxheight’, where width and height are measured in pixels for most widgets (in characters for widgets displaying text). For example: ‘fred["geometry"] = "200x100"’. justify Legal values are the strings: ‘"left"’, ‘"center"’, ‘"right"’, and ‘"fill"’. region This is a string with four space-delimited elements, each of which is a legal distance (see above). For example: ‘"2 3 4 5"’ and ‘"3i 2i 4.5i 2i"’ and ‘"3c 2c 4c 10.43c"’ are all legal regions. relief Determines what the border style of a widget will be. Legal values are: ‘"raised"’, ‘"sunken"’, ‘"flat"’, ‘"groove"’, and ‘"ridge"’. scrollcommand This is almost always the ‘set()’ method of some scrollbar widget, but can be any widget method that takes a single argument. wrap Must be one of: ‘"none"’, ‘"char"’, or ‘"word"’.  File: python.info, Node: Bindings and Events, Next: The index Parameter, Prev: Tk Option Data Types, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.17 Bindings and Events ............................. The bind method from the widget command allows you to watch for certain events and to have a callback function trigger when that event type occurs. The form of the bind method is: def bind(self, sequence, func, add=''): where: sequence is a string that denotes the target kind of event. (See the ‘bind(3tk)(1)’ man page, and page 201 of John Ousterhout’s book, ‘Tcl and the Tk Toolkit (2nd edition)’, for details). func is a Python function, taking one argument, to be invoked when the event occurs. An Event instance will be passed as the argument. (Functions deployed this way are commonly known as 'callbacks'.) add is optional, either ‘''’ or ‘'+'’. Passing an empty string denotes that this binding is to replace any other bindings that this event is associated with. Passing a ‘'+'’ means that this function is to be added to the list of functions bound to this event type. For example: def turn_red(self, event): event.widget["activeforeground"] = "red" self.button.bind("", self.turn_red) Notice how the widget field of the event is being accessed in the ‘turn_red()’ callback. This field contains the widget that caught the X event. The following table lists the other event fields you can access, and how they are denoted in Tk, which can be useful when referring to the Tk man pages. Tk Tkinter Event Field Tk Tkinter Event Field ---------------------------------------------------------------------- %f focus %A char %h height %E send_event %k keycode %K keysym %s state %N keysym_num %t time %T type %w width %W widget %x x %X x_root %y y %Y y_root ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/bind(3tk)  File: python.info, Node: The index Parameter, Next: Images, Prev: Bindings and Events, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.18 The index Parameter ............................. A number of widgets require “index” parameters to be passed. These are used to point at a specific place in a Text widget, or to particular characters in an Entry widget, or to particular menu items in a Menu widget. Entry widget indexes (index, view index, etc.) Entry widgets have options that refer to character positions in the text being displayed. You can use these *note tkinter: f0. functions to access these special points in text widgets: Text widget indexes The index notation for Text widgets is very rich and is best described in the Tk man pages. Menu indexes (menu.invoke(), menu.entryconfig(), etc.) Some options and methods for menus manipulate specific menu entries. Anytime a menu index is needed for an option or a parameter, you may pass in: * an integer which refers to the numeric position of the entry in the widget, counted from the top, starting with 0; * the string ‘"active"’, which refers to the menu position that is currently under the cursor; * the string ‘"last"’ which refers to the last menu item; * An integer preceded by ‘@’, as in ‘@6’, where the integer is interpreted as a y pixel coordinate in the menu’s coordinate system; * the string ‘"none"’, which indicates no menu entry at all, most often used with menu.activate() to deactivate all entries, and finally, * a text string that is pattern matched against the label of the menu entry, as scanned from the top of the menu to the bottom. Note that this index type is considered after all the others, which means that matches for menu items labelled ‘last’, ‘active’, or ‘none’ may be interpreted as the above literals, instead.  File: python.info, Node: Images, Prev: The index Parameter, Up: Handy Reference 5.26.1.19 Images ................ Images of different formats can be created through the corresponding subclass of ‘tkinter.Image’: * ‘BitmapImage’ for images in XBM format. * ‘PhotoImage’ for images in PGM, PPM, GIF and PNG formats. The latter is supported starting with Tk 8.6. Either type of image is created through either the ‘file’ or the ‘data’ option (other options are available as well). Changed in version 3.13: Added the ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy_replace()’ to copy a region from one image to other image, possibly with pixel zooming and/or subsampling. Add 'from_coords' parameter to ‘PhotoImage’ methods ‘copy()’, ‘zoom()’ and ‘subsample()’. Add 'zoom' and 'subsample' parameters to ‘PhotoImage’ method ‘copy()’. The image object can then be used wherever an ‘image’ option is supported by some widget (e.g. labels, buttons, menus). In these cases, Tk will not keep a reference to the image. When the last Python reference to the image object is deleted, the image data is deleted as well, and Tk will display an empty box wherever the image was used. See also ........ The Pillow(1) package adds support for formats such as BMP, JPEG, TIFF, and WebP, among others. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://python-pillow.org/  File: python.info, Node: File Handlers, Prev: Handy Reference, Up: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk 5.26.1.20 File Handlers ....................... Tk allows you to register and unregister a callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor. Only one handler may be registered per file descriptor. Example code: import tkinter widget = tkinter.Tk() mask = tkinter.READABLE | tkinter.WRITABLE widget.tk.createfilehandler(file, mask, callback) ... widget.tk.deletefilehandler(file) This feature is not available on Windows. Since you don’t know how many bytes are available for reading, you may not want to use the *note BufferedIOBase: 690. or *note TextIOBase: 691. *note read(): 131b. or *note readline(): 131c. methods, since these will insist on reading a predefined number of bytes. For sockets, the *note recv(): da3. or *note recvfrom(): da4. methods will work fine; for other files, use raw reads or ‘os.read(file.fileno(), maxbytecount)’. -- Method: Widget.tk.createfilehandler (file, mask, func) Registers the file handler callback function 'func'. The 'file' argument may either be an object with a *note fileno(): 2856. method (such as a file or socket object), or an integer file descriptor. The 'mask' argument is an ORed combination of any of the three constants below. The callback is called as follows: callback(file, mask) -- Method: Widget.tk.deletefilehandler (file) Unregisters a file handler. -- Data: _tkinter.READABLE -- Data: _tkinter.WRITABLE -- Data: _tkinter.EXCEPTION Constants used in the 'mask' arguments.  File: python.info, Node: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog, Next: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper, Prev: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.2 ‘tkinter.colorchooser’ — Color choosing dialog ----------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.colorchooser: f1. module provides the *note Chooser: 3e63. class as an interface to the native color picker dialog. ‘Chooser’ implements a modal color choosing dialog window. The ‘Chooser’ class inherits from the *note Dialog: 3e64. class. -- Class: tkinter.colorchooser.Chooser (master=None, **options) -- Function: tkinter.colorchooser.askcolor (color=None, **options) Create a color choosing dialog. A call to this method will show the window, wait for the user to make a selection, and return the selected color (or ‘None’) to the caller. See also ........ Module *note tkinter.commondialog: f2. Tkinter standard dialog module ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/colorchooser.py  File: python.info, Node: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper, Next: Tkinter Dialogs, Prev: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.3 ‘tkinter.font’ — Tkinter font wrapper -------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/font.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.font: f5. module provides the *note Font: 190a. class for creating and using named fonts. The different font weights and slants are: -- Data: tkinter.font.NORMAL -- Data: tkinter.font.BOLD -- Data: tkinter.font.ITALIC -- Data: tkinter.font.ROMAN -- Class: tkinter.font.Font (root=None, font=None, name=None, exists=False, **options) The *note Font: 190a. class represents a named font. 'Font' instances are given unique names and can be specified by their family, size, and style configuration. Named fonts are Tk’s method of creating and identifying fonts as a single object, rather than specifying a font by its attributes with each occurrence. arguments: 'font' - font specifier tuple (family, size, options) 'name' - unique font name 'exists' - self points to existing named font if true additional keyword options (ignored if 'font' is specified): 'family' - font family i.e. Courier, Times 'size' - font size If 'size' is positive it is interpreted as size in points. If 'size' is a negative number its absolute value is treated as size in pixels. 'weight' - font emphasis (NORMAL, BOLD) 'slant' - ROMAN, ITALIC 'underline' - font underlining (0 - none, 1 - underline) 'overstrike' - font strikeout (0 - none, 1 - strikeout) -- Method: actual (option=None, displayof=None) Return the attributes of the font. -- Method: cget (option) Retrieve an attribute of the font. -- Method: config (**options) Modify attributes of the font. -- Method: copy () Return new instance of the current font. -- Method: measure (text, displayof=None) Return amount of space the text would occupy on the specified display when formatted in the current font. If no display is specified then the main application window is assumed. -- Method: metrics (*options, **kw) Return font-specific data. Options include: 'ascent' - distance between baseline and highest point that a character of the font can occupy 'descent' - distance between baseline and lowest point that a character of the font can occupy 'linespace' - minimum vertical separation necessary between any two characters of the font that ensures no vertical overlap between lines. 'fixed' - 1 if font is fixed-width else 0 -- Function: tkinter.font.families (root=None, displayof=None) Return the different font families. -- Function: tkinter.font.names (root=None) Return the names of defined fonts. -- Function: tkinter.font.nametofont (name, root=None) Return a *note Font: 190a. representation of a tk named font. Changed in version 3.10: The 'root' parameter was added. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/font.py  File: python.info, Node: Tkinter Dialogs, Next: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts, Prev: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.4 Tkinter Dialogs ---------------------- * Menu: * tkinter.simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. * tkinter.filedialog — File selection dialogs: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs. * tkinter.commondialog — Dialog window templates: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates.  File: python.info, Node: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs, Next: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs, Up: Tkinter Dialogs 5.26.4.1 ‘tkinter.simpledialog’ — Standard Tkinter input dialogs ................................................................ 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.simpledialog: f8. module contains convenience classes and functions for creating simple modal dialogs to get a value from the user. -- Function: tkinter.simpledialog.askfloat (title, prompt, **kw) -- Function: tkinter.simpledialog.askinteger (title, prompt, **kw) -- Function: tkinter.simpledialog.askstring (title, prompt, **kw) The above three functions provide dialogs that prompt the user to enter a value of the desired type. -- Class: tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog (parent, title=None) The base class for custom dialogs. -- Method: body (master) Override to construct the dialog’s interface and return the widget that should have initial focus. -- Method: buttonbox () Default behaviour adds OK and Cancel buttons. Override for custom button layouts. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/simpledialog.py  File: python.info, Node: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs, Next: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates, Prev: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs, Up: Tkinter Dialogs 5.26.4.2 ‘tkinter.filedialog’ — File selection dialogs ...................................................... 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.filedialog: f4. module provides classes and factory functions for creating file/directory selection windows. * Menu: * Native Load/Save Dialogs:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/filedialog.py  File: python.info, Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs, Up: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs 5.26.4.3 Native Load/Save Dialogs ................................. The following classes and functions provide file dialog windows that combine a native look-and-feel with configuration options to customize behaviour. The following keyword arguments are applicable to the classes and functions listed below: 'parent' - the window to place the dialog on top of 'title' - the title of the window 'initialdir' - the directory that the dialog starts in 'initialfile' - the file selected upon opening of the dialog 'filetypes' - a sequence of (label, pattern) tuples, ‘*’ wildcard is allowed 'defaultextension' - default extension to append to file (save dialogs) 'multiple' - when true, selection of multiple items is allowed 'Static factory functions' The below functions when called create a modal, native look-and-feel dialog, wait for the user’s selection, then return the selected value(s) or ‘None’ to the caller. -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfile (mode='r', **options) -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfiles (mode='r', **options) The above two functions create an *note Open: 3e80. dialog and return the opened file object(s) in read-only mode. -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfile (mode='w', **options) Create a *note SaveAs: 3e82. dialog and return a file object opened in write-only mode. -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilename (**options) -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.askopenfilenames (**options) The above two functions create an *note Open: 3e80. dialog and return the selected filename(s) that correspond to existing file(s). -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.asksaveasfilename (**options) Create a *note SaveAs: 3e82. dialog and return the selected filename. -- Function: tkinter.filedialog.askdirectory (**options) Prompt user to select a directory. Additional keyword option: 'mustexist' - determines if selection must be an existing directory. -- Class: tkinter.filedialog.Open (master=None, **options) -- Class: tkinter.filedialog.SaveAs (master=None, **options) The above two classes provide native dialog windows for saving and loading files. 'Convenience classes' The below classes are used for creating file/directory windows from scratch. These do not emulate the native look-and-feel of the platform. -- Class: tkinter.filedialog.Directory (master=None, **options) Create a dialog prompting the user to select a directory. Note: The 'FileDialog' class should be subclassed for custom event handling and behaviour. -- Class: tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog (master, title=None) Create a basic file selection dialog. -- Method: cancel_command (event=None) Trigger the termination of the dialog window. -- Method: dirs_double_event (event) Event handler for double-click event on directory. -- Method: dirs_select_event (event) Event handler for click event on directory. -- Method: files_double_event (event) Event handler for double-click event on file. -- Method: files_select_event (event) Event handler for single-click event on file. -- Method: filter_command (event=None) Filter the files by directory. -- Method: get_filter () Retrieve the file filter currently in use. -- Method: get_selection () Retrieve the currently selected item. -- Method: go (dir_or_file=os.curdir, pattern='*', default='', key=None) Render dialog and start event loop. -- Method: ok_event (event) Exit dialog returning current selection. -- Method: quit (how=None) Exit dialog returning filename, if any. -- Method: set_filter (dir, pat) Set the file filter. -- Method: set_selection (file) Update the current file selection to 'file'. -- Class: tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog (master, title=None) A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting an existing file. -- Method: ok_command () Test that a file is provided and that the selection indicates an already existing file. -- Class: tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog (master, title=None) A subclass of FileDialog that creates a dialog window for selecting a destination file. -- Method: ok_command () Test whether or not the selection points to a valid file that is not a directory. Confirmation is required if an already existing file is selected.  File: python.info, Node: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates, Prev: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs, Up: Tkinter Dialogs 5.26.4.4 ‘tkinter.commondialog’ — Dialog window templates ......................................................... 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.commondialog: f2. module provides the *note Dialog: 3e64. class that is the base class for dialogs defined in other supporting modules. -- Class: tkinter.commondialog.Dialog (master=None, **options) -- Method: show (**options) Render the Dialog window. See also ........ Modules *note tkinter.messagebox: f6, *note Reading and Writing Files: 1c7f. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/commondialog.py  File: python.info, Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts, Next: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget, Prev: Tkinter Dialogs, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.5 ‘tkinter.messagebox’ — Tkinter message prompts ----------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.messagebox: f6. module provides a template base class as well as a variety of convenience methods for commonly used configurations. The message boxes are modal and will return a subset of (‘True’, ‘False’, ‘None’, *note OK: 3e9e, *note CANCEL: 3e9f, *note YES: 3ea0, *note NO: 3ea1.) based on the user’s selection. Common message box styles and layouts include but are not limited to: [image src="python-figures/tk_msg.png"] Figure -- Class: tkinter.messagebox.Message (master=None, **options) Create a message window with an application-specified message, an icon and a set of buttons. Each of the buttons in the message window is identified by a unique symbolic name (see the 'type' options). The following options are supported: 'command' Specifies the function to invoke when the user closes the dialog. The name of the button clicked by the user to close the dialog is passed as argument. This is only available on macOS. 'default' Gives the *note symbolic name: 3ea3. of the default button for this message window (*note OK: 3e9e, *note CANCEL: 3e9f, and so on). If this option is not specified, the first button in the dialog will be made the default. 'detail' Specifies an auxiliary message to the main message given by the 'message' option. The message detail will be presented beneath the main message and, where supported by the OS, in a less emphasized font than the main message. 'icon' Specifies an *note icon: 3ea4. to display. If this option is not specified, then the *note INFO: 3ea5. icon will be displayed. 'message' Specifies the message to display in this message box. The default value is an empty string. 'parent' Makes the specified window the logical parent of the message box. The message box is displayed on top of its parent window. 'title' Specifies a string to display as the title of the message box. This option is ignored on macOS, where platform guidelines forbid the use of a title on this kind of dialog. 'type' Arranges for a *note predefined set of buttons: 3ea6. to be displayed. -- Method: show (**options) Display a message window and wait for the user to select one of the buttons. Then return the symbolic name of the selected button. Keyword arguments can override options specified in the constructor. 'Information message box' -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.showinfo (title=None, message=None, **options) Creates and displays an information message box with the specified title and message. 'Warning message boxes' -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.showwarning (title=None, message=None, **options) Creates and displays a warning message box with the specified title and message. -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.showerror (title=None, message=None, **options) Creates and displays an error message box with the specified title and message. 'Question message boxes' -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.askquestion (title=None, message=None, *, type=YESNO, **options) Ask a question. By default shows buttons *note YES: 3ea0. and *note NO: 3ea1. Returns the symbolic name of the selected button. -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.askokcancel (title=None, message=None, **options) Ask if operation should proceed. Shows buttons *note OK: 3e9e. and *note CANCEL: 3e9f. Returns ‘True’ if the answer is ok and ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.askretrycancel (title=None, message=None, **options) Ask if operation should be retried. Shows buttons *note RETRY: 3eae. and *note CANCEL: 3e9f. Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes and ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.askyesno (title=None, message=None, **options) Ask a question. Shows buttons *note YES: 3ea0. and *note NO: 3ea1. Returns ‘True’ if the answer is yes and ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: tkinter.messagebox.askyesnocancel (title=None, message=None, **options) Ask a question. Shows buttons *note YES: 3ea0, *note NO: 3ea1. and *note CANCEL: 3e9f. Return ‘True’ if the answer is yes, ‘None’ if cancelled, and ‘False’ otherwise. Symbolic names of buttons: -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.ABORT = 'abort' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.RETRY = 'retry' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.IGNORE = 'ignore' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.CANCEL = 'cancel' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.YES = 'yes' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.NO = 'no' Predefined sets of buttons: -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.ABORTRETRYIGNORE = 'abortretryignore' Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note ABORT: 3eb1, *note RETRY: 3eae. and *note IGNORE: 3eb2. -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.OK = 'ok' Displays one button whose symbolic name is *note OK: 3e9e. -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.OKCANCEL = 'okcancel' Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note OK: 3e9e. and *note CANCEL: 3e9f. -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.RETRYCANCEL = 'retrycancel' Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note RETRY: 3eae. and *note CANCEL: 3e9f. -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.YESNO = 'yesno' Displays two buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3ea0. and *note NO: 3ea1. -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.YESNOCANCEL = 'yesnocancel' Displays three buttons whose symbolic names are *note YES: 3ea0, *note NO: 3ea1. and *note CANCEL: 3e9f. Icon images: -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.ERROR = 'error' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.INFO = 'info' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.QUESTION = 'question' -- Data: tkinter.messagebox.WARNING = 'warning' ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/messagebox.py  File: python.info, Node: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget, Next: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support, Prev: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.6 ‘tkinter.scrolledtext’ — Scrolled Text Widget ---------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.scrolledtext: f7. module provides a class of the same name which implements a basic text widget which has a vertical scroll bar configured to do the “right thing.” Using the *note ScrolledText: 3ebd. class is a lot easier than setting up a text widget and scroll bar directly. The text widget and scrollbar are packed together in a ‘Frame’, and the methods of the ‘Grid’ and ‘Pack’ geometry managers are acquired from the ‘Frame’ object. This allows the *note ScrolledText: 3ebd. widget to be used directly to achieve most normal geometry management behavior. Should more specific control be necessary, the following attributes are available: -- Class: tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText (master=None, **kw) -- Attribute: frame The frame which surrounds the text and scroll bar widgets. -- Attribute: vbar The scroll bar widget. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/scrolledtext.py  File: python.info, Node: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support, Next: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets, Prev: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.7 ‘tkinter.dnd’ — Drag and drop support -------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/dnd.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ Note: This is experimental and due to be deprecated when it is replaced with the Tk DND. The *note tkinter.dnd: f3. module provides drag-and-drop support for objects within a single application, within the same window or between windows. To enable an object to be dragged, you must create an event binding for it that starts the drag-and-drop process. Typically, you bind a ButtonPress event to a callback function that you write (see *note Bindings and Events: 3e56.). The function should call *note dnd_start(): 3ec2, where ‘source’ is the object to be dragged, and ‘event’ is the event that invoked the call (the argument to your callback function). Selection of a target object occurs as follows: 1. Top-down search of area under mouse for target widget * Target widget should have a callable 'dnd_accept' attribute * If 'dnd_accept' is not present or returns ‘None’, search moves to parent widget * If no target widget is found, then the target object is ‘None’ 2. Call to '.dnd_leave(source, event)' 3. Call to '.dnd_enter(source, event)' 4. Call to '.dnd_commit(source, event)' to notify of drop 5. Call to '.dnd_end(target, event)' to signal end of drag-and-drop -- Class: tkinter.dnd.DndHandler (source, event) The 'DndHandler' class handles drag-and-drop events tracking Motion and ButtonRelease events on the root of the event widget. -- Method: cancel (event=None) Cancel the drag-and-drop process. -- Method: finish (event, commit=0) Execute end of drag-and-drop functions. -- Method: on_motion (event) Inspect area below mouse for target objects while drag is performed. -- Method: on_release (event) Signal end of drag when the release pattern is triggered. -- Function: tkinter.dnd.dnd_start (source, event) Factory function for drag-and-drop process. See also ........ *note Bindings and Events: 3e56. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/dnd.py  File: python.info, Node: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets, Next: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>, Prev: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.8 ‘tkinter.ttk’ — Tk themed widgets ---------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tkinter/ttk.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tkinter.ttk: f9. module provides access to the Tk themed widget set, introduced in Tk 8.5. It provides additional benefits including anti-aliased font rendering under X11 and window transparency (requiring a composition window manager on X11). The basic idea for *note tkinter.ttk: f9. is to separate, to the extent possible, the code implementing a widget’s behavior from the code implementing its appearance. See also ........ Tk Widget Styling Support(2) A document introducing theming support for Tk * Menu: * Using Ttk:: * Ttk Widgets:: * Widget:: * Combobox:: * Spinbox:: * Notebook:: * Progressbar:: * Separator:: * Sizegrip:: * Treeview:: * Ttk Styling:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tkinter/ttk.py (2) https://core.tcl.tk/tips/doc/trunk/tip/48.md  File: python.info, Node: Using Ttk, Next: Ttk Widgets, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.1 Using Ttk .................. To start using Ttk, import its module: from tkinter import ttk To override the basic Tk widgets, the import should follow the Tk import: from tkinter import * from tkinter.ttk import * That code causes several *note tkinter.ttk: f9. widgets (‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’ and ‘Scrollbar’) to automatically replace the Tk widgets. This has the direct benefit of using the new widgets which gives a better look and feel across platforms; however, the replacement widgets are not completely compatible. The main difference is that widget options such as “fg”, “bg” and others related to widget styling are no longer present in Ttk widgets. Instead, use the ‘ttk.Style’ class for improved styling effects. See also ........ Converting existing applications to use Tile widgets(1) A monograph (using Tcl terminology) about differences typically encountered when moving applications to use the new widgets. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/doc/converting.txt  File: python.info, Node: Ttk Widgets, Next: Widget, Prev: Using Ttk, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.2 Ttk Widgets .................... Ttk comes with 18 widgets, twelve of which already existed in tkinter: ‘Button’, ‘Checkbutton’, ‘Entry’, ‘Frame’, ‘Label’, ‘LabelFrame’, ‘Menubutton’, ‘PanedWindow’, ‘Radiobutton’, ‘Scale’, ‘Scrollbar’, and *note Spinbox: b94. The other six are new: *note Combobox: 3ecc, *note Notebook: 3ecd, *note Progressbar: 3ece, ‘Separator’, ‘Sizegrip’ and *note Treeview: a94. And all them are subclasses of *note Widget: 3ecf. Using the Ttk widgets gives the application an improved look and feel. As discussed above, there are differences in how the styling is coded. Tk code: l1 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white") l2 = tkinter.Label(text="Test", fg="black", bg="white") Ttk code: style = ttk.Style() style.configure("BW.TLabel", foreground="black", background="white") l1 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel") l2 = ttk.Label(text="Test", style="BW.TLabel") For more information about *note TtkStyling: 3ed0, see the *note Style: 25b. class documentation.  File: python.info, Node: Widget, Next: Combobox, Prev: Ttk Widgets, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.3 Widget ............... ‘ttk.Widget’ defines standard options and methods supported by Tk themed widgets and is not supposed to be directly instantiated. * Menu: * Standard Options:: * Scrollable Widget Options:: * Label Options:: * Compatibility Options:: * Widget States:: * ttk.Widget: ttk Widget.  File: python.info, Node: Standard Options, Next: Scrollable Widget Options, Up: Widget 5.26.8.4 Standard Options ......................... All the ‘ttk’ Widgets accept the following options: Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- class Specifies the window class. The class is used when querying the option database for the window’s other options, to determine the default bindtags for the window, and to select the widget’s default layout and style. This option is read-only, and may only be specified when the window is created. cursor Specifies the mouse cursor to be used for the widget. If set to the empty string (the default), the cursor is inherited for the parent widget. takefocus Determines whether the window accepts the focus during keyboard traversal. 0, 1 or an empty string is returned. If 0 is returned, it means that the window should be skipped entirely during keyboard traversal. If 1, it means that the window should receive the input focus as long as it is viewable. And an empty string means that the traversal scripts make the decision about whether or not to focus on the window. style May be used to specify a custom widget style.  File: python.info, Node: Scrollable Widget Options, Next: Label Options, Prev: Standard Options, Up: Widget 5.26.8.5 Scrollable Widget Options .................................. The following options are supported by widgets that are controlled by a scrollbar. Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- xscrollcommand Used to communicate with horizontal scrollbars. When the view in the widget’s window change, the widget will generate a Tcl command based on the scrollcommand. Usually this option consists of the method ‘Scrollbar.set()’ of some scrollbar. This will cause the scrollbar to be updated whenever the view in the window changes. yscrollcommand Used to communicate with vertical scrollbars. For some more information, see above.  File: python.info, Node: Label Options, Next: Compatibility Options, Prev: Scrollable Widget Options, Up: Widget 5.26.8.6 Label Options ...................... The following options are supported by labels, buttons and other button-like widgets. Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- text Specifies a text string to be displayed inside the widget. textvariable Specifies a name whose value will be used in place of the text option resource. underline If set, specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in the text string. The underline character is used for mnemonic activation. image Specifies an image to display. This is a list of 1 or more elements. The first element is the default image name. The rest of the list if a sequence of statespec/value pairs as defined by *note Style.map(): 191d, specifying different images to use when the widget is in a particular state or a combination of states. All images in the list should have the same size. compound Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in the case both text and images options are present. Valid values are: * text: display text only * image: display image only * top, bottom, left, right: display image above, below, left of, or right of the text, respectively. * none: the default. display the image if present, otherwise the text. width If greater than zero, specifies how much space, in character widths, to allocate for the text label, if less than zero, specifies a minimum width. If zero or unspecified, the natural width of the text label is used.  File: python.info, Node: Compatibility Options, Next: Widget States, Prev: Label Options, Up: Widget 5.26.8.7 Compatibility Options .............................. Option Description ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- state May be set to “normal” or “disabled” to control the “disabled” state bit. This is a write-only option: setting it changes the widget state, but the *note Widget.state(): 3ed6. method does not affect this option.  File: python.info, Node: Widget States, Next: ttk Widget, Prev: Compatibility Options, Up: Widget 5.26.8.8 Widget States ...................... The widget state is a bitmap of independent state flags. Flag Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- active The mouse cursor is over the widget and pressing a mouse button will cause some action to occur disabled Widget is disabled under program control focus Widget has keyboard focus pressed Widget is being pressed selected “On”, “true”, or “current” for things like Checkbuttons and radiobuttons background Windows and Mac have a notion of an “active” or foreground window. The 'background' state is set for widgets in a background window, and cleared for those in the foreground window readonly Widget should not allow user modification alternate A widget-specific alternate display format invalid The widget’s value is invalid A state specification is a sequence of state names, optionally prefixed with an exclamation point indicating that the bit is off.  File: python.info, Node: ttk Widget, Prev: Widget States, Up: Widget 5.26.8.9 ttk.Widget ................... Besides the methods described below, the ‘ttk.Widget’ supports the methods ‘tkinter.Widget.cget()’ and ‘tkinter.Widget.configure()’. -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Widget -- Method: identify (x, y) Returns the name of the element at position 'x' 'y', or the empty string if the point does not lie within any element. 'x' and 'y' are pixel coordinates relative to the widget. -- Method: instate (statespec, callback=None, *args, **kw) Test the widget’s state. If a callback is not specified, returns ‘True’ if the widget state matches 'statespec' and ‘False’ otherwise. If callback is specified then it is called with args if widget state matches 'statespec'. -- Method: state (statespec=None) Modify or inquire widget state. If 'statespec' is specified, sets the widget state according to it and return a new 'statespec' indicating which flags were changed. If 'statespec' is not specified, returns the currently enabled state flags. 'statespec' will usually be a list or a tuple.  File: python.info, Node: Combobox, Next: Spinbox, Prev: Widget, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.10 Combobox .................. The ‘ttk.Combobox’ widget combines a text field with a pop-down list of values. This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’. Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 3ecf.: ‘Widget.cget()’, ‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3ed9, *note Widget.instate(): 3eda. and *note Widget.state(): 3ed6, and the following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’, ‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.selection()’, ‘Entry.xview()’, it has some other methods, described at ‘ttk.Combobox’. * Menu: * Options:: * Virtual events:: * ttk.Combobox: ttk Combobox.  File: python.info, Node: Options, Next: Virtual events, Up: Combobox 5.26.8.11 Options ................. This widget accepts the following specific options: Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- exportselection Boolean value. If set, the widget selection is linked to the Window Manager selection (which can be returned by invoking Misc.selection_get, for example). justify Specifies how the text is aligned within the widget. One of “left”, “center”, or “right”. height Specifies the height of the pop-down listbox, in rows. postcommand A script (possibly registered with Misc.register) that is called immediately before displaying the values. It may specify which values to display. state One of “normal”, “readonly”, or “disabled”. In the “readonly” state, the value may not be edited directly, and the user can only selection of the values from the dropdown list. In the “normal” state, the text field is directly editable. In the “disabled” state, no interaction is possible. textvariable Specifies a name whose value is linked to the widget value. Whenever the value associated with that name changes, the widget value is updated, and vice versa. See ‘tkinter.StringVar’. values Specifies the list of values to display in the drop-down listbox. width Specifies an integer value indicating the desired width of the entry window, in average-size characters of the widget’s font.  File: python.info, Node: Virtual events, Next: ttk Combobox, Prev: Options, Up: Combobox 5.26.8.12 Virtual events ........................ The combobox widgets generates a '<>' virtual event when the user selects an element from the list of values.  File: python.info, Node: ttk Combobox, Prev: Virtual events, Up: Combobox 5.26.8.13 ttk.Combobox ...................... -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Combobox -- Method: current (newindex=None) If 'newindex' is specified, sets the combobox value to the element position 'newindex'. Otherwise, returns the index of the current value or -1 if the current value is not in the values list. -- Method: get () Returns the current value of the combobox. -- Method: set (value) Sets the value of the combobox to 'value'.  File: python.info, Node: Spinbox, Next: Notebook, Prev: Combobox, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.14 Spinbox ................. The ‘ttk.Spinbox’ widget is a ‘ttk.Entry’ enhanced with increment and decrement arrows. It can be used for numbers or lists of string values. This widget is a subclass of ‘Entry’. Besides the methods inherited from *note Widget: 3ecf.: ‘Widget.cget()’, ‘Widget.configure()’, *note Widget.identify(): 3ed9, *note Widget.instate(): 3eda. and *note Widget.state(): 3ed6, and the following inherited from ‘Entry’: ‘Entry.bbox()’, ‘Entry.delete()’, ‘Entry.icursor()’, ‘Entry.index()’, ‘Entry.insert()’, ‘Entry.xview()’, it has some other methods, described at ‘ttk.Spinbox’. * Menu: * Options: Options<2>. * Virtual events: Virtual events<2>. * ttk.Spinbox: ttk Spinbox.  File: python.info, Node: Options<2>, Next: Virtual events<2>, Up: Spinbox 5.26.8.15 Options ................. This widget accepts the following specific options: Option Description -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- from Float value. If set, this is the minimum value to which the decrement button will decrement. Must be spelled as ‘from_’ when used as an argument, since ‘from’ is a Python keyword. to Float value. If set, this is the maximum value to which the increment button will increment. increment Float value. Specifies the amount which the increment/decrement buttons change the value. Defaults to 1.0. values Sequence of string or float values. If specified, the increment/decrement buttons will cycle through the items in this sequence rather than incrementing or decrementing numbers. wrap Boolean value. If ‘True’, increment and decrement buttons will cycle from the ‘to’ value to the ‘from’ value or the ‘from’ value to the ‘to’ value, respectively. format String value. This specifies the format of numbers set by the increment/decrement buttons. It must be in the form “%W.Pf”, where W is the padded width of the value, P is the precision, and ‘%’ and ‘f’ are literal. command Python callable. Will be called with no arguments whenever either of the increment or decrement buttons are pressed.  File: python.info, Node: Virtual events<2>, Next: ttk Spinbox, Prev: Options<2>, Up: Spinbox 5.26.8.16 Virtual events ........................ The spinbox widget generates an '<>' virtual event when the user presses , and a '<>' virtual event when the user presses .  File: python.info, Node: ttk Spinbox, Prev: Virtual events<2>, Up: Spinbox 5.26.8.17 ttk.Spinbox ..................... -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Spinbox -- Method: get () Returns the current value of the spinbox. -- Method: set (value) Sets the value of the spinbox to 'value'.  File: python.info, Node: Notebook, Next: Progressbar, Prev: Spinbox, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.18 Notebook .................. Ttk Notebook widget manages a collection of windows and displays a single one at a time. Each child window is associated with a tab, which the user may select to change the currently displayed window. * Menu: * Options: Options<3>. * Tab Options:: * Tab Identifiers:: * Virtual Events:: * ttk.Notebook: ttk Notebook.  File: python.info, Node: Options<3>, Next: Tab Options, Up: Notebook 5.26.8.19 Options ................. This widget accepts the following specific options: Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- height If present and greater than zero, specifies the desired height of the pane area (not including internal padding or tabs). Otherwise, the maximum height of all panes is used. padding Specifies the amount of extra space to add around the outside of the notebook. The padding is a list up to four length specifications left top right bottom. If fewer than four elements are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults to left, and top defaults to left. width If present and greater than zero, specified the desired width of the pane area (not including internal padding). Otherwise, the maximum width of all panes is used.  File: python.info, Node: Tab Options, Next: Tab Identifiers, Prev: Options<3>, Up: Notebook 5.26.8.20 Tab Options ..................... There are also specific options for tabs: Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- state Either “normal”, “disabled” or “hidden”. If “disabled”, then the tab is not selectable. If “hidden”, then the tab is not shown. sticky Specifies how the child window is positioned within the pane area. Value is a string containing zero or more of the characters “n”, “s”, “e” or “w”. Each letter refers to a side (north, south, east or west) that the child window will stick to, as per the ‘grid()’ geometry manager. padding Specifies the amount of extra space to add between the notebook and this pane. Syntax is the same as for the option padding used by this widget. text Specifies a text to be displayed in the tab. image Specifies an image to display in the tab. See the option image described in *note Widget: 3ecf. compound Specifies how to display the image relative to the text, in the case both options text and image are present. See *note Label Options: 3ed4. for legal values. underline Specifies the index (0-based) of a character to underline in the text string. The underlined character is used for mnemonic activation if *note Notebook.enable_traversal(): 3eeb. is called.  File: python.info, Node: Tab Identifiers, Next: Virtual Events, Prev: Tab Options, Up: Notebook 5.26.8.21 Tab Identifiers ......................... The tab_id present in several methods of ‘ttk.Notebook’ may take any of the following forms: * An integer between zero and the number of tabs * The name of a child window * A positional specification of the form “@x,y”, which identifies the tab * The literal string “current”, which identifies the currently selected tab * The literal string “end”, which returns the number of tabs (only valid for *note Notebook.index(): 3eed.)  File: python.info, Node: Virtual Events, Next: ttk Notebook, Prev: Tab Identifiers, Up: Notebook 5.26.8.22 Virtual Events ........................ This widget generates a '<>' virtual event after a new tab is selected.  File: python.info, Node: ttk Notebook, Prev: Virtual Events, Up: Notebook 5.26.8.23 ttk.Notebook ...................... -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Notebook -- Method: add (child, **kw) Adds a new tab to the notebook. If window is currently managed by the notebook but hidden, it is restored to its previous position. See *note Tab Options: 3eea. for the list of available options. -- Method: forget (tab_id) Removes the tab specified by 'tab_id', unmaps and unmanages the associated window. -- Method: hide (tab_id) Hides the tab specified by 'tab_id'. The tab will not be displayed, but the associated window remains managed by the notebook and its configuration remembered. Hidden tabs may be restored with the *note add(): 3ef0. command. -- Method: identify (x, y) Returns the name of the tab element at position 'x', 'y', or the empty string if none. -- Method: index (tab_id) Returns the numeric index of the tab specified by 'tab_id', or the total number of tabs if 'tab_id' is the string “end”. -- Method: insert (pos, child, **kw) Inserts a pane at the specified position. 'pos' is either the string “end”, an integer index, or the name of a managed child. If 'child' is already managed by the notebook, moves it to the specified position. See *note Tab Options: 3eea. for the list of available options. -- Method: select (tab_id=None) Selects the specified 'tab_id'. The associated child window will be displayed, and the previously selected window (if different) is unmapped. If 'tab_id' is omitted, returns the widget name of the currently selected pane. -- Method: tab (tab_id, option=None, **kw) Query or modify the options of the specific 'tab_id'. If 'kw' is not given, returns a dictionary of the tab option values. If 'option' is specified, returns the value of that 'option'. Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values. -- Method: tabs () Returns a list of windows managed by the notebook. -- Method: enable_traversal () Enable keyboard traversal for a toplevel window containing this notebook. This will extend the bindings for the toplevel window containing the notebook as follows: * ‘Control’-‘Tab’: selects the tab following the currently selected one. * ‘Shift’-‘Control’-‘Tab’: selects the tab preceding the currently selected one. * ‘Alt’-‘K’: where 'K' is the mnemonic (underlined) character of any tab, will select that tab. Multiple notebooks in a single toplevel may be enabled for traversal, including nested notebooks. However, notebook traversal only works properly if all panes have the notebook they are in as master.  File: python.info, Node: Progressbar, Next: Separator, Prev: Notebook, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.24 Progressbar ..................... The ‘ttk.Progressbar’ widget shows the status of a long-running operation. It can operate in two modes: 1) the determinate mode which shows the amount completed relative to the total amount of work to be done and 2) the indeterminate mode which provides an animated display to let the user know that work is progressing. * Menu: * Options: Options<4>. * ttk.Progressbar: ttk Progressbar.  File: python.info, Node: Options<4>, Next: ttk Progressbar, Up: Progressbar 5.26.8.25 Options ................. This widget accepts the following specific options: Option Description ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- orient One of “horizontal” or “vertical”. Specifies the orientation of the progress bar. length Specifies the length of the long axis of the progress bar (width if horizontal, height if vertical). mode One of “determinate” or “indeterminate”. maximum A number specifying the maximum value. Defaults to 100. value The current value of the progress bar. In “determinate” mode, this represents the amount of work completed. In “indeterminate” mode, it is interpreted as modulo 'maximum'; that is, the progress bar completes one “cycle” when its value increases by 'maximum'. variable A name which is linked to the option value. If specified, the value of the progress bar is automatically set to the value of this name whenever the latter is modified. phase Read-only option. The widget periodically increments the value of this option whenever its value is greater than 0 and, in determinate mode, less than maximum. This option may be used by the current theme to provide additional animation effects.  File: python.info, Node: ttk Progressbar, Prev: Options<4>, Up: Progressbar 5.26.8.26 ttk.Progressbar ......................... -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Progressbar -- Method: start (interval=None) Begin autoincrement mode: schedules a recurring timer event that calls *note Progressbar.step(): 3efc. every 'interval' milliseconds. If omitted, 'interval' defaults to 50 milliseconds. -- Method: step (amount=None) Increments the progress bar’s value by 'amount'. 'amount' defaults to 1.0 if omitted. -- Method: stop () Stop autoincrement mode: cancels any recurring timer event initiated by *note Progressbar.start(): 3efb. for this progress bar.  File: python.info, Node: Separator, Next: Sizegrip, Prev: Progressbar, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.27 Separator ................... The ‘ttk.Separator’ widget displays a horizontal or vertical separator bar. It has no other methods besides the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’. * Menu: * Options: Options<5>.  File: python.info, Node: Options<5>, Up: Separator 5.26.8.28 Options ................. This widget accepts the following specific option: Option Description ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- orient One of “horizontal” or “vertical”. Specifies the orientation of the separator.  File: python.info, Node: Sizegrip, Next: Treeview, Prev: Separator, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.29 Sizegrip .................. The ‘ttk.Sizegrip’ widget (also known as a grow box) allows the user to resize the containing toplevel window by pressing and dragging the grip. This widget has neither specific options nor specific methods, besides the ones inherited from ‘ttk.Widget’. * Menu: * Platform-specific notes:: * Bugs::  File: python.info, Node: Platform-specific notes, Next: Bugs, Up: Sizegrip 5.26.8.30 Platform-specific notes ................................. * On macOS, toplevel windows automatically include a built-in size grip by default. Adding a ‘Sizegrip’ is harmless, since the built-in grip will just mask the widget.  File: python.info, Node: Bugs, Prev: Platform-specific notes, Up: Sizegrip 5.26.8.31 Bugs .............. * If the containing toplevel’s position was specified relative to the right or bottom of the screen (e.g. ….), the ‘Sizegrip’ widget will not resize the window. * This widget supports only “southeast” resizing.  File: python.info, Node: Treeview, Next: Ttk Styling, Prev: Sizegrip, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.32 Treeview .................. The ‘ttk.Treeview’ widget displays a hierarchical collection of items. Each item has a textual label, an optional image, and an optional list of data values. The data values are displayed in successive columns after the tree label. The order in which data values are displayed may be controlled by setting the widget option ‘displaycolumns’. The tree widget can also display column headings. Columns may be accessed by number or symbolic names listed in the widget option columns. See *note Column Identifiers: 3f04. Each item is identified by a unique name. The widget will generate item IDs if they are not supplied by the caller. There is a distinguished root item, named ‘{}’. The root item itself is not displayed; its children appear at the top level of the hierarchy. Each item also has a list of tags, which can be used to associate event bindings with individual items and control the appearance of the item. The Treeview widget supports horizontal and vertical scrolling, according to the options described in *note Scrollable Widget Options: 3ed3. and the methods *note Treeview.xview(): 3f05. and *note Treeview.yview(): 3f06. * Menu: * Options: Options<6>. * Item Options:: * Tag Options:: * Column Identifiers:: * Virtual Events: Virtual Events<2>. * ttk.Treeview: ttk Treeview.  File: python.info, Node: Options<6>, Next: Item Options, Up: Treeview 5.26.8.33 Options ................. This widget accepts the following specific options: Option Description ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- columns A list of column identifiers, specifying the number of columns and their names. displaycolumns A list of column identifiers (either symbolic or integer indices) specifying which data columns are displayed and the order in which they appear, or the string “#all”. height Specifies the number of rows which should be visible. Note: the requested width is determined from the sum of the column widths. padding Specifies the internal padding for the widget. The padding is a list of up to four length specifications. selectmode Controls how the built-in class bindings manage the selection. One of “extended”, “browse” or “none”. If set to “extended” (the default), multiple items may be selected. If “browse”, only a single item will be selected at a time. If “none”, the selection will not be changed. Note that the application code and tag bindings can set the selection however they wish, regardless of the value of this option. show A list containing zero or more of the following values, specifying which elements of the tree to display. * tree: display tree labels in column #0. * headings: display the heading row. The default is “tree headings”, i.e., show all elements. 'Note': Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show=”tree” is not specified.  File: python.info, Node: Item Options, Next: Tag Options, Prev: Options<6>, Up: Treeview 5.26.8.34 Item Options ...................... The following item options may be specified for items in the insert and item widget commands. Option Description --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- text The textual label to display for the item. image A Tk Image, displayed to the left of the label. values The list of values associated with the item. Each item should have the same number of values as the widget option columns. If there are fewer values than columns, the remaining values are assumed empty. If there are more values than columns, the extra values are ignored. open ‘True’/‘False’ value indicating whether the item’s children should be displayed or hidden. tags A list of tags associated with this item.  File: python.info, Node: Tag Options, Next: Column Identifiers, Prev: Item Options, Up: Treeview 5.26.8.35 Tag Options ..................... The following options may be specified on tags: Option Description --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- foreground Specifies the text foreground color. background Specifies the cell or item background color. font Specifies the font to use when drawing text. image Specifies the item image, in case the item’s image option is empty.  File: python.info, Node: Column Identifiers, Next: Virtual Events<2>, Prev: Tag Options, Up: Treeview 5.26.8.36 Column Identifiers ............................ Column identifiers take any of the following forms: * A symbolic name from the list of columns option. * An integer n, specifying the nth data column. * A string of the form #n, where n is an integer, specifying the nth display column. Notes: * Item’s option values may be displayed in a different order than the order in which they are stored. * Column #0 always refers to the tree column, even if show=”tree” is not specified. A data column number is an index into an item’s option values list; a display column number is the column number in the tree where the values are displayed. Tree labels are displayed in column #0. If option displaycolumns is not set, then data column n is displayed in column #n+1. Again, 'column #0 always refers to the tree column'.  File: python.info, Node: Virtual Events<2>, Next: ttk Treeview, Prev: Column Identifiers, Up: Treeview 5.26.8.37 Virtual Events ........................ The Treeview widget generates the following virtual events. Event Description -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- <> Generated whenever the selection changes. <> Generated just before settings the focus item to open=True. <> Generated just after setting the focus item to open=False. The *note Treeview.focus(): 3f0b. and *note Treeview.selection(): a93. methods can be used to determine the affected item or items.  File: python.info, Node: ttk Treeview, Prev: Virtual Events<2>, Up: Treeview 5.26.8.38 ttk.Treeview ...................... -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Treeview -- Method: bbox (item, column=None) Returns the bounding box (relative to the treeview widget’s window) of the specified 'item' in the form (x, y, width, height). If 'column' is specified, returns the bounding box of that cell. If the 'item' is not visible (i.e., if it is a descendant of a closed item or is scrolled offscreen), returns an empty string. -- Method: get_children (item=None) Returns the list of children belonging to 'item'. If 'item' is not specified, returns root children. -- Method: set_children (item, *newchildren) Replaces 'item'’s child with 'newchildren'. Children present in 'item' that are not present in 'newchildren' are detached from the tree. No items in 'newchildren' may be an ancestor of 'item'. Note that not specifying 'newchildren' results in detaching 'item'’s children. -- Method: column (column, option=None, **kw) Query or modify the options for the specified 'column'. If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the column option values. If 'option' is specified then the value for that 'option' is returned. Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values. The valid options/values are: 'id' Returns the column name. This is a read-only option. 'anchor': One of the standard Tk anchor values. Specifies how the text in this column should be aligned with respect to the cell. 'minwidth': width The minimum width of the column in pixels. The treeview widget will not make the column any smaller than specified by this option when the widget is resized or the user drags a column. 'stretch': ‘True’/‘False’ Specifies whether the column’s width should be adjusted when the widget is resized. 'width': width The width of the column in pixels. To configure the tree column, call this with column = “#0” -- Method: delete (*items) Delete all specified 'items' and all their descendants. The root item may not be deleted. -- Method: detach (*items) Unlinks all of the specified 'items' from the tree. The items and all of their descendants are still present, and may be reinserted at another point in the tree, but will not be displayed. The root item may not be detached. -- Method: exists (item) Returns ‘True’ if the specified 'item' is present in the tree. -- Method: focus (item=None) If 'item' is specified, sets the focus item to 'item'. Otherwise, returns the current focus item, or ‘’ if there is none. -- Method: heading (column, option=None, **kw) Query or modify the heading options for the specified 'column'. If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the heading option values. If 'option' is specified then the value for that 'option' is returned. Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values. The valid options/values are: 'text': text The text to display in the column heading. 'image': imageName Specifies an image to display to the right of the column heading. 'anchor': anchor Specifies how the heading text should be aligned. One of the standard Tk anchor values. 'command': callback A callback to be invoked when the heading label is pressed. To configure the tree column heading, call this with column = “#0”. -- Method: identify (component, x, y) Returns a description of the specified 'component' under the point given by 'x' and 'y', or the empty string if no such 'component' is present at that position. -- Method: identify_row (y) Returns the item ID of the item at position 'y'. -- Method: identify_column (x) Returns the data column identifier of the cell at position 'x'. The tree column has ID #0. -- Method: identify_region (x, y) Returns one of: region meaning ----------------------------------------------------------- heading Tree heading area. separator Space between two columns headings. tree The tree area. cell A data cell. Availability: Tk 8.6. -- Method: identify_element (x, y) Returns the element at position 'x', 'y'. Availability: Tk 8.6. -- Method: index (item) Returns the integer index of 'item' within its parent’s list of children. -- Method: insert (parent, index, iid=None, **kw) Creates a new item and returns the item identifier of the newly created item. 'parent' is the item ID of the parent item, or the empty string to create a new top-level item. 'index' is an integer, or the value “end”, specifying where in the list of parent’s children to insert the new item. If 'index' is less than or equal to zero, the new node is inserted at the beginning; if 'index' is greater than or equal to the current number of children, it is inserted at the end. If 'iid' is specified, it is used as the item identifier; 'iid' must not already exist in the tree. Otherwise, a new unique identifier is generated. See *note Item Options: 3f08. for the list of available options. -- Method: item (item, option=None, **kw) Query or modify the options for the specified 'item'. If no options are given, a dict with options/values for the item is returned. If 'option' is specified then the value for that option is returned. Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values as given by 'kw'. -- Method: move (item, parent, index) Moves 'item' to position 'index' in 'parent'’s list of children. It is illegal to move an item under one of its descendants. If 'index' is less than or equal to zero, 'item' is moved to the beginning; if greater than or equal to the number of children, it is moved to the end. If 'item' was detached it is reattached. -- Method: next (item) Returns the identifier of 'item'’s next sibling, or ‘’ if 'item' is the last child of its parent. -- Method: parent (item) Returns the ID of the parent of 'item', or ‘’ if 'item' is at the top level of the hierarchy. -- Method: prev (item) Returns the identifier of 'item'’s previous sibling, or ‘’ if 'item' is the first child of its parent. -- Method: reattach (item, parent, index) An alias for *note Treeview.move(): 3f1d. -- Method: see (item) Ensure that 'item' is visible. Sets all of 'item'’s ancestors open option to ‘True’, and scrolls the widget if necessary so that 'item' is within the visible portion of the tree. -- Method: selection () Returns a tuple of selected items. Changed in version 3.8: ‘selection()’ no longer takes arguments. For changing the selection state use the following selection methods. -- Method: selection_set (*items) 'items' becomes the new selection. Changed in version 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple. -- Method: selection_add (*items) Add 'items' to the selection. Changed in version 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple. -- Method: selection_remove (*items) Remove 'items' from the selection. Changed in version 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple. -- Method: selection_toggle (*items) Toggle the selection state of each item in 'items'. Changed in version 3.6: 'items' can be passed as separate arguments, not just as a single tuple. -- Method: set (item, column=None, value=None) With one argument, returns a dictionary of column/value pairs for the specified 'item'. With two arguments, returns the current value of the specified 'column'. With three arguments, sets the value of given 'column' in given 'item' to the specified 'value'. -- Method: tag_bind (tagname, sequence=None, callback=None) Bind a callback for the given event 'sequence' to the tag 'tagname'. When an event is delivered to an item, the callbacks for each of the item’s tags option are called. -- Method: tag_configure (tagname, option=None, **kw) Query or modify the options for the specified 'tagname'. If 'kw' is not given, returns a dict of the option settings for 'tagname'. If 'option' is specified, returns the value for that 'option' for the specified 'tagname'. Otherwise, sets the options to the corresponding values for the given 'tagname'. -- Method: tag_has (tagname, item=None) If 'item' is specified, returns 1 or 0 depending on whether the specified 'item' has the given 'tagname'. Otherwise, returns a list of all items that have the specified tag. Availability: Tk 8.6 -- Method: xview (*args) Query or modify horizontal position of the treeview. -- Method: yview (*args) Query or modify vertical position of the treeview.  File: python.info, Node: Ttk Styling, Prev: Treeview, Up: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets 5.26.8.39 Ttk Styling ..................... Each widget in ‘ttk’ is assigned a style, which specifies the set of elements making up the widget and how they are arranged, along with dynamic and default settings for element options. By default the style name is the same as the widget’s class name, but it may be overridden by the widget’s style option. If you don’t know the class name of a widget, use the method ‘Misc.winfo_class()’ (somewidget.winfo_class()). See also ........ Tcl'2004 conference presentation(1) This document explains how the theme engine works -- Class: tkinter.ttk.Style This class is used to manipulate the style database. -- Method: configure (style, query_opt=None, **kw) Query or set the default value of the specified option(s) in 'style'. Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value is a string identifying the value for that option. For example, to change every default button to be a flat button with some padding and a different background color: from tkinter import ttk import tkinter root = tkinter.Tk() ttk.Style().configure("TButton", padding=6, relief="flat", background="#ccc") btn = ttk.Button(text="Sample") btn.pack() root.mainloop() -- Method: map (style, query_opt=None, **kw) Query or sets dynamic values of the specified option(s) in 'style'. Each key in 'kw' is an option and each value should be a list or a tuple (usually) containing statespecs grouped in tuples, lists, or some other preference. A statespec is a compound of one or more states and then a value. An example may make it more understandable: import tkinter from tkinter import ttk root = tkinter.Tk() style = ttk.Style() style.map("C.TButton", foreground=[('pressed', 'red'), ('active', 'blue')], background=[('pressed', '!disabled', 'black'), ('active', 'white')] ) colored_btn = ttk.Button(text="Test", style="C.TButton").pack() root.mainloop() Note that the order of the (states, value) sequences for an option does matter, if the order is changed to ‘[('active', 'blue'), ('pressed', 'red')]’ in the foreground option, for example, the result would be a blue foreground when the widget were in active or pressed states. -- Method: lookup (style, option, state=None, default=None) Returns the value specified for 'option' in 'style'. If 'state' is specified, it is expected to be a sequence of one or more states. If the 'default' argument is set, it is used as a fallback value in case no specification for option is found. To check what font a Button uses by default: from tkinter import ttk print(ttk.Style().lookup("TButton", "font")) -- Method: layout (style, layoutspec=None) Define the widget layout for given 'style'. If 'layoutspec' is omitted, return the layout specification for given style. 'layoutspec', if specified, is expected to be a list or some other sequence type (excluding strings), where each item should be a tuple and the first item is the layout name and the second item should have the format described in *note Layouts: 3f2e. To understand the format, see the following example (it is not intended to do anything useful): from tkinter import ttk import tkinter root = tkinter.Tk() style = ttk.Style() style.layout("TMenubutton", [ ("Menubutton.background", None), ("Menubutton.button", {"children": [("Menubutton.focus", {"children": [("Menubutton.padding", {"children": [("Menubutton.label", {"side": "left", "expand": 1})] })] })] }), ]) mbtn = ttk.Menubutton(text='Text') mbtn.pack() root.mainloop() -- Method: element_create (elementname, etype, *args, **kw) Create a new element in the current theme, of the given 'etype' which is expected to be either “image”, “from” or “vsapi”. The latter is only available in Tk 8.6 on Windows. If “image” is used, 'args' should contain the default image name followed by statespec/value pairs (this is the imagespec), and 'kw' may have the following options: border=padding padding is a list of up to four integers, specifying the left, top, right, and bottom borders, respectively. height=height Specifies a minimum height for the element. If less than zero, the base image’s height is used as a default. padding=padding Specifies the element’s interior padding. Defaults to border’s value if not specified. sticky=spec Specifies how the image is placed within the final parcel. spec contains zero or more characters “n”, “s”, “w”, or “e”. width=width Specifies a minimum width for the element. If less than zero, the base image’s width is used as a default. Example: img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button.png') img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-pressed.png') img1 = tkinter.PhotoImage(master=root, file='button-active.png') style = ttk.Style(root) style.element_create('Button.button', 'image', img1, ('pressed', img2), ('active', img3), border=(2, 4), sticky='we') If “from” is used as the value of 'etype', *note element_create(): 25a. will clone an existing element. 'args' is expected to contain a themename, from which the element will be cloned, and optionally an element to clone from. If this element to clone from is not specified, an empty element will be used. 'kw' is discarded. Example: style = ttk.Style(root) style.element_create('plain.background', 'from', 'default') If “vsapi” is used as the value of 'etype', *note element_create(): 25a. will create a new element in the current theme whose visual appearance is drawn using the Microsoft Visual Styles API which is responsible for the themed styles on Windows XP and Vista. 'args' is expected to contain the Visual Styles class and part as given in the Microsoft documentation followed by an optional sequence of tuples of ttk states and the corresponding Visual Styles API state value. 'kw' may have the following options: padding=padding Specify the element’s interior padding. 'padding' is a list of up to four integers specifying the left, top, right and bottom padding quantities respectively. If fewer than four elements are specified, bottom defaults to top, right defaults to left, and top defaults to left. In other words, a list of three numbers specify the left, vertical, and right padding; a list of two numbers specify the horizontal and the vertical padding; a single number specifies the same padding all the way around the widget. This option may not be mixed with any other options. margins=padding Specifies the elements exterior padding. 'padding' is a list of up to four integers specifying the left, top, right and bottom padding quantities respectively. This option may not be mixed with any other options. width=width Specifies the width for the element. If this option is set then the Visual Styles API will not be queried for the recommended size or the part. If this option is set then 'height' should also be set. The 'width' and 'height' options cannot be mixed with the 'padding' or 'margins' options. height=height Specifies the height of the element. See the comments for 'width'. Example: style = ttk.Style(root) style.element_create('pin', 'vsapi', 'EXPLORERBAR', 3, [ ('pressed', '!selected', 3), ('active', '!selected', 2), ('pressed', 'selected', 6), ('active', 'selected', 5), ('selected', 4), ('', 1)]) style.layout('Explorer.Pin', [('Explorer.Pin.pin', {'sticky': 'news'})]) pin = ttk.Checkbutton(style='Explorer.Pin') pin.pack(expand=True, fill='both') Changed in version 3.13: Added support of the “vsapi” element factory. -- Method: element_names () Returns the list of elements defined in the current theme. -- Method: element_options (elementname) Returns the list of 'elementname'’s options. -- Method: theme_create (themename, parent=None, settings=None) Create a new theme. It is an error if 'themename' already exists. If 'parent' is specified, the new theme will inherit styles, elements and layouts from the parent theme. If 'settings' are present they are expected to have the same syntax used for *note theme_settings(): 3f32. -- Method: theme_settings (themename, settings) Temporarily sets the current theme to 'themename', apply specified 'settings' and then restore the previous theme. Each key in 'settings' is a style and each value may contain the keys ‘configure’, ‘map’, ‘layout’ and ‘element create’ and they are expected to have the same format as specified by the methods *note Style.configure(): 3f2b, *note Style.map(): 191d, *note Style.layout(): 3f2d. and *note Style.element_create(): 25a. respectively. As an example, let’s change the Combobox for the default theme a bit: from tkinter import ttk import tkinter root = tkinter.Tk() style = ttk.Style() style.theme_settings("default", { "TCombobox": { "configure": {"padding": 5}, "map": { "background": [("active", "green2"), ("!disabled", "green4")], "fieldbackground": [("!disabled", "green3")], "foreground": [("focus", "OliveDrab1"), ("!disabled", "OliveDrab2")] } } }) combo = ttk.Combobox().pack() root.mainloop() -- Method: theme_names () Returns a list of all known themes. -- Method: theme_use (themename=None) If 'themename' is not given, returns the theme in use. Otherwise, sets the current theme to 'themename', refreshes all widgets and emits a <> event. * Menu: * Layouts:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://tktable.sourceforge.net/tile/tile-tcl2004.pdf  File: python.info, Node: Layouts, Up: Ttk Styling 5.26.8.40 Layouts ................. A layout can be just ‘None’, if it takes no options, or a dict of options specifying how to arrange the element. The layout mechanism uses a simplified version of the pack geometry manager: given an initial cavity, each element is allocated a parcel. The valid options/values are: 'side': whichside Specifies which side of the cavity to place the element; one of top, right, bottom or left. If omitted, the element occupies the entire cavity. 'sticky': nswe Specifies where the element is placed inside its allocated parcel. 'unit': 0 or 1 If set to 1, causes the element and all of its descendants to be treated as a single element for the purposes of *note Widget.identify(): 3ed9. et al. It’s used for things like scrollbar thumbs with grips. 'children': [sublayout… ] Specifies a list of elements to place inside the element. Each element is a tuple (or other sequence type) where the first item is the layout name, and the other is a *note Layout: 3f2e.  File: python.info, Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>, Prev: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets, Up: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 5.26.9 IDLE — Python editor and shell ------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/idlelib/(1) __________________________________________________________________ IDLE is Python’s Integrated Development and Learning Environment. IDLE has the following features: * cross-platform: works mostly the same on Windows, Unix, and macOS * Python shell window (interactive interpreter) with colorizing of code input, output, and error messages * multi-window text editor with multiple undo, Python colorizing, smart indent, call tips, auto completion, and other features * search within any window, replace within editor windows, and search through multiple files (grep) * debugger with persistent breakpoints, stepping, and viewing of global and local namespaces * configuration, browsers, and other dialogs * Menu: * Menus:: * Editing and Navigation:: * Startup and Code Execution:: * Help and Preferences:: * idlelib — implementation of IDLE application:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/idlelib/  File: python.info, Node: Menus, Next: Editing and Navigation, Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2> 5.26.9.1 Menus .............. IDLE has two main window types, the Shell window and the Editor window. It is possible to have multiple editor windows simultaneously. On Windows and Linux, each has its own top menu. Each menu documented below indicates which window type it is associated with. Output windows, such as used for Edit => Find in Files, are a subtype of editor window. They currently have the same top menu but a different default title and context menu. On macOS, there is one application menu. It dynamically changes according to the window currently selected. It has an IDLE menu, and some entries described below are moved around to conform to Apple guidelines. * Menu: * File menu (Shell and Editor): File menu Shell and Editor. * Edit menu (Shell and Editor): Edit menu Shell and Editor. * Format menu (Editor window only): Format menu Editor window only. * Run menu (Editor window only): Run menu Editor window only. * Shell menu (Shell window only): Shell menu Shell window only. * Debug menu (Shell window only): Debug menu Shell window only. * Options menu (Shell and Editor): Options menu Shell and Editor. * Window menu (Shell and Editor): Window menu Shell and Editor. * Help menu (Shell and Editor): Help menu Shell and Editor. * Context menus::  File: python.info, Node: File menu Shell and Editor, Next: Edit menu Shell and Editor, Up: Menus 5.26.9.2 File menu (Shell and Editor) ..................................... New File Create a new file editing window. Open… Open an existing file with an Open dialog. Open Module… Open an existing module (searches sys.path). Recent Files Open a list of recent files. Click one to open it. Module Browser Show functions, classes, and methods in the current Editor file in a tree structure. In the shell, open a module first. Path Browser Show sys.path directories, modules, functions, classes and methods in a tree structure. Save Save the current window to the associated file, if there is one. Windows that have been changed since being opened or last saved have a * before and after the window title. If there is no associated file, do Save As instead. Save As… Save the current window with a Save As dialog. The file saved becomes the new associated file for the window. (If your file namager is set to hide extensions, the current extension will be omitted in the file name box. If the new filename has no ‘.’, ‘.py’ and ‘.txt’ will be added for Python and text files, except that on macOS Aqua,’.py’ is added for all files.) Save Copy As… Save the current window to different file without changing the associated file. (See Save As note above about filename extensions.) Print Window Print the current window to the default printer. Close Window Close the current window (if an unsaved editor, ask to save; if an unsaved Shell, ask to quit execution). Calling ‘exit()’ or ‘close()’ in the Shell window also closes Shell. If this is the only window, also exit IDLE. Exit IDLE Close all windows and quit IDLE (ask to save unsaved edit windows).  File: python.info, Node: Edit menu Shell and Editor, Next: Format menu Editor window only, Prev: File menu Shell and Editor, Up: Menus 5.26.9.3 Edit menu (Shell and Editor) ..................................... Undo Undo the last change to the current window. A maximum of 1000 changes may be undone. Redo Redo the last undone change to the current window. Select All Select the entire contents of the current window. Cut Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection. Copy Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard. Paste Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window. The clipboard functions are also available in context menus. Find… Open a search dialog with many options Find Again Repeat the last search, if there is one. Find Selection Search for the currently selected string, if there is one. Find in Files… Open a file search dialog. Put results in a new output window. Replace… Open a search-and-replace dialog. Go to Line Move the cursor to the beginning of the line requested and make that line visible. A request past the end of the file goes to the end. Clear any selection and update the line and column status. Show Completions Open a scrollable list allowing selection of existing names. See *note Completions: 3f3b. in the Editing and navigation section below. Expand Word Expand a prefix you have typed to match a full word in the same window; repeat to get a different expansion. Show Call Tip After an unclosed parenthesis for a function, open a small window with function parameter hints. See *note Calltips: 3f3c. in the Editing and navigation section below. Show Surrounding Parens Highlight the surrounding parenthesis.  File: python.info, Node: Format menu Editor window only, Next: Run menu Editor window only, Prev: Edit menu Shell and Editor, Up: Menus 5.26.9.4 Format menu (Editor window only) ......................................... Format Paragraph Reformat the current blank-line-delimited paragraph in comment block or multiline string or selected line in a string. All lines in the paragraph will be formatted to less than N columns, where N defaults to 72. Indent Region Shift selected lines right by the indent width (default 4 spaces). Dedent Region Shift selected lines left by the indent width (default 4 spaces). Comment Out Region Insert ## in front of selected lines. Uncomment Region Remove leading # or ## from selected lines. Tabify Region Turn 'leading' stretches of spaces into tabs. (Note: We recommend using 4 space blocks to indent Python code.) Untabify Region Turn 'all' tabs into the correct number of spaces. Toggle Tabs Open a dialog to switch between indenting with spaces and tabs. New Indent Width Open a dialog to change indent width. The accepted default by the Python community is 4 spaces. Strip Trailing Chitespace Remove trailing space and other whitespace characters after the last non-whitespace character of a line by applying str.rstrip to each line, including lines within multiline strings. Except for Shell windows, remove extra newlines at the end of the file.  File: python.info, Node: Run menu Editor window only, Next: Shell menu Shell window only, Prev: Format menu Editor window only, Up: Menus 5.26.9.5 Run menu (Editor window only) ...................................... Run Module Do *note Check Module: 3f41. If no error, restart the shell to clean the environment, then execute the module. Output is displayed in the Shell window. Note that output requires use of ‘print’ or ‘write’. When execution is complete, the Shell retains focus and displays a prompt. At this point, one may interactively explore the result of execution. This is similar to executing a file with ‘python -i file’ at a command line. Run… Customized Same as *note Run Module: 3f40, but run the module with customized settings. 'Command Line Arguments' extend *note sys.argv: 1258. as if passed on a command line. The module can be run in the Shell without restarting. Check Module Check the syntax of the module currently open in the Editor window. If the module has not been saved IDLE will either prompt the user to save or autosave, as selected in the General tab of the Idle Settings dialog. If there is a syntax error, the approximate location is indicated in the Editor window. Python Shell Open or wake up the Python Shell window.  File: python.info, Node: Shell menu Shell window only, Next: Debug menu Shell window only, Prev: Run menu Editor window only, Up: Menus 5.26.9.6 Shell menu (Shell window only) ....................................... View Last Restart Scroll the shell window to the last Shell restart. Restart Shell Restart the shell to clean the environment and reset display and exception handling. Previous History Cycle through earlier commands in history which match the current entry. Next History Cycle through later commands in history which match the current entry. Interrupt Execution Stop a running program.  File: python.info, Node: Debug menu Shell window only, Next: Options menu Shell and Editor, Prev: Shell menu Shell window only, Up: Menus 5.26.9.7 Debug menu (Shell window only) ....................................... Go to File/Line Look on the current line. with the cursor, and the line above for a filename and line number. If found, open the file if not already open, and show the line. Use this to view source lines referenced in an exception traceback and lines found by Find in Files. Also available in the context menu of the Shell window and Output windows. Debugger (toggle) When activated, code entered in the Shell or run from an Editor will run under the debugger. In the Editor, breakpoints can be set with the context menu. This feature is still incomplete and somewhat experimental. Stack Viewer Show the stack traceback of the last exception in a tree widget, with access to locals and globals. Auto-open Stack Viewer Toggle automatically opening the stack viewer on an unhandled exception.  File: python.info, Node: Options menu Shell and Editor, Next: Window menu Shell and Editor, Prev: Debug menu Shell window only, Up: Menus 5.26.9.8 Options menu (Shell and Editor) ........................................ Configure IDLE Open a configuration dialog and change preferences for the following: fonts, indentation, keybindings, text color themes, startup windows and size, additional help sources, and extensions. On macOS, open the configuration dialog by selecting Preferences in the application menu. For more details, see *note Setting preferences: 3f47. under Help and preferences. Most configuration options apply to all windows or all future windows. The option items below only apply to the active window. Show/Hide Code Context (Editor Window only) Open a pane at the top of the edit window which shows the block context of the code which has scrolled above the top of the window. See *note Code Context: 3f48. in the Editing and Navigation section below. Show/Hide Line Numbers (Editor Window only) Open a column to the left of the edit window which shows the number of each line of text. The default is off, which may be changed in the preferences (see *note Setting preferences: 3f47.). Zoom/Restore Height Toggles the window between normal size and maximum height. The initial size defaults to 40 lines by 80 chars unless changed on the General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog. The maximum height for a screen is determined by momentarily maximizing a window the first time one is zoomed on the screen. Changing screen settings may invalidate the saved height. This toggle has no effect when a window is maximized.  File: python.info, Node: Window menu Shell and Editor, Next: Help menu Shell and Editor, Prev: Options menu Shell and Editor, Up: Menus 5.26.9.9 Window menu (Shell and Editor) ....................................... Lists the names of all open windows; select one to bring it to the foreground (deiconifying it if necessary).  File: python.info, Node: Help menu Shell and Editor, Next: Context menus, Prev: Window menu Shell and Editor, Up: Menus 5.26.9.10 Help menu (Shell and Editor) ...................................... About IDLE Display version, copyright, license, credits, and more. IDLE Help Display this IDLE document, detailing the menu options, basic editing and navigation, and other tips. Python Docs Access local Python documentation, if installed, or start a web browser and open docs.python.org showing the latest Python documentation. Turtle Demo Run the turtledemo module with example Python code and turtle drawings. Additional help sources may be added here with the Configure IDLE dialog under the General tab. See the *note Help sources: 3f4b. subsection below for more on Help menu choices.  File: python.info, Node: Context menus, Prev: Help menu Shell and Editor, Up: Menus 5.26.9.11 Context menus ....................... Open a context menu by right-clicking in a window (Control-click on macOS). Context menus have the standard clipboard functions also on the Edit menu. Cut Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard; then delete the selection. Copy Copy selection into the system-wide clipboard. Paste Insert contents of the system-wide clipboard into the current window. Editor windows also have breakpoint functions. Lines with a breakpoint set are specially marked. Breakpoints only have an effect when running under the debugger. Breakpoints for a file are saved in the user’s ‘.idlerc’ directory. Set Breakpoint Set a breakpoint on the current line. Clear Breakpoint Clear the breakpoint on that line. Shell and Output windows also have the following. Go to file/line Same as in Debug menu. The Shell window also has an output squeezing facility explained in the 'Python Shell window' subsection below. Squeeze If the cursor is over an output line, squeeze all the output between the code above and the prompt below down to a ‘Squeezed text’ label.  File: python.info, Node: Editing and Navigation, Next: Startup and Code Execution, Prev: Menus, Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2> 5.26.9.12 Editing and Navigation ................................ * Menu: * Editor windows:: * Key bindings:: * Automatic indentation:: * Search and Replace:: * Completions:: * Calltips:: * Code Context:: * Shell window:: * Text colors::  File: python.info, Node: Editor windows, Next: Key bindings, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.13 Editor windows ........................ IDLE may open editor windows when it starts, depending on settings and how you start IDLE. Thereafter, use the File menu. There can be only one open editor window for a given file. The title bar contains the name of the file, the full path, and the version of Python and IDLE running the window. The status bar contains the line number (‘Ln’) and column number (‘Col’). Line numbers start with 1; column numbers with 0. IDLE assumes that files with a known .py* extension contain Python code and that other files do not. Run Python code with the Run menu.  File: python.info, Node: Key bindings, Next: Automatic indentation, Prev: Editor windows, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.14 Key bindings ...................... The IDLE insertion cursor is a thin vertical bar between character positions. When characters are entered, the insertion cursor and everything to its right moves right one character and the new character is entered in the new space. Several non-character keys move the cursor and possibly delete characters. Deletion does not puts text on the clipboard, but IDLE has an undo list. Wherever this doc discusses keys, ‘C’ refers to the ‘Control’ key on Windows and Unix and the ‘Command’ key on macOS. (And all such discussions assume that the keys have not been re-bound to something else.) * Arrow keys move the cursor one character or line. * ‘C’-‘LeftArrow’ and ‘C’-‘RightArrow’ moves left or right one word. * ‘Home’ and ‘End’ go to the beginning or end of the line. * ‘Page Up’ and ‘Page Down’ go up or down one screen. * ‘C’-‘Home’ and ‘C’-‘End’ go to beginning or end of the file. * ‘Backspace’ and ‘Del’ (or ‘C’-‘d’) delete the previous or next character. * ‘C’-‘Backspace’ and ‘C’-‘Del’ delete one word left or right. * ‘C’-‘k’ deletes (‘kills’) everything to the right. Standard keybindings (like ‘C’-‘c’ to copy and ‘C’-‘v’ to paste) may work. Keybindings are selected in the Configure IDLE dialog.  File: python.info, Node: Automatic indentation, Next: Search and Replace, Prev: Key bindings, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.15 Automatic indentation ............................... After a block-opening statement, the next line is indented by 4 spaces (in the Python Shell window by one tab). After certain keywords (break, return etc.) the next line is dedented. In leading indentation, ‘Backspace’ deletes up to 4 spaces if they are there. ‘Tab’ inserts spaces (in the Python Shell window one tab), number depends on Indent width. Currently, tabs are restricted to four spaces due to Tcl/Tk limitations. See also the indent/dedent region commands on the *note Format menu: 3f3d.  File: python.info, Node: Search and Replace, Next: Completions, Prev: Automatic indentation, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.16 Search and Replace ............................ Any selection becomes a search target. However, only selections within a line work because searches are only performed within lines with the terminal newline removed. If ‘[x] Regular expression’ is checked, the target is interpreted according to the Python re module.  File: python.info, Node: Completions, Next: Calltips, Prev: Search and Replace, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.17 Completions ..................... Completions are supplied, when requested and available, for module names, attributes of classes or functions, or filenames. Each request method displays a completion box with existing names. (See tab completions below for an exception.) For any box, change the name being completed and the item highlighted in the box by typing and deleting characters; by hitting ‘Up’, ‘Down’, ‘PageUp’, ‘PageDown’, ‘Home’, and ‘End’ keys; and by a single click within the box. Close the box with ‘Escape’, ‘Enter’, and double ‘Tab’ keys or clicks outside the box. A double click within the box selects and closes. One way to open a box is to type a key character and wait for a predefined interval. This defaults to 2 seconds; customize it in the settings dialog. (To prevent auto popups, set the delay to a large number of milliseconds, such as 100000000.) For imported module names or class or function attributes, type ‘.’. For filenames in the root directory, type *note os.sep: 666. or *note os.altsep: 667. immediately after an opening quote. (On Windows, one can specify a drive first.) Move into subdirectories by typing a directory name and a separator. Instead of waiting, or after a box is closed, open a completion box immediately with Show Completions on the Edit menu. The default hot key is ‘C’-‘space’. If one types a prefix for the desired name before opening the box, the first match or near miss is made visible. The result is the same as if one enters a prefix after the box is displayed. Show Completions after a quote completes filenames in the current directory instead of a root directory. Hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix usually has the same effect as Show Completions. (With no prefix, it indents.) However, if there is only one match to the prefix, that match is immediately added to the editor text without opening a box. Invoking ‘Show Completions’, or hitting ‘Tab’ after a prefix, outside of a string and without a preceding ‘.’ opens a box with keywords, builtin names, and available module-level names. When editing code in an editor (as oppose to Shell), increase the available module-level names by running your code and not restarting the Shell thereafter. This is especially useful after adding imports at the top of a file. This also increases possible attribute completions. Completion boxes initially exclude names beginning with ‘_’ or, for modules, not included in ‘__all__’. The hidden names can be accessed by typing ‘_’ after ‘.’, either before or after the box is opened.  File: python.info, Node: Calltips, Next: Code Context, Prev: Completions, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.18 Calltips .................. A calltip is shown automatically when one types ‘(’ after the name of an 'accessible' function. A function name expression may include dots and subscripts. A calltip remains until it is clicked, the cursor is moved out of the argument area, or ‘)’ is typed. Whenever the cursor is in the argument part of a definition, select Edit and “Show Call Tip” on the menu or enter its shortcut to display a calltip. The calltip consists of the function’s signature and docstring up to the latter’s first blank line or the fifth non-blank line. (Some builtin functions lack an accessible signature.) A ‘/’ or ‘*’ in the signature indicates that the preceding or following arguments are passed by position or name (keyword) only. Details are subject to change. In Shell, the accessible functions depends on what modules have been imported into the user process, including those imported by Idle itself, and which definitions have been run, all since the last restart. For example, restart the Shell and enter ‘itertools.count(’. A calltip appears because Idle imports itertools into the user process for its own use. (This could change.) Enter ‘turtle.write(’ and nothing appears. Idle does not itself import turtle. The menu entry and shortcut also do nothing. Enter ‘import turtle’. Thereafter, ‘turtle.write(’ will display a calltip. In an editor, import statements have no effect until one runs the file. One might want to run a file after writing import statements, after adding function definitions, or after opening an existing file.  File: python.info, Node: Code Context, Next: Shell window, Prev: Calltips, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.19 Code Context ...................... Within an editor window containing Python code, code context can be toggled in order to show or hide a pane at the top of the window. When shown, this pane freezes the opening lines for block code, such as those beginning with ‘class’, ‘def’, or ‘if’ keywords, that would have otherwise scrolled out of view. The size of the pane will be expanded and contracted as needed to show the all current levels of context, up to the maximum number of lines defined in the Configure IDLE dialog (which defaults to 15). If there are no current context lines and the feature is toggled on, a single blank line will display. Clicking on a line in the context pane will move that line to the top of the editor. The text and background colors for the context pane can be configured under the Highlights tab in the Configure IDLE dialog.  File: python.info, Node: Shell window, Next: Text colors, Prev: Code Context, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.20 Shell window ...................... In IDLE’s Shell, enter, edit, and recall complete statements. (Most consoles and terminals only work with a single physical line at a time). Submit a single-line statement for execution by hitting ‘Return’ with the cursor anywhere on the line. If a line is extended with Backslash (‘\’), the cursor must be on the last physical line. Submit a multi-line compound statement by entering a blank line after the statement. When one pastes code into Shell, it is not compiled and possibly executed until one hits ‘Return’, as specified above. One may edit pasted code first. If one pastes more than one statement into Shell, the result will be a *note SyntaxError: 18d. when multiple statements are compiled as if they were one. Lines containing ‘RESTART’ mean that the user execution process has been re-started. This occurs when the user execution process has crashed, when one requests a restart on the Shell menu, or when one runs code in an editor window. The editing features described in previous subsections work when entering code interactively. IDLE’s Shell window also responds to the following: * ‘C’-‘c’ attempts to interrupt statement execution (but may fail). * ‘C’-‘d’ closes Shell if typed at a ‘>>>’ prompt. * ‘Alt’-‘p’ and ‘Alt’-‘n’ (‘C’-‘p’ and ‘C’-‘n’ on macOS) retrieve to the current prompt the previous or next previously entered statement that matches anything already typed. * ‘Return’ while the cursor is on any previous statement appends the latter to anything already typed at the prompt.  File: python.info, Node: Text colors, Prev: Shell window, Up: Editing and Navigation 5.26.9.21 Text colors ..................... Idle defaults to black on white text, but colors text with special meanings. For the shell, these are shell output, shell error, user output, and user error. For Python code, at the shell prompt or in an editor, these are keywords, builtin class and function names, names following ‘class’ and ‘def’, strings, and comments. For any text window, these are the cursor (when present), found text (when possible), and selected text. IDLE also highlights the *note soft keywords: 808. *note match: 809, *note case: 809, and *note _: 80a. in pattern-matching statements. However, this highlighting is not perfect and will be incorrect in some rare cases, including some ‘_’-s in ‘case’ patterns. Text coloring is done in the background, so uncolorized text is occasionally visible. To change the color scheme, use the Configure IDLE dialog Highlighting tab. The marking of debugger breakpoint lines in the editor and text in popups and dialogs is not user-configurable.  File: python.info, Node: Startup and Code Execution, Next: Help and Preferences, Prev: Editing and Navigation, Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2> 5.26.9.22 Startup and Code Execution .................................... Upon startup with the ‘-s’ option, IDLE will execute the file referenced by the environment variables ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc3. IDLE first checks for ‘IDLESTARTUP’; if ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is present the file referenced is run. If ‘IDLESTARTUP’ is not present, IDLE checks for ‘PYTHONSTARTUP’. Files referenced by these environment variables are convenient places to store functions that are used frequently from the IDLE shell, or for executing import statements to import common modules. In addition, ‘Tk’ also loads a startup file if it is present. Note that the Tk file is loaded unconditionally. This additional file is ‘.Idle.py’ and is looked for in the user’s home directory. Statements in this file will be executed in the Tk namespace, so this file is not useful for importing functions to be used from IDLE’s Python shell. * Menu: * Command line usage:: * Startup failure:: * Running user code:: * User output in Shell:: * Developing tkinter applications:: * Running without a subprocess::  File: python.info, Node: Command line usage, Next: Startup failure, Up: Startup and Code Execution 5.26.9.23 Command line usage ............................ IDLE can be invoked from the command line with various options. The general syntax is: python -m idlelib [options] [file ...] The following options are available: -- Option: -c Run the specified Python command in the shell window. For example, pass ‘-c "print('Hello, World!')"’. On Windows, the outer quotes must be double quotes as shown. -- Option: -d Enable the debugger and open the shell window. -- Option: -e Open an editor window. -- Option: -h Print a help message with legal combinations of options and exit. -- Option: -i Open a shell window. -- Option: -r Run the specified file in the shell window. -- Option: -s Run the startup file (as defined by the environment variables ‘IDLESTARTUP’ or *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc3.) before opening the shell window. -- Option: -t Set the title of the shell window. -- Option: - Read and execute standard input in the shell window. This option must be the last one before any arguments. If arguments are provided: - If ‘-’, ‘-c’, or ‘-r’ is used, all arguments are placed in ‘sys.argv[1:]’, and ‘sys.argv[0]’ is set to ‘''’, ‘'-c'’, or ‘'-r'’ respectively. No editor window is opened, even if that is the default set in the 'Options' dialog. - Otherwise, arguments are treated as files to be opened for editing, and ‘sys.argv’ reflects the arguments passed to IDLE itself.  File: python.info, Node: Startup failure, Next: Running user code, Prev: Command line usage, Up: Startup and Code Execution 5.26.9.24 Startup failure ......................... IDLE uses a socket to communicate between the IDLE GUI process and the user code execution process. A connection must be established whenever the Shell starts or restarts. (The latter is indicated by a divider line that says ‘RESTART’). If the user process fails to connect to the GUI process, it usually displays a ‘Tk’ error box with a ‘cannot connect’ message that directs the user here. It then exits. One specific connection failure on Unix systems results from misconfigured masquerading rules somewhere in a system’s network setup. When IDLE is started from a terminal, one will see a message starting with ‘** Invalid host:’. The valid value is ‘127.0.0.1 (idlelib.rpc.LOCALHOST)’. One can diagnose with ‘tcpconnect -irv 127.0.0.1 6543’ in one terminal window and ‘tcplisten <same args>’ in another. A common cause of failure is a user-written file with the same name as a standard library module, such as 'random.py' and 'tkinter.py'. When such a file is located in the same directory as a file that is about to be run, IDLE cannot import the stdlib file. The current fix is to rename the user file. Though less common than in the past, an antivirus or firewall program may stop the connection. If the program cannot be taught to allow the connection, then it must be turned off for IDLE to work. It is safe to allow this internal connection because no data is visible on external ports. A similar problem is a network mis-configuration that blocks connections. Python installation issues occasionally stop IDLE: multiple versions can clash, or a single installation might need admin access. If one undo the clash, or cannot or does not want to run as admin, it might be easiest to completely remove Python and start over. A zombie pythonw.exe process could be a problem. On Windows, use Task Manager to check for one and stop it if there is. Sometimes a restart initiated by a program crash or Keyboard Interrupt (control-C) may fail to connect. Dismissing the error box or using Restart Shell on the Shell menu may fix a temporary problem. When IDLE first starts, it attempts to read user configuration files in ‘~/.idlerc/’ (~ is one’s home directory). If there is a problem, an error message should be displayed. Leaving aside random disk glitches, this can be prevented by never editing the files by hand. Instead, use the configuration dialog, under Options. Once there is an error in a user configuration file, the best solution may be to delete it and start over with the settings dialog. If IDLE quits with no message, and it was not started from a console, try starting it from a console or terminal (‘python -m idlelib’) and see if this results in an error message. On Unix-based systems with tcl/tk older than ‘8.6.11’ (see ‘About IDLE’) certain characters of certain fonts can cause a tk failure with a message to the terminal. This can happen either if one starts IDLE to edit a file with such a character or later when entering such a character. If one cannot upgrade tcl/tk, then re-configure IDLE to use a font that works better.  File: python.info, Node: Running user code, Next: User output in Shell, Prev: Startup failure, Up: Startup and Code Execution 5.26.9.25 Running user code ........................... With rare exceptions, the result of executing Python code with IDLE is intended to be the same as executing the same code by the default method, directly with Python in a text-mode system console or terminal window. However, the different interface and operation occasionally affect visible results. For instance, ‘sys.modules’ starts with more entries, and ‘threading.active_count()’ returns 2 instead of 1. By default, IDLE runs user code in a separate OS process rather than in the user interface process that runs the shell and editor. In the execution process, it replaces ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’, and ‘sys.stderr’ with objects that get input from and send output to the Shell window. The original values stored in ‘sys.__stdin__’, ‘sys.__stdout__’, and ‘sys.__stderr__’ are not touched, but may be ‘None’. Sending print output from one process to a text widget in another is slower than printing to a system terminal in the same process. This has the most effect when printing multiple arguments, as the string for each argument, each separator, the newline are sent separately. For development, this is usually not a problem, but if one wants to print faster in IDLE, format and join together everything one wants displayed together and then print a single string. Both format strings and *note str.join(): 21ab. can help combine fields and lines. IDLE’s standard stream replacements are not inherited by subprocesses created in the execution process, whether directly by user code or by modules such as multiprocessing. If such subprocess use ‘input’ from sys.stdin or ‘print’ or ‘write’ to sys.stdout or sys.stderr, IDLE should be started in a command line window. (On Windows, use ‘python’ or ‘py’ rather than ‘pythonw’ or ‘pyw’.) The secondary subprocess will then be attached to that window for input and output. If ‘sys’ is reset by user code, such as with ‘importlib.reload(sys)’, IDLE’s changes are lost and input from the keyboard and output to the screen will not work correctly. When Shell has the focus, it controls the keyboard and screen. This is normally transparent, but functions that directly access the keyboard and screen will not work. These include system-specific functions that determine whether a key has been pressed and if so, which. The IDLE code running in the execution process adds frames to the call stack that would not be there otherwise. IDLE wraps ‘sys.getrecursionlimit’ and ‘sys.setrecursionlimit’ to reduce the effect of the additional stack frames. When user code raises SystemExit either directly or by calling sys.exit, IDLE returns to a Shell prompt instead of exiting.  File: python.info, Node: User output in Shell, Next: Developing tkinter applications, Prev: Running user code, Up: Startup and Code Execution 5.26.9.26 User output in Shell .............................. When a program outputs text, the result is determined by the corresponding output device. When IDLE executes user code, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ are connected to the display area of IDLE’s Shell. Some of its features are inherited from the underlying Tk Text widget. Others are programmed additions. Where it matters, Shell is designed for development rather than production runs. For instance, Shell never throws away output. A program that sends unlimited output to Shell will eventually fill memory, resulting in a memory error. In contrast, some system text windows only keep the last n lines of output. A Windows console, for instance, keeps a user-settable 1 to 9999 lines, with 300 the default. A Tk Text widget, and hence IDLE’s Shell, displays characters (codepoints) in the BMP (Basic Multilingual Plane) subset of Unicode. Which characters are displayed with a proper glyph and which with a replacement box depends on the operating system and installed fonts. Tab characters cause the following text to begin after the next tab stop. (They occur every 8 ‘characters’). Newline characters cause following text to appear on a new line. Other control characters are ignored or displayed as a space, box, or something else, depending on the operating system and font. (Moving the text cursor through such output with arrow keys may exhibit some surprising spacing behavior.) >>> s = 'a\tb\a<\x02><\r>\bc\nd' # Enter 22 chars. >>> len(s) 14 >>> s # Display repr(s) 'a\tb\x07<\x02><\r>\x08c\nd' >>> print(s, end='') # Display s as is. # Result varies by OS and font. Try it. The ‘repr’ function is used for interactive echo of expression values. It returns an altered version of the input string in which control codes, some BMP codepoints, and all non-BMP codepoints are replaced with escape codes. As demonstrated above, it allows one to identify the characters in a string, regardless of how they are displayed. Normal and error output are generally kept separate (on separate lines) from code input and each other. They each get different highlight colors. For SyntaxError tracebacks, the normal ‘^’ marking where the error was detected is replaced by coloring the text with an error highlight. When code run from a file causes other exceptions, one may right click on a traceback line to jump to the corresponding line in an IDLE editor. The file will be opened if necessary. Shell has a special facility for squeezing output lines down to a ‘Squeezed text’ label. This is done automatically for output over N lines (N = 50 by default). N can be changed in the PyShell section of the General page of the Settings dialog. Output with fewer lines can be squeezed by right clicking on the output. This can be useful lines long enough to slow down scrolling. Squeezed output is expanded in place by double-clicking the label. It can also be sent to the clipboard or a separate view window by right-clicking the label.  File: python.info, Node: Developing tkinter applications, Next: Running without a subprocess, Prev: User output in Shell, Up: Startup and Code Execution 5.26.9.27 Developing tkinter applications ......................................... IDLE is intentionally different from standard Python in order to facilitate development of tkinter programs. Enter ‘import tkinter as tk; root = tk.Tk()’ in standard Python and nothing appears. Enter the same in IDLE and a tk window appears. In standard Python, one must also enter ‘root.update()’ to see the window. IDLE does the equivalent in the background, about 20 times a second, which is about every 50 milliseconds. Next enter ‘b = tk.Button(root, text='button'); b.pack()’. Again, nothing visibly changes in standard Python until one enters ‘root.update()’. Most tkinter programs run ‘root.mainloop()’, which usually does not return until the tk app is destroyed. If the program is run with ‘python -i’ or from an IDLE editor, a ‘>>>’ shell prompt does not appear until ‘mainloop()’ returns, at which time there is nothing left to interact with. When running a tkinter program from an IDLE editor, one can comment out the mainloop call. One then gets a shell prompt immediately and can interact with the live application. One just has to remember to re-enable the mainloop call when running in standard Python.  File: python.info, Node: Running without a subprocess, Prev: Developing tkinter applications, Up: Startup and Code Execution 5.26.9.28 Running without a subprocess ...................................... By default, IDLE executes user code in a separate subprocess via a socket, which uses the internal loopback interface. This connection is not externally visible and no data is sent to or received from the internet. If firewall software complains anyway, you can ignore it. If the attempt to make the socket connection fails, Idle will notify you. Such failures are sometimes transient, but if persistent, the problem may be either a firewall blocking the connection or misconfiguration of a particular system. Until the problem is fixed, one can run Idle with the -n command line switch. If IDLE is started with the -n command line switch it will run in a single process and will not create the subprocess which runs the RPC Python execution server. This can be useful if Python cannot create the subprocess or the RPC socket interface on your platform. However, in this mode user code is not isolated from IDLE itself. Also, the environment is not restarted when Run/Run Module (F5) is selected. If your code has been modified, you must reload() the affected modules and re-import any specific items (e.g. from foo import baz) if the changes are to take effect. For these reasons, it is preferable to run IDLE with the default subprocess if at all possible. Deprecated since version 3.4.  File: python.info, Node: Help and Preferences, Next: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application, Prev: Startup and Code Execution, Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2> 5.26.9.29 Help and Preferences .............................. * Menu: * Help sources:: * Setting preferences:: * IDLE on macOS:: * Extensions::  File: python.info, Node: Help sources, Next: Setting preferences, Up: Help and Preferences 5.26.9.30 Help sources ...................... Help menu entry “IDLE Help” displays a formatted html version of the IDLE chapter of the Library Reference. The result, in a read-only tkinter text window, is close to what one sees in a web browser. Navigate through the text with a mousewheel, the scrollbar, or up and down arrow keys held down. Or click the TOC (Table of Contents) button and select a section header in the opened box. Help menu entry “Python Docs” opens the extensive sources of help, including tutorials, available at ‘docs.python.org/x.y’, where ‘x.y’ is the currently running Python version. If your system has an off-line copy of the docs (this may be an installation option), that will be opened instead. Selected URLs can be added or removed from the help menu at any time using the General tab of the Configure IDLE dialog.  File: python.info, Node: Setting preferences, Next: IDLE on macOS, Prev: Help sources, Up: Help and Preferences 5.26.9.31 Setting preferences ............................. The font preferences, highlighting, keys, and general preferences can be changed via Configure IDLE on the Option menu. Non-default user settings are saved in a ‘.idlerc’ directory in the user’s home directory. Problems caused by bad user configuration files are solved by editing or deleting one or more of the files in ‘.idlerc’. On the Font tab, see the text sample for the effect of font face and size on multiple characters in multiple languages. Edit the sample to add other characters of personal interest. Use the sample to select monospaced fonts. If particular characters have problems in Shell or an editor, add them to the top of the sample and try changing first size and then font. On the Highlights and Keys tab, select a built-in or custom color theme and key set. To use a newer built-in color theme or key set with older IDLEs, save it as a new custom theme or key set and it well be accessible to older IDLEs.  File: python.info, Node: IDLE on macOS, Next: Extensions, Prev: Setting preferences, Up: Help and Preferences 5.26.9.32 IDLE on macOS ....................... Under System Preferences: Dock, one can set “Prefer tabs when opening documents” to “Always”. This setting is not compatible with the tk/tkinter GUI framework used by IDLE, and it breaks a few IDLE features.  File: python.info, Node: Extensions, Prev: IDLE on macOS, Up: Help and Preferences 5.26.9.33 Extensions .................... IDLE contains an extension facility. Preferences for extensions can be changed with the Extensions tab of the preferences dialog. See the beginning of config-extensions.def in the idlelib directory for further information. The only current default extension is zzdummy, an example also used for testing.  File: python.info, Node: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application, Prev: Help and Preferences, Up: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2> 5.26.9.34 idlelib — implementation of IDLE application ...................................................... 'Source code:' Lib/idlelib(1) __________________________________________________________________ The Lib/idlelib package implements the IDLE application. See the rest of this page for how to use IDLE. The files in idlelib are described in idlelib/README.txt. Access it either in idlelib or click Help => About IDLE on the IDLE menu. This file also maps IDLE menu items to the code that implements the item. Except for files listed under ‘Startup’, the idlelib code is ‘private’ in sense that feature changes can be backported (see PEP 434(2)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/idlelib (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0434/  File: python.info, Node: Development Tools, Next: Debugging and Profiling, Prev: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.27 Development Tools ====================== The modules described in this chapter help you write software. For example, the *note pydoc: b5. module takes a module and generates documentation based on the module’s contents. The *note doctest: 3a. and *note unittest: 106. modules contains frameworks for writing unit tests that automatically exercise code and verify that the expected output is produced. The list of modules described in this chapter is: * Menu: * typing — Support for type hints:: * pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system:: * Python Development Mode:: * doctest — Test interactive Python examples:: * unittest — Unit testing framework:: * unittest.mock — mock object library: unittest mock — mock object library. * unittest.mock — getting started: unittest mock — getting started. * test — Regression tests package for Python:: * test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. * test.support.socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. * test.support.script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. * test.support.bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. * test.support.threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. * test.support.os_helper — Utilities for os tests: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. * test.support.import_helper — Utilities for import tests: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. * test.support.warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests.  File: python.info, Node: typing — Support for type hints, Next: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system, Up: Development Tools 5.27.1 ‘typing’ — Support for type hints ---------------------------------------- Added in version 3.5. 'Source code:' Lib/typing.py(1) Note: The Python runtime does not enforce function and variable type annotations. They can be used by third party tools such as *note type checkers: 26f, IDEs, linters, etc. __________________________________________________________________ This module provides runtime support for type hints. Consider the function below: def surface_area_of_cube(edge_length: float) -> str: return f"The surface area of the cube is {6 * edge_length ** 2}." The function ‘surface_area_of_cube’ takes an argument expected to be an instance of *note float: 2f1, as indicated by the *note type hint: 1f81. ‘edge_length: float’. The function is expected to return an instance of *note str: 447, as indicated by the ‘-> str’ hint. While type hints can be simple classes like *note float: 2f1. or *note str: 447, they can also be more complex. The *note typing: 104. module provides a vocabulary of more advanced type hints. New features are frequently added to the ‘typing’ module. The typing_extensions(2) package provides backports of these new features to older versions of Python. See also ........ Typing cheat sheet(3) A quick overview of type hints (hosted at the mypy docs) Type System Reference section of the mypy docs(4) The Python typing system is standardised via PEPs, so this reference should broadly apply to most Python type checkers. (Some parts may still be specific to mypy.) Static Typing with Python(5) Type-checker-agnostic documentation written by the community detailing type system features, useful typing related tools and typing best practices. * Menu: * Specification for the Python Type System:: * Type aliases:: * NewType:: * Annotating callable objects:: * Generics:: * Annotating tuples:: * The type of class objects:: * Annotating generators and coroutines:: * User-defined generic types:: * The Any type:: * Nominal vs structural subtyping:: * Module contents: Module contents<3>. * Deprecation Timeline of Major Features:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/typing.py (2) https://pypi.org/project/typing_extensions/ (3) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/cheat_sheet_py3.html (4) https://mypy.readthedocs.io/en/stable/index.html (5) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/  File: python.info, Node: Specification for the Python Type System, Next: Type aliases, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.1 Specification for the Python Type System ................................................. The canonical, up-to-date specification of the Python type system can be found at Specification for the Python type system(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/spec/index.html  File: python.info, Node: Type aliases, Next: NewType, Prev: Specification for the Python Type System, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.2 Type aliases ..................... A type alias is defined using the *note type: 433. statement, which creates an instance of *note TypeAliasType: 450. In this example, ‘Vector’ and ‘list[float]’ will be treated equivalently by static type checkers: type Vector = list[float] def scale(scalar: float, vector: Vector) -> Vector: return [scalar * num for num in vector] # passes type checking; a list of floats qualifies as a Vector. new_vector = scale(2.0, [1.0, -4.2, 5.4]) Type aliases are useful for simplifying complex type signatures. For example: from collections.abc import Sequence type ConnectionOptions = dict[str, str] type Address = tuple[str, int] type Server = tuple[Address, ConnectionOptions] def broadcast_message(message: str, servers: Sequence[Server]) -> None: ... # The static type checker will treat the previous type signature as # being exactly equivalent to this one. def broadcast_message( message: str, servers: Sequence[tuple[tuple[str, int], dict[str, str]]] ) -> None: ... The *note type: 433. statement is new in Python 3.12. For backwards compatibility, type aliases can also be created through simple assignment: Vector = list[float] Or marked with *note TypeAlias: 7c4. to make it explicit that this is a type alias, not a normal variable assignment: from typing import TypeAlias Vector: TypeAlias = list[float]  File: python.info, Node: NewType, Next: Annotating callable objects, Prev: Type aliases, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.3 NewType ................ Use the *note NewType: cf5. helper to create distinct types: from typing import NewType UserId = NewType('UserId', int) some_id = UserId(524313) The static type checker will treat the new type as if it were a subclass of the original type. This is useful in helping catch logical errors: def get_user_name(user_id: UserId) -> str: ... # passes type checking user_a = get_user_name(UserId(42351)) # fails type checking; an int is not a UserId user_b = get_user_name(-1) You may still perform all ‘int’ operations on a variable of type ‘UserId’, but the result will always be of type ‘int’. This lets you pass in a ‘UserId’ wherever an ‘int’ might be expected, but will prevent you from accidentally creating a ‘UserId’ in an invalid way: # 'output' is of type 'int', not 'UserId' output = UserId(23413) + UserId(54341) Note that these checks are enforced only by the static type checker. At runtime, the statement ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Base)’ will make ‘Derived’ a callable that immediately returns whatever parameter you pass it. That means the expression ‘Derived(some_value)’ does not create a new class or introduce much overhead beyond that of a regular function call. More precisely, the expression ‘some_value is Derived(some_value)’ is always true at runtime. It is invalid to create a subtype of ‘Derived’: from typing import NewType UserId = NewType('UserId', int) # Fails at runtime and does not pass type checking class AdminUserId(UserId): pass However, it is possible to create a *note NewType: cf5. based on a ‘derived’ ‘NewType’: from typing import NewType UserId = NewType('UserId', int) ProUserId = NewType('ProUserId', UserId) and typechecking for ‘ProUserId’ will work as expected. See PEP 484(1) for more details. Note: Recall that the use of a type alias declares two types to be 'equivalent' to one another. Doing ‘type Alias = Original’ will make the static type checker treat ‘Alias’ as being 'exactly equivalent' to ‘Original’ in all cases. This is useful when you want to simplify complex type signatures. In contrast, ‘NewType’ declares one type to be a 'subtype' of another. Doing ‘Derived = NewType('Derived', Original)’ will make the static type checker treat ‘Derived’ as a 'subclass' of ‘Original’, which means a value of type ‘Original’ cannot be used in places where a value of type ‘Derived’ is expected. This is useful when you want to prevent logic errors with minimal runtime cost. Added in version 3.5.2. Changed in version 3.10: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a function. As a result, there is some additional runtime cost when calling ‘NewType’ over a regular function. Changed in version 3.11: The performance of calling ‘NewType’ has been restored to its level in Python 3.9. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/  File: python.info, Node: Annotating callable objects, Next: Generics, Prev: NewType, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.4 Annotating callable objects .................................... Functions – or other *note callable: 28f7. objects – can be annotated using *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. or deprecated *note typing.Callable: 7c0. ‘Callable[[int], str]’ signifies a function that takes a single parameter of type *note int: 259. and returns a *note str: 447. For example: from collections.abc import Callable, Awaitable def feeder(get_next_item: Callable[[], str]) -> None: ... # Body def async_query(on_success: Callable[[int], None], on_error: Callable[[int, Exception], None]) -> None: ... # Body async def on_update(value: str) -> None: ... # Body callback: Callable[[str], Awaitable[None]] = on_update The subscription syntax must always be used with exactly two values: the argument list and the return type. The argument list must be a list of types, a *note ParamSpec: 15e, *note Concatenate: 7bf, or an ellipsis. The return type must be a single type. If a literal ellipsis ‘...’ is given as the argument list, it indicates that a callable with any arbitrary parameter list would be acceptable: def concat(x: str, y: str) -> str: return x + y x: Callable[..., str] x = str # OK x = concat # Also OK ‘Callable’ cannot express complex signatures such as functions that take a variadic number of arguments, *note overloaded functions: 3f79, or functions that have keyword-only parameters. However, these signatures can be expressed by defining a *note Protocol: 266. class with a *note __call__(): 555. method: from collections.abc import Iterable from typing import Protocol class Combiner(Protocol): def __call__(self, *vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ... def batch_proc(data: Iterable[bytes], cb_results: Combiner) -> bytes: for item in data: ... def good_cb(*vals: bytes, maxlen: int | None = None) -> list[bytes]: ... def bad_cb(*vals: bytes, maxitems: int | None) -> list[bytes]: ... batch_proc([], good_cb) # OK batch_proc([], bad_cb) # Error! Argument 2 has incompatible type because of # different name and kind in the callback Callables which take other callables as arguments may indicate that their parameter types are dependent on each other using *note ParamSpec: 15e. Additionally, if that callable adds or removes arguments from other callables, the *note Concatenate: 7bf. operator may be used. They take the form ‘Callable[ParamSpecVariable, ReturnType]’ and ‘Callable[Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable], ReturnType]’ respectively. Changed in version 3.10: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec: 15e. and *note Concatenate: 7bf. See PEP 612(1) for more details. See also ........ The documentation for *note ParamSpec: 15e. and *note Concatenate: 7bf. provides examples of usage in ‘Callable’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/  File: python.info, Node: Generics, Next: Annotating tuples, Prev: Annotating callable objects, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.5 Generics ................. Since type information about objects kept in containers cannot be statically inferred in a generic way, many container classes in the standard library support subscription to denote the expected types of container elements. from collections.abc import Mapping, Sequence class Employee: ... # Sequence[Employee] indicates that all elements in the sequence # must be instances of "Employee". # Mapping[str, str] indicates that all keys and all values in the mapping # must be strings. def notify_by_email(employees: Sequence[Employee], overrides: Mapping[str, str]) -> None: ... Generic functions and classes can be parameterized by using *note type parameter syntax: 2b5.: from collections.abc import Sequence def first[T](l: Sequence[T]) -> T: # Function is generic over the TypeVar "T" return l[0] Or by using the *note TypeVar: 15d. factory directly: from collections.abc import Sequence from typing import TypeVar U = TypeVar('U') # Declare type variable "U" def second(l: Sequence[U]) -> U: # Function is generic over the TypeVar "U" return l[1] Changed in version 3.12: Syntactic support for generics is new in Python 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Annotating tuples, Next: The type of class objects, Prev: Generics, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.6 Annotating tuples .......................... For most containers in Python, the typing system assumes that all elements in the container will be of the same type. For example: from collections.abc import Mapping # Type checker will infer that all elements in ``x`` are meant to be ints x: list[int] = [] # Type checker error: ``list`` only accepts a single type argument: y: list[int, str] = [1, 'foo'] # Type checker will infer that all keys in ``z`` are meant to be strings, # and that all values in ``z`` are meant to be either strings or ints z: Mapping[str, str | int] = {} *note list: 60d. only accepts one type argument, so a type checker would emit an error on the ‘y’ assignment above. Similarly, *note Mapping: 8c9. only accepts two type arguments: the first indicates the type of the keys, and the second indicates the type of the values. Unlike most other Python containers, however, it is common in idiomatic Python code for tuples to have elements which are not all of the same type. For this reason, tuples are special-cased in Python’s typing system. *note tuple: 36b. accepts 'any number' of type arguments: # OK: ``x`` is assigned to a tuple of length 1 where the sole element is an int x: tuple[int] = (5,) # OK: ``y`` is assigned to a tuple of length 2; # element 1 is an int, element 2 is a str y: tuple[int, str] = (5, "foo") # Error: the type annotation indicates a tuple of length 1, # but ``z`` has been assigned to a tuple of length 3 z: tuple[int] = (1, 2, 3) To denote a tuple which could be of 'any' length, and in which all elements are of the same type ‘T’, use ‘tuple[T, ...]’. To denote an empty tuple, use ‘tuple[()]’. Using plain ‘tuple’ as an annotation is equivalent to using ‘tuple[Any, ...]’: x: tuple[int, ...] = (1, 2) # These reassignments are OK: ``tuple[int, ...]`` indicates x can be of any length x = (1, 2, 3) x = () # This reassignment is an error: all elements in ``x`` must be ints x = ("foo", "bar") # ``y`` can only ever be assigned to an empty tuple y: tuple[()] = () z: tuple = ("foo", "bar") # These reassignments are OK: plain ``tuple`` is equivalent to ``tuple[Any, ...]`` z = (1, 2, 3) z = ()  File: python.info, Node: The type of class objects, Next: Annotating generators and coroutines, Prev: Annotating tuples, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.7 The type of class objects .................................. A variable annotated with ‘C’ may accept a value of type ‘C’. In contrast, a variable annotated with ‘type[C]’ (or deprecated *note typing.Type[C]: 3f7f.) may accept values that are classes themselves – specifically, it will accept the 'class object' of ‘C’. For example: a = 3 # Has type ``int`` b = int # Has type ``type[int]`` c = type(a) # Also has type ``type[int]`` Note that ‘type[C]’ is covariant: class User: ... class ProUser(User): ... class TeamUser(User): ... def make_new_user(user_class: type[User]) -> User: # ... return user_class() make_new_user(User) # OK make_new_user(ProUser) # Also OK: ``type[ProUser]`` is a subtype of ``type[User]`` make_new_user(TeamUser) # Still fine make_new_user(User()) # Error: expected ``type[User]`` but got ``User`` make_new_user(int) # Error: ``type[int]`` is not a subtype of ``type[User]`` The only legal parameters for *note type: d48. are classes, *note Any: 6a8, *note type variables: 1f7f, and unions of any of these types. For example: def new_non_team_user(user_class: type[BasicUser | ProUser]): ... new_non_team_user(BasicUser) # OK new_non_team_user(ProUser) # OK new_non_team_user(TeamUser) # Error: ``type[TeamUser]`` is not a subtype # of ``type[BasicUser | ProUser]`` new_non_team_user(User) # Also an error ‘type[Any]’ is equivalent to *note type: d48, which is the root of Python’s *note metaclass hierarchy: 1f73.  File: python.info, Node: Annotating generators and coroutines, Next: User-defined generic types, Prev: The type of class objects, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.8 Annotating generators and coroutines ............................................. A generator can be annotated using the generic type *note Generator[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: dda. For example: def echo_round() -> Generator[int, float, str]: sent = yield 0 while sent >= 0: sent = yield round(sent) return 'Done' Note that unlike many other generic classes in the standard library, the ‘SendType’ of *note Generator: dda. behaves contravariantly, not covariantly or invariantly. The ‘SendType’ and ‘ReturnType’ parameters default to ‘None’: def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int]: while True: yield start start += 1 It is also possible to set these types explicitly: def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Generator[int, None, None]: while True: yield start start += 1 Simple generators that only ever yield values can also be annotated as having a return type of either *note Iterable[YieldType]: 224d. or *note Iterator[YieldType]: 224e.: def infinite_stream(start: int) -> Iterator[int]: while True: yield start start += 1 Async generators are handled in a similar fashion, but don’t expect a ‘ReturnType’ type argument (*note AsyncGenerator[YieldType, SendType]: c8a.). The ‘SendType’ argument defaults to ‘None’, so the following definitions are equivalent: async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int]: while True: yield start start = await increment(start) async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncGenerator[int, None]: while True: yield start start = await increment(start) As in the synchronous case, *note AsyncIterable[YieldType]: dde. and *note AsyncIterator[YieldType]: ddd. are available as well: async def infinite_stream(start: int) -> AsyncIterator[int]: while True: yield start start = await increment(start) Coroutines can be annotated using *note Coroutine[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]: ddc. Generic arguments correspond to those of *note Generator: dda, for example: from collections.abc import Coroutine c: Coroutine[list[str], str, int] # Some coroutine defined elsewhere x = c.send('hi') # Inferred type of 'x' is list[str] async def bar() -> None: y = await c # Inferred type of 'y' is int  File: python.info, Node: User-defined generic types, Next: The Any type, Prev: Annotating generators and coroutines, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.9 User-defined generic types ................................... A user-defined class can be defined as a generic class. from logging import Logger class LoggedVar[T]: def __init__(self, value: T, name: str, logger: Logger) -> None: self.name = name self.logger = logger self.value = value def set(self, new: T) -> None: self.log('Set ' + repr(self.value)) self.value = new def get(self) -> T: self.log('Get ' + repr(self.value)) return self.value def log(self, message: str) -> None: self.logger.info('%s: %s', self.name, message) This syntax indicates that the class ‘LoggedVar’ is parameterised around a single *note type variable: 3f82. ‘T’ . This also makes ‘T’ valid as a type within the class body. Generic classes implicitly inherit from *note Generic: 1619. For compatibility with Python 3.11 and lower, it is also possible to inherit explicitly from *note Generic: 1619. to indicate a generic class: from typing import TypeVar, Generic T = TypeVar('T') class LoggedVar(Generic[T]): ... Generic classes have *note __class_getitem__(): 736. methods, meaning they can be parameterised at runtime (e.g. ‘LoggedVar[int]’ below): from collections.abc import Iterable def zero_all_vars(vars: Iterable[LoggedVar[int]]) -> None: for var in vars: var.set(0) A generic type can have any number of type variables. All varieties of *note TypeVar: 15d. are permissible as parameters for a generic type: from typing import TypeVar, Generic, Sequence class WeirdTrio[T, B: Sequence[bytes], S: (int, str)]: ... OldT = TypeVar('OldT', contravariant=True) OldB = TypeVar('OldB', bound=Sequence[bytes], covariant=True) OldS = TypeVar('OldS', int, str) class OldWeirdTrio(Generic[OldT, OldB, OldS]): ... Each type variable argument to *note Generic: 1619. must be distinct. This is thus invalid: from typing import TypeVar, Generic ... class Pair[M, M]: # SyntaxError ... T = TypeVar('T') class Pair(Generic[T, T]): # INVALID ... Generic classes can also inherit from other classes: from collections.abc import Sized class LinkedList[T](Sized): ... When inheriting from generic classes, some type parameters could be fixed: from collections.abc import Mapping class MyDict[T](Mapping[str, T]): ... In this case ‘MyDict’ has a single parameter, ‘T’. Using a generic class without specifying type parameters assumes *note Any: 6a8. for each position. In the following example, ‘MyIterable’ is not generic but implicitly inherits from ‘Iterable[Any]’: from collections.abc import Iterable class MyIterable(Iterable): # Same as Iterable[Any] ... User-defined generic type aliases are also supported. Examples: from collections.abc import Iterable type Response[S] = Iterable[S] | int # Return type here is same as Iterable[str] | int def response(query: str) -> Response[str]: ... type Vec[T] = Iterable[tuple[T, T]] def inproduct[T: (int, float, complex)](v: Vec[T]) -> T: # Same as Iterable[tuple[T, T]] return sum(x*y for x, y in v) For backward compatibility, generic type aliases can also be created through a simple assignment: from collections.abc import Iterable from typing import TypeVar S = TypeVar("S") Response = Iterable[S] | int Changed in version 3.7: *note Generic: 1619. no longer has a custom metaclass. Changed in version 3.12: Syntactic support for generics and type aliases is new in version 3.12. Previously, generic classes had to explicitly inherit from *note Generic: 1619. or contain a type variable in one of their bases. User-defined generics for parameter expressions are also supported via parameter specification variables in the form ‘[**P]’. The behavior is consistent with type variables’ described above as parameter specification variables are treated by the ‘typing’ module as a specialized type variable. The one exception to this is that a list of types can be used to substitute a *note ParamSpec: 15e.: >>> class Z[T, **P]: ... # T is a TypeVar; P is a ParamSpec ... >>> Z[int, [dict, float]] __main__.Z[int, [dict, float]] Classes generic over a *note ParamSpec: 15e. can also be created using explicit inheritance from *note Generic: 1619. In this case, ‘**’ is not used: from typing import ParamSpec, Generic P = ParamSpec('P') class Z(Generic[P]): ... Another difference between *note TypeVar: 15d. and *note ParamSpec: 15e. is that a generic with only one parameter specification variable will accept parameter lists in the forms ‘X[[Type1, Type2, ...]]’ and also ‘X[Type1, Type2, ...]’ for aesthetic reasons. Internally, the latter is converted to the former, so the following are equivalent: >>> class X[**P]: ... ... >>> X[int, str] __main__.X[[int, str]] >>> X[[int, str]] __main__.X[[int, str]] Note that generics with *note ParamSpec: 15e. may not have correct ‘__parameters__’ after substitution in some cases because they are intended primarily for static type checking. Changed in version 3.10: *note Generic: 1619. can now be parameterized over parameter expressions. See *note ParamSpec: 15e. and PEP 612(1) for more details. A user-defined generic class can have ABCs as base classes without a metaclass conflict. Generic metaclasses are not supported. The outcome of parameterizing generics is cached, and most types in the ‘typing’ module are *note hashable: 60c. and comparable for equality. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/  File: python.info, Node: The Any type, Next: Nominal vs structural subtyping, Prev: User-defined generic types, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.10 The ‘Any’ type ........................ A special kind of type is *note Any: 6a8. A static type checker will treat every type as being compatible with *note Any: 6a8. and *note Any: 6a8. as being compatible with every type. This means that it is possible to perform any operation or method call on a value of type *note Any: 6a8. and assign it to any variable: from typing import Any a: Any = None a = [] # OK a = 2 # OK s: str = '' s = a # OK def foo(item: Any) -> int: # Passes type checking; 'item' could be any type, # and that type might have a 'bar' method item.bar() ... Notice that no type checking is performed when assigning a value of type *note Any: 6a8. to a more precise type. For example, the static type checker did not report an error when assigning ‘a’ to ‘s’ even though ‘s’ was declared to be of type *note str: 447. and receives an *note int: 259. value at runtime! Furthermore, all functions without a return type or parameter types will implicitly default to using *note Any: 6a8.: def legacy_parser(text): ... return data # A static type checker will treat the above # as having the same signature as: def legacy_parser(text: Any) -> Any: ... return data This behavior allows *note Any: 6a8. to be used as an 'escape hatch' when you need to mix dynamically and statically typed code. Contrast the behavior of *note Any: 6a8. with the behavior of *note object: a8c. Similar to *note Any: 6a8, every type is a subtype of *note object: a8c. However, unlike *note Any: 6a8, the reverse is not true: *note object: a8c. is 'not' a subtype of every other type. That means when the type of a value is *note object: a8c, a type checker will reject almost all operations on it, and assigning it to a variable (or using it as a return value) of a more specialized type is a type error. For example: def hash_a(item: object) -> int: # Fails type checking; an object does not have a 'magic' method. item.magic() ... def hash_b(item: Any) -> int: # Passes type checking item.magic() ... # Passes type checking, since ints and strs are subclasses of object hash_a(42) hash_a("foo") # Passes type checking, since Any is compatible with all types hash_b(42) hash_b("foo") Use *note object: a8c. to indicate that a value could be any type in a typesafe manner. Use *note Any: 6a8. to indicate that a value is dynamically typed.  File: python.info, Node: Nominal vs structural subtyping, Next: Module contents<3>, Prev: The Any type, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.11 Nominal vs structural subtyping ......................................... Initially PEP 484(1) defined the Python static type system as using 'nominal subtyping'. This means that a class ‘A’ is allowed where a class ‘B’ is expected if and only if ‘A’ is a subclass of ‘B’. This requirement previously also applied to abstract base classes, such as *note Iterable: 224d. The problem with this approach is that a class had to be explicitly marked to support them, which is unpythonic and unlike what one would normally do in idiomatic dynamically typed Python code. For example, this conforms to PEP 484(2): from collections.abc import Sized, Iterable, Iterator class Bucket(Sized, Iterable[int]): ... def __len__(self) -> int: ... def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ... PEP 544(3) allows to solve this problem by allowing users to write the above code without explicit base classes in the class definition, allowing ‘Bucket’ to be implicitly considered a subtype of both ‘Sized’ and ‘Iterable[int]’ by static type checkers. This is known as 'structural subtyping' (or static duck-typing): from collections.abc import Iterator, Iterable class Bucket: # Note: no base classes ... def __len__(self) -> int: ... def __iter__(self) -> Iterator[int]: ... def collect(items: Iterable[int]) -> int: ... result = collect(Bucket()) # Passes type check Moreover, by subclassing a special class *note Protocol: 266, a user can define new custom protocols to fully enjoy structural subtyping (see examples below). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/  File: python.info, Node: Module contents<3>, Next: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features, Prev: Nominal vs structural subtyping, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.12 Module contents ......................... The ‘typing’ module defines the following classes, functions and decorators. * Menu: * Special typing primitives:: * Protocols: Protocols<3>. * ABCs for working with IO:: * Functions and decorators:: * Introspection helpers:: * Constant:: * Deprecated aliases::  File: python.info, Node: Special typing primitives, Next: Protocols<3>, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.13 Special typing primitives ................................... * Menu: * Special types:: * Special forms:: * Building generic types and type aliases:: * Other special directives::  File: python.info, Node: Special types, Next: Special forms, Up: Special typing primitives 5.27.1.14 Special types ....................... These can be used as types in annotations. They do not support subscription using ‘[]’. -- Data: typing.Any Special type indicating an unconstrained type. * Every type is compatible with *note Any: 6a8. * *note Any: 6a8. is compatible with every type. Changed in version 3.11: *note Any: 6a8. can now be used as a base class. This can be useful for avoiding type checker errors with classes that can duck type anywhere or are highly dynamic. -- Data: typing.AnyStr A *note constrained type variable: 3f88. Definition: AnyStr = TypeVar('AnyStr', str, bytes) ‘AnyStr’ is meant to be used for functions that may accept *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. arguments but cannot allow the two to mix. For example: def concat(a: AnyStr, b: AnyStr) -> AnyStr: return a + b concat("foo", "bar") # OK, output has type 'str' concat(b"foo", b"bar") # OK, output has type 'bytes' concat("foo", b"bar") # Error, cannot mix str and bytes Note that, despite its name, ‘AnyStr’ has nothing to do with the *note Any: 6a8. type, nor does it mean “any string”. In particular, ‘AnyStr’ and ‘str | bytes’ are different from each other and have different use cases: # Invalid use of AnyStr: # The type variable is used only once in the function signature, # so cannot be "solved" by the type checker def greet_bad(cond: bool) -> AnyStr: return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!" # The better way of annotating this function: def greet_proper(cond: bool) -> str | bytes: return "hi there!" if cond else b"greetings!" Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.18: Deprecated in favor of the new *note type parameter syntax: 2b5. Use ‘class A[T: (str, bytes)]: ...’ instead of importing ‘AnyStr’. See PEP 695(1) for more details. In Python 3.16, ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing.__all__’, and deprecation warnings will be emitted at runtime when it is accessed or imported from ‘typing’. ‘AnyStr’ will be removed from ‘typing’ in Python 3.18. -- Data: typing.LiteralString Special type that includes only literal strings. Any string literal is compatible with ‘LiteralString’, as is another ‘LiteralString’. However, an object typed as just ‘str’ is not. A string created by composing ‘LiteralString’-typed objects is also acceptable as a ‘LiteralString’. Example: def run_query(sql: LiteralString) -> None: ... def caller(arbitrary_string: str, literal_string: LiteralString) -> None: run_query("SELECT * FROM students") # OK run_query(literal_string) # OK run_query("SELECT * FROM " + literal_string) # OK run_query(arbitrary_string) # type checker error run_query( # type checker error f"SELECT * FROM students WHERE name = {arbitrary_string}" ) ‘LiteralString’ is useful for sensitive APIs where arbitrary user-generated strings could generate problems. For example, the two cases above that generate type checker errors could be vulnerable to an SQL injection attack. See PEP 675(2) for more details. Added in version 3.11. -- Data: typing.Never -- Data: typing.NoReturn ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ represent the bottom type(3), a type that has no members. They can be used to indicate that a function never returns, such as *note sys.exit(): 133c.: from typing import Never # or NoReturn def stop() -> Never: raise RuntimeError('no way') Or to define a function that should never be called, as there are no valid arguments, such as *note assert_never(): 6a3.: from typing import Never # or NoReturn def never_call_me(arg: Never) -> None: pass def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None: never_call_me(arg) # type checker error match arg: case int(): print("It's an int") case str(): print("It's a str") case _: never_call_me(arg) # OK, arg is of type Never (or NoReturn) ‘Never’ and ‘NoReturn’ have the same meaning in the type system and static type checkers treat both equivalently. Added in version 3.6.2: Added *note NoReturn: 3f89. Added in version 3.11: Added *note Never: 6a4. -- Data: typing.Self Special type to represent the current enclosed class. For example: from typing import Self, reveal_type class Foo: def return_self(self) -> Self: ... return self class SubclassOfFoo(Foo): pass reveal_type(Foo().return_self()) # Revealed type is "Foo" reveal_type(SubclassOfFoo().return_self()) # Revealed type is "SubclassOfFoo" This annotation is semantically equivalent to the following, albeit in a more succinct fashion: from typing import TypeVar Self = TypeVar("Self", bound="Foo") class Foo: def return_self(self: Self) -> Self: ... return self In general, if something returns ‘self’, as in the above examples, you should use ‘Self’ as the return annotation. If ‘Foo.return_self’ was annotated as returning ‘"Foo"’, then the type checker would infer the object returned from ‘SubclassOfFoo.return_self’ as being of type ‘Foo’ rather than ‘SubclassOfFoo’. Other common use cases include: - *note classmethod: 166.s that are used as alternative constructors and return instances of the ‘cls’ parameter. - Annotating an *note __enter__(): 5c4. method which returns self. You should not use ‘Self’ as the return annotation if the method is not guaranteed to return an instance of a subclass when the class is subclassed: class Eggs: # Self would be an incorrect return annotation here, # as the object returned is always an instance of Eggs, # even in subclasses def returns_eggs(self) -> "Eggs": return Eggs() See PEP 673(4) for more details. Added in version 3.11. -- Data: typing.TypeAlias Special annotation for explicitly declaring a *note type alias: 44f. For example: from typing import TypeAlias Factors: TypeAlias = list[int] ‘TypeAlias’ is particularly useful on older Python versions for annotating aliases that make use of forward references, as it can be hard for type checkers to distinguish these from normal variable assignments: from typing import Generic, TypeAlias, TypeVar T = TypeVar("T") # "Box" does not exist yet, # so we have to use quotes for the forward reference on Python <3.12. # Using ``TypeAlias`` tells the type checker that this is a type alias declaration, # not a variable assignment to a string. BoxOfStrings: TypeAlias = "Box[str]" class Box(Generic[T]): @classmethod def make_box_of_strings(cls) -> BoxOfStrings: ... See PEP 613(5) for more details. Added in version 3.10. Deprecated since version 3.12: *note TypeAlias: 7c4. is deprecated in favor of the *note type: 433. statement, which creates instances of *note TypeAliasType: 450. and which natively supports forward references. Note that while *note TypeAlias: 7c4. and *note TypeAliasType: 450. serve similar purposes and have similar names, they are distinct and the latter is not the type of the former. Removal of *note TypeAlias: 7c4. is not currently planned, but users are encouraged to migrate to *note type: 433. statements. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0675/ (3) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bottom_type (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0673/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0613/  File: python.info, Node: Special forms, Next: Building generic types and type aliases, Prev: Special types, Up: Special typing primitives 5.27.1.15 Special forms ....................... These can be used as types in annotations. They all support subscription using ‘[]’, but each has a unique syntax. -- Data: typing.Union Union type; ‘Union[X, Y]’ is equivalent to ‘X | Y’ and means either X or Y. To define a union, use e.g. ‘Union[int, str]’ or the shorthand ‘int | str’. Using that shorthand is recommended. Details: * The arguments must be types and there must be at least one. * Unions of unions are flattened, e.g.: Union[Union[int, str], float] == Union[int, str, float] However, this does not apply to unions referenced through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying *note TypeAliasType: 450.: type A = Union[int, str] Union[A, float] != Union[int, str, float] * Unions of a single argument vanish, e.g.: Union[int] == int # The constructor actually returns int * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.: Union[int, str, int] == Union[int, str] == int | str * When comparing unions, the argument order is ignored, e.g.: Union[int, str] == Union[str, int] * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Union’. * You cannot write ‘Union[X][Y]’. Changed in version 3.7: Don’t remove explicit subclasses from unions at runtime. Changed in version 3.10: Unions can now be written as ‘X | Y’. See *note union type expressions: 7bd. -- Data: typing.Optional ‘Optional[X]’ is equivalent to ‘X | None’ (or ‘Union[X, None]’). Note that this is not the same concept as an optional argument, which is one that has a default. An optional argument with a default does not require the ‘Optional’ qualifier on its type annotation just because it is optional. For example: def foo(arg: int = 0) -> None: ... On the other hand, if an explicit value of ‘None’ is allowed, the use of ‘Optional’ is appropriate, whether the argument is optional or not. For example: def foo(arg: Optional[int] = None) -> None: ... Changed in version 3.10: Optional can now be written as ‘X | None’. See *note union type expressions: 7bd. -- Data: typing.Concatenate Special form for annotating higher-order functions. ‘Concatenate’ can be used in conjunction with *note Callable: 2533. and *note ParamSpec: 15e. to annotate a higher-order callable which adds, removes, or transforms parameters of another callable. Usage is in the form ‘Concatenate[Arg1Type, Arg2Type, ..., ParamSpecVariable]’. ‘Concatenate’ is currently only valid when used as the first argument to a *note Callable: 2533. The last parameter to ‘Concatenate’ must be a *note ParamSpec: 15e. or ellipsis (‘...’). For example, to annotate a decorator ‘with_lock’ which provides a *note threading.Lock: 1677. to the decorated function, ‘Concatenate’ can be used to indicate that ‘with_lock’ expects a callable which takes in a ‘Lock’ as the first argument, and returns a callable with a different type signature. In this case, the *note ParamSpec: 15e. indicates that the returned callable’s parameter types are dependent on the parameter types of the callable being passed in: from collections.abc import Callable from threading import Lock from typing import Concatenate # Use this lock to ensure that only one thread is executing a function # at any time. my_lock = Lock() def with_lock[**P, R](f: Callable[Concatenate[Lock, P], R]) -> Callable[P, R]: '''A type-safe decorator which provides a lock.''' def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> R: # Provide the lock as the first argument. return f(my_lock, *args, **kwargs) return inner @with_lock def sum_threadsafe(lock: Lock, numbers: list[float]) -> float: '''Add a list of numbers together in a thread-safe manner.''' with lock: return sum(numbers) # We don't need to pass in the lock ourselves thanks to the decorator. sum_threadsafe([1.1, 2.2, 3.3]) Added in version 3.10. See also ........ * PEP 612(1) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’) * *note ParamSpec: 15e. * *note Annotating callable objects: 2533. -- Data: typing.Literal Special typing form to define “literal types”. ‘Literal’ can be used to indicate to type checkers that the annotated object has a value equivalent to one of the provided literals. For example: def validate_simple(data: Any) -> Literal[True]: # always returns True ... type Mode = Literal['r', 'rb', 'w', 'wb'] def open_helper(file: str, mode: Mode) -> str: ... open_helper('/some/path', 'r') # Passes type check open_helper('/other/path', 'typo') # Error in type checker ‘Literal[...]’ cannot be subclassed. At runtime, an arbitrary value is allowed as type argument to ‘Literal[...]’, but type checkers may impose restrictions. See PEP 586(2) for more details about literal types. Additional details: * The arguments must be literal values and there must be at least one. * Nested ‘Literal’ types are flattened, e.g.: assert Literal[Literal[1, 2], 3] == Literal[1, 2, 3] However, this does not apply to ‘Literal’ types referenced through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying *note TypeAliasType: 450.: type A = Literal[1, 2] assert Literal[A, 3] != Literal[1, 2, 3] * Redundant arguments are skipped, e.g.: assert Literal[1, 2, 1] == Literal[1, 2] * When comparing literals, the argument order is ignored, e.g.: assert Literal[1, 2] == Literal[2, 1] * You cannot subclass or instantiate a ‘Literal’. * You cannot write ‘Literal[X][Y]’. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.9.1: ‘Literal’ now de-duplicates parameters. Equality comparisons of ‘Literal’ objects are no longer order dependent. ‘Literal’ objects will now raise a *note TypeError: 534. exception during equality comparisons if one of their parameters are not *note hashable: 60c. -- Data: typing.ClassVar Special type construct to mark class variables. As introduced in PEP 526(3), a variable annotation wrapped in ClassVar indicates that a given attribute is intended to be used as a class variable and should not be set on instances of that class. Usage: class Starship: stats: ClassVar[dict[str, int]] = {} # class variable damage: int = 10 # instance variable *note ClassVar: 268. accepts only types and cannot be further subscribed. *note ClassVar: 268. is not a class itself, and should not be used with *note isinstance(): 43d. or *note issubclass(): 7bc. *note ClassVar: 268. does not change Python runtime behavior, but it can be used by third-party type checkers. For example, a type checker might flag the following code as an error: enterprise_d = Starship(3000) enterprise_d.stats = {} # Error, setting class variable on instance Starship.stats = {} # This is OK Added in version 3.5.3. Changed in version 3.13: *note ClassVar: 268. can now be nested in *note Final: 269. and vice versa. -- Data: typing.Final Special typing construct to indicate final names to type checkers. Final names cannot be reassigned in any scope. Final names declared in class scopes cannot be overridden in subclasses. For example: MAX_SIZE: Final = 9000 MAX_SIZE += 1 # Error reported by type checker class Connection: TIMEOUT: Final[int] = 10 class FastConnector(Connection): TIMEOUT = 1 # Error reported by type checker There is no runtime checking of these properties. See PEP 591(4) for more details. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.13: *note Final: 269. can now be nested in *note ClassVar: 268. and vice versa. -- Data: typing.Required Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 162. key as required. This is mainly useful for ‘total=False’ TypedDicts. See *note TypedDict: 162. and PEP 655(5) for more details. Added in version 3.11. -- Data: typing.NotRequired Special typing construct to mark a *note TypedDict: 162. key as potentially missing. See *note TypedDict: 162. and PEP 655(6) for more details. Added in version 3.11. -- Data: typing.ReadOnly A special typing construct to mark an item of a *note TypedDict: 162. as read-only. For example: class Movie(TypedDict): title: ReadOnly[str] year: int def mutate_movie(m: Movie) -> None: m["year"] = 1999 # allowed m["title"] = "The Matrix" # typechecker error There is no runtime checking for this property. See *note TypedDict: 162. and PEP 705(7) for more details. Added in version 3.13. -- Data: typing.Annotated Special typing form to add context-specific metadata to an annotation. Add metadata ‘x’ to a given type ‘T’ by using the annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’. Metadata added using ‘Annotated’ can be used by static analysis tools or at runtime. At runtime, the metadata is stored in a ‘__metadata__’ attribute. If a library or tool encounters an annotation ‘Annotated[T, x]’ and has no special logic for the metadata, it should ignore the metadata and simply treat the annotation as ‘T’. As such, ‘Annotated’ can be useful for code that wants to use annotations for purposes outside Python’s static typing system. Using ‘Annotated[T, x]’ as an annotation still allows for static typechecking of ‘T’, as type checkers will simply ignore the metadata ‘x’. In this way, ‘Annotated’ differs from the *note @no_type_check: 6b0. decorator, which can also be used for adding annotations outside the scope of the typing system, but completely disables typechecking for a function or class. The responsibility of how to interpret the metadata lies with the tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ annotation. A tool or library encountering an ‘Annotated’ type can scan through the metadata elements to determine if they are of interest (e.g., using *note isinstance(): 43d.). -- Describe: Annotated[<type>, <metadata>] Here is an example of how you might use ‘Annotated’ to add metadata to type annotations if you were doing range analysis: @dataclass class ValueRange: lo: int hi: int T1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(-10, 5)] T2 = Annotated[T1, ValueRange(-20, 3)] The first argument to ‘Annotated’ must be a valid type. Multiple metadata elements can be supplied as ‘Annotated’ supports variadic arguments. The order of the metadata elements is preserved and matters for equality checks: @dataclass class ctype: kind: str a1 = Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char")] a2 = Annotated[int, ctype("char"), ValueRange(3, 10)] assert a1 != a2 # Order matters It is up to the tool consuming the annotations to decide whether the client is allowed to add multiple metadata elements to one annotation and how to merge those annotations. Nested ‘Annotated’ types are flattened. The order of the metadata elements starts with the innermost annotation: assert Annotated[Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)], ctype("char")] == Annotated[ int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char") ] However, this does not apply to ‘Annotated’ types referenced through a type alias, to avoid forcing evaluation of the underlying *note TypeAliasType: 450.: type From3To10[T] = Annotated[T, ValueRange(3, 10)] assert Annotated[From3To10[int], ctype("char")] != Annotated[ int, ValueRange(3, 10), ctype("char") ] Duplicated metadata elements are not removed: assert Annotated[int, ValueRange(3, 10)] != Annotated[ int, ValueRange(3, 10), ValueRange(3, 10) ] ‘Annotated’ can be used with nested and generic aliases: @dataclass class MaxLen: value: int type Vec[T] = Annotated[list[tuple[T, T]], MaxLen(10)] # When used in a type annotation, a type checker will treat "V" the same as # ``Annotated[list[tuple[int, int]], MaxLen(10)]``: type V = Vec[int] ‘Annotated’ cannot be used with an unpacked *note TypeVarTuple: 15f.: type Variadic[*Ts] = Annotated[*Ts, Ann1] = Annotated[T1, T2, T3, ..., Ann1] # NOT valid where ‘T1’, ‘T2’, … are *note TypeVars: 15d. This is invalid as only one type should be passed to Annotated. By default, *note get_type_hints(): 6ad. strips the metadata from annotations. Pass ‘include_extras=True’ to have the metadata preserved: >>> from typing import Annotated, get_type_hints >>> def func(x: Annotated[int, "metadata"]) -> None: pass ... >>> get_type_hints(func) {'x': <class 'int'>, 'return': <class 'NoneType'>} >>> get_type_hints(func, include_extras=True) {'x': typing.Annotated[int, 'metadata'], 'return': <class 'NoneType'>} At runtime, the metadata associated with an ‘Annotated’ type can be retrieved via the ‘__metadata__’ attribute: >>> from typing import Annotated >>> X = Annotated[int, "very", "important", "metadata"] >>> X typing.Annotated[int, 'very', 'important', 'metadata'] >>> X.__metadata__ ('very', 'important', 'metadata') If you want to retrieve the original type wrapped by ‘Annotated’, use the ‘__origin__’ attribute: >>> from typing import Annotated, get_origin >>> Password = Annotated[str, "secret"] >>> Password.__origin__ <class 'str'> Note that using *note get_origin(): a46. will return ‘Annotated’ itself: >>> get_origin(Password) typing.Annotated See also ........ PEP 593(8) - Flexible function and variable annotations The PEP introducing ‘Annotated’ to the standard library. Added in version 3.9. -- Data: typing.TypeIs Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate functions. ‘TypeIs’ can be used to annotate the return type of a user-defined type predicate function. ‘TypeIs’ only accepts a single type argument. At runtime, functions marked this way should return a boolean and take at least one positional argument. ‘TypeIs’ aims to benefit 'type narrowing' – a technique used by static type checkers to determine a more precise type of an expression within a program’s code flow. Usually type narrowing is done by analyzing conditional code flow and applying the narrowing to a block of code. The conditional expression here is sometimes referred to as a “type predicate”: def is_str(val: str | float): # "isinstance" type predicate if isinstance(val, str): # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``str`` ... else: # Else, type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``float``. ... Sometimes it would be convenient to use a user-defined boolean function as a type predicate. Such a function should use ‘TypeIs[...]’ or *note TypeGuard: 164. as its return type to alert static type checkers to this intention. ‘TypeIs’ usually has more intuitive behavior than ‘TypeGuard’, but it cannot be used when the input and output types are incompatible (e.g., ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[int]’) or when the function does not return ‘True’ for all instances of the narrowed type. Using ‘-> TypeIs[NarrowedType]’ tells the static type checker that for a given function: 1. The return value is a boolean. 2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the intersection of the argument’s original type and ‘NarrowedType’. 3. If the return value is ‘False’, the type of its argument is narrowed to exclude ‘NarrowedType’. For example: from typing import assert_type, final, TypeIs class Parent: pass class Child(Parent): pass @final class Unrelated: pass def is_parent(val: object) -> TypeIs[Parent]: return isinstance(val, Parent) def run(arg: Child | Unrelated): if is_parent(arg): # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to the intersection # of ``Parent`` and ``Child``, which is equivalent to # ``Child``. assert_type(arg, Child) else: # Type of ``arg`` is narrowed to exclude ``Parent``, # so only ``Unrelated`` is left. assert_type(arg, Unrelated) The type inside ‘TypeIs’ must be consistent with the type of the function’s argument; if it is not, static type checkers will raise an error. An incorrectly written ‘TypeIs’ function can lead to unsound behavior in the type system; it is the user’s responsibility to write such functions in a type-safe manner. If a ‘TypeIs’ function is a class or instance method, then the type in ‘TypeIs’ maps to the type of the second parameter (after ‘cls’ or ‘self’). In short, the form ‘def foo(arg: TypeA) -> TypeIs[TypeB]: ...’, means that if ‘foo(arg)’ returns ‘True’, then ‘arg’ is an instance of ‘TypeB’, and if it returns ‘False’, it is not an instance of ‘TypeB’. ‘TypeIs’ also works with type variables. For more information, see PEP 742(9) (Narrowing types with ‘TypeIs’). Added in version 3.13. -- Data: typing.TypeGuard Special typing construct for marking user-defined type predicate functions. Type predicate functions are user-defined functions that return whether their argument is an instance of a particular type. ‘TypeGuard’ works similarly to *note TypeIs: 163, but has subtly different effects on type checking behavior (see below). Using ‘-> TypeGuard’ tells the static type checker that for a given function: 1. The return value is a boolean. 2. If the return value is ‘True’, the type of its argument is the type inside ‘TypeGuard’. ‘TypeGuard’ also works with type variables. See PEP 647(10) for more details. For example: def is_str_list(val: list[object]) -> TypeGuard[list[str]]: '''Determines whether all objects in the list are strings''' return all(isinstance(x, str) for x in val) def func1(val: list[object]): if is_str_list(val): # Type of ``val`` is narrowed to ``list[str]``. print(" ".join(val)) else: # Type of ``val`` remains as ``list[object]``. print("Not a list of strings!") ‘TypeIs’ and ‘TypeGuard’ differ in the following ways: * ‘TypeIs’ requires the narrowed type to be a subtype of the input type, while ‘TypeGuard’ does not. The main reason is to allow for things like narrowing ‘list[object]’ to ‘list[str]’ even though the latter is not a subtype of the former, since ‘list’ is invariant. * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers narrow the type of the variable to exactly the ‘TypeGuard’ type. When a ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘True’, type checkers can infer a more precise type combining the previously known type of the variable with the ‘TypeIs’ type. (Technically, this is known as an intersection type.) * When a ‘TypeGuard’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers cannot narrow the type of the variable at all. When a ‘TypeIs’ function returns ‘False’, type checkers can narrow the type of the variable to exclude the ‘TypeIs’ type. Added in version 3.10. -- Data: typing.Unpack Typing operator to conceptually mark an object as having been unpacked. For example, using the unpack operator ‘*’ on a *note type variable tuple: 3f8b. is equivalent to using ‘Unpack’ to mark the type variable tuple as having been unpacked: Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts') tup: tuple[*Ts] # Effectively does: tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]] In fact, ‘Unpack’ can be used interchangeably with ‘*’ in the context of *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f. and *note builtins.tuple: 36b. types. You might see ‘Unpack’ being used explicitly in older versions of Python, where ‘*’ couldn’t be used in certain places: # In older versions of Python, TypeVarTuple and Unpack # are located in the `typing_extensions` backports package. from typing_extensions import TypeVarTuple, Unpack Ts = TypeVarTuple('Ts') tup: tuple[*Ts] # Syntax error on Python <= 3.10! tup: tuple[Unpack[Ts]] # Semantically equivalent, and backwards-compatible ‘Unpack’ can also be used along with *note typing.TypedDict: 162. for typing ‘**kwargs’ in a function signature: from typing import TypedDict, Unpack class Movie(TypedDict): name: str year: int # This function expects two keyword arguments - `name` of type `str` # and `year` of type `int`. def foo(**kwargs: Unpack[Movie]): ... See PEP 692(11) for more details on using ‘Unpack’ for ‘**kwargs’ typing. Added in version 3.11. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0586/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0705/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0742/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0647/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0692/  File: python.info, Node: Building generic types and type aliases, Next: Other special directives, Prev: Special forms, Up: Special typing primitives 5.27.1.16 Building generic types and type aliases ................................................. The following classes should not be used directly as annotations. Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating generic types and type aliases. These objects can be created through special syntax (*note type parameter lists: 2b5. and the *note type: 433. statement). For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, they can also be created without the dedicated syntax, as documented below. -- Class: typing.Generic Abstract base class for generic types. A generic type is typically declared by adding a list of type parameters after the class name: class Mapping[KT, VT]: def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT: ... # Etc. Such a class implicitly inherits from ‘Generic’. The runtime semantics of this syntax are discussed in the *note Language Reference: 44d. This class can then be used as follows: def lookup_name[X, Y](mapping: Mapping[X, Y], key: X, default: Y) -> Y: try: return mapping[key] except KeyError: return default Here the brackets after the function name indicate a *note generic function: 44e. For backwards compatibility, generic classes can also be declared by explicitly inheriting from ‘Generic’. In this case, the type parameters must be declared separately: KT = TypeVar('KT') VT = TypeVar('VT') class Mapping(Generic[KT, VT]): def __getitem__(self, key: KT) -> VT: ... # Etc. -- Class: typing.TypeVar (name, *constraints, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, infer_variance=False, default=typing.NoDefault) Type variable. The preferred way to construct a type variable is via the dedicated syntax for *note generic functions: 44e, *note generic classes: 44d, and *note generic type aliases: 451.: class Sequence[T]: # T is a TypeVar ... This syntax can also be used to create bounded and constrained type variables: class StrSequence[S: str]: # S is a TypeVar with a `str` upper bound; ... # we can say that S is "bounded by `str`" class StrOrBytesSequence[A: (str, bytes)]: # A is a TypeVar constrained to str or bytes ... However, if desired, reusable type variables can also be constructed manually, like so: T = TypeVar('T') # Can be anything S = TypeVar('S', bound=str) # Can be any subtype of str A = TypeVar('A', str, bytes) # Must be exactly str or bytes Type variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type checkers. They serve as the parameters for generic types as well as for generic function and type alias definitions. See *note Generic: 1619. for more information on generic types. Generic functions work as follows: def repeat[T](x: T, n: int) -> Sequence[T]: """Return a list containing n references to x.""" return [x]*n def print_capitalized[S: str](x: S) -> S: """Print x capitalized, and return x.""" print(x.capitalize()) return x def concatenate[A: (str, bytes)](x: A, y: A) -> A: """Add two strings or bytes objects together.""" return x + y Note that type variables can be 'bounded', 'constrained', or neither, but cannot be both bounded 'and' constrained. The variance of type variables is inferred by type checkers when they are created through the *note type parameter syntax: 2b5. or when ‘infer_variance=True’ is passed. Manually created type variables may be explicitly marked covariant or contravariant by passing ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’. By default, manually created type variables are invariant. See PEP 484(1) and PEP 695(2) for more details. Bounded type variables and constrained type variables have different semantics in several important ways. Using a 'bounded' type variable means that the ‘TypeVar’ will be solved using the most specific type possible: x = print_capitalized('a string') reveal_type(x) # revealed type is str class StringSubclass(str): pass y = print_capitalized(StringSubclass('another string')) reveal_type(y) # revealed type is StringSubclass z = print_capitalized(45) # error: int is not a subtype of str The upper bound of a type variable can be a concrete type, abstract type (ABC or Protocol), or even a union of types: # Can be anything with an __abs__ method def print_abs[T: SupportsAbs](arg: T) -> None: print("Absolute value:", abs(arg)) U = TypeVar('U', bound=str|bytes) # Can be any subtype of the union str|bytes V = TypeVar('V', bound=SupportsAbs) # Can be anything with an __abs__ method Using a 'constrained' type variable, however, means that the ‘TypeVar’ can only ever be solved as being exactly one of the constraints given: a = concatenate('one', 'two') reveal_type(a) # revealed type is str b = concatenate(StringSubclass('one'), StringSubclass('two')) reveal_type(b) # revealed type is str, despite StringSubclass being passed in c = concatenate('one', b'two') # error: type variable 'A' can be either str or bytes in a function call, but not both At runtime, ‘isinstance(x, T)’ will raise *note TypeError: 534. -- Attribute: __name__ The name of the type variable. -- Attribute: __covariant__ Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as covariant. -- Attribute: __contravariant__ Whether the type var has been explicitly marked as contravariant. -- Attribute: __infer_variance__ Whether the type variable’s variance should be inferred by type checkers. Added in version 3.12. -- Attribute: __bound__ The upper bound of the type variable, if any. Changed in version 3.12: For type variables created through *note type parameter syntax: 2b5, the bound is evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 452.). -- Attribute: __constraints__ A tuple containing the constraints of the type variable, if any. Changed in version 3.12: For type variables created through *note type parameter syntax: 2b5, the constraints are evaluated only when the attribute is accessed, not when the type variable is created (see *note Lazy evaluation: 452.). -- Attribute: __default__ The default value of the type variable, or *note typing.NoDefault: 264. if it has no default. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: has_default () Return whether or not the type variable has a default value. This is equivalent to checking whether *note __default__: 3f93. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 264. singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the *note lazily evaluated: 452. default value. Added in version 3.13. Changed in version 3.12: Type variables can now be declared using the *note type parameter: 2b5. syntax introduced by PEP 695(3). The ‘infer_variance’ parameter was added. Changed in version 3.13: Support for default values was added. -- Class: typing.TypeVarTuple (name, *, default=typing.NoDefault) Type variable tuple. A specialized form of *note type variable: 3f82. that enables 'variadic' generics. Type variable tuples can be declared in *note type parameter lists: 2b5. using a single asterisk (‘*’) before the name: def move_first_element_to_last[T, *Ts](tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]: return (*tup[1:], tup[0]) Or by explicitly invoking the ‘TypeVarTuple’ constructor: T = TypeVar("T") Ts = TypeVarTuple("Ts") def move_first_element_to_last(tup: tuple[T, *Ts]) -> tuple[*Ts, T]: return (*tup[1:], tup[0]) A normal type variable enables parameterization with a single type. A type variable tuple, in contrast, allows parameterization with an 'arbitrary' number of types by acting like an 'arbitrary' number of type variables wrapped in a tuple. For example: # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to () # Return value is (1,), which has type tuple[int] move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1,)) # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str,) # Return value is ('spam', 1), which has type tuple[str, int] move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam')) # T is bound to int, Ts is bound to (str, float) # Return value is ('spam', 3.0, 1), which has type tuple[str, float, int] move_first_element_to_last(tup=(1, 'spam', 3.0)) # This fails to type check (and fails at runtime) # because tuple[()] is not compatible with tuple[T, *Ts] # (at least one element is required) move_first_element_to_last(tup=()) Note the use of the unpacking operator ‘*’ in ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’. Conceptually, you can think of ‘Ts’ as a tuple of type variables ‘(T1, T2, ...)’. ‘tuple[T, *Ts]’ would then become ‘tuple[T, *(T1, T2, ...)]’, which is equivalent to ‘tuple[T, T1, T2, ...]’. (Note that in older versions of Python, you might see this written using *note Unpack: 162f. instead, as ‘Unpack[Ts]’.) Type variable tuples must 'always' be unpacked. This helps distinguish type variable tuples from normal type variables: x: Ts # Not valid x: tuple[Ts] # Not valid x: tuple[*Ts] # The correct way to do it Type variable tuples can be used in the same contexts as normal type variables. For example, in class definitions, arguments, and return types: class Array[*Shape]: def __getitem__(self, key: tuple[*Shape]) -> float: ... def __abs__(self) -> "Array[*Shape]": ... def get_shape(self) -> tuple[*Shape]: ... Type variable tuples can be happily combined with normal type variables: class Array[DType, *Shape]: # This is fine pass class Array2[*Shape, DType]: # This would also be fine pass class Height: ... class Width: ... float_array_1d: Array[float, Height] = Array() # Totally fine int_array_2d: Array[int, Height, Width] = Array() # Yup, fine too However, note that at most one type variable tuple may appear in a single list of type arguments or type parameters: x: tuple[*Ts, *Ts] # Not valid class Array[*Shape, *Shape]: # Not valid pass Finally, an unpacked type variable tuple can be used as the type annotation of ‘*args’: def call_soon[*Ts]( callback: Callable[[*Ts], None], *args: *Ts ) -> None: ... callback(*args) In contrast to non-unpacked annotations of ‘*args’ - e.g. ‘*args: int’, which would specify that 'all' arguments are ‘int’ - ‘*args: *Ts’ enables reference to the types of the 'individual' arguments in ‘*args’. Here, this allows us to ensure the types of the ‘*args’ passed to ‘call_soon’ match the types of the (positional) arguments of ‘callback’. See PEP 646(4) for more details on type variable tuples. -- Attribute: __name__ The name of the type variable tuple. -- Attribute: __default__ The default value of the type variable tuple, or *note typing.NoDefault: 264. if it has no default. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: has_default () Return whether or not the type variable tuple has a default value. This is equivalent to checking whether *note __default__: 3f96. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 264. singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the *note lazily evaluated: 452. default value. Added in version 3.13. Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.12: Type variable tuples can now be declared using the *note type parameter: 2b5. syntax introduced by PEP 695(5). Changed in version 3.13: Support for default values was added. -- Class: typing.ParamSpec (name, *, bound=None, covariant=False, contravariant=False, default=typing.NoDefault) Parameter specification variable. A specialized version of *note type variables: 3f82. In *note type parameter lists: 2b5, parameter specifications can be declared with two asterisks (‘**’): type IntFunc[**P] = Callable[P, int] For compatibility with Python 3.11 and earlier, ‘ParamSpec’ objects can also be created as follows: P = ParamSpec('P') Parameter specification variables exist primarily for the benefit of static type checkers. They are used to forward the parameter types of one callable to another callable – a pattern commonly found in higher order functions and decorators. They are only valid when used in ‘Concatenate’, or as the first argument to ‘Callable’, or as parameters for user-defined Generics. See *note Generic: 1619. for more information on generic types. For example, to add basic logging to a function, one can create a decorator ‘add_logging’ to log function calls. The parameter specification variable tells the type checker that the callable passed into the decorator and the new callable returned by it have inter-dependent type parameters: from collections.abc import Callable import logging def add_logging[T, **P](f: Callable[P, T]) -> Callable[P, T]: '''A type-safe decorator to add logging to a function.''' def inner(*args: P.args, **kwargs: P.kwargs) -> T: logging.info(f'{f.__name__} was called') return f(*args, **kwargs) return inner @add_logging def add_two(x: float, y: float) -> float: '''Add two numbers together.''' return x + y Without ‘ParamSpec’, the simplest way to annotate this previously was to use a *note TypeVar: 15d. with upper bound ‘Callable[..., Any]’. However this causes two problems: 1. The type checker can’t type check the ‘inner’ function because ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ have to be typed *note Any: 6a8. 2. *note cast(): 3f98. may be required in the body of the ‘add_logging’ decorator when returning the ‘inner’ function, or the static type checker must be told to ignore the ‘return inner’. -- Attribute: args -- Attribute: kwargs Since ‘ParamSpec’ captures both positional and keyword parameters, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ can be used to split a ‘ParamSpec’ into its components. ‘P.args’ represents the tuple of positional parameters in a given call and should only be used to annotate ‘*args’. ‘P.kwargs’ represents the mapping of keyword parameters to their values in a given call, and should be only be used to annotate ‘**kwargs’. Both attributes require the annotated parameter to be in scope. At runtime, ‘P.args’ and ‘P.kwargs’ are instances respectively of *note ParamSpecArgs: 7c1. and *note ParamSpecKwargs: 7c2. -- Attribute: __name__ The name of the parameter specification. -- Attribute: __default__ The default value of the parameter specification, or *note typing.NoDefault: 264. if it has no default. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: has_default () Return whether or not the parameter specification has a default value. This is equivalent to checking whether *note __default__: 3f9c. is not the *note typing.NoDefault: 264. singleton, except that it does not force evaluation of the *note lazily evaluated: 452. default value. Added in version 3.13. Parameter specification variables created with ‘covariant=True’ or ‘contravariant=True’ can be used to declare covariant or contravariant generic types. The ‘bound’ argument is also accepted, similar to *note TypeVar: 15d. However the actual semantics of these keywords are yet to be decided. Added in version 3.10. Changed in version 3.12: Parameter specifications can now be declared using the *note type parameter: 2b5. syntax introduced by PEP 695(6). Changed in version 3.13: Support for default values was added. Note: Only parameter specification variables defined in global scope can be pickled. See also ........ * PEP 612(7) – Parameter Specification Variables (the PEP which introduced ‘ParamSpec’ and ‘Concatenate’) * *note Concatenate: 7bf. * *note Annotating callable objects: 2533. -- Data: typing.ParamSpecArgs -- Data: typing.ParamSpecKwargs Arguments and keyword arguments attributes of a *note ParamSpec: 15e. The ‘P.args’ attribute of a ‘ParamSpec’ is an instance of ‘ParamSpecArgs’, and ‘P.kwargs’ is an instance of ‘ParamSpecKwargs’. They are intended for runtime introspection and have no special meaning to static type checkers. Calling *note get_origin(): a46. on either of these objects will return the original ‘ParamSpec’: >>> from typing import ParamSpec, get_origin >>> P = ParamSpec("P") >>> get_origin(P.args) is P True >>> get_origin(P.kwargs) is P True Added in version 3.10. -- Class: typing.TypeAliasType (name, value, *, type_params=()) The type of type aliases created through the *note type: 433. statement. Example: >>> type Alias = int >>> type(Alias) <class 'typing.TypeAliasType'> Added in version 3.12. -- Attribute: __name__ The name of the type alias: >>> type Alias = int >>> Alias.__name__ 'Alias' -- Attribute: __module__ The module in which the type alias was defined: >>> type Alias = int >>> Alias.__module__ '__main__' -- Attribute: __type_params__ The type parameters of the type alias, or an empty tuple if the alias is not generic: >>> type ListOrSet[T] = list[T] | set[T] >>> ListOrSet.__type_params__ (T,) >>> type NotGeneric = int >>> NotGeneric.__type_params__ () -- Attribute: __value__ The type alias’s value. This is *note lazily evaluated: 452, so names used in the definition of the alias are not resolved until the ‘__value__’ attribute is accessed: >>> type Mutually = Recursive >>> type Recursive = Mutually >>> Mutually Mutually >>> Recursive Recursive >>> Mutually.__value__ Recursive >>> Recursive.__value__ Mutually ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0646/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/  File: python.info, Node: Other special directives, Prev: Building generic types and type aliases, Up: Special typing primitives 5.27.1.17 Other special directives .................................. These functions and classes should not be used directly as annotations. Their intended purpose is to be building blocks for creating and declaring types. -- Class: typing.NamedTuple Typed version of *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. Usage: class Employee(NamedTuple): name: str id: int This is equivalent to: Employee = collections.namedtuple('Employee', ['name', 'id']) To give a field a default value, you can assign to it in the class body: class Employee(NamedTuple): name: str id: int = 3 employee = Employee('Guido') assert employee.id == 3 Fields with a default value must come after any fields without a default. The resulting class has an extra attribute ‘__annotations__’ giving a dict that maps the field names to the field types. (The field names are in the ‘_fields’ attribute and the default values are in the ‘_field_defaults’ attribute, both of which are part of the *note namedtuple(): 1ca. API.) ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can also have docstrings and methods: class Employee(NamedTuple): """Represents an employee.""" name: str id: int = 3 def __repr__(self) -> str: return f'<Employee {self.name}, id={self.id}>' ‘NamedTuple’ subclasses can be generic: class Group[T](NamedTuple): key: T group: list[T] Backward-compatible usage: # For creating a generic NamedTuple on Python 3.11 T = TypeVar("T") class Group(NamedTuple, Generic[T]): key: T group: list[T] # A functional syntax is also supported Employee = NamedTuple('Employee', [('name', str), ('id', int)]) Changed in version 3.6: Added support for PEP 526(1) variable annotation syntax. Changed in version 3.6.1: Added support for default values, methods, and docstrings. Changed in version 3.8: The ‘_field_types’ and ‘__annotations__’ attributes are now regular dictionaries instead of instances of ‘OrderedDict’. Changed in version 3.9: Removed the ‘_field_types’ attribute in favor of the more standard ‘__annotations__’ attribute which has the same information. Changed in version 3.11: Added support for generic namedtuples. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating NamedTuple classes (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", x=int)’) is deprecated, and will be disallowed in 3.15. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: When using the functional syntax to create a NamedTuple class, failing to pass a value to the ‘fields’ parameter (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT")’) is deprecated. Passing ‘None’ to the ‘fields’ parameter (‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", None)’) is also deprecated. Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15. To create a NamedTuple class with 0 fields, use ‘class NT(NamedTuple): pass’ or ‘NT = NamedTuple("NT", [])’. -- Class: typing.NewType (name, tp) Helper class to create low-overhead *note distinct types: 3f76. A ‘NewType’ is considered a distinct type by a typechecker. At runtime, however, calling a ‘NewType’ returns its argument unchanged. Usage: UserId = NewType('UserId', int) # Declare the NewType "UserId" first_user = UserId(1) # "UserId" returns the argument unchanged at runtime -- Attribute: __module__ The module in which the new type is defined. -- Attribute: __name__ The name of the new type. -- Attribute: __supertype__ The type that the new type is based on. Added in version 3.5.2. Changed in version 3.10: ‘NewType’ is now a class rather than a function. -- Class: typing.Protocol (Generic) Base class for protocol classes. Protocol classes are defined like this: class Proto(Protocol): def meth(self) -> int: ... Such classes are primarily used with static type checkers that recognize structural subtyping (static duck-typing), for example: class C: def meth(self) -> int: return 0 def func(x: Proto) -> int: return x.meth() func(C()) # Passes static type check See PEP 544(2) for more details. Protocol classes decorated with *note runtime_checkable(): 43e. (described later) act as simple-minded runtime protocols that check only the presence of given attributes, ignoring their type signatures. Protocol classes without this decorator cannot be used as the second argument to *note isinstance(): 43d. or *note issubclass(): 7bc. Protocol classes can be generic, for example: class GenProto[T](Protocol): def meth(self) -> T: ... In code that needs to be compatible with Python 3.11 or older, generic Protocols can be written as follows: T = TypeVar("T") class GenProto(Protocol[T]): def meth(self) -> T: ... Added in version 3.8. -- Function: @typing.runtime_checkable Mark a protocol class as a runtime protocol. Such a protocol can be used with *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc. This allows a simple-minded structural check, very similar to “one trick ponies” in *note collections.abc: 1e. such as *note Iterable: 224d. For example: @runtime_checkable class Closable(Protocol): def close(self): ... assert isinstance(open('/some/file'), Closable) @runtime_checkable class Named(Protocol): name: str import threading assert isinstance(threading.Thread(name='Bob'), Named) This decorator raises *note TypeError: 534. when applied to a non-protocol class. Note: ‘runtime_checkable()’ will check only the presence of the required methods or attributes, not their type signatures or types. For example, *note ssl.SSLObject: b81. is a class, therefore it passes an *note issubclass(): 7bc. check against *note Callable: 2533. However, the ‘ssl.SSLObject.__init__’ method exists only to raise a *note TypeError: 534. with a more informative message, therefore making it impossible to call (instantiate) *note ssl.SSLObject: b81. Note: An *note isinstance(): 43d. check against a runtime-checkable protocol can be surprisingly slow compared to an ‘isinstance()’ check against a non-protocol class. Consider using alternative idioms such as *note hasattr(): 4ce. calls for structural checks in performance-sensitive code. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.12: The internal implementation of *note isinstance(): 43d. checks against runtime-checkable protocols now uses *note inspect.getattr_static(): 490. to look up attributes (previously, *note hasattr(): 4ce. was used). As a result, some objects which used to be considered instances of a runtime-checkable protocol may no longer be considered instances of that protocol on Python 3.12+, and vice versa. Most users are unlikely to be affected by this change. Changed in version 3.12: The members of a runtime-checkable protocol are now considered “frozen” at runtime as soon as the class has been created. Monkey-patching attributes onto a runtime-checkable protocol will still work, but will have no impact on *note isinstance(): 43d. checks comparing objects to the protocol. See *note What’s new in Python 3.12: 4cd. for more details. -- Class: typing.TypedDict (dict) Special construct to add type hints to a dictionary. At runtime it is a plain *note dict: 258. ‘TypedDict’ declares a dictionary type that expects all of its instances to have a certain set of keys, where each key is associated with a value of a consistent type. This expectation is not checked at runtime but is only enforced by type checkers. Usage: class Point2D(TypedDict): x: int y: int label: str a: Point2D = {'x': 1, 'y': 2, 'label': 'good'} # OK b: Point2D = {'z': 3, 'label': 'bad'} # Fails type check assert Point2D(x=1, y=2, label='first') == dict(x=1, y=2, label='first') An alternative way to create a ‘TypedDict’ is by using function-call syntax. The second argument must be a literal *note dict: 258.: Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': str}) This functional syntax allows defining keys which are not valid *note identifiers: 1e94, for example because they are keywords or contain hyphens, or when key names must not be *note mangled: 1cba. like regular private names: # raises SyntaxError class Point2D(TypedDict): in: int # 'in' is a keyword x-y: int # name with hyphens class Definition(TypedDict): __schema: str # mangled to `_Definition__schema` # OK, functional syntax Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'in': int, 'x-y': int}) Definition = TypedDict('Definition', {'__schema': str}) # not mangled By default, all keys must be present in a ‘TypedDict’. It is possible to mark individual keys as non-required using *note NotRequired: 5c1.: class Point2D(TypedDict): x: int y: int label: NotRequired[str] # Alternative syntax Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int, 'label': NotRequired[str]}) This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have the ‘label’ key omitted. It is also possible to mark all keys as non-required by default by specifying a totality of ‘False’: class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): x: int y: int # Alternative syntax Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', {'x': int, 'y': int}, total=False) This means that a ‘Point2D’ ‘TypedDict’ can have any of the keys omitted. A type checker is only expected to support a literal ‘False’ or ‘True’ as the value of the ‘total’ argument. ‘True’ is the default, and makes all items defined in the class body required. Individual keys of a ‘total=False’ ‘TypedDict’ can be marked as required using *note Required: 5c0.: class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): x: Required[int] y: Required[int] label: str # Alternative syntax Point2D = TypedDict('Point2D', { 'x': Required[int], 'y': Required[int], 'label': str }, total=False) It is possible for a ‘TypedDict’ type to inherit from one or more other ‘TypedDict’ types using the class-based syntax. Usage: class Point3D(Point2D): z: int ‘Point3D’ has three items: ‘x’, ‘y’ and ‘z’. It is equivalent to this definition: class Point3D(TypedDict): x: int y: int z: int A ‘TypedDict’ cannot inherit from a non-‘TypedDict’ class, except for *note Generic: 1619. For example: class X(TypedDict): x: int class Y(TypedDict): y: int class Z(object): pass # A non-TypedDict class class XY(X, Y): pass # OK class XZ(X, Z): pass # raises TypeError A ‘TypedDict’ can be generic: class Group[T](TypedDict): key: T group: list[T] To create a generic ‘TypedDict’ that is compatible with Python 3.11 or lower, inherit from *note Generic: 1619. explicitly: T = TypeVar("T") class Group(TypedDict, Generic[T]): key: T group: list[T] A ‘TypedDict’ can be introspected via annotations dicts (see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. for more information on annotations best practices), *note __total__: 3fa6, *note __required_keys__: 3fa7, and *note __optional_keys__: 3fa8. -- Attribute: __total__ ‘Point2D.__total__’ gives the value of the ‘total’ argument. Example: >>> from typing import TypedDict >>> class Point2D(TypedDict): pass >>> Point2D.__total__ True >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): pass >>> Point2D.__total__ False >>> class Point3D(Point2D): pass >>> Point3D.__total__ True This attribute reflects 'only' the value of the ‘total’ argument to the current ‘TypedDict’ class, not whether the class is semantically total. For example, a ‘TypedDict’ with ‘__total__’ set to ‘True’ may have keys marked with *note NotRequired: 5c1, or it may inherit from another ‘TypedDict’ with ‘total=False’. Therefore, it is generally better to use *note __required_keys__: 3fa7. and *note __optional_keys__: 3fa8. for introspection. -- Attribute: __required_keys__ Added in version 3.9. -- Attribute: __optional_keys__ ‘Point2D.__required_keys__’ and ‘Point2D.__optional_keys__’ return *note frozenset: 5d6. objects containing required and non-required keys, respectively. Keys marked with *note Required: 5c0. will always appear in ‘__required_keys__’ and keys marked with *note NotRequired: 5c1. will always appear in ‘__optional_keys__’. For backwards compatibility with Python 3.10 and below, it is also possible to use inheritance to declare both required and non-required keys in the same ‘TypedDict’ . This is done by declaring a ‘TypedDict’ with one value for the ‘total’ argument and then inheriting from it in another ‘TypedDict’ with a different value for ‘total’: >>> class Point2D(TypedDict, total=False): ... x: int ... y: int ... >>> class Point3D(Point2D): ... z: int ... >>> Point3D.__required_keys__ == frozenset({'z'}) True >>> Point3D.__optional_keys__ == frozenset({'x', 'y'}) True Added in version 3.9. Note: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used or if annotations are given as strings, annotations are not evaluated when the ‘TypedDict’ is defined. Therefore, the runtime introspection that ‘__required_keys__’ and ‘__optional_keys__’ rely on may not work properly, and the values of the attributes may be incorrect. Support for *note ReadOnly: 161. is reflected in the following attributes: -- Attribute: __readonly_keys__ A *note frozenset: 5d6. containing the names of all read-only keys. Keys are read-only if they carry the *note ReadOnly: 161. qualifier. Added in version 3.13. -- Attribute: __mutable_keys__ A *note frozenset: 5d6. containing the names of all mutable keys. Keys are mutable if they do not carry the *note ReadOnly: 161. qualifier. Added in version 3.13. See PEP 589(3) for more examples and detailed rules of using ‘TypedDict’. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.11: Added support for marking individual keys as *note Required: 5c0. or *note NotRequired: 5c1. See PEP 655(4). Changed in version 3.11: Added support for generic ‘TypedDict’s. Changed in version 3.13: Removed support for the keyword-argument method of creating ‘TypedDict’s. Changed in version 3.13: Support for the *note ReadOnly: 161. qualifier was added. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: When using the functional syntax to create a TypedDict class, failing to pass a value to the ‘fields’ parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’) is deprecated. Passing ‘None’ to the ‘fields’ parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) is also deprecated. Both will be disallowed in Python 3.15. To create a TypedDict class with 0 fields, use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0544/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0589/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0655/  File: python.info, Node: Protocols<3>, Next: ABCs for working with IO, Prev: Special typing primitives, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.18 Protocols ................... The following protocols are provided by the ‘typing’ module. All are decorated with *note @runtime_checkable: 43e. -- Class: typing.SupportsAbs An ABC with one abstract method ‘__abs__’ that is covariant in its return type. -- Class: typing.SupportsBytes An ABC with one abstract method ‘__bytes__’. -- Class: typing.SupportsComplex An ABC with one abstract method ‘__complex__’. -- Class: typing.SupportsFloat An ABC with one abstract method ‘__float__’. -- Class: typing.SupportsIndex An ABC with one abstract method ‘__index__’. Added in version 3.8. -- Class: typing.SupportsInt An ABC with one abstract method ‘__int__’. -- Class: typing.SupportsRound An ABC with one abstract method ‘__round__’ that is covariant in its return type.  File: python.info, Node: ABCs for working with IO, Next: Functions and decorators, Prev: Protocols<3>, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.19 ABCs for working with IO .................................. -- Class: typing.IO -- Class: typing.TextIO -- Class: typing.BinaryIO Generic type ‘IO[AnyStr]’ and its subclasses ‘TextIO(IO[str])’ and ‘BinaryIO(IO[bytes])’ represent the types of I/O streams such as returned by *note open(): 517.  File: python.info, Node: Functions and decorators, Next: Introspection helpers, Prev: ABCs for working with IO, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.20 Functions and decorators .................................. -- Function: typing.cast (typ, val) Cast a value to a type. This returns the value unchanged. To the type checker this signals that the return value has the designated type, but at runtime we intentionally don’t check anything (we want this to be as fast as possible). -- Function: typing.assert_type (val, typ, /) Ask a static type checker to confirm that 'val' has an inferred type of 'typ'. At runtime this does nothing: it returns the first argument unchanged with no checks or side effects, no matter the actual type of the argument. When a static type checker encounters a call to ‘assert_type()’, it emits an error if the value is not of the specified type: def greet(name: str) -> None: assert_type(name, str) # OK, inferred type of `name` is `str` assert_type(name, int) # type checker error This function is useful for ensuring the type checker’s understanding of a script is in line with the developer’s intentions: def complex_function(arg: object): # Do some complex type-narrowing logic, # after which we hope the inferred type will be `int` ... # Test whether the type checker correctly understands our function assert_type(arg, int) Added in version 3.11. -- Function: typing.assert_never (arg, /) Ask a static type checker to confirm that a line of code is unreachable. Example: def int_or_str(arg: int | str) -> None: match arg: case int(): print("It's an int") case str(): print("It's a str") case _ as unreachable: assert_never(unreachable) Here, the annotations allow the type checker to infer that the last case can never execute, because ‘arg’ is either an *note int: 259. or a *note str: 447, and both options are covered by earlier cases. If a type checker finds that a call to ‘assert_never()’ is reachable, it will emit an error. For example, if the type annotation for ‘arg’ was instead ‘int | str | float’, the type checker would emit an error pointing out that ‘unreachable’ is of type *note float: 2f1. For a call to ‘assert_never’ to pass type checking, the inferred type of the argument passed in must be the bottom type, *note Never: 6a4, and nothing else. At runtime, this throws an exception when called. See also ........ Unreachable Code and Exhaustiveness Checking(1) has more information about exhaustiveness checking with static typing. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: typing.reveal_type (obj, /) Ask a static type checker to reveal the inferred type of an expression. When a static type checker encounters a call to this function, it emits a diagnostic with the inferred type of the argument. For example: x: int = 1 reveal_type(x) # Revealed type is "builtins.int" This can be useful when you want to debug how your type checker handles a particular piece of code. At runtime, this function prints the runtime type of its argument to *note sys.stderr: 939. and returns the argument unchanged (allowing the call to be used within an expression): x = reveal_type(1) # prints "Runtime type is int" print(x) # prints "1" Note that the runtime type may be different from (more or less specific than) the type statically inferred by a type checker. Most type checkers support ‘reveal_type()’ anywhere, even if the name is not imported from ‘typing’. Importing the name from ‘typing’, however, allows your code to run without runtime errors and communicates intent more clearly. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: @typing.dataclass_transform (*, eq_default=True, order_default=False, kw_only_default=False, frozen_default=False, field_specifiers=(), **kwargs) Decorator to mark an object as providing *note dataclass: 1cb.-like behavior. ‘dataclass_transform’ may be used to decorate a class, metaclass, or a function that is itself a decorator. The presence of ‘@dataclass_transform()’ tells a static type checker that the decorated object performs runtime “magic” that transforms a class in a similar way to *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb. Example usage with a decorator function: @dataclass_transform() def create_model[T](cls: type[T]) -> type[T]: ... return cls @create_model class CustomerModel: id: int name: str On a base class: @dataclass_transform() class ModelBase: ... class CustomerModel(ModelBase): id: int name: str On a metaclass: @dataclass_transform() class ModelMeta(type): ... class ModelBase(metaclass=ModelMeta): ... class CustomerModel(ModelBase): id: int name: str The ‘CustomerModel’ classes defined above will be treated by type checkers similarly to classes created with *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb. For example, type checkers will assume these classes have ‘__init__’ methods that accept ‘id’ and ‘name’. The decorated class, metaclass, or function may accept the following bool arguments which type checkers will assume have the same effect as they would have on the *note @dataclasses.dataclass: 1cb. decorator: ‘init’, ‘eq’, ‘order’, ‘unsafe_hash’, ‘frozen’, ‘match_args’, ‘kw_only’, and ‘slots’. It must be possible for the value of these arguments (‘True’ or ‘False’) to be statically evaluated. The arguments to the ‘dataclass_transform’ decorator can be used to customize the default behaviors of the decorated class, metaclass, or function: Parameters: * ‘eq_default’ (*note bool: 463.) – Indicates whether the ‘eq’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to ‘True’. * ‘order_default’ (*note bool: 463.) – Indicates whether the ‘order’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to ‘False’. * ‘kw_only_default’ (*note bool: 463.) – Indicates whether the ‘kw_only’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to ‘False’. * ‘frozen_default’ (*note bool: 463.) – Indicates whether the ‘frozen’ parameter is assumed to be ‘True’ or ‘False’ if it is omitted by the caller. Defaults to ‘False’. Added in version 3.12. * ‘field_specifiers’ (*note tuple: 36b.‘[’*note Callable: 7e5.‘[’‘...’‘, ’‘Any’‘]’‘, ’‘...’‘]’) – Specifies a static list of supported classes or functions that describe fields, similar to *note dataclasses.field(): 1a1f. Defaults to ‘()’. * ‘**kwargs’ (‘Any’) – Arbitrary other keyword arguments are accepted in order to allow for possible future extensions. Type checkers recognize the following optional parameters on field specifiers: 'Recognised parameters for field specifiers' Parameter name Description -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘init’ Indicates whether the field should be included in the synthesized ‘__init__’ method. If unspecified, ‘init’ defaults to ‘True’. ‘default’ Provides the default value for the field. ‘default_factory’ Provides a runtime callback that returns the default value for the field. If neither ‘default’ nor ‘default_factory’ are specified, the field is assumed to have no default value and must be provided a value when the class is instantiated. ‘factory’ An alias for the ‘default_factory’ parameter on field specifiers. ‘kw_only’ Indicates whether the field should be marked as keyword-only. If ‘True’, the field will be keyword-only. If ‘False’, it will not be keyword-only. If unspecified, the value of the ‘kw_only’ parameter on the object decorated with ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used, or if that is unspecified, the value of ‘kw_only_default’ on ‘dataclass_transform’ will be used. ‘alias’ Provides an alternative name for the field. This alternative name is used in the synthesized ‘__init__’ method. At runtime, this decorator records its arguments in the ‘__dataclass_transform__’ attribute on the decorated object. It has no other runtime effect. See PEP 681(2) for more details. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: @typing.overload Decorator for creating overloaded functions and methods. The ‘@overload’ decorator allows describing functions and methods that support multiple different combinations of argument types. A series of ‘@overload’-decorated definitions must be followed by exactly one non-‘@overload’-decorated definition (for the same function/method). ‘@overload’-decorated definitions are for the benefit of the type checker only, since they will be overwritten by the non-‘@overload’-decorated definition. The non-‘@overload’-decorated definition, meanwhile, will be used at runtime but should be ignored by a type checker. At runtime, calling an ‘@overload’-decorated function directly will raise *note NotImplementedError: 22a. An example of overload that gives a more precise type than can be expressed using a union or a type variable: @overload def process(response: None) -> None: ... @overload def process(response: int) -> tuple[int, str]: ... @overload def process(response: bytes) -> str: ... def process(response): ... # actual implementation goes here See PEP 484(3) for more details and comparison with other typing semantics. Changed in version 3.11: Overloaded functions can now be introspected at runtime using *note get_overloads(): 6aa. -- Function: typing.get_overloads (func) Return a sequence of *note @overload: 3fb3.-decorated definitions for 'func'. 'func' is the function object for the implementation of the overloaded function. For example, given the definition of ‘process’ in the documentation for *note @overload: 3fb3, ‘get_overloads(process)’ will return a sequence of three function objects for the three defined overloads. If called on a function with no overloads, ‘get_overloads()’ returns an empty sequence. ‘get_overloads()’ can be used for introspecting an overloaded function at runtime. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: typing.clear_overloads () Clear all registered overloads in the internal registry. This can be used to reclaim the memory used by the registry. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: @typing.final Decorator to indicate final methods and final classes. Decorating a method with ‘@final’ indicates to a type checker that the method cannot be overridden in a subclass. Decorating a class with ‘@final’ indicates that it cannot be subclassed. For example: class Base: @final def done(self) -> None: ... class Sub(Base): def done(self) -> None: # Error reported by type checker ... @final class Leaf: ... class Other(Leaf): # Error reported by type checker ... There is no runtime checking of these properties. See PEP 591(4) for more details. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.11: The decorator will now attempt to set a ‘__final__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object. Thus, a check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__final__", False)’ can be used at runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as final. If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an exception. -- Function: @typing.no_type_check Decorator to indicate that annotations are not type hints. This works as a class or function *note decorator: 72c. With a class, it applies recursively to all methods and classes defined in that class (but not to methods defined in its superclasses or subclasses). Type checkers will ignore all annotations in a function or class with this decorator. ‘@no_type_check’ mutates the decorated object in place. -- Function: @typing.no_type_check_decorator Decorator to give another decorator the *note no_type_check(): 6b0. effect. This wraps the decorator with something that wraps the decorated function in *note no_type_check(): 6b0. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: No type checker ever added support for ‘@no_type_check_decorator’. It is therefore deprecated, and will be removed in Python 3.15. -- Function: @typing.override Decorator to indicate that a method in a subclass is intended to override a method or attribute in a superclass. Type checkers should emit an error if a method decorated with ‘@override’ does not, in fact, override anything. This helps prevent bugs that may occur when a base class is changed without an equivalent change to a child class. For example: class Base: def log_status(self) -> None: ... class Sub(Base): @override def log_status(self) -> None: # Okay: overrides Base.log_status ... @override def done(self) -> None: # Error reported by type checker ... There is no runtime checking of this property. The decorator will attempt to set an ‘__override__’ attribute to ‘True’ on the decorated object. Thus, a check like ‘if getattr(obj, "__override__", False)’ can be used at runtime to determine whether an object ‘obj’ has been marked as an override. If the decorated object does not support setting attributes, the decorator returns the object unchanged without raising an exception. See PEP 698(5) for more details. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: @typing.type_check_only Decorator to mark a class or function as unavailable at runtime. This decorator is itself not available at runtime. It is mainly intended to mark classes that are defined in type stub files if an implementation returns an instance of a private class: @type_check_only class Response: # private or not available at runtime code: int def get_header(self, name: str) -> str: ... def fetch_response() -> Response: ... Note that returning instances of private classes is not recommended. It is usually preferable to make such classes public. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://typing.python.org/en/latest/guides/unreachable.html (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0681/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0591/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0698/  File: python.info, Node: Introspection helpers, Next: Constant, Prev: Functions and decorators, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.21 Introspection helpers ............................... -- Function: typing.get_type_hints (obj, globalns=None, localns=None, include_extras=False) Return a dictionary containing type hints for a function, method, module or class object. This is often the same as ‘obj.__annotations__’, but this function makes the following changes to the annotations dictionary: * Forward references encoded as string literals or *note ForwardRef: 1843. objects are handled by evaluating them in 'globalns', 'localns', and (where applicable) 'obj'’s *note type parameter: 2b5. namespace. If 'globalns' or 'localns' is not given, appropriate namespace dictionaries are inferred from 'obj'. * ‘None’ is replaced with *note types.NoneType: 84e. * If *note @no_type_check: 6b0. has been applied to 'obj', an empty dictionary is returned. * If 'obj' is a class ‘C’, the function returns a dictionary that merges annotations from ‘C’’s base classes with those on ‘C’ directly. This is done by traversing *note C.__mro__: 1f29. and iteratively combining ‘__annotations__’ dictionaries. Annotations on classes appearing earlier in the *note method resolution order: 2180. always take precedence over annotations on classes appearing later in the method resolution order. * The function recursively replaces all occurrences of ‘Annotated[T, ...]’ with ‘T’, unless 'include_extras' is set to ‘True’ (see *note Annotated: 93d. for more information). See also *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f, a lower-level function that returns annotations more directly. Note: If any forward references in the annotations of 'obj' are not resolvable or are not valid Python code, this function will raise an exception such as *note NameError: 43a. For example, this can happen with imported *note type aliases: 44f. that include forward references, or with names imported under *note if TYPE_CHECKING: cf4. Changed in version 3.9: Added ‘include_extras’ parameter as part of PEP 593(1). See the documentation on *note Annotated: 93d. for more information. Changed in version 3.11: Previously, ‘Optional[t]’ was added for function and method annotations if a default value equal to ‘None’ was set. Now the annotation is returned unchanged. -- Function: typing.get_origin (tp) Get the unsubscripted version of a type: for a typing object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘X’. If ‘X’ is a typing-module alias for a builtin or *note collections: 1d. class, it will be normalized to the original class. If ‘X’ is an instance of *note ParamSpecArgs: 7c1. or *note ParamSpecKwargs: 7c2, return the underlying *note ParamSpec: 15e. Return ‘None’ for unsupported objects. Examples: assert get_origin(str) is None assert get_origin(Dict[str, int]) is dict assert get_origin(Union[int, str]) is Union assert get_origin(Annotated[str, "metadata"]) is Annotated P = ParamSpec('P') assert get_origin(P.args) is P assert get_origin(P.kwargs) is P Added in version 3.8. -- Function: typing.get_args (tp) Get type arguments with all substitutions performed: for a typing object of the form ‘X[Y, Z, ...]’ return ‘(Y, Z, ...)’. If ‘X’ is a union or *note Literal: 851. contained in another generic type, the order of ‘(Y, Z, ...)’ may be different from the order of the original arguments ‘[Y, Z, ...]’ due to type caching. Return ‘()’ for unsupported objects. Examples: assert get_args(int) == () assert get_args(Dict[int, str]) == (int, str) assert get_args(Union[int, str]) == (int, str) Added in version 3.8. -- Function: typing.get_protocol_members (tp) Return the set of members defined in a *note Protocol: 266. >>> from typing import Protocol, get_protocol_members >>> class P(Protocol): ... def a(self) -> str: ... ... b: int >>> get_protocol_members(P) == frozenset({'a', 'b'}) True Raise *note TypeError: 534. for arguments that are not Protocols. Added in version 3.13. -- Function: typing.is_protocol (tp) Determine if a type is a *note Protocol: 266. For example: class P(Protocol): def a(self) -> str: ... b: int is_protocol(P) # => True is_protocol(int) # => False Added in version 3.13. -- Function: typing.is_typeddict (tp) Check if a type is a *note TypedDict: 162. For example: class Film(TypedDict): title: str year: int assert is_typeddict(Film) assert not is_typeddict(list | str) # TypedDict is a factory for creating typed dicts, # not a typed dict itself assert not is_typeddict(TypedDict) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: typing.ForwardRef Class used for internal typing representation of string forward references. For example, ‘List["SomeClass"]’ is implicitly transformed into ‘List[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’. ‘ForwardRef’ should not be instantiated by a user, but may be used by introspection tools. Note: PEP 585(2) generic types such as ‘list["SomeClass"]’ will not be implicitly transformed into ‘list[ForwardRef("SomeClass")]’ and thus will not automatically resolve to ‘list[SomeClass]’. Added in version 3.7.4. -- Data: typing.NoDefault A sentinel object used to indicate that a type parameter has no default value. For example: >>> T = TypeVar("T") >>> T.__default__ is typing.NoDefault True >>> S = TypeVar("S", default=None) >>> S.__default__ is None True Added in version 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0593/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Constant, Next: Deprecated aliases, Prev: Introspection helpers, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.22 Constant .................. -- Data: typing.TYPE_CHECKING A special constant that is assumed to be ‘True’ by 3rd party static type checkers. It is ‘False’ at runtime. Usage: if TYPE_CHECKING: import expensive_mod def fun(arg: 'expensive_mod.SomeType') -> None: local_var: expensive_mod.AnotherType = other_fun() The first type annotation must be enclosed in quotes, making it a “forward reference”, to hide the ‘expensive_mod’ reference from the interpreter runtime. Type annotations for local variables are not evaluated, so the second annotation does not need to be enclosed in quotes. Note: If ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is used, annotations are not evaluated at function definition time. Instead, they are stored as strings in ‘__annotations__’. This makes it unnecessary to use quotes around the annotation (see PEP 563(1)). Added in version 3.5.2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecated aliases, Prev: Constant, Up: Module contents<3> 5.27.1.23 Deprecated aliases ............................ This module defines several deprecated aliases to pre-existing standard library classes. These were originally included in the ‘typing’ module in order to support parameterizing these generic classes using ‘[]’. However, the aliases became redundant in Python 3.9 when the corresponding pre-existing classes were enhanced to support ‘[]’ (see PEP 585(1)). The redundant types are deprecated as of Python 3.9. However, while the aliases may be removed at some point, removal of these aliases is not currently planned. As such, no deprecation warnings are currently issued by the interpreter for these aliases. If at some point it is decided to remove these deprecated aliases, a deprecation warning will be issued by the interpreter for at least two releases prior to removal. The aliases are guaranteed to remain in the ‘typing’ module without deprecation warnings until at least Python 3.14. Type checkers are encouraged to flag uses of the deprecated types if the program they are checking targets a minimum Python version of 3.9 or newer. * Menu: * Aliases to built-in types:: * Aliases to types in collections:: * Aliases to other concrete types:: * Aliases to container ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. * Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. * Aliases to other ABCs in collections.abc: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. * Aliases to contextlib ABCs:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to built-in types, Next: Aliases to types in collections, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.24 Aliases to built-in types ................................... -- Class: typing.Dict (dict, MutableMapping[KT, VT]) Deprecated alias to *note dict: 258. Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract collection type such as *note Mapping: 8c9. rather than to use *note dict: 258. or ‘typing.Dict’. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note builtins.dict: 258. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.List (list, MutableSequence[T]) Deprecated alias to *note list: 60d. Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract collection type such as *note Sequence: 11b6. or *note Iterable: 224d. rather than to use *note list: 60d. or ‘typing.List’. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note builtins.list: 60d. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(2) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Set (set, MutableSet[T]) Deprecated alias to *note builtins.set: 5d5. Note that to annotate arguments, it is preferred to use an abstract collection type such as *note collections.abc.Set: 2245. rather than to use *note set: 5d5. or *note typing.Set: 3fbe. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note builtins.set: 5d5. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(3) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.FrozenSet (frozenset, AbstractSet[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note builtins.frozenset: 5d6. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note builtins.frozenset: 5d6. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(4) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Data: typing.Tuple Deprecated alias for *note tuple: 36b. *note tuple: 36b. and ‘Tuple’ are special-cased in the type system; see *note Annotating tuples: 3f7b. for more details. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note builtins.tuple: 36b. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(5) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Type (Generic[CT_co]) Deprecated alias to *note type: d48. See *note The type of class objects: 3f7e. for details on using *note type: d48. or ‘typing.Type’ in type annotations. Added in version 3.5.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note builtins.type: d48. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(6) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to types in collections, Next: Aliases to other concrete types, Prev: Aliases to built-in types, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.25 Aliases to types in ‘collections’ ........................................... -- Class: typing.DefaultDict (collections.defaultdict, MutableMapping[KT, VT]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.defaultdict: 11af. Added in version 3.5.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.defaultdict: 11af. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.OrderedDict (collections.OrderedDict, MutableMapping[KT, VT]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. Added in version 3.7.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(2) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.ChainMap (collections.ChainMap, MutableMapping[KT, VT]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.ChainMap: c1c. Added in version 3.6.1. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.ChainMap: c1c. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(3) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Counter (collections.Counter, Dict[T, int]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.Counter: 108b. Added in version 3.6.1. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.Counter: 108b. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(4) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Deque (deque, MutableSequence[T]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.deque: 5d8. Added in version 3.6.1. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.deque: 5d8. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(5) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to other concrete types, Next: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc, Prev: Aliases to types in collections, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.26 Aliases to other concrete types ......................................... -- Class: typing.Pattern -- Class: typing.Match Deprecated aliases corresponding to the return types from *note re.compile(): bd3. and *note re.match(): 1220. These types (and the corresponding functions) are generic over *note AnyStr: 2b4. ‘Pattern’ can be specialised as ‘Pattern[str]’ or ‘Pattern[bytes]’; ‘Match’ can be specialised as ‘Match[str]’ or ‘Match[bytes]’. Deprecated since version 3.9: Classes ‘Pattern’ and ‘Match’ from *note re: b9. now support ‘[]’. See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Text Deprecated alias for *note str: 447. ‘Text’ is provided to supply a forward compatible path for Python 2 code: in Python 2, ‘Text’ is an alias for ‘unicode’. Use ‘Text’ to indicate that a value must contain a unicode string in a manner that is compatible with both Python 2 and Python 3: def add_unicode_checkmark(text: Text) -> Text: return text + u' \u2713' Added in version 3.5.2. Deprecated since version 3.11: Python 2 is no longer supported, and most type checkers also no longer support type checking Python 2 code. Removal of the alias is not currently planned, but users are encouraged to use *note str: 447. instead of ‘Text’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc, Next: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc, Prev: Aliases to other concrete types, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.27 Aliases to container ABCs in ‘collections.abc’ ........................................................ -- Class: typing.AbstractSet (Collection[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Set: 2245. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Set: 2245. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.ByteString (Sequence[int]) This type represents the types *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 53a, and *note memoryview: 464. of byte sequences. Deprecated since version 3.9, will be removed in version 3.14: Prefer *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6, or a union like ‘bytes | bytearray | memoryview’. -- Class: typing.Collection (Sized, Iterable[T_co], Container[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Collection: c88. Added in version 3.6. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Collection: c88. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(2) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Container (Generic[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Container: 224f. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Container: 224f. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(3) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.ItemsView (MappingView, AbstractSet[tuple[KT_co, VT_co]]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 2253. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.ItemsView: 2253. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(4) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.KeysView (MappingView, AbstractSet[KT_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.KeysView: 2252. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.KeysView: 2252. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(5) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Mapping (Collection[KT], Generic[KT, VT_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(6) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.MappingView (Sized) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2251. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.MappingView: 2251. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(7) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.MutableMapping (Mapping[KT, VT]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 10a2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 10a2. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(8) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.MutableSequence (Sequence[T]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableSequence: 1a1. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(9) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.MutableSet (AbstractSet[T]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2250. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.MutableSet: 2250. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(10) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Sequence (Reversible[T_co], Collection[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b6. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b6. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(11) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.ValuesView (MappingView, Collection[_VT_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 2254. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.ValuesView: 2254. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(12) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc, Next: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc, Prev: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.28 Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in ‘collections.abc’ ........................................................... -- Class: typing.Coroutine (Awaitable[ReturnType], Generic[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Coroutine: ddc. See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2534. for details on using *note collections.abc.Coroutine: ddc. and ‘typing.Coroutine’ in type annotations. Added in version 3.5.3. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Coroutine: ddc. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.AsyncGenerator (AsyncIterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType, SendType]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c8a. See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2534. for details on using *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c8a. and ‘typing.AsyncGenerator’ in type annotations. Added in version 3.6.1. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.AsyncGenerator: c8a. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(2) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. Changed in version 3.13: The ‘SendType’ parameter now has a default. -- Class: typing.AsyncIterable (Generic[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: dde. Added in version 3.5.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterable: dde. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(3) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.AsyncIterator (AsyncIterable[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: ddd. Added in version 3.5.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.AsyncIterator: ddd. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(4) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Awaitable (Generic[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Awaitable: ddb. Added in version 3.5.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Awaitable: ddb. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(5) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc, Next: Aliases to contextlib ABCs, Prev: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.29 Aliases to other ABCs in ‘collections.abc’ .................................................... -- Class: typing.Iterable (Generic[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterable: 224d. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Iterable: 224d. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Iterator (Iterable[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Iterator: 224e. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Iterator: 224e. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(2) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Data: typing.Callable Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. See *note Annotating callable objects: 2533. for details on how to use *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. and ‘typing.Callable’ in type annotations. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Callable: 7e5. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(3) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. Changed in version 3.10: ‘Callable’ now supports *note ParamSpec: 15e. and *note Concatenate: 7bf. See PEP 612(4) for more details. -- Class: typing.Generator (Iterator[YieldType], Generic[YieldType, SendType, ReturnType]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Generator: dda. See *note Annotating generators and coroutines: 2534. for details on using *note collections.abc.Generator: dda. and ‘typing.Generator’ in type annotations. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Generator: dda. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(5) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. Changed in version 3.13: Default values for the send and return types were added. -- Class: typing.Hashable Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4f1. Deprecated since version 3.12: Use *note collections.abc.Hashable: 4f1. directly instead. -- Class: typing.Reversible (Iterable[T_co]) Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Reversible: c89. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note collections.abc.Reversible: c89. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(6) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. -- Class: typing.Sized Deprecated alias to *note collections.abc.Sized: 4f2. Deprecated since version 3.12: Use *note collections.abc.Sized: 4f2. directly instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0612/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Aliases to contextlib ABCs, Prev: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc, Up: Deprecated aliases 5.27.1.30 Aliases to ‘contextlib’ ABCs ...................................... -- Class: typing.ContextManager (Generic[T_co, ExitT_co]) Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8d. The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by the *note __enter__(): 5c4. method. The optional second type parameter, ‘ExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents the type returned by the *note __exit__(): 12f3. method. Added in version 3.5.4. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note contextlib.AbstractContextManager: c8d. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(1) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. Changed in version 3.13: Added the optional second type parameter, ‘ExitT_co’. -- Class: typing.AsyncContextManager (Generic[T_co, AExitT_co]) Deprecated alias to *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b2b. The first type parameter, ‘T_co’, represents the type returned by the *note __aenter__(): 1fd0. method. The optional second type parameter, ‘AExitT_co’, which defaults to ‘bool | None’, represents the type returned by the *note __aexit__(): 162a. method. Added in version 3.6.2. Deprecated since version 3.9: *note contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager: b2b. now supports subscripting (‘[]’). See PEP 585(2) and *note Generic Alias Type: 6ae. Changed in version 3.13: Added the optional second type parameter, ‘AExitT_co’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/  File: python.info, Node: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features, Prev: Module contents<3>, Up: typing — Support for type hints 5.27.1.31 Deprecation Timeline of Major Features ................................................ Certain features in ‘typing’ are deprecated and may be removed in a future version of Python. The following table summarizes major deprecations for your convenience. This is subject to change, and not all deprecations are listed. Feature Deprecated in Projected removal PEP/issue ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ‘typing’ versions of 3.9 Undecided (see PEP 585(1) standard collections *note Deprecated aliases: 3fb8. for more information) *note typing.ByteString: 2d7. 3.9 3.14 gh-91896(2) *note typing.Text: 305. 3.11 Undecided gh-92332(3) *note typing.Hashable: 4ef. 3.12 Undecided gh-94309(4) and *note typing.Sized: 4f0. *note typing.TypeAlias: 7c4. 3.12 Undecided PEP 695(5) *note @typing.no_type_check_decorator: 2b3.3.13 3.15 gh-106309(6) *note typing.AnyStr: 2b4. 3.13 3.18 gh-105578(7) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94309 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0695/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/106309 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/105578  File: python.info, Node: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system, Next: Python Development Mode, Prev: typing — Support for type hints, Up: Development Tools 5.27.2 ‘pydoc’ — Documentation generator and online help system --------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/pydoc.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The ‘pydoc’ module automatically generates documentation from Python modules. The documentation can be presented as pages of text on the console, served to a web browser, or saved to HTML files. For modules, classes, functions and methods, the displayed documentation is derived from the docstring (i.e. the *note __doc__: 927. attribute) of the object, and recursively of its documentable members. If there is no docstring, ‘pydoc’ tries to obtain a description from the block of comment lines just above the definition of the class, function or method in the source file, or at the top of the module (see *note inspect.getcomments(): 15c7.). The built-in function *note help(): 8d6. invokes the online help system in the interactive interpreter, which uses ‘pydoc’ to generate its documentation as text on the console. The same text documentation can also be viewed from outside the Python interpreter by running ‘pydoc’ as a script at the operating system’s command prompt. For example, running python -m pydoc sys at a shell prompt will display documentation on the *note sys: d9. module, in a style similar to the manual pages shown by the Unix ‘man’ command. The argument to ‘pydoc’ can be the name of a function, module, or package, or a dotted reference to a class, method, or function within a module or module in a package. If the argument to ‘pydoc’ looks like a path (that is, it contains the path separator for your operating system, such as a slash in Unix), and refers to an existing Python source file, then documentation is produced for that file. Note: In order to find objects and their documentation, ‘pydoc’ imports the module(s) to be documented. Therefore, any code on module level will be executed on that occasion. Use an ‘if __name__ == '__main__':’ guard to only execute code when a file is invoked as a script and not just imported. When printing output to the console, ‘pydoc’ attempts to paginate the output for easier reading. If either the ‘MANPAGER’ or the ‘PAGER’ environment variable is set, ‘pydoc’ will use its value as a pagination program. When both are set, ‘MANPAGER’ is used. Specifying a ‘-w’ flag before the argument will cause HTML documentation to be written out to a file in the current directory, instead of displaying text on the console. Specifying a ‘-k’ flag before the argument will search the synopsis lines of all available modules for the keyword given as the argument, again in a manner similar to the Unix ‘man’ command. The synopsis line of a module is the first line of its documentation string. You can also use ‘pydoc’ to start an HTTP server on the local machine that will serve documentation to visiting web browsers. ‘python -m pydoc -p 1234’ will start a HTTP server on port 1234, allowing you to browse the documentation at ‘http://localhost:1234/’ in your preferred web browser. Specifying ‘0’ as the port number will select an arbitrary unused port. ‘python -m pydoc -n <hostname>’ will start the server listening at the given hostname. By default the hostname is ‘localhost’ but if you want the server to be reached from other machines, you may want to change the host name that the server responds to. During development this is especially useful if you want to run pydoc from within a container. ‘python -m pydoc -b’ will start the server and additionally open a web browser to a module index page. Each served page has a navigation bar at the top where you can 'Get' help on an individual item, 'Search' all modules with a keyword in their synopsis line, and go to the 'Module index', 'Topics' and 'Keywords' pages. When ‘pydoc’ generates documentation, it uses the current environment and path to locate modules. Thus, invoking ‘pydoc spam’ documents precisely the version of the module you would get if you started the Python interpreter and typed ‘import spam’. Module docs for core modules are assumed to reside in ‘https://docs.python.org/X.Y/library/’ where ‘X’ and ‘Y’ are the major and minor version numbers of the Python interpreter. This can be overridden by setting the ‘PYTHONDOCS’ environment variable to a different URL or to a local directory containing the Library Reference Manual pages. Changed in version 3.2: Added the ‘-b’ option. Changed in version 3.3: The ‘-g’ command line option was removed. Changed in version 3.4: ‘pydoc’ now uses *note inspect.signature(): 733. rather than *note inspect.getfullargspec(): 734. to extract signature information from callables. Changed in version 3.7: Added the ‘-n’ option. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pydoc.py  File: python.info, Node: Python Development Mode, Next: doctest — Test interactive Python examples, Prev: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system, Up: Development Tools 5.27.3 Python Development Mode ------------------------------ Added in version 3.7. The Python Development Mode introduces additional runtime checks that are too expensive to be enabled by default. It should not be more verbose than the default if the code is correct; new warnings are only emitted when an issue is detected. It can be enabled using the *note -X dev: 176. command line option or by setting the *note PYTHONDEVMODE: aed. environment variable to ‘1’. See also *note Python debug build: 1fb. * Menu: * Effects of the Python Development Mode:: * ResourceWarning Example:: * Bad file descriptor error example::  File: python.info, Node: Effects of the Python Development Mode, Next: ResourceWarning Example, Up: Python Development Mode 5.27.3.1 Effects of the Python Development Mode ............................................... Enabling the Python Development Mode is similar to the following command, but with additional effects described below: PYTHONMALLOC=debug PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG=1 python -W default -X faulthandler Effects of the Python Development Mode: * Add ‘default’ *note warning filter: 1d39. The following warnings are shown: * *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. * *note ImportWarning: 4f6. * *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. * *note ResourceWarning: 246. Normally, the above warnings are filtered by the default *note warning filters: 1d39. It behaves as if the *note -W default: 8c6. command line option is used. Use the *note -W error: 8c6. command line option or set the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable to ‘error’ to treat warnings as errors. * Install debug hooks on memory allocators to check for: * Buffer underflow * Buffer overflow * Memory allocator API violation * Unsafe usage of the GIL See the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. C function. It behaves as if the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable is set to ‘debug’. To enable the Python Development Mode without installing debug hooks on memory allocators, set the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable to ‘default’. * Call *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. at Python startup to install handlers for the *note SIGSEGV: 1d49, *note SIGFPE: 1d4a, *note SIGABRT: 1d4b, *note SIGBUS: 1d4c. and *note SIGILL: 1d4d. signals to dump the Python traceback on a crash. It behaves as if the *note -X faulthandler: 176. command line option is used or if the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1079. environment variable is set to ‘1’. * Enable *note asyncio debug mode: 1d4f. For example, *note asyncio: a. checks for coroutines that were not awaited and logs them. It behaves as if the *note PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: 1d4e. environment variable is set to ‘1’. * Check the 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments for string encoding and decoding operations. Examples: *note open(): 517, *note str.encode(): 8d4. and *note bytes.decode(): 8d5. By default, for best performance, the 'errors' argument is only checked at the first encoding/decoding error and the 'encoding' argument is sometimes ignored for empty strings. * The *note io.IOBase: 1f7. destructor logs ‘close()’ exceptions. * Set the *note dev_mode: 1aa0. attribute of *note sys.flags: 688. to ‘True’. The Python Development Mode does not enable the *note tracemalloc: ff. module by default, because the overhead cost (to performance and memory) would be too large. Enabling the *note tracemalloc: ff. module provides additional information on the origin of some errors. For example, *note ResourceWarning: 246. logs the traceback where the resource was allocated, and a buffer overflow error logs the traceback where the memory block was allocated. The Python Development Mode does not prevent the *note -O: db4. command line option from removing *note assert: 968. statements nor from setting *note __debug__: 7d5. to ‘False’. The Python Development Mode can only be enabled at the Python startup. Its value can be read from *note sys.flags.dev_mode: 688. Changed in version 3.8: The *note io.IOBase: 1f7. destructor now logs ‘close()’ exceptions. Changed in version 3.9: The 'encoding' and 'errors' arguments are now checked for string encoding and decoding operations.  File: python.info, Node: ResourceWarning Example, Next: Bad file descriptor error example, Prev: Effects of the Python Development Mode, Up: Python Development Mode 5.27.3.2 ResourceWarning Example ................................ Example of a script counting the number of lines of the text file specified in the command line: import sys def main(): fp = open(sys.argv[1]) nlines = len(fp.readlines()) print(nlines) # The file is closed implicitly if __name__ == "__main__": main() The script does not close the file explicitly. By default, Python does not emit any warning. Example using README.txt, which has 269 lines: $ python script.py README.txt 269 Enabling the Python Development Mode displays a *note ResourceWarning: 246. warning: $ python -X dev script.py README.txt 269 script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'> main() ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback In addition, enabling *note tracemalloc: ff. shows the line where the file was opened: $ python -X dev -X tracemalloc=5 script.py README.rst 269 script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='README.rst' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'> main() Object allocated at (most recent call last): File "script.py", lineno 10 main() File "script.py", lineno 4 fp = open(sys.argv[1]) The fix is to close explicitly the file. Example using a context manager: def main(): # Close the file explicitly when exiting the with block with open(sys.argv[1]) as fp: nlines = len(fp.readlines()) print(nlines) Not closing a resource explicitly can leave a resource open for way longer than expected; it can cause severe issues upon exiting Python. It is bad in CPython, but it is even worse in PyPy. Closing resources explicitly makes an application more deterministic and more reliable.  File: python.info, Node: Bad file descriptor error example, Prev: ResourceWarning Example, Up: Python Development Mode 5.27.3.3 Bad file descriptor error example .......................................... Script displaying the first line of itself: import os def main(): fp = open(__file__) firstline = fp.readline() print(firstline.rstrip()) os.close(fp.fileno()) # The file is closed implicitly main() By default, Python does not emit any warning: $ python script.py import os The Python Development Mode shows a *note ResourceWarning: 246. and logs a “Bad file descriptor” error when finalizing the file object: $ python -X dev script.py import os script.py:10: ResourceWarning: unclosed file <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'> main() ResourceWarning: Enable tracemalloc to get the object allocation traceback Exception ignored in: <_io.TextIOWrapper name='script.py' mode='r' encoding='UTF-8'> Traceback (most recent call last): File "script.py", line 10, in <module> main() OSError: [Errno 9] Bad file descriptor ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ closes the file descriptor. When the file object finalizer tries to close the file descriptor again, it fails with the ‘Bad file descriptor’ error. A file descriptor must be closed only once. In the worst case scenario, closing it twice can lead to a crash (see bpo-18748(1) for an example). The fix is to remove the ‘os.close(fp.fileno())’ line, or open the file with ‘closefd=False’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=18748  File: python.info, Node: doctest — Test interactive Python examples, Next: unittest — Unit testing framework, Prev: Python Development Mode, Up: Development Tools 5.27.4 ‘doctest’ — Test interactive Python examples --------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/doctest.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note doctest: 3a. module searches for pieces of text that look like interactive Python sessions, and then executes those sessions to verify that they work exactly as shown. There are several common ways to use doctest: * To check that a module’s docstrings are up-to-date by verifying that all interactive examples still work as documented. * To perform regression testing by verifying that interactive examples from a test file or a test object work as expected. * To write tutorial documentation for a package, liberally illustrated with input-output examples. Depending on whether the examples or the expository text are emphasized, this has the flavor of “literate testing” or “executable documentation”. Here’s a complete but small example module: """ This is the "example" module. The example module supplies one function, factorial(). For example, >>> factorial(5) 120 """ def factorial(n): """Return the factorial of n, an exact integer >= 0. >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)] [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120] >>> factorial(30) 265252859812191058636308480000000 >>> factorial(-1) Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: n must be >= 0 Factorials of floats are OK, but the float must be an exact integer: >>> factorial(30.1) Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: n must be exact integer >>> factorial(30.0) 265252859812191058636308480000000 It must also not be ridiculously large: >>> factorial(1e100) Traceback (most recent call last): ... OverflowError: n too large """ import math if not n >= 0: raise ValueError("n must be >= 0") if math.floor(n) != n: raise ValueError("n must be exact integer") if n+1 == n: # catch a value like 1e300 raise OverflowError("n too large") result = 1 factor = 2 while factor <= n: result *= factor factor += 1 return result if __name__ == "__main__": import doctest doctest.testmod() If you run ‘example.py’ directly from the command line, *note doctest: 3a. works its magic: $ python example.py $ There’s no output! That’s normal, and it means all the examples worked. Pass ‘-v’ to the script, and *note doctest: 3a. prints a detailed log of what it’s trying, and prints a summary at the end: $ python example.py -v Trying: factorial(5) Expecting: 120 ok Trying: [factorial(n) for n in range(6)] Expecting: [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120] ok And so on, eventually ending with: Trying: factorial(1e100) Expecting: Traceback (most recent call last): ... OverflowError: n too large ok 2 items passed all tests: 1 test in __main__ 6 tests in __main__.factorial 7 tests in 2 items. 7 passed. Test passed. $ That’s all you need to know to start making productive use of *note doctest: 3a.! Jump in. The following sections provide full details. Note that there are many examples of doctests in the standard Python test suite and libraries. Especially useful examples can be found in the standard test file ‘Lib/test/test_doctest/test_doctest.py’. * Menu: * Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings. * Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File. * Command-line Usage:: * How It Works:: * Basic API:: * Unittest API:: * Advanced API:: * Debugging:: * Soapbox:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/doctest.py  File: python.info, Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings, Next: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.1 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings ...................................................... The simplest way to start using doctest (but not necessarily the way you’ll continue to do it) is to end each module ‘M’ with: if __name__ == "__main__": import doctest doctest.testmod() ‘doctest’ then examines docstrings in module ‘M’. Running the module as a script causes the examples in the docstrings to get executed and verified: python M.py This won’t display anything unless an example fails, in which case the failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, and the final line of output is ‘***Test Failed*** N failures.’, where 'N' is the number of examples that failed. Run it with the ‘-v’ switch instead: python M.py -v and a detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard output, along with assorted summaries at the end. You can force verbose mode by passing ‘verbose=True’ to *note testmod(): 1436, or prohibit it by passing ‘verbose=False’. In either of those cases, *note sys.argv: 1258. is not examined by *note testmod(): 1436. (so passing ‘-v’ or not has no effect). There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testmod(): 1436, see section *note Command-line Usage: 3ff1. For more information on *note testmod(): 1436, see section *note Basic API: 3ff2.  File: python.info, Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File, Next: Command-line Usage, Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.2 Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File ....................................................... Another simple application of doctest is testing interactive examples in a text file. This can be done with the *note testfile(): 3ff5. function: import doctest doctest.testfile("example.txt") That short script executes and verifies any interactive Python examples contained in the file ‘example.txt’. The file content is treated as if it were a single giant docstring; the file doesn’t need to contain a Python program! For example, perhaps ‘example.txt’ contains this: The ``example`` module ====================== Using ``factorial`` ------------------- This is an example text file in reStructuredText format. First import ``factorial`` from the ``example`` module: >>> from example import factorial Now use it: >>> factorial(6) 120 Running ‘doctest.testfile("example.txt")’ then finds the error in this documentation: File "./example.txt", line 14, in example.txt Failed example: factorial(6) Expected: 120 Got: 720 As with *note testmod(): 1436, *note testfile(): 3ff5. won’t display anything unless an example fails. If an example does fail, then the failing example(s) and the cause(s) of the failure(s) are printed to stdout, using the same format as ‘testmod()’. By default, *note testfile(): 3ff5. looks for files in the calling module’s directory. See section *note Basic API: 3ff2. for a description of the optional arguments that can be used to tell it to look for files in other locations. Like *note testmod(): 1436, *note testfile(): 3ff5.’s verbosity can be set with the ‘-v’ command-line switch or with the optional keyword argument 'verbose'. There is also a command line shortcut for running *note testfile(): 3ff5, see section *note Command-line Usage: 3ff1. For more information on *note testfile(): 3ff5, see section *note Basic API: 3ff2.  File: python.info, Node: Command-line Usage, Next: How It Works, Prev: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.3 Command-line Usage ........................... The *note doctest: 3a. module can be invoked as a script from the command line: python -m doctest [-v] [-o OPTION] [-f] file [file ...] -- Option: -v, --verbose Detailed report of all examples tried is printed to standard output, along with assorted summaries at the end: python -m doctest -v example.py This will import ‘example.py’ as a standalone module and run *note testmod(): 1436. on it. Note that this may not work correctly if the file is part of a package and imports other submodules from that package. If the file name does not end with ‘.py’, ‘doctest’ infers that it must be run with *note testfile(): 3ff5. instead: python -m doctest -v example.txt -- Option: -o, --option <option> Option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior, see section *note Option Flags: f2e. Added in version 3.4. -- Option: -f, --fail-fast This is shorthand for ‘-o FAIL_FAST’. Added in version 3.4.  File: python.info, Node: How It Works, Next: Basic API, Prev: Command-line Usage, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.4 How It Works ..................... This section examines in detail how doctest works: which docstrings it looks at, how it finds interactive examples, what execution context it uses, how it handles exceptions, and how option flags can be used to control its behavior. This is the information that you need to know to write doctest examples; for information about actually running doctest on these examples, see the following sections. * Menu: * Which Docstrings Are Examined?:: * How are Docstring Examples Recognized?:: * What’s the Execution Context?:: * What About Exceptions?:: * Option Flags:: * Directives:: * Warnings: Warnings<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?, Next: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.5 Which Docstrings Are Examined? ....................................... The module docstring, and all function, class and method docstrings are searched. Objects imported into the module are not searched. In addition, there are cases when you want tests to be part of a module but not part of the help text, which requires that the tests not be included in the docstring. Doctest looks for a module-level variable called ‘__test__’ and uses it to locate other tests. If ‘M.__test__’ exists, it must be a dict, and each entry maps a (string) name to a function object, class object, or string. Function and class object docstrings found from ‘M.__test__’ are searched, and strings are treated as if they were docstrings. In output, a key ‘K’ in ‘M.__test__’ appears with name ‘M.__test__.K’. For example, place this block of code at the top of ‘example.py’: __test__ = { 'numbers': """ >>> factorial(6) 720 >>> [factorial(n) for n in range(6)] [1, 1, 2, 6, 24, 120] """ } The value of ‘example.__test__["numbers"]’ will be treated as a docstring and all the tests inside it will be run. It is important to note that the value can be mapped to a function, class object, or module; if so, ‘doctest’ searches them recursively for docstrings, which are then scanned for tests. Any classes found are recursively searched similarly, to test docstrings in their contained methods and nested classes.  File: python.info, Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?, Next: What’s the Execution Context?, Prev: Which Docstrings Are Examined?, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.6 How are Docstring Examples Recognized? ............................................... In most cases a copy-and-paste of an interactive console session works fine, but doctest isn’t trying to do an exact emulation of any specific Python shell. >>> # comments are ignored >>> x = 12 >>> x 12 >>> if x == 13: ... print("yes") ... else: ... print("no") ... print("NO") ... print("NO!!!") ... no NO NO!!! >>> Any expected output must immediately follow the final ‘'>>> '’ or ‘'... '’ line containing the code, and the expected output (if any) extends to the next ‘'>>> '’ or all-whitespace line. The fine print: * Expected output cannot contain an all-whitespace line, since such a line is taken to signal the end of expected output. If expected output does contain a blank line, put ‘<BLANKLINE>’ in your doctest example each place a blank line is expected. * All hard tab characters are expanded to spaces, using 8-column tab stops. Tabs in output generated by the tested code are not modified. Because any hard tabs in the sample output 'are' expanded, this means that if the code output includes hard tabs, the only way the doctest can pass is if the *note NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 4004. option or *note directive: 4005. is in effect. Alternatively, the test can be rewritten to capture the output and compare it to an expected value as part of the test. This handling of tabs in the source was arrived at through trial and error, and has proven to be the least error prone way of handling them. It is possible to use a different algorithm for handling tabs by writing a custom *note DocTestParser: 4006. class. * Output to stdout is captured, but not output to stderr (exception tracebacks are captured via a different means). * If you continue a line via backslashing in an interactive session, or for any other reason use a backslash, you should use a raw docstring, which will preserve your backslashes exactly as you type them: >>> def f(x): ... r'''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n''' ... >>> print(f.__doc__) Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n Otherwise, the backslash will be interpreted as part of the string. For example, the ‘\n’ above would be interpreted as a newline character. Alternatively, you can double each backslash in the doctest version (and not use a raw string): >>> def f(x): ... '''Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\\n''' ... >>> print(f.__doc__) Backslashes in a raw docstring: m\n * The starting column doesn’t matter: >>> assert "Easy!" >>> import math >>> math.floor(1.9) 1 and as many leading whitespace characters are stripped from the expected output as appeared in the initial ‘'>>> '’ line that started the example.  File: python.info, Node: What’s the Execution Context?, Next: What About Exceptions?, Prev: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.7 What’s the Execution Context? ...................................... By default, each time *note doctest: 3a. finds a docstring to test, it uses a 'shallow copy' of ‘M’’s globals, so that running tests doesn’t change the module’s real globals, and so that one test in ‘M’ can’t leave behind crumbs that accidentally allow another test to work. This means examples can freely use any names defined at top-level in ‘M’, and names defined earlier in the docstring being run. Examples cannot see names defined in other docstrings. You can force use of your own dict as the execution context by passing ‘globs=your_dict’ to *note testmod(): 1436. or *note testfile(): 3ff5. instead.  File: python.info, Node: What About Exceptions?, Next: Option Flags, Prev: What’s the Execution Context?, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.8 What About Exceptions? ............................... No problem, provided that the traceback is the only output produced by the example: just paste in the traceback. (1) Since tracebacks contain details that are likely to change rapidly (for example, exact file paths and line numbers), this is one case where doctest works hard to be flexible in what it accepts. Simple example: >>> [1, 2, 3].remove(42) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> ValueError: list.remove(x): x not in list That doctest succeeds if *note ValueError: 204. is raised, with the ‘list.remove(x): x not in list’ detail as shown. The expected output for an exception must start with a traceback header, which may be either of the following two lines, indented the same as the first line of the example: Traceback (most recent call last): Traceback (innermost last): The traceback header is followed by an optional traceback stack, whose contents are ignored by doctest. The traceback stack is typically omitted, or copied verbatim from an interactive session. The traceback stack is followed by the most interesting part: the line(s) containing the exception type and detail. This is usually the last line of a traceback, but can extend across multiple lines if the exception has a multi-line detail: >>> raise ValueError('multi\n line\ndetail') Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> ValueError: multi line detail The last three lines (starting with *note ValueError: 204.) are compared against the exception’s type and detail, and the rest are ignored. Best practice is to omit the traceback stack, unless it adds significant documentation value to the example. So the last example is probably better as: >>> raise ValueError('multi\n line\ndetail') Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: multi line detail Note that tracebacks are treated very specially. In particular, in the rewritten example, the use of ‘...’ is independent of doctest’s *note ELLIPSIS: 1437. option. The ellipsis in that example could be left out, or could just as well be three (or three hundred) commas or digits, or an indented transcript of a Monty Python skit. Some details you should read once, but won’t need to remember: * Doctest can’t guess whether your expected output came from an exception traceback or from ordinary printing. So, e.g., an example that expects ‘ValueError: 42 is prime’ will pass whether *note ValueError: 204. is actually raised or if the example merely prints that traceback text. In practice, ordinary output rarely begins with a traceback header line, so this doesn’t create real problems. * Each line of the traceback stack (if present) must be indented further than the first line of the example, 'or' start with a non-alphanumeric character. The first line following the traceback header indented the same and starting with an alphanumeric is taken to be the start of the exception detail. Of course this does the right thing for genuine tracebacks. * When the *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12fc. doctest option is specified, everything following the leftmost colon and any module information in the exception name is ignored. * The interactive shell omits the traceback header line for some *note SyntaxError: 18d.s. But doctest uses the traceback header line to distinguish exceptions from non-exceptions. So in the rare case where you need to test a ‘SyntaxError’ that omits the traceback header, you will need to manually add the traceback header line to your test example. * For some exceptions, Python displays the position of the error using ‘^’ markers and tildes: >>> 1 + None File "<stdin>", line 1 1 + None ~~^~~~~~ TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType' Since the lines showing the position of the error come before the exception type and detail, they are not checked by doctest. For example, the following test would pass, even though it puts the ‘^’ marker in the wrong location: >>> 1 + None File "<stdin>", line 1 1 + None ^~~~~~~~ TypeError: unsupported operand type(s) for +: 'int' and 'NoneType' ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Examples containing both expected output and an exception are not supported. Trying to guess where one ends and the other begins is too error-prone, and that also makes for a confusing test.  File: python.info, Node: Option Flags, Next: Directives, Prev: What About Exceptions?, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.9 Option Flags ..................... A number of option flags control various aspects of doctest’s behavior. Symbolic names for the flags are supplied as module constants, which can be *note bitwise ORed: 2071. together and passed to various functions. The names can also be used in *note doctest directives: 4005, and may be passed to the doctest command line interface via the ‘-o’ option. The first group of options define test semantics, controlling aspects of how doctest decides whether actual output matches an example’s expected output: -- Data: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 By default, if an expected output block contains just ‘1’, an actual output block containing just ‘1’ or just ‘True’ is considered to be a match, and similarly for ‘0’ versus ‘False’. When *note DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1: 400d. is specified, neither substitution is allowed. The default behavior caters to that Python changed the return type of many functions from integer to boolean; doctests expecting “little integer” output still work in these cases. This option will probably go away, but not for several years. -- Data: doctest.DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE By default, if an expected output block contains a line containing only the string ‘<BLANKLINE>’, then that line will match a blank line in the actual output. Because a genuinely blank line delimits the expected output, this is the only way to communicate that a blank line is expected. When *note DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE: 400e. is specified, this substitution is not allowed. -- Data: doctest.NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE When specified, all sequences of whitespace (blanks and newlines) are treated as equal. Any sequence of whitespace within the expected output will match any sequence of whitespace within the actual output. By default, whitespace must match exactly. *note NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE: 4004. is especially useful when a line of expected output is very long, and you want to wrap it across multiple lines in your source. -- Data: doctest.ELLIPSIS When specified, an ellipsis marker (‘...’) in the expected output can match any substring in the actual output. This includes substrings that span line boundaries, and empty substrings, so it’s best to keep usage of this simple. Complicated uses can lead to the same kinds of “oops, it matched too much!” surprises that ‘.*’ is prone to in regular expressions. -- Data: doctest.IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL When specified, doctests expecting exceptions pass so long as an exception of the expected type is raised, even if the details (message and fully qualified exception name) don’t match. For example, an example expecting ‘ValueError: 42’ will pass if the actual exception raised is ‘ValueError: 3*14’, but will fail if, say, a *note TypeError: 534. is raised instead. It will also ignore any fully qualified name included before the exception class, which can vary between implementations and versions of Python and the code/libraries in use. Hence, all three of these variations will work with the flag specified: >>> raise Exception('message') Traceback (most recent call last): Exception: message >>> raise Exception('message') Traceback (most recent call last): builtins.Exception: message >>> raise Exception('message') Traceback (most recent call last): __main__.Exception: message Note that *note ELLIPSIS: 1437. can also be used to ignore the details of the exception message, but such a test may still fail based on whether the module name is present or matches exactly. Changed in version 3.2: *note IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL: 12fc. now also ignores any information relating to the module containing the exception under test. -- Data: doctest.SKIP When specified, do not run the example at all. This can be useful in contexts where doctest examples serve as both documentation and test cases, and an example should be included for documentation purposes, but should not be checked. E.g., the example’s output might be random; or the example might depend on resources which would be unavailable to the test driver. The SKIP flag can also be used for temporarily “commenting out” examples. -- Data: doctest.COMPARISON_FLAGS A bitmask or’ing together all the comparison flags above. The second group of options controls how test failures are reported: -- Data: doctest.REPORT_UDIFF When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and actual outputs are displayed using a unified diff. -- Data: doctest.REPORT_CDIFF When specified, failures that involve multi-line expected and actual outputs will be displayed using a context diff. -- Data: doctest.REPORT_NDIFF When specified, differences are computed by ‘difflib.Differ’, using the same algorithm as the popular ‘ndiff.py’ utility. This is the only method that marks differences within lines as well as across lines. For example, if a line of expected output contains digit ‘1’ where actual output contains letter ‘l’, a line is inserted with a caret marking the mismatching column positions. -- Data: doctest.REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE When specified, display the first failing example in each doctest, but suppress output for all remaining examples. This will prevent doctest from reporting correct examples that break because of earlier failures; but it might also hide incorrect examples that fail independently of the first failure. When *note REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE: 4011. is specified, the remaining examples are still run, and still count towards the total number of failures reported; only the output is suppressed. -- Data: doctest.FAIL_FAST When specified, exit after the first failing example and don’t attempt to run the remaining examples. Thus, the number of failures reported will be at most 1. This flag may be useful during debugging, since examples after the first failure won’t even produce debugging output. -- Data: doctest.REPORTING_FLAGS A bitmask or’ing together all the reporting flags above. There is also a way to register new option flag names, though this isn’t useful unless you intend to extend *note doctest: 3a. internals via subclassing: -- Function: doctest.register_optionflag (name) Create a new option flag with a given name, and return the new flag’s integer value. *note register_optionflag(): 4013. can be used when subclassing *note OutputChecker: 4014. or *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to create new options that are supported by your subclasses. *note register_optionflag(): 4013. should always be called using the following idiom: MY_FLAG = register_optionflag('MY_FLAG')  File: python.info, Node: Directives, Next: Warnings<2>, Prev: Option Flags, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.10 Directives .................... Doctest directives may be used to modify the *note option flags: f2e. for an individual example. Doctest directives are special Python comments following an example’s source code: directive ::= "#" "doctest:" *note directive_options: 4018. directive_options ::= *note directive_option: 4019. ("," *note directive_option: 4019.)* directive_option ::= *note on_or_off: 401a. *note directive_option_name: 401b. on_or_off ::= "+" | "-" directive_option_name ::= "DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE" | "NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE" | ... Whitespace is not allowed between the ‘+’ or ‘-’ and the directive option name. The directive option name can be any of the option flag names explained above. An example’s doctest directives modify doctest’s behavior for that single example. Use ‘+’ to enable the named behavior, or ‘-’ to disable it. For example, this test passes: >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE [0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19] Without the directive it would fail, both because the actual output doesn’t have two blanks before the single-digit list elements, and because the actual output is on a single line. This test also passes, and also requires a directive to do so: >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS [0, 1, ..., 18, 19] Multiple directives can be used on a single physical line, separated by commas: >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS, +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE [0, 1, ..., 18, 19] If multiple directive comments are used for a single example, then they are combined: >>> print(list(range(20))) # doctest: +ELLIPSIS ... # doctest: +NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE [0, 1, ..., 18, 19] As the previous example shows, you can add ‘...’ lines to your example containing only directives. This can be useful when an example is too long for a directive to comfortably fit on the same line: >>> print(list(range(5)) + list(range(10, 20)) + list(range(30, 40))) ... # doctest: +ELLIPSIS [0, ..., 4, 10, ..., 19, 30, ..., 39] Note that since all options are disabled by default, and directives apply only to the example they appear in, enabling options (via ‘+’ in a directive) is usually the only meaningful choice. However, option flags can also be passed to functions that run doctests, establishing different defaults. In such cases, disabling an option via ‘-’ in a directive can be useful.  File: python.info, Node: Warnings<2>, Prev: Directives, Up: How It Works 5.27.4.11 Warnings .................. *note doctest: 3a. is serious about requiring exact matches in expected output. If even a single character doesn’t match, the test fails. This will probably surprise you a few times, as you learn exactly what Python does and doesn’t guarantee about output. For example, when printing a set, Python doesn’t guarantee that the element is printed in any particular order, so a test like >>> foo() {"spam", "eggs"} is vulnerable! One workaround is to do >>> foo() == {"spam", "eggs"} True instead. Another is to do >>> d = sorted(foo()) >>> d ['eggs', 'spam'] There are others, but you get the idea. Another bad idea is to print things that embed an object address, like >>> id(1.0) # certain to fail some of the time 7948648 >>> class C: pass >>> C() # the default repr() for instances embeds an address <C object at 0x00AC18F0> The *note ELLIPSIS: 1437. directive gives a nice approach for the last example: >>> C() # doctest: +ELLIPSIS <C object at 0x...> Floating-point numbers are also subject to small output variations across platforms, because Python defers to the platform C library for some floating-point calculations, and C libraries vary widely in quality here. >>> 1000**0.1 # risky 1.9952623149688797 >>> round(1000**0.1, 9) # safer 1.995262315 >>> print(f'{1000**0.1:.4f}') # much safer 1.9953 Numbers of the form ‘I/2.**J’ are safe across all platforms, and I often contrive doctest examples to produce numbers of that form: >>> 3./4 # utterly safe 0.75 Simple fractions are also easier for people to understand, and that makes for better documentation.  File: python.info, Node: Basic API, Next: Unittest API, Prev: How It Works, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.12 Basic API ................... The functions *note testmod(): 1436. and *note testfile(): 3ff5. provide a simple interface to doctest that should be sufficient for most basic uses. For a less formal introduction to these two functions, see sections *note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in Docstrings: 3fef. and *note Simple Usage; Checking Examples in a Text File: 3ff3. -- Function: doctest.testfile (filename, module_relative=True, name=None, package=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None) All arguments except 'filename' are optional, and should be specified in keyword form. Test examples in the file named 'filename'. Return ‘(failure_count, test_count)’. Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filename should be interpreted: * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then 'filename' specifies an OS-independent module-relative path. By default, this path is relative to the calling module’s directory; but if the 'package' argument is specified, then it is relative to that package. To ensure OS-independence, 'filename' should use ‘/’ characters to separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with ‘/’). * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then 'filename' specifies an OS-specific path. The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths are resolved with respect to the current working directory. Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the test; by default, or if ‘None’, ‘os.path.basename(filename)’ is used. Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory for a module-relative filename. If no package is specified, then the calling module’s directory is used as the base directory for module-relative filenames. It is an error to specify 'package' if 'module_relative' is ‘False’. Optional argument 'globs' gives a dict to be used as the globals when executing examples. A new shallow copy of this dict is created for the doctest, so its examples start with a clean slate. By default, or if ‘None’, a new empty dict is used. Optional argument 'extraglobs' gives a dict merged into the globals used to execute examples. This works like *note dict.update(): 142e.: if 'globs' and 'extraglobs' have a common key, the associated value in 'extraglobs' appears in the combined dict. By default, or if ‘None’, no extra globals are used. This is an advanced feature that allows parameterization of doctests. For example, a doctest can be written for a base class, using a generic name for the class, then reused to test any number of subclasses by passing an 'extraglobs' dict mapping the generic name to the subclass to be tested. Optional argument 'verbose' prints lots of stuff if true, and prints only failures if false; by default, or if ‘None’, it’s true if and only if ‘'-v'’ is in *note sys.argv: 1258. Optional argument 'report' prints a summary at the end when true, else prints nothing at the end. In verbose mode, the summary is detailed, else the summary is very brief (in fact, empty if all tests passed). Optional argument 'optionflags' (default value ‘0’) takes the *note bitwise OR: 2071. of option flags. See section *note Option Flags: f2e. Optional argument 'raise_on_error' defaults to false. If true, an exception is raised upon the first failure or unexpected exception in an example. This allows failures to be post-mortem debugged. Default behavior is to continue running examples. Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 4006. (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files. It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’). Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be used to convert the file to unicode. -- Function: doctest.testmod (m=None, name=None, globs=None, verbose=None, report=True, optionflags=0, extraglobs=None, raise_on_error=False, exclude_empty=False) All arguments are optional, and all except for 'm' should be specified in keyword form. Test examples in docstrings in functions and classes reachable from module 'm' (or module *note __main__: 1. if 'm' is not supplied or is ‘None’), starting with ‘m.__doc__’. Also test examples reachable from dict ‘m.__test__’, if it exists. ‘m.__test__’ maps names (strings) to functions, classes and strings; function and class docstrings are searched for examples; strings are searched directly, as if they were docstrings. Only docstrings attached to objects belonging to module 'm' are searched. Return ‘(failure_count, test_count)’. Optional argument 'name' gives the name of the module; by default, or if ‘None’, ‘m.__name__’ is used. Optional argument 'exclude_empty' defaults to false. If true, objects for which no doctests are found are excluded from consideration. The default is a backward compatibility hack, so that code still using *note doctest.master.summarize: 401f. in conjunction with *note testmod(): 1436. continues to get output for objects with no tests. The 'exclude_empty' argument to the newer *note DocTestFinder: 1632. constructor defaults to true. Optional arguments 'extraglobs', 'verbose', 'report', 'optionflags', 'raise_on_error', and 'globs' are the same as for function *note testfile(): 3ff5. above, except that 'globs' defaults to ‘m.__dict__’. -- Function: doctest.run_docstring_examples (f, globs, verbose=False, name='NoName', compileflags=None, optionflags=0) Test examples associated with object 'f'; for example, 'f' may be a string, a module, a function, or a class object. A shallow copy of dictionary argument 'globs' is used for the execution context. Optional argument 'name' is used in failure messages, and defaults to ‘"NoName"’. If optional argument 'verbose' is true, output is generated even if there are no failures. By default, output is generated only in case of an example failure. Optional argument 'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should be used by the Python compiler when running the examples. By default, or if ‘None’, flags are deduced corresponding to the set of future features found in 'globs'. Optional argument 'optionflags' works as for function *note testfile(): 3ff5. above.  File: python.info, Node: Unittest API, Next: Advanced API, Prev: Basic API, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.13 Unittest API ...................... As your collection of doctest’ed modules grows, you’ll want a way to run all their doctests systematically. *note doctest: 3a. provides two functions that can be used to create *note unittest: 106. test suites from modules and text files containing doctests. To integrate with *note unittest: 106. test discovery, include a *note load_tests: 4023. function in your test module: import unittest import doctest import my_module_with_doctests def load_tests(loader, tests, ignore): tests.addTests(doctest.DocTestSuite(my_module_with_doctests)) return tests There are two main functions for creating *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. instances from text files and modules with doctests: -- Function: doctest.DocFileSuite (*paths, module_relative=True, package=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, globs=None, optionflags=0, parser=DocTestParser(), encoding=None) Convert doctest tests from one or more text files to a *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. is to be run by the unittest framework and runs the interactive examples in each file. If an example in any file fails, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a *note failureException: 4025. exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line number. If all the examples in a file are skipped, then the synthesized unit test is also marked as skipped. Pass one or more paths (as strings) to text files to be examined. Options may be provided as keyword arguments: Optional argument 'module_relative' specifies how the filenames in 'paths' should be interpreted: * If 'module_relative' is ‘True’ (the default), then each filename in 'paths' specifies an OS-independent module-relative path. By default, this path is relative to the calling module’s directory; but if the 'package' argument is specified, then it is relative to that package. To ensure OS-independence, each filename should use ‘/’ characters to separate path segments, and may not be an absolute path (i.e., it may not begin with ‘/’). * If 'module_relative' is ‘False’, then each filename in 'paths' specifies an OS-specific path. The path may be absolute or relative; relative paths are resolved with respect to the current working directory. Optional argument 'package' is a Python package or the name of a Python package whose directory should be used as the base directory for module-relative filenames in 'paths'. If no package is specified, then the calling module’s directory is used as the base directory for module-relative filenames. It is an error to specify 'package' if 'module_relative' is ‘False’. Optional argument 'setUp' specifies a set-up function for the test suite. This is called before running the tests in each file. The 'setUp' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 16b2. object. The 'setUp' function can access the test globals as the *note globs: 4026. attribute of the test passed. Optional argument 'tearDown' specifies a tear-down function for the test suite. This is called after running the tests in each file. The 'tearDown' function will be passed a *note DocTest: 16b2. object. The 'tearDown' function can access the test globals as the *note globs: 4026. attribute of the test passed. Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial global variables for the tests. A new copy of this dictionary is created for each test. By default, 'globs' is a new empty dictionary. Optional argument 'optionflags' specifies the default doctest options for the tests, created by or-ing together individual option flags. See section *note Option Flags: f2e. See function *note set_unittest_reportflags(): 4027. below for a better way to set reporting options. Optional argument 'parser' specifies a *note DocTestParser: 4006. (or subclass) that should be used to extract tests from the files. It defaults to a normal parser (i.e., ‘DocTestParser()’). Optional argument 'encoding' specifies an encoding that should be used to convert the file to unicode. The global ‘__file__’ is added to the globals provided to doctests loaded from a text file using *note DocFileSuite(): 4024. -- Function: doctest.DocTestSuite (module=None, globs=None, extraglobs=None, test_finder=None, setUp=None, tearDown=None, optionflags=0, checker=None) Convert doctest tests for a module to a *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. The returned *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. is to be run by the unittest framework and runs each doctest in the module. Each docstring is run as a separate unit test. If any of the doctests fail, then the synthesized unit test fails, and a *note unittest.TestCase.failureException: 4025. exception is raised showing the name of the file containing the test and a (sometimes approximate) line number. If all the examples in a docstring are skipped, then the Optional argument 'module' provides the module to be tested. It can be a module object or a (possibly dotted) module name. If not specified, the module calling this function is used. Optional argument 'globs' is a dictionary containing the initial global variables for the tests. A new copy of this dictionary is created for each test. By default, 'globs' is the module’s *note __dict__: 1f22. Optional argument 'extraglobs' specifies an extra set of global variables, which is merged into 'globs'. By default, no extra globals are used. Optional argument 'test_finder' is the *note DocTestFinder: 1632. object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from the module. Optional arguments 'setUp', 'tearDown', and 'optionflags' are the same as for function *note DocFileSuite(): 4024. above, but they are called for each docstring. This function uses the same search technique as *note testmod(): 1436. Changed in version 3.5: *note DocTestSuite(): df2. returns an empty *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. if 'module' contains no docstrings instead of raising *note ValueError: 204. Under the covers, *note DocTestSuite(): df2. creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. out of ‘doctest.DocTestCase’ instances, and ‘DocTestCase’ is a subclass of *note unittest.TestCase: 449. ‘DocTestCase’ isn’t documented here (it’s an internal detail), but studying its code can answer questions about the exact details of *note unittest: 106. integration. Similarly, *note DocFileSuite(): 4024. creates a *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. out of ‘doctest.DocFileCase’ instances, and ‘DocFileCase’ is a subclass of ‘DocTestCase’. So both ways of creating a *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. run instances of ‘DocTestCase’. This is important for a subtle reason: when you run *note doctest: 3a. functions yourself, you can control the ‘doctest’ options in use directly, by passing option flags to ‘doctest’ functions. However, if you’re writing a *note unittest: 106. framework, ‘unittest’ ultimately controls when and how tests get run. The framework author typically wants to control ‘doctest’ reporting options (perhaps, e.g., specified by command line options), but there’s no way to pass options through ‘unittest’ to ‘doctest’ test runners. For this reason, *note doctest: 3a. also supports a notion of ‘doctest’ reporting flags specific to *note unittest: 106. support, via this function: -- Function: doctest.set_unittest_reportflags (flags) Set the *note doctest: 3a. reporting flags to use. Argument 'flags' takes the *note bitwise OR: 2071. of option flags. See section *note Option Flags: f2e. Only “reporting flags” can be used. This is a module-global setting, and affects all future doctests run by module *note unittest: 106.: the ‘runTest()’ method of ‘DocTestCase’ looks at the option flags specified for the test case when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed. If no reporting flags were specified (which is the typical and expected case), ‘doctest’’s ‘unittest’ reporting flags are *note bitwise ORed: 2071. into the option flags, and the option flags so augmented are passed to the *note DocTestRunner: 4015. instance created to run the doctest. If any reporting flags were specified when the ‘DocTestCase’ instance was constructed, ‘doctest’’s ‘unittest’ reporting flags are ignored. The value of the *note unittest: 106. reporting flags in effect before the function was called is returned by the function.  File: python.info, Node: Advanced API, Next: Debugging, Prev: Unittest API, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.14 Advanced API ...................... The basic API is a simple wrapper that’s intended to make doctest easy to use. It is fairly flexible, and should meet most users’ needs; however, if you require more fine-grained control over testing, or wish to extend doctest’s capabilities, then you should use the advanced API. The advanced API revolves around two container classes, which are used to store the interactive examples extracted from doctest cases: * *note Example: 402a.: A single Python *note statement: 278b, paired with its expected output. * *note DocTest: 16b2.: A collection of *note Example: 402a.s, typically extracted from a single docstring or text file. Additional processing classes are defined to find, parse, and run, and check doctest examples: * *note DocTestFinder: 1632.: Finds all docstrings in a given module, and uses a *note DocTestParser: 4006. to create a *note DocTest: 16b2. from every docstring that contains interactive examples. * *note DocTestParser: 4006.: Creates a *note DocTest: 16b2. object from a string (such as an object’s docstring). * *note DocTestRunner: 4015.: Executes the examples in a *note DocTest: 16b2, and uses an *note OutputChecker: 4014. to verify their output. * *note OutputChecker: 4014.: Compares the actual output from a doctest example with the expected output, and decides whether they match. The relationships among these processing classes are summarized in the following diagram: list of: +------+ +---------+ |module| --DocTestFinder-> | DocTest | --DocTestRunner-> results +------+ | ^ +---------+ | ^ (printed) | | | Example | | | v | | ... | v | DocTestParser | Example | OutputChecker +---------+ * Menu: * DocTest Objects:: * Example Objects:: * DocTestFinder objects:: * DocTestParser objects:: * TestResults objects:: * DocTestRunner objects:: * OutputChecker objects::  File: python.info, Node: DocTest Objects, Next: Example Objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.15 DocTest Objects ......................... -- Class: doctest.DocTest (examples, globs, name, filename, lineno, docstring) A collection of doctest examples that should be run in a single namespace. The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names. *note DocTest: 16b2. defines the following attributes. They are initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified directly. -- Attribute: examples A list of *note Example: 402a. objects encoding the individual interactive Python examples that should be run by this test. -- Attribute: globs The namespace (aka globals) that the examples should be run in. This is a dictionary mapping names to values. Any changes to the namespace made by the examples (such as binding new variables) will be reflected in *note globs: 4026. after the test is run. -- Attribute: name A string name identifying the *note DocTest: 16b2. Typically, this is the name of the object or file that the test was extracted from. -- Attribute: filename The name of the file that this *note DocTest: 16b2. was extracted from; or ‘None’ if the filename is unknown, or if the ‘DocTest’ was not extracted from a file. -- Attribute: lineno The line number within *note filename: 402f. where this *note DocTest: 16b2. begins, or ‘None’ if the line number is unavailable. This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning of the file. -- Attribute: docstring The string that the test was extracted from, or ‘None’ if the string is unavailable, or if the test was not extracted from a string.  File: python.info, Node: Example Objects, Next: DocTestFinder objects, Prev: DocTest Objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.16 Example Objects ......................... -- Class: doctest.Example (source, want, exc_msg=None, lineno=0, indent=0, options=None) A single interactive example, consisting of a Python statement and its expected output. The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names. *note Example: 402a. defines the following attributes. They are initialized by the constructor, and should not be modified directly. -- Attribute: source A string containing the example’s source code. This source code consists of a single Python statement, and always ends with a newline; the constructor adds a newline when necessary. -- Attribute: want The expected output from running the example’s source code (either from stdout, or a traceback in case of exception). *note want: 4034. ends with a newline unless no output is expected, in which case it’s an empty string. The constructor adds a newline when necessary. -- Attribute: exc_msg The exception message generated by the example, if the example is expected to generate an exception; or ‘None’ if it is not expected to generate an exception. This exception message is compared against the return value of *note traceback.format_exception_only(): 84a. *note exc_msg: 4035. ends with a newline unless it’s ‘None’. The constructor adds a newline if needed. -- Attribute: lineno The line number within the string containing this example where the example begins. This line number is zero-based with respect to the beginning of the containing string. -- Attribute: indent The example’s indentation in the containing string, i.e., the number of space characters that precede the example’s first prompt. -- Attribute: options A dictionary mapping from option flags to ‘True’ or ‘False’, which is used to override default options for this example. Any option flags not contained in this dictionary are left at their default value (as specified by the *note DocTestRunner: 4015.’s *note optionflags: f2e.). By default, no options are set.  File: python.info, Node: DocTestFinder objects, Next: DocTestParser objects, Prev: Example Objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.17 DocTestFinder objects ............................... -- Class: doctest.DocTestFinder (verbose=False, parser=DocTestParser(), recurse=True, exclude_empty=True) A processing class used to extract the *note DocTest: 16b2.s that are relevant to a given object, from its docstring and the docstrings of its contained objects. *note DocTest: 16b2.s can be extracted from modules, classes, functions, methods, staticmethods, classmethods, and properties. The optional argument 'verbose' can be used to display the objects searched by the finder. It defaults to ‘False’ (no output). The optional argument 'parser' specifies the *note DocTestParser: 4006. object (or a drop-in replacement) that is used to extract doctests from docstrings. If the optional argument 'recurse' is false, then *note DocTestFinder.find(): 16fe. will only examine the given object, and not any contained objects. If the optional argument 'exclude_empty' is false, then *note DocTestFinder.find(): 16fe. will include tests for objects with empty docstrings. *note DocTestFinder: 1632. defines the following method: -- Method: find (obj[, name][, module][, globs][, extraglobs]) Return a list of the *note DocTest: 16b2.s that are defined by 'obj'’s docstring, or by any of its contained objects’ docstrings. The optional argument 'name' specifies the object’s name; this name will be used to construct names for the returned *note DocTest: 16b2.s. If 'name' is not specified, then ‘obj.__name__’ is used. The optional parameter 'module' is the module that contains the given object. If the module is not specified or is ‘None’, then the test finder will attempt to automatically determine the correct module. The object’s module is used: * As a default namespace, if 'globs' is not specified. * To prevent the DocTestFinder from extracting DocTests from objects that are imported from other modules. (Contained objects with modules other than 'module' are ignored.) * To find the name of the file containing the object. * To help find the line number of the object within its file. If 'module' is ‘False’, no attempt to find the module will be made. This is obscure, of use mostly in testing doctest itself: if 'module' is ‘False’, or is ‘None’ but cannot be found automatically, then all objects are considered to belong to the (non-existent) module, so all contained objects will (recursively) be searched for doctests. The globals for each *note DocTest: 16b2. is formed by combining 'globs' and 'extraglobs' (bindings in 'extraglobs' override bindings in 'globs'). A new shallow copy of the globals dictionary is created for each ‘DocTest’. If 'globs' is not specified, then it defaults to the module’s *note __dict__: 1f22, if specified, or ‘{}’ otherwise. If 'extraglobs' is not specified, then it defaults to ‘{}’.  File: python.info, Node: DocTestParser objects, Next: TestResults objects, Prev: DocTestFinder objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.18 DocTestParser objects ............................... -- Class: doctest.DocTestParser A processing class used to extract interactive examples from a string, and use them to create a *note DocTest: 16b2. object. *note DocTestParser: 4006. defines the following methods: -- Method: get_doctest (string, globs, name, filename, lineno) Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and collect them into a *note DocTest: 16b2. object. 'globs', 'name', 'filename', and 'lineno' are attributes for the new ‘DocTest’ object. See the documentation for *note DocTest: 16b2. for more information. -- Method: get_examples (string, name='<string>') Extract all doctest examples from the given string, and return them as a list of *note Example: 402a. objects. Line numbers are 0-based. The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying this string, and is only used for error messages. -- Method: parse (string, name='<string>') Divide the given string into examples and intervening text, and return them as a list of alternating *note Example: 402a.s and strings. Line numbers for the ‘Example’s are 0-based. The optional argument 'name' is a name identifying this string, and is only used for error messages.  File: python.info, Node: TestResults objects, Next: DocTestRunner objects, Prev: DocTestParser objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.19 TestResults objects ............................. -- Class: doctest.TestResults (failed, attempted) -- Attribute: failed Number of failed tests. -- Attribute: attempted Number of attempted tests. -- Attribute: skipped Number of skipped tests. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: DocTestRunner objects, Next: OutputChecker objects, Prev: TestResults objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.20 DocTestRunner objects ............................... -- Class: doctest.DocTestRunner (checker=None, verbose=None, optionflags=0) A processing class used to execute and verify the interactive examples in a *note DocTest: 16b2. The comparison between expected outputs and actual outputs is done by an *note OutputChecker: 4014. This comparison may be customized with a number of option flags; see section *note Option Flags: f2e. for more information. If the option flags are insufficient, then the comparison may also be customized by passing a subclass of ‘OutputChecker’ to the constructor. The test runner’s display output can be controlled in two ways. First, an output function can be passed to *note run(): 1de.; this function will be called with strings that should be displayed. It defaults to ‘sys.stdout.write’. If capturing the output is not sufficient, then the display output can be also customized by subclassing DocTestRunner, and overriding the methods *note report_start(): 4046, *note report_success(): 4047, *note report_unexpected_exception(): 4048, and *note report_failure(): 4049. The optional keyword argument 'checker' specifies the *note OutputChecker: 4014. object (or drop-in replacement) that should be used to compare the expected outputs to the actual outputs of doctest examples. The optional keyword argument 'verbose' controls the *note DocTestRunner: 4015.’s verbosity. If 'verbose' is ‘True’, then information is printed about each example, as it is run. If 'verbose' is ‘False’, then only failures are printed. If 'verbose' is unspecified, or ‘None’, then verbose output is used iff the command-line switch ‘-v’ is used. The optional keyword argument 'optionflags' can be used to control how the test runner compares expected output to actual output, and how it displays failures. For more information, see section *note Option Flags: f2e. The test runner accumulates statistics. The aggregated number of attempted, failed and skipped examples is also available via the *note tries: 404a, *note failures: 404b. and *note skips: 1df. attributes. The *note run(): 1de. and *note summarize(): 401f. methods return a *note TestResults: 4041. instance. *note DocTestRunner: 4015. defines the following methods: -- Method: report_start (out, test, example) Report that the test runner is about to process the given example. This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to customize their output; it should not be called directly. 'example' is the example about to be processed. 'test' is the test containing 'example'. 'out' is the output function that was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1de. -- Method: report_success (out, test, example, got) Report that the given example ran successfully. This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to customize their output; it should not be called directly. 'example' is the example about to be processed. 'got' is the actual output from the example. 'test' is the test containing 'example'. 'out' is the output function that was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1de. -- Method: report_failure (out, test, example, got) Report that the given example failed. This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to customize their output; it should not be called directly. 'example' is the example about to be processed. 'got' is the actual output from the example. 'test' is the test containing 'example'. 'out' is the output function that was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1de. -- Method: report_unexpected_exception (out, test, example, exc_info) Report that the given example raised an unexpected exception. This method is provided to allow subclasses of *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to customize their output; it should not be called directly. 'example' is the example about to be processed. 'exc_info' is a tuple containing information about the unexpected exception (as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686.). 'test' is the test containing 'example'. 'out' is the output function that was passed to *note DocTestRunner.run(): 1de. -- Method: run (test, compileflags=None, out=None, clear_globs=True) Run the examples in 'test' (a *note DocTest: 16b2. object), and display the results using the writer function 'out'. Return a *note TestResults: 4041. instance. The examples are run in the namespace ‘test.globs’. If 'clear_globs' is true (the default), then this namespace will be cleared after the test runs, to help with garbage collection. If you would like to examine the namespace after the test completes, then use 'clear_globs=False'. 'compileflags' gives the set of flags that should be used by the Python compiler when running the examples. If not specified, then it will default to the set of future-import flags that apply to 'globs'. The output of each example is checked using the *note DocTestRunner: 4015.’s output checker, and the results are formatted by the ‘DocTestRunner.report_*()’ methods. -- Method: summarize (verbose=None) Print a summary of all the test cases that have been run by this DocTestRunner, and return a *note TestResults: 4041. instance. The optional 'verbose' argument controls how detailed the summary is. If the verbosity is not specified, then the *note DocTestRunner: 4015.’s verbosity is used. *note DocTestParser: 4006. has the following attributes: -- Attribute: tries Number of attempted examples. -- Attribute: failures Number of failed examples. -- Attribute: skips Number of skipped examples. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: OutputChecker objects, Prev: DocTestRunner objects, Up: Advanced API 5.27.4.21 OutputChecker objects ............................... -- Class: doctest.OutputChecker A class used to check the whether the actual output from a doctest example matches the expected output. *note OutputChecker: 4014. defines two methods: *note check_output(): 404e, which compares a given pair of outputs, and returns ‘True’ if they match; and *note output_difference(): 404f, which returns a string describing the differences between two outputs. *note OutputChecker: 4014. defines the following methods: -- Method: check_output (want, got, optionflags) Return ‘True’ iff the actual output from an example ('got') matches the expected output ('want'). These strings are always considered to match if they are identical; but depending on what option flags the test runner is using, several non-exact match types are also possible. See section *note Option Flags: f2e. for more information about option flags. -- Method: output_difference (example, got, optionflags) Return a string describing the differences between the expected output for a given example ('example') and the actual output ('got'). 'optionflags' is the set of option flags used to compare 'want' and 'got'.  File: python.info, Node: Debugging, Next: Soapbox, Prev: Advanced API, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.22 Debugging ................... Doctest provides several mechanisms for debugging doctest examples: * Several functions convert doctests to executable Python programs, which can be run under the Python debugger, *note pdb: a5. * The *note DebugRunner: 4052. class is a subclass of *note DocTestRunner: 4015. that raises an exception for the first failing example, containing information about that example. This information can be used to perform post-mortem debugging on the example. * The *note unittest: 106. cases generated by *note DocTestSuite(): df2. support the *note debug(): 4053. method defined by *note unittest.TestCase: 449. * You can add a call to *note pdb.set_trace(): 237. in a doctest example, and you’ll drop into the Python debugger when that line is executed. Then you can inspect current values of variables, and so on. For example, suppose ‘a.py’ contains just this module docstring: """ >>> def f(x): ... g(x*2) >>> def g(x): ... print(x+3) ... import pdb; pdb.set_trace() >>> f(3) 9 """ Then an interactive Python session may look like this: >>> import a, doctest >>> doctest.testmod(a) --Return-- > <doctest a[1]>(3)g()->None -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace() (Pdb) list 1 def g(x): 2 print(x+3) 3 -> import pdb; pdb.set_trace() [EOF] (Pdb) p x 6 (Pdb) step --Return-- > <doctest a[0]>(2)f()->None -> g(x*2) (Pdb) list 1 def f(x): 2 -> g(x*2) [EOF] (Pdb) p x 3 (Pdb) step --Return-- > <doctest a[2]>(1)?()->None -> f(3) (Pdb) cont (0, 3) >>> Functions that convert doctests to Python code, and possibly run the synthesized code under the debugger: -- Function: doctest.script_from_examples (s) Convert text with examples to a script. Argument 's' is a string containing doctest examples. The string is converted to a Python script, where doctest examples in 's' are converted to regular code, and everything else is converted to Python comments. The generated script is returned as a string. For example, import doctest print(doctest.script_from_examples(r""" Set x and y to 1 and 2. >>> x, y = 1, 2 Print their sum: >>> print(x+y) 3 """)) displays: # Set x and y to 1 and 2. x, y = 1, 2 # # Print their sum: print(x+y) # Expected: ## 3 This function is used internally by other functions (see below), but can also be useful when you want to transform an interactive Python session into a Python script. -- Function: doctest.testsource (module, name) Convert the doctest for an object to a script. Argument 'module' is a module object, or dotted name of a module, containing the object whose doctests are of interest. Argument 'name' is the name (within the module) of the object with the doctests of interest. The result is a string, containing the object’s docstring converted to a Python script, as described for *note script_from_examples(): 4054. above. For example, if module ‘a.py’ contains a top-level function ‘f()’, then import a, doctest print(doctest.testsource(a, "a.f")) prints a script version of function ‘f()’’s docstring, with doctests converted to code, and the rest placed in comments. -- Function: doctest.debug (module, name, pm=False) Debug the doctests for an object. The 'module' and 'name' arguments are the same as for function *note testsource(): 4055. above. The synthesized Python script for the named object’s docstring is written to a temporary file, and then that file is run under the control of the Python debugger, *note pdb: a5. A shallow copy of ‘module.__dict__’ is used for both local and global execution context. Optional argument 'pm' controls whether post-mortem debugging is used. If 'pm' has a true value, the script file is run directly, and the debugger gets involved only if the script terminates via raising an unhandled exception. If it does, then post-mortem debugging is invoked, via *note pdb.post_mortem(): 13a6, passing the traceback object from the unhandled exception. If 'pm' is not specified, or is false, the script is run under the debugger from the start, via passing an appropriate *note exec(): 17f. call to *note pdb.run(): 4056. -- Function: doctest.debug_src (src, pm=False, globs=None) Debug the doctests in a string. This is like function *note debug(): 4053. above, except that a string containing doctest examples is specified directly, via the 'src' argument. Optional argument 'pm' has the same meaning as in function *note debug(): 4053. above. Optional argument 'globs' gives a dictionary to use as both local and global execution context. If not specified, or ‘None’, an empty dictionary is used. If specified, a shallow copy of the dictionary is used. The *note DebugRunner: 4052. class, and the special exceptions it may raise, are of most interest to testing framework authors, and will only be sketched here. See the source code, and especially *note DebugRunner: 4052.’s docstring (which is a doctest!) for more details: -- Class: doctest.DebugRunner (checker=None, verbose=None, optionflags=0) A subclass of *note DocTestRunner: 4015. that raises an exception as soon as a failure is encountered. If an unexpected exception occurs, an *note UnexpectedException: 4058. exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the original exception. If the output doesn’t match, then a *note DocTestFailure: 4059. exception is raised, containing the test, the example, and the actual output. For information about the constructor parameters and methods, see the documentation for *note DocTestRunner: 4015. in section *note Advanced API: 4029. There are two exceptions that may be raised by *note DebugRunner: 4052. instances: -- Exception: doctest.DocTestFailure (test, example, got) An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to signal that a doctest example’s actual output did not match its expected output. The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names. *note DocTestFailure: 4059. defines the following attributes: -- Attribute: DocTestFailure.test The *note DocTest: 16b2. object that was being run when the example failed. -- Attribute: DocTestFailure.example The *note Example: 402a. that failed. -- Attribute: DocTestFailure.got The example’s actual output. -- Exception: doctest.UnexpectedException (test, example, exc_info) An exception raised by *note DocTestRunner: 4015. to signal that a doctest example raised an unexpected exception. The constructor arguments are used to initialize the attributes of the same names. *note UnexpectedException: 4058. defines the following attributes: -- Attribute: UnexpectedException.test The *note DocTest: 16b2. object that was being run when the example failed. -- Attribute: UnexpectedException.example The *note Example: 402a. that failed. -- Attribute: UnexpectedException.exc_info A tuple containing information about the unexpected exception, as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686.  File: python.info, Node: Soapbox, Prev: Debugging, Up: doctest — Test interactive Python examples 5.27.4.23 Soapbox ................. As mentioned in the introduction, *note doctest: 3a. has grown to have three primary uses: 1. Checking examples in docstrings. 2. Regression testing. 3. Executable documentation / literate testing. These uses have different requirements, and it is important to distinguish them. In particular, filling your docstrings with obscure test cases makes for bad documentation. When writing a docstring, choose docstring examples with care. There’s an art to this that needs to be learned—it may not be natural at first. Examples should add genuine value to the documentation. A good example can often be worth many words. If done with care, the examples will be invaluable for your users, and will pay back the time it takes to collect them many times over as the years go by and things change. I’m still amazed at how often one of my *note doctest: 3a. examples stops working after a “harmless” change. Doctest also makes an excellent tool for regression testing, especially if you don’t skimp on explanatory text. By interleaving prose and examples, it becomes much easier to keep track of what’s actually being tested, and why. When a test fails, good prose can make it much easier to figure out what the problem is, and how it should be fixed. It’s true that you could write extensive comments in code-based testing, but few programmers do. Many have found that using doctest approaches instead leads to much clearer tests. Perhaps this is simply because doctest makes writing prose a little easier than writing code, while writing comments in code is a little harder. I think it goes deeper than just that: the natural attitude when writing a doctest-based test is that you want to explain the fine points of your software, and illustrate them with examples. This in turn naturally leads to test files that start with the simplest features, and logically progress to complications and edge cases. A coherent narrative is the result, instead of a collection of isolated functions that test isolated bits of functionality seemingly at random. It’s a different attitude, and produces different results, blurring the distinction between testing and explaining. Regression testing is best confined to dedicated objects or files. There are several options for organizing tests: * Write text files containing test cases as interactive examples, and test the files using *note testfile(): 3ff5. or *note DocFileSuite(): 4024. This is recommended, although is easiest to do for new projects, designed from the start to use doctest. * Define functions named ‘_regrtest_topic’ that consist of single docstrings, containing test cases for the named topics. These functions can be included in the same file as the module, or separated out into a separate test file. * Define a *note __test__: 4001. dictionary mapping from regression test topics to docstrings containing test cases. When you have placed your tests in a module, the module can itself be the test runner. When a test fails, you can arrange for your test runner to re-run only the failing doctest while you debug the problem. Here is a minimal example of such a test runner: if __name__ == '__main__': import doctest flags = doctest.REPORT_NDIFF|doctest.FAIL_FAST if len(sys.argv) > 1: name = sys.argv[1] if name in globals(): obj = globals()[name] else: obj = __test__[name] doctest.run_docstring_examples(obj, globals(), name=name, optionflags=flags) else: fail, total = doctest.testmod(optionflags=flags) print(f"{fail} failures out of {total} tests")  File: python.info, Node: unittest — Unit testing framework, Next: unittest mock — mock object library, Prev: doctest — Test interactive Python examples, Up: Development Tools 5.27.5 ‘unittest’ — Unit testing framework ------------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/unittest/__init__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ (If you are already familiar with the basic concepts of testing, you might want to skip to *note the list of assert methods: 4064.) The *note unittest: 106. unit testing framework was originally inspired by JUnit and has a similar flavor as major unit testing frameworks in other languages. It supports test automation, sharing of setup and shutdown code for tests, aggregation of tests into collections, and independence of the tests from the reporting framework. To achieve this, *note unittest: 106. supports some important concepts in an object-oriented way: test fixture A 'test fixture' represents the preparation needed to perform one or more tests, and any associated cleanup actions. This may involve, for example, creating temporary or proxy databases, directories, or starting a server process. test case A 'test case' is the individual unit of testing. It checks for a specific response to a particular set of inputs. *note unittest: 106. provides a base class, *note TestCase: 449, which may be used to create new test cases. test suite A 'test suite' is a collection of test cases, test suites, or both. It is used to aggregate tests that should be executed together. test runner A 'test runner' is a component which orchestrates the execution of tests and provides the outcome to the user. The runner may use a graphical interface, a textual interface, or return a special value to indicate the results of executing the tests. See also ........ Module *note doctest: 3a. Another test-support module with a very different flavor. Simple Smalltalk Testing: With Patterns(2) Kent Beck’s original paper on testing frameworks using the pattern shared by *note unittest: 106. pytest(3) Third-party unittest framework with a lighter-weight syntax for writing tests. For example, ‘assert func(10) == 42’. The Python Testing Tools Taxonomy(4) An extensive list of Python testing tools including functional testing frameworks and mock object libraries. Testing in Python Mailing List(5) A special-interest-group for discussion of testing, and testing tools, in Python. The script ‘Tools/unittestgui/unittestgui.py’ in the Python source distribution is a GUI tool for test discovery and execution. This is intended largely for ease of use for those new to unit testing. For production environments it is recommended that tests be driven by a continuous integration system such as Buildbot(6), Jenkins(7), GitHub Actions(8), or AppVeyor(9). * Menu: * Basic example:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<3>. * Test Discovery:: * Organizing test code:: * Re-using old test code:: * Skipping tests and expected failures:: * Distinguishing test iterations using subtests:: * Classes and functions:: * Class and Module Fixtures:: * Signal Handling:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/unittest/__init__.py (2) https://web.archive.org/web/20150315073817/http://www.xprogramming.com/testfram.htm (3) https://docs.pytest.org/ (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonTestingToolsTaxonomy (5) http://lists.idyll.org/listinfo/testing-in-python (6) https://buildbot.net/ (7) https://www.jenkins.io/ (8) https://github.com/features/actions (9) https://www.appveyor.com/  File: python.info, Node: Basic example, Next: Command-Line Interface<3>, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.1 Basic example ...................... The *note unittest: 106. module provides a rich set of tools for constructing and running tests. This section demonstrates that a small subset of the tools suffice to meet the needs of most users. Here is a short script to test three string methods: import unittest class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase): def test_upper(self): self.assertEqual('foo'.upper(), 'FOO') def test_isupper(self): self.assertTrue('FOO'.isupper()) self.assertFalse('Foo'.isupper()) def test_split(self): s = 'hello world' self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', 'world']) # check that s.split fails when the separator is not a string with self.assertRaises(TypeError): s.split(2) if __name__ == '__main__': unittest.main() A test case is created by subclassing *note unittest.TestCase: 449. The three individual tests are defined with methods whose names start with the letters ‘test’. This naming convention informs the test runner about which methods represent tests. The crux of each test is a call to *note assertEqual(): 524. to check for an expected result; *note assertTrue(): 522. or *note assertFalse(): 523. to verify a condition; or *note assertRaises(): 528. to verify that a specific exception gets raised. These methods are used instead of the *note assert: 968. statement so the test runner can accumulate all test results and produce a report. The *note setUp(): 132c. and *note tearDown(): 132d. methods allow you to define instructions that will be executed before and after each test method. They are covered in more detail in the section *note Organizing test code: 4067. The final block shows a simple way to run the tests. *note unittest.main(): fde. provides a command-line interface to the test script. When run from the command line, the above script produces an output that looks like this: ... ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Ran 3 tests in 0.000s OK Passing the ‘-v’ option to your test script will instruct *note unittest.main(): fde. to enable a higher level of verbosity, and produce the following output: test_isupper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_isupper) ... ok test_split (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_split) ... ok test_upper (__main__.TestStringMethods.test_upper) ... ok ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Ran 3 tests in 0.001s OK The above examples show the most commonly used *note unittest: 106. features which are sufficient to meet many everyday testing needs. The remainder of the documentation explores the full feature set from first principles. Changed in version 3.11: The behavior of returning a value from a test method (other than the default ‘None’ value), is now deprecated.  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Interface<3>, Next: Test Discovery, Prev: Basic example, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.2 Command-Line Interface ............................... The unittest module can be used from the command line to run tests from modules, classes or even individual test methods: python -m unittest test_module1 test_module2 python -m unittest test_module.TestClass python -m unittest test_module.TestClass.test_method You can pass in a list with any combination of module names, and fully qualified class or method names. Test modules can be specified by file path as well: python -m unittest tests/test_something.py This allows you to use the shell filename completion to specify the test module. The file specified must still be importable as a module. The path is converted to a module name by removing the ‘.py’ and converting path separators into ‘.’. If you want to execute a test file that isn’t importable as a module you should execute the file directly instead. You can run tests with more detail (higher verbosity) by passing in the -v flag: python -m unittest -v test_module When executed without arguments *note Test Discovery: 406a. is started: python -m unittest For a list of all the command-line options: python -m unittest -h Changed in version 3.2: In earlier versions it was only possible to run individual test methods and not modules or classes. * Menu: * Command-line options: Command-line options<3>.  File: python.info, Node: Command-line options<3>, Up: Command-Line Interface<3> 5.27.5.3 Command-line options ............................. ‘unittest’ supports these command-line options: -- Option: -b, --buffer The standard output and standard error streams are buffered during the test run. Output during a passing test is discarded. Output is echoed normally on test fail or error and is added to the failure messages. -- Option: -c, --catch ‘Control’-‘C’ during the test run waits for the current test to end and then reports all the results so far. A second ‘Control’-‘C’ raises the normal *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. exception. See *note Signal Handling: 406e. for the functions that provide this functionality. -- Option: -f, --failfast Stop the test run on the first error or failure. -- Option: -k Only run test methods and classes that match the pattern or substring. This option may be used multiple times, in which case all test cases that match any of the given patterns are included. Patterns that contain a wildcard character (‘*’) are matched against the test name using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 18a0.; otherwise simple case-sensitive substring matching is used. Patterns are matched against the fully qualified test method name as imported by the test loader. For example, ‘-k foo’ matches ‘foo_tests.SomeTest.test_something’, ‘bar_tests.SomeTest.test_foo’, but not ‘bar_tests.FooTest.test_something’. -- Option: --locals Show local variables in tracebacks. -- Option: --durations N Show the N slowest test cases (N=0 for all). Added in version 3.2: The command-line options ‘-b’, ‘-c’ and ‘-f’ were added. Added in version 3.5: The command-line option ‘--locals’. Added in version 3.7: The command-line option ‘-k’. Added in version 3.12: The command-line option ‘--durations’. The command line can also be used for test discovery, for running all of the tests in a project or just a subset.  File: python.info, Node: Test Discovery, Next: Organizing test code, Prev: Command-Line Interface<3>, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.4 Test Discovery ....................... Added in version 3.2. Unittest supports simple test discovery. In order to be compatible with test discovery, all of the test files must be *note modules: 1c56. or *note packages: 1c67. importable from the top-level directory of the project (this means that their filenames must be valid *note identifiers: 1e94.). Test discovery is implemented in *note TestLoader.discover(): fe0, but can also be used from the command line. The basic command-line usage is: cd project_directory python -m unittest discover Note: As a shortcut, ‘python -m unittest’ is the equivalent of ‘python -m unittest discover’. If you want to pass arguments to test discovery the ‘discover’ sub-command must be used explicitly. The ‘discover’ sub-command has the following options: -- Option: -v, --verbose Verbose output -- Option: -s, --start-directory directory Directory to start discovery (‘.’ default) -- Option: -p, --pattern pattern Pattern to match test files (‘test*.py’ default) -- Option: -t, --top-level-directory directory Top level directory of project (defaults to start directory) The *note -s: 4076, *note -p: 4078, and *note -t: 407a. options can be passed in as positional arguments in that order. The following two command lines are equivalent: python -m unittest discover -s project_directory -p "*_test.py" python -m unittest discover project_directory "*_test.py" As well as being a path it is possible to pass a package name, for example ‘myproject.subpackage.test’, as the start directory. The package name you supply will then be imported and its location on the filesystem will be used as the start directory. Caution: Test discovery loads tests by importing them. Once test discovery has found all the test files from the start directory you specify it turns the paths into package names to import. For example ‘foo/bar/baz.py’ will be imported as ‘foo.bar.baz’. If you have a package installed globally and attempt test discovery on a different copy of the package then the import 'could' happen from the wrong place. If this happens test discovery will warn you and exit. If you supply the start directory as a package name rather than a path to a directory then discover assumes that whichever location it imports from is the location you intended, so you will not get the warning. Test modules and packages can customize test loading and discovery by through the *note load_tests protocol: 407c. Changed in version 3.4: Test discovery supports *note namespace packages: 1c68. for the start directory. Note that you need to specify the top level directory too (e.g. ‘python -m unittest discover -s root/namespace -t root’). Changed in version 3.11: *note unittest: 106. dropped the *note namespace packages: 1c68. support in Python 3.11. It has been broken since Python 3.7. Start directory and subdirectories containing tests must be regular package that have ‘__init__.py’ file. Directories containing start directory still can be a namespace package. In this case, you need to specify start directory as dotted package name, and target directory explicitly. For example: # proj/ <-- current directory # namespace/ # mypkg/ # __init__.py # test_mypkg.py python -m unittest discover -s namespace.mypkg -t .  File: python.info, Node: Organizing test code, Next: Re-using old test code, Prev: Test Discovery, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.5 Organizing test code ............................. The basic building blocks of unit testing are 'test cases' — single scenarios that must be set up and checked for correctness. In *note unittest: 106, test cases are represented by *note unittest.TestCase: 449. instances. To make your own test cases you must write subclasses of *note TestCase: 449. or use *note FunctionTestCase: 1708. The testing code of a *note TestCase: 449. instance should be entirely self contained, such that it can be run either in isolation or in arbitrary combination with any number of other test cases. The simplest *note TestCase: 449. subclass will simply implement a test method (i.e. a method whose name starts with ‘test’) in order to perform specific testing code: import unittest class DefaultWidgetSizeTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def test_default_widget_size(self): widget = Widget('The widget') self.assertEqual(widget.size(), (50, 50)) Note that in order to test something, we use one of the *note assert* methods: 4064. provided by the *note TestCase: 449. base class. If the test fails, an exception will be raised with an explanatory message, and *note unittest: 106. will identify the test case as a 'failure'. Any other exceptions will be treated as 'errors'. Tests can be numerous, and their set-up can be repetitive. Luckily, we can factor out set-up code by implementing a method called *note setUp(): 132c, which the testing framework will automatically call for every single test we run: import unittest class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def setUp(self): self.widget = Widget('The widget') def test_default_widget_size(self): self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (50,50), 'incorrect default size') def test_widget_resize(self): self.widget.resize(100,150) self.assertEqual(self.widget.size(), (100,150), 'wrong size after resize') Note: The order in which the various tests will be run is determined by sorting the test method names with respect to the built-in ordering for strings. If the *note setUp(): 132c. method raises an exception while the test is running, the framework will consider the test to have suffered an error, and the test method will not be executed. Similarly, we can provide a *note tearDown(): 132d. method that tidies up after the test method has been run: import unittest class WidgetTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def setUp(self): self.widget = Widget('The widget') def tearDown(self): self.widget.dispose() If *note setUp(): 132c. succeeded, *note tearDown(): 132d. will be run whether the test method succeeded or not. Such a working environment for the testing code is called a 'test fixture'. A new TestCase instance is created as a unique test fixture used to execute each individual test method. Thus *note setUp(): 132c, *note tearDown(): 132d, and ‘__init__()’ will be called once per test. It is recommended that you use TestCase implementations to group tests together according to the features they test. *note unittest: 106. provides a mechanism for this: the 'test suite', represented by *note unittest: 106.’s *note TestSuite: df3. class. In most cases, calling *note unittest.main(): fde. will do the right thing and collect all the module’s test cases for you and execute them. However, should you want to customize the building of your test suite, you can do it yourself: def suite(): suite = unittest.TestSuite() suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_default_widget_size')) suite.addTest(WidgetTestCase('test_widget_resize')) return suite if __name__ == '__main__': runner = unittest.TextTestRunner() runner.run(suite()) You can place the definitions of test cases and test suites in the same modules as the code they are to test (such as ‘widget.py’), but there are several advantages to placing the test code in a separate module, such as ‘test_widget.py’: * The test module can be run standalone from the command line. * The test code can more easily be separated from shipped code. * There is less temptation to change test code to fit the code it tests without a good reason. * Test code should be modified much less frequently than the code it tests. * Tested code can be refactored more easily. * Tests for modules written in C must be in separate modules anyway, so why not be consistent? * If the testing strategy changes, there is no need to change the source code.  File: python.info, Node: Re-using old test code, Next: Skipping tests and expected failures, Prev: Organizing test code, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.6 Re-using old test code ............................... Some users will find that they have existing test code that they would like to run from *note unittest: 106, without converting every old test function to a *note TestCase: 449. subclass. For this reason, *note unittest: 106. provides a *note FunctionTestCase: 1708. class. This subclass of *note TestCase: 449. can be used to wrap an existing test function. Set-up and tear-down functions can also be provided. Given the following test function: def testSomething(): something = makeSomething() assert something.name is not None # ... one can create an equivalent test case instance as follows, with optional set-up and tear-down methods: testcase = unittest.FunctionTestCase(testSomething, setUp=makeSomethingDB, tearDown=deleteSomethingDB) Note: Even though *note FunctionTestCase: 1708. can be used to quickly convert an existing test base over to a *note unittest: 106.-based system, this approach is not recommended. Taking the time to set up proper *note TestCase: 449. subclasses will make future test refactorings infinitely easier. In some cases, the existing tests may have been written using the *note doctest: 3a. module. If so, *note doctest: 3a. provides a ‘DocTestSuite’ class that can automatically build *note unittest.TestSuite: df3. instances from the existing *note doctest: 3a.-based tests.  File: python.info, Node: Skipping tests and expected failures, Next: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests, Prev: Re-using old test code, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.7 Skipping tests and expected failures ............................................. Added in version 3.1. Unittest supports skipping individual test methods and even whole classes of tests. In addition, it supports marking a test as an “expected failure,” a test that is broken and will fail, but shouldn’t be counted as a failure on a *note TestResult: 115b. Skipping a test is simply a matter of using the *note skip(): 19d8. *note decorator: 72c. or one of its conditional variants, calling *note TestCase.skipTest(): 4082. within a *note setUp(): 132c. or test method, or raising *note SkipTest: fdf. directly. Basic skipping looks like this: class MyTestCase(unittest.TestCase): @unittest.skip("demonstrating skipping") def test_nothing(self): self.fail("shouldn't happen") @unittest.skipIf(mylib.__version__ < (1, 3), "not supported in this library version") def test_format(self): # Tests that work for only a certain version of the library. pass @unittest.skipUnless(sys.platform.startswith("win"), "requires Windows") def test_windows_support(self): # windows specific testing code pass def test_maybe_skipped(self): if not external_resource_available(): self.skipTest("external resource not available") # test code that depends on the external resource pass This is the output of running the example above in verbose mode: test_format (__main__.MyTestCase.test_format) ... skipped 'not supported in this library version' test_nothing (__main__.MyTestCase.test_nothing) ... skipped 'demonstrating skipping' test_maybe_skipped (__main__.MyTestCase.test_maybe_skipped) ... skipped 'external resource not available' test_windows_support (__main__.MyTestCase.test_windows_support) ... skipped 'requires Windows' ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Ran 4 tests in 0.005s OK (skipped=4) Classes can be skipped just like methods: @unittest.skip("showing class skipping") class MySkippedTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def test_not_run(self): pass *note TestCase.setUp(): 132c. can also skip the test. This is useful when a resource that needs to be set up is not available. Expected failures use the *note expectedFailure(): 4083. decorator. class ExpectedFailureTestCase(unittest.TestCase): @unittest.expectedFailure def test_fail(self): self.assertEqual(1, 0, "broken") It’s easy to roll your own skipping decorators by making a decorator that calls *note skip(): 19d8. on the test when it wants it to be skipped. This decorator skips the test unless the passed object has a certain attribute: def skipUnlessHasattr(obj, attr): if hasattr(obj, attr): return lambda func: func return unittest.skip("{!r} doesn't have {!r}".format(obj, attr)) The following decorators and exception implement test skipping and expected failures: -- Function: @unittest.skip (reason) Unconditionally skip the decorated test. 'reason' should describe why the test is being skipped. -- Function: @unittest.skipIf (condition, reason) Skip the decorated test if 'condition' is true. -- Function: @unittest.skipUnless (condition, reason) Skip the decorated test unless 'condition' is true. -- Function: @unittest.expectedFailure Mark the test as an expected failure or error. If the test fails or errors in the test function itself (rather than in one of the 'test fixture' methods) then it will be considered a success. If the test passes, it will be considered a failure. -- Exception: unittest.SkipTest (reason) This exception is raised to skip a test. Usually you can use *note TestCase.skipTest(): 4082. or one of the skipping decorators instead of raising this directly. Skipped tests will not have *note setUp(): 132c. or *note tearDown(): 132d. run around them. Skipped classes will not have *note setUpClass(): a4e. or *note tearDownClass(): 132a. run. Skipped modules will not have ‘setUpModule()’ or ‘tearDownModule()’ run.  File: python.info, Node: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests, Next: Classes and functions, Prev: Skipping tests and expected failures, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.8 Distinguishing test iterations using subtests ...................................................... Added in version 3.4. When there are very small differences among your tests, for instance some parameters, unittest allows you to distinguish them inside the body of a test method using the *note subTest(): fdc. context manager. For example, the following test: class NumbersTest(unittest.TestCase): def test_even(self): """ Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even. """ for i in range(0, 6): with self.subTest(i=i): self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0) will produce the following output: ====================================================================== FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=1) Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Traceback (most recent call last): File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ AssertionError: 1 != 0 ====================================================================== FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=3) Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Traceback (most recent call last): File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ AssertionError: 1 != 0 ====================================================================== FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) (i=5) Test that numbers between 0 and 5 are all even. ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Traceback (most recent call last): File "subtests.py", line 11, in test_even self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0) ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ AssertionError: 1 != 0 Without using a subtest, execution would stop after the first failure, and the error would be less easy to diagnose because the value of ‘i’ wouldn’t be displayed: ====================================================================== FAIL: test_even (__main__.NumbersTest.test_even) ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Traceback (most recent call last): File "subtests.py", line 32, in test_even self.assertEqual(i % 2, 0) AssertionError: 1 != 0  File: python.info, Node: Classes and functions, Next: Class and Module Fixtures, Prev: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.9 Classes and functions .............................. This section describes in depth the API of *note unittest: 106. * Menu: * Test cases:: * Grouping tests:: * Loading and running tests::  File: python.info, Node: Test cases, Next: Grouping tests, Up: Classes and functions 5.27.5.10 Test cases .................... -- Class: unittest.TestCase (methodName='runTest') Instances of the *note TestCase: 449. class represent the logical test units in the *note unittest: 106. universe. This class is intended to be used as a base class, with specific tests being implemented by concrete subclasses. This class implements the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to drive the tests, and methods that the test code can use to check for and report various kinds of failure. Each instance of *note TestCase: 449. will run a single base method: the method named 'methodName'. In most uses of *note TestCase: 449, you will neither change the 'methodName' nor reimplement the default ‘runTest()’ method. Changed in version 3.2: *note TestCase: 449. can be instantiated successfully without providing a 'methodName'. This makes it easier to experiment with *note TestCase: 449. from the interactive interpreter. *note TestCase: 449. instances provide three groups of methods: one group used to run the test, another used by the test implementation to check conditions and report failures, and some inquiry methods allowing information about the test itself to be gathered. Methods in the first group (running the test) are: -- Method: setUp () Method called to prepare the test fixture. This is called immediately before calling the test method; other than *note AssertionError: 6a5. or *note SkipTest: fdf, any exception raised by this method will be considered an error rather than a test failure. The default implementation does nothing. -- Method: tearDown () Method called immediately after the test method has been called and the result recorded. This is called even if the test method raised an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to be particularly careful about checking internal state. Any exception, other than *note AssertionError: 6a5. or *note SkipTest: fdf, raised by this method will be considered an additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing the total number of reported errors). This method will only be called if the *note setUp(): 132c. succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test method. The default implementation does nothing. -- Method: setUpClass () A class method called before tests in an individual class are run. ‘setUpClass’ is called with the class as the only argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 166.: @classmethod def setUpClass(cls): ... See *note Class and Module Fixtures: 408b. for more details. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: tearDownClass () A class method called after tests in an individual class have run. ‘tearDownClass’ is called with the class as the only argument and must be decorated as a *note classmethod(): 166.: @classmethod def tearDownClass(cls): ... See *note Class and Module Fixtures: 408b. for more details. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: run (result=None) Run the test, collecting the result into the *note TestResult: 115b. object passed as 'result'. If 'result' is omitted or ‘None’, a temporary result object is created (by calling the *note defaultTestResult(): 408c. method) and used. The result object is returned to *note run(): 115a.’s caller. The same effect may be had by simply calling the *note TestCase: 449. instance. Changed in version 3.3: Previous versions of ‘run’ did not return the result. Neither did calling an instance. -- Method: skipTest (reason) Calling this during a test method or *note setUp(): 132c. skips the current test. See *note Skipping tests and expected failures: 4081. for more information. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: subTest (msg=None, **params) Return a context manager which executes the enclosed code block as a subtest. 'msg' and 'params' are optional, arbitrary values which are displayed whenever a subtest fails, allowing you to identify them clearly. A test case can contain any number of subtest declarations, and they can be arbitrarily nested. See *note Distinguishing test iterations using subtests: fdd. for more information. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: debug () Run the test without collecting the result. This allows exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the caller, and can be used to support running tests under a debugger. The *note TestCase: 449. class provides several assert methods to check for and report failures. The following table lists the most commonly used methods (see the tables below for more assert methods): Method Checks that New in ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note assertEqual(a, b): 524. ‘a == b’ *note assertNotEqual(a, b): 525. ‘a != b’ *note assertTrue(x): 522. ‘bool(x) is True’ *note assertFalse(x): 523. ‘bool(x) is False’ *note assertIs(a, b): 132e. ‘a is b’ 3.1 *note assertIsNot(a, b): 132f. ‘a is not b’ 3.1 *note assertIsNone(x): 127d. ‘x is None’ 3.1 *note assertIsNotNone(x): 127e. ‘x is not None’ 3.1 *note assertIn(a, b): 1337. ‘a in b’ 3.1 *note assertNotIn(a, b): 1338. ‘a not in b’ 3.1 *note assertIsInstance(a, b): 1330. ‘isinstance(a, b)’ 3.2 *note assertNotIsInstance(a, b): 1331. ‘not isinstance(a, b)’ 3.2 All the assert methods accept a 'msg' argument that, if specified, is used as the error message on failure (see also *note longMessage: 1329.). Note that the 'msg' keyword argument can be passed to *note assertRaises(): 528, *note assertRaisesRegex(): 52a, *note assertWarns(): 1158, *note assertWarnsRegex(): 1159. only when they are used as a context manager. -- Method: assertEqual (first, second, msg=None) Test that 'first' and 'second' are equal. If the values do not compare equal, the test will fail. In addition, if 'first' and 'second' are the exact same type and one of list, tuple, dict, set, frozenset or str or any type that a subclass registers with *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 133b. the type-specific equality function will be called in order to generate a more useful default error message (see also the *note list of type-specific methods: 408d.). Changed in version 3.1: Added the automatic calling of type-specific equality function. Changed in version 3.2: *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 1336. added as the default type equality function for comparing strings. -- Method: assertNotEqual (first, second, msg=None) Test that 'first' and 'second' are not equal. If the values do compare equal, the test will fail. -- Method: assertTrue (expr, msg=None) -- Method: assertFalse (expr, msg=None) Test that 'expr' is true (or false). Note that this is equivalent to ‘bool(expr) is True’ and not to ‘expr is True’ (use ‘assertIs(expr, True)’ for the latter). This method should also be avoided when more specific methods are available (e.g. ‘assertEqual(a, b)’ instead of ‘assertTrue(a == b)’), because they provide a better error message in case of failure. -- Method: assertIs (first, second, msg=None) -- Method: assertIsNot (first, second, msg=None) Test that 'first' and 'second' are (or are not) the same object. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertIsNone (expr, msg=None) -- Method: assertIsNotNone (expr, msg=None) Test that 'expr' is (or is not) ‘None’. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertIn (member, container, msg=None) -- Method: assertNotIn (member, container, msg=None) Test that 'member' is (or is not) in 'container'. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None) -- Method: assertNotIsInstance (obj, cls, msg=None) Test that 'obj' is (or is not) an instance of 'cls' (which can be a class or a tuple of classes, as supported by *note isinstance(): 43d.). To check for the exact type, use *note assertIs(type(obj), cls): 132e. Added in version 3.2. It is also possible to check the production of exceptions, warnings, and log messages using the following methods: Method Checks that New in -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note assertRaises(exc, fun, *args, **kwds): 528. ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc' *note assertRaisesRegex(exc, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 52a. ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'exc' and 3.1 the message matches regex 'r' *note assertWarns(warn, fun, *args, **kwds): 1158. ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn' 3.2 *note assertWarnsRegex(warn, r, fun, *args, **kwds): 1159. ‘fun(*args, **kwds)’ raises 'warn' and 3.2 the message matches regex 'r' *note assertLogs(logger, level): 855. The ‘with’ block logs on 'logger' with 3.4 minimum 'level' *note assertNoLogs(logger, level): 854. The ‘with’ block does not log on 3.10 'logger' with minimum 'level' -- Method: assertRaises (exception, callable, *args, **kwds) -- Method: assertRaises (exception, *, msg=None) Test that an exception is raised when 'callable' is called with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to *note assertRaises(): 528. The test passes if 'exception' is raised, is an error if another exception is raised, or fails if no exception is raised. To catch any of a group of exceptions, a tuple containing the exception classes may be passed as 'exception'. If only the 'exception' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are given, return a context manager so that the code under test can be written inline rather than as a function: with self.assertRaises(SomeException): do_something() When used as a context manager, *note assertRaises(): 528. accepts the additional keyword argument 'msg'. The context manager will store the caught exception object in its ‘exception’ attribute. This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks on the exception raised: with self.assertRaises(SomeException) as cm: do_something() the_exception = cm.exception self.assertEqual(the_exception.error_code, 3) Changed in version 3.1: Added the ability to use *note assertRaises(): 528. as a context manager. Changed in version 3.2: Added the ‘exception’ attribute. Changed in version 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when used as a context manager. -- Method: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, callable, *args, **kwds) -- Method: assertRaisesRegex (exception, regex, *, msg=None) Like *note assertRaises(): 528. but also tests that 'regex' matches on the string representation of the raised exception. 'regex' may be a regular expression object or a string containing a regular expression suitable for use by *note re.search(): 121f. Examples: self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, "invalid literal for.*XYZ'$", int, 'XYZ') or: with self.assertRaisesRegex(ValueError, 'literal'): int('XYZ') Added in version 3.1: Added under the name ‘assertRaisesRegexp’. Changed in version 3.2: Renamed to *note assertRaisesRegex(): 52a. Changed in version 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when used as a context manager. -- Method: assertWarns (warning, callable, *args, **kwds) -- Method: assertWarns (warning, *, msg=None) Test that a warning is triggered when 'callable' is called with any positional or keyword arguments that are also passed to *note assertWarns(): 1158. The test passes if 'warning' is triggered and fails if it isn’t. Any exception is an error. To catch any of a group of warnings, a tuple containing the warning classes may be passed as 'warnings'. If only the 'warning' and possibly the 'msg' arguments are given, return a context manager so that the code under test can be written inline rather than as a function: with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning): do_something() When used as a context manager, *note assertWarns(): 1158. accepts the additional keyword argument 'msg'. The context manager will store the caught warning object in its ‘warning’ attribute, and the source line which triggered the warnings in the ‘filename’ and ‘lineno’ attributes. This can be useful if the intention is to perform additional checks on the warning caught: with self.assertWarns(SomeWarning) as cm: do_something() self.assertIn('myfile.py', cm.filename) self.assertEqual(320, cm.lineno) This method works regardless of the warning filters in place when it is called. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when used as a context manager. -- Method: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, callable, *args, **kwds) -- Method: assertWarnsRegex (warning, regex, *, msg=None) Like *note assertWarns(): 1158. but also tests that 'regex' matches on the message of the triggered warning. 'regex' may be a regular expression object or a string containing a regular expression suitable for use by *note re.search(): 121f. Example: self.assertWarnsRegex(DeprecationWarning, r'legacy_function\(\) is deprecated', legacy_function, 'XYZ') or: with self.assertWarnsRegex(RuntimeWarning, 'unsafe frobnicating'): frobnicate('/etc/passwd') Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.3: Added the 'msg' keyword argument when used as a context manager. -- Method: assertLogs (logger=None, level=None) A context manager to test that at least one message is logged on the 'logger' or one of its children, with at least the given 'level'. If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: b4f. object or a *note str: 447. giving the name of a logger. The default is the root logger, which will catch all messages that were not blocked by a non-propagating descendent logger. If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note logging.ERROR: 1cf5.). The default is *note logging.INFO: 1cf3. The test passes if at least one message emitted inside the ‘with’ block matches the 'logger' and 'level' conditions, otherwise it fails. The object returned by the context manager is a recording helper which keeps tracks of the matching log messages. It has two attributes: -- Attribute: records A list of *note logging.LogRecord: fe1. objects of the matching log messages. -- Attribute: output A list of *note str: 447. objects with the formatted output of matching messages. Example: with self.assertLogs('foo', level='INFO') as cm: logging.getLogger('foo').info('first message') logging.getLogger('foo.bar').error('second message') self.assertEqual(cm.output, ['INFO:foo:first message', 'ERROR:foo.bar:second message']) Added in version 3.4. -- Method: assertNoLogs (logger=None, level=None) A context manager to test that no messages are logged on the 'logger' or one of its children, with at least the given 'level'. If given, 'logger' should be a *note logging.Logger: b4f. object or a *note str: 447. giving the name of a logger. The default is the root logger, which will catch all messages. If given, 'level' should be either a numeric logging level or its string equivalent (for example either ‘"ERROR"’ or *note logging.ERROR: 1cf5.). The default is *note logging.INFO: 1cf3. Unlike *note assertLogs(): 855, nothing will be returned by the context manager. Added in version 3.10. There are also other methods used to perform more specific checks, such as: Method Checks that New in ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note assertAlmostEqual(a, b): 526. ‘round(a-b, 7) == 0’ *note assertNotAlmostEqual(a, b): 527. ‘round(a-b, 7) != 0’ *note assertGreater(a, b): 1332. ‘a > b’ 3.1 *note assertGreaterEqual(a, b): 1333. ‘a >= b’ 3.1 *note assertLess(a, b): 1334. ‘a < b’ 3.1 *note assertLessEqual(a, b): 1335. ‘a <= b’ 3.1 *note assertRegex(s, r): 529. ‘r.search(s)’ 3.1 *note assertNotRegex(s, r): 52b. ‘not r.search(s)’ 3.2 *note assertCountEqual(a, b): 121d. 'a' and 'b' have the same elements 3.2 in the same number, regardless of their order. -- Method: assertAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None, delta=None) -- Method: assertNotAlmostEqual (first, second, places=7, msg=None, delta=None) Test that 'first' and 'second' are approximately (or not approximately) equal by computing the difference, rounding to the given number of decimal 'places' (default 7), and comparing to zero. Note that these methods round the values to the given number of 'decimal places' (i.e. like the *note round(): 12cd. function) and not 'significant digits'. If 'delta' is supplied instead of 'places' then the difference between 'first' and 'second' must be less or equal to (or greater than) 'delta'. Supplying both 'delta' and 'places' raises a *note TypeError: 534. Changed in version 3.2: *note assertAlmostEqual(): 526. automatically considers almost equal objects that compare equal. *note assertNotAlmostEqual(): 527. automatically fails if the objects compare equal. Added the 'delta' keyword argument. -- Method: assertGreater (first, second, msg=None) -- Method: assertGreaterEqual (first, second, msg=None) -- Method: assertLess (first, second, msg=None) -- Method: assertLessEqual (first, second, msg=None) Test that 'first' is respectively >, >=, < or <= than 'second' depending on the method name. If not, the test will fail: >>> self.assertGreaterEqual(3, 4) AssertionError: "3" unexpectedly not greater than or equal to "4" Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertRegex (text, regex, msg=None) -- Method: assertNotRegex (text, regex, msg=None) Test that a 'regex' search matches (or does not match) 'text'. In case of failure, the error message will include the pattern and the 'text' (or the pattern and the part of 'text' that unexpectedly matched). 'regex' may be a regular expression object or a string containing a regular expression suitable for use by *note re.search(): 121f. Added in version 3.1: Added under the name ‘assertRegexpMatches’. Changed in version 3.2: The method ‘assertRegexpMatches()’ has been renamed to *note assertRegex(): 529. Added in version 3.2: *note assertNotRegex(): 52b. -- Method: assertCountEqual (first, second, msg=None) Test that sequence 'first' contains the same elements as 'second', regardless of their order. When they don’t, an error message listing the differences between the sequences will be generated. Duplicate elements are 'not' ignored when comparing 'first' and 'second'. It verifies whether each element has the same count in both sequences. Equivalent to: ‘assertEqual(Counter(list(first)), Counter(list(second)))’ but works with sequences of unhashable objects as well. Added in version 3.2. The *note assertEqual(): 524. method dispatches the equality check for objects of the same type to different type-specific methods. These methods are already implemented for most of the built-in types, but it’s also possible to register new methods using *note addTypeEqualityFunc(): 133b.: -- Method: addTypeEqualityFunc (typeobj, function) Registers a type-specific method called by *note assertEqual(): 524. to check if two objects of exactly the same 'typeobj' (not subclasses) compare equal. 'function' must take two positional arguments and a third msg=None keyword argument just as *note assertEqual(): 524. does. It must raise *note self.failureException(msg): 4025. when inequality between the first two parameters is detected – possibly providing useful information and explaining the inequalities in details in the error message. Added in version 3.1. The list of type-specific methods automatically used by *note assertEqual(): 524. are summarized in the following table. Note that it’s usually not necessary to invoke these methods directly. Method Used to compare New in --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note assertMultiLineEqual(a, b): 1336. strings 3.1 *note assertSequenceEqual(a, b): 127c. sequences 3.1 *note assertListEqual(a, b): 127a. lists 3.1 *note assertTupleEqual(a, b): 127b. tuples 3.1 *note assertSetEqual(a, b): 1278. sets or frozensets 3.1 *note assertDictEqual(a, b): 1279. dicts 3.1 -- Method: assertMultiLineEqual (first, second, msg=None) Test that the multiline string 'first' is equal to the string 'second'. When not equal a diff of the two strings highlighting the differences will be included in the error message. This method is used by default when comparing strings with *note assertEqual(): 524. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertSequenceEqual (first, second, msg=None, seq_type=None) Tests that two sequences are equal. If a 'seq_type' is supplied, both 'first' and 'second' must be instances of 'seq_type' or a failure will be raised. If the sequences are different an error message is constructed that shows the difference between the two. This method is not called directly by *note assertEqual(): 524, but it’s used to implement *note assertListEqual(): 127a. and *note assertTupleEqual(): 127b. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertListEqual (first, second, msg=None) -- Method: assertTupleEqual (first, second, msg=None) Tests that two lists or tuples are equal. If not, an error message is constructed that shows only the differences between the two. An error is also raised if either of the parameters are of the wrong type. These methods are used by default when comparing lists or tuples with *note assertEqual(): 524. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertSetEqual (first, second, msg=None) Tests that two sets are equal. If not, an error message is constructed that lists the differences between the sets. This method is used by default when comparing sets or frozensets with *note assertEqual(): 524. Fails if either of 'first' or 'second' does not have a ‘set.difference()’ method. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: assertDictEqual (first, second, msg=None) Test that two dictionaries are equal. If not, an error message is constructed that shows the differences in the dictionaries. This method will be used by default to compare dictionaries in calls to *note assertEqual(): 524. Added in version 3.1. Finally the *note TestCase: 449. provides the following methods and attributes: -- Method: fail (msg=None) Signals a test failure unconditionally, with 'msg' or ‘None’ for the error message. -- Attribute: failureException This class attribute gives the exception raised by the test method. If a test framework needs to use a specialized exception, possibly to carry additional information, it must subclass this exception in order to “play fair” with the framework. The initial value of this attribute is *note AssertionError: 6a5. -- Attribute: longMessage This class attribute determines what happens when a custom failure message is passed as the msg argument to an assertXYY call that fails. ‘True’ is the default value. In this case, the custom message is appended to the end of the standard failure message. When set to ‘False’, the custom message replaces the standard message. The class setting can be overridden in individual test methods by assigning an instance attribute, self.longMessage, to ‘True’ or ‘False’ before calling the assert methods. The class setting gets reset before each test call. Added in version 3.1. -- Attribute: maxDiff This attribute controls the maximum length of diffs output by assert methods that report diffs on failure. It defaults to 80*8 characters. Assert methods affected by this attribute are *note assertSequenceEqual(): 127c. (including all the sequence comparison methods that delegate to it), *note assertDictEqual(): 1279. and *note assertMultiLineEqual(): 1336. Setting ‘maxDiff’ to ‘None’ means that there is no maximum length of diffs. Added in version 3.2. Testing frameworks can use the following methods to collect information on the test: -- Method: countTestCases () Return the number of tests represented by this test object. For *note TestCase: 449. instances, this will always be ‘1’. -- Method: defaultTestResult () Return an instance of the test result class that should be used for this test case class (if no other result instance is provided to the *note run(): 115a. method). For *note TestCase: 449. instances, this will always be an instance of *note TestResult: 115b.; subclasses of *note TestCase: 449. should override this as necessary. -- Method: id () Return a string identifying the specific test case. This is usually the full name of the test method, including the module and class name. -- Method: shortDescription () Returns a description of the test, or ‘None’ if no description has been provided. The default implementation of this method returns the first line of the test method’s docstring, if available, or ‘None’. Changed in version 3.1: In 3.1 this was changed to add the test name to the short description even in the presence of a docstring. This caused compatibility issues with unittest extensions and adding the test name was moved to the *note TextTestResult: 52c. in Python 3.2. -- Method: addCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs) Add a function to be called after *note tearDown(): 132d. to cleanup resources used during the test. Functions will be called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO). They are called with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into *note addCleanup(): a81. when they are added. If *note setUp(): 132c. fails, meaning that *note tearDown(): 132d. is not called, then any cleanup functions added will still be called. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: enterContext (cm) Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5d0. If successful, also add its *note __exit__(): 12f3. method as a cleanup function by *note addCleanup(): a81. and return the result of the *note __enter__(): 5c4. method. Added in version 3.11. -- Method: doCleanups () This method is called unconditionally after *note tearDown(): 132d, or after *note setUp(): 132c. if *note setUp(): 132c. raises an exception. It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by *note addCleanup(): a81. If you need cleanup functions to be called 'prior' to *note tearDown(): 132d. then you can call *note doCleanups(): 132b. yourself. *note doCleanups(): 132b. pops methods off the stack of cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: classmethod addClassCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs) Add a function to be called after *note tearDownClass(): 132a. to cleanup resources used during the test class. Functions will be called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO). They are called with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into *note addClassCleanup(): a4d. when they are added. If *note setUpClass(): a4e. fails, meaning that *note tearDownClass(): 132a. is not called, then any cleanup functions added will still be called. Added in version 3.8. -- Method: classmethod enterClassContext (cm) Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5d0. If successful, also add its *note __exit__(): 12f3. method as a cleanup function by *note addClassCleanup(): a4d. and return the result of the *note __enter__(): 5c4. method. Added in version 3.11. -- Method: classmethod doClassCleanups () This method is called unconditionally after *note tearDownClass(): 132a, or after *note setUpClass(): a4e. if *note setUpClass(): a4e. raises an exception. It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by *note addClassCleanup(): a4d. If you need cleanup functions to be called 'prior' to *note tearDownClass(): 132a. then you can call *note doClassCleanups(): 4095. yourself. *note doClassCleanups(): 4095. pops methods off the stack of cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time. Added in version 3.8. -- Class: unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (methodName='runTest') This class provides an API similar to *note TestCase: 449. and also accepts coroutines as test functions. Added in version 3.8. -- Attribute: loop_factory The 'loop_factory' passed to *note asyncio.Runner: 5fc. Override in subclasses with *note asyncio.EventLoop: 16f6. to avoid using the asyncio policy system. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: async asyncSetUp () Method called to prepare the test fixture. This is called after ‘setUp()’. This is called immediately before calling the test method; other than *note AssertionError: 6a5. or *note SkipTest: fdf, any exception raised by this method will be considered an error rather than a test failure. The default implementation does nothing. -- Method: async asyncTearDown () Method called immediately after the test method has been called and the result recorded. This is called before ‘tearDown()’. This is called even if the test method raised an exception, so the implementation in subclasses may need to be particularly careful about checking internal state. Any exception, other than *note AssertionError: 6a5. or *note SkipTest: fdf, raised by this method will be considered an additional error rather than a test failure (thus increasing the total number of reported errors). This method will only be called if the *note asyncSetUp(): 4097. succeeds, regardless of the outcome of the test method. The default implementation does nothing. -- Method: addAsyncCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs) This method accepts a coroutine that can be used as a cleanup function. -- Method: async enterAsyncContext (cm) Enter the supplied *note asynchronous context manager: 5d3. If successful, also add its *note __aexit__(): 162a. method as a cleanup function by *note addAsyncCleanup(): 4099. and return the result of the *note __aenter__(): 1fd0. method. Added in version 3.11. -- Method: run (result=None) Sets up a new event loop to run the test, collecting the result into the *note TestResult: 115b. object passed as 'result'. If 'result' is omitted or ‘None’, a temporary result object is created (by calling the ‘defaultTestResult()’ method) and used. The result object is returned to *note run(): 409a.’s caller. At the end of the test all the tasks in the event loop are cancelled. An example illustrating the order: from unittest import IsolatedAsyncioTestCase events = [] class Test(IsolatedAsyncioTestCase): def setUp(self): events.append("setUp") async def asyncSetUp(self): self._async_connection = await AsyncConnection() events.append("asyncSetUp") async def test_response(self): events.append("test_response") response = await self._async_connection.get("https://example.com") self.assertEqual(response.status_code, 200) self.addAsyncCleanup(self.on_cleanup) def tearDown(self): events.append("tearDown") async def asyncTearDown(self): await self._async_connection.close() events.append("asyncTearDown") async def on_cleanup(self): events.append("cleanup") if __name__ == "__main__": unittest.main() After running the test, ‘events’ would contain ‘["setUp", "asyncSetUp", "test_response", "asyncTearDown", "tearDown", "cleanup"]’. -- Class: unittest.FunctionTestCase (testFunc, setUp=None, tearDown=None, description=None) This class implements the portion of the *note TestCase: 449. interface which allows the test runner to drive the test, but does not provide the methods which test code can use to check and report errors. This is used to create test cases using legacy test code, allowing it to be integrated into a *note unittest: 106.-based test framework.  File: python.info, Node: Grouping tests, Next: Loading and running tests, Prev: Test cases, Up: Classes and functions 5.27.5.11 Grouping tests ........................ -- Class: unittest.TestSuite (tests=()) This class represents an aggregation of individual test cases and test suites. The class presents the interface needed by the test runner to allow it to be run as any other test case. Running a *note TestSuite: df3. instance is the same as iterating over the suite, running each test individually. If 'tests' is given, it must be an iterable of individual test cases or other test suites that will be used to build the suite initially. Additional methods are provided to add test cases and suites to the collection later on. *note TestSuite: df3. objects behave much like *note TestCase: 449. objects, except they do not actually implement a test. Instead, they are used to aggregate tests into groups of tests that should be run together. Some additional methods are available to add tests to *note TestSuite: df3. instances: -- Method: addTest (test) Add a *note TestCase: 449. or *note TestSuite: df3. to the suite. -- Method: addTests (tests) Add all the tests from an iterable of *note TestCase: 449. and *note TestSuite: df3. instances to this test suite. This is equivalent to iterating over 'tests', calling *note addTest(): 409d. for each element. *note TestSuite: df3. shares the following methods with *note TestCase: 449.: -- Method: run (result) Run the tests associated with this suite, collecting the result into the test result object passed as 'result'. Note that unlike *note TestCase.run(): 115a, *note TestSuite.run(): 409f. requires the result object to be passed in. -- Method: debug () Run the tests associated with this suite without collecting the result. This allows exceptions raised by the test to be propagated to the caller and can be used to support running tests under a debugger. -- Method: countTestCases () Return the number of tests represented by this test object, including all individual tests and sub-suites. -- Method: __iter__ () Tests grouped by a *note TestSuite: df3. are always accessed by iteration. Subclasses can lazily provide tests by overriding ‘__iter__()’. Note that this method may be called several times on a single suite (for example when counting tests or comparing for equality) so the tests returned by repeated iterations before *note TestSuite.run(): 409f. must be the same for each call iteration. After *note TestSuite.run(): 409f, callers should not rely on the tests returned by this method unless the caller uses a subclass that overrides ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’ to preserve test references. Changed in version 3.2: In earlier versions the *note TestSuite: df3. accessed tests directly rather than through iteration, so overriding ‘__iter__()’ wasn’t sufficient for providing tests. Changed in version 3.4: In earlier versions the *note TestSuite: df3. held references to each *note TestCase: 449. after *note TestSuite.run(): 409f. Subclasses can restore that behavior by overriding ‘TestSuite._removeTestAtIndex()’. In the typical usage of a *note TestSuite: df3. object, the *note run(): 409f. method is invoked by a ‘TestRunner’ rather than by the end-user test harness.  File: python.info, Node: Loading and running tests, Prev: Grouping tests, Up: Classes and functions 5.27.5.12 Loading and running tests ................................... -- Class: unittest.TestLoader The *note TestLoader: 290. class is used to create test suites from classes and modules. Normally, there is no need to create an instance of this class; the *note unittest: 106. module provides an instance that can be shared as *note unittest.defaultTestLoader: 40a3. Using a subclass or instance, however, allows customization of some configurable properties. *note TestLoader: 290. objects have the following attributes: -- Attribute: errors A list of the non-fatal errors encountered while loading tests. Not reset by the loader at any point. Fatal errors are signalled by the relevant method raising an exception to the caller. Non-fatal errors are also indicated by a synthetic test that will raise the original error when run. Added in version 3.5. *note TestLoader: 290. objects have the following methods: -- Method: loadTestsFromTestCase (testCaseClass) Return a suite of all test cases contained in the *note TestCase: 449.-derived ‘testCaseClass’. A test case instance is created for each method named by *note getTestCaseNames(): 293. By default these are the method names beginning with ‘test’. If *note getTestCaseNames(): 293. returns no methods, but the ‘runTest()’ method is implemented, a single test case is created for that method instead. -- Method: loadTestsFromModule (module, *, pattern=None) Return a suite of all test cases contained in the given module. This method searches 'module' for classes derived from *note TestCase: 449. and creates an instance of the class for each test method defined for the class. Note: While using a hierarchy of *note TestCase: 449.-derived classes can be convenient in sharing fixtures and helper functions, defining test methods on base classes that are not intended to be instantiated directly does not play well with this method. Doing so, however, can be useful when the fixtures are different and defined in subclasses. If a module provides a ‘load_tests’ function it will be called to load the tests. This allows modules to customize test loading. This is the *note load_tests protocol: 407c. The 'pattern' argument is passed as the third argument to ‘load_tests’. Changed in version 3.2: Support for ‘load_tests’ added. Changed in version 3.5: Support for a keyword-only argument 'pattern' has been added. Changed in version 3.12: The undocumented and unofficial 'use_load_tests' parameter has been removed. -- Method: loadTestsFromName (name, module=None) Return a suite of all test cases given a string specifier. The specifier 'name' is a “dotted name” that may resolve either to a module, a test case class, a test method within a test case class, a *note TestSuite: df3. instance, or a callable object which returns a *note TestCase: 449. or *note TestSuite: df3. instance. These checks are applied in the order listed here; that is, a method on a possible test case class will be picked up as “a test method within a test case class”, rather than “a callable object”. For example, if you have a module ‘SampleTests’ containing a *note TestCase: 449.-derived class ‘SampleTestCase’ with three test methods (‘test_one()’, ‘test_two()’, and ‘test_three()’), the specifier ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase'’ would cause this method to return a suite which will run all three test methods. Using the specifier ‘'SampleTests.SampleTestCase.test_two'’ would cause it to return a test suite which will run only the ‘test_two()’ test method. The specifier can refer to modules and packages which have not been imported; they will be imported as a side-effect. The method optionally resolves 'name' relative to the given 'module'. Changed in version 3.5: If an *note ImportError: 415. or *note AttributeError: 348. occurs while traversing 'name' then a synthetic test that raises that error when run will be returned. These errors are included in the errors accumulated by self.errors. -- Method: loadTestsFromNames (names, module=None) Similar to *note loadTestsFromName(): 1339, but takes a sequence of names rather than a single name. The return value is a test suite which supports all the tests defined for each name. -- Method: getTestCaseNames (testCaseClass) Return a sorted sequence of method names found within 'testCaseClass'; this should be a subclass of *note TestCase: 449. -- Method: discover (start_dir, pattern='test*.py', top_level_dir=None) Find all the test modules by recursing into subdirectories from the specified start directory, and return a TestSuite object containing them. Only test files that match 'pattern' will be loaded. (Using shell style pattern matching.) Only module names that are importable (i.e. are valid Python identifiers) will be loaded. All test modules must be importable from the top level of the project. If the start directory is not the top level directory then 'top_level_dir' must be specified separately. If importing a module fails, for example due to a syntax error, then this will be recorded as a single error and discovery will continue. If the import failure is due to *note SkipTest: fdf. being raised, it will be recorded as a skip instead of an error. If a package (a directory containing a file named ‘__init__.py’) is found, the package will be checked for a ‘load_tests’ function. If this exists then it will be called ‘package.load_tests(loader, tests, pattern)’. Test discovery takes care to ensure that a package is only checked for tests once during an invocation, even if the load_tests function itself calls ‘loader.discover’. If ‘load_tests’ exists then discovery does 'not' recurse into the package, ‘load_tests’ is responsible for loading all tests in the package. The pattern is deliberately not stored as a loader attribute so that packages can continue discovery themselves. 'top_level_dir' is stored internally, and used as a default to any nested calls to ‘discover()’. That is, if a package’s ‘load_tests’ calls ‘loader.discover()’, it does not need to pass this argument. 'start_dir' can be a dotted module name as well as a directory. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.4: Modules that raise *note SkipTest: fdf. on import are recorded as skips, not errors. Changed in version 3.4: 'start_dir' can be a *note namespace packages: 1c68. Changed in version 3.4: Paths are sorted before being imported so that execution order is the same even if the underlying file system’s ordering is not dependent on file name. Changed in version 3.5: Found packages are now checked for ‘load_tests’ regardless of whether their path matches 'pattern', because it is impossible for a package name to match the default pattern. Changed in version 3.11: 'start_dir' can not be a *note namespace packages: 1c68. It has been broken since Python 3.7 and Python 3.11 officially remove it. Changed in version 3.13: 'top_level_dir' is only stored for the duration of 'discover' call. The following attributes of a *note TestLoader: 290. can be configured either by subclassing or assignment on an instance: -- Attribute: testMethodPrefix String giving the prefix of method names which will be interpreted as test methods. The default value is ‘'test'’. This affects *note getTestCaseNames(): 293. and all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods. -- Attribute: sortTestMethodsUsing Function to be used to compare method names when sorting them in *note getTestCaseNames(): 293. and all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods. -- Attribute: suiteClass Callable object that constructs a test suite from a list of tests. No methods on the resulting object are needed. The default value is the *note TestSuite: df3. class. This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods. -- Attribute: testNamePatterns List of Unix shell-style wildcard test name patterns that test methods have to match to be included in test suites (see ‘-k’ option). If this attribute is not ‘None’ (the default), all test methods to be included in test suites must match one of the patterns in this list. Note that matches are always performed using *note fnmatch.fnmatchcase(): 18a0, so unlike patterns passed to the ‘-k’ option, simple substring patterns will have to be converted using ‘*’ wildcards. This affects all the ‘loadTestsFrom*’ methods. Added in version 3.7. -- Class: unittest.TestResult This class is used to compile information about which tests have succeeded and which have failed. A *note TestResult: 115b. object stores the results of a set of tests. The *note TestCase: 449. and *note TestSuite: df3. classes ensure that results are properly recorded; test authors do not need to worry about recording the outcome of tests. Testing frameworks built on top of *note unittest: 106. may want access to the *note TestResult: 115b. object generated by running a set of tests for reporting purposes; a *note TestResult: 115b. instance is returned by the ‘TestRunner.run()’ method for this purpose. *note TestResult: 115b. instances have the following attributes that will be of interest when inspecting the results of running a set of tests: -- Attribute: errors A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 449. instances and strings holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test which raised an unexpected exception. -- Attribute: failures A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 449. instances and strings holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents a test where a failure was explicitly signalled using the *note assert* methods: 4064. -- Attribute: skipped A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 449. instances and strings holding the reason for skipping the test. Added in version 3.1. -- Attribute: expectedFailures A list containing 2-tuples of *note TestCase: 449. instances and strings holding formatted tracebacks. Each tuple represents an expected failure or error of the test case. -- Attribute: unexpectedSuccesses A list containing *note TestCase: 449. instances that were marked as expected failures, but succeeded. -- Attribute: collectedDurations A list containing 2-tuples of test case names and floats representing the elapsed time of each test which was run. Added in version 3.12. -- Attribute: shouldStop Set to ‘True’ when the execution of tests should stop by *note stop(): 40ae. -- Attribute: testsRun The total number of tests run so far. -- Attribute: buffer If set to true, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ will be buffered in between *note startTest(): 40b1. and *note stopTest(): 40b2. being called. Collected output will only be echoed onto the real ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ if the test fails or errors. Any output is also attached to the failure / error message. Added in version 3.2. -- Attribute: failfast If set to true *note stop(): 40ae. will be called on the first failure or error, halting the test run. Added in version 3.2. -- Attribute: tb_locals If set to true then local variables will be shown in tracebacks. Added in version 3.5. -- Method: wasSuccessful () Return ‘True’ if all tests run so far have passed, otherwise returns ‘False’. Changed in version 3.4: Returns ‘False’ if there were any *note unexpectedSuccesses: 40ac. from tests marked with the *note expectedFailure(): 4083. decorator. -- Method: stop () This method can be called to signal that the set of tests being run should be aborted by setting the *note shouldStop: 40ad. attribute to ‘True’. ‘TestRunner’ objects should respect this flag and return without running any additional tests. For example, this feature is used by the *note TextTestRunner: 1745. class to stop the test framework when the user signals an interrupt from the keyboard. Interactive tools which provide ‘TestRunner’ implementations can use this in a similar manner. The following methods of the *note TestResult: 115b. class are used to maintain the internal data structures, and may be extended in subclasses to support additional reporting requirements. This is particularly useful in building tools which support interactive reporting while tests are being run. -- Method: startTest (test) Called when the test case 'test' is about to be run. -- Method: stopTest (test) Called after the test case 'test' has been executed, regardless of the outcome. -- Method: startTestRun () Called once before any tests are executed. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: stopTestRun () Called once after all tests are executed. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: addError (test, err) Called when the test case 'test' raises an unexpected exception. 'err' is a tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686.: ‘(type, value, traceback)’. The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note errors: 40a8. attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback derived from 'err'. -- Method: addFailure (test, err) Called when the test case 'test' signals a failure. 'err' is a tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686.: ‘(type, value, traceback)’. The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note failures: 40a9. attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback derived from 'err'. -- Method: addSuccess (test) Called when the test case 'test' succeeds. The default implementation does nothing. -- Method: addSkip (test, reason) Called when the test case 'test' is skipped. 'reason' is the reason the test gave for skipping. The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, reason)’ to the instance’s *note skipped: 40aa. attribute. -- Method: addExpectedFailure (test, err) Called when the test case 'test' fails or errors, but was marked with the *note expectedFailure(): 4083. decorator. The default implementation appends a tuple ‘(test, formatted_err)’ to the instance’s *note expectedFailures: 40ab. attribute, where 'formatted_err' is a formatted traceback derived from 'err'. -- Method: addUnexpectedSuccess (test) Called when the test case 'test' was marked with the *note expectedFailure(): 4083. decorator, but succeeded. The default implementation appends the test to the instance’s *note unexpectedSuccesses: 40ac. attribute. -- Method: addSubTest (test, subtest, outcome) Called when a subtest finishes. 'test' is the test case corresponding to the test method. 'subtest' is a custom *note TestCase: 449. instance describing the subtest. If 'outcome' is *note None: 671, the subtest succeeded. Otherwise, it failed with an exception where 'outcome' is a tuple of the form returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686.: ‘(type, value, traceback)’. The default implementation does nothing when the outcome is a success, and records subtest failures as normal failures. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: addDuration (test, elapsed) Called when the test case finishes. 'elapsed' is the time represented in seconds, and it includes the execution of cleanup functions. Added in version 3.12. -- Class: unittest.TextTestResult (stream, descriptions, verbosity, *, durations=None) A concrete implementation of *note TestResult: 115b. used by the *note TextTestRunner: 1745. Subclasses should accept ‘**kwargs’ to ensure compatibility as the interface changes. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.12: Added the 'durations' keyword parameter. -- Data: unittest.defaultTestLoader Instance of the *note TestLoader: 290. class intended to be shared. If no customization of the *note TestLoader: 290. is needed, this instance can be used instead of repeatedly creating new instances. -- Class: unittest.TextTestRunner (stream=None, descriptions=True, verbosity=1, failfast=False, buffer=False, resultclass=None, warnings=None, *, tb_locals=False, durations=None) A basic test runner implementation that outputs results to a stream. If 'stream' is ‘None’, the default, *note sys.stderr: 939. is used as the output stream. This class has a few configurable parameters, but is essentially very simple. Graphical applications which run test suites should provide alternate implementations. Such implementations should accept ‘**kwargs’ as the interface to construct runners changes when features are added to unittest. By default this runner shows *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5, *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7, *note ResourceWarning: 246. and *note ImportWarning: 4f6. even if they are *note ignored by default: 40b9. This behavior can be overridden using Python’s ‘-Wd’ or ‘-Wa’ options (see *note Warning control: 1d38.) and leaving 'warnings' to ‘None’. Changed in version 3.2: Added the 'warnings' parameter. Changed in version 3.2: The default stream is set to *note sys.stderr: 939. at instantiation time rather than import time. Changed in version 3.5: Added the 'tb_locals' parameter. Changed in version 3.12: Added the 'durations' parameter. -- Method: _makeResult () This method returns the instance of ‘TestResult’ used by *note run(): 40bb. It is not intended to be called directly, but can be overridden in subclasses to provide a custom ‘TestResult’. ‘_makeResult()’ instantiates the class or callable passed in the ‘TextTestRunner’ constructor as the ‘resultclass’ argument. It defaults to *note TextTestResult: 52c. if no ‘resultclass’ is provided. The result class is instantiated with the following arguments: stream, descriptions, verbosity -- Method: run (test) This method is the main public interface to the ‘TextTestRunner’. This method takes a *note TestSuite: df3. or *note TestCase: 449. instance. A *note TestResult: 115b. is created by calling *note _makeResult(): 40ba. and the test(s) are run and the results printed to stdout. -- Function: unittest.main (module='__main__', defaultTest=None, argv=None, testRunner=None, testLoader=unittest.defaultTestLoader, exit=True, verbosity=1, failfast=None, catchbreak=None, buffer=None, warnings=None) A command-line program that loads a set of tests from 'module' and runs them; this is primarily for making test modules conveniently executable. The simplest use for this function is to include the following line at the end of a test script: if __name__ == '__main__': unittest.main() You can run tests with more detailed information by passing in the verbosity argument: if __name__ == '__main__': unittest.main(verbosity=2) The 'defaultTest' argument is either the name of a single test or an iterable of test names to run if no test names are specified via 'argv'. If not specified or ‘None’ and no test names are provided via 'argv', all tests found in 'module' are run. The 'argv' argument can be a list of options passed to the program, with the first element being the program name. If not specified or ‘None’, the values of *note sys.argv: 1258. are used. The 'testRunner' argument can either be a test runner class or an already created instance of it. By default ‘main’ calls *note sys.exit(): 133c. with an exit code indicating success (0) or failure (1) of the tests run. An exit code of 5 indicates that no tests were run or skipped. The 'testLoader' argument has to be a *note TestLoader: 290. instance, and defaults to *note defaultTestLoader: 40a3. ‘main’ supports being used from the interactive interpreter by passing in the argument ‘exit=False’. This displays the result on standard output without calling *note sys.exit(): 133c.: >>> from unittest import main >>> main(module='test_module', exit=False) The 'failfast', 'catchbreak' and 'buffer' parameters have the same effect as the same-name *note command-line options: 406b. The 'warnings' argument specifies the *note warning filter: 8c8. that should be used while running the tests. If it’s not specified, it will remain ‘None’ if a ‘-W’ option is passed to ‘python’ (see *note Warning control: 1d38.), otherwise it will be set to ‘'default'’. Calling ‘main’ returns an object with the ‘result’ attribute that contains the result of the tests run as a *note unittest.TestResult: 115b. Changed in version 3.1: The 'exit' parameter was added. Changed in version 3.2: The 'verbosity', 'failfast', 'catchbreak', 'buffer' and 'warnings' parameters were added. Changed in version 3.4: The 'defaultTest' parameter was changed to also accept an iterable of test names. * Menu: * load_tests Protocol::  File: python.info, Node: load_tests Protocol, Up: Loading and running tests 5.27.5.13 load_tests Protocol ............................. Added in version 3.2. Modules or packages can customize how tests are loaded from them during normal test runs or test discovery by implementing a function called ‘load_tests’. If a test module defines ‘load_tests’ it will be called by *note TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule(): 291. with the following arguments: load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern) where 'pattern' is passed straight through from ‘loadTestsFromModule’. It defaults to ‘None’. It should return a *note TestSuite: df3. 'loader' is the instance of *note TestLoader: 290. doing the loading. 'standard_tests' are the tests that would be loaded by default from the module. It is common for test modules to only want to add or remove tests from the standard set of tests. The third argument is used when loading packages as part of test discovery. A typical ‘load_tests’ function that loads tests from a specific set of *note TestCase: 449. classes may look like: test_cases = (TestCase1, TestCase2, TestCase3) def load_tests(loader, tests, pattern): suite = TestSuite() for test_class in test_cases: tests = loader.loadTestsFromTestCase(test_class) suite.addTests(tests) return suite If discovery is started in a directory containing a package, either from the command line or by calling *note TestLoader.discover(): fe0, then the package ‘__init__.py’ will be checked for ‘load_tests’. If that function does not exist, discovery will recurse into the package as though it were just another directory. Otherwise, discovery of the package’s tests will be left up to ‘load_tests’ which is called with the following arguments: load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern) This should return a *note TestSuite: df3. representing all the tests from the package. (‘standard_tests’ will only contain tests collected from ‘__init__.py’.) Because the pattern is passed into ‘load_tests’ the package is free to continue (and potentially modify) test discovery. A ‘do nothing’ ‘load_tests’ function for a test package would look like: def load_tests(loader, standard_tests, pattern): # top level directory cached on loader instance this_dir = os.path.dirname(__file__) package_tests = loader.discover(start_dir=this_dir, pattern=pattern) standard_tests.addTests(package_tests) return standard_tests Changed in version 3.5: Discovery no longer checks package names for matching 'pattern' due to the impossibility of package names matching the default pattern.  File: python.info, Node: Class and Module Fixtures, Next: Signal Handling, Prev: Classes and functions, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.14 Class and Module Fixtures ................................... Class and module level fixtures are implemented in *note TestSuite: df3. When the test suite encounters a test from a new class then ‘tearDownClass()’ from the previous class (if there is one) is called, followed by ‘setUpClass()’ from the new class. Similarly if a test is from a different module from the previous test then ‘tearDownModule’ from the previous module is run, followed by ‘setUpModule’ from the new module. After all the tests have run the final ‘tearDownClass’ and ‘tearDownModule’ are run. Note that shared fixtures do not play well with [potential] features like test parallelization and they break test isolation. They should be used with care. The default ordering of tests created by the unittest test loaders is to group all tests from the same modules and classes together. This will lead to ‘setUpClass’ / ‘setUpModule’ (etc) being called exactly once per class and module. If you randomize the order, so that tests from different modules and classes are adjacent to each other, then these shared fixture functions may be called multiple times in a single test run. Shared fixtures are not intended to work with suites with non-standard ordering. A ‘BaseTestSuite’ still exists for frameworks that don’t want to support shared fixtures. If there are any exceptions raised during one of the shared fixture functions the test is reported as an error. Because there is no corresponding test instance an ‘_ErrorHolder’ object (that has the same interface as a *note TestCase: 449.) is created to represent the error. If you are just using the standard unittest test runner then this detail doesn’t matter, but if you are a framework author it may be relevant. * Menu: * setUpClass and tearDownClass:: * setUpModule and tearDownModule::  File: python.info, Node: setUpClass and tearDownClass, Next: setUpModule and tearDownModule, Up: Class and Module Fixtures 5.27.5.15 setUpClass and tearDownClass ...................................... These must be implemented as class methods: import unittest class Test(unittest.TestCase): @classmethod def setUpClass(cls): cls._connection = createExpensiveConnectionObject() @classmethod def tearDownClass(cls): cls._connection.destroy() If you want the ‘setUpClass’ and ‘tearDownClass’ on base classes called then you must call up to them yourself. The implementations in *note TestCase: 449. are empty. If an exception is raised during a ‘setUpClass’ then the tests in the class are not run and the ‘tearDownClass’ is not run. Skipped classes will not have ‘setUpClass’ or ‘tearDownClass’ run. If the exception is a *note SkipTest: fdf. exception then the class will be reported as having been skipped instead of as an error.  File: python.info, Node: setUpModule and tearDownModule, Prev: setUpClass and tearDownClass, Up: Class and Module Fixtures 5.27.5.16 setUpModule and tearDownModule ........................................ These should be implemented as functions: def setUpModule(): createConnection() def tearDownModule(): closeConnection() If an exception is raised in a ‘setUpModule’ then none of the tests in the module will be run and the ‘tearDownModule’ will not be run. If the exception is a *note SkipTest: fdf. exception then the module will be reported as having been skipped instead of as an error. To add cleanup code that must be run even in the case of an exception, use ‘addModuleCleanup’: -- Function: unittest.addModuleCleanup (function, /, *args, **kwargs) Add a function to be called after ‘tearDownModule()’ to cleanup resources used during the test class. Functions will be called in reverse order to the order they are added (LIFO). They are called with any arguments and keyword arguments passed into *note addModuleCleanup(): a4c. when they are added. If ‘setUpModule()’ fails, meaning that ‘tearDownModule()’ is not called, then any cleanup functions added will still be called. Added in version 3.8. -- Function: unittest.enterModuleContext (cm) Enter the supplied *note context manager: 5d0. If successful, also add its *note __exit__(): 12f3. method as a cleanup function by *note addModuleCleanup(): a4c. and return the result of the *note __enter__(): 5c4. method. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: unittest.doModuleCleanups () This function is called unconditionally after ‘tearDownModule()’, or after ‘setUpModule()’ if ‘setUpModule()’ raises an exception. It is responsible for calling all the cleanup functions added by *note addModuleCleanup(): a4c. If you need cleanup functions to be called 'prior' to ‘tearDownModule()’ then you can call *note doModuleCleanups(): 183c. yourself. *note doModuleCleanups(): 183c. pops methods off the stack of cleanup functions one at a time, so it can be called at any time. Added in version 3.8.  File: python.info, Node: Signal Handling, Prev: Class and Module Fixtures, Up: unittest — Unit testing framework 5.27.5.17 Signal Handling ......................... Added in version 3.2. The *note -c/-catch: 1326. command-line option to unittest, along with the ‘catchbreak’ parameter to *note unittest.main(): fde, provide more friendly handling of control-C during a test run. With catch break behavior enabled control-C will allow the currently running test to complete, and the test run will then end and report all the results so far. A second control-c will raise a *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. in the usual way. The control-c handling signal handler attempts to remain compatible with code or tests that install their own *note signal.SIGINT: 840. handler. If the ‘unittest’ handler is called but 'isn’t' the installed *note signal.SIGINT: 840. handler, i.e. it has been replaced by the system under test and delegated to, then it calls the default handler. This will normally be the expected behavior by code that replaces an installed handler and delegates to it. For individual tests that need ‘unittest’ control-c handling disabled the *note removeHandler(): 1327. decorator can be used. There are a few utility functions for framework authors to enable control-c handling functionality within test frameworks. -- Function: unittest.installHandler () Install the control-c handler. When a *note signal.SIGINT: 840. is received (usually in response to the user pressing control-c) all registered results have *note stop(): 40ae. called. -- Function: unittest.registerResult (result) Register a *note TestResult: 115b. object for control-c handling. Registering a result stores a weak reference to it, so it doesn’t prevent the result from being garbage collected. Registering a *note TestResult: 115b. object has no side-effects if control-c handling is not enabled, so test frameworks can unconditionally register all results they create independently of whether or not handling is enabled. -- Function: unittest.removeResult (result) Remove a registered result. Once a result has been removed then *note stop(): 40ae. will no longer be called on that result object in response to a control-c. -- Function: unittest.removeHandler (function=None) When called without arguments this function removes the control-c handler if it has been installed. This function can also be used as a test decorator to temporarily remove the handler while the test is being executed: @unittest.removeHandler def test_signal_handling(self): ...  File: python.info, Node: unittest mock — mock object library, Next: unittest mock — getting started, Prev: unittest — Unit testing framework, Up: Development Tools 5.27.6 ‘unittest.mock’ — mock object library -------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.3. 'Source code:' Lib/unittest/mock.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ *note unittest.mock: 107. is a library for testing in Python. It allows you to replace parts of your system under test with mock objects and make assertions about how they have been used. *note unittest.mock: 107. provides a core *note Mock: a4b. class removing the need to create a host of stubs throughout your test suite. After performing an action, you can make assertions about which methods / attributes were used and arguments they were called with. You can also specify return values and set needed attributes in the normal way. Additionally, mock provides a *note patch(): e8b. decorator that handles patching module and class level attributes within the scope of a test, along with *note sentinel: ba0. for creating unique objects. See the *note quick guide: 40c3. for some examples of how to use *note Mock: a4b, *note MagicMock: e8a. and *note patch(): e8b. Mock is designed for use with *note unittest: 106. and is based on the ‘action -> assertion’ pattern instead of ‘record -> replay’ used by many mocking frameworks. There is a backport of *note unittest.mock: 107. for earlier versions of Python, available as mock(2) on PyPI. * Menu: * Quick Guide:: * The Mock Class:: * The patchers:: * MagicMock and magic method support:: * Helpers:: * Order of precedence of side_effect, return_value and wraps: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/unittest/mock.py (2) https://pypi.org/project/mock/  File: python.info, Node: Quick Guide, Next: The Mock Class, Up: unittest mock — mock object library 5.27.6.1 Quick Guide .................... *note Mock: a4b. and *note MagicMock: e8a. objects create all attributes and methods as you access them and store details of how they have been used. You can configure them, to specify return values or limit what attributes are available, and then make assertions about how they have been used: >>> from unittest.mock import MagicMock >>> thing = ProductionClass() >>> thing.method = MagicMock(return_value=3) >>> thing.method(3, 4, 5, key='value') 3 >>> thing.method.assert_called_with(3, 4, 5, key='value') *note side_effect: 40c4. allows you to perform side effects, including raising an exception when a mock is called: >>> from unittest.mock import Mock >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=KeyError('foo')) >>> mock() Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError: 'foo' >>> values = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} >>> def side_effect(arg): ... return values[arg] ... >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect >>> mock('a'), mock('b'), mock('c') (1, 2, 3) >>> mock.side_effect = [5, 4, 3, 2, 1] >>> mock(), mock(), mock() (5, 4, 3) Mock has many other ways you can configure it and control its behaviour. For example the 'spec' argument configures the mock to take its specification from another object. Attempting to access attributes or methods on the mock that don’t exist on the spec will fail with an *note AttributeError: 348. The *note patch(): e8b. decorator / context manager makes it easy to mock classes or objects in a module under test. The object you specify will be replaced with a mock (or other object) during the test and restored when the test ends: >>> from unittest.mock import patch >>> @patch('module.ClassName2') ... @patch('module.ClassName1') ... def test(MockClass1, MockClass2): ... module.ClassName1() ... module.ClassName2() ... assert MockClass1 is module.ClassName1 ... assert MockClass2 is module.ClassName2 ... assert MockClass1.called ... assert MockClass2.called ... >>> test() Note: When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated function in the same order they applied (the normal 'Python' order that decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example above the mock for ‘module.ClassName1’ is passed in first. With *note patch(): e8b. it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where they are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide read *note where to patch: 40c5. As well as a decorator *note patch(): e8b. can be used as a context manager in a with statement: >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method', return_value=None) as mock_method: ... thing = ProductionClass() ... thing.method(1, 2, 3) ... >>> mock_method.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) There is also *note patch.dict(): 19f2. for setting values in a dictionary just during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test ends: >>> foo = {'key': 'value'} >>> original = foo.copy() >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True): ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} ... >>> assert foo == original Mock supports the mocking of Python *note magic methods: 40c6. The easiest way of using magic methods is with the *note MagicMock: e8a. class. It allows you to do things like: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'foobarbaz' >>> str(mock) 'foobarbaz' >>> mock.__str__.assert_called_with() Mock allows you to assign functions (or other Mock instances) to magic methods and they will be called appropriately. The *note MagicMock: e8a. class is just a Mock variant that has all of the magic methods pre-created for you (well, all the useful ones anyway). The following is an example of using magic methods with the ordinary Mock class: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__str__ = Mock(return_value='wheeeeee') >>> str(mock) 'wheeeeee' For ensuring that the mock objects in your tests have the same api as the objects they are replacing, you can use *note auto-speccing: 40c7. Auto-speccing can be done through the 'autospec' argument to patch, or the *note create_autospec(): 1608. function. Auto-speccing creates mock objects that have the same attributes and methods as the objects they are replacing, and any functions and methods (including constructors) have the same call signature as the real object. This ensures that your mocks will fail in the same way as your production code if they are used incorrectly: >>> from unittest.mock import create_autospec >>> def function(a, b, c): ... pass ... >>> mock_function = create_autospec(function, return_value='fishy') >>> mock_function(1, 2, 3) 'fishy' >>> mock_function.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3) >>> mock_function('wrong arguments') Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: missing a required argument: 'b' *note create_autospec(): 1608. can also be used on classes, where it copies the signature of the ‘__init__’ method, and on callable objects where it copies the signature of the ‘__call__’ method.  File: python.info, Node: The Mock Class, Next: The patchers, Prev: Quick Guide, Up: unittest mock — mock object library 5.27.6.2 The Mock Class ....................... *note Mock: a4b. is a flexible mock object intended to replace the use of stubs and test doubles throughout your code. Mocks are callable and create attributes as new mocks when you access them (1). Accessing the same attribute will always return the same mock. Mocks record how you use them, allowing you to make assertions about what your code has done to them. *note MagicMock: e8a. is a subclass of *note Mock: a4b. with all the magic methods pre-created and ready to use. There are also non-callable variants, useful when you are mocking out objects that aren’t callable: *note NonCallableMock: 40c9. and *note NonCallableMagicMock: 40ca. The *note patch(): e8b. decorators makes it easy to temporarily replace classes in a particular module with a *note Mock: a4b. object. By default *note patch(): e8b. will create a *note MagicMock: e8a. for you. You can specify an alternative class of *note Mock: a4b. using the 'new_callable' argument to *note patch(): e8b. -- Class: unittest.mock.Mock (spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, **kwargs) Create a new *note Mock: a4b. object. *note Mock: a4b. takes several optional arguments that specify the behaviour of the Mock object: * 'spec': This can be either a list of strings or an existing object (a class or instance) that acts as the specification for the mock object. If you pass in an object then a list of strings is formed by calling dir on the object (excluding unsupported magic attributes and methods). Accessing any attribute not in this list will raise an *note AttributeError: 348. If 'spec' is an object (rather than a list of strings) then *note __class__: 1476. returns the class of the spec object. This allows mocks to pass *note isinstance(): 43d. tests. * 'spec_set': A stricter variant of 'spec'. If used, attempting to 'set' or get an attribute on the mock that isn’t on the object passed as 'spec_set' will raise an *note AttributeError: 348. * 'side_effect': A function to be called whenever the Mock is called. See the *note side_effect: 40c4. attribute. Useful for raising exceptions or dynamically changing return values. The function is called with the same arguments as the mock, and unless it returns *note DEFAULT: 40cb, the return value of this function is used as the return value. Alternatively 'side_effect' can be an exception class or instance. In this case the exception will be raised when the mock is called. If 'side_effect' is an iterable then each call to the mock will return the next value from the iterable. A 'side_effect' can be cleared by setting it to ‘None’. * 'return_value': The value returned when the mock is called. By default this is a new Mock (created on first access). See the *note return_value: 40cc. attribute. * 'unsafe': By default, accessing any attribute whose name starts with 'assert', 'assret', 'asert', 'aseert' or 'assrt' will raise an *note AttributeError: 348. Passing ‘unsafe=True’ will allow access to these attributes. Added in version 3.5. * 'wraps': Item for the mock object to wrap. If 'wraps' is not ‘None’ then calling the Mock will pass the call through to the wrapped object (returning the real result). Attribute access on the mock will return a Mock object that wraps the corresponding attribute of the wrapped object (so attempting to access an attribute that doesn’t exist will raise an *note AttributeError: 348.). If the mock has an explicit 'return_value' set then calls are not passed to the wrapped object and the 'return_value' is returned instead. * 'name': If the mock has a name then it will be used in the repr of the mock. This can be useful for debugging. The name is propagated to child mocks. Mocks can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be used to set attributes on the mock after it is created. See the *note configure_mock(): 40cd. method for details. -- Method: assert_called () Assert that the mock was called at least once. >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.method() <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.method.assert_called() Added in version 3.6. -- Method: assert_called_once () Assert that the mock was called exactly once. >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.method() <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.method.assert_called_once() >>> mock.method() <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.method.assert_called_once() Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected 'method' to have been called once. Called 2 times. Calls: [call(), call()]. Added in version 3.6. -- Method: assert_called_with (*args, **kwargs) This method is a convenient way of asserting that the last call has been made in a particular way: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.method(1, 2, 3, test='wow') <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3, test='wow') -- Method: assert_called_once_with (*args, **kwargs) Assert that the mock was called exactly once and that call was with the specified arguments. >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock('foo', bar='baz') >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar='baz') >>> mock('other', bar='values') >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('other', bar='values') Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected 'mock' to be called once. Called 2 times. Calls: [call('foo', bar='baz'), call('other', bar='values')]. -- Method: assert_any_call (*args, **kwargs) assert the mock has been called with the specified arguments. The assert passes if the mock has 'ever' been called, unlike *note assert_called_with(): 1a20. and *note assert_called_once_with(): 40ce. that only pass if the call is the most recent one, and in the case of *note assert_called_once_with(): 40ce. it must also be the only call. >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock(1, 2, arg='thing') >>> mock('some', 'thing', 'else') >>> mock.assert_any_call(1, 2, arg='thing') -- Method: assert_has_calls (calls, any_order=False) assert the mock has been called with the specified calls. The *note mock_calls: 40d0. list is checked for the calls. If 'any_order' is false then the calls must be sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the specified calls. If 'any_order' is true then the calls can be in any order, but they must all appear in *note mock_calls: 40d0. >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock(1) >>> mock(2) >>> mock(3) >>> mock(4) >>> calls = [call(2), call(3)] >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls) >>> calls = [call(4), call(2), call(3)] >>> mock.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True) -- Method: assert_not_called () Assert the mock was never called. >>> m = Mock() >>> m.hello.assert_not_called() >>> obj = m.hello() >>> m.hello.assert_not_called() Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected 'hello' to not have been called. Called 1 times. Calls: [call()]. Added in version 3.5. -- Method: reset_mock (*, return_value=False, side_effect=False) The reset_mock method resets all the call attributes on a mock object: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock('hello') >>> mock.called True >>> mock.reset_mock() >>> mock.called False This can be useful where you want to make a series of assertions that reuse the same object. 'return_value' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note return_value: 40cc.: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=5) >>> mock('hello') 5 >>> mock.reset_mock(return_value=True) >>> mock('hello') <Mock name='mock()' id='...'> 'side_effect' parameter when set to ‘True’ resets *note side_effect: 40c4.: >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=ValueError) >>> mock('hello') Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError >>> mock.reset_mock(side_effect=True) >>> mock('hello') <Mock name='mock()' id='...'> Note that *note reset_mock(): cfa. 'doesn’t' clear the *note return_value: 40cc, *note side_effect: 40c4. or any child attributes you have set using normal assignment by default. Child mocks are reset as well. Changed in version 3.6: Added two keyword-only arguments to the reset_mock function. -- Method: mock_add_spec (spec, spec_set=False) Add a spec to a mock. 'spec' can either be an object or a list of strings. Only attributes on the 'spec' can be fetched as attributes from the mock. If 'spec_set' is true then only attributes on the spec can be set. -- Method: attach_mock (mock, attribute) Attach a mock as an attribute of this one, replacing its name and parent. Calls to the attached mock will be recorded in the *note method_calls: 40d2. and *note mock_calls: 40d0. attributes of this one. -- Method: configure_mock (**kwargs) Set attributes on the mock through keyword arguments. Attributes plus return values and side effects can be set on child mocks using standard dot notation and unpacking a dictionary in the method call: >>> mock = Mock() >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} >>> mock.configure_mock(**attrs) >>> mock.method() 3 >>> mock.other() Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError The same thing can be achieved in the constructor call to mocks: >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs) >>> mock.some_attribute 'eggs' >>> mock.method() 3 >>> mock.other() Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError *note configure_mock(): 40cd. exists to make it easier to do configuration after the mock has been created. -- Method: __dir__ () *note Mock: a4b. objects limit the results of ‘dir(some_mock)’ to useful results. For mocks with a 'spec' this includes all the permitted attributes for the mock. See *note FILTER_DIR: 40d4. for what this filtering does, and how to switch it off. -- Method: _get_child_mock (**kw) Create the child mocks for attributes and return value. By default child mocks will be the same type as the parent. Subclasses of Mock may want to override this to customize the way child mocks are made. For non-callable mocks the callable variant will be used (rather than any custom subclass). -- Attribute: called A boolean representing whether or not the mock object has been called: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock.called False >>> mock() >>> mock.called True -- Attribute: call_count An integer telling you how many times the mock object has been called: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock.call_count 0 >>> mock() >>> mock() >>> mock.call_count 2 -- Attribute: return_value Set this to configure the value returned by calling the mock: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.return_value = 'fish' >>> mock() 'fish' The default return value is a mock object and you can configure it in the normal way: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.return_value.attribute = sentinel.Attribute >>> mock.return_value() <Mock name='mock()()' id='...'> >>> mock.return_value.assert_called_with() *note return_value: 40cc. can also be set in the constructor: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3) >>> mock.return_value 3 >>> mock() 3 -- Attribute: side_effect This can either be a function to be called when the mock is called, an iterable or an exception (class or instance) to be raised. If you pass in a function it will be called with same arguments as the mock and unless the function returns the *note DEFAULT: 40cb. singleton the call to the mock will then return whatever the function returns. If the function returns *note DEFAULT: 40cb. then the mock will return its normal value (from the *note return_value: 40cc.). If you pass in an iterable, it is used to retrieve an iterator which must yield a value on every call. This value can either be an exception instance to be raised, or a value to be returned from the call to the mock (*note DEFAULT: 40cb. handling is identical to the function case). An example of a mock that raises an exception (to test exception handling of an API): >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.side_effect = Exception('Boom!') >>> mock() Traceback (most recent call last): ... Exception: Boom! Using *note side_effect: 40c4. to return a sequence of values: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.side_effect = [3, 2, 1] >>> mock(), mock(), mock() (3, 2, 1) Using a callable: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3) >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): ... return DEFAULT ... >>> mock.side_effect = side_effect >>> mock() 3 *note side_effect: 40c4. can be set in the constructor. Here’s an example that adds one to the value the mock is called with and returns it: >>> side_effect = lambda value: value + 1 >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect) >>> mock(3) 4 >>> mock(-8) -7 Setting *note side_effect: 40c4. to ‘None’ clears it: >>> m = Mock(side_effect=KeyError, return_value=3) >>> m() Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError >>> m.side_effect = None >>> m() 3 -- Attribute: call_args This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been called), or the arguments that the mock was last called with. This will be in the form of a tuple: the first member, which can also be accessed through the ‘args’ property, is any positional arguments the mock was called with (or an empty tuple) and the second member, which can also be accessed through the ‘kwargs’ property, is any keyword arguments (or an empty dictionary). >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> print(mock.call_args) None >>> mock() >>> mock.call_args call() >>> mock.call_args == () True >>> mock(3, 4) >>> mock.call_args call(3, 4) >>> mock.call_args == ((3, 4),) True >>> mock.call_args.args (3, 4) >>> mock.call_args.kwargs {} >>> mock(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!') >>> mock.call_args call(3, 4, 5, key='fish', next='w00t!') >>> mock.call_args.args (3, 4, 5) >>> mock.call_args.kwargs {'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'} *note call_args: 197f, along with members of the lists *note call_args_list: 40d8, *note method_calls: 40d2. and *note mock_calls: 40d0. are *note call: 19cd. objects. These are tuples, so they can be unpacked to get at the individual arguments and make more complex assertions. See *note calls as tuples: 40d9. Changed in version 3.8: Added ‘args’ and ‘kwargs’ properties. -- Attribute: call_args_list This is a list of all the calls made to the mock object in sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it has been called). Before any calls have been made it is an empty list. The *note call: 19cd. object can be used for conveniently constructing lists of calls to compare with *note call_args_list: 40d8. >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock() >>> mock(3, 4) >>> mock(key='fish', next='w00t!') >>> mock.call_args_list [call(), call(3, 4), call(key='fish', next='w00t!')] >>> expected = [(), ((3, 4),), ({'key': 'fish', 'next': 'w00t!'},)] >>> mock.call_args_list == expected True Members of *note call_args_list: 40d8. are *note call: 19cd. objects. These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See *note calls as tuples: 40d9. -- Attribute: method_calls As well as tracking calls to themselves, mocks also track calls to methods and attributes, and 'their' methods and attributes: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.method() <Mock name='mock.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.property.method.attribute() <Mock name='mock.property.method.attribute()' id='...'> >>> mock.method_calls [call.method(), call.property.method.attribute()] Members of *note method_calls: 40d2. are *note call: 19cd. objects. These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See *note calls as tuples: 40d9. -- Attribute: mock_calls *note mock_calls: 40d0. records 'all' calls to the mock object, its methods, magic methods 'and' return value mocks. >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> result = mock(1, 2, 3) >>> mock.first(a=3) <MagicMock name='mock.first()' id='...'> >>> mock.second() <MagicMock name='mock.second()' id='...'> >>> int(mock) 1 >>> result(1) <MagicMock name='mock()()' id='...'> >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call.first(a=3), call.second(), ... call.__int__(), call()(1)] >>> mock.mock_calls == expected True Members of *note mock_calls: 40d0. are *note call: 19cd. objects. These can be unpacked as tuples to get at the individual arguments. See *note calls as tuples: 40d9. Note: The way *note mock_calls: 40d0. are recorded means that where nested calls are made, the parameters of ancestor calls are not recorded and so will always compare equal: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.top(a=3).bottom() <MagicMock name='mock.top().bottom()' id='...'> >>> mock.mock_calls [call.top(a=3), call.top().bottom()] >>> mock.mock_calls[-1] == call.top(a=-1).bottom() True -- Attribute: __class__ Normally the ‘__class__’ attribute of an object will return its type. For a mock object with a ‘spec’, ‘__class__’ returns the spec class instead. This allows mock objects to pass *note isinstance(): 43d. tests for the object they are replacing / masquerading as: >>> mock = Mock(spec=3) >>> isinstance(mock, int) True ‘__class__’ is assignable to, this allows a mock to pass an *note isinstance(): 43d. check without forcing you to use a spec: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__class__ = dict >>> isinstance(mock, dict) True -- Class: unittest.mock.NonCallableMock (spec=None, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, **kwargs) A non-callable version of *note Mock: a4b. The constructor parameters have the same meaning of *note Mock: a4b, with the exception of 'return_value' and 'side_effect' which have no meaning on a non-callable mock. Mock objects that use a class or an instance as a ‘spec’ or ‘spec_set’ are able to pass *note isinstance(): 43d. tests: >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass) >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass) True >>> mock = Mock(spec_set=SomeClass()) >>> isinstance(mock, SomeClass) True The *note Mock: a4b. classes have support for mocking magic methods. See *note magic methods: 40c6. for the full details. The mock classes and the *note patch(): e8b. decorators all take arbitrary keyword arguments for configuration. For the *note patch(): e8b. decorators the keywords are passed to the constructor of the mock being created. The keyword arguments are for configuring attributes of the mock: >>> m = MagicMock(attribute=3, other='fish') >>> m.attribute 3 >>> m.other 'fish' The return value and side effect of child mocks can be set in the same way, using dotted notation. As you can’t use dotted names directly in a call you have to create a dictionary and unpack it using ‘**’: >>> attrs = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} >>> mock = Mock(some_attribute='eggs', **attrs) >>> mock.some_attribute 'eggs' >>> mock.method() 3 >>> mock.other() Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError A callable mock which was created with a 'spec' (or a 'spec_set') will introspect the specification object’s signature when matching calls to the mock. Therefore, it can match the actual call’s arguments regardless of whether they were passed positionally or by name: >>> def f(a, b, c): pass ... >>> mock = Mock(spec=f) >>> mock(1, 2, c=3) <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'> >>> mock.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3) >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3) This applies to *note assert_called_with(): 1a20, *note assert_called_once_with(): 40ce, *note assert_has_calls(): 16a8. and *note assert_any_call(): 40cf. When *note Autospeccing: 40c7, it will also apply to method calls on the mock object. Changed in version 3.4: Added signature introspection on specced and autospecced mock objects. -- Class: unittest.mock.PropertyMock (*args, **kwargs) A mock intended to be used as a *note property: 194, or other *note descriptor: 1572, on a class. *note PropertyMock: 40db. provides *note __get__(): 14b2. and *note __set__(): 1f6a. methods so you can specify a return value when it is fetched. Fetching a *note PropertyMock: 40db. instance from an object calls the mock, with no args. Setting it calls the mock with the value being set. >>> class Foo: ... @property ... def foo(self): ... return 'something' ... @foo.setter ... def foo(self, value): ... pass ... >>> with patch('__main__.Foo.foo', new_callable=PropertyMock) as mock_foo: ... mock_foo.return_value = 'mockity-mock' ... this_foo = Foo() ... print(this_foo.foo) ... this_foo.foo = 6 ... mockity-mock >>> mock_foo.mock_calls [call(), call(6)] Because of the way mock attributes are stored you can’t directly attach a *note PropertyMock: 40db. to a mock object. Instead you can attach it to the mock type object: >>> m = MagicMock() >>> p = PropertyMock(return_value=3) >>> type(m).foo = p >>> m.foo 3 >>> p.assert_called_once_with() Caution: If an *note AttributeError: 348. is raised by *note PropertyMock: 40db, it will be interpreted as a missing descriptor and *note __getattr__(): 4cf. will be called on the parent mock: >>> m = MagicMock() >>> no_attribute = PropertyMock(side_effect=AttributeError) >>> type(m).my_property = no_attribute >>> m.my_property <MagicMock name='mock.my_property' id='140165240345424'> See *note __getattr__(): 4cf. for details. -- Class: unittest.mock.AsyncMock (spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, **kwargs) An asynchronous version of *note MagicMock: e8a. The *note AsyncMock: a4a. object will behave so the object is recognized as an async function, and the result of a call is an awaitable. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> asyncio.iscoroutinefunction(mock) True >>> inspect.isawaitable(mock()) True The result of ‘mock()’ is an async function which will have the outcome of ‘side_effect’ or ‘return_value’ after it has been awaited: - if ‘side_effect’ is a function, the async function will return the result of that function, - if ‘side_effect’ is an exception, the async function will raise the exception, - if ‘side_effect’ is an iterable, the async function will return the next value of the iterable, however, if the sequence of result is exhausted, ‘StopAsyncIteration’ is raised immediately, - if ‘side_effect’ is not defined, the async function will return the value defined by ‘return_value’, hence, by default, the async function returns a new *note AsyncMock: a4a. object. Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: a4b. or *note MagicMock: e8a. to an async function will result in a coroutine object being returned after calling. >>> async def async_func(): pass ... >>> mock = MagicMock(async_func) >>> mock <MagicMock spec='function' id='...'> >>> mock() <coroutine object AsyncMockMixin._mock_call at ...> Setting the 'spec' of a *note Mock: a4b, *note MagicMock: e8a, or *note AsyncMock: a4a. to a class with asynchronous and synchronous functions will automatically detect the synchronous functions and set them as *note MagicMock: e8a. (if the parent mock is *note AsyncMock: a4a. or *note MagicMock: e8a.) or *note Mock: a4b. (if the parent mock is *note Mock: a4b.). All asynchronous functions will be *note AsyncMock: a4a. >>> class ExampleClass: ... def sync_foo(): ... pass ... async def async_foo(): ... pass ... >>> a_mock = AsyncMock(ExampleClass) >>> a_mock.sync_foo <MagicMock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'> >>> a_mock.async_foo <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'> >>> mock = Mock(ExampleClass) >>> mock.sync_foo <Mock name='mock.sync_foo' id='...'> >>> mock.async_foo <AsyncMock name='mock.async_foo' id='...'> Added in version 3.8. -- Method: assert_awaited () Assert that the mock was awaited at least once. Note that this is separate from the object having been called, the ‘await’ keyword must be used: >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(coroutine_mock): ... await coroutine_mock ... >>> coroutine_mock = mock() >>> mock.called True >>> mock.assert_awaited() Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited. >>> asyncio.run(main(coroutine_mock)) >>> mock.assert_awaited() -- Method: assert_awaited_once () Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(): ... await mock() ... >>> asyncio.run(main()) >>> mock.assert_awaited_once() >>> asyncio.run(main()) >>> mock.assert_awaited_once() Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times. -- Method: assert_awaited_with (*args, **kwargs) Assert that the last await was with the specified arguments. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs): ... await mock(*args, **kwargs) ... >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar')) >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('foo', bar='bar') >>> mock.assert_awaited_with('other') Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: expected await not found. Expected: mock('other') Actual: mock('foo', bar='bar') -- Method: assert_awaited_once_with (*args, **kwargs) Assert that the mock was awaited exactly once and with the specified arguments. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs): ... await mock(*args, **kwargs) ... >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar')) >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar') >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar')) >>> mock.assert_awaited_once_with('foo', bar='bar') Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected mock to have been awaited once. Awaited 2 times. -- Method: assert_any_await (*args, **kwargs) Assert the mock has ever been awaited with the specified arguments. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs): ... await mock(*args, **kwargs) ... >>> asyncio.run(main('foo', bar='bar')) >>> asyncio.run(main('hello')) >>> mock.assert_any_await('foo', bar='bar') >>> mock.assert_any_await('other') Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: mock('other') await not found -- Method: assert_has_awaits (calls, any_order=False) Assert the mock has been awaited with the specified calls. The *note await_args_list: 197e. list is checked for the awaits. If 'any_order' is false then the awaits must be sequential. There can be extra calls before or after the specified awaits. If 'any_order' is true then the awaits can be in any order, but they must all appear in *note await_args_list: 197e. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(*args, **kwargs): ... await mock(*args, **kwargs) ... >>> calls = [call("foo"), call("bar")] >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls) Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Awaits not found. Expected: [call('foo'), call('bar')] Actual: [] >>> asyncio.run(main('foo')) >>> asyncio.run(main('bar')) >>> mock.assert_has_awaits(calls) -- Method: assert_not_awaited () Assert that the mock was never awaited. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> mock.assert_not_awaited() -- Method: reset_mock (*args, **kwargs) See *note Mock.reset_mock(): cfa. Also sets *note await_count: 40e4. to 0, *note await_args: 40e5. to None, and clears the *note await_args_list: 197e. -- Attribute: await_count An integer keeping track of how many times the mock object has been awaited. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(): ... await mock() ... >>> asyncio.run(main()) >>> mock.await_count 1 >>> asyncio.run(main()) >>> mock.await_count 2 -- Attribute: await_args This is either ‘None’ (if the mock hasn’t been awaited), or the arguments that the mock was last awaited with. Functions the same as *note Mock.call_args: 197f. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(*args): ... await mock(*args) ... >>> mock.await_args >>> asyncio.run(main('foo')) >>> mock.await_args call('foo') >>> asyncio.run(main('bar')) >>> mock.await_args call('bar') -- Attribute: await_args_list This is a list of all the awaits made to the mock object in sequence (so the length of the list is the number of times it has been awaited). Before any awaits have been made it is an empty list. >>> mock = AsyncMock() >>> async def main(*args): ... await mock(*args) ... >>> mock.await_args_list [] >>> asyncio.run(main('foo')) >>> mock.await_args_list [call('foo')] >>> asyncio.run(main('bar')) >>> mock.await_args_list [call('foo'), call('bar')] -- Class: unittest.mock.ThreadingMock (spec=None, side_effect=None, return_value=DEFAULT, wraps=None, name=None, spec_set=None, unsafe=False, *, timeout=UNSET, **kwargs) A version of *note MagicMock: e8a. for multithreading tests. The *note ThreadingMock: 40e6. object provides extra methods to wait for a call to be invoked, rather than assert on it immediately. The default timeout is specified by the ‘timeout’ argument, or if unset by the *note ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 40e7. attribute, which defaults to blocking (‘None’). You can configure the global default timeout by setting *note ThreadingMock.DEFAULT_TIMEOUT: 40e7. -- Method: wait_until_called (*, timeout=UNSET) Waits until the mock is called. If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock or if a timeout argument is passed to this function, the function raises an *note AssertionError: 6a5. if the call is not performed in time. >>> mock = ThreadingMock() >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock) >>> thread.start() >>> mock.wait_until_called(timeout=1) >>> thread.join() -- Method: wait_until_any_call_with (*args, **kwargs) Waits until the mock is called with the specified arguments. If a timeout was passed at the creation of the mock the function raises an *note AssertionError: 6a5. if the call is not performed in time. >>> mock = ThreadingMock() >>> thread = threading.Thread(target=mock, args=("arg1", "arg2",), kwargs={"arg": "thing"}) >>> thread.start() >>> mock.wait_until_any_call_with("arg1", "arg2", arg="thing") >>> thread.join() -- Attribute: DEFAULT_TIMEOUT Global default timeout in seconds to create instances of *note ThreadingMock: 40e6. Added in version 3.13. * Menu: * Calling:: * Deleting Attributes:: * Mock names and the name attribute:: * Attaching Mocks as Attributes:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The only exceptions are magic methods and attributes (those that have leading and trailing double underscores). Mock doesn’t create these but instead raises an *note AttributeError: 348. This is because the interpreter will often implicitly request these methods, and gets 'very' confused to get a new Mock object when it expects a magic method. If you need magic method support see *note magic methods: 40c6.  File: python.info, Node: Calling, Next: Deleting Attributes, Up: The Mock Class 5.27.6.3 Calling ................ Mock objects are callable. The call will return the value set as the *note return_value: 40cc. attribute. The default return value is a new Mock object; it is created the first time the return value is accessed (either explicitly or by calling the Mock) - but it is stored and the same one returned each time. Calls made to the object will be recorded in the attributes like *note call_args: 197f. and *note call_args_list: 40d8. If *note side_effect: 40c4. is set then it will be called after the call has been recorded, so if ‘side_effect’ raises an exception the call is still recorded. The simplest way to make a mock raise an exception when called is to make *note side_effect: 40c4. an exception class or instance: >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=IndexError) >>> m(1, 2, 3) Traceback (most recent call last): ... IndexError >>> m.mock_calls [call(1, 2, 3)] >>> m.side_effect = KeyError('Bang!') >>> m('two', 'three', 'four') Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError: 'Bang!' >>> m.mock_calls [call(1, 2, 3), call('two', 'three', 'four')] If *note side_effect: 40c4. is a function then whatever that function returns is what calls to the mock return. The ‘side_effect’ function is called with the same arguments as the mock. This allows you to vary the return value of the call dynamically, based on the input: >>> def side_effect(value): ... return value + 1 ... >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect) >>> m(1) 2 >>> m(2) 3 >>> m.mock_calls [call(1), call(2)] If you want the mock to still return the default return value (a new mock), or any set return value, then there are two ways of doing this. Either return *note return_value: 40cc. from inside *note side_effect: 40c4, or return *note DEFAULT: 40cb.: >>> m = MagicMock() >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): ... return m.return_value ... >>> m.side_effect = side_effect >>> m.return_value = 3 >>> m() 3 >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): ... return DEFAULT ... >>> m.side_effect = side_effect >>> m() 3 To remove a *note side_effect: 40c4, and return to the default behaviour, set the ‘side_effect’ to ‘None’: >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=6) >>> def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): ... return 3 ... >>> m.side_effect = side_effect >>> m() 3 >>> m.side_effect = None >>> m() 6 The *note side_effect: 40c4. can also be any iterable object. Repeated calls to the mock will return values from the iterable (until the iterable is exhausted and a *note StopIteration: bfa. is raised): >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=[1, 2, 3]) >>> m() 1 >>> m() 2 >>> m() 3 >>> m() Traceback (most recent call last): ... StopIteration If any members of the iterable are exceptions they will be raised instead of returned: >>> iterable = (33, ValueError, 66) >>> m = MagicMock(side_effect=iterable) >>> m() 33 >>> m() Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError >>> m() 66  File: python.info, Node: Deleting Attributes, Next: Mock names and the name attribute, Prev: Calling, Up: The Mock Class 5.27.6.4 Deleting Attributes ............................ Mock objects create attributes on demand. This allows them to pretend to be objects of any type. You may want a mock object to return ‘False’ to a *note hasattr(): 4ce. call, or raise an *note AttributeError: 348. when an attribute is fetched. You can do this by providing an object as a ‘spec’ for a mock, but that isn’t always convenient. You “block” attributes by deleting them. Once deleted, accessing an attribute will raise an *note AttributeError: 348. >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> hasattr(mock, 'm') True >>> del mock.m >>> hasattr(mock, 'm') False >>> del mock.f >>> mock.f Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: f  File: python.info, Node: Mock names and the name attribute, Next: Attaching Mocks as Attributes, Prev: Deleting Attributes, Up: The Mock Class 5.27.6.5 Mock names and the name attribute .......................................... Since “name” is an argument to the *note Mock: a4b. constructor, if you want your mock object to have a “name” attribute you can’t just pass it in at creation time. There are two alternatives. One option is to use *note configure_mock(): 40cd.: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.configure_mock(name='my_name') >>> mock.name 'my_name' A simpler option is to simply set the “name” attribute after mock creation: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.name = "foo"  File: python.info, Node: Attaching Mocks as Attributes, Prev: Mock names and the name attribute, Up: The Mock Class 5.27.6.6 Attaching Mocks as Attributes ...................................... When you attach a mock as an attribute of another mock (or as the return value) it becomes a “child” of that mock. Calls to the child are recorded in the *note method_calls: 40d2. and *note mock_calls: 40d0. attributes of the parent. This is useful for configuring child mocks and then attaching them to the parent, or for attaching mocks to a parent that records all calls to the children and allows you to make assertions about the order of calls between mocks: >>> parent = MagicMock() >>> child1 = MagicMock(return_value=None) >>> child2 = MagicMock(return_value=None) >>> parent.child1 = child1 >>> parent.child2 = child2 >>> child1(1) >>> child2(2) >>> parent.mock_calls [call.child1(1), call.child2(2)] The exception to this is if the mock has a name. This allows you to prevent the “parenting” if for some reason you don’t want it to happen. >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> not_a_child = MagicMock(name='not-a-child') >>> mock.attribute = not_a_child >>> mock.attribute() <MagicMock name='not-a-child()' id='...'> >>> mock.mock_calls [] Mocks created for you by *note patch(): e8b. are automatically given names. To attach mocks that have names to a parent you use the *note attach_mock(): 160f. method: >>> thing1 = object() >>> thing2 = object() >>> parent = MagicMock() >>> with patch('__main__.thing1', return_value=None) as child1: ... with patch('__main__.thing2', return_value=None) as child2: ... parent.attach_mock(child1, 'child1') ... parent.attach_mock(child2, 'child2') ... child1('one') ... child2('two') ... >>> parent.mock_calls [call.child1('one'), call.child2('two')]  File: python.info, Node: The patchers, Next: MagicMock and magic method support, Prev: The Mock Class, Up: unittest mock — mock object library 5.27.6.7 The patchers ..................... The patch decorators are used for patching objects only within the scope of the function they decorate. They automatically handle the unpatching for you, even if exceptions are raised. All of these functions can also be used in with statements or as class decorators. * Menu: * patch:: * patch.object: patch object. * patch.dict: patch dict. * patch.multiple: patch multiple. * patch methods; start and stop: patch methods start and stop. * patch builtins:: * TEST_PREFIX:: * Nesting Patch Decorators:: * Where to patch:: * Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects::  File: python.info, Node: patch, Next: patch object, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.8 patch .............. Note: The key is to do the patching in the right namespace. See the section *note where to patch: 40f1. -- Function: unittest.mock.patch (target, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs) *note patch(): e8b. acts as a function decorator, class decorator or a context manager. Inside the body of the function or with statement, the 'target' is patched with a 'new' object. When the function/with statement exits the patch is undone. If 'new' is omitted, then the target is replaced with an *note AsyncMock: a4a. if the patched object is an async function or a *note MagicMock: e8a. otherwise. If *note patch(): e8b. is used as a decorator and 'new' is omitted, the created mock is passed in as an extra argument to the decorated function. If *note patch(): e8b. is used as a context manager the created mock is returned by the context manager. 'target' should be a string in the form ‘'package.module.ClassName'’. The 'target' is imported and the specified object replaced with the 'new' object, so the 'target' must be importable from the environment you are calling *note patch(): e8b. from. The target is imported when the decorated function is executed, not at decoration time. The 'spec' and 'spec_set' keyword arguments are passed to the *note MagicMock: e8a. if patch is creating one for you. In addition you can pass ‘spec=True’ or ‘spec_set=True’, which causes patch to pass in the object being mocked as the spec/spec_set object. 'new_callable' allows you to specify a different class, or callable object, that will be called to create the 'new' object. By default *note AsyncMock: a4a. is used for async functions and *note MagicMock: e8a. for the rest. A more powerful form of 'spec' is 'autospec'. If you set ‘autospec=True’ then the mock will be created with a spec from the object being replaced. All attributes of the mock will also have the spec of the corresponding attribute of the object being replaced. Methods and functions being mocked will have their arguments checked and will raise a *note TypeError: 534. if they are called with the wrong signature. For mocks replacing a class, their return value (the ‘instance’) will have the same spec as the class. See the *note create_autospec(): 1608. function and *note Autospeccing: 40c7. Instead of ‘autospec=True’ you can pass ‘autospec=some_object’ to use an arbitrary object as the spec instead of the one being replaced. By default *note patch(): e8b. will fail to replace attributes that don’t exist. If you pass in ‘create=True’, and the attribute doesn’t exist, patch will create the attribute for you when the patched function is called, and delete it again after the patched function has exited. This is useful for writing tests against attributes that your production code creates at runtime. It is off by default because it can be dangerous. With it switched on you can write passing tests against APIs that don’t actually exist! Note: Changed in version 3.5: If you are patching builtins in a module then you don’t need to pass ‘create=True’, it will be added by default. Patch can be used as a *note TestCase: 449. class decorator. It works by decorating each test method in the class. This reduces the boilerplate code when your test methods share a common patchings set. *note patch(): e8b. finds tests by looking for method names that start with ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’. By default this is ‘'test'’, which matches the way *note unittest: 106. finds tests. You can specify an alternative prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’. Patch can be used as a context manager, with the with statement. Here the patching applies to the indented block after the with statement. If you use “as” then the patched object will be bound to the name after the “as”; very useful if *note patch(): e8b. is creating a mock object for you. *note patch(): e8b. takes arbitrary keyword arguments. These will be passed to *note AsyncMock: a4a. if the patched object is asynchronous, to *note MagicMock: e8a. otherwise or to 'new_callable' if specified. ‘patch.dict(...)’, ‘patch.multiple(...)’ and ‘patch.object(...)’ are available for alternate use-cases. *note patch(): e8b. as function decorator, creating the mock for you and passing it into the decorated function: >>> @patch('__main__.SomeClass') ... def function(normal_argument, mock_class): ... print(mock_class is SomeClass) ... >>> function(None) True Patching a class replaces the class with a *note MagicMock: e8a. 'instance'. If the class is instantiated in the code under test then it will be the *note return_value: 40cc. of the mock that will be used. If the class is instantiated multiple times you could use *note side_effect: 40c4. to return a new mock each time. Alternatively you can set the 'return_value' to be anything you want. To configure return values on methods of 'instances' on the patched class you must do this on the *note return_value: 40cc. For example: >>> class Class: ... def method(self): ... pass ... >>> with patch('__main__.Class') as MockClass: ... instance = MockClass.return_value ... instance.method.return_value = 'foo' ... assert Class() is instance ... assert Class().method() == 'foo' ... If you use 'spec' or 'spec_set' and *note patch(): e8b. is replacing a 'class', then the return value of the created mock will have the same spec. >>> Original = Class >>> patcher = patch('__main__.Class', spec=True) >>> MockClass = patcher.start() >>> instance = MockClass() >>> assert isinstance(instance, Original) >>> patcher.stop() The 'new_callable' argument is useful where you want to use an alternative class to the default *note MagicMock: e8a. for the created mock. For example, if you wanted a *note NonCallableMock: 40c9. to be used: >>> thing = object() >>> with patch('__main__.thing', new_callable=NonCallableMock) as mock_thing: ... assert thing is mock_thing ... thing() ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: 'NonCallableMock' object is not callable Another use case might be to replace an object with an *note io.StringIO: f22. instance: >>> from io import StringIO >>> def foo(): ... print('Something') ... >>> @patch('sys.stdout', new_callable=StringIO) ... def test(mock_stdout): ... foo() ... assert mock_stdout.getvalue() == 'Something\n' ... >>> test() When *note patch(): e8b. is creating a mock for you, it is common that the first thing you need to do is to configure the mock. Some of that configuration can be done in the call to patch. Any arbitrary keywords you pass into the call will be used to set attributes on the created mock: >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', first='one', second='two') >>> mock_thing = patcher.start() >>> mock_thing.first 'one' >>> mock_thing.second 'two' As well as attributes on the created mock attributes, like the *note return_value: 40cc. and *note side_effect: 40c4, of child mocks can also be configured. These aren’t syntactically valid to pass in directly as keyword arguments, but a dictionary with these as keys can still be expanded into a *note patch(): e8b. call using ‘**’: >>> config = {'method.return_value': 3, 'other.side_effect': KeyError} >>> patcher = patch('__main__.thing', **config) >>> mock_thing = patcher.start() >>> mock_thing.method() 3 >>> mock_thing.other() Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError By default, attempting to patch a function in a module (or a method or an attribute in a class) that does not exist will fail with *note AttributeError: 348.: >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42) ... def test(): ... assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42 ... >>> test() Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: <module 'sys' (built-in)> does not have the attribute 'non_existing_attribute' but adding ‘create=True’ in the call to *note patch(): e8b. will make the previous example work as expected: >>> @patch('sys.non_existing_attribute', 42, create=True) ... def test(mock_stdout): ... assert sys.non_existing_attribute == 42 ... >>> test() Changed in version 3.8: *note patch(): e8b. now returns an *note AsyncMock: a4a. if the target is an async function.  File: python.info, Node: patch object, Next: patch dict, Prev: patch, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.9 patch.object ..................... -- Function: patch.object (target, attribute, new=DEFAULT, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs) patch the named member ('attribute') on an object ('target') with a mock object. *note patch.object(): 1598. can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context manager. Arguments 'new', 'spec', 'create', 'spec_set', 'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as for *note patch(): e8b. Like *note patch(): e8b, *note patch.object(): 1598. takes arbitrary keyword arguments for configuring the mock object it creates. When used as a class decorator *note patch.object(): 1598. honours ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap. You can either call *note patch.object(): 1598. with three arguments or two arguments. The three argument form takes the object to be patched, the attribute name and the object to replace the attribute with. When calling with the two argument form you omit the replacement object, and a mock is created for you and passed in as an extra argument to the decorated function: >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method') ... def test(mock_method): ... SomeClass.class_method(3) ... mock_method.assert_called_with(3) ... >>> test() 'spec', 'create' and the other arguments to *note patch.object(): 1598. have the same meaning as they do for *note patch(): e8b.  File: python.info, Node: patch dict, Next: patch multiple, Prev: patch object, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.10 patch.dict .................... -- Function: patch.dict (in_dict, values=(), clear=False, **kwargs) Patch a dictionary, or dictionary like object, and restore the dictionary to its original state after the test. 'in_dict' can be a dictionary or a mapping like container. If it is a mapping then it must at least support getting, setting and deleting items plus iterating over keys. 'in_dict' can also be a string specifying the name of the dictionary, which will then be fetched by importing it. 'values' can be a dictionary of values to set in the dictionary. 'values' can also be an iterable of ‘(key, value)’ pairs. If 'clear' is true then the dictionary will be cleared before the new values are set. *note patch.dict(): 19f2. can also be called with arbitrary keyword arguments to set values in the dictionary. Changed in version 3.8: *note patch.dict(): 19f2. now returns the patched dictionary when used as a context manager. *note patch.dict(): 19f2. can be used as a context manager, decorator or class decorator: >>> foo = {} >>> @patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) ... def test(): ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} ... >>> test() >>> assert foo == {} When used as a class decorator *note patch.dict(): 19f2. honours ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ (default to ‘'test'’) for choosing which methods to wrap: >>> import os >>> import unittest >>> from unittest.mock import patch >>> @patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) ... class TestSample(unittest.TestCase): ... def test_sample(self): ... self.assertEqual(os.environ['newkey'], 'newvalue') If you want to use a different prefix for your test, you can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’. For more details about how to change the value of see *note TEST_PREFIX: 40f4. *note patch.dict(): 19f2. can be used to add members to a dictionary, or simply let a test change a dictionary, and ensure the dictionary is restored when the test ends. >>> foo = {} >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}) as patched_foo: ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} ... assert patched_foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} ... # You can add, update or delete keys of foo (or patched_foo, it's the same dict) ... patched_foo['spam'] = 'eggs' ... >>> assert foo == {} >>> assert patched_foo == {} >>> import os >>> with patch.dict('os.environ', {'newkey': 'newvalue'}): ... print(os.environ['newkey']) ... newvalue >>> assert 'newkey' not in os.environ Keywords can be used in the *note patch.dict(): 19f2. call to set values in the dictionary: >>> mymodule = MagicMock() >>> mymodule.function.return_value = 'fish' >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', mymodule=mymodule): ... import mymodule ... mymodule.function('some', 'args') ... 'fish' *note patch.dict(): 19f2. can be used with dictionary like objects that aren’t actually dictionaries. At the very minimum they must support item getting, setting, deleting and either iteration or membership test. This corresponds to the magic methods *note __getitem__(): 285, *note __setitem__(): 12be, *note __delitem__(): 12bf. and either *note __iter__(): 1cc1. or *note __contains__(): 1f5e. >>> class Container: ... def __init__(self): ... self.values = {} ... def __getitem__(self, name): ... return self.values[name] ... def __setitem__(self, name, value): ... self.values[name] = value ... def __delitem__(self, name): ... del self.values[name] ... def __iter__(self): ... return iter(self.values) ... >>> thing = Container() >>> thing['one'] = 1 >>> with patch.dict(thing, one=2, two=3): ... assert thing['one'] == 2 ... assert thing['two'] == 3 ... >>> assert thing['one'] == 1 >>> assert list(thing) == ['one']  File: python.info, Node: patch multiple, Next: patch methods start and stop, Prev: patch dict, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.11 patch.multiple ........................ -- Function: patch.multiple (target, spec=None, create=False, spec_set=None, autospec=None, new_callable=None, **kwargs) Perform multiple patches in a single call. It takes the object to be patched (either as an object or a string to fetch the object by importing) and keyword arguments for the patches: with patch.multiple(settings, FIRST_PATCH='one', SECOND_PATCH='two'): ... Use *note DEFAULT: 40cb. as the value if you want *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. to create mocks for you. In this case the created mocks are passed into a decorated function by keyword, and a dictionary is returned when *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. is used as a context manager. *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. can be used as a decorator, class decorator or a context manager. The arguments 'spec', 'spec_set', 'create', 'autospec' and 'new_callable' have the same meaning as for *note patch(): e8b. These arguments will be applied to 'all' patches done by *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. When used as a class decorator *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. honours ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’ for choosing which methods to wrap. If you want *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. to create mocks for you, then you can use *note DEFAULT: 40cb. as the value. If you use *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. as a decorator then the created mocks are passed into the decorated function by keyword. >>> thing = object() >>> other = object() >>> @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) ... def test_function(thing, other): ... assert isinstance(thing, MagicMock) ... assert isinstance(other, MagicMock) ... >>> test_function() *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. can be nested with other ‘patch’ decorators, but put arguments passed by keyword 'after' any of the standard arguments created by *note patch(): e8b.: >>> @patch('sys.exit') ... @patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) ... def test_function(mock_exit, other, thing): ... assert 'other' in repr(other) ... assert 'thing' in repr(thing) ... assert 'exit' in repr(mock_exit) ... >>> test_function() If *note patch.multiple(): 40f6. is used as a context manager, the value returned by the context manager is a dictionary where created mocks are keyed by name: >>> with patch.multiple('__main__', thing=DEFAULT, other=DEFAULT) as values: ... assert 'other' in repr(values['other']) ... assert 'thing' in repr(values['thing']) ... assert values['thing'] is thing ... assert values['other'] is other ...  File: python.info, Node: patch methods start and stop, Next: patch builtins, Prev: patch multiple, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.12 patch methods: start and stop ....................................... All the patchers have ‘start()’ and ‘stop()’ methods. These make it simpler to do patching in ‘setUp’ methods or where you want to do multiple patches without nesting decorators or with statements. To use them call *note patch(): e8b, *note patch.object(): 1598. or *note patch.dict(): 19f2. as normal and keep a reference to the returned ‘patcher’ object. You can then call ‘start()’ to put the patch in place and ‘stop()’ to undo it. If you are using *note patch(): e8b. to create a mock for you then it will be returned by the call to ‘patcher.start’. >>> patcher = patch('package.module.ClassName') >>> from package import module >>> original = module.ClassName >>> new_mock = patcher.start() >>> assert module.ClassName is not original >>> assert module.ClassName is new_mock >>> patcher.stop() >>> assert module.ClassName is original >>> assert module.ClassName is not new_mock A typical use case for this might be for doing multiple patches in the ‘setUp’ method of a *note TestCase: 449.: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... def setUp(self): ... self.patcher1 = patch('package.module.Class1') ... self.patcher2 = patch('package.module.Class2') ... self.MockClass1 = self.patcher1.start() ... self.MockClass2 = self.patcher2.start() ... ... def tearDown(self): ... self.patcher1.stop() ... self.patcher2.stop() ... ... def test_something(self): ... assert package.module.Class1 is self.MockClass1 ... assert package.module.Class2 is self.MockClass2 ... >>> MyTest('test_something').run() Caution: If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is “undone” by calling ‘stop’. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an exception is raised in the ‘setUp’ then ‘tearDown’ is not called. *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a81. makes this easier: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... def setUp(self): ... patcher = patch('package.module.Class') ... self.MockClass = patcher.start() ... self.addCleanup(patcher.stop) ... ... def test_something(self): ... assert package.module.Class is self.MockClass ... As an added bonus you no longer need to keep a reference to the ‘patcher’ object. It is also possible to stop all patches which have been started by using *note patch.stopall(): 40f9. -- Function: patch.stopall () Stop all active patches. Only stops patches started with ‘start’.  File: python.info, Node: patch builtins, Next: TEST_PREFIX, Prev: patch methods start and stop, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.13 patch builtins ........................ You can patch any builtins within a module. The following example patches builtin *note ord(): 1ef2.: >>> @patch('__main__.ord') ... def test(mock_ord): ... mock_ord.return_value = 101 ... print(ord('c')) ... >>> test() 101  File: python.info, Node: TEST_PREFIX, Next: Nesting Patch Decorators, Prev: patch builtins, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.14 TEST_PREFIX ..................... All of the patchers can be used as class decorators. When used in this way they wrap every test method on the class. The patchers recognise methods that start with ‘'test'’ as being test methods. This is the same way that the *note unittest.TestLoader: 290. finds test methods by default. It is possible that you want to use a different prefix for your tests. You can inform the patchers of the different prefix by setting ‘patch.TEST_PREFIX’: >>> patch.TEST_PREFIX = 'foo' >>> value = 3 >>> >>> @patch('__main__.value', 'not three') ... class Thing: ... def foo_one(self): ... print(value) ... def foo_two(self): ... print(value) ... >>> >>> Thing().foo_one() not three >>> Thing().foo_two() not three >>> value 3  File: python.info, Node: Nesting Patch Decorators, Next: Where to patch, Prev: TEST_PREFIX, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.15 Nesting Patch Decorators .................................. If you want to perform multiple patches then you can simply stack up the decorators. You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern: >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'class_method') ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method') ... def test(mock1, mock2): ... assert SomeClass.static_method is mock1 ... assert SomeClass.class_method is mock2 ... SomeClass.static_method('foo') ... SomeClass.class_method('bar') ... return mock1, mock2 ... >>> mock1, mock2 = test() >>> mock1.assert_called_once_with('foo') >>> mock2.assert_called_once_with('bar') Note that the decorators are applied from the bottom upwards. This is the standard way that Python applies decorators. The order of the created mocks passed into your test function matches this order.  File: python.info, Node: Where to patch, Next: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects, Prev: Nesting Patch Decorators, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.16 Where to patch ........................ *note patch(): e8b. works by (temporarily) changing the object that a 'name' points to with another one. There can be many names pointing to any individual object, so for patching to work you must ensure that you patch the name used by the system under test. The basic principle is that you patch where an object is 'looked up', which is not necessarily the same place as where it is defined. A couple of examples will help to clarify this. Imagine we have a project that we want to test with the following structure: a.py -> Defines SomeClass b.py -> from a import SomeClass -> some_function instantiates SomeClass Now we want to test ‘some_function’ but we want to mock out ‘SomeClass’ using *note patch(): e8b. The problem is that when we import module b, which we will have to do when it imports ‘SomeClass’ from module a. If we use *note patch(): e8b. to mock out ‘a.SomeClass’ then it will have no effect on our test; module b already has a reference to the 'real' ‘SomeClass’ and it looks like our patching had no effect. The key is to patch out ‘SomeClass’ where it is used (or where it is looked up). In this case ‘some_function’ will actually look up ‘SomeClass’ in module b, where we have imported it. The patching should look like: @patch('b.SomeClass') However, consider the alternative scenario where instead of ‘from a import SomeClass’ module b does ‘import a’ and ‘some_function’ uses ‘a.SomeClass’. Both of these import forms are common. In this case the class we want to patch is being looked up in the module and so we have to patch ‘a.SomeClass’ instead: @patch('a.SomeClass')  File: python.info, Node: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects, Prev: Where to patch, Up: The patchers 5.27.6.17 Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects ................................................ Both *note patch: 40f0. and *note patch.object: 40f2. correctly patch and restore descriptors: class methods, static methods and properties. You should patch these on the 'class' rather than an instance. They also work with 'some' objects that proxy attribute access, like the django settings object(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://web.archive.org/web/20200603181648/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/weblog/arch_d7_2010_12_04.shtml#e1198  File: python.info, Node: MagicMock and magic method support, Next: Helpers, Prev: The patchers, Up: unittest mock — mock object library 5.27.6.18 MagicMock and magic method support ............................................ * Menu: * Mocking Magic Methods:: * Magic Mock::  File: python.info, Node: Mocking Magic Methods, Next: Magic Mock, Up: MagicMock and magic method support 5.27.6.19 Mocking Magic Methods ............................... *note Mock: a4b. supports mocking the Python protocol methods, also known as *note “magic methods”: 4101. This allows mock objects to replace containers or other objects that implement Python protocols. Because magic methods are looked up differently from normal methods (1), this support has been specially implemented. This means that only specific magic methods are supported. The supported list includes 'almost' all of them. If there are any missing that you need please let us know. You mock magic methods by setting the method you are interested in to a function or a mock instance. If you are using a function then it 'must' take ‘self’ as the first argument (2). >>> def __str__(self): ... return 'fooble' ... >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__str__ = __str__ >>> str(mock) 'fooble' >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__str__ = Mock() >>> mock.__str__.return_value = 'fooble' >>> str(mock) 'fooble' >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__iter__ = Mock(return_value=iter([])) >>> list(mock) [] One use case for this is for mocking objects used as context managers in a *note with: 5ce. statement: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__enter__ = Mock(return_value='foo') >>> mock.__exit__ = Mock(return_value=False) >>> with mock as m: ... assert m == 'foo' ... >>> mock.__enter__.assert_called_with() >>> mock.__exit__.assert_called_with(None, None, None) Calls to magic methods do not appear in *note method_calls: 40d2, but they are recorded in *note mock_calls: 40d0. Note: If you use the 'spec' keyword argument to create a mock then attempting to set a magic method that isn’t in the spec will raise an *note AttributeError: 348. The full list of supported magic methods is: * ‘__hash__’, ‘__sizeof__’, ‘__repr__’ and ‘__str__’ * ‘__dir__’, ‘__format__’ and ‘__subclasses__’ * ‘__round__’, ‘__floor__’, ‘__trunc__’ and ‘__ceil__’ * Comparisons: ‘__lt__’, ‘__gt__’, ‘__le__’, ‘__ge__’, ‘__eq__’ and ‘__ne__’ * Container methods: ‘__getitem__’, ‘__setitem__’, ‘__delitem__’, ‘__contains__’, ‘__len__’, ‘__iter__’, ‘__reversed__’ and ‘__missing__’ * Context manager: ‘__enter__’, ‘__exit__’, ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ * Unary numeric methods: ‘__neg__’, ‘__pos__’ and ‘__invert__’ * The numeric methods (including right hand and in-place variants): ‘__add__’, ‘__sub__’, ‘__mul__’, ‘__matmul__’, ‘__truediv__’, ‘__floordiv__’, ‘__mod__’, ‘__divmod__’, ‘__lshift__’, ‘__rshift__’, ‘__and__’, ‘__xor__’, ‘__or__’, and ‘__pow__’ * Numeric conversion methods: ‘__complex__’, ‘__int__’, ‘__float__’ and ‘__index__’ * Descriptor methods: ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’ * Pickling: ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’, ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’ * File system path representation: ‘__fspath__’ * Asynchronous iteration methods: ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’ Changed in version 3.8: Added support for *note os.PathLike.__fspath__(): c52. Changed in version 3.8: Added support for ‘__aenter__’, ‘__aexit__’, ‘__aiter__’ and ‘__anext__’. The following methods exist but are 'not' supported as they are either in use by mock, can’t be set dynamically, or can cause problems: * ‘__getattr__’, ‘__setattr__’, ‘__init__’ and ‘__new__’ * ‘__prepare__’, ‘__instancecheck__’, ‘__subclasscheck__’, ‘__del__’ ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Magic methods 'should' be looked up on the class rather than the instance. Different versions of Python are inconsistent about applying this rule. The supported protocol methods should work with all supported versions of Python. (2) The function is basically hooked up to the class, but each ‘Mock’ instance is kept isolated from the others.  File: python.info, Node: Magic Mock, Prev: Mocking Magic Methods, Up: MagicMock and magic method support 5.27.6.20 Magic Mock .................... There are two ‘MagicMock’ variants: *note MagicMock: e8a. and *note NonCallableMagicMock: 40ca. -- Class: unittest.mock.MagicMock (*args, **kw) ‘MagicMock’ is a subclass of *note Mock: a4b. with default implementations of most of the *note magic methods: 4101. You can use ‘MagicMock’ without having to configure the magic methods yourself. The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note Mock: a4b. If you use the 'spec' or 'spec_set' arguments then 'only' magic methods that exist in the spec will be created. -- Class: unittest.mock.NonCallableMagicMock (*args, **kw) A non-callable version of *note MagicMock: e8a. The constructor parameters have the same meaning as for *note MagicMock: e8a, with the exception of 'return_value' and 'side_effect' which have no meaning on a non-callable mock. The magic methods are setup with *note MagicMock: e8a. objects, so you can configure them and use them in the usual way: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock[3] = 'fish' >>> mock.__setitem__.assert_called_with(3, 'fish') >>> mock.__getitem__.return_value = 'result' >>> mock[2] 'result' By default many of the protocol methods are required to return objects of a specific type. These methods are preconfigured with a default return value, so that they can be used without you having to do anything if you aren’t interested in the return value. You can still 'set' the return value manually if you want to change the default. Methods and their defaults: * ‘__lt__’: *note NotImplemented: 7cd. * ‘__gt__’: ‘NotImplemented’ * ‘__le__’: ‘NotImplemented’ * ‘__ge__’: ‘NotImplemented’ * ‘__int__’: ‘1’ * ‘__contains__’: ‘False’ * ‘__len__’: ‘0’ * ‘__iter__’: ‘iter([])’ * ‘__exit__’: ‘False’ * ‘__aexit__’: ‘False’ * ‘__complex__’: ‘1j’ * ‘__float__’: ‘1.0’ * ‘__bool__’: ‘True’ * ‘__index__’: ‘1’ * ‘__hash__’: default hash for the mock * ‘__str__’: default str for the mock * ‘__sizeof__’: default sizeof for the mock For example: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> int(mock) 1 >>> len(mock) 0 >>> list(mock) [] >>> object() in mock False The two equality methods, ‘__eq__()’ and ‘__ne__()’, are special. They do the default equality comparison on identity, using the *note side_effect: 40c4. attribute, unless you change their return value to return something else: >>> MagicMock() == 3 False >>> MagicMock() != 3 True >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.__eq__.return_value = True >>> mock == 3 True The return value of ‘MagicMock.__iter__()’ can be any iterable object and isn’t required to be an iterator: >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> list(mock) ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> list(mock) ['a', 'b', 'c'] If the return value 'is' an iterator, then iterating over it once will consume it and subsequent iterations will result in an empty list: >>> mock.__iter__.return_value = iter(['a', 'b', 'c']) >>> list(mock) ['a', 'b', 'c'] >>> list(mock) [] ‘MagicMock’ has all of the supported magic methods configured except for some of the obscure and obsolete ones. You can still set these up if you want. Magic methods that are supported but not setup by default in ‘MagicMock’ are: * ‘__subclasses__’ * ‘__dir__’ * ‘__format__’ * ‘__get__’, ‘__set__’ and ‘__delete__’ * ‘__reversed__’ and ‘__missing__’ * ‘__reduce__’, ‘__reduce_ex__’, ‘__getinitargs__’, ‘__getnewargs__’, ‘__getstate__’ and ‘__setstate__’ * ‘__getformat__’  File: python.info, Node: Helpers, Next: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps, Prev: MagicMock and magic method support, Up: unittest mock — mock object library 5.27.6.21 Helpers ................. * Menu: * sentinel:: * DEFAULT:: * call:: * create_autospec:: * ANY:: * FILTER_DIR:: * mock_open:: * Autospeccing:: * Sealing mocks::  File: python.info, Node: sentinel, Next: DEFAULT, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.22 sentinel .................. -- Data: unittest.mock.sentinel The ‘sentinel’ object provides a convenient way of providing unique objects for your tests. Attributes are created on demand when you access them by name. Accessing the same attribute will always return the same object. The objects returned have a sensible repr so that test failure messages are readable. Changed in version 3.7: The ‘sentinel’ attributes now preserve their identity when they are *note copied: 25. or *note pickled: a6. Sometimes when testing you need to test that a specific object is passed as an argument to another method, or returned. It can be common to create named sentinel objects to test this. *note sentinel: ba0. provides a convenient way of creating and testing the identity of objects like this. In this example we monkey patch ‘method’ to return ‘sentinel.some_object’: >>> real = ProductionClass() >>> real.method = Mock(name="method") >>> real.method.return_value = sentinel.some_object >>> result = real.method() >>> assert result is sentinel.some_object >>> result sentinel.some_object  File: python.info, Node: DEFAULT, Next: call, Prev: sentinel, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.23 DEFAULT ................. -- Data: unittest.mock.DEFAULT The *note DEFAULT: 40cb. object is a pre-created sentinel (actually ‘sentinel.DEFAULT’). It can be used by *note side_effect: 40c4. functions to indicate that the normal return value should be used.  File: python.info, Node: call, Next: create_autospec, Prev: DEFAULT, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.24 call .............. -- Function: unittest.mock.call (*args, **kwargs) *note call(): 19cd. is a helper object for making simpler assertions, for comparing with *note call_args: 197f, *note call_args_list: 40d8, *note mock_calls: 40d0. and *note method_calls: 40d2. *note call(): 19cd. can also be used with *note assert_has_calls(): 16a8. >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None) >>> m(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar') >>> m() >>> m.call_args_list == [call(1, 2, a='foo', b='bar'), call()] True -- Method: call.call_list () For a call object that represents multiple calls, *note call_list(): 4107. returns a list of all the intermediate calls as well as the final call. ‘call_list’ is particularly useful for making assertions on “chained calls”. A chained call is multiple calls on a single line of code. This results in multiple entries in *note mock_calls: 40d0. on a mock. Manually constructing the sequence of calls can be tedious. *note call_list(): 4107. can construct the sequence of calls from the same chained call: >>> m = MagicMock() >>> m(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0) <MagicMock name='mock().method().other()()' id='...'> >>> kall = call(1).method(arg='foo').other('bar')(2.0) >>> kall.call_list() [call(1), call().method(arg='foo'), call().method().other('bar'), call().method().other()(2.0)] >>> m.mock_calls == kall.call_list() True A ‘call’ object is either a tuple of (positional args, keyword args) or (name, positional args, keyword args) depending on how it was constructed. When you construct them yourself this isn’t particularly interesting, but the ‘call’ objects that are in the *note Mock.call_args: 197f, *note Mock.call_args_list: 40d8. and *note Mock.mock_calls: 40d0. attributes can be introspected to get at the individual arguments they contain. The ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.call_args: 197f. and *note Mock.call_args_list: 40d8. are two-tuples of (positional args, keyword args) whereas the ‘call’ objects in *note Mock.mock_calls: 40d0, along with ones you construct yourself, are three-tuples of (name, positional args, keyword args). You can use their “tupleness” to pull out the individual arguments for more complex introspection and assertions. The positional arguments are a tuple (an empty tuple if there are no positional arguments) and the keyword arguments are a dictionary: >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None) >>> m(1, 2, 3, arg='one', arg2='two') >>> kall = m.call_args >>> kall.args (1, 2, 3) >>> kall.kwargs {'arg': 'one', 'arg2': 'two'} >>> kall.args is kall[0] True >>> kall.kwargs is kall[1] True >>> m = MagicMock() >>> m.foo(4, 5, 6, arg='two', arg2='three') <MagicMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'> >>> kall = m.mock_calls[0] >>> name, args, kwargs = kall >>> name 'foo' >>> args (4, 5, 6) >>> kwargs {'arg': 'two', 'arg2': 'three'} >>> name is m.mock_calls[0][0] True  File: python.info, Node: create_autospec, Next: ANY, Prev: call, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.25 create_autospec ......................... -- Function: unittest.mock.create_autospec (spec, spec_set=False, instance=False, **kwargs) Create a mock object using another object as a spec. Attributes on the mock will use the corresponding attribute on the 'spec' object as their spec. Functions or methods being mocked will have their arguments checked to ensure that they are called with the correct signature. If 'spec_set' is ‘True’ then attempting to set attributes that don’t exist on the spec object will raise an *note AttributeError: 348. If a class is used as a spec then the return value of the mock (the instance of the class) will have the same spec. You can use a class as the spec for an instance object by passing ‘instance=True’. The returned mock will only be callable if instances of the mock are callable. *note create_autospec(): 1608. also takes arbitrary keyword arguments that are passed to the constructor of the created mock. See *note Autospeccing: 40c7. for examples of how to use auto-speccing with *note create_autospec(): 1608. and the 'autospec' argument to *note patch(): e8b. Changed in version 3.8: *note create_autospec(): 1608. now returns an *note AsyncMock: a4a. if the target is an async function.  File: python.info, Node: ANY, Next: FILTER_DIR, Prev: create_autospec, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.26 ANY ............. -- Data: unittest.mock.ANY Sometimes you may need to make assertions about 'some' of the arguments in a call to mock, but either not care about some of the arguments or want to pull them individually out of *note call_args: 197f. and make more complex assertions on them. To ignore certain arguments you can pass in objects that compare equal to 'everything'. Calls to *note assert_called_with(): 1a20. and *note assert_called_once_with(): 40ce. will then succeed no matter what was passed in. >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock('foo', bar=object()) >>> mock.assert_called_once_with('foo', bar=ANY) *note ANY: 19cb. can also be used in comparisons with call lists like *note mock_calls: 40d0.: >>> m = MagicMock(return_value=None) >>> m(1) >>> m(1, 2) >>> m(object()) >>> m.mock_calls == [call(1), call(1, 2), ANY] True *note ANY: 19cb. is not limited to comparisons with call objects and so can also be used in test assertions: class TestStringMethods(unittest.TestCase): def test_split(self): s = 'hello world' self.assertEqual(s.split(), ['hello', ANY])  File: python.info, Node: FILTER_DIR, Next: mock_open, Prev: ANY, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.27 FILTER_DIR .................... -- Data: unittest.mock.FILTER_DIR *note FILTER_DIR: 40d4. is a module level variable that controls the way mock objects respond to *note dir(): 62e. The default is ‘True’, which uses the filtering described below, to only show useful members. If you dislike this filtering, or need to switch it off for diagnostic purposes, then set ‘mock.FILTER_DIR = False’. With filtering on, ‘dir(some_mock)’ shows only useful attributes and will include any dynamically created attributes that wouldn’t normally be shown. If the mock was created with a 'spec' (or 'autospec' of course) then all the attributes from the original are shown, even if they haven’t been accessed yet: >>> dir(Mock()) ['assert_any_call', 'assert_called', 'assert_called_once', 'assert_called_once_with', 'assert_called_with', 'assert_has_calls', 'assert_not_called', 'attach_mock', ... >>> from urllib import request >>> dir(Mock(spec=request)) ['AbstractBasicAuthHandler', 'AbstractDigestAuthHandler', 'AbstractHTTPHandler', 'BaseHandler', ... Many of the not-very-useful (private to *note Mock: a4b. rather than the thing being mocked) underscore and double underscore prefixed attributes have been filtered from the result of calling *note dir(): 62e. on a *note Mock: a4b. If you dislike this behaviour you can switch it off by setting the module level switch *note FILTER_DIR: 40d4.: >>> from unittest import mock >>> mock.FILTER_DIR = False >>> dir(mock.Mock()) ['_NonCallableMock__get_return_value', '_NonCallableMock__get_side_effect', '_NonCallableMock__return_value_doc', '_NonCallableMock__set_return_value', '_NonCallableMock__set_side_effect', '__call__', '__class__', ... Alternatively you can just use ‘vars(my_mock)’ (instance members) and ‘dir(type(my_mock))’ (type members) to bypass the filtering irrespective of *note FILTER_DIR: 40d4.  File: python.info, Node: mock_open, Next: Autospeccing, Prev: FILTER_DIR, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.28 mock_open ................... -- Function: unittest.mock.mock_open (mock=None, read_data=None) A helper function to create a mock to replace the use of *note open(): 517. It works for *note open(): 517. called directly or used as a context manager. The 'mock' argument is the mock object to configure. If ‘None’ (the default) then a *note MagicMock: e8a. will be created for you, with the API limited to methods or attributes available on standard file handles. 'read_data' is a string for the *note read(): e1b, *note readline(): 131c, and *note readlines(): 2333. methods of the file handle to return. Calls to those methods will take data from 'read_data' until it is depleted. The mock of these methods is pretty simplistic: every time the 'mock' is called, the 'read_data' is rewound to the start. If you need more control over the data that you are feeding to the tested code you will need to customize this mock for yourself. When that is insufficient, one of the in-memory filesystem packages on PyPI(1) can offer a realistic filesystem for testing. Changed in version 3.4: Added *note readline(): 131c. and *note readlines(): 2333. support. The mock of *note read(): e1b. changed to consume 'read_data' rather than returning it on each call. Changed in version 3.5: 'read_data' is now reset on each call to the 'mock'. Changed in version 3.8: Added *note __iter__(): 1cc1. to implementation so that iteration (such as in for loops) correctly consumes 'read_data'. Using *note open(): 517. as a context manager is a great way to ensure your file handles are closed properly and is becoming common: with open('/some/path', 'w') as f: f.write('something') The issue is that even if you mock out the call to *note open(): 517. it is the 'returned object' that is used as a context manager (and has *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. called). Mocking context managers with a *note MagicMock: e8a. is common enough and fiddly enough that a helper function is useful. >>> m = mock_open() >>> with patch('__main__.open', m): ... with open('foo', 'w') as h: ... h.write('some stuff') ... >>> m.mock_calls [call('foo', 'w'), call().__enter__(), call().write('some stuff'), call().__exit__(None, None, None)] >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo', 'w') >>> handle = m() >>> handle.write.assert_called_once_with('some stuff') And for reading files: >>> with patch('__main__.open', mock_open(read_data='bibble')) as m: ... with open('foo') as h: ... result = h.read() ... >>> m.assert_called_once_with('foo') >>> assert result == 'bibble' ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org  File: python.info, Node: Autospeccing, Next: Sealing mocks, Prev: mock_open, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.29 Autospeccing ...................... Autospeccing is based on the existing ‘spec’ feature of mock. It limits the api of mocks to the api of an original object (the spec), but it is recursive (implemented lazily) so that attributes of mocks only have the same api as the attributes of the spec. In addition mocked functions / methods have the same call signature as the original so they raise a *note TypeError: 534. if they are called incorrectly. Before I explain how auto-speccing works, here’s why it is needed. *note Mock: a4b. is a very powerful and flexible object, but it suffers from a flaw which is general to mocking. If you refactor some of your code, rename members and so on, any tests for code that is still using the 'old api' but uses mocks instead of the real objects will still pass. This means your tests can all pass even though your code is broken. Changed in version 3.5: Before 3.5, tests with a typo in the word assert would silently pass when they should raise an error. You can still achieve this behavior by passing ‘unsafe=True’ to Mock. Note that this is another reason why you need integration tests as well as unit tests. Testing everything in isolation is all fine and dandy, but if you don’t test how your units are “wired together” there is still lots of room for bugs that tests might have caught. *note unittest.mock: 107. already provides a feature to help with this, called speccing. If you use a class or instance as the ‘spec’ for a mock then you can only access attributes on the mock that exist on the real class: >>> from urllib import request >>> mock = Mock(spec=request.Request) >>> mock.assret_called_with # Intentional typo! Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with' The spec only applies to the mock itself, so we still have the same issue with any methods on the mock: >>> mock.header_items() <mock.Mock object at 0x...> >>> mock.header_items.assret_called_with() # Intentional typo! Auto-speccing solves this problem. You can either pass ‘autospec=True’ to *note patch(): e8b. / *note patch.object(): 1598. or use the *note create_autospec(): 1608. function to create a mock with a spec. If you use the ‘autospec=True’ argument to *note patch(): e8b. then the object that is being replaced will be used as the spec object. Because the speccing is done “lazily” (the spec is created as attributes on the mock are accessed) you can use it with very complex or deeply nested objects (like modules that import modules that import modules) without a big performance hit. Here’s an example of it in use: >>> from urllib import request >>> patcher = patch('__main__.request', autospec=True) >>> mock_request = patcher.start() >>> request is mock_request True >>> mock_request.Request <MagicMock name='request.Request' spec='Request' id='...'> You can see that ‘request.Request’ has a spec. ‘request.Request’ takes two arguments in the constructor (one of which is 'self'). Here’s what happens if we try to call it incorrectly: >>> req = request.Request() Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: <lambda>() takes at least 2 arguments (1 given) The spec also applies to instantiated classes (i.e. the return value of specced mocks): >>> req = request.Request('foo') >>> req <NonCallableMagicMock name='request.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'> ‘Request’ objects are not callable, so the return value of instantiating our mocked out ‘request.Request’ is a non-callable mock. With the spec in place any typos in our asserts will raise the correct error: >>> req.add_header('spam', 'eggs') <MagicMock name='request.Request().add_header()' id='...'> >>> req.add_header.assret_called_with # Intentional typo! Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'assret_called_with' >>> req.add_header.assert_called_with('spam', 'eggs') In many cases you will just be able to add ‘autospec=True’ to your existing *note patch(): e8b. calls and then be protected against bugs due to typos and api changes. As well as using 'autospec' through *note patch(): e8b. there is a *note create_autospec(): 1608. for creating autospecced mocks directly: >>> from urllib import request >>> mock_request = create_autospec(request) >>> mock_request.Request('foo', 'bar') <NonCallableMagicMock name='mock.Request()' spec='Request' id='...'> This isn’t without caveats and limitations however, which is why it is not the default behaviour. In order to know what attributes are available on the spec object, autospec has to introspect (access attributes) the spec. As you traverse attributes on the mock a corresponding traversal of the original object is happening under the hood. If any of your specced objects have properties or descriptors that can trigger code execution then you may not be able to use autospec. On the other hand it is much better to design your objects so that introspection is safe (1). A more serious problem is that it is common for instance attributes to be created in the *note __init__(): 6ac. method and not to exist on the class at all. 'autospec' can’t know about any dynamically created attributes and restricts the api to visible attributes. >>> class Something: ... def __init__(self): ... self.a = 33 ... >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True): ... thing = Something() ... thing.a ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a' There are a few different ways of resolving this problem. The easiest, but not necessarily the least annoying, way is to simply set the required attributes on the mock after creation. Just because 'autospec' doesn’t allow you to fetch attributes that don’t exist on the spec it doesn’t prevent you setting them: >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True): ... thing = Something() ... thing.a = 33 ... There is a more aggressive version of both 'spec' and 'autospec' that 'does' prevent you setting non-existent attributes. This is useful if you want to ensure your code only 'sets' valid attributes too, but obviously it prevents this particular scenario: >>> with patch('__main__.Something', autospec=True, spec_set=True): ... thing = Something() ... thing.a = 33 ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'a' Probably the best way of solving the problem is to add class attributes as default values for instance members initialised in *note __init__(): 6ac. Note that if you are only setting default attributes in ‘__init__()’ then providing them via class attributes (shared between instances of course) is faster too. e.g. class Something: a = 33 This brings up another issue. It is relatively common to provide a default value of ‘None’ for members that will later be an object of a different type. ‘None’ would be useless as a spec because it wouldn’t let you access 'any' attributes or methods on it. As ‘None’ is 'never' going to be useful as a spec, and probably indicates a member that will normally of some other type, autospec doesn’t use a spec for members that are set to ‘None’. These will just be ordinary mocks (well - MagicMocks): >>> class Something: ... member = None ... >>> mock = create_autospec(Something) >>> mock.member.foo.bar.baz() <MagicMock name='mock.member.foo.bar.baz()' id='...'> If modifying your production classes to add defaults isn’t to your liking then there are more options. One of these is simply to use an instance as the spec rather than the class. The other is to create a subclass of the production class and add the defaults to the subclass without affecting the production class. Both of these require you to use an alternative object as the spec. Thankfully *note patch(): e8b. supports this - you can simply pass the alternative object as the 'autospec' argument: >>> class Something: ... def __init__(self): ... self.a = 33 ... >>> class SomethingForTest(Something): ... a = 33 ... >>> p = patch('__main__.Something', autospec=SomethingForTest) >>> mock = p.start() >>> mock.a <NonCallableMagicMock name='Something.a' spec='int' id='...'> ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This only applies to classes or already instantiated objects. Calling a mocked class to create a mock instance 'does not' create a real instance. It is only attribute lookups - along with calls to *note dir(): 62e. - that are done.  File: python.info, Node: Sealing mocks, Prev: Autospeccing, Up: Helpers 5.27.6.30 Sealing mocks ....................... -- Function: unittest.mock.seal (mock) Seal will disable the automatic creation of mocks when accessing an attribute of the mock being sealed or any of its attributes that are already mocks recursively. If a mock instance with a name or a spec is assigned to an attribute it won’t be considered in the sealing chain. This allows one to prevent seal from fixing part of the mock object. >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.submock.attribute1 = 2 >>> mock.not_submock = mock.Mock(name="sample_name") >>> seal(mock) >>> mock.new_attribute # This will raise AttributeError. >>> mock.submock.attribute2 # This will raise AttributeError. >>> mock.not_submock.attribute2 # This won't raise. Added in version 3.7.  File: python.info, Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps, Prev: Helpers, Up: unittest mock — mock object library 5.27.6.31 Order of precedence of ‘side_effect’, ‘return_value’ and 'wraps' .......................................................................... The order of their precedence is: 1. *note side_effect: 40c4. 2. *note return_value: 40cc. 3. 'wraps' If all three are set, mock will return the value from *note side_effect: 40c4, ignoring *note return_value: 40cc. and the wrapped object altogether. If any two are set, the one with the higher precedence will return the value. Regardless of the order of which was set first, the order of precedence remains unchanged. >>> from unittest.mock import Mock >>> class Order: ... @staticmethod ... def get_value(): ... return "third" ... >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order) >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first"] >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second" >>> order_mock.get_value() 'first' As ‘None’ is the default value of *note side_effect: 40c4, if you reassign its value back to ‘None’, the order of precedence will be checked between *note return_value: 40cc. and the wrapped object, ignoring *note side_effect: 40c4. >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None >>> order_mock.get_value() 'second' If the value being returned by *note side_effect: 40c4. is *note DEFAULT: 40cb, it is ignored and the order of precedence moves to the successor to obtain the value to return. >>> from unittest.mock import DEFAULT >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = [DEFAULT] >>> order_mock.get_value() 'second' When *note Mock: a4b. wraps an object, the default value of *note return_value: 40cc. will be *note DEFAULT: 40cb. >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order) >>> order_mock.return_value sentinel.DEFAULT >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value sentinel.DEFAULT The order of precedence will ignore this value and it will move to the last successor which is the wrapped object. As the real call is being made to the wrapped object, creating an instance of this mock will return the real instance of the class. The positional arguments, if any, required by the wrapped object must be passed. >>> order_mock_instance = order_mock() >>> isinstance(order_mock_instance, Order) True >>> order_mock_instance.get_value() 'third' >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT >>> order_mock.get_value() 'third' >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second" >>> order_mock.get_value() 'second' But if you assign ‘None’ to it, this will not be ignored as it is an explicit assignment. So, the order of precedence will not move to the wrapped object. >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = None >>> order_mock.get_value() is None True Even if you set all three at once when initializing the mock, the order of precedence remains the same: >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order, ... **{"get_value.side_effect": ["first"], ... "get_value.return_value": "second"} ... ) ... >>> order_mock.get_value() 'first' >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = None >>> order_mock.get_value() 'second' >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = DEFAULT >>> order_mock.get_value() 'third' If *note side_effect: 40c4. is exhausted, the order of precedence will not cause a value to be obtained from the successors. Instead, ‘StopIteration’ exception is raised. >>> order_mock = Mock(spec=Order, wraps=Order) >>> order_mock.get_value.side_effect = ["first side effect value", ... "another side effect value"] >>> order_mock.get_value.return_value = "second" >>> order_mock.get_value() 'first side effect value' >>> order_mock.get_value() 'another side effect value' >>> order_mock.get_value() Traceback (most recent call last): ... StopIteration  File: python.info, Node: unittest mock — getting started, Next: test — Regression tests package for Python, Prev: unittest mock — mock object library, Up: Development Tools 5.27.7 ‘unittest.mock’ — getting started ---------------------------------------- Added in version 3.3. * Menu: * Using Mock:: * Patch Decorators:: * Further Examples::  File: python.info, Node: Using Mock, Next: Patch Decorators, Up: unittest mock — getting started 5.27.7.1 Using Mock ................... * Menu: * Mock Patching Methods:: * Mock for Method Calls on an Object:: * Mocking Classes:: * Naming your mocks:: * Tracking all Calls:: * Setting Return Values and Attributes:: * Raising exceptions with mocks:: * Side effect functions and iterables:: * Mocking asynchronous iterators:: * Mocking asynchronous context manager:: * Creating a Mock from an Existing Object:: * Using side_effect to return per file content::  File: python.info, Node: Mock Patching Methods, Next: Mock for Method Calls on an Object, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.2 Mock Patching Methods .............................. Common uses for *note Mock: a4b. objects include: * Patching methods * Recording method calls on objects You might want to replace a method on an object to check that it is called with the correct arguments by another part of the system: >>> real = SomeClass() >>> real.method = MagicMock(name='method') >>> real.method(3, 4, 5, key='value') <MagicMock name='method()' id='...'> Once our mock has been used (‘real.method’ in this example) it has methods and attributes that allow you to make assertions about how it has been used. Note: In most of these examples the *note Mock: a4b. and *note MagicMock: e8a. classes are interchangeable. As the ‘MagicMock’ is the more capable class it makes a sensible one to use by default. Once the mock has been called its *note called: 40d6. attribute is set to ‘True’. More importantly we can use the *note assert_called_with(): 1a20. or *note assert_called_once_with(): 40ce. method to check that it was called with the correct arguments. This example tests that calling ‘ProductionClass().method’ results in a call to the ‘something’ method: >>> class ProductionClass: ... def method(self): ... self.something(1, 2, 3) ... def something(self, a, b, c): ... pass ... >>> real = ProductionClass() >>> real.something = MagicMock() >>> real.method() >>> real.something.assert_called_once_with(1, 2, 3)  File: python.info, Node: Mock for Method Calls on an Object, Next: Mocking Classes, Prev: Mock Patching Methods, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.3 Mock for Method Calls on an Object ........................................... In the last example we patched a method directly on an object to check that it was called correctly. Another common use case is to pass an object into a method (or some part of the system under test) and then check that it is used in the correct way. The simple ‘ProductionClass’ below has a ‘closer’ method. If it is called with an object then it calls ‘close’ on it. >>> class ProductionClass: ... def closer(self, something): ... something.close() ... So to test it we need to pass in an object with a ‘close’ method and check that it was called correctly. >>> real = ProductionClass() >>> mock = Mock() >>> real.closer(mock) >>> mock.close.assert_called_with() We don’t have to do any work to provide the ‘close’ method on our mock. Accessing close creates it. So, if ‘close’ hasn’t already been called then accessing it in the test will create it, but *note assert_called_with(): 1a20. will raise a failure exception.  File: python.info, Node: Mocking Classes, Next: Naming your mocks, Prev: Mock for Method Calls on an Object, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.4 Mocking Classes ........................ A common use case is to mock out classes instantiated by your code under test. When you patch a class, then that class is replaced with a mock. Instances are created by 'calling the class'. This means you access the “mock instance” by looking at the return value of the mocked class. In the example below we have a function ‘some_function’ that instantiates ‘Foo’ and calls a method on it. The call to *note patch(): e8b. replaces the class ‘Foo’ with a mock. The ‘Foo’ instance is the result of calling the mock, so it is configured by modifying the mock *note return_value: 40cc. >>> def some_function(): ... instance = module.Foo() ... return instance.method() ... >>> with patch('module.Foo') as mock: ... instance = mock.return_value ... instance.method.return_value = 'the result' ... result = some_function() ... assert result == 'the result'  File: python.info, Node: Naming your mocks, Next: Tracking all Calls, Prev: Mocking Classes, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.5 Naming your mocks .......................... It can be useful to give your mocks a name. The name is shown in the repr of the mock and can be helpful when the mock appears in test failure messages. The name is also propagated to attributes or methods of the mock: >>> mock = MagicMock(name='foo') >>> mock <MagicMock name='foo' id='...'> >>> mock.method <MagicMock name='foo.method' id='...'>  File: python.info, Node: Tracking all Calls, Next: Setting Return Values and Attributes, Prev: Naming your mocks, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.6 Tracking all Calls ........................... Often you want to track more than a single call to a method. The *note mock_calls: 40d0. attribute records all calls to child attributes of the mock - and also to their children. >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.method() <MagicMock name='mock.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.attribute.method(10, x=53) <MagicMock name='mock.attribute.method()' id='...'> >>> mock.mock_calls [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)] If you make an assertion about ‘mock_calls’ and any unexpected methods have been called, then the assertion will fail. This is useful because as well as asserting that the calls you expected have been made, you are also checking that they were made in the right order and with no additional calls: You use the *note call: 19cd. object to construct lists for comparing with ‘mock_calls’: >>> expected = [call.method(), call.attribute.method(10, x=53)] >>> mock.mock_calls == expected True However, parameters to calls that return mocks are not recorded, which means it is not possible to track nested calls where the parameters used to create ancestors are important: >>> m = Mock() >>> m.factory(important=True).deliver() <Mock name='mock.factory().deliver()' id='...'> >>> m.mock_calls[-1] == call.factory(important=False).deliver() True  File: python.info, Node: Setting Return Values and Attributes, Next: Raising exceptions with mocks, Prev: Tracking all Calls, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.7 Setting Return Values and Attributes ............................................. Setting the return values on a mock object is trivially easy: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.return_value = 3 >>> mock() 3 Of course you can do the same for methods on the mock: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.method.return_value = 3 >>> mock.method() 3 The return value can also be set in the constructor: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=3) >>> mock() 3 If you need an attribute setting on your mock, just do it: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.x = 3 >>> mock.x 3 Sometimes you want to mock up a more complex situation, like for example ‘mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1")’. If we wanted this call to return a list, then we have to configure the result of the nested call. We can use *note call: 19cd. to construct the set of calls in a “chained call” like this for easy assertion afterwards: >>> mock = Mock() >>> cursor = mock.connection.cursor.return_value >>> cursor.execute.return_value = ['foo'] >>> mock.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1") ['foo'] >>> expected = call.connection.cursor().execute("SELECT 1").call_list() >>> mock.mock_calls [call.connection.cursor(), call.connection.cursor().execute('SELECT 1')] >>> mock.mock_calls == expected True It is the call to ‘.call_list()’ that turns our call object into a list of calls representing the chained calls.  File: python.info, Node: Raising exceptions with mocks, Next: Side effect functions and iterables, Prev: Setting Return Values and Attributes, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.8 Raising exceptions with mocks ...................................... A useful attribute is *note side_effect: 40c4. If you set this to an exception class or instance then the exception will be raised when the mock is called. >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=Exception('Boom!')) >>> mock() Traceback (most recent call last): ... Exception: Boom!  File: python.info, Node: Side effect functions and iterables, Next: Mocking asynchronous iterators, Prev: Raising exceptions with mocks, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.9 Side effect functions and iterables ............................................ ‘side_effect’ can also be set to a function or an iterable. The use case for ‘side_effect’ as an iterable is where your mock is going to be called several times, and you want each call to return a different value. When you set ‘side_effect’ to an iterable every call to the mock returns the next value from the iterable: >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=[4, 5, 6]) >>> mock() 4 >>> mock() 5 >>> mock() 6 For more advanced use cases, like dynamically varying the return values depending on what the mock is called with, ‘side_effect’ can be a function. The function will be called with the same arguments as the mock. Whatever the function returns is what the call returns: >>> vals = {(1, 2): 1, (2, 3): 2} >>> def side_effect(*args): ... return vals[args] ... >>> mock = MagicMock(side_effect=side_effect) >>> mock(1, 2) 1 >>> mock(2, 3) 2  File: python.info, Node: Mocking asynchronous iterators, Next: Mocking asynchronous context manager, Prev: Side effect functions and iterables, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.10 Mocking asynchronous iterators ........................................ Since Python 3.8, ‘AsyncMock’ and ‘MagicMock’ have support to mock *note Asynchronous Iterators: d79. through ‘__aiter__’. The *note return_value: 40cc. attribute of ‘__aiter__’ can be used to set the return values to be used for iteration. >>> mock = MagicMock() # AsyncMock also works here >>> mock.__aiter__.return_value = [1, 2, 3] >>> async def main(): ... return [i async for i in mock] ... >>> asyncio.run(main()) [1, 2, 3]  File: python.info, Node: Mocking asynchronous context manager, Next: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object, Prev: Mocking asynchronous iterators, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.11 Mocking asynchronous context manager .............................................. Since Python 3.8, ‘AsyncMock’ and ‘MagicMock’ have support to mock *note Asynchronous Context Managers: 5f8. through ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’. By default, ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ are ‘AsyncMock’ instances that return an async function. >>> class AsyncContextManager: ... async def __aenter__(self): ... return self ... async def __aexit__(self, exc_type, exc, tb): ... pass ... >>> mock_instance = MagicMock(AsyncContextManager()) # AsyncMock also works here >>> async def main(): ... async with mock_instance as result: ... pass ... >>> asyncio.run(main()) >>> mock_instance.__aenter__.assert_awaited_once() >>> mock_instance.__aexit__.assert_awaited_once()  File: python.info, Node: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object, Next: Using side_effect to return per file content, Prev: Mocking asynchronous context manager, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.12 Creating a Mock from an Existing Object ................................................. One problem with over use of mocking is that it couples your tests to the implementation of your mocks rather than your real code. Suppose you have a class that implements ‘some_method’. In a test for another class, you provide a mock of this object that 'also' provides ‘some_method’. If later you refactor the first class, so that it no longer has ‘some_method’ - then your tests will continue to pass even though your code is now broken! *note Mock: a4b. allows you to provide an object as a specification for the mock, using the 'spec' keyword argument. Accessing methods / attributes on the mock that don’t exist on your specification object will immediately raise an attribute error. If you change the implementation of your specification, then tests that use that class will start failing immediately without you having to instantiate the class in those tests. >>> mock = Mock(spec=SomeClass) >>> mock.old_method() Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: Mock object has no attribute 'old_method'. Did you mean: 'class_method'? Using a specification also enables a smarter matching of calls made to the mock, regardless of whether some parameters were passed as positional or named arguments: >>> def f(a, b, c): pass ... >>> mock = Mock(spec=f) >>> mock(1, 2, 3) <Mock name='mock()' id='140161580456576'> >>> mock.assert_called_with(a=1, b=2, c=3) If you want this smarter matching to also work with method calls on the mock, you can use *note auto-speccing: 40c7. If you want a stronger form of specification that prevents the setting of arbitrary attributes as well as the getting of them then you can use 'spec_set' instead of 'spec'.  File: python.info, Node: Using side_effect to return per file content, Prev: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object, Up: Using Mock 5.27.7.13 Using side_effect to return per file content ...................................................... *note mock_open(): 1709. is used to patch *note open(): 517. method. *note side_effect: 40c4. can be used to return a new Mock object per call. This can be used to return different contents per file stored in a dictionary: DEFAULT = "default" data_dict = {"file1": "data1", "file2": "data2"} def open_side_effect(name): return mock_open(read_data=data_dict.get(name, DEFAULT))() with patch("builtins.open", side_effect=open_side_effect): with open("file1") as file1: assert file1.read() == "data1" with open("file2") as file2: assert file2.read() == "data2" with open("file3") as file2: assert file2.read() == "default"  File: python.info, Node: Patch Decorators, Next: Further Examples, Prev: Using Mock, Up: unittest mock — getting started 5.27.7.14 Patch Decorators .......................... Note: With *note patch(): e8b. it matters that you patch objects in the namespace where they are looked up. This is normally straightforward, but for a quick guide read *note where to patch: 40c5. A common need in tests is to patch a class attribute or a module attribute, for example patching a builtin or patching a class in a module to test that it is instantiated. Modules and classes are effectively global, so patching on them has to be undone after the test or the patch will persist into other tests and cause hard to diagnose problems. mock provides three convenient decorators for this: *note patch(): e8b, *note patch.object(): 1598. and *note patch.dict(): 19f2. ‘patch’ takes a single string, of the form ‘package.module.Class.attribute’ to specify the attribute you are patching. It also optionally takes a value that you want the attribute (or class or whatever) to be replaced with. ‘patch.object’ takes an object and the name of the attribute you would like patched, plus optionally the value to patch it with. ‘patch.object’: >>> original = SomeClass.attribute >>> @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute) ... def test(): ... assert SomeClass.attribute == sentinel.attribute ... >>> test() >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original >>> @patch('package.module.attribute', sentinel.attribute) ... def test(): ... from package.module import attribute ... assert attribute is sentinel.attribute ... >>> test() If you are patching a module (including *note builtins: 12.) then use *note patch(): e8b. instead of *note patch.object(): 1598.: >>> mock = MagicMock(return_value=sentinel.file_handle) >>> with patch('builtins.open', mock): ... handle = open('filename', 'r') ... >>> mock.assert_called_with('filename', 'r') >>> assert handle == sentinel.file_handle, "incorrect file handle returned" The module name can be ‘dotted’, in the form ‘package.module’ if needed: >>> @patch('package.module.ClassName.attribute', sentinel.attribute) ... def test(): ... from package.module import ClassName ... assert ClassName.attribute == sentinel.attribute ... >>> test() A nice pattern is to actually decorate test methods themselves: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'attribute', sentinel.attribute) ... def test_something(self): ... self.assertEqual(SomeClass.attribute, sentinel.attribute) ... >>> original = SomeClass.attribute >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something() >>> assert SomeClass.attribute == original If you want to patch with a Mock, you can use *note patch(): e8b. with only one argument (or *note patch.object(): 1598. with two arguments). The mock will be created for you and passed into the test function / method: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... @patch.object(SomeClass, 'static_method') ... def test_something(self, mock_method): ... SomeClass.static_method() ... mock_method.assert_called_with() ... >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something() You can stack up multiple patch decorators using this pattern: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... @patch('package.module.ClassName1') ... @patch('package.module.ClassName2') ... def test_something(self, MockClass2, MockClass1): ... self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName1, MockClass1) ... self.assertIs(package.module.ClassName2, MockClass2) ... >>> MyTest('test_something').test_something() When you nest patch decorators the mocks are passed in to the decorated function in the same order they applied (the normal 'Python' order that decorators are applied). This means from the bottom up, so in the example above the mock for ‘test_module.ClassName2’ is passed in first. There is also *note patch.dict(): 19f2. for setting values in a dictionary just during a scope and restoring the dictionary to its original state when the test ends: >>> foo = {'key': 'value'} >>> original = foo.copy() >>> with patch.dict(foo, {'newkey': 'newvalue'}, clear=True): ... assert foo == {'newkey': 'newvalue'} ... >>> assert foo == original ‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ and ‘patch.dict’ can all be used as context managers. Where you use *note patch(): e8b. to create a mock for you, you can get a reference to the mock using the “as” form of the with statement: >>> class ProductionClass: ... def method(self): ... pass ... >>> with patch.object(ProductionClass, 'method') as mock_method: ... mock_method.return_value = None ... real = ProductionClass() ... real.method(1, 2, 3) ... >>> mock_method.assert_called_with(1, 2, 3) As an alternative ‘patch’, ‘patch.object’ and ‘patch.dict’ can be used as class decorators. When used in this way it is the same as applying the decorator individually to every method whose name starts with “test”.  File: python.info, Node: Further Examples, Prev: Patch Decorators, Up: unittest mock — getting started 5.27.7.15 Further Examples .......................... Here are some more examples for some slightly more advanced scenarios. * Menu: * Mocking chained calls:: * Partial mocking:: * Mocking a Generator Method:: * Applying the same patch to every test method:: * Mocking Unbound Methods:: * Checking multiple calls with mock:: * Coping with mutable arguments:: * Nesting Patches:: * Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock:: * Mock subclasses and their attributes:: * Mocking imports with patch.dict: Mocking imports with patch dict. * Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions:: * More complex argument matching::  File: python.info, Node: Mocking chained calls, Next: Partial mocking, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.16 Mocking chained calls ............................... Mocking chained calls is actually straightforward with mock once you understand the *note return_value: 40cc. attribute. When a mock is called for the first time, or you fetch its ‘return_value’ before it has been called, a new *note Mock: a4b. is created. This means that you can see how the object returned from a call to a mocked object has been used by interrogating the ‘return_value’ mock: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock().foo(a=2, b=3) <Mock name='mock().foo()' id='...'> >>> mock.return_value.foo.assert_called_with(a=2, b=3) From here it is a simple step to configure and then make assertions about chained calls. Of course another alternative is writing your code in a more testable way in the first place… So, suppose we have some code that looks a little bit like this: >>> class Something: ... def __init__(self): ... self.backend = BackendProvider() ... def method(self): ... response = self.backend.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call() ... # more code Assuming that ‘BackendProvider’ is already well tested, how do we test ‘method()’? Specifically, we want to test that the code section ‘# more code’ uses the response object in the correct way. As this chain of calls is made from an instance attribute we can monkey patch the ‘backend’ attribute on a ‘Something’ instance. In this particular case we are only interested in the return value from the final call to ‘start_call’ so we don’t have much configuration to do. Let’s assume the object it returns is ‘file-like’, so we’ll ensure that our response object uses the builtin *note open(): 517. as its ‘spec’. To do this we create a mock instance as our mock backend and create a mock response object for it. To set the response as the return value for that final ‘start_call’ we could do this: mock_backend.get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value = mock_response We can do that in a slightly nicer way using the *note configure_mock(): 40cd. method to directly set the return value for us: >>> something = Something() >>> mock_response = Mock(spec=open) >>> mock_backend = Mock() >>> config = {'get_endpoint.return_value.create_call.return_value.start_call.return_value': mock_response} >>> mock_backend.configure_mock(**config) With these we monkey patch the “mock backend” in place and can make the real call: >>> something.backend = mock_backend >>> something.method() Using *note mock_calls: 40d0. we can check the chained call with a single assert. A chained call is several calls in one line of code, so there will be several entries in ‘mock_calls’. We can use *note call.call_list(): 4107. to create this list of calls for us: >>> chained = call.get_endpoint('foobar').create_call('spam', 'eggs').start_call() >>> call_list = chained.call_list() >>> assert mock_backend.mock_calls == call_list  File: python.info, Node: Partial mocking, Next: Mocking a Generator Method, Prev: Mocking chained calls, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.17 Partial mocking ......................... In some tests I wanted to mock out a call to *note datetime.date.today(): 1495. to return a known date, but I didn’t want to prevent the code under test from creating new date objects. Unfortunately *note datetime.date: 1cd. is written in C, and so I couldn’t just monkey-patch out the static *note datetime.date.today(): 1495. method. I found a simple way of doing this that involved effectively wrapping the date class with a mock, but passing through calls to the constructor to the real class (and returning real instances). The *note patch decorator: e8b. is used here to mock out the ‘date’ class in the module under test. The *note side_effect: 40c4. attribute on the mock date class is then set to a lambda function that returns a real date. When the mock date class is called a real date will be constructed and returned by ‘side_effect’. >>> from datetime import date >>> with patch('mymodule.date') as mock_date: ... mock_date.today.return_value = date(2010, 10, 8) ... mock_date.side_effect = lambda *args, **kw: date(*args, **kw) ... ... assert mymodule.date.today() == date(2010, 10, 8) ... assert mymodule.date(2009, 6, 8) == date(2009, 6, 8) Note that we don’t patch *note datetime.date: 1cd. globally, we patch ‘date’ in the module that 'uses' it. See *note where to patch: 40c5. When ‘date.today()’ is called a known date is returned, but calls to the ‘date(...)’ constructor still return normal dates. Without this you can find yourself having to calculate an expected result using exactly the same algorithm as the code under test, which is a classic testing anti-pattern. Calls to the date constructor are recorded in the ‘mock_date’ attributes (‘call_count’ and friends) which may also be useful for your tests. An alternative way of dealing with mocking dates, or other builtin classes, is discussed in this blog entry(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://williambert.online/2011/07/how-to-unit-testing-in-django-with-mocking-and-patching/  File: python.info, Node: Mocking a Generator Method, Next: Applying the same patch to every test method, Prev: Partial mocking, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.18 Mocking a Generator Method .................................... A Python generator is a function or method that uses the *note yield: 9cd. statement to return a series of values when iterated over (1). A generator method / function is called to return the generator object. It is the generator object that is then iterated over. The protocol method for iteration is *note __iter__(): 1cc1, so we can mock this using a *note MagicMock: e8a. Here’s an example class with an “iter” method implemented as a generator: >>> class Foo: ... def iter(self): ... for i in [1, 2, 3]: ... yield i ... >>> foo = Foo() >>> list(foo.iter()) [1, 2, 3] How would we mock this class, and in particular its “iter” method? To configure the values returned from the iteration (implicit in the call to *note list: 60d.), we need to configure the object returned by the call to ‘foo.iter()’. >>> mock_foo = MagicMock() >>> mock_foo.iter.return_value = iter([1, 2, 3]) >>> list(mock_foo.iter()) [1, 2, 3] ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) There are also generator expressions and more advanced uses (http://www.dabeaz.com/coroutines/index.html) of generators, but we aren’t concerned about them here. A very good introduction to generators and how powerful they are is: Generator Tricks for Systems Programmers (http://www.dabeaz.com/generators/).  File: python.info, Node: Applying the same patch to every test method, Next: Mocking Unbound Methods, Prev: Mocking a Generator Method, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.19 Applying the same patch to every test method ...................................................... If you want several patches in place for multiple test methods the obvious way is to apply the patch decorators to every method. This can feel like unnecessary repetition. Instead, you can use *note patch(): e8b. (in all its various forms) as a class decorator. This applies the patches to all test methods on the class. A test method is identified by methods whose names start with ‘test’: >>> @patch('mymodule.SomeClass') ... class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... ... def test_one(self, MockSomeClass): ... self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass) ... ... def test_two(self, MockSomeClass): ... self.assertIs(mymodule.SomeClass, MockSomeClass) ... ... def not_a_test(self): ... return 'something' ... >>> MyTest('test_one').test_one() >>> MyTest('test_two').test_two() >>> MyTest('test_two').not_a_test() 'something' An alternative way of managing patches is to use the *note patch methods; start and stop: 40f8. These allow you to move the patching into your ‘setUp’ and ‘tearDown’ methods. >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... def setUp(self): ... self.patcher = patch('mymodule.foo') ... self.mock_foo = self.patcher.start() ... ... def test_foo(self): ... self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo) ... ... def tearDown(self): ... self.patcher.stop() ... >>> MyTest('test_foo').run() If you use this technique you must ensure that the patching is “undone” by calling ‘stop’. This can be fiddlier than you might think, because if an exception is raised in the setUp then tearDown is not called. *note unittest.TestCase.addCleanup(): a81. makes this easier: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... def setUp(self): ... patcher = patch('mymodule.foo') ... self.addCleanup(patcher.stop) ... self.mock_foo = patcher.start() ... ... def test_foo(self): ... self.assertIs(mymodule.foo, self.mock_foo) ... >>> MyTest('test_foo').run()  File: python.info, Node: Mocking Unbound Methods, Next: Checking multiple calls with mock, Prev: Applying the same patch to every test method, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.20 Mocking Unbound Methods ................................. Whilst writing tests today I needed to patch an 'unbound method' (patching the method on the class rather than on the instance). I needed self to be passed in as the first argument because I want to make asserts about which objects were calling this particular method. The issue is that you can’t patch with a mock for this, because if you replace an unbound method with a mock it doesn’t become a bound method when fetched from the instance, and so it doesn’t get self passed in. The workaround is to patch the unbound method with a real function instead. The *note patch(): e8b. decorator makes it so simple to patch out methods with a mock that having to create a real function becomes a nuisance. If you pass ‘autospec=True’ to patch then it does the patching with a 'real' function object. This function object has the same signature as the one it is replacing, but delegates to a mock under the hood. You still get your mock auto-created in exactly the same way as before. What it means though, is that if you use it to patch out an unbound method on a class the mocked function will be turned into a bound method if it is fetched from an instance. It will have ‘self’ passed in as the first argument, which is exactly what I wanted: >>> class Foo: ... def foo(self): ... pass ... >>> with patch.object(Foo, 'foo', autospec=True) as mock_foo: ... mock_foo.return_value = 'foo' ... foo = Foo() ... foo.foo() ... 'foo' >>> mock_foo.assert_called_once_with(foo) If we don’t use ‘autospec=True’ then the unbound method is patched out with a Mock instance instead, and isn’t called with ‘self’.  File: python.info, Node: Checking multiple calls with mock, Next: Coping with mutable arguments, Prev: Mocking Unbound Methods, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.21 Checking multiple calls with mock ........................................... mock has a nice API for making assertions about how your mock objects are used. >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.foo_bar.return_value = None >>> mock.foo_bar('baz', spam='eggs') >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_with('baz', spam='eggs') If your mock is only being called once you can use the *note assert_called_once_with(): 40ce. method that also asserts that the *note call_count: 40d7. is one. >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs') >>> mock.foo_bar() >>> mock.foo_bar.assert_called_once_with('baz', spam='eggs') Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected 'foo_bar' to be called once. Called 2 times. Calls: [call('baz', spam='eggs'), call()]. Both ‘assert_called_with’ and ‘assert_called_once_with’ make assertions about the 'most recent' call. If your mock is going to be called several times, and you want to make assertions about 'all' those calls you can use *note call_args_list: 40d8.: >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock(1, 2, 3) >>> mock(4, 5, 6) >>> mock() >>> mock.call_args_list [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()] The *note call: 19cd. helper makes it easy to make assertions about these calls. You can build up a list of expected calls and compare it to ‘call_args_list’. This looks remarkably similar to the repr of the ‘call_args_list’: >>> expected = [call(1, 2, 3), call(4, 5, 6), call()] >>> mock.call_args_list == expected True  File: python.info, Node: Coping with mutable arguments, Next: Nesting Patches, Prev: Checking multiple calls with mock, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.22 Coping with mutable arguments ....................................... Another situation is rare, but can bite you, is when your mock is called with mutable arguments. ‘call_args’ and ‘call_args_list’ store 'references' to the arguments. If the arguments are mutated by the code under test then you can no longer make assertions about what the values were when the mock was called. Here’s some example code that shows the problem. Imagine the following functions defined in ‘mymodule’: def frob(val): pass def grob(val): "First frob and then clear val" frob(val) val.clear() When we try to test that ‘grob’ calls ‘frob’ with the correct argument look what happens: >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob: ... val = {6} ... mymodule.grob(val) ... >>> val set() >>> mock_frob.assert_called_with({6}) Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected: (({6},), {}) Called with: ((set(),), {}) One possibility would be for mock to copy the arguments you pass in. This could then cause problems if you do assertions that rely on object identity for equality. Here’s one solution that uses the *note side_effect: 40c4. functionality. If you provide a ‘side_effect’ function for a mock then ‘side_effect’ will be called with the same args as the mock. This gives us an opportunity to copy the arguments and store them for later assertions. In this example I’m using 'another' mock to store the arguments so that I can use the mock methods for doing the assertion. Again a helper function sets this up for me. >>> from copy import deepcopy >>> from unittest.mock import Mock, patch, DEFAULT >>> def copy_call_args(mock): ... new_mock = Mock() ... def side_effect(*args, **kwargs): ... args = deepcopy(args) ... kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs) ... new_mock(*args, **kwargs) ... return DEFAULT ... mock.side_effect = side_effect ... return new_mock ... >>> with patch('mymodule.frob') as mock_frob: ... new_mock = copy_call_args(mock_frob) ... val = {6} ... mymodule.grob(val) ... >>> new_mock.assert_called_with({6}) >>> new_mock.call_args call({6}) ‘copy_call_args’ is called with the mock that will be called. It returns a new mock that we do the assertion on. The ‘side_effect’ function makes a copy of the args and calls our ‘new_mock’ with the copy. Note: If your mock is only going to be used once there is an easier way of checking arguments at the point they are called. You can simply do the checking inside a ‘side_effect’ function. >>> def side_effect(arg): ... assert arg == {6} ... >>> mock = Mock(side_effect=side_effect) >>> mock({6}) >>> mock(set()) Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError An alternative approach is to create a subclass of *note Mock: a4b. or *note MagicMock: e8a. that copies (using *note copy.deepcopy(): b6e.) the arguments. Here’s an example implementation: >>> from copy import deepcopy >>> class CopyingMock(MagicMock): ... def __call__(self, /, *args, **kwargs): ... args = deepcopy(args) ... kwargs = deepcopy(kwargs) ... return super().__call__(*args, **kwargs) ... >>> c = CopyingMock(return_value=None) >>> arg = set() >>> c(arg) >>> arg.add(1) >>> c.assert_called_with(set()) >>> c.assert_called_with(arg) Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: expected call not found. Expected: mock({1}) Actual: mock(set()) >>> c.foo <CopyingMock name='mock.foo' id='...'> When you subclass ‘Mock’ or ‘MagicMock’ all dynamically created attributes, and the ‘return_value’ will use your subclass automatically. That means all children of a ‘CopyingMock’ will also have the type ‘CopyingMock’.  File: python.info, Node: Nesting Patches, Next: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock, Prev: Coping with mutable arguments, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.23 Nesting Patches ......................... Using patch as a context manager is nice, but if you do multiple patches you can end up with nested with statements indenting further and further to the right: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... ... def test_foo(self): ... with patch('mymodule.Foo') as mock_foo: ... with patch('mymodule.Bar') as mock_bar: ... with patch('mymodule.Spam') as mock_spam: ... assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo ... assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar ... assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam ... >>> original = mymodule.Foo >>> MyTest('test_foo').test_foo() >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original With unittest ‘cleanup’ functions and the *note patch methods; start and stop: 40f8. we can achieve the same effect without the nested indentation. A simple helper method, ‘create_patch’, puts the patch in place and returns the created mock for us: >>> class MyTest(unittest.TestCase): ... ... def create_patch(self, name): ... patcher = patch(name) ... thing = patcher.start() ... self.addCleanup(patcher.stop) ... return thing ... ... def test_foo(self): ... mock_foo = self.create_patch('mymodule.Foo') ... mock_bar = self.create_patch('mymodule.Bar') ... mock_spam = self.create_patch('mymodule.Spam') ... ... assert mymodule.Foo is mock_foo ... assert mymodule.Bar is mock_bar ... assert mymodule.Spam is mock_spam ... >>> original = mymodule.Foo >>> MyTest('test_foo').run() >>> assert mymodule.Foo is original  File: python.info, Node: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock, Next: Mock subclasses and their attributes, Prev: Nesting Patches, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.24 Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock ............................................. You may want to mock a dictionary, or other container object, recording all access to it whilst having it still behave like a dictionary. We can do this with *note MagicMock: e8a, which will behave like a dictionary, and using *note side_effect: 40c4. to delegate dictionary access to a real underlying dictionary that is under our control. When the *note __getitem__(): 285. and *note __setitem__(): 12be. methods of our ‘MagicMock’ are called (normal dictionary access) then ‘side_effect’ is called with the key (and in the case of ‘__setitem__’ the value too). We can also control what is returned. After the ‘MagicMock’ has been used we can use attributes like *note call_args_list: 40d8. to assert about how the dictionary was used: >>> my_dict = {'a': 1, 'b': 2, 'c': 3} >>> def getitem(name): ... return my_dict[name] ... >>> def setitem(name, val): ... my_dict[name] = val ... >>> mock = MagicMock() >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem Note: An alternative to using ‘MagicMock’ is to use ‘Mock’ and 'only' provide the magic methods you specifically want: >>> mock = Mock() >>> mock.__getitem__ = Mock(side_effect=getitem) >>> mock.__setitem__ = Mock(side_effect=setitem) A 'third' option is to use ‘MagicMock’ but passing in ‘dict’ as the 'spec' (or 'spec_set') argument so that the ‘MagicMock’ created only has dictionary magic methods available: >>> mock = MagicMock(spec_set=dict) >>> mock.__getitem__.side_effect = getitem >>> mock.__setitem__.side_effect = setitem With these side effect functions in place, the ‘mock’ will behave like a normal dictionary but recording the access. It even raises a *note KeyError: 33f. if you try to access a key that doesn’t exist. >>> mock['a'] 1 >>> mock['c'] 3 >>> mock['d'] Traceback (most recent call last): ... KeyError: 'd' >>> mock['b'] = 'fish' >>> mock['d'] = 'eggs' >>> mock['b'] 'fish' >>> mock['d'] 'eggs' After it has been used you can make assertions about the access using the normal mock methods and attributes: >>> mock.__getitem__.call_args_list [call('a'), call('c'), call('d'), call('b'), call('d')] >>> mock.__setitem__.call_args_list [call('b', 'fish'), call('d', 'eggs')] >>> my_dict {'a': 1, 'b': 'fish', 'c': 3, 'd': 'eggs'}  File: python.info, Node: Mock subclasses and their attributes, Next: Mocking imports with patch dict, Prev: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.25 Mock subclasses and their attributes .............................................. There are various reasons why you might want to subclass *note Mock: a4b. One reason might be to add helper methods. Here’s a silly example: >>> class MyMock(MagicMock): ... def has_been_called(self): ... return self.called ... >>> mymock = MyMock(return_value=None) >>> mymock <MyMock id='...'> >>> mymock.has_been_called() False >>> mymock() >>> mymock.has_been_called() True The standard behaviour for ‘Mock’ instances is that attributes and the return value mocks are of the same type as the mock they are accessed on. This ensures that ‘Mock’ attributes are ‘Mocks’ and ‘MagicMock’ attributes are ‘MagicMocks’ (1). So if you’re subclassing to add helper methods then they’ll also be available on the attributes and return value mock of instances of your subclass. >>> mymock.foo <MyMock name='mock.foo' id='...'> >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called() False >>> mymock.foo() <MyMock name='mock.foo()' id='...'> >>> mymock.foo.has_been_called() True Sometimes this is inconvenient. For example, one user(2) is subclassing mock to created a Twisted adaptor(3). Having this applied to attributes too actually causes errors. ‘Mock’ (in all its flavours) uses a method called ‘_get_child_mock’ to create these “sub-mocks” for attributes and return values. You can prevent your subclass being used for attributes by overriding this method. The signature is that it takes arbitrary keyword arguments (‘**kwargs’) which are then passed onto the mock constructor: >>> class Subclass(MagicMock): ... def _get_child_mock(self, /, **kwargs): ... return MagicMock(**kwargs) ... >>> mymock = Subclass() >>> mymock.foo <MagicMock name='mock.foo' id='...'> >>> assert isinstance(mymock, Subclass) >>> assert not isinstance(mymock.foo, Subclass) >>> assert not isinstance(mymock(), Subclass) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) An exception to this rule are the non-callable mocks. Attributes use the callable variant because otherwise non-callable mocks couldn’t have callable methods. (2) https://code.google.com/archive/p/mock/issues/105 (3) https://twisted.org/documents/11.0.0/api/twisted.python.components.html  File: python.info, Node: Mocking imports with patch dict, Next: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions, Prev: Mock subclasses and their attributes, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.26 Mocking imports with patch.dict ......................................... One situation where mocking can be hard is where you have a local import inside a function. These are harder to mock because they aren’t using an object from the module namespace that we can patch out. Generally local imports are to be avoided. They are sometimes done to prevent circular dependencies, for which there is 'usually' a much better way to solve the problem (refactor the code) or to prevent “up front costs” by delaying the import. This can also be solved in better ways than an unconditional local import (store the module as a class or module attribute and only do the import on first use). That aside there is a way to use ‘mock’ to affect the results of an import. Importing fetches an 'object' from the *note sys.modules: 1550. dictionary. Note that it fetches an 'object', which need not be a module. Importing a module for the first time results in a module object being put in ‘sys.modules’, so usually when you import something you get a module back. This need not be the case however. This means you can use *note patch.dict(): 19f2. to 'temporarily' put a mock in place in *note sys.modules: 1550. Any imports whilst this patch is active will fetch the mock. When the patch is complete (the decorated function exits, the with statement body is complete or ‘patcher.stop()’ is called) then whatever was there previously will be restored safely. Here’s an example that mocks out the ‘fooble’ module. >>> import sys >>> mock = Mock() >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}): ... import fooble ... fooble.blob() ... <Mock name='mock.blob()' id='...'> >>> assert 'fooble' not in sys.modules >>> mock.blob.assert_called_once_with() As you can see the ‘import fooble’ succeeds, but on exit there is no ‘fooble’ left in *note sys.modules: 1550. This also works for the ‘from module import name’ form: >>> mock = Mock() >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', {'fooble': mock}): ... from fooble import blob ... blob.blip() ... <Mock name='mock.blob.blip()' id='...'> >>> mock.blob.blip.assert_called_once_with() With slightly more work you can also mock package imports: >>> mock = Mock() >>> modules = {'package': mock, 'package.module': mock.module} >>> with patch.dict('sys.modules', modules): ... from package.module import fooble ... fooble() ... <Mock name='mock.module.fooble()' id='...'> >>> mock.module.fooble.assert_called_once_with()  File: python.info, Node: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions, Next: More complex argument matching, Prev: Mocking imports with patch dict, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.27 Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions .................................................................. The *note Mock: a4b. class allows you to track the 'order' of method calls on your mock objects through the *note method_calls: 40d2. attribute. This doesn’t allow you to track the order of calls between separate mock objects, however we can use *note mock_calls: 40d0. to achieve the same effect. Because mocks track calls to child mocks in ‘mock_calls’, and accessing an arbitrary attribute of a mock creates a child mock, we can create our separate mocks from a parent one. Calls to those child mock will then all be recorded, in order, in the ‘mock_calls’ of the parent: >>> manager = Mock() >>> mock_foo = manager.foo >>> mock_bar = manager.bar >>> mock_foo.something() <Mock name='mock.foo.something()' id='...'> >>> mock_bar.other.thing() <Mock name='mock.bar.other.thing()' id='...'> >>> manager.mock_calls [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()] We can then assert about the calls, including the order, by comparing with the ‘mock_calls’ attribute on the manager mock: >>> expected_calls = [call.foo.something(), call.bar.other.thing()] >>> manager.mock_calls == expected_calls True If ‘patch’ is creating, and putting in place, your mocks then you can attach them to a manager mock using the *note attach_mock(): 160f. method. After attaching calls will be recorded in ‘mock_calls’ of the manager. >>> manager = MagicMock() >>> with patch('mymodule.Class1') as MockClass1: ... with patch('mymodule.Class2') as MockClass2: ... manager.attach_mock(MockClass1, 'MockClass1') ... manager.attach_mock(MockClass2, 'MockClass2') ... MockClass1().foo() ... MockClass2().bar() <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass1().foo()' id='...'> <MagicMock name='mock.MockClass2().bar()' id='...'> >>> manager.mock_calls [call.MockClass1(), call.MockClass1().foo(), call.MockClass2(), call.MockClass2().bar()] If many calls have been made, but you’re only interested in a particular sequence of them then an alternative is to use the *note assert_has_calls(): 16a8. method. This takes a list of calls (constructed with the *note call: 19cd. object). If that sequence of calls are in *note mock_calls: 40d0. then the assert succeeds. >>> m = MagicMock() >>> m().foo().bar().baz() <MagicMock name='mock().foo().bar().baz()' id='...'> >>> m.one().two().three() <MagicMock name='mock.one().two().three()' id='...'> >>> calls = call.one().two().three().call_list() >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls) Even though the chained call ‘m.one().two().three()’ aren’t the only calls that have been made to the mock, the assert still succeeds. Sometimes a mock may have several calls made to it, and you are only interested in asserting about 'some' of those calls. You may not even care about the order. In this case you can pass ‘any_order=True’ to ‘assert_has_calls’: >>> m = MagicMock() >>> m(1), m.two(2, 3), m.seven(7), m.fifty('50') (...) >>> calls = [call.fifty('50'), call(1), call.seven(7)] >>> m.assert_has_calls(calls, any_order=True)  File: python.info, Node: More complex argument matching, Prev: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions, Up: Further Examples 5.27.7.28 More complex argument matching ........................................ Using the same basic concept as *note ANY: 19cb. we can implement matchers to do more complex assertions on objects used as arguments to mocks. Suppose we expect some object to be passed to a mock that by default compares equal based on object identity (which is the Python default for user defined classes). To use *note assert_called_with(): 1a20. we would need to pass in the exact same object. If we are only interested in some of the attributes of this object then we can create a matcher that will check these attributes for us. You can see in this example how a ‘standard’ call to ‘assert_called_with’ isn’t sufficient: >>> class Foo: ... def __init__(self, a, b): ... self.a, self.b = a, b ... >>> mock = Mock(return_value=None) >>> mock(Foo(1, 2)) >>> mock.assert_called_with(Foo(1, 2)) Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: expected call not found. Expected: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>) Actual: mock(<__main__.Foo object at 0x...>) A comparison function for our ‘Foo’ class might look something like this: >>> def compare(self, other): ... if not type(self) == type(other): ... return False ... if self.a != other.a: ... return False ... if self.b != other.b: ... return False ... return True ... And a matcher object that can use comparison functions like this for its equality operation would look something like this: >>> class Matcher: ... def __init__(self, compare, some_obj): ... self.compare = compare ... self.some_obj = some_obj ... def __eq__(self, other): ... return self.compare(self.some_obj, other) ... Putting all this together: >>> match_foo = Matcher(compare, Foo(1, 2)) >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_foo) The ‘Matcher’ is instantiated with our compare function and the ‘Foo’ object we want to compare against. In ‘assert_called_with’ the ‘Matcher’ equality method will be called, which compares the object the mock was called with against the one we created our matcher with. If they match then ‘assert_called_with’ passes, and if they don’t an *note AssertionError: 6a5. is raised: >>> match_wrong = Matcher(compare, Foo(3, 4)) >>> mock.assert_called_with(match_wrong) Traceback (most recent call last): ... AssertionError: Expected: ((<Matcher object at 0x...>,), {}) Called with: ((<Foo object at 0x...>,), {}) With a bit of tweaking you could have the comparison function raise the *note AssertionError: 6a5. directly and provide a more useful failure message. As of version 1.5, the Python testing library PyHamcrest(1) provides similar functionality, that may be useful here, in the form of its equality matcher (hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality(2)). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/ (2) https://pyhamcrest.readthedocs.io/en/release-1.8/integration/#module-hamcrest.library.integration.match_equality  File: python.info, Node: test — Regression tests package for Python, Next: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite, Prev: unittest mock — getting started, Up: Development Tools 5.27.8 ‘test’ — Regression tests package for Python --------------------------------------------------- Note: The *note test: e2. package is meant for internal use by Python only. It is documented for the benefit of the core developers of Python. Any use of this package outside of Python’s standard library is discouraged as code mentioned here can change or be removed without notice between releases of Python. __________________________________________________________________ The *note test: e2. package contains all regression tests for Python as well as the modules *note test.support: e4. and *note test.regrtest: e3. *note test.support: e4. is used to enhance your tests while *note test.regrtest: e3. drives the testing suite. Each module in the *note test: e2. package whose name starts with ‘test_’ is a testing suite for a specific module or feature. All new tests should be written using the *note unittest: 106. or *note doctest: 3a. module. Some older tests are written using a “traditional” testing style that compares output printed to ‘sys.stdout’; this style of test is considered deprecated. See also ........ Module *note unittest: 106. Writing PyUnit regression tests. Module *note doctest: 3a. Tests embedded in documentation strings. * Menu: * Writing Unit Tests for the test package:: * Running tests using the command-line interface::  File: python.info, Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package, Next: Running tests using the command-line interface, Up: test — Regression tests package for Python 5.27.8.1 Writing Unit Tests for the ‘test’ package .................................................. It is preferred that tests that use the *note unittest: 106. module follow a few guidelines. One is to name the test module by starting it with ‘test_’ and end it with the name of the module being tested. The test methods in the test module should start with ‘test_’ and end with a description of what the method is testing. This is needed so that the methods are recognized by the test driver as test methods. Also, no documentation string for the method should be included. A comment (such as ‘# Tests function returns only True or False’) should be used to provide documentation for test methods. This is done because documentation strings get printed out if they exist and thus what test is being run is not stated. A basic boilerplate is often used: import unittest from test import support class MyTestCase1(unittest.TestCase): # Only use setUp() and tearDown() if necessary def setUp(self): ... code to execute in preparation for tests ... def tearDown(self): ... code to execute to clean up after tests ... def test_feature_one(self): # Test feature one. ... testing code ... def test_feature_two(self): # Test feature two. ... testing code ... ... more test methods ... class MyTestCase2(unittest.TestCase): ... same structure as MyTestCase1 ... ... more test classes ... if __name__ == '__main__': unittest.main() This code pattern allows the testing suite to be run by *note test.regrtest: e3, on its own as a script that supports the *note unittest: 106. CLI, or via the ‘python -m unittest’ CLI. The goal for regression testing is to try to break code. This leads to a few guidelines to be followed: * The testing suite should exercise all classes, functions, and constants. This includes not just the external API that is to be presented to the outside world but also “private” code. * Whitebox testing (examining the code being tested when the tests are being written) is preferred. Blackbox testing (testing only the published user interface) is not complete enough to make sure all boundary and edge cases are tested. * Make sure all possible values are tested including invalid ones. This makes sure that not only all valid values are acceptable but also that improper values are handled correctly. * Exhaust as many code paths as possible. Test where branching occurs and thus tailor input to make sure as many different paths through the code are taken. * Add an explicit test for any bugs discovered for the tested code. This will make sure that the error does not crop up again if the code is changed in the future. * Make sure to clean up after your tests (such as close and remove all temporary files). * If a test is dependent on a specific condition of the operating system then verify the condition already exists before attempting the test. * Import as few modules as possible and do it as soon as possible. This minimizes external dependencies of tests and also minimizes possible anomalous behavior from side-effects of importing a module. * Try to maximize code reuse. On occasion, tests will vary by something as small as what type of input is used. Minimize code duplication by subclassing a basic test class with a class that specifies the input: class TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin: func = mySuperWhammyFunction def test_func(self): self.func(self.arg) class AcceptLists(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase): arg = [1, 2, 3] class AcceptStrings(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase): arg = 'abc' class AcceptTuples(TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin, unittest.TestCase): arg = (1, 2, 3) When using this pattern, remember that all classes that inherit from *note unittest.TestCase: 449. are run as tests. The ‘TestFuncAcceptsSequencesMixin’ class in the example above does not have any data and so can’t be run by itself, thus it does not inherit from *note unittest.TestCase: 449. See also ........ Test Driven Development A book by Kent Beck on writing tests before code.  File: python.info, Node: Running tests using the command-line interface, Prev: Writing Unit Tests for the test package, Up: test — Regression tests package for Python 5.27.8.2 Running tests using the command-line interface ....................................................... The *note test: e2. package can be run as a script to drive Python’s regression test suite, thanks to the *note -m: 5dd. option: ‘python -m test’. Under the hood, it uses *note test.regrtest: e3.; the call ‘python -m test.regrtest’ used in previous Python versions still works. Running the script by itself automatically starts running all regression tests in the *note test: e2. package. It does this by finding all modules in the package whose name starts with ‘test_’, importing them, and executing the function ‘test_main()’ if present or loading the tests via unittest.TestLoader.loadTestsFromModule if ‘test_main’ does not exist. The names of tests to execute may also be passed to the script. Specifying a single regression test (‘python -m test test_spam’) will minimize output and only print whether the test passed or failed. Running *note test: e2. directly allows what resources are available for tests to use to be set. You do this by using the ‘-u’ command-line option. Specifying ‘all’ as the value for the ‘-u’ option enables all possible resources: ‘python -m test -uall’. If all but one resource is desired (a more common case), a comma-separated list of resources that are not desired may be listed after ‘all’. The command ‘python -m test -uall,-audio,-largefile’ will run *note test: e2. with all resources except the ‘audio’ and ‘largefile’ resources. For a list of all resources and more command-line options, run ‘python -m test -h’. Some other ways to execute the regression tests depend on what platform the tests are being executed on. On Unix, you can run ‘make test’ at the top-level directory where Python was built. On Windows, executing ‘rt.bat’ from your ‘PCbuild’ directory will run all regression tests.  File: python.info, Node: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite, Next: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests, Prev: test — Regression tests package for Python, Up: Development Tools 5.27.9 ‘test.support’ — Utilities for the Python test suite ----------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support: e4. module provides support for Python’s regression test suite. Note: *note test.support: e4. is not a public module. It is documented here to help Python developers write tests. The API of this module is subject to change without backwards compatibility concerns between releases. This module defines the following exceptions: -- Exception: test.support.TestFailed Exception to be raised when a test fails. This is deprecated in favor of *note unittest: 106.-based tests and *note unittest.TestCase: 449.’s assertion methods. -- Exception: test.support.ResourceDenied Subclass of *note unittest.SkipTest: fdf. Raised when a resource (such as a network connection) is not available. Raised by the *note requires(): 4137. function. The *note test.support: e4. module defines the following constants: -- Data: test.support.verbose ‘True’ when verbose output is enabled. Should be checked when more detailed information is desired about a running test. 'verbose' is set by *note test.regrtest: e3. -- Data: test.support.is_jython ‘True’ if the running interpreter is Jython. -- Data: test.support.is_android ‘True’ if the system is Android. -- Data: test.support.unix_shell Path for shell if not on Windows; otherwise ‘None’. -- Data: test.support.LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT Timeout in seconds for tests using a network server listening on the network local loopback interface like ‘127.0.0.1’. The timeout is long enough to prevent test failure: it takes into account that the client and the server can run in different threads or even different processes. The timeout should be long enough for *note connect(): da2, *note recv(): da3. and *note send(): da6. methods of *note socket.socket: da0. Its default value is 5 seconds. See also *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19b4. -- Data: test.support.INTERNET_TIMEOUT Timeout in seconds for network requests going to the internet. The timeout is short enough to prevent a test to wait for too long if the internet request is blocked for whatever reason. Usually, a timeout using *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19b4. should not mark a test as failed, but skip the test instead: see *note transient_internet(): 413c. Its default value is 1 minute. See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 19b3. -- Data: test.support.SHORT_TIMEOUT Timeout in seconds to mark a test as failed if the test takes “too long”. The timeout value depends on the regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line option. If a test using *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18ae. starts to fail randomly on slow buildbots, use *note LONG_TIMEOUT: 19b5. instead. Its default value is 30 seconds. -- Data: test.support.LONG_TIMEOUT Timeout in seconds to detect when a test hangs. It is long enough to reduce the risk of test failure on the slowest Python buildbots. It should not be used to mark a test as failed if the test takes “too long”. The timeout value depends on the regrtest ‘--timeout’ command line option. Its default value is 5 minutes. See also *note LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT: 19b3, *note INTERNET_TIMEOUT: 19b4. and *note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18ae. -- Data: test.support.PGO Set when tests can be skipped when they are not useful for PGO. -- Data: test.support.PIPE_MAX_SIZE A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS pipe buffer size, to make writes blocking. -- Data: test.support.Py_DEBUG ‘True’ if Python was built with the *note Py_DEBUG: 4140. macro defined, that is, if Python was *note built in debug mode: 1fb. Added in version 3.12. -- Data: test.support.SOCK_MAX_SIZE A constant that is likely larger than the underlying OS socket buffer size, to make writes blocking. -- Data: test.support.TEST_SUPPORT_DIR Set to the top level directory that contains *note test.support: e4. -- Data: test.support.TEST_HOME_DIR Set to the top level directory for the test package. -- Data: test.support.TEST_DATA_DIR Set to the ‘data’ directory within the test package. -- Data: test.support.MAX_Py_ssize_t Set to *note sys.maxsize: 11b7. for big memory tests. -- Data: test.support.max_memuse Set by *note set_memlimit(): 4147. as the memory limit for big memory tests. Limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 4145. -- Data: test.support.real_max_memuse Set by *note set_memlimit(): 4147. as the memory limit for big memory tests. Not limited by *note MAX_Py_ssize_t: 4145. -- Data: test.support.MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS Set to ‘True’ if Python is built without docstrings (the ‘WITH_DOC_STRINGS’ macro is not defined). See the *note configure -without-doc-strings: 1db1. option. See also the *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 414a. variable. -- Data: test.support.HAVE_DOCSTRINGS Set to ‘True’ if function docstrings are available. See the *note python -OO: db4. option, which strips docstrings of functions implemented in Python. See also the *note MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS: 4149. variable. -- Data: test.support.TEST_HTTP_URL Define the URL of a dedicated HTTP server for the network tests. -- Data: test.support.ALWAYS_EQ Object that is equal to anything. Used to test mixed type comparison. -- Data: test.support.NEVER_EQ Object that is not equal to anything (even to *note ALWAYS_EQ: 414c.). Used to test mixed type comparison. -- Data: test.support.LARGEST Object that is greater than anything (except itself). Used to test mixed type comparison. -- Data: test.support.SMALLEST Object that is less than anything (except itself). Used to test mixed type comparison. The *note test.support: e4. module defines the following functions: -- Function: test.support.busy_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *, error=True) Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop. After 'timeout' seconds, raise an *note AssertionError: 6a5. if 'error' is true, or just stop the loop if 'error' is false. Example: for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT): if check(): break Example of error=False usage: for _ in support.busy_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False): if check(): break else: raise RuntimeError('my custom error') -- Function: test.support.sleeping_retry (timeout, err_msg=None, /, *, init_delay=0.010, max_delay=1.0, error=True) Wait strategy that applies exponential backoff. Run the loop body until ‘break’ stops the loop. Sleep at each loop iteration, but not at the first iteration. The sleep delay is doubled at each iteration (up to 'max_delay' seconds). See *note busy_retry(): 4150. documentation for the parameters usage. Example raising an exception after SHORT_TIMEOUT seconds: for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT): if check(): break Example of error=False usage: for _ in support.sleeping_retry(support.SHORT_TIMEOUT, error=False): if check(): break else: raise RuntimeError('my custom error') -- Function: test.support.is_resource_enabled (resource) Return ‘True’ if 'resource' is enabled and available. The list of available resources is only set when *note test.regrtest: e3. is executing the tests. -- Function: test.support.python_is_optimized () Return ‘True’ if Python was not built with ‘-O0’ or ‘-Og’. -- Function: test.support.with_pymalloc () Return ‘_testcapi.WITH_PYMALLOC’. -- Function: test.support.requires (resource, msg=None) Raise *note ResourceDenied: 4136. if 'resource' is not available. 'msg' is the argument to *note ResourceDenied: 4136. if it is raised. Always returns ‘True’ if called by a function whose ‘__name__’ is ‘'__main__'’. Used when tests are executed by *note test.regrtest: e3. -- Function: test.support.sortdict (dict) Return a repr of 'dict' with keys sorted. -- Function: test.support.findfile (filename, subdir=None) Return the path to the file named 'filename'. If no match is found 'filename' is returned. This does not equal a failure since it could be the path to the file. Setting 'subdir' indicates a relative path to use to find the file rather than looking directly in the path directories. -- Function: test.support.get_pagesize () Get size of a page in bytes. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: test.support.setswitchinterval (interval) Set the *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 94a. to the given 'interval'. Defines a minimum interval for Android systems to prevent the system from hanging. -- Function: test.support.check_impl_detail (**guards) Use this check to guard CPython’s implementation-specific tests or to run them only on the implementations guarded by the arguments. This function returns ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on the host platform. Example usage: check_impl_detail() # Only on CPython (default). check_impl_detail(jython=True) # Only on Jython. check_impl_detail(cpython=False) # Everywhere except CPython. -- Function: test.support.set_memlimit (limit) Set the values for *note max_memuse: 4146. and *note real_max_memuse: 4148. for big memory tests. -- Function: test.support.record_original_stdout (stdout) Store the value from 'stdout'. It is meant to hold the stdout at the time the regrtest began. -- Function: test.support.get_original_stdout () Return the original stdout set by *note record_original_stdout(): 415a. or ‘sys.stdout’ if it’s not set. -- Function: test.support.args_from_interpreter_flags () Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current settings in ‘sys.flags’ and ‘sys.warnoptions’. -- Function: test.support.optim_args_from_interpreter_flags () Return a list of command line arguments reproducing the current optimization settings in ‘sys.flags’. -- Function: test.support.captured_stdin () -- Function: test.support.captured_stdout () -- Function: test.support.captured_stderr () A context managers that temporarily replaces the named stream with *note io.StringIO: f22. object. Example use with output streams: with captured_stdout() as stdout, captured_stderr() as stderr: print("hello") print("error", file=sys.stderr) assert stdout.getvalue() == "hello\n" assert stderr.getvalue() == "error\n" Example use with input stream: with captured_stdin() as stdin: stdin.write('hello\n') stdin.seek(0) # call test code that consumes from sys.stdin captured = input() self.assertEqual(captured, "hello") -- Function: test.support.disable_faulthandler () A context manager that temporary disables *note faulthandler: 58. -- Function: test.support.gc_collect () Force as many objects as possible to be collected. This is needed because timely deallocation is not guaranteed by the garbage collector. This means that ‘__del__’ methods may be called later than expected and weakrefs may remain alive for longer than expected. -- Function: test.support.disable_gc () A context manager that disables the garbage collector on entry. On exit, the garbage collector is restored to its prior state. -- Function: test.support.swap_attr (obj, attr, new_val) Context manager to swap out an attribute with a new object. Usage: with swap_attr(obj, "attr", 5): ... This will set ‘obj.attr’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’ block, restoring the old value at the end of the block. If ‘attr’ doesn’t exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the block. The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to the target of the “as” clause, if there is one. -- Function: test.support.swap_item (obj, attr, new_val) Context manager to swap out an item with a new object. Usage: with swap_item(obj, "item", 5): ... This will set ‘obj["item"]’ to 5 for the duration of the ‘with’ block, restoring the old value at the end of the block. If ‘item’ doesn’t exist on ‘obj’, it will be created and then deleted at the end of the block. The old value (or ‘None’ if it doesn’t exist) will be assigned to the target of the “as” clause, if there is one. -- Function: test.support.flush_std_streams () Call the ‘flush()’ method on *note sys.stdout: ad6. and then on *note sys.stderr: 939. It can be used to make sure that the logs order is consistent before writing into stderr. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: test.support.print_warning (msg) Print a warning into *note sys.__stderr__: 4167. Format the message as: ‘f"Warning -- {msg}"’. If 'msg' is made of multiple lines, add ‘"Warning -- "’ prefix to each line. Added in version 3.9. -- Function: test.support.wait_process (pid, *, exitcode, timeout=None) Wait until process 'pid' completes and check that the process exit code is 'exitcode'. Raise an *note AssertionError: 6a5. if the process exit code is not equal to 'exitcode'. If the process runs longer than 'timeout' seconds (*note SHORT_TIMEOUT: 18ae. by default), kill the process and raise an *note AssertionError: 6a5. The timeout feature is not available on Windows. Added in version 3.9. -- Function: test.support.calcobjsize (fmt) Return the size of the *note PyObject: 334. whose structure members are defined by 'fmt'. The returned value includes the size of the Python object header and alignment. -- Function: test.support.calcvobjsize (fmt) Return the size of the *note PyVarObject: 416a. whose structure members are defined by 'fmt'. The returned value includes the size of the Python object header and alignment. -- Function: test.support.checksizeof (test, o, size) For testcase 'test', assert that the ‘sys.getsizeof’ for 'o' plus the GC header size equals 'size'. -- Function: @test.support.anticipate_failure (condition) A decorator to conditionally mark tests with *note unittest.expectedFailure(): 4083. Any use of this decorator should have an associated comment identifying the relevant tracker issue. -- Function: test.support.system_must_validate_cert (f) A decorator that skips the decorated test on TLS certification validation failures. -- Function: @test.support.run_with_locale (catstr, *locales) A decorator for running a function in a different locale, correctly resetting it after it has finished. 'catstr' is the locale category as a string (for example ‘"LC_ALL"’). The 'locales' passed will be tried sequentially, and the first valid locale will be used. -- Function: @test.support.run_with_tz (tz) A decorator for running a function in a specific timezone, correctly resetting it after it has finished. -- Function: @test.support.requires_freebsd_version (*min_version) Decorator for the minimum version when running test on FreeBSD. If the FreeBSD version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped. -- Function: @test.support.requires_linux_version (*min_version) Decorator for the minimum version when running test on Linux. If the Linux version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped. -- Function: @test.support.requires_mac_version (*min_version) Decorator for the minimum version when running test on macOS. If the macOS version is less than the minimum, the test is skipped. -- Function: @test.support.requires_gil_enabled Decorator for skipping tests on the free-threaded build. If the *note GIL: 159. is disabled, the test is skipped. -- Function: @test.support.requires_IEEE_754 Decorator for skipping tests on non-IEEE 754 platforms. -- Function: @test.support.requires_zlib Decorator for skipping tests if *note zlib: 133. doesn’t exist. -- Function: @test.support.requires_gzip Decorator for skipping tests if *note gzip: 67. doesn’t exist. -- Function: @test.support.requires_bz2 Decorator for skipping tests if *note bz2: 13. doesn’t exist. -- Function: @test.support.requires_lzma Decorator for skipping tests if *note lzma: 8a. doesn’t exist. -- Function: @test.support.requires_resource (resource) Decorator for skipping tests if 'resource' is not available. -- Function: @test.support.requires_docstrings Decorator for only running the test if *note HAVE_DOCSTRINGS: 414a. -- Function: @test.support.requires_limited_api Decorator for only running the test if *note Limited C API: 391. is available. -- Function: @test.support.cpython_only Decorator for tests only applicable to CPython. -- Function: @test.support.impl_detail (msg=None, **guards) Decorator for invoking *note check_impl_detail(): 4159. on 'guards'. If that returns ‘False’, then uses 'msg' as the reason for skipping the test. -- Function: @test.support.no_tracing Decorator to temporarily turn off tracing for the duration of the test. -- Function: @test.support.refcount_test Decorator for tests which involve reference counting. The decorator does not run the test if it is not run by CPython. Any trace function is unset for the duration of the test to prevent unexpected refcounts caused by the trace function. -- Function: @test.support.bigmemtest (size, memuse, dry_run=True) Decorator for bigmem tests. 'size' is a requested size for the test (in arbitrary, test-interpreted units.) 'memuse' is the number of bytes per unit for the test, or a good estimate of it. For example, a test that needs two byte buffers, of 4 GiB each, could be decorated with ‘@bigmemtest(size=_4G, memuse=2)’. The 'size' argument is normally passed to the decorated test method as an extra argument. If 'dry_run' is ‘True’, the value passed to the test method may be less than the requested value. If 'dry_run' is ‘False’, it means the test doesn’t support dummy runs when ‘-M’ is not specified. -- Function: @test.support.bigaddrspacetest Decorator for tests that fill the address space. -- Function: test.support.check_syntax_error (testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=None, offset=None) Test for syntax errors in 'statement' by attempting to compile 'statement'. 'testcase' is the *note unittest: 106. instance for the test. 'errtext' is the regular expression which should match the string representation of the raised *note SyntaxError: 18d. If 'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the exception. If 'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception. -- Function: test.support.open_urlresource (url, *args, **kw) Open 'url'. If open fails, raises *note TestFailed: 4135. -- Function: test.support.reap_children () Use this at the end of ‘test_main’ whenever sub-processes are started. This will help ensure that no extra children (zombies) stick around to hog resources and create problems when looking for refleaks. -- Function: test.support.get_attribute (obj, name) Get an attribute, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: fdf. if *note AttributeError: 348. is raised. -- Function: test.support.catch_unraisable_exception () Context manager catching unraisable exception using *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. Storing the exception value (‘cm.unraisable.exc_value’) creates a reference cycle. The reference cycle is broken explicitly when the context manager exits. Storing the object (‘cm.unraisable.object’) can resurrect it if it is set to an object which is being finalized. Exiting the context manager clears the stored object. Usage: with support.catch_unraisable_exception() as cm: # code creating an "unraisable exception" ... # check the unraisable exception: use cm.unraisable ... # cm.unraisable attribute no longer exists at this point # (to break a reference cycle) Added in version 3.8. -- Function: test.support.load_package_tests (pkg_dir, loader, standard_tests, pattern) Generic implementation of the *note unittest: 106. ‘load_tests’ protocol for use in test packages. 'pkg_dir' is the root directory of the package; 'loader', 'standard_tests', and 'pattern' are the arguments expected by ‘load_tests’. In simple cases, the test package’s ‘__init__.py’ can be the following: import os from test.support import load_package_tests def load_tests(*args): return load_package_tests(os.path.dirname(__file__), *args) -- Function: test.support.detect_api_mismatch (ref_api, other_api, *, ignore=()) Returns the set of attributes, functions or methods of 'ref_api' not found on 'other_api', except for a defined list of items to be ignored in this check specified in 'ignore'. By default this skips private attributes beginning with ‘_’ but includes all magic methods, i.e. those starting and ending in ‘__’. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: test.support.patch (test_instance, object_to_patch, attr_name, new_value) Override 'object_to_patch.attr_name' with 'new_value'. Also add cleanup procedure to 'test_instance' to restore 'object_to_patch' for 'attr_name'. The 'attr_name' should be a valid attribute for 'object_to_patch'. -- Function: test.support.run_in_subinterp (code) Run 'code' in subinterpreter. Raise *note unittest.SkipTest: fdf. if *note tracemalloc: ff. is enabled. -- Function: test.support.check_free_after_iterating (test, iter, cls, args=()) Assert instances of 'cls' are deallocated after iterating. -- Function: test.support.missing_compiler_executable (cmd_names=[]) Check for the existence of the compiler executables whose names are listed in 'cmd_names' or all the compiler executables when 'cmd_names' is empty and return the first missing executable or ‘None’ when none is found missing. -- Function: test.support.check__all__ (test_case, module, name_of_module=None, extra=(), not_exported=()) Assert that the ‘__all__’ variable of 'module' contains all public names. The module’s public names (its API) are detected automatically based on whether they match the public name convention and were defined in 'module'. The 'name_of_module' argument can specify (as a string or tuple thereof) what module(s) an API could be defined in order to be detected as a public API. One case for this is when 'module' imports part of its public API from other modules, possibly a C backend (like ‘csv’ and its ‘_csv’). The 'extra' argument can be a set of names that wouldn’t otherwise be automatically detected as “public”, like objects without a proper *note __module__: 2276. attribute. If provided, it will be added to the automatically detected ones. The 'not_exported' argument can be a set of names that must not be treated as part of the public API even though their names indicate otherwise. Example use: import bar import foo import unittest from test import support class MiscTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def test__all__(self): support.check__all__(self, foo) class OtherTestCase(unittest.TestCase): def test__all__(self): extra = {'BAR_CONST', 'FOO_CONST'} not_exported = {'baz'} # Undocumented name. # bar imports part of its API from _bar. support.check__all__(self, bar, ('bar', '_bar'), extra=extra, not_exported=not_exported) Added in version 3.6. -- Function: test.support.skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize () Skip tests if the ‘multiprocessing.synchronize’ module is missing, if there is no available semaphore implementation, or if creating a lock raises an *note OSError: 413. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: test.support.check_disallow_instantiation (test_case, tp, *args, **kwds) Assert that type 'tp' cannot be instantiated using 'args' and 'kwds'. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: test.support.adjust_int_max_str_digits (max_digits) This function returns a context manager that will change the global *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 17be. setting for the duration of the context to allow execution of test code that needs a different limit on the number of digits when converting between an integer and string. Added in version 3.11. The *note test.support: e4. module defines the following classes: -- Class: test.support.SuppressCrashReport A context manager used to try to prevent crash dialog popups on tests that are expected to crash a subprocess. On Windows, it disables Windows Error Reporting dialogs using SetErrorMode(1). On UNIX, *note resource.setrlimit(): 151d. is used to set *note resource.RLIMIT_CORE: 418f.’s soft limit to 0 to prevent coredump file creation. On both platforms, the old value is restored by *note __exit__(): 12f3. -- Class: test.support.SaveSignals Class to save and restore signal handlers registered by the Python signal handler. -- Method: save (self) Save the signal handlers to a dictionary mapping signal numbers to the current signal handler. -- Method: restore (self) Set the signal numbers from the *note save(): 4191. dictionary to the saved handler. -- Class: test.support.Matcher -- Method: matches (self, d, **kwargs) Try to match a single dict with the supplied arguments. -- Method: match_value (self, k, dv, v) Try to match a single stored value ('dv') with a supplied value ('v'). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/windows/desktop/ms680621.aspx  File: python.info, Node: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests, Next: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests, Prev: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite, Up: Development Tools 5.27.10 ‘test.support.socket_helper’ — Utilities for socket tests ----------------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.socket_helper: e9. module provides support for socket tests. Added in version 3.9. -- Data: test.support.socket_helper.IPV6_ENABLED Set to ‘True’ if IPv6 is enabled on this host, ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: test.support.socket_helper.find_unused_port (family=socket.AF_INET, socktype=socket.SOCK_STREAM) Returns an unused port that should be suitable for binding. This is achieved by creating a temporary socket with the same family and type as the ‘sock’ parameter (default is *note AF_INET: 181c, *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e6.), and binding it to the specified host address (defaults to ‘0.0.0.0’) with the port set to 0, eliciting an unused ephemeral port from the OS. The temporary socket is then closed and deleted, and the ephemeral port is returned. Either this method or *note bind_port(): 4199. should be used for any tests where a server socket needs to be bound to a particular port for the duration of the test. Which one to use depends on whether the calling code is creating a Python socket, or if an unused port needs to be provided in a constructor or passed to an external program (i.e. the ‘-accept’ argument to openssl’s s_server mode). Always prefer *note bind_port(): 4199. over *note find_unused_port(): 4198. where possible. Using a hard coded port is discouraged since it can make multiple instances of the test impossible to run simultaneously, which is a problem for buildbots. -- Function: test.support.socket_helper.bind_port (sock, host=HOST) Bind the socket to a free port and return the port number. Relies on ephemeral ports in order to ensure we are using an unbound port. This is important as many tests may be running simultaneously, especially in a buildbot environment. This method raises an exception if the ‘sock.family’ is *note AF_INET: 181c. and ‘sock.type’ is *note SOCK_STREAM: 12e6, and the socket has ‘SO_REUSEADDR’ or ‘SO_REUSEPORT’ set on it. Tests should never set these socket options for TCP/IP sockets. The only case for setting these options is testing multicasting via multiple UDP sockets. Additionally, if the ‘SO_EXCLUSIVEADDRUSE’ socket option is available (i.e. on Windows), it will be set on the socket. This will prevent anyone else from binding to our host/port for the duration of the test. -- Function: test.support.socket_helper.bind_unix_socket (sock, addr) Bind a Unix socket, raising *note unittest.SkipTest: fdf. if *note PermissionError: d42. is raised. -- Function: @test.support.socket_helper.skip_unless_bind_unix_socket A decorator for running tests that require a functional ‘bind()’ for Unix sockets. -- Function: test.support.socket_helper.transient_internet (resource_name, *, timeout=30.0, errnos=()) A context manager that raises *note ResourceDenied: 4136. when various issues with the internet connection manifest themselves as exceptions.  File: python.info, Node: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests, Next: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation, Prev: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests, Up: Development Tools 5.27.11 ‘test.support.script_helper’ — Utilities for the Python execution tests ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.script_helper: e8. module provides support for Python’s script execution tests. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.interpreter_requires_environment () Return ‘True’ if ‘sys.executable interpreter’ requires environment variables in order to be able to run at all. This is designed to be used with ‘@unittest.skipIf()’ to annotate tests that need to use an ‘assert_python*()’ function to launch an isolated mode (‘-I’) or no environment mode (‘-E’) sub-interpreter process. A normal build & test does not run into this situation but it can happen when trying to run the standard library test suite from an interpreter that doesn’t have an obvious home with Python’s current home finding logic. Setting *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. is one way to get most of the testsuite to run in that situation. *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. or ‘PYTHONUSERSITE’ are other common environment variables that might impact whether or not the interpreter can start. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.run_python_until_end (*args, **env_vars) Set up the environment based on 'env_vars' for running the interpreter in a subprocess. The values can include ‘__isolated’, ‘__cleanenv’, ‘__cwd’, and ‘TERM’. Changed in version 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces from 'stderr'. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_ok (*args, **env_vars) Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional environment variables 'env_vars' succeeds (‘rc == 0’) and return a ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple. If the '__cleanenv' keyword-only parameter is set, 'env_vars' is used as a fresh environment. Python is started in isolated mode (command line option ‘-I’), except if the '__isolated' keyword-only parameter is set to ‘False’. Changed in version 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces from 'stderr'. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.assert_python_failure (*args, **env_vars) Assert that running the interpreter with 'args' and optional environment variables 'env_vars' fails (‘rc != 0’) and return a ‘(return code, stdout, stderr)’ tuple. See *note assert_python_ok(): 419f. for more options. Changed in version 3.9: The function no longer strips whitespaces from 'stderr'. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.spawn_python (*args, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT, **kw) Run a Python subprocess with the given arguments. 'kw' is extra keyword args to pass to *note subprocess.Popen(): 199. Returns a *note subprocess.Popen: 199. object. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.kill_python (p) Run the given *note subprocess.Popen: 199. process until completion and return stdout. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.make_script (script_dir, script_basename, source, omit_suffix=False) Create script containing 'source' in path 'script_dir' and 'script_basename'. If 'omit_suffix' is ‘False’, append ‘.py’ to the name. Return the full script path. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_script (zip_dir, zip_basename, script_name, name_in_zip=None) Create zip file at 'zip_dir' and 'zip_basename' with extension ‘zip’ which contains the files in 'script_name'. 'name_in_zip' is the archive name. Return a tuple containing ‘(full path, full path of archive name)’. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.make_pkg (pkg_dir, init_source='') Create a directory named 'pkg_dir' containing an ‘__init__’ file with 'init_source' as its contents. -- Function: test.support.script_helper.make_zip_pkg (zip_dir, zip_basename, pkg_name, script_basename, source, depth=1, compiled=False) Create a zip package directory with a path of 'zip_dir' and 'zip_basename' containing an empty ‘__init__’ file and a file 'script_basename' containing the 'source'. If 'compiled' is ‘True’, both source files will be compiled and added to the zip package. Return a tuple of the full zip path and the archive name for the zip file.  File: python.info, Node: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation, Next: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests, Prev: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests, Up: Development Tools 5.27.12 ‘test.support.bytecode_helper’ — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.bytecode_helper: e5. module provides support for testing and inspecting bytecode generation. Added in version 3.9. The module defines the following class: -- Class: test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase (unittest.TestCase) This class has custom assertion methods for inspecting bytecode. -- Method: BytecodeTestCase.get_disassembly_as_string (co) Return the disassembly of 'co' as string. -- Method: BytecodeTestCase.assertInBytecode (x, opname, argval=_UNSPECIFIED) Return instr if 'opname' is found, otherwise throws *note AssertionError: 6a5. -- Method: BytecodeTestCase.assertNotInBytecode (x, opname, argval=_UNSPECIFIED) Throws *note AssertionError: 6a5. if 'opname' is found.  File: python.info, Node: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests, Next: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests, Prev: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation, Up: Development Tools 5.27.13 ‘test.support.threading_helper’ — Utilities for threading tests ----------------------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.threading_helper: ea. module provides support for threading tests. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: test.support.threading_helper.join_thread (thread, timeout=None) Join a 'thread' within 'timeout'. Raise an *note AssertionError: 6a5. if thread is still alive after 'timeout' seconds. -- Function: @test.support.threading_helper.reap_threads Decorator to ensure the threads are cleaned up even if the test fails. -- Function: test.support.threading_helper.start_threads (threads, unlock=None) Context manager to start 'threads', which is a sequence of threads. 'unlock' is a function called after the threads are started, even if an exception was raised; an example would be *note threading.Event.set(): 311d. ‘start_threads’ will attempt to join the started threads upon exit. -- Function: test.support.threading_helper.threading_cleanup (*original_values) Cleanup up threads not specified in 'original_values'. Designed to emit a warning if a test leaves running threads in the background. -- Function: test.support.threading_helper.threading_setup () Return current thread count and copy of dangling threads. -- Function: test.support.threading_helper.wait_threads_exit (timeout=None) Context manager to wait until all threads created in the ‘with’ statement exit. -- Function: test.support.threading_helper.catch_threading_exception () Context manager catching *note threading.Thread: 94c. exception using *note threading.excepthook(): 847. Attributes set when an exception is caught: * ‘exc_type’ * ‘exc_value’ * ‘exc_traceback’ * ‘thread’ See *note threading.excepthook(): 847. documentation. These attributes are deleted at the context manager exit. Usage: with threading_helper.catch_threading_exception() as cm: # code spawning a thread which raises an exception ... # check the thread exception, use cm attributes: # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread ... # exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, thread attributes of cm no longer # exists at this point # (to avoid reference cycles) Added in version 3.8.  File: python.info, Node: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests, Next: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests, Prev: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests, Up: Development Tools 5.27.14 ‘test.support.os_helper’ — Utilities for os tests --------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.os_helper: e7. module provides support for os tests. Added in version 3.10. -- Data: test.support.os_helper.FS_NONASCII A non-ASCII character encodable by *note os.fsencode(): c55. -- Data: test.support.os_helper.SAVEDCWD Set to *note os.getcwd(): 159b. -- Data: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN Set to a name that is safe to use as the name of a temporary file. Any temporary file that is created should be closed and unlinked (removed). -- Data: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_NONASCII Set to a filename containing the *note FS_NONASCII: 41b5. character, if it exists. This guarantees that if the filename exists, it can be encoded and decoded with the default filesystem encoding. This allows tests that require a non-ASCII filename to be easily skipped on platforms where they can’t work. -- Data: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNENCODABLE Set to a filename (str type) that should not be able to be encoded by file system encoding in strict mode. It may be ‘None’ if it’s not possible to generate such a filename. -- Data: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNDECODABLE Set to a filename (bytes type) that should not be able to be decoded by file system encoding in strict mode. It may be ‘None’ if it’s not possible to generate such a filename. -- Data: test.support.os_helper.TESTFN_UNICODE Set to a non-ASCII name for a temporary file. -- Class: test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard Class used to temporarily set or unset environment variables. Instances can be used as a context manager and have a complete dictionary interface for querying/modifying the underlying ‘os.environ’. After exit from the context manager all changes to environment variables done through this instance will be rolled back. Changed in version 3.1: Added dictionary interface. -- Class: test.support.os_helper.FakePath (path) Simple *note path-like object: 2a2. It implements the *note __fspath__(): c52. method which just returns the 'path' argument. If 'path' is an exception, it will be raised in ‘__fspath__()’. -- Method: EnvironmentVarGuard.set (envvar, value) Temporarily set the environment variable ‘envvar’ to the value of ‘value’. -- Method: EnvironmentVarGuard.unset (envvar) Temporarily unset the environment variable ‘envvar’. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.can_symlink () Return ‘True’ if the OS supports symbolic links, ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.can_xattr () Return ‘True’ if the OS supports xattr, ‘False’ otherwise. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.change_cwd (path, quiet=False) A context manager that temporarily changes the current working directory to 'path' and yields the directory. If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context manager raises an exception on error. Otherwise, it issues only a warning and keeps the current working directory the same. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.create_empty_file (filename) Create an empty file with 'filename'. If it already exists, truncate it. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.fd_count () Count the number of open file descriptors. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.fs_is_case_insensitive (directory) Return ‘True’ if the file system for 'directory' is case-insensitive. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.make_bad_fd () Create an invalid file descriptor by opening and closing a temporary file, and returning its descriptor. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.rmdir (filename) Call *note os.rmdir(): 10e8. on 'filename'. On Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the file, which is needed due to antivirus programs that can hold files open and prevent deletion. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.rmtree (path) Call *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. on 'path' or call *note os.lstat(): 49d. and *note os.rmdir(): 10e8. to remove a path and its contents. As with *note rmdir(): 41c6, on Windows platforms this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the files. -- Function: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_symlink A decorator for running tests that require support for symbolic links. -- Function: @test.support.os_helper.skip_unless_xattr A decorator for running tests that require support for xattr. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.temp_cwd (name='tempcwd', quiet=False) A context manager that temporarily creates a new directory and changes the current working directory (CWD). The context manager creates a temporary directory in the current directory with name 'name' before temporarily changing the current working directory. If 'name' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is created using *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 221. If 'quiet' is ‘False’ and it is not possible to create or change the CWD, an error is raised. Otherwise, only a warning is raised and the original CWD is used. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.temp_dir (path=None, quiet=False) A context manager that creates a temporary directory at 'path' and yields the directory. If 'path' is ‘None’, the temporary directory is created using *note tempfile.mkdtemp(): 221. If 'quiet' is ‘False’, the context manager raises an exception on error. Otherwise, if 'path' is specified and cannot be created, only a warning is issued. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.temp_umask (umask) A context manager that temporarily sets the process umask. -- Function: test.support.os_helper.unlink (filename) Call *note os.unlink(): 10ea. on 'filename'. As with *note rmdir(): 41c6, on Windows platforms, this is wrapped with a wait loop that checks for the existence of the file.  File: python.info, Node: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests, Next: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests, Prev: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests, Up: Development Tools 5.27.15 ‘test.support.import_helper’ — Utilities for import tests ----------------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.import_helper: e6. module provides support for import tests. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.forget (module_name) Remove the module named 'module_name' from ‘sys.modules’ and delete any byte-compiled files of the module. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.import_fresh_module (name, fresh=(), blocked=(), deprecated=False) This function imports and returns a fresh copy of the named Python module by removing the named module from ‘sys.modules’ before doing the import. Note that unlike ‘reload()’, the original module is not affected by this operation. 'fresh' is an iterable of additional module names that are also removed from the ‘sys.modules’ cache before doing the import. 'blocked' is an iterable of module names that are replaced with ‘None’ in the module cache during the import to ensure that attempts to import them raise *note ImportError: 415. The named module and any modules named in the 'fresh' and 'blocked' parameters are saved before starting the import and then reinserted into ‘sys.modules’ when the fresh import is complete. Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’. This function will raise *note ImportError: 415. if the named module cannot be imported. Example use: # Get copies of the warnings module for testing without affecting the # version being used by the rest of the test suite. One copy uses the # C implementation, the other is forced to use the pure Python fallback # implementation py_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', blocked=['_warnings']) c_warnings = import_fresh_module('warnings', fresh=['_warnings']) Added in version 3.1. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.import_module (name, deprecated=False, *, required_on=()) This function imports and returns the named module. Unlike a normal import, this function raises *note unittest.SkipTest: fdf. if the module cannot be imported. Module and package deprecation messages are suppressed during this import if 'deprecated' is ‘True’. If a module is required on a platform but optional for others, set 'required_on' to an iterable of platform prefixes which will be compared against *note sys.platform: a8d. Added in version 3.1. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.modules_setup () Return a copy of *note sys.modules: 1550. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.modules_cleanup (oldmodules) Remove modules except for 'oldmodules' and ‘encodings’ in order to preserve internal cache. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.unload (name) Delete 'name' from ‘sys.modules’. -- Function: test.support.import_helper.make_legacy_pyc (source) Move a PEP 3147(1)/ PEP 488(2) pyc file to its legacy pyc location and return the file system path to the legacy pyc file. The 'source' value is the file system path to the source file. It does not need to exist, however the PEP 3147/488 pyc file must exist. -- Class: test.support.import_helper.CleanImport (*module_names) A context manager to force import to return a new module reference. This is useful for testing module-level behaviors, such as the emission of a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. on import. Example usage: with CleanImport('foo'): importlib.import_module('foo') # New reference. -- Class: test.support.import_helper.DirsOnSysPath (*paths) A context manager to temporarily add directories to *note sys.path: 3b0. This makes a copy of *note sys.path: 3b0, appends any directories given as positional arguments, then reverts *note sys.path: 3b0. to the copied settings when the context ends. Note that 'all' *note sys.path: 3b0. modifications in the body of the context manager, including replacement of the object, will be reverted at the end of the block. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/  File: python.info, Node: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests, Prev: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests, Up: Development Tools 5.27.16 ‘test.support.warnings_helper’ — Utilities for warnings tests --------------------------------------------------------------------- The *note test.support.warnings_helper: eb. module provides support for warnings tests. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: test.support.warnings_helper.ignore_warnings (*, category) Suppress warnings that are instances of 'category', which must be *note Warning: 22b3. or a subclass. Roughly equivalent to *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 581. with *note warnings.simplefilter('ignore', category=category): 6bd. For example: @warning_helper.ignore_warnings(category=DeprecationWarning) def test_suppress_warning(): # do something Added in version 3.8. -- Function: test.support.warnings_helper.check_no_resource_warning (testcase) Context manager to check that no *note ResourceWarning: 246. was raised. You must remove the object which may emit *note ResourceWarning: 246. before the end of the context manager. -- Function: test.support.warnings_helper.check_syntax_warning (testcase, statement, errtext='', *, lineno=1, offset=None) Test for syntax warning in 'statement' by attempting to compile 'statement'. Test also that the *note SyntaxWarning: 461. is emitted only once, and that it will be converted to a *note SyntaxError: 18d. when turned into error. 'testcase' is the *note unittest: 106. instance for the test. 'errtext' is the regular expression which should match the string representation of the emitted *note SyntaxWarning: 461. and raised *note SyntaxError: 18d. If 'lineno' is not ‘None’, compares to the line of the warning and exception. If 'offset' is not ‘None’, compares to the offset of the exception. Added in version 3.8. -- Function: test.support.warnings_helper.check_warnings (*filters, quiet=True) A convenience wrapper for *note warnings.catch_warnings(): 581. that makes it easier to test that a warning was correctly raised. It is approximately equivalent to calling ‘warnings.catch_warnings(record=True)’ with *note warnings.simplefilter(): 6bd. set to ‘always’ and with the option to automatically validate the results that are recorded. ‘check_warnings’ accepts 2-tuples of the form ‘("message regexp", WarningCategory)’ as positional arguments. If one or more 'filters' are provided, or if the optional keyword argument 'quiet' is ‘False’, it checks to make sure the warnings are as expected: each specified filter must match at least one of the warnings raised by the enclosed code or the test fails, and if any warnings are raised that do not match any of the specified filters the test fails. To disable the first of these checks, set 'quiet' to ‘True’. If no arguments are specified, it defaults to: check_warnings(("", Warning), quiet=True) In this case all warnings are caught and no errors are raised. On entry to the context manager, a ‘WarningRecorder’ instance is returned. The underlying warnings list from *note catch_warnings(): 581. is available via the recorder object’s *note warnings: 112. attribute. As a convenience, the attributes of the object representing the most recent warning can also be accessed directly through the recorder object (see example below). If no warning has been raised, then any of the attributes that would otherwise be expected on an object representing a warning will return ‘None’. The recorder object also has a ‘reset()’ method, which clears the warnings list. The context manager is designed to be used like this: with check_warnings(("assertion is always true", SyntaxWarning), ("", UserWarning)): exec('assert(False, "Hey!")') warnings.warn(UserWarning("Hide me!")) In this case if either warning was not raised, or some other warning was raised, *note check_warnings(): 41db. would raise an error. When a test needs to look more deeply into the warnings, rather than just checking whether or not they occurred, code like this can be used: with check_warnings(quiet=True) as w: warnings.warn("foo") assert str(w.args[0]) == "foo" warnings.warn("bar") assert str(w.args[0]) == "bar" assert str(w.warnings[0].args[0]) == "foo" assert str(w.warnings[1].args[0]) == "bar" w.reset() assert len(w.warnings) == 0 Here all warnings will be caught, and the test code tests the captured warnings directly. Changed in version 3.2: New optional arguments 'filters' and 'quiet'. -- Class: test.support.warnings_helper.WarningsRecorder Class used to record warnings for unit tests. See documentation of *note check_warnings(): 41db. above for more details.  File: python.info, Node: Debugging and Profiling, Next: Software Packaging and Distribution, Prev: Development Tools, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.28 Debugging and Profiling ============================ These libraries help you with Python development: the debugger enables you to step through code, analyze stack frames and set breakpoints etc., and the profilers run code and give you a detailed breakdown of execution times, allowing you to identify bottlenecks in your programs. Auditing events provide visibility into runtime behaviors that would otherwise require intrusive debugging or patching. * Menu: * Audit events table:: * bdb — Debugger framework:: * faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback:: * pdb — The Python Debugger:: * The Python Profilers:: * timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets:: * trace — Trace or track Python statement execution:: * tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations::  File: python.info, Node: Audit events table, Next: bdb — Debugger framework, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.1 Audit events table ------------------------- This table contains all events raised by *note sys.audit(): 15b9. or *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. calls throughout the CPython runtime and the standard library. These calls were added in 3.8 or later (see PEP 578(1)). See *note sys.addaudithook(): 41e1. and *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41e2. for information on handling these events. 'CPython implementation detail:' This table is generated from the CPython documentation, and may not represent events raised by other implementations. See your runtime specific documentation for actual events raised. Audit event Arguments References ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _thread.start_new_thread ‘function’, ‘args’, ‘kwargs’ *note [1]: 41e3. array.__new__ ‘typecode’, ‘initializer’ *note [1]: 1a0. builtins.breakpoint ‘breakpointhook’ *note [1]: 236. builtins.id ‘id’ *note [1]: 13ee. builtins.input ‘prompt’ *note [1]: 12cb. builtins.input/result ‘result’ *note [1]: 12cb. code.__new__ ‘code’, ‘filename’, ‘name’, ‘argcount’, *note [1]: 2e3. ‘posonlyargcount’, ‘kwonlyargcount’, ‘nlocals’, ‘stacksize’, ‘flags’ compile ‘source’, ‘filename’ *note [1]: 192. cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear *note [1]: 41e4. cpython.PyInterpreterState_New *note [1]: 41e5. cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks *note [1]: d15. cpython.run_command ‘command’ *note [1]: 5dc. cpython.run_file ‘filename’ *note [1]: 41e6. cpython.run_interactivehook ‘hook’ *note [1]: fc2. cpython.run_module ‘module-name’ *note [1]: 5dd. cpython.run_startup ‘filename’ *note [1]: fc3. cpython.run_stdin *note [1]: 41e7.*note [2]: 41e8.*note [3]: 41e9. ctypes.addressof ‘obj’ *note [1]: 2e47. ctypes.call_function ‘func_pointer’, ‘arguments’ *note [1]: 2e3f. ctypes.cdata ‘address’ *note [1]: 2e59. ctypes.cdata/buffer ‘pointer’, ‘size’, ‘offset’ *note [1]: 2e57.*note [2]: 2e58. ctypes.create_string_buffer ‘init’, ‘size’ *note [1]: 2dfc. ctypes.create_unicode_buffer ‘init’, ‘size’ *note [1]: 19ce. ctypes.dlopen ‘name’ *note [1]: 2e3d. ctypes.dlsym ‘library’, ‘name’ *note [1]: 2e3d. ctypes.dlsym/handle ‘handle’, ‘name’ *note [1]: 2e3d. ctypes.get_errno *note [1]: 2e37. ctypes.get_last_error *note [1]: 2e39. ctypes.set_errno ‘errno’ *note [1]: 2e38. ctypes.set_exception ‘code’ *note [1]: 2e3f. ctypes.set_last_error ‘error’ *note [1]: 2e3a. ctypes.string_at ‘ptr’, ‘size’ *note [1]: 2e50. ctypes.wstring_at ‘ptr’, ‘size’ *note [1]: 2e52. ensurepip.bootstrap ‘root’ *note [1]: 41ea. exec ‘code_object’ *note [1]: 180.*note [2]: 17f. fcntl.fcntl ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’ *note [1]: 344b. fcntl.flock ‘fd’, ‘operation’ *note [1]: 41eb. fcntl.ioctl ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’ *note [1]: 1443. fcntl.lockf ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’ *note [1]: 13b8. ftplib.connect ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’ *note [1]: 3a84. ftplib.sendcmd ‘self’, ‘cmd’ *note [1]: 3a89.*note [2]: 3a8a. function.__new__ ‘code’ *note [1]: 881. gc.get_objects ‘generation’ *note [1]: 7ff. gc.get_referents ‘objs’ *note [1]: 801. gc.get_referrers ‘objs’ *note [1]: 800. glob.glob ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’ *note [1]: 2a1.*note [2]: 803. glob.glob/2 ‘pathname’, ‘recursive’, ‘root_dir’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 2a1.*note [2]: 803. http.client.connect ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’ *note [1]: 3a67. http.client.send ‘self’, ‘data’ *note [1]: 3a6c. imaplib.open ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’ *note [1]: 904. imaplib.send ‘self’, ‘data’ *note [1]: 3adb. import ‘module’, ‘filename’, ‘sys.path’, ‘sys.meta_path’, *note [1]: 5de. ‘sys.path_hooks’ marshal.dumps ‘value’, ‘version’ *note [1]: 28c1. marshal.load *note [1]: 1a12. marshal.loads ‘bytes’ *note [1]: 1a12. mmap.__new__ ‘fileno’, ‘length’, ‘access’, ‘offset’ *note [1]: 20d. msvcrt.get_osfhandle ‘fd’ *note [1]: 41ec. msvcrt.locking ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’ *note [1]: 41ed. msvcrt.open_osfhandle ‘handle’, ‘flags’ *note [1]: 41ee. object.__delattr__ ‘obj’, ‘name’ *note [1]: 1f2e. object.__getattr__ ‘obj’, ‘name’ *note [1]: bd2. object.__setattr__ ‘obj’, ‘name’, ‘value’ *note [1]: 1f2d. open ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘flags’ *note [1]: 517.*note [2]: 518.*note [3]: d91. os.add_dll_directory ‘path’ *note [1]: 9e9. os.chdir ‘path’ *note [1]: 609.*note [2]: d88. os.chflags ‘path’, ‘flags’ *note [1]: 10e2.*note [2]: 2b86. os.chmod ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 21d.*note [2]: 21e.*note [3]: 21c. os.chown ‘path’, ‘uid’, ‘gid’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10e3.*note [2]: d89.*note [3]: 2b87. os.exec ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’ *note [1]: 2bc3. os.fork *note [1]: 197. os.forkpty *note [1]: 198. os.fwalk ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘follow_symlinks’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: b5b. os.getxattr ‘path’, ‘attribute’ *note [1]: 10f8. os.kill ‘pid’, ‘sig’ *note [1]: 1353. os.killpg ‘pgid’, ‘sig’ *note [1]: 19d5. os.link ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10e4. os.listdir ‘path’ *note [1]: 10ee. os.listdrives *note [1]: 499. os.listmounts ‘volume’ *note [1]: 49b. os.listvolumes *note [1]: 49a. os.listxattr ‘path’ *note [1]: 10f9. os.lockf ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’ *note [1]: 1107. os.mkdir ‘path’, ‘mode’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 220.*note [2]: 21f. os.posix_spawn ‘path’, ‘argv’, ‘env’ *note [1]: 222.*note [2]: 1a2e. os.putenv ‘key’, ‘value’ *note [1]: 91b. os.remove ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10e5.*note [2]: 2b8b.*note [3]: 10ea. os.removexattr ‘path’, ‘attribute’ *note [1]: 10fa. os.rename ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘src_dir_fd’, ‘dst_dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10e6.*note [2]: 2b8c.*note [3]: 10e7. os.rmdir ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10e8. os.scandir ‘path’ *note [1]: a5e. os.setxattr ‘path’, ‘attribute’, ‘value’, ‘flags’ *note [1]: 10fb. os.spawn ‘mode’, ‘path’, ‘args’, ‘env’ *note [1]: 1731. os.startfile ‘path’, ‘operation’ *note [1]: 18cb. os.startfile/2 ‘path’, ‘operation’, ‘arguments’, ‘cwd’, ‘show_cmd’ *note [1]: 18cb. os.symlink ‘src’, ‘dst’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10e9. os.system ‘command’ *note [1]: 1426. os.truncate ‘fd’, ‘length’ *note [1]: d8e.*note [2]: e3b. os.unsetenv ‘key’ *note [1]: 91a. os.utime ‘path’, ‘times’, ‘ns’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 10eb. os.walk ‘top’, ‘topdown’, ‘onerror’, ‘followlinks’ *note [1]: 4a5. pathlib.Path.glob ‘self’, ‘pattern’ *note [1]: 22f. pathlib.Path.rglob ‘self’, ‘pattern’ *note [1]: 230. pdb.Pdb *note [1]: 921. pickle.find_class ‘module’, ‘name’ *note [1]: 289f. poplib.connect ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’ *note [1]: 923.*note [2]: 924. poplib.putline ‘self’, ‘line’ *note [1]: 923.*note [2]: 924. pty.spawn ‘argv’ *note [1]: f7d. resource.prlimit ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’ *note [1]: f84. resource.setrlimit ‘resource’, ‘limits’ *note [1]: 151d. setopencodehook *note [1]: 1729. shutil.chown ‘path’, ‘user’, ‘group’ *note [1]: 242. shutil.copyfile ‘src’, ‘dst’ *note [1]: a59.*note [2]: a5a.*note [3]: a58. shutil.copymode ‘src’, ‘dst’ *note [1]: a59.*note [2]: 16ab. shutil.copystat ‘src’, ‘dst’ *note [1]: a5a.*note [2]: 1122. shutil.copytree ‘src’, ‘dst’ *note [1]: a28. shutil.make_archive ‘base_name’, ‘format’, ‘root_dir’, ‘base_dir’ *note [1]: 4af. shutil.move ‘src’, ‘dst’ *note [1]: a5b. shutil.rmtree ‘path’, ‘dir_fd’ *note [1]: 2fb. shutil.unpack_archive ‘filename’, ‘extract_dir’, ‘format’ *note [1]: 467. signal.pthread_kill ‘thread_id’, ‘signalnum’ *note [1]: 1125. smtplib.connect ‘self’, ‘host’, ‘port’ *note [1]: 19c9. smtplib.send ‘self’, ‘data’ *note [1]: 92d. socket.__new__ ‘self’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’ *note [1]: da0. socket.bind ‘self’, ‘address’ *note [1]: 1504. socket.connect ‘self’, ‘address’ *note [1]: da2.*note [2]: 1503. socket.getaddrinfo ‘host’, ‘port’, ‘family’, ‘type’, ‘protocol’ *note [1]: 1752. socket.gethostbyaddr ‘ip_address’ *note [1]: 18cc. socket.gethostbyname ‘hostname’ *note [1]: 3440.*note [2]: 18cd. socket.gethostname *note [1]: 2b31. socket.getnameinfo ‘sockaddr’ *note [1]: 16c3. socket.getservbyname ‘servicename’, ‘protocolname’ *note [1]: 3442. socket.getservbyport ‘port’, ‘protocolname’ *note [1]: 3443. socket.sendmsg ‘self’, ‘address’ *note [1]: 472. socket.sendto ‘self’, ‘address’ *note [1]: da8. socket.sethostname ‘name’ *note [1]: 112f. sqlite3.connect ‘database’ *note [1]: 2aa. sqlite3.connect/handle ‘connection_handle’ *note [1]: 2aa. sqlite3.enable_load_extension ‘connection’, ‘enabled’ *note [1]: 83a. sqlite3.load_extension ‘connection’, ‘path’ *note [1]: 4b4. subprocess.Popen ‘executable’, ‘args’, ‘cwd’, ‘env’ *note [1]: 199. sys._current_exceptions *note [1]: 4be. sys._current_frames *note [1]: 13fe. sys._getframe ‘frame’ *note [1]: 6dc. sys._getframemodulename ‘depth’ *note [1]: 176e. sys.addaudithook *note [1]: 41e2.*note [2]: 41e1. sys.excepthook ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’ *note [1]: 807. sys.monitoring.register_callback ‘func’ *note [1]: 41ef. sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer *note [1]: 1626. sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter *note [1]: 1626. sys.setprofile *note [1]: 14c9. sys.settrace *note [1]: 14ca. sys.unraisablehook ‘hook’, ‘unraisable’ *note [1]: 1f9. syslog.closelog *note [1]: 53c. syslog.openlog ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’ *note [1]: 53b. syslog.setlogmask ‘maskpri’ *note [1]: 41f0. syslog.syslog ‘priority’, ‘message’ *note [1]: 53d. tempfile.mkdtemp ‘fullpath’ *note [1]: 1227.*note [2]: 221. tempfile.mkstemp ‘fullpath’ *note [1]: 4c2.*note [2]: 2853.*note [3]: 2854. time.sleep ‘secs’ *note [1]: 41f1. urllib.Request ‘fullurl’, ‘data’, ‘headers’, ‘method’ *note [1]: 295. webbrowser.open ‘url’ *note [1]: 394a. winreg.ConnectRegistry ‘computer_name’, ‘key’ *note [1]: 41f2. winreg.CreateKey ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’ *note [1]: 41f3.*note [2]: 134e. winreg.DeleteKey ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’ *note [1]: 41f4.*note [2]: 134f. winreg.DeleteValue ‘key’, ‘value’ *note [1]: 41f5. winreg.DisableReflectionKey ‘key’ *note [1]: 1350. winreg.EnableReflectionKey ‘key’ *note [1]: 1351. winreg.EnumKey ‘key’, ‘index’ *note [1]: 41f6. winreg.EnumValue ‘key’, ‘index’ *note [1]: 41f7. winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings ‘str’ *note [1]: 13c4. winreg.LoadKey ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’ *note [1]: 41f8. winreg.OpenKey ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’ *note [1]: 41f9. winreg.OpenKey/result ‘key’ *note [1]: 41f3.*note [2]: 134e.*note [3]: 41f9. winreg.PyHKEY.Detach ‘key’ *note [1]: 41fa. winreg.QueryInfoKey ‘key’ *note [1]: 41fb. winreg.QueryReflectionKey ‘key’ *note [1]: 1352. winreg.QueryValue ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’ *note [1]: 41fc.*note [2]: 41fd. winreg.SaveKey ‘key’, ‘file_name’ *note [1]: 41fe. winreg.SetValue ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’ *note [1]: 41ff.*note [2]: 178d. The following events are raised internally and do not correspond to any public API of CPython: Audit event Arguments ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- _winapi.CreateFile ‘file_name’, ‘desired_access’, ‘share_mode’, ‘creation_disposition’, ‘flags_and_attributes’ _winapi.CreateJunction ‘src_path’, ‘dst_path’ _winapi.CreateNamedPipe ‘name’, ‘open_mode’, ‘pipe_mode’ _winapi.CreatePipe _winapi.CreateProcess ‘application_name’, ‘command_line’, ‘current_directory’ _winapi.OpenProcess ‘process_id’, ‘desired_access’ _winapi.TerminateProcess ‘handle’, ‘exit_code’ ctypes.PyObj_FromPtr ‘obj’ ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/  File: python.info, Node: bdb — Debugger framework, Next: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback, Prev: Audit events table, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.2 ‘bdb’ — Debugger framework --------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/bdb.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note bdb: f. module handles basic debugger functions, like setting breakpoints or managing execution via the debugger. The following exception is defined: -- Exception: bdb.BdbQuit Exception raised by the *note Bdb: 12f5. class for quitting the debugger. The *note bdb: f. module also defines two classes: -- Class: bdb.Breakpoint (self, file, line, temporary=False, cond=None, funcname=None) This class implements temporary breakpoints, ignore counts, disabling and (re-)enabling, and conditionals. Breakpoints are indexed by number through a list called *note bpbynumber: 4204. and by ‘(file, line)’ pairs through *note bplist: 4205. The former points to a single instance of class *note Breakpoint: 4203. The latter points to a list of such instances since there may be more than one breakpoint per line. When creating a breakpoint, its associated *note file name: 4206. should be in canonical form. If a *note funcname: 4207. is defined, a breakpoint *note hit: 4208. will be counted when the first line of that function is executed. A *note conditional: 4209. breakpoint always counts a *note hit: 4208. *note Breakpoint: 4203. instances have the following methods: -- Method: deleteMe () Delete the breakpoint from the list associated to a file/line. If it is the last breakpoint in that position, it also deletes the entry for the file/line. -- Method: enable () Mark the breakpoint as enabled. -- Method: disable () Mark the breakpoint as disabled. -- Method: bpformat () Return a string with all the information about the breakpoint, nicely formatted: * Breakpoint number. * Temporary status (del or keep). * File/line position. * Break condition. * Number of times to ignore. * Number of times hit. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: bpprint (out=None) Print the output of *note bpformat(): 420d. to the file 'out', or if it is ‘None’, to standard output. *note Breakpoint: 4203. instances have the following attributes: -- Attribute: file File name of the *note Breakpoint: 4203. -- Attribute: line Line number of the *note Breakpoint: 4203. within *note file: 4206. -- Attribute: temporary ‘True’ if a *note Breakpoint: 4203. at (file, line) is temporary. -- Attribute: cond Condition for evaluating a *note Breakpoint: 4203. at (file, line). -- Attribute: funcname Function name that defines whether a *note Breakpoint: 4203. is hit upon entering the function. -- Attribute: enabled ‘True’ if *note Breakpoint: 4203. is enabled. -- Attribute: bpbynumber Numeric index for a single instance of a *note Breakpoint: 4203. -- Attribute: bplist Dictionary of *note Breakpoint: 4203. instances indexed by (*note file: 4206, *note line: 420f.) tuples. -- Attribute: ignore Number of times to ignore a *note Breakpoint: 4203. -- Attribute: hits Count of the number of times a *note Breakpoint: 4203. has been hit. -- Class: bdb.Bdb (skip=None) The *note Bdb: 12f5. class acts as a generic Python debugger base class. This class takes care of the details of the trace facility; a derived class should implement user interaction. The standard debugger class (*note pdb.Pdb: 921.) is an example. The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style module name patterns. The debugger will not step into frames that originate in a module that matches one of these patterns. Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals. Changed in version 3.1: Added the 'skip' parameter. The following methods of *note Bdb: 12f5. normally don’t need to be overridden. -- Method: canonic (filename) Return canonical form of 'filename'. For real file names, the canonical form is an operating-system-dependent, *note case-normalized: 27e3. *note absolute path: 130e. A 'filename' with angle brackets, such as ‘"<stdin>"’ generated in interactive mode, is returned unchanged. -- Method: reset () Set the ‘botframe’, ‘stopframe’, ‘returnframe’ and *note quitting: 4215. attributes with values ready to start debugging. -- Method: trace_dispatch (frame, event, arg) This function is installed as the trace function of debugged frames. Its return value is the new trace function (in most cases, that is, itself). The default implementation decides how to dispatch a frame, depending on the type of event (passed as a string) that is about to be executed. 'event' can be one of the following: * ‘"line"’: A new line of code is going to be executed. * ‘"call"’: A function is about to be called, or another code block entered. * ‘"return"’: A function or other code block is about to return. * ‘"exception"’: An exception has occurred. * ‘"c_call"’: A C function is about to be called. * ‘"c_return"’: A C function has returned. * ‘"c_exception"’: A C function has raised an exception. For the Python events, specialized functions (see below) are called. For the C events, no action is taken. The 'arg' parameter depends on the previous event. See the documentation for *note sys.settrace(): 14ca. for more information on the trace function. For more information on code and frame objects, refer to *note The standard type hierarchy: 1ee7. -- Method: dispatch_line (frame) If the debugger should stop on the current line, invoke the *note user_line(): 4218. method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a *note BdbQuit: 4202. exception if the *note quitting: 4215. flag is set (which can be set from *note user_line(): 4218.). Return a reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 4216. method for further tracing in that scope. -- Method: dispatch_call (frame, arg) If the debugger should stop on this function call, invoke the *note user_call(): 421a. method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a *note BdbQuit: 4202. exception if the *note quitting: 4215. flag is set (which can be set from *note user_call(): 421a.). Return a reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 4216. method for further tracing in that scope. -- Method: dispatch_return (frame, arg) If the debugger should stop on this function return, invoke the *note user_return(): 421c. method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a *note BdbQuit: 4202. exception if the *note quitting: 4215. flag is set (which can be set from *note user_return(): 421c.). Return a reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 4216. method for further tracing in that scope. -- Method: dispatch_exception (frame, arg) If the debugger should stop at this exception, invokes the *note user_exception(): 421e. method (which should be overridden in subclasses). Raise a *note BdbQuit: 4202. exception if the *note quitting: 4215. flag is set (which can be set from *note user_exception(): 421e.). Return a reference to the *note trace_dispatch(): 4216. method for further tracing in that scope. Normally derived classes don’t override the following methods, but they may if they want to redefine the definition of stopping and breakpoints. -- Method: is_skipped_line (module_name) Return ‘True’ if 'module_name' matches any skip pattern. -- Method: stop_here (frame) Return ‘True’ if 'frame' is below the starting frame in the stack. -- Method: break_here (frame) Return ‘True’ if there is an effective breakpoint for this line. Check whether a line or function breakpoint exists and is in effect. Delete temporary breakpoints based on information from *note effective(): 4222. -- Method: break_anywhere (frame) Return ‘True’ if any breakpoint exists for 'frame'’s filename. Derived classes should override these methods to gain control over debugger operation. -- Method: user_call (frame, argument_list) Called from *note dispatch_call(): 4219. if a break might stop inside the called function. 'argument_list' is not used anymore and will always be ‘None’. The argument is kept for backwards compatibility. -- Method: user_line (frame) Called from *note dispatch_line(): 4217. when either *note stop_here(): 4220. or *note break_here(): 4221. returns ‘True’. -- Method: user_return (frame, return_value) Called from *note dispatch_return(): 421b. when *note stop_here(): 4220. returns ‘True’. -- Method: user_exception (frame, exc_info) Called from *note dispatch_exception(): 421d. when *note stop_here(): 4220. returns ‘True’. -- Method: do_clear (arg) Handle how a breakpoint must be removed when it is a temporary one. This method must be implemented by derived classes. Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to affect the stepping state. -- Method: set_step () Stop after one line of code. -- Method: set_next (frame) Stop on the next line in or below the given frame. -- Method: set_return (frame) Stop when returning from the given frame. -- Method: set_until (frame, lineno=None) Stop when the line with the 'lineno' greater than the current one is reached or when returning from current frame. -- Method: set_trace ([frame]) Start debugging from 'frame'. If 'frame' is not specified, debugging starts from caller’s frame. Changed in version 3.13: *note set_trace(): 422a. will enter the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code to be executed. -- Method: set_continue () Stop only at breakpoints or when finished. If there are no breakpoints, set the system trace function to ‘None’. -- Method: set_quit () Set the ‘quitting’ attribute to ‘True’. This raises *note BdbQuit: 4202. in the next call to one of the ‘dispatch_*()’ methods. Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to manipulate breakpoints. These methods return a string containing an error message if something went wrong, or ‘None’ if all is well. -- Method: set_break (filename, lineno, temporary=False, cond=None, funcname=None) Set a new breakpoint. If the 'lineno' line doesn’t exist for the 'filename' passed as argument, return an error message. The 'filename' should be in canonical form, as described in the *note canonic(): 4213. method. -- Method: clear_break (filename, lineno) Delete the breakpoints in 'filename' and 'lineno'. If none were set, return an error message. -- Method: clear_bpbynumber (arg) Delete the breakpoint which has the index 'arg' in the *note Breakpoint.bpbynumber: 4204. If 'arg' is not numeric or out of range, return an error message. -- Method: clear_all_file_breaks (filename) Delete all breakpoints in 'filename'. If none were set, return an error message. -- Method: clear_all_breaks () Delete all existing breakpoints. If none were set, return an error message. -- Method: get_bpbynumber (arg) Return a breakpoint specified by the given number. If 'arg' is a string, it will be converted to a number. If 'arg' is a non-numeric string, if the given breakpoint never existed or has been deleted, a *note ValueError: 204. is raised. Added in version 3.2. -- Method: get_break (filename, lineno) Return ‘True’ if there is a breakpoint for 'lineno' in 'filename'. -- Method: get_breaks (filename, lineno) Return all breakpoints for 'lineno' in 'filename', or an empty list if none are set. -- Method: get_file_breaks (filename) Return all breakpoints in 'filename', or an empty list if none are set. -- Method: get_all_breaks () Return all breakpoints that are set. Derived classes and clients can call the following methods to get a data structure representing a stack trace. -- Method: get_stack (f, t) Return a list of (frame, lineno) tuples in a stack trace, and a size. The most recently called frame is last in the list. The size is the number of frames below the frame where the debugger was invoked. -- Method: format_stack_entry (frame_lineno, lprefix=': ') Return a string with information about a stack entry, which is a ‘(frame, lineno)’ tuple. The return string contains: * The canonical filename which contains the frame. * The function name or ‘"<lambda>"’. * The input arguments. * The return value. * The line of code (if it exists). The following two methods can be called by clients to use a debugger to debug a *note statement: 278b, given as a string. -- Method: run (cmd, globals=None, locals=None) Debug a statement executed via the *note exec(): 17f. function. 'globals' defaults to ‘__main__.__dict__’, 'locals' defaults to 'globals'. -- Method: runeval (expr, globals=None, locals=None) Debug an expression executed via the *note eval(): 180. function. 'globals' and 'locals' have the same meaning as in *note run(): 4238. -- Method: runctx (cmd, globals, locals) For backwards compatibility. Calls the *note run(): 4238. method. -- Method: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwds) Debug a single function call, and return its result. Finally, the module defines the following functions: -- Function: bdb.checkfuncname (b, frame) Return ‘True’ if we should break here, depending on the way the *note Breakpoint: 4203. 'b' was set. If it was set via line number, it checks if *note b.line: 420f. is the same as the one in 'frame'. If the breakpoint was set via *note function name: 4207, we have to check we are in the right 'frame' (the right function) and if we are on its first executable line. -- Function: bdb.effective (file, line, frame) Return ‘(active breakpoint, delete temporary flag)’ or ‘(None, None)’ as the breakpoint to act upon. The 'active breakpoint' is the first entry in *note bplist: 4205. for the (*note file: 4206, *note line: 420f.) (which must exist) that is *note enabled: 4211, for which *note checkfuncname(): 423b. is true, and that has neither a false *note condition: 4209. nor positive *note ignore: 4212. count. The 'flag', meaning that a temporary breakpoint should be deleted, is ‘False’ only when the *note cond: 4209. cannot be evaluated (in which case, *note ignore: 4212. count is ignored). If no such entry exists, then ‘(None, None)’ is returned. -- Function: bdb.set_trace () Start debugging with a *note Bdb: 12f5. instance from caller’s frame. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/bdb.py  File: python.info, Node: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback, Next: pdb — The Python Debugger, Prev: bdb — Debugger framework, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.3 ‘faulthandler’ — Dump the Python traceback ------------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.3. __________________________________________________________________ This module contains functions to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal. Call *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. to install fault handlers for the *note SIGSEGV: 1d49, *note SIGFPE: 1d4a, *note SIGABRT: 1d4b, *note SIGBUS: 1d4c, and *note SIGILL: 1d4d. signals. You can also enable them at startup by setting the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1079. environment variable or by using the *note -X: 176. ‘faulthandler’ command line option. The fault handler is compatible with system fault handlers like Apport or the Windows fault handler. The module uses an alternative stack for signal handlers if the ‘sigaltstack()’ function is available. This allows it to dump the traceback even on a stack overflow. The fault handler is called on catastrophic cases and therefore can only use signal-safe functions (e.g. it cannot allocate memory on the heap). Because of this limitation traceback dumping is minimal compared to normal Python tracebacks: * Only ASCII is supported. The ‘backslashreplace’ error handler is used on encoding. * Each string is limited to 500 characters. * Only the filename, the function name and the line number are displayed. (no source code) * It is limited to 100 frames and 100 threads. * The order is reversed: the most recent call is shown first. By default, the Python traceback is written to *note sys.stderr: 939. To see tracebacks, applications must be run in the terminal. A log file can alternatively be passed to *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. The module is implemented in C, so tracebacks can be dumped on a crash or when Python is deadlocked. The *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. calls *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. at Python startup. See also ........ Module *note pdb: a5. Interactive source code debugger for Python programs. Module *note traceback: fe. Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of Python programs. * Menu: * Dumping the traceback:: * Fault handler state:: * Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout:: * Dumping the traceback on a user signal:: * Issue with file descriptors:: * Example: Example<13>.  File: python.info, Node: Dumping the traceback, Next: Fault handler state, Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback 5.28.3.1 Dumping the traceback .............................. -- Function: faulthandler.dump_traceback (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True) Dump the tracebacks of all threads into 'file'. If 'all_threads' is ‘False’, dump only the current thread. See also ........ *note traceback.print_tb(): e80, which can be used to print a traceback object. Changed in version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function.  File: python.info, Node: Fault handler state, Next: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout, Prev: Dumping the traceback, Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback 5.28.3.2 Fault handler state ............................ -- Function: faulthandler.enable (file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True) Enable the fault handler: install handlers for the *note SIGSEGV: 1d49, *note SIGFPE: 1d4a, *note SIGABRT: 1d4b, *note SIGBUS: 1d4c. and *note SIGILL: 1d4d. signals to dump the Python traceback. If 'all_threads' is ‘True’, produce tracebacks for every running thread. Otherwise, dump only the current thread. The 'file' must be kept open until the fault handler is disabled: see *note issue with file descriptors: 4240. Changed in version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function. Changed in version 3.6: On Windows, a handler for Windows exception is also installed. Changed in version 3.10: The dump now mentions if a garbage collector collection is running if 'all_threads' is true. -- Function: faulthandler.disable () Disable the fault handler: uninstall the signal handlers installed by *note enable(): c9e. -- Function: faulthandler.is_enabled () Check if the fault handler is enabled.  File: python.info, Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout, Next: Dumping the traceback on a user signal, Prev: Fault handler state, Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback 5.28.3.3 Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout ............................................... -- Function: faulthandler.dump_traceback_later (timeout, repeat=False, file=sys.stderr, exit=False) Dump the tracebacks of all threads, after a timeout of 'timeout' seconds, or every 'timeout' seconds if 'repeat' is ‘True’. If 'exit' is ‘True’, call ‘_exit()’ with status=1 after dumping the tracebacks. (Note ‘_exit()’ exits the process immediately, which means it doesn’t do any cleanup like flushing file buffers.) If the function is called twice, the new call replaces previous parameters and resets the timeout. The timer has a sub-second resolution. The 'file' must be kept open until the traceback is dumped or *note cancel_dump_traceback_later(): 4244. is called: see *note issue with file descriptors: 4240. This function is implemented using a watchdog thread. Changed in version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function. Changed in version 3.7: This function is now always available. -- Function: faulthandler.cancel_dump_traceback_later () Cancel the last call to *note dump_traceback_later(): dfe.  File: python.info, Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal, Next: Issue with file descriptors, Prev: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout, Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback 5.28.3.4 Dumping the traceback on a user signal ............................................... -- Function: faulthandler.register (signum, file=sys.stderr, all_threads=True, chain=False) Register a user signal: install a handler for the 'signum' signal to dump the traceback of all threads, or of the current thread if 'all_threads' is ‘False’, into 'file'. Call the previous handler if chain is ‘True’. The 'file' must be kept open until the signal is unregistered by *note unregister(): 4246.: see *note issue with file descriptors: 4240. Not available on Windows. Changed in version 3.5: Added support for passing file descriptor to this function. -- Function: faulthandler.unregister (signum) Unregister a user signal: uninstall the handler of the 'signum' signal installed by *note register(): dfc. Return ‘True’ if the signal was registered, ‘False’ otherwise. Not available on Windows.  File: python.info, Node: Issue with file descriptors, Next: Example<13>, Prev: Dumping the traceback on a user signal, Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback 5.28.3.5 Issue with file descriptors .................................... *note enable(): c9e, *note dump_traceback_later(): dfe. and *note register(): dfc. keep the file descriptor of their 'file' argument. If the file is closed and its file descriptor is reused by a new file, or if *note os.dup2(): b63. is used to replace the file descriptor, the traceback will be written into a different file. Call these functions again each time that the file is replaced.  File: python.info, Node: Example<13>, Prev: Issue with file descriptors, Up: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback 5.28.3.6 Example ................ Example of a segmentation fault on Linux with and without enabling the fault handler: $ python -c "import ctypes; ctypes.string_at(0)" Segmentation fault $ python -q -X faulthandler >>> import ctypes >>> ctypes.string_at(0) Fatal Python error: Segmentation fault Current thread 0x00007fb899f39700 (most recent call first): File "/home/python/cpython/Lib/ctypes/__init__.py", line 486 in string_at File "<stdin>", line 1 in <module> Segmentation fault  File: python.info, Node: pdb — The Python Debugger, Next: The Python Profilers, Prev: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.4 ‘pdb’ — The Python Debugger ---------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/pdb.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The module *note pdb: a5. defines an interactive source code debugger for Python programs. It supports setting (conditional) breakpoints and single stepping at the source line level, inspection of stack frames, source code listing, and evaluation of arbitrary Python code in the context of any stack frame. It also supports post-mortem debugging and can be called under program control. The debugger is extensible – it is actually defined as the class *note Pdb: 921. This is currently undocumented but easily understood by reading the source. The extension interface uses the modules *note bdb: f. and *note cmd: 19. See also ........ Module *note faulthandler: 58. Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal. Module *note traceback: fe. Standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of Python programs. The typical usage to break into the debugger is to insert: import pdb; pdb.set_trace() Or: breakpoint() at the location you want to break into the debugger, and then run the program. You can then step through the code following this statement, and continue running without the debugger using the *note continue: 424c. command. Changed in version 3.7: The built-in *note breakpoint(): 236, when called with defaults, can be used instead of ‘import pdb; pdb.set_trace()’. def double(x): breakpoint() return x * 2 val = 3 print(f"{val} * 2 is {double(val)}") The debugger’s prompt is ‘(Pdb)’, which is the indicator that you are in debug mode: > ...(2)double() -> breakpoint() (Pdb) p x 3 (Pdb) continue 3 * 2 is 6 Changed in version 3.3: Tab-completion via the *note readline: ba. module is available for commands and command arguments, e.g. the current global and local names are offered as arguments of the ‘p’ command. You can also invoke *note pdb: a5. from the command line to debug other scripts. For example: python -m pdb [-c command] (-m module | pyfile) [args ...] When invoked as a module, pdb will automatically enter post-mortem debugging if the program being debugged exits abnormally. After post-mortem debugging (or after normal exit of the program), pdb will restart the program. Automatic restarting preserves pdb’s state (such as breakpoints) and in most cases is more useful than quitting the debugger upon program’s exit. -- Option: -c, --command <command> To execute commands as if given in a ‘.pdbrc’ file; see *note Debugger Commands: 424f. Changed in version 3.2: Added the ‘-c’ option. -- Option: -m <module> To execute modules similar to the way ‘python -m’ does. As with a script, the debugger will pause execution just before the first line of the module. Changed in version 3.7: Added the ‘-m’ option. Typical usage to execute a statement under control of the debugger is: >>> import pdb >>> def f(x): ... print(1 / x) >>> pdb.run("f(2)") > <string>(1)<module>() (Pdb) continue 0.5 >>> The typical usage to inspect a crashed program is: >>> import pdb >>> def f(x): ... print(1 / x) ... >>> f(0) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> File "<stdin>", line 2, in f ZeroDivisionError: division by zero >>> pdb.pm() > <stdin>(2)f() (Pdb) p x 0 (Pdb) Changed in version 3.13: The implementation of PEP 667(2) means that name assignments made via ‘pdb’ will immediately affect the active scope, even when running inside an *note optimized scope: 17e. The module defines the following functions; each enters the debugger in a slightly different way: -- Function: pdb.run (statement, globals=None, locals=None) Execute the 'statement' (given as a string or a code object) under debugger control. The debugger prompt appears before any code is executed; you can set breakpoints and type *note continue: 424c, or you can step through the statement using *note step: 4251. or *note next: 4252. (all these commands are explained below). The optional 'globals' and 'locals' arguments specify the environment in which the code is executed; by default the dictionary of the module *note __main__: 1. is used. (See the explanation of the built-in *note exec(): 17f. or *note eval(): 180. functions.) -- Function: pdb.runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None) Evaluate the 'expression' (given as a string or a code object) under debugger control. When *note runeval(): 4253. returns, it returns the value of the 'expression'. Otherwise this function is similar to *note run(): 4056. -- Function: pdb.runcall (function, *args, **kwds) Call the 'function' (a function or method object, not a string) with the given arguments. When *note runcall(): 4254. returns, it returns whatever the function call returned. The debugger prompt appears as soon as the function is entered. -- Function: pdb.set_trace (*, header=None) Enter the debugger at the calling stack frame. This is useful to hard-code a breakpoint at a given point in a program, even if the code is not otherwise being debugged (e.g. when an assertion fails). If given, 'header' is printed to the console just before debugging begins. Changed in version 3.7: The keyword-only argument 'header'. Changed in version 3.13: *note set_trace(): 237. will enter the debugger immediately, rather than on the next line of code to be executed. -- Function: pdb.post_mortem (t=None) Enter post-mortem debugging of the given exception or *note traceback object: af4. If no value is given, it uses the exception that is currently being handled, or raises ‘ValueError’ if there isn’t one. Changed in version 3.13: Support for exception objects was added. -- Function: pdb.pm () Enter post-mortem debugging of the exception found in *note sys.last_exc: 4ba. The ‘run*’ functions and *note set_trace(): 237. are aliases for instantiating the *note Pdb: 921. class and calling the method of the same name. If you want to access further features, you have to do this yourself: -- Class: pdb.Pdb (completekey='tab', stdin=None, stdout=None, skip=None, nosigint=False, readrc=True) *note Pdb: 921. is the debugger class. The 'completekey', 'stdin' and 'stdout' arguments are passed to the underlying *note cmd.Cmd: 16c5. class; see the description there. The 'skip' argument, if given, must be an iterable of glob-style module name patterns. The debugger will not step into frames that originate in a module that matches one of these patterns. (3) By default, Pdb sets a handler for the SIGINT signal (which is sent when the user presses ‘Ctrl’-‘C’ on the console) when you give a *note continue: 424c. command. This allows you to break into the debugger again by pressing ‘Ctrl’-‘C’. If you want Pdb not to touch the SIGINT handler, set 'nosigint' to true. The 'readrc' argument defaults to true and controls whether Pdb will load .pdbrc files from the filesystem. Example call to enable tracing with 'skip': import pdb; pdb.Pdb(skip=['django.*']).set_trace() Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘pdb.Pdb’ with no arguments. Changed in version 3.1: Added the 'skip' parameter. Changed in version 3.2: Added the 'nosigint' parameter. Previously, a SIGINT handler was never set by Pdb. Changed in version 3.6: The 'readrc' argument. -- Method: run (statement, globals=None, locals=None) -- Method: runeval (expression, globals=None, locals=None) -- Method: runcall (function, *args, **kwds) -- Method: set_trace () See the documentation for the functions explained above. * Menu: * Debugger Commands:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pdb.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/ (3) Whether a frame is considered to originate in a certain module is determined by the ‘__name__’ in the frame globals.  File: python.info, Node: Debugger Commands, Up: pdb — The Python Debugger 5.28.4.1 Debugger Commands .......................... The commands recognized by the debugger are listed below. Most commands can be abbreviated to one or two letters as indicated; e.g. ‘h(elp)’ means that either ‘h’ or ‘help’ can be used to enter the help command (but not ‘he’ or ‘hel’, nor ‘H’ or ‘Help’ or ‘HELP’). Arguments to commands must be separated by whitespace (spaces or tabs). Optional arguments are enclosed in square brackets (‘[]’) in the command syntax; the square brackets must not be typed. Alternatives in the command syntax are separated by a vertical bar (‘|’). Entering a blank line repeats the last command entered. Exception: if the last command was a *note list: 425a. command, the next 11 lines are listed. Commands that the debugger doesn’t recognize are assumed to be Python statements and are executed in the context of the program being debugged. Python statements can also be prefixed with an exclamation point (‘!’). This is a powerful way to inspect the program being debugged; it is even possible to change a variable or call a function. When an exception occurs in such a statement, the exception name is printed but the debugger’s state is not changed. Changed in version 3.13: Expressions/Statements whose prefix is a pdb command are now correctly identified and executed. The debugger supports *note aliases: 425b. Aliases can have parameters which allows one a certain level of adaptability to the context under examination. Multiple commands may be entered on a single line, separated by ‘;;’. (A single ‘;’ is not used as it is the separator for multiple commands in a line that is passed to the Python parser.) No intelligence is applied to separating the commands; the input is split at the first ‘;;’ pair, even if it is in the middle of a quoted string. A workaround for strings with double semicolons is to use implicit string concatenation ‘';'';'’ or ‘";"";"’. To set a temporary global variable, use a 'convenience variable'. A 'convenience variable' is a variable whose name starts with ‘$’. For example, ‘$foo = 1’ sets a global variable ‘$foo’ which you can use in the debugger session. The 'convenience variables' are cleared when the program resumes execution so it’s less likely to interfere with your program compared to using normal variables like ‘foo = 1’. There are three preset 'convenience variables': * ‘$_frame’: the current frame you are debugging * ‘$_retval’: the return value if the frame is returning * ‘$_exception’: the exception if the frame is raising an exception Added in version 3.12: Added the 'convenience variable' feature. If a file ‘.pdbrc’ exists in the user’s home directory or in the current directory, it is read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding and executed as if it had been typed at the debugger prompt, with the exception that empty lines and lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored. This is particularly useful for aliases. If both files exist, the one in the home directory is read first and aliases defined there can be overridden by the local file. Changed in version 3.2: ‘.pdbrc’ can now contain commands that continue debugging, such as *note continue: 424c. or *note next: 4252. Previously, these commands had no effect. Changed in version 3.11: ‘.pdbrc’ is now read with ‘'utf-8'’ encoding. Previously, it was read with the system locale encoding. -- Pdbcommand: h(elp) [command] Without argument, print the list of available commands. With a 'command' as argument, print help about that command. ‘help pdb’ displays the full documentation (the docstring of the *note pdb: a5. module). Since the 'command' argument must be an identifier, ‘help exec’ must be entered to get help on the ‘!’ command. -- Pdbcommand: w(here) Print a stack trace, with the most recent frame at the bottom. An arrow (‘>’) indicates the current frame, which determines the context of most commands. -- Pdbcommand: d(own) [count] Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels down in the stack trace (to a newer frame). -- Pdbcommand: u(p) [count] Move the current frame 'count' (default one) levels up in the stack trace (to an older frame). -- Pdbcommand: b(reak) [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]] With a 'lineno' argument, set a break at line 'lineno' in the current file. The line number may be prefixed with a 'filename' and a colon, to specify a breakpoint in another file (possibly one that hasn’t been loaded yet). The file is searched on *note sys.path: 3b0. Accepatable forms of 'filename' are ‘/abspath/to/file.py’, ‘relpath/file.py’, ‘module’ and ‘package.module’. With a 'function' argument, set a break at the first executable statement within that function. 'function' can be any expression that evaluates to a function in the current namespace. If a second argument is present, it is an expression which must evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored. Without argument, list all breaks, including for each breakpoint, the number of times that breakpoint has been hit, the current ignore count, and the associated condition if any. Each breakpoint is assigned a number to which all the other breakpoint commands refer. -- Pdbcommand: tbreak [([filename:]lineno | function) [, condition]] Temporary breakpoint, which is removed automatically when it is first hit. The arguments are the same as for *note break: 4260. -- Pdbcommand: cl(ear) [filename:lineno | bpnumber ...] With a 'filename:lineno' argument, clear all the breakpoints at this line. With a space separated list of breakpoint numbers, clear those breakpoints. Without argument, clear all breaks (but first ask confirmation). -- Pdbcommand: disable bpnumber [bpnumber ...] Disable the breakpoints given as a space separated list of breakpoint numbers. Disabling a breakpoint means it cannot cause the program to stop execution, but unlike clearing a breakpoint, it remains in the list of breakpoints and can be (re-)enabled. -- Pdbcommand: enable bpnumber [bpnumber ...] Enable the breakpoints specified. -- Pdbcommand: ignore bpnumber [count] Set the ignore count for the given breakpoint number. If 'count' is omitted, the ignore count is set to 0. A breakpoint becomes active when the ignore count is zero. When non-zero, the 'count' is decremented each time the breakpoint is reached and the breakpoint is not disabled and any associated condition evaluates to true. -- Pdbcommand: condition bpnumber [condition] Set a new 'condition' for the breakpoint, an expression which must evaluate to true before the breakpoint is honored. If 'condition' is absent, any existing condition is removed; i.e., the breakpoint is made unconditional. -- Pdbcommand: commands [bpnumber] Specify a list of commands for breakpoint number 'bpnumber'. The commands themselves appear on the following lines. Type a line containing just ‘end’ to terminate the commands. An example: (Pdb) commands 1 (com) p some_variable (com) end (Pdb) To remove all commands from a breakpoint, type ‘commands’ and follow it immediately with ‘end’; that is, give no commands. With no 'bpnumber' argument, ‘commands’ refers to the last breakpoint set. You can use breakpoint commands to start your program up again. Simply use the *note continue: 424c. command, or *note step: 4251, or any other command that resumes execution. Specifying any command resuming execution (currently *note continue: 424c, *note step: 4251, *note next: 4252, *note return: 4268, *note jump: 4269, *note quit: 426a. and their abbreviations) terminates the command list (as if that command was immediately followed by end). This is because any time you resume execution (even with a simple next or step), you may encounter another breakpoint—which could have its own command list, leading to ambiguities about which list to execute. If you use the ‘silent’ command in the command list, the usual message about stopping at a breakpoint is not printed. This may be desirable for breakpoints that are to print a specific message and then continue. If none of the other commands print anything, you see no sign that the breakpoint was reached. -- Pdbcommand: s(tep) Execute the current line, stop at the first possible occasion (either in a function that is called or on the next line in the current function). -- Pdbcommand: n(ext) Continue execution until the next line in the current function is reached or it returns. (The difference between *note next: 4252. and *note step: 4251. is that *note step: 4251. stops inside a called function, while *note next: 4252. executes called functions at (nearly) full speed, only stopping at the next line in the current function.) -- Pdbcommand: unt(il) [lineno] Without argument, continue execution until the line with a number greater than the current one is reached. With 'lineno', continue execution until a line with a number greater or equal to 'lineno' is reached. In both cases, also stop when the current frame returns. Changed in version 3.2: Allow giving an explicit line number. -- Pdbcommand: r(eturn) Continue execution until the current function returns. -- Pdbcommand: c(ont(inue)) Continue execution, only stop when a breakpoint is encountered. -- Pdbcommand: j(ump) lineno Set the next line that will be executed. Only available in the bottom-most frame. This lets you jump back and execute code again, or jump forward to skip code that you don’t want to run. It should be noted that not all jumps are allowed – for instance it is not possible to jump into the middle of a *note for: 2ec. loop or out of a *note finally: 9ca. clause. -- Pdbcommand: l(ist) [first[, last]] List source code for the current file. Without arguments, list 11 lines around the current line or continue the previous listing. With ‘.’ as argument, list 11 lines around the current line. With one argument, list 11 lines around at that line. With two arguments, list the given range; if the second argument is less than the first, it is interpreted as a count. The current line in the current frame is indicated by ‘->’. If an exception is being debugged, the line where the exception was originally raised or propagated is indicated by ‘>>’, if it differs from the current line. Changed in version 3.2: Added the ‘>>’ marker. -- Pdbcommand: ll | longlist List all source code for the current function or frame. Interesting lines are marked as for *note list: 425a. Added in version 3.2. -- Pdbcommand: a(rgs) Print the arguments of the current function and their current values. -- Pdbcommand: p expression Evaluate 'expression' in the current context and print its value. Note: ‘print()’ can also be used, but is not a debugger command — this executes the Python *note print(): f70. function. -- Pdbcommand: pp expression Like the *note p: f71. command, except the value of 'expression' is pretty-printed using the *note pprint: ae. module. -- Pdbcommand: whatis expression Print the type of 'expression'. -- Pdbcommand: source expression Try to get source code of 'expression' and display it. Added in version 3.2. -- Pdbcommand: display [expression] Display the value of 'expression' if it changed, each time execution stops in the current frame. Without 'expression', list all display expressions for the current frame. Note: Display evaluates 'expression' and compares to the result of the previous evaluation of 'expression', so when the result is mutable, display may not be able to pick up the changes. Example: lst = [] breakpoint() pass lst.append(1) print(lst) Display won’t realize ‘lst’ has been changed because the result of evaluation is modified in place by ‘lst.append(1)’ before being compared: > example.py(3)<module>() -> pass (Pdb) display lst display lst: [] (Pdb) n > example.py(4)<module>() -> lst.append(1) (Pdb) n > example.py(5)<module>() -> print(lst) (Pdb) You can do some tricks with copy mechanism to make it work: > example.py(3)<module>() -> pass (Pdb) display lst[:] display lst[:]: [] (Pdb) n > example.py(4)<module>() -> lst.append(1) (Pdb) n > example.py(5)<module>() -> print(lst) display lst[:]: [1] [old: []] (Pdb) Added in version 3.2. -- Pdbcommand: undisplay [expression] Do not display 'expression' anymore in the current frame. Without 'expression', clear all display expressions for the current frame. Added in version 3.2. -- Pdbcommand: interact Start an interactive interpreter (using the *note code: 1a. module) in a new global namespace initialised from the local and global namespaces for the current scope. Use ‘exit()’ or ‘quit()’ to exit the interpreter and return to the debugger. Note: As ‘interact’ creates a new dedicated namespace for code execution, assignments to variables will not affect the original namespaces. However, modifications to any referenced mutable objects will be reflected in the original namespaces as usual. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.13: ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ can be used to exit the *note interact: 4273. command. Changed in version 3.13: *note interact: 4273. directs its output to the debugger’s output channel rather than *note sys.stderr: 939. -- Pdbcommand: alias [name [command]] Create an alias called 'name' that executes 'command'. The 'command' must 'not' be enclosed in quotes. Replaceable parameters can be indicated by ‘%1’, ‘%2’, … and ‘%9’, while ‘%*’ is replaced by all the parameters. If 'command' is omitted, the current alias for 'name' is shown. If no arguments are given, all aliases are listed. Aliases may be nested and can contain anything that can be legally typed at the pdb prompt. Note that internal pdb commands 'can' be overridden by aliases. Such a command is then hidden until the alias is removed. Aliasing is recursively applied to the first word of the command line; all other words in the line are left alone. As an example, here are two useful aliases (especially when placed in the ‘.pdbrc’ file): # Print instance variables (usage "pi classInst") alias pi for k in %1.__dict__.keys(): print(f"%1.{k} = {%1.__dict__[k]}") # Print instance variables in self alias ps pi self -- Pdbcommand: unalias name Delete the specified alias 'name'. -- Pdbcommand: ! statement Execute the (one-line) 'statement' in the context of the current stack frame. The exclamation point can be omitted unless the first word of the statement resembles a debugger command, e.g.: (Pdb) ! n=42 (Pdb) To set a global variable, you can prefix the assignment command with a *note global: 18a. statement on the same line, e.g.: (Pdb) global list_options; list_options = ['-l'] (Pdb) -- Pdbcommand: run [args ...] -- Pdbcommand: restart [args ...] Restart the debugged Python program. If 'args' is supplied, it is split with *note shlex: c4. and the result is used as the new *note sys.argv: 1258. History, breakpoints, actions and debugger options are preserved. *note restart: 4278. is an alias for *note run: 4277. -- Pdbcommand: q(uit) Quit from the debugger. The program being executed is aborted. -- Pdbcommand: debug code Enter a recursive debugger that steps through 'code' (which is an arbitrary expression or statement to be executed in the current environment). -- Pdbcommand: retval Print the return value for the last return of the current function. -- Pdbcommand: exceptions [excnumber] List or jump between chained exceptions. When using ‘pdb.pm()’ or ‘Pdb.post_mortem(...)’ with a chained exception instead of a traceback, it allows the user to move between the chained exceptions using ‘exceptions’ command to list exceptions, and ‘exceptions <number>’ to switch to that exception. Example: def out(): try: middle() except Exception as e: raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e def middle(): try: return inner(0) except Exception as e: raise ValueError("Middle fail") def inner(x): 1 / x out() calling ‘pdb.pm()’ will allow to move between exceptions: > example.py(5)out() -> raise ValueError("reraise middle() error") from e (Pdb) exceptions 0 ZeroDivisionError('division by zero') 1 ValueError('Middle fail') > 2 ValueError('reraise middle() error') (Pdb) exceptions 0 > example.py(16)inner() -> 1 / x (Pdb) up > example.py(10)middle() -> return inner(0) Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: The Python Profilers, Next: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets, Prev: pdb — The Python Debugger, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.5 The Python Profilers --------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/profile.py(1) and Lib/pstats.py(2) __________________________________________________________________ * Menu: * Introduction to the profilers:: * Instant User’s Manual:: * profile and cProfile Module Reference:: * The Stats Class:: * What Is Deterministic Profiling?:: * Limitations:: * Calibration:: * Using a custom timer:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/profile.py (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pstats.py  File: python.info, Node: Introduction to the profilers, Next: Instant User’s Manual, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.1 Introduction to the profilers ...................................... *note cProfile: 27. and *note profile: af. provide 'deterministic profiling' of Python programs. A 'profile' is a set of statistics that describes how often and for how long various parts of the program executed. These statistics can be formatted into reports via the *note pstats: b0. module. The Python standard library provides two different implementations of the same profiling interface: 1. *note cProfile: 27. is recommended for most users; it’s a C extension with reasonable overhead that makes it suitable for profiling long-running programs. Based on ‘lsprof’, contributed by Brett Rosen and Ted Czotter. 2. *note profile: af, a pure Python module whose interface is imitated by *note cProfile: 27, but which adds significant overhead to profiled programs. If you’re trying to extend the profiler in some way, the task might be easier with this module. Originally designed and written by Jim Roskind. Note: The profiler modules are designed to provide an execution profile for a given program, not for benchmarking purposes (for that, there is *note timeit: ef. for reasonably accurate results). This particularly applies to benchmarking Python code against C code: the profilers introduce overhead for Python code, but not for C-level functions, and so the C code would seem faster than any Python one.  File: python.info, Node: Instant User’s Manual, Next: profile and cProfile Module Reference, Prev: Introduction to the profilers, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.2 Instant User’s Manual .............................. This section is provided for users that “don’t want to read the manual.” It provides a very brief overview, and allows a user to rapidly perform profiling on an existing application. To profile a function that takes a single argument, you can do: import cProfile import re cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")') (Use *note profile: af. instead of *note cProfile: 27. if the latter is not available on your system.) The above action would run *note re.compile(): bd3. and print profile results like the following: 214 function calls (207 primitive calls) in 0.002 seconds Ordered by: cumulative time ncalls tottime percall cumtime percall filename:lineno(function) 1 0.000 0.000 0.002 0.002 {built-in method builtins.exec} 1 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 <string>:1(<module>) 1 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 __init__.py:250(compile) 1 0.000 0.000 0.001 0.001 __init__.py:289(_compile) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 _compiler.py:759(compile) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 _parser.py:937(parse) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 _compiler.py:598(_code) 1 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 _parser.py:435(_parse_sub) The first line indicates that 214 calls were monitored. Of those calls, 207 were 'primitive', meaning that the call was not induced via recursion. The next line: ‘Ordered by: cumulative time’ indicates the output is sorted by the ‘cumtime’ values. The column headings include: ncalls for the number of calls. tottime for the total time spent in the given function (and excluding time made in calls to sub-functions) percall is the quotient of ‘tottime’ divided by ‘ncalls’ cumtime is the cumulative time spent in this and all subfunctions (from invocation till exit). This figure is accurate 'even' for recursive functions. percall is the quotient of ‘cumtime’ divided by primitive calls filename:lineno(function) provides the respective data of each function When there are two numbers in the first column (for example ‘3/1’), it means that the function recursed. The second value is the number of primitive calls and the former is the total number of calls. Note that when the function does not recurse, these two values are the same, and only the single figure is printed. Instead of printing the output at the end of the profile run, you can save the results to a file by specifying a filename to the ‘run()’ function: import cProfile import re cProfile.run('re.compile("foo|bar")', 'restats') The *note pstats.Stats: 4282. class reads profile results from a file and formats them in various ways. The files *note cProfile: 27. and *note profile: af. can also be invoked as a script to profile another script. For example: python -m cProfile [-o output_file] [-s sort_order] (-m module | myscript.py) -- Option: -o <output_file> Writes the profile results to a file instead of to stdout. -- Option: -s <sort_order> Specifies one of the *note sort_stats(): 4286. sort values to sort the output by. This only applies when *note -o: 4284. is not supplied. -- Option: -m <module> Specifies that a module is being profiled instead of a script. Added in version 3.7: Added the ‘-m’ option to *note cProfile: 27. Added in version 3.8: Added the ‘-m’ option to *note profile: af. The *note pstats: b0. module’s *note Stats: 4282. class has a variety of methods for manipulating and printing the data saved into a profile results file: import pstats from pstats import SortKey p = pstats.Stats('restats') p.strip_dirs().sort_stats(-1).print_stats() The *note strip_dirs(): 4288. method removed the extraneous path from all the module names. The *note sort_stats(): 4286. method sorted all the entries according to the standard module/line/name string that is printed. The *note print_stats(): 4289. method printed out all the statistics. You might try the following sort calls: p.sort_stats(SortKey.NAME) p.print_stats() The first call will actually sort the list by function name, and the second call will print out the statistics. The following are some interesting calls to experiment with: p.sort_stats(SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(10) This sorts the profile by cumulative time in a function, and then only prints the ten most significant lines. If you want to understand what algorithms are taking time, the above line is what you would use. If you were looking to see what functions were looping a lot, and taking a lot of time, you would do: p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME).print_stats(10) to sort according to time spent within each function, and then print the statistics for the top ten functions. You might also try: p.sort_stats(SortKey.FILENAME).print_stats('__init__') This will sort all the statistics by file name, and then print out statistics for only the class init methods (since they are spelled with ‘__init__’ in them). As one final example, you could try: p.sort_stats(SortKey.TIME, SortKey.CUMULATIVE).print_stats(.5, 'init') This line sorts statistics with a primary key of time, and a secondary key of cumulative time, and then prints out some of the statistics. To be specific, the list is first culled down to 50% (re: ‘.5’) of its original size, then only lines containing ‘init’ are maintained, and that sub-sub-list is printed. If you wondered what functions called the above functions, you could now (‘p’ is still sorted according to the last criteria) do: p.print_callers(.5, 'init') and you would get a list of callers for each of the listed functions. If you want more functionality, you’re going to have to read the manual, or guess what the following functions do: p.print_callees() p.add('restats') Invoked as a script, the *note pstats: b0. module is a statistics browser for reading and examining profile dumps. It has a simple line-oriented interface (implemented using *note cmd: 19.) and interactive help.  File: python.info, Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference, Next: The Stats Class, Prev: Instant User’s Manual, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.3 ‘profile’ and ‘cProfile’ Module Reference .................................................. Both the *note profile: af. and *note cProfile: 27. modules provide the following functions: -- Function: profile.run (command, filename=None, sort=-1) This function takes a single argument that can be passed to the *note exec(): 17f. function, and an optional file name. In all cases this routine executes: exec(command, __main__.__dict__, __main__.__dict__) and gathers profiling statistics from the execution. If no file name is present, then this function automatically creates a *note Stats: 4282. instance and prints a simple profiling report. If the sort value is specified, it is passed to this *note Stats: 4282. instance to control how the results are sorted. -- Function: profile.runctx (command, globals, locals, filename=None, sort=-1) This function is similar to *note run(): 428b, with added arguments to supply the globals and locals mappings for the 'command' string. This routine executes: exec(command, globals, locals) and gathers profiling statistics as in the *note run(): 428b. function above. -- Class: profile.Profile (timer=None, timeunit=0.0, subcalls=True, builtins=True) This class is normally only used if more precise control over profiling is needed than what the ‘cProfile.run()’ function provides. A custom timer can be supplied for measuring how long code takes to run via the 'timer' argument. This must be a function that returns a single number representing the current time. If the number is an integer, the 'timeunit' specifies a multiplier that specifies the duration of each unit of time. For example, if the timer returns times measured in thousands of seconds, the time unit would be ‘.001’. Directly using the *note Profile: 9e2. class allows formatting profile results without writing the profile data to a file: import cProfile, pstats, io from pstats import SortKey pr = cProfile.Profile() pr.enable() # ... do something ... pr.disable() s = io.StringIO() sortby = SortKey.CUMULATIVE ps = pstats.Stats(pr, stream=s).sort_stats(sortby) ps.print_stats() print(s.getvalue()) The *note Profile: 9e2. class can also be used as a context manager (supported only in *note cProfile: 27. module. see *note Context Manager Types: 1fbf.): import cProfile with cProfile.Profile() as pr: # ... do something ... pr.print_stats() Changed in version 3.8: Added context manager support. -- Method: enable () Start collecting profiling data. Only in *note cProfile: 27. -- Method: disable () Stop collecting profiling data. Only in *note cProfile: 27. -- Method: create_stats () Stop collecting profiling data and record the results internally as the current profile. -- Method: print_stats (sort=-1) Create a *note Stats: 4282. object based on the current profile and print the results to stdout. The 'sort' parameter specifies the sorting order of the displayed statistics. It accepts a single key or a tuple of keys to enable multi-level sorting, as in *note Stats.sort_stats: 4286. Added in version 3.13: *note print_stats(): 4290. now accepts a tuple of keys. -- Method: dump_stats (filename) Write the results of the current profile to 'filename'. -- Method: run (cmd) Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 17f. -- Method: runctx (cmd, globals, locals) Profile the cmd via *note exec(): 17f. with the specified global and local environment. -- Method: runcall (func, /, *args, **kwargs) Profile ‘func(*args, **kwargs)’ Note that profiling will only work if the called command/function actually returns. If the interpreter is terminated (e.g. via a *note sys.exit(): 133c. call during the called command/function execution) no profiling results will be printed.  File: python.info, Node: The Stats Class, Next: What Is Deterministic Profiling?, Prev: profile and cProfile Module Reference, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.4 The ‘Stats’ Class .......................... Analysis of the profiler data is done using the *note Stats: 4282. class. -- Class: pstats.Stats (*filenames or profile, stream=sys.stdout) This class constructor creates an instance of a “statistics object” from a 'filename' (or list of filenames) or from a ‘Profile’ instance. Output will be printed to the stream specified by 'stream'. The file selected by the above constructor must have been created by the corresponding version of *note profile: af. or *note cProfile: 27. To be specific, there is 'no' file compatibility guaranteed with future versions of this profiler, and there is no compatibility with files produced by other profilers, or the same profiler run on a different operating system. If several files are provided, all the statistics for identical functions will be coalesced, so that an overall view of several processes can be considered in a single report. If additional files need to be combined with data in an existing *note Stats: 4282. object, the *note add(): 4296. method can be used. Instead of reading the profile data from a file, a ‘cProfile.Profile’ or *note profile.Profile: 9e2. object can be used as the profile data source. *note Stats: 4282. objects have the following methods: -- Method: strip_dirs () This method for the *note Stats: 4282. class removes all leading path information from file names. It is very useful in reducing the size of the printout to fit within (close to) 80 columns. This method modifies the object, and the stripped information is lost. After performing a strip operation, the object is considered to have its entries in a “random” order, as it was just after object initialization and loading. If *note strip_dirs(): 4288. causes two function names to be indistinguishable (they are on the same line of the same filename, and have the same function name), then the statistics for these two entries are accumulated into a single entry. -- Method: add (*filenames) This method of the *note Stats: 4282. class accumulates additional profiling information into the current profiling object. Its arguments should refer to filenames created by the corresponding version of *note profile.run(): 428b. or ‘cProfile.run()’. Statistics for identically named (re: file, line, name) functions are automatically accumulated into single function statistics. -- Method: dump_stats (filename) Save the data loaded into the *note Stats: 4282. object to a file named 'filename'. The file is created if it does not exist, and is overwritten if it already exists. This is equivalent to the method of the same name on the *note profile.Profile: 9e2. and ‘cProfile.Profile’ classes. -- Method: sort_stats (*keys) This method modifies the *note Stats: 4282. object by sorting it according to the supplied criteria. The argument can be either a string or a SortKey enum identifying the basis of a sort (example: ‘'time'’, ‘'name'’, ‘SortKey.TIME’ or ‘SortKey.NAME’). The SortKey enums argument have advantage over the string argument in that it is more robust and less error prone. When more than one key is provided, then additional keys are used as secondary criteria when there is equality in all keys selected before them. For example, ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILE)’ will sort all the entries according to their function name, and resolve all ties (identical function names) by sorting by file name. For the string argument, abbreviations can be used for any key names, as long as the abbreviation is unambiguous. The following are the valid string and SortKey: Valid String Arg Valid enum Arg Meaning ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘'calls'’ SortKey.CALLS call count ‘'cumulative'’ SortKey.CUMULATIVE cumulative time ‘'cumtime'’ N/A cumulative time ‘'file'’ N/A file name ‘'filename'’ SortKey.FILENAME file name ‘'module'’ N/A file name ‘'ncalls'’ N/A call count ‘'pcalls'’ SortKey.PCALLS primitive call count ‘'line'’ SortKey.LINE line number ‘'name'’ SortKey.NAME function name ‘'nfl'’ SortKey.NFL name/file/line ‘'stdname'’ SortKey.STDNAME standard name ‘'time'’ SortKey.TIME internal time ‘'tottime'’ N/A internal time Note that all sorts on statistics are in descending order (placing most time consuming items first), where as name, file, and line number searches are in ascending order (alphabetical). The subtle distinction between ‘SortKey.NFL’ and ‘SortKey.STDNAME’ is that the standard name is a sort of the name as printed, which means that the embedded line numbers get compared in an odd way. For example, lines 3, 20, and 40 would (if the file names were the same) appear in the string order 20, 3 and 40. In contrast, ‘SortKey.NFL’ does a numeric compare of the line numbers. In fact, ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NFL)’ is the same as ‘sort_stats(SortKey.NAME, SortKey.FILENAME, SortKey.LINE)’. For backward-compatibility reasons, the numeric arguments ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’, and ‘2’ are permitted. They are interpreted as ‘'stdname'’, ‘'calls'’, ‘'time'’, and ‘'cumulative'’ respectively. If this old style format (numeric) is used, only one sort key (the numeric key) will be used, and additional arguments will be silently ignored. Added in version 3.7: Added the SortKey enum. -- Method: reverse_order () This method for the *note Stats: 4282. class reverses the ordering of the basic list within the object. Note that by default ascending vs descending order is properly selected based on the sort key of choice. -- Method: print_stats (*restrictions) This method for the *note Stats: 4282. class prints out a report as described in the *note profile.run(): 428b. definition. The order of the printing is based on the last *note sort_stats(): 4286. operation done on the object (subject to caveats in *note add(): 4296. and *note strip_dirs(): 4288.). The arguments provided (if any) can be used to limit the list down to the significant entries. Initially, the list is taken to be the complete set of profiled functions. Each restriction is either an integer (to select a count of lines), or a decimal fraction between 0.0 and 1.0 inclusive (to select a percentage of lines), or a string that will interpreted as a regular expression (to pattern match the standard name that is printed). If several restrictions are provided, then they are applied sequentially. For example: print_stats(.1, 'foo:') would first limit the printing to first 10% of list, and then only print functions that were part of filename ‘.*foo:’. In contrast, the command: print_stats('foo:', .1) would limit the list to all functions having file names ‘.*foo:’, and then proceed to only print the first 10% of them. -- Method: print_callers (*restrictions) This method for the *note Stats: 4282. class prints a list of all functions that called each function in the profiled database. The ordering is identical to that provided by *note print_stats(): 4289, and the definition of the restricting argument is also identical. Each caller is reported on its own line. The format differs slightly depending on the profiler that produced the stats: * With *note profile: af, a number is shown in parentheses after each caller to show how many times this specific call was made. For convenience, a second non-parenthesized number repeats the cumulative time spent in the function at the right. * With *note cProfile: 27, each caller is preceded by three numbers: the number of times this specific call was made, and the total and cumulative times spent in the current function while it was invoked by this specific caller. -- Method: print_callees (*restrictions) This method for the *note Stats: 4282. class prints a list of all function that were called by the indicated function. Aside from this reversal of direction of calls (re: called vs was called by), the arguments and ordering are identical to the *note print_callers(): 4299. method. -- Method: get_stats_profile () This method returns an instance of StatsProfile, which contains a mapping of function names to instances of FunctionProfile. Each FunctionProfile instance holds information related to the function’s profile such as how long the function took to run, how many times it was called, etc… Added in version 3.9: Added the following dataclasses: StatsProfile, FunctionProfile. Added the following function: get_stats_profile.  File: python.info, Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?, Next: Limitations, Prev: The Stats Class, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.5 What Is Deterministic Profiling? ......................................... 'Deterministic profiling' is meant to reflect the fact that all 'function call', 'function return', and 'exception' events are monitored, and precise timings are made for the intervals between these events (during which time the user’s code is executing). In contrast, 'statistical profiling' (which is not done by this module) randomly samples the effective instruction pointer, and deduces where time is being spent. The latter technique traditionally involves less overhead (as the code does not need to be instrumented), but provides only relative indications of where time is being spent. In Python, since there is an interpreter active during execution, the presence of instrumented code is not required in order to do deterministic profiling. Python automatically provides a 'hook' (optional callback) for each event. In addition, the interpreted nature of Python tends to add so much overhead to execution, that deterministic profiling tends to only add small processing overhead in typical applications. The result is that deterministic profiling is not that expensive, yet provides extensive run time statistics about the execution of a Python program. Call count statistics can be used to identify bugs in code (surprising counts), and to identify possible inline-expansion points (high call counts). Internal time statistics can be used to identify “hot loops” that should be carefully optimized. Cumulative time statistics should be used to identify high level errors in the selection of algorithms. Note that the unusual handling of cumulative times in this profiler allows statistics for recursive implementations of algorithms to be directly compared to iterative implementations.  File: python.info, Node: Limitations, Next: Calibration, Prev: What Is Deterministic Profiling?, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.6 Limitations .................... One limitation has to do with accuracy of timing information. There is a fundamental problem with deterministic profilers involving accuracy. The most obvious restriction is that the underlying “clock” is only ticking at a rate (typically) of about .001 seconds. Hence no measurements will be more accurate than the underlying clock. If enough measurements are taken, then the “error” will tend to average out. Unfortunately, removing this first error induces a second source of error. The second problem is that it “takes a while” from when an event is dispatched until the profiler’s call to get the time actually 'gets' the state of the clock. Similarly, there is a certain lag when exiting the profiler event handler from the time that the clock’s value was obtained (and then squirreled away), until the user’s code is once again executing. As a result, functions that are called many times, or call many functions, will typically accumulate this error. The error that accumulates in this fashion is typically less than the accuracy of the clock (less than one clock tick), but it 'can' accumulate and become very significant. The problem is more important with *note profile: af. than with the lower-overhead *note cProfile: 27. For this reason, *note profile: af. provides a means of calibrating itself for a given platform so that this error can be probabilistically (on the average) removed. After the profiler is calibrated, it will be more accurate (in a least square sense), but it will sometimes produce negative numbers (when call counts are exceptionally low, and the gods of probability work against you :-). ) Do 'not' be alarmed by negative numbers in the profile. They should 'only' appear if you have calibrated your profiler, and the results are actually better than without calibration.  File: python.info, Node: Calibration, Next: Using a custom timer, Prev: Limitations, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.7 Calibration .................... The profiler of the *note profile: af. module subtracts a constant from each event handling time to compensate for the overhead of calling the time function, and socking away the results. By default, the constant is 0. The following procedure can be used to obtain a better constant for a given platform (see *note Limitations: 429f.). import profile pr = profile.Profile() for i in range(5): print(pr.calibrate(10000)) The method executes the number of Python calls given by the argument, directly and again under the profiler, measuring the time for both. It then computes the hidden overhead per profiler event, and returns that as a float. For example, on a 1.8Ghz Intel Core i5 running macOS, and using Python’s time.process_time() as the timer, the magical number is about 4.04e-6. The object of this exercise is to get a fairly consistent result. If your computer is 'very' fast, or your timer function has poor resolution, you might have to pass 100000, or even 1000000, to get consistent results. When you have a consistent answer, there are three ways you can use it: import profile # 1. Apply computed bias to all Profile instances created hereafter. profile.Profile.bias = your_computed_bias # 2. Apply computed bias to a specific Profile instance. pr = profile.Profile() pr.bias = your_computed_bias # 3. Specify computed bias in instance constructor. pr = profile.Profile(bias=your_computed_bias) If you have a choice, you are better off choosing a smaller constant, and then your results will “less often” show up as negative in profile statistics.  File: python.info, Node: Using a custom timer, Prev: Calibration, Up: The Python Profilers 5.28.5.8 Using a custom timer ............................. If you want to change how current time is determined (for example, to force use of wall-clock time or elapsed process time), pass the timing function you want to the ‘Profile’ class constructor: pr = profile.Profile(your_time_func) The resulting profiler will then call ‘your_time_func’. Depending on whether you are using *note profile.Profile: 9e2. or ‘cProfile.Profile’, ‘your_time_func’’s return value will be interpreted differently: *note profile.Profile: 9e2. ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number, or a list of numbers whose sum is the current time (like what *note os.times(): 1109. returns). If the function returns a single time number, or the list of returned numbers has length 2, then you will get an especially fast version of the dispatch routine. Be warned that you should calibrate the profiler class for the timer function that you choose (see *note Calibration: 42a1.). For most machines, a timer that returns a lone integer value will provide the best results in terms of low overhead during profiling. (*note os.times(): 1109. is 'pretty' bad, as it returns a tuple of floating-point values). If you want to substitute a better timer in the cleanest fashion, derive a class and hardwire a replacement dispatch method that best handles your timer call, along with the appropriate calibration constant. ‘cProfile.Profile’ ‘your_time_func’ should return a single number. If it returns integers, you can also invoke the class constructor with a second argument specifying the real duration of one unit of time. For example, if ‘your_integer_time_func’ returns times measured in thousands of seconds, you would construct the ‘Profile’ instance as follows: pr = cProfile.Profile(your_integer_time_func, 0.001) As the ‘cProfile.Profile’ class cannot be calibrated, custom timer functions should be used with care and should be as fast as possible. For the best results with a custom timer, it might be necessary to hard-code it in the C source of the internal ‘_lsprof’ module. Python 3.3 adds several new functions in *note time: ee. that can be used to make precise measurements of process or wall-clock time. For example, see *note time.perf_counter(): a88.  File: python.info, Node: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets, Next: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution, Prev: The Python Profilers, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.6 ‘timeit’ — Measure execution time of small code snippets --------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/timeit.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides a simple way to time small bits of Python code. It has both a *note Command-Line Interface: 42a6. as well as a *note callable: 42a7. one. It avoids a number of common traps for measuring execution times. See also Tim Peters’ introduction to the “Algorithms” chapter in the second edition of 'Python Cookbook', published by O’Reilly. * Menu: * Basic Examples: Basic Examples<2>. * Python Interface:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<4>. * Examples: Examples<30>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/timeit.py  File: python.info, Node: Basic Examples<2>, Next: Python Interface, Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets 5.28.6.1 Basic Examples ....................... The following example shows how the *note Command-Line Interface: 42a6. can be used to compare three different expressions: $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(str(n) for n in range(100))" 10000 loops, best of 5: 30.2 usec per loop $ python -m timeit "'-'.join([str(n) for n in range(100)])" 10000 loops, best of 5: 27.5 usec per loop $ python -m timeit "'-'.join(map(str, range(100)))" 10000 loops, best of 5: 23.2 usec per loop This can be achieved from the *note Python Interface: 42a7. with: >>> import timeit >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(str(n) for n in range(100))', number=10000) 0.3018611848820001 >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join([str(n) for n in range(100)])', number=10000) 0.2727368790656328 >>> timeit.timeit('"-".join(map(str, range(100)))', number=10000) 0.23702679807320237 A callable can also be passed from the *note Python Interface: 42a7.: >>> timeit.timeit(lambda: "-".join(map(str, range(100))), number=10000) 0.19665591977536678 Note however that *note timeit(): e79. will automatically determine the number of repetitions only when the command-line interface is used. In the *note Examples: 42a9. section you can find more advanced examples.  File: python.info, Node: Python Interface, Next: Command-Line Interface<4>, Prev: Basic Examples<2>, Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets 5.28.6.2 Python Interface ......................... The module defines three convenience functions and a public class: -- Function: timeit.timeit (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, number=1000000, globals=None) Create a *note Timer: 1491. instance with the given statement, 'setup' code and 'timer' function and run its *note timeit(): ced. method with 'number' executions. The optional 'globals' argument specifies a namespace in which to execute the code. Changed in version 3.5: The optional 'globals' parameter was added. -- Function: timeit.repeat (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<default timer>, repeat=5, number=1000000, globals=None) Create a *note Timer: 1491. instance with the given statement, 'setup' code and 'timer' function and run its *note repeat(): 42ac. method with the given 'repeat' count and 'number' executions. The optional 'globals' argument specifies a namespace in which to execute the code. Changed in version 3.5: The optional 'globals' parameter was added. Changed in version 3.7: Default value of 'repeat' changed from 3 to 5. -- Function: timeit.default_timer () The default timer, which is always time.perf_counter(), returns float seconds. An alternative, time.perf_counter_ns, returns integer nanoseconds. Changed in version 3.3: *note time.perf_counter(): a88. is now the default timer. -- Class: timeit.Timer (stmt='pass', setup='pass', timer=<timer function>, globals=None) Class for timing execution speed of small code snippets. The constructor takes a statement to be timed, an additional statement used for setup, and a timer function. Both statements default to ‘'pass'’; the timer function is platform-dependent (see the module doc string). 'stmt' and 'setup' may also contain multiple statements separated by ‘;’ or newlines, as long as they don’t contain multi-line string literals. The statement will by default be executed within timeit’s namespace; this behavior can be controlled by passing a namespace to 'globals'. To measure the execution time of the first statement, use the *note timeit(): ced. method. The *note repeat(): 42ac. and *note autorange(): cec. methods are convenience methods to call *note timeit(): ced. multiple times. The execution time of 'setup' is excluded from the overall timed execution run. The 'stmt' and 'setup' parameters can also take objects that are callable without arguments. This will embed calls to them in a timer function that will then be executed by *note timeit(): ced. Note that the timing overhead is a little larger in this case because of the extra function calls. Changed in version 3.5: The optional 'globals' parameter was added. -- Method: timeit (number=1000000) Time 'number' executions of the main statement. This executes the setup statement once, and then returns the time it takes to execute the main statement a number of times. The default timer returns seconds as a float. The argument is the number of times through the loop, defaulting to one million. The main statement, the setup statement and the timer function to be used are passed to the constructor. Note: By default, *note timeit(): ced. temporarily turns off *note garbage collection: 1919. during the timing. The advantage of this approach is that it makes independent timings more comparable. The disadvantage is that GC may be an important component of the performance of the function being measured. If so, GC can be re-enabled as the first statement in the 'setup' string. For example: timeit.Timer('for i in range(10): oct(i)', 'gc.enable()').timeit() -- Method: autorange (callback=None) Automatically determine how many times to call *note timeit(): ced. This is a convenience function that calls *note timeit(): ced. repeatedly so that the total time >= 0.2 second, returning the eventual (number of loops, time taken for that number of loops). It calls *note timeit(): ced. with increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, … until the time taken is at least 0.2 seconds. If 'callback' is given and is not ‘None’, it will be called after each trial with two arguments: ‘callback(number, time_taken)’. Added in version 3.6. -- Method: repeat (repeat=5, number=1000000) Call *note timeit(): ced. a few times. This is a convenience function that calls the *note timeit(): ced. repeatedly, returning a list of results. The first argument specifies how many times to call *note timeit(): ced. The second argument specifies the 'number' argument for *note timeit(): ced. Note: It’s tempting to calculate mean and standard deviation from the result vector and report these. However, this is not very useful. In a typical case, the lowest value gives a lower bound for how fast your machine can run the given code snippet; higher values in the result vector are typically not caused by variability in Python’s speed, but by other processes interfering with your timing accuracy. So the *note min(): f03. of the result is probably the only number you should be interested in. After that, you should look at the entire vector and apply common sense rather than statistics. Changed in version 3.7: Default value of 'repeat' changed from 3 to 5. -- Method: print_exc (file=None) Helper to print a traceback from the timed code. Typical use: t = Timer(...) # outside the try/except try: t.timeit(...) # or t.repeat(...) except Exception: t.print_exc() The advantage over the standard traceback is that source lines in the compiled template will be displayed. The optional 'file' argument directs where the traceback is sent; it defaults to *note sys.stderr: 939.  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Interface<4>, Next: Examples<30>, Prev: Python Interface, Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets 5.28.6.3 Command-Line Interface ............................... When called as a program from the command line, the following form is used: python -m timeit [-n N] [-r N] [-u U] [-s S] [-p] [-v] [-h] [statement ...] Where the following options are understood: -- Option: -n N, --number=N how many times to execute ‘statement’ -- Option: -r N, --repeat=N how many times to repeat the timer (default 5) -- Option: -s S, --setup=S statement to be executed once initially (default ‘pass’) -- Option: -p, --process measure process time, not wallclock time, using *note time.process_time(): a89. instead of *note time.perf_counter(): a88, which is the default Added in version 3.3. -- Option: -u, --unit=U specify a time unit for timer output; can select ‘nsec’, ‘usec’, ‘msec’, or ‘sec’ Added in version 3.5. -- Option: -v, --verbose print raw timing results; repeat for more digits precision -- Option: -h, --help print a short usage message and exit A multi-line statement may be given by specifying each line as a separate statement argument; indented lines are possible by enclosing an argument in quotes and using leading spaces. Multiple *note -s: 42b4. options are treated similarly. If *note -n: 42b0. is not given, a suitable number of loops is calculated by trying increasing numbers from the sequence 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50, … until the total time is at least 0.2 seconds. *note default_timer(): 42ad. measurements can be affected by other programs running on the same machine, so the best thing to do when accurate timing is necessary is to repeat the timing a few times and use the best time. The *note -r: 42b2. option is good for this; the default of 5 repetitions is probably enough in most cases. You can use *note time.process_time(): a89. to measure CPU time. Note: There is a certain baseline overhead associated with executing a pass statement. The code here doesn’t try to hide it, but you should be aware of it. The baseline overhead can be measured by invoking the program without arguments, and it might differ between Python versions.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<30>, Prev: Command-Line Interface<4>, Up: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets 5.28.6.4 Examples ................. It is possible to provide a setup statement that is executed only once at the beginning: $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "char in text" 5000000 loops, best of 5: 0.0877 usec per loop $ python -m timeit -s "text = 'sample string'; char = 'g'" "text.find(char)" 1000000 loops, best of 5: 0.342 usec per loop In the output, there are three fields. The loop count, which tells you how many times the statement body was run per timing loop repetition. The repetition count (‘best of 5’) which tells you how many times the timing loop was repeated, and finally the time the statement body took on average within the best repetition of the timing loop. That is, the time the fastest repetition took divided by the loop count. >>> import timeit >>> timeit.timeit('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"') 0.41440500499993504 >>> timeit.timeit('text.find(char)', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"') 1.7246671520006203 The same can be done using the *note Timer: 1491. class and its methods: >>> import timeit >>> t = timeit.Timer('char in text', setup='text = "sample string"; char = "g"') >>> t.timeit() 0.3955516149999312 >>> t.repeat() [0.40183617287970225, 0.37027556854118704, 0.38344867356679524, 0.3712595970846668, 0.37866875250654886] The following examples show how to time expressions that contain multiple lines. Here we compare the cost of using *note hasattr(): 4ce. vs. *note try: 6e4./*note except: 18b. to test for missing and present object attributes: $ python -m timeit "try:" " str.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" " pass" 20000 loops, best of 5: 15.7 usec per loop $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass" 50000 loops, best of 5: 4.26 usec per loop $ python -m timeit "try:" " int.__bool__" "except AttributeError:" " pass" 200000 loops, best of 5: 1.43 usec per loop $ python -m timeit "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass" 100000 loops, best of 5: 2.23 usec per loop >>> import timeit >>> # attribute is missing >>> s = """\ ... try: ... str.__bool__ ... except AttributeError: ... pass ... """ >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000) 0.9138244460009446 >>> s = "if hasattr(str, '__bool__'): pass" >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000) 0.5829014980008651 >>> >>> # attribute is present >>> s = """\ ... try: ... int.__bool__ ... except AttributeError: ... pass ... """ >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000) 0.04215312199994514 >>> s = "if hasattr(int, '__bool__'): pass" >>> timeit.timeit(stmt=s, number=100000) 0.08588060699912603 To give the *note timeit: ef. module access to functions you define, you can pass a 'setup' parameter which contains an import statement: def test(): """Stupid test function""" L = [i for i in range(100)] if __name__ == '__main__': import timeit print(timeit.timeit("test()", setup="from __main__ import test")) Another option is to pass *note globals(): 1867. to the 'globals' parameter, which will cause the code to be executed within your current global namespace. This can be more convenient than individually specifying imports: def f(x): return x**2 def g(x): return x**4 def h(x): return x**8 import timeit print(timeit.timeit('[func(42) for func in (f,g,h)]', globals=globals()))  File: python.info, Node: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution, Next: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations, Prev: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.7 ‘trace’ — Trace or track Python statement execution ---------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/trace.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note trace: fd. module allows you to trace program execution, generate annotated statement coverage listings, print caller/callee relationships and list functions executed during a program run. It can be used in another program or from the command line. See also ........ Coverage.py(2) A popular third-party coverage tool that provides HTML output along with advanced features such as branch coverage. * Menu: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<3>. * Programmatic Interface:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/trace.py (2) https://coverage.readthedocs.io/  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Usage<3>, Next: Programmatic Interface, Up: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution 5.28.7.1 Command-Line Usage ........................... The *note trace: fd. module can be invoked from the command line. It can be as simple as python -m trace --count -C . somefile.py ... The above will execute ‘somefile.py’ and generate annotated listings of all Python modules imported during the execution into the current directory. -- Option: --help Display usage and exit. -- Option: --version Display the version of the module and exit. Added in version 3.8: Added ‘--module’ option that allows to run an executable module. * Menu: * Main options:: * Modifiers:: * Filters::  File: python.info, Node: Main options, Next: Modifiers, Up: Command-Line Usage<3> 5.28.7.2 Main options ..................... At least one of the following options must be specified when invoking *note trace: fd. The *note -listfuncs: 42c6. option is mutually exclusive with the *note -trace: 42c7. and *note -count: 42c8. options. When *note -listfuncs: 42c6. is provided, neither *note -count: 42c8. nor *note -trace: 42c7. are accepted, and vice versa. -- Option: -c, --count Produce a set of annotated listing files upon program completion that shows how many times each statement was executed. See also *note -coverdir: 42ca, *note -file: 42cb. and *note -no-report: 42cc. below. -- Option: -t, --trace Display lines as they are executed. -- Option: -l, --listfuncs Display the functions executed by running the program. -- Option: -r, --report Produce an annotated list from an earlier program run that used the *note -count: 42c8. and *note -file: 42cb. option. This does not execute any code. -- Option: -T, --trackcalls Display the calling relationships exposed by running the program.  File: python.info, Node: Modifiers, Next: Filters, Prev: Main options, Up: Command-Line Usage<3> 5.28.7.3 Modifiers .................. -- Option: -f, --file=<file> Name of a file to accumulate counts over several tracing runs. Should be used with the *note -count: 42c8. option. -- Option: -C, --coverdir=<dir> Directory where the report files go. The coverage report for ‘package.module’ is written to file ‘`dir'/`package'/`module'.cover’. -- Option: -m, --missing When generating annotated listings, mark lines which were not executed with ‘>>>>>>’. -- Option: -s, --summary When using *note -count: 42c8. or *note -report: 42cf, write a brief summary to stdout for each file processed. -- Option: -R, --no-report Do not generate annotated listings. This is useful if you intend to make several runs with *note -count: 42c8, and then produce a single set of annotated listings at the end. -- Option: -g, --timing Prefix each line with the time since the program started. Only used while tracing.  File: python.info, Node: Filters, Prev: Modifiers, Up: Command-Line Usage<3> 5.28.7.4 Filters ................ These options may be repeated multiple times. -- Option: --ignore-module=<mod> Ignore each of the given module names and its submodules (if it is a package). The argument can be a list of names separated by a comma. -- Option: --ignore-dir=<dir> Ignore all modules and packages in the named directory and subdirectories. The argument can be a list of directories separated by *note os.pathsep: 1d44.  File: python.info, Node: Programmatic Interface, Prev: Command-Line Usage<3>, Up: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution 5.28.7.5 Programmatic Interface ............................... -- Class: trace.Trace (count=1, trace=1, countfuncs=0, countcallers=0, ignoremods=(), ignoredirs=(), infile=None, outfile=None, timing=False) Create an object to trace execution of a single statement or expression. All parameters are optional. 'count' enables counting of line numbers. 'trace' enables line execution tracing. 'countfuncs' enables listing of the functions called during the run. 'countcallers' enables call relationship tracking. 'ignoremods' is a list of modules or packages to ignore. 'ignoredirs' is a list of directories whose modules or packages should be ignored. 'infile' is the name of the file from which to read stored count information. 'outfile' is the name of the file in which to write updated count information. 'timing' enables a timestamp relative to when tracing was started to be displayed. -- Method: run (cmd) Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the current tracing parameters. 'cmd' must be a string or code object, suitable for passing into *note exec(): 17f. -- Method: runctx (cmd, globals=None, locals=None) Execute the command and gather statistics from the execution with the current tracing parameters, in the defined global and local environments. If not defined, 'globals' and 'locals' default to empty dictionaries. -- Method: runfunc (func, /, *args, **kwds) Call 'func' with the given arguments under control of the *note Trace: 42e2. object with the current tracing parameters. -- Method: results () Return a *note CoverageResults: 42e6. object that contains the cumulative results of all previous calls to ‘run’, ‘runctx’ and ‘runfunc’ for the given *note Trace: 42e2. instance. Does not reset the accumulated trace results. -- Class: trace.CoverageResults A container for coverage results, created by *note Trace.results(): 42e5. Should not be created directly by the user. -- Method: update (other) Merge in data from another *note CoverageResults: 42e6. object. -- Method: write_results (show_missing=True, summary=False, coverdir=None, *, ignore_missing_files=False) Write coverage results. Set 'show_missing' to show lines that had no hits. Set 'summary' to include in the output the coverage summary per module. 'coverdir' specifies the directory into which the coverage result files will be output. If ‘None’, the results for each source file are placed in its directory. If 'ignore_missing_files' is ‘True’, coverage counts for files that no longer exist are silently ignored. Otherwise, a missing file will raise a *note FileNotFoundError: 427. Changed in version 3.13: Added 'ignore_missing_files' parameter. A simple example demonstrating the use of the programmatic interface: import sys import trace # create a Trace object, telling it what to ignore, and whether to # do tracing or line-counting or both. tracer = trace.Trace( ignoredirs=[sys.prefix, sys.exec_prefix], trace=0, count=1) # run the new command using the given tracer tracer.run('main()') # make a report, placing output in the current directory r = tracer.results() r.write_results(show_missing=True, coverdir=".")  File: python.info, Node: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations, Prev: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution, Up: Debugging and Profiling 5.28.8 ‘tracemalloc’ — Trace memory allocations ----------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.4. 'Source code:' Lib/tracemalloc.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The tracemalloc module is a debug tool to trace memory blocks allocated by Python. It provides the following information: * Traceback where an object was allocated * Statistics on allocated memory blocks per filename and per line number: total size, number and average size of allocated memory blocks * Compute the differences between two snapshots to detect memory leaks To trace most memory blocks allocated by Python, the module should be started as early as possible by setting the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d3c. environment variable to ‘1’, or by using *note -X: 176. ‘tracemalloc’ command line option. The *note tracemalloc.start(): 1d3b. function can be called at runtime to start tracing Python memory allocations. By default, a trace of an allocated memory block only stores the most recent frame (1 frame). To store 25 frames at startup: set the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d3c. environment variable to ‘25’, or use the *note -X: 176. ‘tracemalloc=25’ command line option. * Menu: * Examples: Examples<31>. * API:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tracemalloc.py  File: python.info, Node: Examples<31>, Next: API, Up: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations 5.28.8.1 Examples ................. * Menu: * Display the top 10:: * Compute differences:: * Get the traceback of a memory block:: * Pretty top::  File: python.info, Node: Display the top 10, Next: Compute differences, Up: Examples<31> 5.28.8.2 Display the top 10 ........................... Display the 10 files allocating the most memory: import tracemalloc tracemalloc.start() # ... run your application ... snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot() top_stats = snapshot.statistics('lineno') print("[ Top 10 ]") for stat in top_stats[:10]: print(stat) Example of output of the Python test suite: [ Top 10 ] <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=4855 KiB, count=39328, average=126 B <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=521 KiB, count=3199, average=167 B /usr/lib/python3.4/collections/__init__.py:368: size=244 KiB, count=2315, average=108 B /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:381: size=185 KiB, count=779, average=243 B /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:402: size=154 KiB, count=378, average=416 B /usr/lib/python3.4/abc.py:133: size=88.7 KiB, count=347, average=262 B <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1446: size=70.4 KiB, count=911, average=79 B <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:1454: size=52.0 KiB, count=25, average=2131 B <string>:5: size=49.7 KiB, count=148, average=344 B /usr/lib/python3.4/sysconfig.py:411: size=48.0 KiB, count=1, average=48.0 KiB We can see that Python loaded ‘4855 KiB’ data (bytecode and constants) from modules and that the *note collections: 1d. module allocated ‘244 KiB’ to build *note namedtuple: 1ca. types. See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42ed. for more options.  File: python.info, Node: Compute differences, Next: Get the traceback of a memory block, Prev: Display the top 10, Up: Examples<31> 5.28.8.3 Compute differences ............................ Take two snapshots and display the differences: import tracemalloc tracemalloc.start() # ... start your application ... snapshot1 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot() # ... call the function leaking memory ... snapshot2 = tracemalloc.take_snapshot() top_stats = snapshot2.compare_to(snapshot1, 'lineno') print("[ Top 10 differences ]") for stat in top_stats[:10]: print(stat) Example of output before/after running some tests of the Python test suite: [ Top 10 differences ] <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:716: size=8173 KiB (+4428 KiB), count=71332 (+39369), average=117 B /usr/lib/python3.4/linecache.py:127: size=940 KiB (+940 KiB), count=8106 (+8106), average=119 B /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/case.py:571: size=298 KiB (+298 KiB), count=589 (+589), average=519 B <frozen importlib._bootstrap>:284: size=1005 KiB (+166 KiB), count=7423 (+1526), average=139 B /usr/lib/python3.4/mimetypes.py:217: size=112 KiB (+112 KiB), count=1334 (+1334), average=86 B /usr/lib/python3.4/http/server.py:848: size=96.0 KiB (+96.0 KiB), count=1 (+1), average=96.0 KiB /usr/lib/python3.4/inspect.py:1465: size=83.5 KiB (+83.5 KiB), count=109 (+109), average=784 B /usr/lib/python3.4/unittest/mock.py:491: size=77.7 KiB (+77.7 KiB), count=143 (+143), average=557 B /usr/lib/python3.4/urllib/parse.py:476: size=71.8 KiB (+71.8 KiB), count=969 (+969), average=76 B /usr/lib/python3.4/contextlib.py:38: size=67.2 KiB (+67.2 KiB), count=126 (+126), average=546 B We can see that Python has loaded ‘8173 KiB’ of module data (bytecode and constants), and that this is ‘4428 KiB’ more than had been loaded before the tests, when the previous snapshot was taken. Similarly, the *note linecache: 85. module has cached ‘940 KiB’ of Python source code to format tracebacks, all of it since the previous snapshot. If the system has little free memory, snapshots can be written on disk using the *note Snapshot.dump(): 42ef. method to analyze the snapshot offline. Then use the *note Snapshot.load(): 42f0. method reload the snapshot.  File: python.info, Node: Get the traceback of a memory block, Next: Pretty top, Prev: Compute differences, Up: Examples<31> 5.28.8.4 Get the traceback of a memory block ............................................ Code to display the traceback of the biggest memory block: import tracemalloc # Store 25 frames tracemalloc.start(25) # ... run your application ... snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot() top_stats = snapshot.statistics('traceback') # pick the biggest memory block stat = top_stats[0] print("%s memory blocks: %.1f KiB" % (stat.count, stat.size / 1024)) for line in stat.traceback.format(): print(line) Example of output of the Python test suite (traceback limited to 25 frames): 903 memory blocks: 870.1 KiB File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 716 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1036 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 934 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614 File "/usr/lib/python3.4/doctest.py", line 101 import pdb File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 284 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 938 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1068 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 619 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1581 File "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>", line 1614 File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/support/__init__.py", line 1728 import doctest File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/test_pickletools.py", line 21 support.run_doctest(pickletools) File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1276 test_runner() File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 976 display_failure=not verbose) File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 761 match_tests=ns.match_tests) File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/regrtest.py", line 1563 main() File "/usr/lib/python3.4/test/__main__.py", line 3 regrtest.main_in_temp_cwd() File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 73 exec(code, run_globals) File "/usr/lib/python3.4/runpy.py", line 160 "__main__", fname, loader, pkg_name) We can see that the most memory was allocated in the *note importlib: 77. module to load data (bytecode and constants) from modules: ‘870.1 KiB’. The traceback is where the *note importlib: 77. loaded data most recently: on the ‘import pdb’ line of the *note doctest: 3a. module. The traceback may change if a new module is loaded.  File: python.info, Node: Pretty top, Prev: Get the traceback of a memory block, Up: Examples<31> 5.28.8.5 Pretty top ................... Code to display the 10 lines allocating the most memory with a pretty output, ignoring ‘<frozen importlib._bootstrap>’ and ‘<unknown>’ files: import linecache import os import tracemalloc def display_top(snapshot, key_type='lineno', limit=10): snapshot = snapshot.filter_traces(( tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<frozen importlib._bootstrap>"), tracemalloc.Filter(False, "<unknown>"), )) top_stats = snapshot.statistics(key_type) print("Top %s lines" % limit) for index, stat in enumerate(top_stats[:limit], 1): frame = stat.traceback[0] print("#%s: %s:%s: %.1f KiB" % (index, frame.filename, frame.lineno, stat.size / 1024)) line = linecache.getline(frame.filename, frame.lineno).strip() if line: print(' %s' % line) other = top_stats[limit:] if other: size = sum(stat.size for stat in other) print("%s other: %.1f KiB" % (len(other), size / 1024)) total = sum(stat.size for stat in top_stats) print("Total allocated size: %.1f KiB" % (total / 1024)) tracemalloc.start() # ... run your application ... snapshot = tracemalloc.take_snapshot() display_top(snapshot) Example of output of the Python test suite: Top 10 lines #1: Lib/base64.py:414: 419.8 KiB _b85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _b85chars for b in _b85chars] #2: Lib/base64.py:306: 419.8 KiB _a85chars2 = [(a + b) for a in _a85chars for b in _a85chars] #3: collections/__init__.py:368: 293.6 KiB exec(class_definition, namespace) #4: Lib/abc.py:133: 115.2 KiB cls = super().__new__(mcls, name, bases, namespace) #5: unittest/case.py:574: 103.1 KiB testMethod() #6: Lib/linecache.py:127: 95.4 KiB lines = fp.readlines() #7: urllib/parse.py:476: 71.8 KiB for a in _hexdig for b in _hexdig} #8: <string>:5: 62.0 KiB #9: Lib/_weakrefset.py:37: 60.0 KiB self.data = set() #10: Lib/base64.py:142: 59.8 KiB _b32tab2 = [a + b for a in _b32tab for b in _b32tab] 6220 other: 3602.8 KiB Total allocated size: 5303.1 KiB See *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42ed. for more options. * Menu: * Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks::  File: python.info, Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks, Up: Pretty top 5.28.8.6 Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks ..................................................................... The following code computes two sums like ‘0 + 1 + 2 + ...’ inefficiently, by creating a list of those numbers. This list consumes a lot of memory temporarily. We can use *note get_traced_memory(): 42f4. and *note reset_peak(): 93b. to observe the small memory usage after the sum is computed as well as the peak memory usage during the computations: import tracemalloc tracemalloc.start() # Example code: compute a sum with a large temporary list large_sum = sum(list(range(100000))) first_size, first_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory() tracemalloc.reset_peak() # Example code: compute a sum with a small temporary list small_sum = sum(list(range(1000))) second_size, second_peak = tracemalloc.get_traced_memory() print(f"{first_size=}, {first_peak=}") print(f"{second_size=}, {second_peak=}") Output: first_size=664, first_peak=3592984 second_size=804, second_peak=29704 Using *note reset_peak(): 93b. ensured we could accurately record the peak during the computation of ‘small_sum’, even though it is much smaller than the overall peak size of memory blocks since the *note start(): 1d3b. call. Without the call to *note reset_peak(): 93b, ‘second_peak’ would still be the peak from the computation ‘large_sum’ (that is, equal to ‘first_peak’). In this case, both peaks are much higher than the final memory usage, and which suggests we could optimise (by removing the unnecessary call to *note list: 60d, and writing ‘sum(range(...))’).  File: python.info, Node: API, Prev: Examples<31>, Up: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations 5.28.8.7 API ............ * Menu: * Functions: Functions<11>. * DomainFilter:: * Filter:: * Frame:: * Snapshot:: * Statistic:: * StatisticDiff:: * Trace:: * Traceback::  File: python.info, Node: Functions<11>, Next: DomainFilter, Up: API 5.28.8.8 Functions .................. -- Function: tracemalloc.clear_traces () Clear traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. See also *note stop(): 1582. -- Function: tracemalloc.get_object_traceback (obj) Get the traceback where the Python object 'obj' was allocated. Return a *note Traceback: b96. instance, or ‘None’ if the *note tracemalloc: ff. module is not tracing memory allocations or did not trace the allocation of the object. See also *note gc.get_referrers(): 800. and *note sys.getsizeof(): 176a. functions. -- Function: tracemalloc.get_traceback_limit () Get the maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of a trace. The *note tracemalloc: ff. module must be tracing memory allocations to get the limit, otherwise an exception is raised. The limit is set by the *note start(): 1d3b. function. -- Function: tracemalloc.get_traced_memory () Get the current size and peak size of memory blocks traced by the *note tracemalloc: ff. module as a tuple: ‘(current: int, peak: int)’. -- Function: tracemalloc.reset_peak () Set the peak size of memory blocks traced by the *note tracemalloc: ff. module to the current size. Do nothing if the *note tracemalloc: ff. module is not tracing memory allocations. This function only modifies the recorded peak size, and does not modify or clear any traces, unlike *note clear_traces(): 42f7. Snapshots taken with *note take_snapshot(): 42f9. before a call to *note reset_peak(): 93b. can be meaningfully compared to snapshots taken after the call. See also *note get_traced_memory(): 42f4. Added in version 3.9. -- Function: tracemalloc.get_tracemalloc_memory () Get the memory usage in bytes of the *note tracemalloc: ff. module used to store traces of memory blocks. Return an *note int: 259. -- Function: tracemalloc.is_tracing () ‘True’ if the *note tracemalloc: ff. module is tracing Python memory allocations, ‘False’ otherwise. See also *note start(): 1d3b. and *note stop(): 1582. functions. -- Function: tracemalloc.start (nframe: int = 1) Start tracing Python memory allocations: install hooks on Python memory allocators. Collected tracebacks of traces will be limited to 'nframe' frames. By default, a trace of a memory block only stores the most recent frame: the limit is ‘1’. 'nframe' must be greater or equal to ‘1’. You can still read the original number of total frames that composed the traceback by looking at the *note Traceback.total_nframe: 42fc. attribute. Storing more than ‘1’ frame is only useful to compute statistics grouped by ‘'traceback'’ or to compute cumulative statistics: see the *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 42fd. and *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42ed. methods. Storing more frames increases the memory and CPU overhead of the *note tracemalloc: ff. module. Use the *note get_tracemalloc_memory(): 42fa. function to measure how much memory is used by the *note tracemalloc: ff. module. The *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d3c. environment variable (‘PYTHONTRACEMALLOC=NFRAME’) and the *note -X: 176. ‘tracemalloc=NFRAME’ command line option can be used to start tracing at startup. See also *note stop(): 1582, *note is_tracing(): 42fb. and *note get_traceback_limit(): 42f8. functions. -- Function: tracemalloc.stop () Stop tracing Python memory allocations: uninstall hooks on Python memory allocators. Also clears all previously collected traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Call *note take_snapshot(): 42f9. function to take a snapshot of traces before clearing them. See also *note start(): 1d3b, *note is_tracing(): 42fb. and *note clear_traces(): 42f7. functions. -- Function: tracemalloc.take_snapshot () Take a snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. Return a new *note Snapshot: 42fe. instance. The snapshot does not include memory blocks allocated before the *note tracemalloc: ff. module started to trace memory allocations. Tracebacks of traces are limited to *note get_traceback_limit(): 42f8. frames. Use the 'nframe' parameter of the *note start(): 1d3b. function to store more frames. The *note tracemalloc: ff. module must be tracing memory allocations to take a snapshot, see the *note start(): 1d3b. function. See also the *note get_object_traceback(): 1b57. function.  File: python.info, Node: DomainFilter, Next: Filter, Prev: Functions<11>, Up: API 5.28.8.9 DomainFilter ..................... -- Class: tracemalloc.DomainFilter (inclusive: bool, domain: int) Filter traces of memory blocks by their address space (domain). Added in version 3.6. -- Attribute: inclusive If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), match memory blocks allocated in the address space *note domain: 4301. If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), match memory blocks not allocated in the address space *note domain: 4301. -- Attribute: domain Address space of a memory block (‘int’). Read-only property.  File: python.info, Node: Filter, Next: Frame, Prev: DomainFilter, Up: API 5.28.8.10 Filter ................ -- Class: tracemalloc.Filter (inclusive: bool, filename_pattern: str, lineno: int = None, all_frames: bool = False, domain: int = None) Filter on traces of memory blocks. See the *note fnmatch.fnmatch(): 189f. function for the syntax of 'filename_pattern'. The ‘'.pyc'’ file extension is replaced with ‘'.py'’. Examples: * ‘Filter(True, subprocess.__file__)’ only includes traces of the *note subprocess: d6. module * ‘Filter(False, tracemalloc.__file__)’ excludes traces of the *note tracemalloc: ff. module * ‘Filter(False, "<unknown>")’ excludes empty tracebacks Changed in version 3.5: The ‘'.pyo'’ file extension is no longer replaced with ‘'.py'’. Changed in version 3.6: Added the *note domain: 4304. attribute. -- Attribute: domain Address space of a memory block (‘int’ or ‘None’). tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources. -- Attribute: inclusive If 'inclusive' is ‘True’ (include), only match memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching *note filename_pattern: 4306. at line number *note lineno: 4307. If 'inclusive' is ‘False’ (exclude), ignore memory blocks allocated in a file with a name matching *note filename_pattern: 4306. at line number *note lineno: 4307. -- Attribute: lineno Line number (‘int’) of the filter. If 'lineno' is ‘None’, the filter matches any line number. -- Attribute: filename_pattern Filename pattern of the filter (‘str’). Read-only property. -- Attribute: all_frames If 'all_frames' is ‘True’, all frames of the traceback are checked. If 'all_frames' is ‘False’, only the most recent frame is checked. This attribute has no effect if the traceback limit is ‘1’. See the *note get_traceback_limit(): 42f8. function and *note Snapshot.traceback_limit: 4309. attribute.  File: python.info, Node: Frame, Next: Snapshot, Prev: Filter, Up: API 5.28.8.11 Frame ............... -- Class: tracemalloc.Frame Frame of a traceback. The *note Traceback: b96. class is a sequence of *note Frame: 430b. instances. -- Attribute: filename Filename (‘str’). -- Attribute: lineno Line number (‘int’).  File: python.info, Node: Snapshot, Next: Statistic, Prev: Frame, Up: API 5.28.8.12 Snapshot .................. -- Class: tracemalloc.Snapshot Snapshot of traces of memory blocks allocated by Python. The *note take_snapshot(): 42f9. function creates a snapshot instance. -- Method: compare_to (old_snapshot: Snapshot, key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False) Compute the differences with an old snapshot. Get statistics as a sorted list of *note StatisticDiff: 430f. instances grouped by 'key_type'. See the *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42ed. method for 'key_type' and 'cumulative' parameters. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: absolute value of *note StatisticDiff.size_diff: 4310, *note StatisticDiff.size: 4311, absolute value of *note StatisticDiff.count_diff: 4312, *note Statistic.count: 4313. and then by *note StatisticDiff.traceback: 4314. -- Method: dump (filename) Write the snapshot into a file. Use *note load(): 42f0. to reload the snapshot. -- Method: filter_traces (filters) Create a new *note Snapshot: 42fe. instance with a filtered *note traces: 4316. sequence, 'filters' is a list of *note DomainFilter: cf1. and *note Filter: 4303. instances. If 'filters' is an empty list, return a new *note Snapshot: 42fe. instance with a copy of the traces. All inclusive filters are applied at once, a trace is ignored if no inclusive filters match it. A trace is ignored if at least one exclusive filter matches it. Changed in version 3.6: *note DomainFilter: cf1. instances are now also accepted in 'filters'. -- Method: classmethod load (filename) Load a snapshot from a file. See also *note dump(): 42ef. -- Method: statistics (key_type: str, cumulative: bool = False) Get statistics as a sorted list of *note Statistic: 4317. instances grouped by 'key_type': key_type description ------------------------------------------------------- ‘'filename'’ filename ‘'lineno'’ filename and line number ‘'traceback'’ traceback If 'cumulative' is ‘True’, cumulate size and count of memory blocks of all frames of the traceback of a trace, not only the most recent frame. The cumulative mode can only be used with 'key_type' equals to ‘'filename'’ and ‘'lineno'’. The result is sorted from the biggest to the smallest by: *note Statistic.size: 4318, *note Statistic.count: 4313. and then by *note Statistic.traceback: 4319. -- Attribute: traceback_limit Maximum number of frames stored in the traceback of *note traces: 4316.: result of the *note get_traceback_limit(): 42f8. when the snapshot was taken. -- Attribute: traces Traces of all memory blocks allocated by Python: sequence of *note Trace: 431a. instances. The sequence has an undefined order. Use the *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42ed. method to get a sorted list of statistics.  File: python.info, Node: Statistic, Next: StatisticDiff, Prev: Snapshot, Up: API 5.28.8.13 Statistic ................... -- Class: tracemalloc.Statistic Statistic on memory allocations. *note Snapshot.statistics(): 42ed. returns a list of *note Statistic: 4317. instances. See also the *note StatisticDiff: 430f. class. -- Attribute: count Number of memory blocks (‘int’). -- Attribute: size Total size of memory blocks in bytes (‘int’). -- Attribute: traceback Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note Traceback: b96. instance.  File: python.info, Node: StatisticDiff, Next: Trace, Prev: Statistic, Up: API 5.28.8.14 StatisticDiff ....................... -- Class: tracemalloc.StatisticDiff Statistic difference on memory allocations between an old and a new *note Snapshot: 42fe. instance. *note Snapshot.compare_to(): 42fd. returns a list of *note StatisticDiff: 430f. instances. See also the *note Statistic: 4317. class. -- Attribute: count Number of memory blocks in the new snapshot (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot. -- Attribute: count_diff Difference of number of memory blocks between the old and the new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot. -- Attribute: size Total size of memory blocks in bytes in the new snapshot (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been released in the new snapshot. -- Attribute: size_diff Difference of total size of memory blocks in bytes between the old and the new snapshots (‘int’): ‘0’ if the memory blocks have been allocated in the new snapshot. -- Attribute: traceback Traceback where the memory blocks were allocated, *note Traceback: b96. instance.  File: python.info, Node: Trace, Next: Traceback, Prev: StatisticDiff, Up: API 5.28.8.15 Trace ............... -- Class: tracemalloc.Trace Trace of a memory block. The *note Snapshot.traces: 4316. attribute is a sequence of *note Trace: 431a. instances. Changed in version 3.6: Added the *note domain: 431f. attribute. -- Attribute: domain Address space of a memory block (‘int’). Read-only property. tracemalloc uses the domain ‘0’ to trace memory allocations made by Python. C extensions can use other domains to trace other resources. -- Attribute: size Size of the memory block in bytes (‘int’). -- Attribute: traceback Traceback where the memory block was allocated, *note Traceback: b96. instance.  File: python.info, Node: Traceback, Prev: Trace, Up: API 5.28.8.16 Traceback ................... -- Class: tracemalloc.Traceback Sequence of *note Frame: 430b. instances sorted from the oldest frame to the most recent frame. A traceback contains at least ‘1’ frame. If the ‘tracemalloc’ module failed to get a frame, the filename ‘"<unknown>"’ at line number ‘0’ is used. When a snapshot is taken, tracebacks of traces are limited to *note get_traceback_limit(): 42f8. frames. See the *note take_snapshot(): 42f9. function. The original number of frames of the traceback is stored in the *note Traceback.total_nframe: 42fc. attribute. That allows to know if a traceback has been truncated by the traceback limit. The *note Trace.traceback: 4321. attribute is an instance of *note Traceback: b96. instance. Changed in version 3.7: Frames are now sorted from the oldest to the most recent, instead of most recent to oldest. -- Attribute: total_nframe Total number of frames that composed the traceback before truncation. This attribute can be set to ‘None’ if the information is not available. Changed in version 3.9: The *note Traceback.total_nframe: 42fc. attribute was added. -- Method: format (limit=None, most_recent_first=False) Format the traceback as a list of lines. Use the *note linecache: 85. module to retrieve lines from the source code. If 'limit' is set, format the 'limit' most recent frames if 'limit' is positive. Otherwise, format the ‘abs(limit)’ oldest frames. If 'most_recent_first' is ‘True’, the order of the formatted frames is reversed, returning the most recent frame first instead of last. Similar to the *note traceback.format_tb(): 4323. function, except that *note format(): b97. does not include newlines. Example: print("Traceback (most recent call first):") for line in traceback: print(line) Output: Traceback (most recent call first): File "test.py", line 9 obj = Object() File "test.py", line 12 tb = tracemalloc.get_object_traceback(f())  File: python.info, Node: Software Packaging and Distribution, Next: Python Runtime Services, Prev: Debugging and Profiling, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.29 Software Packaging and Distribution ======================================== These libraries help you with publishing and installing Python software. While these modules are designed to work in conjunction with the Python Package Index(1), they can also be used with a local index server, or without any index server at all. * Menu: * ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer:: * venv — Creation of virtual environments:: * zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org  File: python.info, Node: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer, Next: venv — Creation of virtual environments, Up: Software Packaging and Distribution 5.29.1 ‘ensurepip’ — Bootstrapping the ‘pip’ installer ------------------------------------------------------ Added in version 3.4. 'Source code:' Lib/ensurepip(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note ensurepip: 55. package provides support for bootstrapping the ‘pip’ installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment. This bootstrapping approach reflects the fact that ‘pip’ is an independent project with its own release cycle, and the latest available stable version is bundled with maintenance and feature releases of the CPython reference interpreter. In most cases, end users of Python shouldn’t need to invoke this module directly (as ‘pip’ should be bootstrapped by default), but it may be needed if installing ‘pip’ was skipped when installing Python (or when creating a virtual environment) or after explicitly uninstalling ‘pip’. Note: This module 'does not' access the internet. All of the components needed to bootstrap ‘pip’ are included as internal parts of the package. See also ........ *note Installing Python Modules: ef0. The end user guide for installing Python packages PEP 453(2): Explicit bootstrapping of pip in Python installations The original rationale and specification for this module. *note Availability: 1d54.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI. This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e55. or *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. * Menu: * Command line interface:: * Module API:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ensurepip (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0453/  File: python.info, Node: Command line interface, Next: Module API, Up: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer 5.29.1.1 Command line interface ............................... The command line interface is invoked using the interpreter’s ‘-m’ switch. The simplest possible invocation is: python -m ensurepip This invocation will install ‘pip’ if it is not already installed, but otherwise does nothing. To ensure the installed version of ‘pip’ is at least as recent as the one available in ‘ensurepip’, pass the ‘--upgrade’ option: python -m ensurepip --upgrade By default, ‘pip’ is installed into the current virtual environment (if one is active) or into the system site packages (if there is no active virtual environment). The installation location can be controlled through two additional command line options: -- Option: --root <dir> Installs ‘pip’ relative to the given root directory rather than the root of the currently active virtual environment (if any) or the default root for the current Python installation. -- Option: --user Installs ‘pip’ into the user site packages directory rather than globally for the current Python installation (this option is not permitted inside an active virtual environment). By default, the scripts ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed (where X.Y stands for the version of Python used to invoke ‘ensurepip’). The scripts installed can be controlled through two additional command line options: -- Option: --altinstall If an alternate installation is requested, the ‘pipX’ script will 'not' be installed. -- Option: --default-pip If a “default pip” installation is requested, the ‘pip’ script will be installed in addition to the two regular scripts. Providing both of the script selection options will trigger an exception.  File: python.info, Node: Module API, Prev: Command line interface, Up: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer 5.29.1.2 Module API ................... *note ensurepip: 55. exposes two functions for programmatic use: -- Function: ensurepip.version () Returns a string specifying the available version of pip that will be installed when bootstrapping an environment. -- Function: ensurepip.bootstrap (root=None, upgrade=False, user=False, altinstall=False, default_pip=False, verbosity=0) Bootstraps ‘pip’ into the current or designated environment. 'root' specifies an alternative root directory to install relative to. If 'root' is ‘None’, then installation uses the default install location for the current environment. 'upgrade' indicates whether or not to upgrade an existing installation of an earlier version of ‘pip’ to the available version. 'user' indicates whether to use the user scheme rather than installing globally. By default, the scripts ‘pipX’ and ‘pipX.Y’ will be installed (where X.Y stands for the current version of Python). If 'altinstall' is set, then ‘pipX’ will 'not' be installed. If 'default_pip' is set, then ‘pip’ will be installed in addition to the two regular scripts. Setting both 'altinstall' and 'default_pip' will trigger *note ValueError: 204. 'verbosity' controls the level of output to *note sys.stdout: ad6. from the bootstrapping operation. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘ensurepip.bootstrap’ with argument ‘root’. Note: The bootstrapping process has side effects on both ‘sys.path’ and ‘os.environ’. Invoking the command line interface in a subprocess instead allows these side effects to be avoided. Note: The bootstrapping process may install additional modules required by ‘pip’, but other software should not assume those dependencies will always be present by default (as the dependencies may be removed in a future version of ‘pip’).  File: python.info, Node: venv — Creation of virtual environments, Next: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives, Prev: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer, Up: Software Packaging and Distribution 5.29.2 ‘venv’ — Creation of virtual environments ------------------------------------------------ Added in version 3.3. 'Source code:' Lib/venv/(1) __________________________________________________________________ The ‘venv’ module supports creating lightweight “virtual environments”, each with their own independent set of Python packages installed in their *note site: c7. directories. A virtual environment is created on top of an existing Python installation, known as the virtual environment’s “base” Python, and by default is isolated from the packages in the base environment, so that only those explicitly installed in the virtual environment are available. When used from within a virtual environment, common installation tools such as pip(2) will install Python packages into a virtual environment without needing to be told to do so explicitly. A virtual environment is (amongst other things): * Used to contain a specific Python interpreter and software libraries and binaries which are needed to support a project (library or application). These are by default isolated from software in other virtual environments and Python interpreters and libraries installed in the operating system. * Contained in a directory, conventionally named ‘.venv’ or ‘venv’ in the project directory, or under a container directory for lots of virtual environments, such as ‘~/.virtualenvs’. * Not checked into source control systems such as Git. * Considered as disposable – it should be simple to delete and recreate it from scratch. You don’t place any project code in the environment. * Not considered as movable or copyable – you just recreate the same environment in the target location. See PEP 405(3) for more background on Python virtual environments. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4) *note Availability: 1d54.: not Android, not iOS, not WASI. This module is not supported on *note mobile platforms: 1e55. or *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. * Menu: * Creating virtual environments:: * How venvs work:: * API: API<2>. * An example of extending EnvBuilder:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/venv/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/pip/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0405/ (4) https://packaging.python.org/guides/installing-using-pip-and-virtual-environments/#create-and-use-virtual-environments  File: python.info, Node: Creating virtual environments, Next: How venvs work, Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments 5.29.2.1 Creating virtual environments ...................................... *note Virtual environments: 4331. are created by executing the ‘venv’ module: python -m venv /path/to/new/virtual/environment This creates the target directory (including parent directories as needed) and places a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file in it with a ‘home’ key pointing to the Python installation from which the command was run. It also creates a ‘bin’ (or ‘Scripts’ on Windows) subdirectory containing a copy or symlink of the Python executable (as appropriate for the platform or arguments used at environment creation time). It also creates a ‘lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages’ subdirectory (on Windows, this is ‘Libsite-packages’). If an existing directory is specified, it will be re-used. Changed in version 3.5: The use of ‘venv’ is now recommended for creating virtual environments. Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.8: ‘pyvenv’ was the recommended tool for creating virtual environments for Python 3.3 and 3.4, and replaced in 3.5 by executing ‘venv’ directly. On Windows, invoke the ‘venv’ command as follows: PS> python -m venv C:\path\to\new\virtual\environment The command, if run with ‘-h’, will show the available options: usage: venv [-h] [--system-site-packages] [--symlinks | --copies] [--clear] [--upgrade] [--without-pip] [--prompt PROMPT] [--upgrade-deps] [--without-scm-ignore-files] ENV_DIR [ENV_DIR ...] Creates virtual Python environments in one or more target directories. Once an environment has been created, you may wish to activate it, e.g. by sourcing an activate script in its bin directory. -- Option: ENV_DIR A required argument specifying the directory to create the environment in. -- Option: --system-site-packages Give the virtual environment access to the system site-packages directory. -- Option: --symlinks Try to use symlinks rather than copies, when symlinks are not the default for the platform. -- Option: --copies Try to use copies rather than symlinks, even when symlinks are the default for the platform. -- Option: --clear Delete the contents of the environment directory if it already exists, before environment creation. -- Option: --upgrade Upgrade the environment directory to use this version of Python, assuming Python has been upgraded in-place. -- Option: --without-pip Skips installing or upgrading pip in the virtual environment (pip is bootstrapped by default). -- Option: --prompt <PROMPT> Provides an alternative prompt prefix for this environment. -- Option: --upgrade-deps Upgrade core dependencies (pip) to the latest version in PyPI. -- Option: --without-scm-ignore-files Skips adding SCM ignore files to the environment directory (Git is supported by default). Changed in version 3.4: Installs pip by default, added the ‘--without-pip’ and ‘--copies’ options. Changed in version 3.4: In earlier versions, if the target directory already existed, an error was raised, unless the ‘--clear’ or ‘--upgrade’ option was provided. Changed in version 3.9: Add ‘--upgrade-deps’ option to upgrade pip + setuptools to the latest on PyPI. Changed in version 3.12: ‘setuptools’ is no longer a core venv dependency. Changed in version 3.13: Added the ‘--without-scm-ignore-files’ option. Changed in version 3.13: ‘venv’ now creates a ‘.gitignore’ file for Git by default. Note: While symlinks are supported on Windows, they are not recommended. Of particular note is that double-clicking ‘python.exe’ in File Explorer will resolve the symlink eagerly and ignore the virtual environment. Note: On Microsoft Windows, it may be required to enable the ‘Activate.ps1’ script by setting the execution policy for the user. You can do this by issuing the following PowerShell command: PS C:\> Set-ExecutionPolicy -ExecutionPolicy RemoteSigned -Scope CurrentUser See About Execution Policies(1) for more information. The created ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file also includes the ‘include-system-site-packages’ key, set to ‘true’ if ‘venv’ is run with the ‘--system-site-packages’ option, ‘false’ otherwise. Unless the ‘--without-pip’ option is given, *note ensurepip: 55. will be invoked to bootstrap ‘pip’ into the virtual environment. Multiple paths can be given to ‘venv’, in which case an identical virtual environment will be created, according to the given options, at each provided path. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://go.microsoft.com/fwlink/?LinkID=135170  File: python.info, Node: How venvs work, Next: API<2>, Prev: Creating virtual environments, Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments 5.29.2.2 How venvs work ....................... When a Python interpreter is running from a virtual environment, *note sys.prefix: 3b2. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. point to the directories of the virtual environment, whereas *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb. and *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3ea. point to those of the base Python used to create the environment. It is sufficient to check ‘sys.prefix != sys.base_prefix’ to determine if the current interpreter is running from a virtual environment. A virtual environment may be “activated” using a script in its binary directory (‘bin’ on POSIX; ‘Scripts’ on Windows). This will prepend that directory to your ‘PATH’, so that running ‘python’ will invoke the environment’s Python interpreter and you can run installed scripts without having to use their full path. The invocation of the activation script is platform-specific (‘<VENV>’ must be replaced by the path to the directory containing the virtual environment): Platform Shell Command to activate virtual environment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ POSIX bash/zsh ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate’ fish ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate.fish’ csh/tcsh ‘$ source <VENV>/bin/activate.csh’ pwsh ‘$ <VENV>/bin/Activate.ps1’ Windows cmd.exe ‘C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\activate.bat’ PowerShell ‘PS C:\> <VENV>\Scripts\Activate.ps1’ Added in version 3.4: ‘fish’ and ‘csh’ activation scripts. Added in version 3.8: PowerShell activation scripts installed under POSIX for PowerShell Core support. You don’t specifically 'need' to activate a virtual environment, as you can just specify the full path to that environment’s Python interpreter when invoking Python. Furthermore, all scripts installed in the environment should be runnable without activating it. In order to achieve this, scripts installed into virtual environments have a “shebang” line which points to the environment’s Python interpreter, ‘#!/<PATH-TO-VENV>/bin/python’. This means that the script will run with that interpreter regardless of the value of ‘PATH’. On Windows, “shebang” line processing is supported if you have the *note Python Launcher for Windows: 5ba. installed. Thus, double-clicking an installed script in a Windows Explorer window should run it with the correct interpreter without the environment needing to be activated or on the ‘PATH’. When a virtual environment has been activated, the ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ environment variable is set to the path of the environment. Since explicitly activating a virtual environment is not required to use it, ‘VIRTUAL_ENV’ cannot be relied upon to determine whether a virtual environment is being used. Warning: Because scripts installed in environments should not expect the environment to be activated, their shebang lines contain the absolute paths to their environment’s interpreters. Because of this, environments are inherently non-portable, in the general case. You should always have a simple means of recreating an environment (for example, if you have a requirements file ‘requirements.txt’, you can invoke ‘pip install -r requirements.txt’ using the environment’s ‘pip’ to install all of the packages needed by the environment). If for any reason you need to move the environment to a new location, you should recreate it at the desired location and delete the one at the old location. If you move an environment because you moved a parent directory of it, you should recreate the environment in its new location. Otherwise, software installed into the environment may not work as expected. You can deactivate a virtual environment by typing ‘deactivate’ in your shell. The exact mechanism is platform-specific and is an internal implementation detail (typically, a script or shell function will be used).  File: python.info, Node: API<2>, Next: An example of extending EnvBuilder, Prev: How venvs work, Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments 5.29.2.3 API ............ The high-level method described above makes use of a simple API which provides mechanisms for third-party virtual environment creators to customize environment creation according to their needs, the *note EnvBuilder: 26c. class. -- Class: venv.EnvBuilder (system_site_packages=False, clear=False, symlinks=False, upgrade=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None, upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset()) The *note EnvBuilder: 26c. class accepts the following keyword arguments on instantiation: * 'system_site_packages' – a boolean value indicating that the system Python site-packages should be available to the environment (defaults to ‘False’). * 'clear' – a boolean value which, if true, will delete the contents of any existing target directory, before creating the environment. * 'symlinks' – a boolean value indicating whether to attempt to symlink the Python binary rather than copying. * 'upgrade' – a boolean value which, if true, will upgrade an existing environment with the running Python - for use when that Python has been upgraded in-place (defaults to ‘False’). * 'with_pip' – a boolean value which, if true, ensures pip is installed in the virtual environment. This uses *note ensurepip: 55. with the ‘--default-pip’ option. * 'prompt' – a string to be used after virtual environment is activated (defaults to ‘None’ which means directory name of the environment would be used). If the special string ‘"."’ is provided, the basename of the current directory is used as the prompt. * 'upgrade_deps' – Update the base venv modules to the latest on PyPI * 'scm_ignore_files' – Create ignore files based for the specified source control managers (SCM) in the iterable. Support is defined by having a method named ‘create_{scm}_ignore_file’. The only value supported by default is ‘"git"’ via *note create_git_ignore_file(): 4341. Changed in version 3.4: Added the ‘with_pip’ parameter Changed in version 3.6: Added the ‘prompt’ parameter Changed in version 3.9: Added the ‘upgrade_deps’ parameter Changed in version 3.13: Added the ‘scm_ignore_files’ parameter *note EnvBuilder: 26c. may be used as a base class. -- Method: create (env_dir) Create a virtual environment by specifying the target directory (absolute or relative to the current directory) which is to contain the virtual environment. The ‘create’ method will either create the environment in the specified directory, or raise an appropriate exception. The ‘create’ method of the *note EnvBuilder: 26c. class illustrates the hooks available for subclass customization: def create(self, env_dir): """ Create a virtualized Python environment in a directory. env_dir is the target directory to create an environment in. """ env_dir = os.path.abspath(env_dir) context = self.ensure_directories(env_dir) self.create_configuration(context) self.setup_python(context) self.setup_scripts(context) self.post_setup(context) Each of the methods *note ensure_directories(): 4343, *note create_configuration(): 4344, *note setup_python(): 4345, *note setup_scripts(): 4346. and *note post_setup(): 4347. can be overridden. -- Method: ensure_directories (env_dir) Creates the environment directory and all necessary subdirectories that don’t already exist, and returns a context object. This context object is just a holder for attributes (such as paths) for use by the other methods. If the *note EnvBuilder: 26c. is created with the arg ‘clear=True’, contents of the environment directory will be cleared and then all necessary subdirectories will be recreated. The returned context object is a *note types.SimpleNamespace: 1d1. with the following attributes: * ‘env_dir’ - The location of the virtual environment. Used for ‘__VENV_DIR__’ in activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4348.). * ‘env_name’ - The name of the virtual environment. Used for ‘__VENV_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4348.). * ‘prompt’ - The prompt to be used by the activation scripts. Used for ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ in activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4348.). * ‘executable’ - The underlying Python executable used by the virtual environment. This takes into account the case where a virtual environment is created from another virtual environment. * ‘inc_path’ - The include path for the virtual environment. * ‘lib_path’ - The purelib path for the virtual environment. * ‘bin_path’ - The script path for the virtual environment. * ‘bin_name’ - The name of the script path relative to the virtual environment location. Used for ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ in activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4348.). * ‘env_exe’ - The name of the Python interpreter in the virtual environment. Used for ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ in activation scripts (see *note install_scripts(): 4348.). * ‘env_exec_cmd’ - The name of the Python interpreter, taking into account filesystem redirections. This can be used to run Python in the virtual environment. Changed in version 3.11: The 'venv' *note sysconfig installation scheme: 68b. is used to construct the paths of the created directories. Changed in version 3.12: The attribute ‘lib_path’ was added to the context, and the context object was documented. -- Method: create_configuration (context) Creates the ‘pyvenv.cfg’ configuration file in the environment. -- Method: setup_python (context) Creates a copy or symlink to the Python executable in the environment. On POSIX systems, if a specific executable ‘python3.x’ was used, symlinks to ‘python’ and ‘python3’ will be created pointing to that executable, unless files with those names already exist. -- Method: setup_scripts (context) Installs activation scripts appropriate to the platform into the virtual environment. -- Method: upgrade_dependencies (context) Upgrades the core venv dependency packages (currently pip(1)) in the environment. This is done by shelling out to the ‘pip’ executable in the environment. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.12: setuptools(2) is no longer a core venv dependency. -- Method: post_setup (context) A placeholder method which can be overridden in third party implementations to pre-install packages in the virtual environment or perform other post-creation steps. -- Method: install_scripts (context, path) This method can be called from *note setup_scripts(): 4346. or *note post_setup(): 4347. in subclasses to assist in installing custom scripts into the virtual environment. 'path' is the path to a directory that should contain subdirectories ‘common’, ‘posix’, ‘nt’; each containing scripts destined for the ‘bin’ directory in the environment. The contents of ‘common’ and the directory corresponding to *note os.name: 2b0e. are copied after some text replacement of placeholders: * ‘__VENV_DIR__’ is replaced with the absolute path of the environment directory. * ‘__VENV_NAME__’ is replaced with the environment name (final path segment of environment directory). * ‘__VENV_PROMPT__’ is replaced with the prompt (the environment name surrounded by parentheses and with a following space) * ‘__VENV_BIN_NAME__’ is replaced with the name of the bin directory (either ‘bin’ or ‘Scripts’). * ‘__VENV_PYTHON__’ is replaced with the absolute path of the environment’s executable. The directories are allowed to exist (for when an existing environment is being upgraded). -- Method: create_git_ignore_file (context) Creates a ‘.gitignore’ file within the virtual environment that causes the entire directory to be ignored by the Git source control manager. Added in version 3.13. Changed in version 3.7.2: Windows now uses redirector scripts for ‘python[w].exe’ instead of copying the actual binaries. In 3.7.2 only *note setup_python(): 4345. does nothing unless running from a build in the source tree. Changed in version 3.7.3: Windows copies the redirector scripts as part of *note setup_python(): 4345. instead of *note setup_scripts(): 4346. This was not the case in 3.7.2. When using symlinks, the original executables will be linked. There is also a module-level convenience function: -- Function: venv.create (env_dir, system_site_packages=False, clear=False, symlinks=False, with_pip=False, prompt=None, upgrade_deps=False, *, scm_ignore_files=frozenset()) Create an *note EnvBuilder: 26c. with the given keyword arguments, and call its *note create(): 4342. method with the 'env_dir' argument. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: Added the 'with_pip' parameter Changed in version 3.6: Added the 'prompt' parameter Changed in version 3.9: Added the 'upgrade_deps' parameter Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'scm_ignore_files' parameter ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/pip/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/setuptools/  File: python.info, Node: An example of extending EnvBuilder, Prev: API<2>, Up: venv — Creation of virtual environments 5.29.2.4 An example of extending ‘EnvBuilder’ ............................................. The following script shows how to extend *note EnvBuilder: 26c. by implementing a subclass which installs setuptools and pip into a created virtual environment: import os import os.path from subprocess import Popen, PIPE import sys from threading import Thread from urllib.parse import urlparse from urllib.request import urlretrieve import venv class ExtendedEnvBuilder(venv.EnvBuilder): """ This builder installs setuptools and pip so that you can pip or easy_install other packages into the created virtual environment. :param nodist: If true, setuptools and pip are not installed into the created virtual environment. :param nopip: If true, pip is not installed into the created virtual environment. :param progress: If setuptools or pip are installed, the progress of the installation can be monitored by passing a progress callable. If specified, it is called with two arguments: a string indicating some progress, and a context indicating where the string is coming from. The context argument can have one of three values: 'main', indicating that it is called from virtualize() itself, and 'stdout' and 'stderr', which are obtained by reading lines from the output streams of a subprocess which is used to install the app. If a callable is not specified, default progress information is output to sys.stderr. """ def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs): self.nodist = kwargs.pop('nodist', False) self.nopip = kwargs.pop('nopip', False) self.progress = kwargs.pop('progress', None) self.verbose = kwargs.pop('verbose', False) super().__init__(*args, **kwargs) def post_setup(self, context): """ Set up any packages which need to be pre-installed into the virtual environment being created. :param context: The information for the virtual environment creation request being processed. """ os.environ['VIRTUAL_ENV'] = context.env_dir if not self.nodist: self.install_setuptools(context) # Can't install pip without setuptools if not self.nopip and not self.nodist: self.install_pip(context) def reader(self, stream, context): """ Read lines from a subprocess' output stream and either pass to a progress callable (if specified) or write progress information to sys.stderr. """ progress = self.progress while True: s = stream.readline() if not s: break if progress is not None: progress(s, context) else: if not self.verbose: sys.stderr.write('.') else: sys.stderr.write(s.decode('utf-8')) sys.stderr.flush() stream.close() def install_script(self, context, name, url): _, _, path, _, _, _ = urlparse(url) fn = os.path.split(path)[-1] binpath = context.bin_path distpath = os.path.join(binpath, fn) # Download script into the virtual environment's binaries folder urlretrieve(url, distpath) progress = self.progress if self.verbose: term = '\n' else: term = '' if progress is not None: progress('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term), 'main') else: sys.stderr.write('Installing %s ...%s' % (name, term)) sys.stderr.flush() # Install in the virtual environment args = [context.env_exe, fn] p = Popen(args, stdout=PIPE, stderr=PIPE, cwd=binpath) t1 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stdout, 'stdout')) t1.start() t2 = Thread(target=self.reader, args=(p.stderr, 'stderr')) t2.start() p.wait() t1.join() t2.join() if progress is not None: progress('done.', 'main') else: sys.stderr.write('done.\n') # Clean up - no longer needed os.unlink(distpath) def install_setuptools(self, context): """ Install setuptools in the virtual environment. :param context: The information for the virtual environment creation request being processed. """ url = "https://bootstrap.pypa.io/ez_setup.py" self.install_script(context, 'setuptools', url) # clear up the setuptools archive which gets downloaded pred = lambda o: o.startswith('setuptools-') and o.endswith('.tar.gz') files = filter(pred, os.listdir(context.bin_path)) for f in files: f = os.path.join(context.bin_path, f) os.unlink(f) def install_pip(self, context): """ Install pip in the virtual environment. :param context: The information for the virtual environment creation request being processed. """ url = 'https://bootstrap.pypa.io/get-pip.py' self.install_script(context, 'pip', url) def main(args=None): import argparse parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(prog=__name__, description='Creates virtual Python ' 'environments in one or ' 'more target ' 'directories.') parser.add_argument('dirs', metavar='ENV_DIR', nargs='+', help='A directory in which to create the ' 'virtual environment.') parser.add_argument('--no-setuptools', default=False, action='store_true', dest='nodist', help="Don't install setuptools or pip in the " "virtual environment.") parser.add_argument('--no-pip', default=False, action='store_true', dest='nopip', help="Don't install pip in the virtual " "environment.") parser.add_argument('--system-site-packages', default=False, action='store_true', dest='system_site', help='Give the virtual environment access to the ' 'system site-packages dir.') if os.name == 'nt': use_symlinks = False else: use_symlinks = True parser.add_argument('--symlinks', default=use_symlinks, action='store_true', dest='symlinks', help='Try to use symlinks rather than copies, ' 'when symlinks are not the default for ' 'the platform.') parser.add_argument('--clear', default=False, action='store_true', dest='clear', help='Delete the contents of the ' 'virtual environment ' 'directory if it already ' 'exists, before virtual ' 'environment creation.') parser.add_argument('--upgrade', default=False, action='store_true', dest='upgrade', help='Upgrade the virtual ' 'environment directory to ' 'use this version of ' 'Python, assuming Python ' 'has been upgraded ' 'in-place.') parser.add_argument('--verbose', default=False, action='store_true', dest='verbose', help='Display the output ' 'from the scripts which ' 'install setuptools and pip.') options = parser.parse_args(args) if options.upgrade and options.clear: raise ValueError('you cannot supply --upgrade and --clear together.') builder = ExtendedEnvBuilder(system_site_packages=options.system_site, clear=options.clear, symlinks=options.symlinks, upgrade=options.upgrade, nodist=options.nodist, nopip=options.nopip, verbose=options.verbose) for d in options.dirs: builder.create(d) if __name__ == '__main__': rc = 1 try: main() rc = 0 except Exception as e: print('Error: %s' % e, file=sys.stderr) sys.exit(rc) This script is also available for download online(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4673395  File: python.info, Node: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives, Prev: venv — Creation of virtual environments, Up: Software Packaging and Distribution 5.29.3 ‘zipapp’ — Manage executable Python zip archives ------------------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.5. 'Source code:' Lib/zipapp.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides tools to manage the creation of zip files containing Python code, which can be *note executed directly by the Python interpreter: 1d29. The module provides both a *note Command-Line Interface: 434d. and a *note Python API: 434e. * Menu: * Basic Example:: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<5>. * Python API:: * Examples: Examples<32>. * Specifying the Interpreter:: * Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp:: * The Python Zip Application Archive Format:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipapp.py  File: python.info, Node: Basic Example, Next: Command-Line Interface<5>, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.1 Basic Example ...................... The following example shows how the *note Command-Line Interface: 434d. can be used to create an executable archive from a directory containing Python code. When run, the archive will execute the ‘main’ function from the module ‘myapp’ in the archive. $ python -m zipapp myapp -m "myapp:main" $ python myapp.pyz <output from myapp>  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Interface<5>, Next: Python API, Prev: Basic Example, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.2 Command-Line Interface ............................... When called as a program from the command line, the following form is used: $ python -m zipapp source [options] If 'source' is a directory, this will create an archive from the contents of 'source'. If 'source' is a file, it should be an archive, and it will be copied to the target archive (or the contents of its shebang line will be displayed if the –info option is specified). The following options are understood: -- Option: -o <output>, --output=<output> Write the output to a file named 'output'. If this option is not specified, the output filename will be the same as the input 'source', with the extension ‘.pyz’ added. If an explicit filename is given, it is used as is (so a ‘.pyz’ extension should be included if required). An output filename must be specified if the 'source' is an archive (and in that case, 'output' must not be the same as 'source'). -- Option: -p <interpreter>, --python=<interpreter> Add a ‘#!’ line to the archive specifying 'interpreter' as the command to run. Also, on POSIX, make the archive executable. The default is to write no ‘#!’ line, and not make the file executable. -- Option: -m <mainfn>, --main=<mainfn> Write a ‘__main__.py’ file to the archive that executes 'mainfn'. The 'mainfn' argument should have the form “pkg.mod:fn”, where “pkg.mod” is a package/module in the archive, and “fn” is a callable in the given module. The ‘__main__.py’ file will execute that callable. *note -main: 4355. cannot be specified when copying an archive. -- Option: -c, --compress Compress files with the deflate method, reducing the size of the output file. By default, files are stored uncompressed in the archive. *note -compress: 4357. has no effect when copying an archive. Added in version 3.7. -- Option: --info Display the interpreter embedded in the archive, for diagnostic purposes. In this case, any other options are ignored and SOURCE must be an archive, not a directory. -- Option: -h, --help Print a short usage message and exit.  File: python.info, Node: Python API, Next: Examples<32>, Prev: Command-Line Interface<5>, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.3 Python API ................... The module defines two convenience functions: -- Function: zipapp.create_archive (source, target=None, interpreter=None, main=None, filter=None, compressed=False) Create an application archive from 'source'. The source can be any of the following: * The name of a directory, or a *note path-like object: 2a2. referring to a directory, in which case a new application archive will be created from the content of that directory. * The name of an existing application archive file, or a *note path-like object: 2a2. referring to such a file, in which case the file is copied to the target (modifying it to reflect the value given for the 'interpreter' argument). The file name should include the ‘.pyz’ extension, if required. * A file object open for reading in bytes mode. The content of the file should be an application archive, and the file object is assumed to be positioned at the start of the archive. The 'target' argument determines where the resulting archive will be written: * If it is the name of a file, or a *note path-like object: 2a2, the archive will be written to that file. * If it is an open file object, the archive will be written to that file object, which must be open for writing in bytes mode. * If the target is omitted (or ‘None’), the source must be a directory and the target will be a file with the same name as the source, with a ‘.pyz’ extension added. The 'interpreter' argument specifies the name of the Python interpreter with which the archive will be executed. It is written as a “shebang” line at the start of the archive. On POSIX, this will be interpreted by the OS, and on Windows it will be handled by the Python launcher. Omitting the 'interpreter' results in no shebang line being written. If an interpreter is specified, and the target is a filename, the executable bit of the target file will be set. The 'main' argument specifies the name of a callable which will be used as the main program for the archive. It can only be specified if the source is a directory, and the source does not already contain a ‘__main__.py’ file. The 'main' argument should take the form “pkg.module:callable” and the archive will be run by importing “pkg.module” and executing the given callable with no arguments. It is an error to omit 'main' if the source is a directory and does not contain a ‘__main__.py’ file, as otherwise the resulting archive would not be executable. The optional 'filter' argument specifies a callback function that is passed a Path object representing the path to the file being added (relative to the source directory). It should return ‘True’ if the file is to be added. The optional 'compressed' argument determines whether files are compressed. If set to ‘True’, files in the archive are compressed with the deflate method; otherwise, files are stored uncompressed. This argument has no effect when copying an existing archive. If a file object is specified for 'source' or 'target', it is the caller’s responsibility to close it after calling create_archive. When copying an existing archive, file objects supplied only need ‘read’ and ‘readline’, or ‘write’ methods. When creating an archive from a directory, if the target is a file object it will be passed to the ‘zipfile.ZipFile’ class, and must supply the methods needed by that class. Changed in version 3.7: Added the 'filter' and 'compressed' parameters. -- Function: zipapp.get_interpreter (archive) Return the interpreter specified in the ‘#!’ line at the start of the archive. If there is no ‘#!’ line, return *note None: 671. The 'archive' argument can be a filename or a file-like object open for reading in bytes mode. It is assumed to be at the start of the archive.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<32>, Next: Specifying the Interpreter, Prev: Python API, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.4 Examples ................. Pack up a directory into an archive, and run it. $ python -m zipapp myapp $ python myapp.pyz <output from myapp> The same can be done using the *note create_archive(): bb0. function: >>> import zipapp >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp', 'myapp.pyz') To make the application directly executable on POSIX, specify an interpreter to use. $ python -m zipapp myapp -p "/usr/bin/env python" $ ./myapp.pyz <output from myapp> To replace the shebang line on an existing archive, create a modified archive using the *note create_archive(): bb0. function: >>> import zipapp >>> zipapp.create_archive('old_archive.pyz', 'new_archive.pyz', '/usr/bin/python3') To update the file in place, do the replacement in memory using a *note BytesIO: e9d. object, and then overwrite the source afterwards. Note that there is a risk when overwriting a file in place that an error will result in the loss of the original file. This code does not protect against such errors, but production code should do so. Also, this method will only work if the archive fits in memory: >>> import zipapp >>> import io >>> temp = io.BytesIO() >>> zipapp.create_archive('myapp.pyz', temp, '/usr/bin/python2') >>> with open('myapp.pyz', 'wb') as f: >>> f.write(temp.getvalue())  File: python.info, Node: Specifying the Interpreter, Next: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp, Prev: Examples<32>, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.5 Specifying the Interpreter ................................... Note that if you specify an interpreter and then distribute your application archive, you need to ensure that the interpreter used is portable. The Python launcher for Windows supports most common forms of POSIX ‘#!’ line, but there are other issues to consider: * If you use “/usr/bin/env python” (or other forms of the “python” command, such as “/usr/bin/python”), you need to consider that your users may have either Python 2 or Python 3 as their default, and write your code to work under both versions. * If you use an explicit version, for example “/usr/bin/env python3” your application will not work for users who do not have that version. (This may be what you want if you have not made your code Python 2 compatible). * There is no way to say “python X.Y or later”, so be careful of using an exact version like “/usr/bin/env python3.4” as you will need to change your shebang line for users of Python 3.5, for example. Typically, you should use an “/usr/bin/env python2” or “/usr/bin/env python3”, depending on whether your code is written for Python 2 or 3.  File: python.info, Node: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp, Next: The Python Zip Application Archive Format, Prev: Specifying the Interpreter, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.6 Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp ..................................................... Using the *note zipapp: 130. module, it is possible to create self-contained Python programs, which can be distributed to end users who only need to have a suitable version of Python installed on their system. The key to doing this is to bundle all of the application’s dependencies into the archive, along with the application code. The steps to create a standalone archive are as follows: 1. Create your application in a directory as normal, so you have a ‘myapp’ directory containing a ‘__main__.py’ file, and any supporting application code. 2. Install all of your application’s dependencies into the ‘myapp’ directory, using pip: $ python -m pip install -r requirements.txt --target myapp (this assumes you have your project requirements in a ‘requirements.txt’ file - if not, you can just list the dependencies manually on the pip command line). 3. Package the application using: $ python -m zipapp -p "interpreter" myapp This will produce a standalone executable, which can be run on any machine with the appropriate interpreter available. See *note Specifying the Interpreter: 4361. for details. It can be shipped to users as a single file. On Unix, the ‘myapp.pyz’ file is executable as it stands. You can rename the file to remove the ‘.pyz’ extension if you prefer a “plain” command name. On Windows, the ‘myapp.pyz[w]’ file is executable by virtue of the fact that the Python interpreter registers the ‘.pyz’ and ‘.pyzw’ file extensions when installed. * Menu: * Caveats::  File: python.info, Node: Caveats, Up: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp 5.29.3.7 Caveats ................ If your application depends on a package that includes a C extension, that package cannot be run from a zip file (this is an OS limitation, as executable code must be present in the filesystem for the OS loader to load it). In this case, you can exclude that dependency from the zipfile, and either require your users to have it installed, or ship it alongside your zipfile and add code to your ‘__main__.py’ to include the directory containing the unzipped module in ‘sys.path’. In this case, you will need to make sure to ship appropriate binaries for your target architecture(s) (and potentially pick the correct version to add to ‘sys.path’ at runtime, based on the user’s machine).  File: python.info, Node: The Python Zip Application Archive Format, Prev: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp, Up: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives 5.29.3.8 The Python Zip Application Archive Format .................................................. Python has been able to execute zip files which contain a ‘__main__.py’ file since version 2.6. In order to be executed by Python, an application archive simply has to be a standard zip file containing a ‘__main__.py’ file which will be run as the entry point for the application. As usual for any Python script, the parent of the script (in this case the zip file) will be placed on *note sys.path: 3b0. and thus further modules can be imported from the zip file. The zip file format allows arbitrary data to be prepended to a zip file. The zip application format uses this ability to prepend a standard POSIX “shebang” line to the file (‘#!/path/to/interpreter’). Formally, the Python zip application format is therefore: 1. An optional shebang line, containing the characters ‘b'#!'’ followed by an interpreter name, and then a newline (‘b'\n'’) character. The interpreter name can be anything acceptable to the OS “shebang” processing, or the Python launcher on Windows. The interpreter should be encoded in UTF-8 on Windows, and in *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59. on POSIX. 2. Standard zipfile data, as generated by the *note zipfile: 131. module. The zipfile content 'must' include a file called ‘__main__.py’ (which must be in the “root” of the zipfile - i.e., it cannot be in a subdirectory). The zipfile data can be compressed or uncompressed. If an application archive has a shebang line, it may have the executable bit set on POSIX systems, to allow it to be executed directly. There is no requirement that the tools in this module are used to create application archives - the module is a convenience, but archives in the above format created by any means are acceptable to Python.  File: python.info, Node: Python Runtime Services, Next: Custom Python Interpreters, Prev: Software Packaging and Distribution, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.30 Python Runtime Services ============================ The modules described in this chapter provide a wide range of services related to the Python interpreter and its interaction with its environment. Here’s an overview: * Menu: * sys — System-specific parameters and functions:: * sys.monitoring — Execution event monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring. * sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information:: * builtins — Built-in objects:: * __main__ — Top-level code environment:: * warnings — Warning control:: * dataclasses — Data Classes:: * contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts:: * abc — Abstract Base Classes:: * atexit — Exit handlers:: * traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback:: * __future__ — Future statement definitions:: * gc — Garbage Collector interface:: * inspect — Inspect live objects:: * site — Site-specific configuration hook::  File: python.info, Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions, Next: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.1 ‘sys’ — System-specific parameters and functions ------------------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ This module provides access to some variables used or maintained by the interpreter and to functions that interact strongly with the interpreter. It is always available. Unless explicitly noted otherwise, all variables are read-only. -- Data: sys.abiflags On POSIX systems where Python was built with the standard ‘configure’ script, this contains the ABI flags as specified by PEP 3149(1). Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.8: Default flags became an empty string (‘m’ flag for pymalloc has been removed). *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. -- Function: sys.addaudithook (hook) Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks for the current (sub)interpreter. When an auditing event is raised through the *note sys.audit(): 15b9. function, each hook will be called in the order it was added with the event name and the tuple of arguments. Native hooks added by *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41e2. are called first, followed by hooks added in the current (sub)interpreter. Hooks can then log the event, raise an exception to abort the operation, or terminate the process entirely. Note that audit hooks are primarily for collecting information about internal or otherwise unobservable actions, whether by Python or libraries written in Python. They are not suitable for implementing a “sandbox”. In particular, malicious code can trivially disable or bypass hooks added using this function. At a minimum, any security-sensitive hooks must be added using the C API *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41e2. before initialising the runtime, and any modules allowing arbitrary memory modification (such as *note ctypes: 2a.) should be completely removed or closely monitored. Calling *note sys.addaudithook(): 41e1. will itself raise an auditing event named ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments. If any existing hooks raise an exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 195, the new hook will not be added and the exception suppressed. As a result, callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they control all existing hooks. See the *note audit events table: 1870. for all events raised by CPython, and PEP 578(2) for the original design discussion. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.8.1: Exceptions derived from *note Exception: 9d9. but not *note RuntimeError: 195. are no longer suppressed. 'CPython implementation detail:' When tracing is enabled (see *note settrace(): 14ca.), Python hooks are only traced if the callable has a ‘__cantrace__’ member that is set to a true value. Otherwise, trace functions will skip the hook. -- Data: sys.argv The list of command line arguments passed to a Python script. ‘argv[0]’ is the script name (it is operating system dependent whether this is a full pathname or not). If the command was executed using the *note -c: 5dc. command line option to the interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is set to the string ‘'-c'’. If no script name was passed to the Python interpreter, ‘argv[0]’ is the empty string. To loop over the standard input, or the list of files given on the command line, see the *note fileinput: 5b. module. See also *note sys.orig_argv: 83c. Note: On Unix, command line arguments are passed by bytes from OS. Python decodes them with filesystem encoding and “surrogateescape” error handler. When you need original bytes, you can get it by ‘[os.fsencode(arg) for arg in sys.argv]’. -- Function: sys.audit (event, *args) Raise an auditing event and trigger any active auditing hooks. 'event' is a string identifying the event, and 'args' may contain optional arguments with more information about the event. The number and types of arguments for a given event are considered a public and stable API and should not be modified between releases. For example, one auditing event is named ‘os.chdir’. This event has one argument called 'path' that will contain the requested new working directory. *note sys.audit(): 15b9. will call the existing auditing hooks, passing the event name and arguments, and will re-raise the first exception from any hook. In general, if an exception is raised, it should not be handled and the process should be terminated as quickly as possible. This allows hook implementations to decide how to respond to particular events: they can merely log the event or abort the operation by raising an exception. Hooks are added using the *note sys.addaudithook(): 41e1. or *note PySys_AddAuditHook(): 41e2. functions. The native equivalent of this function is *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. Using the native function is preferred when possible. See the *note audit events table: 1870. for all events raised by CPython. Added in version 3.8. -- Data: sys.base_exec_prefix Set during Python startup, before ‘site.py’ is run, to the same value as *note exec_prefix: 3ae. If not running in a *note virtual environment: 4331, the values will stay the same; if ‘site.py’ finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of *note prefix: 3b2. and *note exec_prefix: 3ae. will be changed to point to the virtual environment, whereas *note base_prefix: 3eb. and *note base_exec_prefix: 3ea. will remain pointing to the base Python installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from). Added in version 3.3. -- Data: sys.base_prefix Set during Python startup, before ‘site.py’ is run, to the same value as *note prefix: 3b2. If not running in a *note virtual environment: 4331, the values will stay the same; if ‘site.py’ finds that a virtual environment is in use, the values of *note prefix: 3b2. and *note exec_prefix: 3ae. will be changed to point to the virtual environment, whereas *note base_prefix: 3eb. and *note base_exec_prefix: 3ea. will remain pointing to the base Python installation (the one which the virtual environment was created from). Added in version 3.3. -- Data: sys.byteorder An indicator of the native byte order. This will have the value ‘'big'’ on big-endian (most-significant byte first) platforms, and ‘'little'’ on little-endian (least-significant byte first) platforms. -- Data: sys.builtin_module_names A tuple of strings containing the names of all modules that are compiled into this Python interpreter. (This information is not available in any other way — ‘modules.keys()’ only lists the imported modules.) See also the *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83d. list. -- Function: sys.call_tracing (func, args) Call ‘func(*args)’, while tracing is enabled. The tracing state is saved, and restored afterwards. This is intended to be called from a debugger from a checkpoint, to recursively debug or profile some other code. Tracing is suspended while calling a tracing function set by *note settrace(): 14ca. or *note setprofile(): 14c9. to avoid infinite recursion. ‘call_tracing()’ enables explicit recursion of the tracing function. -- Data: sys.copyright A string containing the copyright pertaining to the Python interpreter. -- Function: sys._clear_type_cache () Clear the internal type cache. The type cache is used to speed up attribute and method lookups. Use the function 'only' to drop unnecessary references during reference leak debugging. This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only. Deprecated since version 3.13: Use the more general *note _clear_internal_caches(): 1670. function instead. -- Function: sys._clear_internal_caches () Clear all internal performance-related caches. Use this function 'only' to release unnecessary references and memory blocks when hunting for leaks. Added in version 3.13. -- Function: sys._current_frames () Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost stack frame currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. Note that functions in the *note traceback: fe. module can build the call stack given such a frame. This is most useful for debugging deadlock: this function does not require the deadlocked threads’ cooperation, and such threads’ call stacks are frozen for as long as they remain deadlocked. The frame returned for a non-deadlocked thread may bear no relationship to that thread’s current activity by the time calling code examines the frame. This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys._current_frames’ with no arguments. -- Function: sys._current_exceptions () Return a dictionary mapping each thread’s identifier to the topmost exception currently active in that thread at the time the function is called. If a thread is not currently handling an exception, it is not included in the result dictionary. This is most useful for statistical profiling. This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys._current_exceptions’ with no arguments. Changed in version 3.12: Each value in the dictionary is now a single exception instance, rather than a 3-tuple as returned from ‘sys.exc_info()’. -- Function: sys.breakpointhook () This hook function is called by built-in *note breakpoint(): 236. By default, it drops you into the *note pdb: a5. debugger, but it can be set to any other function so that you can choose which debugger gets used. The signature of this function is dependent on what it calls. For example, the default binding (e.g. ‘pdb.set_trace()’) expects no arguments, but you might bind it to a function that expects additional arguments (positional and/or keyword). The built-in ‘breakpoint()’ function passes its ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’ straight through. Whatever ‘breakpointhooks()’ returns is returned from ‘breakpoint()’. The default implementation first consults the environment variable *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: adb. If that is set to ‘"0"’ then this function returns immediately; i.e. it is a no-op. If the environment variable is not set, or is set to the empty string, ‘pdb.set_trace()’ is called. Otherwise this variable should name a function to run, using Python’s dotted-import nomenclature, e.g. ‘package.subpackage.module.function’. In this case, ‘package.subpackage.module’ would be imported and the resulting module must have a callable named ‘function()’. This is run, passing in ‘*args’ and ‘**kws’, and whatever ‘function()’ returns, ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ returns to the built-in *note breakpoint(): 236. function. Note that if anything goes wrong while importing the callable named by *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: adb, a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. is reported and the breakpoint is ignored. Also note that if ‘sys.breakpointhook()’ is overridden programmatically, *note PYTHONBREAKPOINT: adb. is 'not' consulted. Added in version 3.7. -- Function: sys._debugmallocstats () Print low-level information to stderr about the state of CPython’s memory allocator. If Python is *note built in debug mode: 1fb. (*note configure -with-pydebug option: 420.), it also performs some expensive internal consistency checks. Added in version 3.3. 'CPython implementation detail:' This function is specific to CPython. The exact output format is not defined here, and may change. -- Data: sys.dllhandle Integer specifying the handle of the Python DLL. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- Function: sys.displayhook (value) If 'value' is not ‘None’, this function prints ‘repr(value)’ to ‘sys.stdout’, and saves 'value' in ‘builtins._’. If ‘repr(value)’ is not encodable to ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘sys.stdout.errors’ error handler (which is probably ‘'strict'’), encode it to ‘sys.stdout.encoding’ with ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler. ‘sys.displayhook’ is called on the result of evaluating an *note expression: 1f85. entered in an interactive Python session. The display of these values can be customized by assigning another one-argument function to ‘sys.displayhook’. Pseudo-code: def displayhook(value): if value is None: return # Set '_' to None to avoid recursion builtins._ = None text = repr(value) try: sys.stdout.write(text) except UnicodeEncodeError: bytes = text.encode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'backslashreplace') if hasattr(sys.stdout, 'buffer'): sys.stdout.buffer.write(bytes) else: text = bytes.decode(sys.stdout.encoding, 'strict') sys.stdout.write(text) sys.stdout.write("\n") builtins._ = value Changed in version 3.2: Use ‘'backslashreplace'’ error handler on *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. -- Data: sys.dont_write_bytecode If this is true, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the import of source modules. This value is initially set to ‘True’ or ‘False’ depending on the *note -B: 1399. command line option and the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 139a. environment variable, but you can set it yourself to control bytecode file generation. -- Data: sys._emscripten_info A *note named tuple: 64a. holding information about the environment on the 'wasm32-emscripten' platform. The named tuple is provisional and may change in the future. -- Attribute: _emscripten_info.emscripten_version Emscripten version as tuple of ints (major, minor, micro), e.g. ‘(3, 1, 8)’. -- Attribute: _emscripten_info.runtime Runtime string, e.g. browser user agent, ‘'Node.js v14.18.2'’, or ‘'UNKNOWN'’. -- Attribute: _emscripten_info.pthreads ‘True’ if Python is compiled with Emscripten pthreads support. -- Attribute: _emscripten_info.shared_memory ‘True’ if Python is compiled with shared memory support. *note Availability: 1d54.: Emscripten. Added in version 3.11. -- Data: sys.pycache_prefix If this is set (not ‘None’), Python will write bytecode-cache ‘.pyc’ files to (and read them from) a parallel directory tree rooted at this directory, rather than from ‘__pycache__’ directories in the source code tree. Any ‘__pycache__’ directories in the source code tree will be ignored and new ‘.pyc’ files written within the pycache prefix. Thus if you use *note compileall: 20. as a pre-build step, you must ensure you run it with the same pycache prefix (if any) that you will use at runtime. A relative path is interpreted relative to the current working directory. This value is initially set based on the value of the *note -X: 176. ‘pycache_prefix=PATH’ command-line option or the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a3. environment variable (command-line takes precedence). If neither are set, it is ‘None’. Added in version 3.8. -- Function: sys.excepthook (type, value, traceback) This function prints out a given traceback and exception to ‘sys.stderr’. When an exception other than *note SystemExit: d40. is raised and uncaught, the interpreter calls ‘sys.excepthook’ with three arguments, the exception class, exception instance, and a traceback object. In an interactive session this happens just before control is returned to the prompt; in a Python program this happens just before the program exits. The handling of such top-level exceptions can be customized by assigning another three-argument function to ‘sys.excepthook’. Raise an auditing event ‘sys.excepthook’ with arguments ‘hook’, ‘type’, ‘value’, ‘traceback’ when an uncaught exception occurs. If no hook has been set, ‘hook’ may be ‘None’. If any hook raises an exception derived from *note RuntimeError: 195. the call to the hook will be suppressed. Otherwise, the audit hook exception will be reported as unraisable and ‘sys.excepthook’ will be called. See also ........ The *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. function handles unraisable exceptions and the *note threading.excepthook(): 847. function handles exception raised by *note threading.Thread.run(): a3c. -- Data: sys.__breakpointhook__ -- Data: sys.__displayhook__ -- Data: sys.__excepthook__ -- Data: sys.__unraisablehook__ These objects contain the original values of ‘breakpointhook’, ‘displayhook’, ‘excepthook’, and ‘unraisablehook’ at the start of the program. They are saved so that ‘breakpointhook’, ‘displayhook’ and ‘excepthook’, ‘unraisablehook’ can be restored in case they happen to get replaced with broken or alternative objects. Added in version 3.7: __breakpointhook__ Added in version 3.8: __unraisablehook__ -- Function: sys.exception () This function, when called while an exception handler is executing (such as an ‘except’ or ‘except*’ clause), returns the exception instance that was caught by this handler. When exception handlers are nested within one another, only the exception handled by the innermost handler is accessible. If no exception handler is executing, this function returns ‘None’. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: sys.exc_info () This function returns the old-style representation of the handled exception. If an exception ‘e’ is currently handled (so *note exception(): 687. would return ‘e’), *note exc_info(): 686. returns the tuple ‘(type(e), e, e.__traceback__)’. That is, a tuple containing the type of the exception (a subclass of *note BaseException: 5b7.), the exception itself, and a *note traceback object: af4. which typically encapsulates the call stack at the point where the exception last occurred. If no exception is being handled anywhere on the stack, this function return a tuple containing three ‘None’ values. Changed in version 3.11: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ fields are now derived from the ‘value’ (the exception instance), so when an exception is modified while it is being handled, the changes are reflected in the results of subsequent calls to *note exc_info(): 686. -- Data: sys.exec_prefix A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform-dependent Python files are installed; by default, this is also ‘'/usr/local'’. This can be set at build time with the ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’ script. Specifically, all configuration files (e.g. the ‘pyconfig.h’ header file) are installed in the directory ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/config’, and shared library modules are installed in ‘`exec_prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/lib-dynload’, where 'X.Y' is the version number of Python, for example ‘3.2’. Note: If a *note virtual environment: 4331. is in effect, this value will be changed in ‘site.py’ to point to the virtual environment. The value for the Python installation will still be available, via *note base_exec_prefix: 3ea. -- Data: sys.executable A string giving the absolute path of the executable binary for the Python interpreter, on systems where this makes sense. If Python is unable to retrieve the real path to its executable, *note sys.executable: 3b4. will be an empty string or ‘None’. -- Function: sys.exit ([arg]) Raise a *note SystemExit: d40. exception, signaling an intention to exit the interpreter. The optional argument 'arg' can be an integer giving the exit status (defaulting to zero), or another type of object. If it is an integer, zero is considered “successful termination” and any nonzero value is considered “abnormal termination” by shells and the like. Most systems require it to be in the range 0–127, and produce undefined results otherwise. Some systems have a convention for assigning specific meanings to specific exit codes, but these are generally underdeveloped; Unix programs generally use 2 for command line syntax errors and 1 for all other kind of errors. If another type of object is passed, ‘None’ is equivalent to passing zero, and any other object is printed to *note stderr: 939. and results in an exit code of 1. In particular, ‘sys.exit("some error message")’ is a quick way to exit a program when an error occurs. Since *note exit(): 2189. ultimately “only” raises an exception, it will only exit the process when called from the main thread, and the exception is not intercepted. Cleanup actions specified by finally clauses of *note try: 6e4. statements are honored, and it is possible to intercept the exit attempt at an outer level. Changed in version 3.6: If an error occurs in the cleanup after the Python interpreter has caught *note SystemExit: d40. (such as an error flushing buffered data in the standard streams), the exit status is changed to 120. -- Data: sys.flags The *note named tuple: 64a. 'flags' exposes the status of command line flags. The attributes are read only. -- Attribute: flags.debug *note -d: 1d31. -- Attribute: flags.inspect *note -i: 14a6. -- Attribute: flags.interactive *note -i: 14a6. -- Attribute: flags.isolated *note -I: 95e. -- Attribute: flags.optimize *note -O: db4. or *note -OO: db5. -- Attribute: flags.dont_write_bytecode *note -B: 1399. -- Attribute: flags.no_user_site *note -s: 1377. -- Attribute: flags.no_site *note -S: 119b. -- Attribute: flags.ignore_environment *note -E: 95d. -- Attribute: flags.verbose *note -v: 13f0. -- Attribute: flags.bytes_warning *note -b: 5df. -- Attribute: flags.quiet *note -q: 1d34. -- Attribute: flags.hash_randomization *note -R: 1a96. -- Attribute: flags.dev_mode *note -X dev: 176. (*note Python Development Mode: 1fa.) -- Attribute: flags.utf8_mode *note -X utf8: 176. -- Attribute: flags.safe_path *note -P: 5a0. -- Attribute: flags.int_max_str_digits *note -X int_max_str_digits: 176. (*note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1.) -- Attribute: flags.warn_default_encoding *note -X warn_default_encoding: 176. Changed in version 3.2: Added ‘quiet’ attribute for the new *note -q: 1d34. flag. Added in version 3.2.3: The ‘hash_randomization’ attribute. Changed in version 3.3: Removed obsolete ‘division_warning’ attribute. Changed in version 3.4: Added ‘isolated’ attribute for *note -I: 95e. ‘isolated’ flag. Changed in version 3.7: Added the ‘dev_mode’ attribute for the new *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. and the ‘utf8_mode’ attribute for the new *note -X: 176. ‘utf8’ flag. Changed in version 3.10: Added ‘warn_default_encoding’ attribute for *note -X: 176. ‘warn_default_encoding’ flag. Changed in version 3.11: Added the ‘safe_path’ attribute for *note -P: 5a0. option. Changed in version 3.11: Added the ‘int_max_str_digits’ attribute. -- Data: sys.float_info A *note named tuple: 64a. holding information about the float type. It contains low level information about the precision and internal representation. The values correspond to the various floating-point constants defined in the standard header file ‘float.h’ for the ‘C’ programming language; see section 5.2.4.2.2 of the 1999 ISO/IEC C standard *note [C99]: 4385, ‘Characteristics of floating types’, for details. Attributes of the ‘float_info’ named tuple attribute float.h macro explanation ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- Attribute: float_info.epsilon ‘DBL_EPSILON’ difference between 1.0 and the least value greater than 1.0 that is representable as a float. See also *note math.ulp(): 911. -- Attribute: float_info.dig ‘DBL_DIG’ The maximum number of decimal digits that can be faithfully represented in a float; see below. -- Attribute: float_info.mant_dig ‘DBL_MANT_DIG’ Float precision: the number of base-‘radix’ digits in the significand of a float. -- Attribute: float_info.max ‘DBL_MAX’ The maximum representable positive finite float. -- Attribute: float_info.max_exp ‘DBL_MAX_EXP’ The maximum integer 'e' such that ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a representable finite float. -- Attribute: ‘DBL_MAX_10_EXP’ The maximum integer 'e' such that float_info.max_10_exp ‘10**e’ is in the range of representable finite floats. -- Attribute: float_info.min ‘DBL_MIN’ The minimum representable positive 'normalized' float. Use *note math.ulp(0.0): 911. to get the smallest positive 'denormalized' representable float. -- Attribute: float_info.min_exp ‘DBL_MIN_EXP’ The minimum integer 'e' such that ‘radix**(e-1)’ is a normalized float. -- Attribute: ‘DBL_MIN_10_EXP’ The minimum integer 'e' such that float_info.min_10_exp ‘10**e’ is a normalized float. -- Attribute: float_info.radix ‘FLT_RADIX’ The radix of exponent representation. -- Attribute: float_info.rounds ‘FLT_ROUNDS’ An integer representing the rounding mode for floating-point arithmetic. This reflects the value of the system ‘FLT_ROUNDS’ macro at interpreter startup time: * ‘-1’: indeterminable * ‘0’: toward zero * ‘1’: to nearest * ‘2’: toward positive infinity * ‘3’: toward negative infinity All other values for ‘FLT_ROUNDS’ characterize implementation-defined rounding behavior. The attribute *note sys.float_info.dig: 4387. needs further explanation. If ‘s’ is any string representing a decimal number with at most ‘sys.float_info.dig’ significant digits, then converting ‘s’ to a float and back again will recover a string representing the same decimal value: >>> import sys >>> sys.float_info.dig 15 >>> s = '3.14159265358979' # decimal string with 15 significant digits >>> format(float(s), '.15g') # convert to float and back -> same value '3.14159265358979' But for strings with more than *note sys.float_info.dig: 4387. significant digits, this isn’t always true: >>> s = '9876543211234567' # 16 significant digits is too many! >>> format(float(s), '.16g') # conversion changes value '9876543211234568' -- Data: sys.float_repr_style A string indicating how the *note repr(): 7f9. function behaves for floats. If the string has value ‘'short'’ then for a finite float ‘x’, ‘repr(x)’ aims to produce a short string with the property that ‘float(repr(x)) == x’. This is the usual behaviour in Python 3.1 and later. Otherwise, ‘float_repr_style’ has value ‘'legacy'’ and ‘repr(x)’ behaves in the same way as it did in versions of Python prior to 3.1. Added in version 3.1. -- Function: sys.getallocatedblocks () Return the number of memory blocks currently allocated by the interpreter, regardless of their size. This function is mainly useful for tracking and debugging memory leaks. Because of the interpreter’s internal caches, the result can vary from call to call; you may have to call *note _clear_internal_caches(): 1670. and *note gc.collect(): a39. to get more predictable results. If a Python build or implementation cannot reasonably compute this information, *note getallocatedblocks(): fc0. is allowed to return 0 instead. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: sys.getunicodeinternedsize () Return the number of unicode objects that have been interned. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: sys.getandroidapilevel () Return the build-time API level of Android as an integer. This represents the minimum version of Android this build of Python can run on. For runtime version information, see *note platform.android_ver(): 164c. *note Availability: 1d54.: Android. Added in version 3.7. -- Function: sys.getdefaultencoding () Return ‘'utf-8'’. This is the name of the default string encoding, used in methods like *note str.encode(): 8d4. -- Function: sys.getdlopenflags () Return the current value of the flags that are used for ‘dlopen()’ calls. Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the *note os: a1. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g. *note os.RTLD_LAZY: 110c.). *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. -- Function: sys.getfilesystemencoding () Get the *note filesystem encoding: 537.: the encoding used with the *note filesystem error handler: 537. to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. The filesystem error handler is returned from *note getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce6. For best compatibility, str should be used for filenames in all cases, although representing filenames as bytes is also supported. Functions accepting or returning filenames should support either str or bytes and internally convert to the system’s preferred representation. *note os.fsencode(): c55. and *note os.fsdecode(): c54. should be used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used. The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. are configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e4. and *note filesystem_errors: 3e5. members of *note PyConfig: 3a2. Changed in version 3.2: *note getfilesystemencoding(): c59. result cannot be ‘None’ anymore. Changed in version 3.6: Windows is no longer guaranteed to return ‘'mbcs'’. See PEP 529(3) and *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2b0. for more information. Changed in version 3.7: Return ‘'utf-8'’ if the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. is enabled. -- Function: sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors () Get the *note filesystem error handler: 537.: the error handler used with the *note filesystem encoding: 537. to convert between Unicode filenames and bytes filenames. The filesystem encoding is returned from *note getfilesystemencoding(): c59. *note os.fsencode(): c55. and *note os.fsdecode(): c54. should be used to ensure that the correct encoding and errors mode are used. The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. are configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e4. and *note filesystem_errors: 3e5. members of *note PyConfig: 3a2. Added in version 3.6. -- Function: sys.get_int_max_str_digits () Returns the current value for the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. See also *note set_int_max_str_digits(): 17be. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: sys.getrefcount (object) Return the reference count of the 'object'. The count returned is generally one higher than you might expect, because it includes the (temporary) reference as an argument to *note getrefcount(): 4393. Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many references to the object are actually held. For example, some objects are *note immortal: 4394. and have a very high refcount that does not reflect the actual number of references. Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1. Changed in version 3.12: Immortal objects have very large refcounts that do not match the actual number of references to the object. -- Function: sys.getrecursionlimit () Return the current value of the recursion limit, the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack. This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing Python. It can be set by *note setrecursionlimit(): 4bf. -- Function: sys.getsizeof (object[, default]) Return the size of an object in bytes. The object can be any type of object. All built-in objects will return correct results, but this does not have to hold true for third-party extensions as it is implementation specific. Only the memory consumption directly attributed to the object is accounted for, not the memory consumption of objects it refers to. If given, 'default' will be returned if the object does not provide means to retrieve the size. Otherwise a *note TypeError: 534. will be raised. *note getsizeof(): 176a. calls the object’s ‘__sizeof__’ method and adds an additional garbage collector overhead if the object is managed by the garbage collector. See recursive sizeof recipe(4) for an example of using *note getsizeof(): 176a. recursively to find the size of containers and all their contents. -- Function: sys.getswitchinterval () Return the interpreter’s “thread switch interval” in seconds; see *note setswitchinterval(): 94a. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: sys._getframe ([depth]) Return a frame object from the call stack. If optional integer 'depth' is given, return the frame object that many calls below the top of the stack. If that is deeper than the call stack, *note ValueError: 204. is raised. The default for 'depth' is zero, returning the frame at the top of the call stack. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys._getframe’ with argument ‘frame’. 'CPython implementation detail:' This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only. It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. -- Function: sys._getframemodulename ([depth]) Return the name of a module from the call stack. If optional integer 'depth' is given, return the module that many calls below the top of the stack. If that is deeper than the call stack, or if the module is unidentifiable, ‘None’ is returned. The default for 'depth' is zero, returning the module at the top of the call stack. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys._getframemodulename’ with argument ‘depth’. 'CPython implementation detail:' This function should be used for internal and specialized purposes only. It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: sys.getobjects (limit[, type]) This function only exists if CPython was built using the specialized configure option *note -with-trace-refs: 390. It is intended only for debugging garbage-collection issues. Return a list of up to 'limit' dynamically allocated Python objects. If 'type' is given, only objects of that exact type (not subtypes) are included. Objects from the list are not safe to use. Specifically, the result will include objects from all interpreters that share their object allocator state (that is, ones created with *note PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4395. set to 1 or using *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17b6, and the *note main interpreter: 584.). Mixing objects from different interpreters may lead to crashes or other unexpected behavior. 'CPython implementation detail:' This function should be used for specialized purposes only. It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. Changed in version 3.13.1: The result may include objects from other interpreters. -- Function: sys.getprofile () Get the profiler function as set by *note setprofile(): 14c9. -- Function: sys.gettrace () Get the trace function as set by *note settrace(): 14ca. 'CPython implementation detail:' The *note gettrace(): 13ad. function is intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage tools and the like. Its behavior is part of the implementation platform, rather than part of the language definition, and thus may not be available in all Python implementations. -- Function: sys.getwindowsversion () Return a named tuple describing the Windows version currently running. The named elements are 'major', 'minor', 'build', 'platform', 'service_pack', 'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', 'product_type' and 'platform_version'. 'service_pack' contains a string, 'platform_version' a 3-tuple and all other values are integers. The components can also be accessed by name, so ‘sys.getwindowsversion()[0]’ is equivalent to ‘sys.getwindowsversion().major’. For compatibility with prior versions, only the first 5 elements are retrievable by indexing. 'platform' will be ‘2’ (VER_PLATFORM_WIN32_NT). 'product_type' may be one of the following values: Constant Meaning ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘1’ (VER_NT_WORKSTATION) The system is a workstation. ‘2’ (VER_NT_DOMAIN_CONTROLLER) The system is a domain controller. ‘3’ (VER_NT_SERVER) The system is a server, but not a domain controller. This function wraps the Win32 ‘GetVersionEx()’ function; see the Microsoft documentation on ‘OSVERSIONINFOEX()’ for more information about these fields. 'platform_version' returns the major version, minor version and build number of the current operating system, rather than the version that is being emulated for the process. It is intended for use in logging rather than for feature detection. Note: 'platform_version' derives the version from kernel32.dll which can be of a different version than the OS version. Please use *note platform: aa. module for achieving accurate OS version. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. Changed in version 3.2: Changed to a named tuple and added 'service_pack_minor', 'service_pack_major', 'suite_mask', and 'product_type'. Changed in version 3.6: Added 'platform_version' -- Function: sys.get_asyncgen_hooks () Returns an 'asyncgen_hooks' object, which is similar to a *note namedtuple: 1ca. of the form ‘(firstiter, finalizer)’, where 'firstiter' and 'finalizer' are expected to be either ‘None’ or functions which take an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4396. as an argument, and are used to schedule finalization of an asynchronous generator by an event loop. Added in version 3.6: See PEP 525(5) for more details. Note: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see PEP 411(6) for details.) -- Function: sys.get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth () Get the current coroutine origin tracking depth, as set by *note set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b8c. Added in version 3.7. Note: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see PEP 411(7) for details.) Use it only for debugging purposes. -- Data: sys.hash_info A *note named tuple: 64a. giving parameters of the numeric hash implementation. For more details about hashing of numeric types, see *note Hashing of numeric types: 21a0. -- Attribute: hash_info.width The width in bits used for hash values -- Attribute: hash_info.modulus The prime modulus P used for numeric hash scheme -- Attribute: hash_info.inf The hash value returned for a positive infinity -- Attribute: hash_info.nan (This attribute is no longer used) -- Attribute: hash_info.imag The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number -- Attribute: hash_info.algorithm The name of the algorithm for hashing of str, bytes, and memoryview -- Attribute: hash_info.hash_bits The internal output size of the hash algorithm -- Attribute: hash_info.seed_bits The size of the seed key of the hash algorithm Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.4: Added 'algorithm', 'hash_bits' and 'seed_bits' -- Data: sys.hexversion The version number encoded as a single integer. This is guaranteed to increase with each version, including proper support for non-production releases. For example, to test that the Python interpreter is at least version 1.5.2, use: if sys.hexversion >= 0x010502F0: # use some advanced feature ... else: # use an alternative implementation or warn the user ... This is called ‘hexversion’ since it only really looks meaningful when viewed as the result of passing it to the built-in *note hex(): 12c2. function. The *note named tuple: 64a. *note sys.version_info: 69c. may be used for a more human-friendly encoding of the same information. More details of ‘hexversion’ can be found at *note API and ABI Versioning: 439f. -- Data: sys.implementation An object containing information about the implementation of the currently running Python interpreter. The following attributes are required to exist in all Python implementations. 'name' is the implementation’s identifier, e.g. ‘'cpython'’. The actual string is defined by the Python implementation, but it is guaranteed to be lower case. 'version' is a named tuple, in the same format as *note sys.version_info: 69c. It represents the version of the Python 'implementation'. This has a distinct meaning from the specific version of the Python 'language' to which the currently running interpreter conforms, which ‘sys.version_info’ represents. For example, for PyPy 1.8 ‘sys.implementation.version’ might be ‘sys.version_info(1, 8, 0, 'final', 0)’, whereas ‘sys.version_info’ would be ‘sys.version_info(2, 7, 2, 'final', 0)’. For CPython they are the same value, since it is the reference implementation. 'hexversion' is the implementation version in hexadecimal format, like *note sys.hexversion: 439e. 'cache_tag' is the tag used by the import machinery in the filenames of cached modules. By convention, it would be a composite of the implementation’s name and version, like ‘'cpython-33'’. However, a Python implementation may use some other value if appropriate. If ‘cache_tag’ is set to ‘None’, it indicates that module caching should be disabled. *note sys.implementation: 512. may contain additional attributes specific to the Python implementation. These non-standard attributes must start with an underscore, and are not described here. Regardless of its contents, *note sys.implementation: 512. will not change during a run of the interpreter, nor between implementation versions. (It may change between Python language versions, however.) See PEP 421(8) for more information. Added in version 3.3. Note: The addition of new required attributes must go through the normal PEP process. See PEP 421(9) for more information. -- Data: sys.int_info A *note named tuple: 64a. that holds information about Python’s internal representation of integers. The attributes are read only. -- Attribute: int_info.bits_per_digit The number of bits held in each digit. Python integers are stored internally in base ‘2**int_info.bits_per_digit’. -- Attribute: int_info.sizeof_digit The size in bytes of the C type used to represent a digit. -- Attribute: int_info.default_max_str_digits The default value for *note sys.get_int_max_str_digits(): 152d. when it is not otherwise explicitly configured. -- Attribute: int_info.str_digits_check_threshold The minimum non-zero value for *note sys.set_int_max_str_digits(): 17be, *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17bd, or *note -X int_max_str_digits: 176. Added in version 3.1. Changed in version 3.11: Added *note default_max_str_digits: 227b. and *note str_digits_check_threshold: 43a2. -- Data: sys.__interactivehook__ When this attribute exists, its value is automatically called (with no arguments) when the interpreter is launched in *note interactive mode: fc1. This is done after the *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc3. file is read, so that you can set this hook there. The *note site: c7. module *note sets this: fc4. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘cpython.run_interactivehook’ with the hook object as the argument when the hook is called on startup. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: sys.intern (string) Enter 'string' in the table of “interned” strings and return the interned string – which is 'string' itself or a copy. Interning strings is useful to gain a little performance on dictionary lookup – if the keys in a dictionary are interned, and the lookup key is interned, the key comparisons (after hashing) can be done by a pointer compare instead of a string compare. Normally, the names used in Python programs are automatically interned, and the dictionaries used to hold module, class or instance attributes have interned keys. Interned strings are not *note immortal: 4394.; you must keep a reference to the return value of *note intern(): 12ce. around to benefit from it. -- Function: sys._is_gil_enabled () Return *note True: c0d. if the *note GIL: 159. is enabled and *note False: b37. if it is disabled. Added in version 3.13. 'CPython implementation detail:' It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. -- Function: sys.is_finalizing () Return *note True: c0d. if the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14e. Return *note False: b37. otherwise. See also the *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d. exception. Added in version 3.5. -- Data: sys.last_exc This variable is not always defined; it is set to the exception instance when an exception is not handled and the interpreter prints an error message and a stack traceback. Its intended use is to allow an interactive user to import a debugger module and engage in post-mortem debugging without having to re-execute the command that caused the error. (Typical use is ‘import pdb; pdb.pm()’ to enter the post-mortem debugger; see *note pdb: a5. module for more information.) Added in version 3.12. -- Function: sys._is_interned (string) Return *note True: c0d. if the given string is “interned”, *note False: b37. otherwise. Added in version 3.13. 'CPython implementation detail:' It is not guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. -- Data: sys.last_type -- Data: sys.last_value -- Data: sys.last_traceback These three variables are deprecated; use *note sys.last_exc: 4ba. instead. They hold the legacy representation of ‘sys.last_exc’, as returned from *note exc_info(): 686. above. -- Data: sys.maxsize An integer giving the maximum value a variable of type *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. can take. It’s usually ‘2**31 - 1’ on a 32-bit platform and ‘2**63 - 1’ on a 64-bit platform. -- Data: sys.maxunicode An integer giving the value of the largest Unicode code point, i.e. ‘1114111’ (‘0x10FFFF’ in hexadecimal). Changed in version 3.3: Before PEP 393(10), ‘sys.maxunicode’ used to be either ‘0xFFFF’ or ‘0x10FFFF’, depending on the configuration option that specified whether Unicode characters were stored as UCS-2 or UCS-4. -- Data: sys.meta_path A list of *note meta path finder: 1069. objects that have their *note find_spec(): 865. methods called to see if one of the objects can find the module to be imported. By default, it holds entries that implement Python’s default import semantics. The *note find_spec(): 865. method is called with at least the absolute name of the module being imported. If the module to be imported is contained in a package, then the parent package’s *note __path__: 1c6e. attribute is passed in as a second argument. The method returns a *note module spec: 1f16, or ‘None’ if the module cannot be found. See also ........ *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. The abstract base class defining the interface of finder objects on *note meta_path: d2b. *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e64. The concrete class which *note find_spec(): 865. should return instances of. Changed in version 3.4: *note Module specs: 1f16. were introduced in Python 3.4, by PEP 451(11). Changed in version 3.12: Removed the fallback that looked for a ‘find_module()’ method if a *note meta_path: d2b. entry didn’t have a *note find_spec(): 865. method. -- Data: sys.modules This is a dictionary that maps module names to modules which have already been loaded. This can be manipulated to force reloading of modules and other tricks. However, replacing the dictionary will not necessarily work as expected and deleting essential items from the dictionary may cause Python to fail. If you want to iterate over this global dictionary always use ‘sys.modules.copy()’ or ‘tuple(sys.modules)’ to avoid exceptions as its size may change during iteration as a side effect of code or activity in other threads. -- Data: sys.orig_argv The list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable. The elements of *note sys.orig_argv: 83c. are the arguments to the Python interpreter, while the elements of *note sys.argv: 1258. are the arguments to the user’s program. Arguments consumed by the interpreter itself will be present in *note sys.orig_argv: 83c. and missing from *note sys.argv: 1258. Added in version 3.10. -- Data: sys.path A list of strings that specifies the search path for modules. Initialized from the environment variable *note PYTHONPATH: 1016, plus an installation-dependent default. By default, as initialized upon program startup, a potentially unsafe path is prepended to *note sys.path: 3b0. ('before' the entries inserted as a result of *note PYTHONPATH: 1016.): * ‘python -m module’ command line: prepend the current working directory. * ‘python script.py’ command line: prepend the script’s directory. If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links. * ‘python -c code’ and ‘python’ (REPL) command lines: prepend an empty string, which means the current working directory. To not prepend this potentially unsafe path, use the *note -P: 5a0. command line option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 5a1. environment variable. A program is free to modify this list for its own purposes. Only strings should be added to *note sys.path: 3b0.; all other data types are ignored during import. See also ........ * Module *note site: c7. This describes how to use .pth files to extend *note sys.path: 3b0. -- Data: sys.path_hooks A list of callables that take a path argument to try to create a *note finder: 1f1e. for the path. If a finder can be created, it is to be returned by the callable, else raise *note ImportError: 415. Originally specified in PEP 302(12). -- Data: sys.path_importer_cache A dictionary acting as a cache for *note finder: 1f1e. objects. The keys are paths that have been passed to *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. and the values are the finders that are found. If a path is a valid file system path but no finder is found on *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. then ‘None’ is stored. Originally specified in PEP 302(13). -- Data: sys.platform A string containing a platform identifier. Known values are: System ‘platform’ value ----------------------------------------------------- AIX ‘'aix'’ Android ‘'android'’ Emscripten ‘'emscripten'’ iOS ‘'ios'’ Linux ‘'linux'’ macOS ‘'darwin'’ Windows ‘'win32'’ Windows/Cygwin ‘'cygwin'’ WASI ‘'wasi'’ On Unix systems not listed in the table, the value is the lowercased OS name as returned by ‘uname -s’, with the first part of the version as returned by ‘uname -r’ appended, e.g. ‘'sunos5'’ or ‘'freebsd8'’, 'at the time when Python was built'. Unless you want to test for a specific system version, it is therefore recommended to use the following idiom: if sys.platform.startswith('freebsd'): # FreeBSD-specific code here... Changed in version 3.3: On Linux, *note sys.platform: a8d. doesn’t contain the major version anymore. It is always ‘'linux'’, instead of ‘'linux2'’ or ‘'linux3'’. Changed in version 3.8: On AIX, *note sys.platform: a8d. doesn’t contain the major version anymore. It is always ‘'aix'’, instead of ‘'aix5'’ or ‘'aix7'’. Changed in version 3.13: On Android, *note sys.platform: a8d. now returns ‘'android'’ rather than ‘'linux'’. See also ........ *note os.name: 2b0e. has a coarser granularity. *note os.uname(): 110a. gives system-dependent version information. The *note platform: aa. module provides detailed checks for the system’s identity. -- Data: sys.platlibdir Name of the platform-specific library directory. It is used to build the path of standard library and the paths of installed extension modules. It is equal to ‘"lib"’ on most platforms. On Fedora and SuSE, it is equal to ‘"lib64"’ on 64-bit platforms which gives the following ‘sys.path’ paths (where ‘X.Y’ is the Python ‘major.minor’ version): * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/’: Standard library (like ‘os.py’ of the *note os: a1. module) * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/lib-dynload/’: C extension modules of the standard library (like the *note errno: 57. module, the exact filename is platform specific) * ‘/usr/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’ (always use ‘lib’, not *note sys.platlibdir: 938.): Third-party modules * ‘/usr/lib64/pythonX.Y/site-packages/’: C extension modules of third-party packages Added in version 3.9. -- Data: sys.prefix A string giving the site-specific directory prefix where the platform independent Python files are installed; on Unix, the default is ‘/usr/local’. This can be set at build time with the *note -prefix: 1d62. argument to the ‘configure’ script. See *note Installation paths: 68b. for derived paths. Note: If a *note virtual environment: 4331. is in effect, this value will be changed in ‘site.py’ to point to the virtual environment. The value for the Python installation will still be available, via *note base_prefix: 3eb. -- Data: sys.ps1 -- Data: sys.ps2 Strings specifying the primary and secondary prompt of the interpreter. These are only defined if the interpreter is in interactive mode. Their initial values in this case are ‘'>>> '’ and ‘'... '’. If a non-string object is assigned to either variable, its *note str(): 447. is re-evaluated each time the interpreter prepares to read a new interactive command; this can be used to implement a dynamic prompt. -- Function: sys.setdlopenflags (n) Set the flags used by the interpreter for ‘dlopen()’ calls, such as when the interpreter loads extension modules. Among other things, this will enable a lazy resolving of symbols when importing a module, if called as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(0)’. To share symbols across extension modules, call as ‘sys.setdlopenflags(os.RTLD_GLOBAL)’. Symbolic names for the flag values can be found in the *note os: a1. module (‘RTLD_XXX’ constants, e.g. *note os.RTLD_LAZY: 110c.). *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. -- Function: sys.set_int_max_str_digits (maxdigits) Set the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. used by this interpreter. See also *note get_int_max_str_digits(): 152d. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: sys.setprofile (profilefunc) Set the system’s profile function, which allows you to implement a Python source code profiler in Python. See chapter *note The Python Profilers: 427c. for more information on the Python profiler. The system’s profile function is called similarly to the system’s trace function (see *note settrace(): 14ca.), but it is called with different events, for example it isn’t called for each executed line of code (only on call and return, but the return event is reported even when an exception has been set). The function is thread-specific, but there is no way for the profiler to know about context switches between threads, so it does not make sense to use this in the presence of multiple threads. Also, its return value is not used, so it can simply return ‘None’. Error in the profile function will cause itself unset. Note: The same tracing mechanism is used for ‘setprofile()’ as *note settrace(): 14ca. To trace calls with ‘setprofile()’ inside a tracing function (e.g. in a debugger breakpoint), see *note call_tracing(): 1832. Profile functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event', and 'arg'. 'frame' is the current stack frame. 'event' is a string: ‘'call'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'c_call'’, ‘'c_return'’, or ‘'c_exception'’. 'arg' depends on the event type. The events have the following meaning: ‘'call'’ A function is called (or some other code block entered). The profile function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’. ‘'return'’ A function (or other code block) is about to return. The profile function is called; 'arg' is the value that will be returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception being raised. ‘'c_call'’ A C function is about to be called. This may be an extension function or a built-in. 'arg' is the C function object. ‘'c_return'’ A C function has returned. 'arg' is the C function object. ‘'c_exception'’ A C function has raised an exception. 'arg' is the C function object. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys.setprofile’ with no arguments. -- Function: sys.setrecursionlimit (limit) Set the maximum depth of the Python interpreter stack to 'limit'. This limit prevents infinite recursion from causing an overflow of the C stack and crashing Python. The highest possible limit is platform-dependent. A user may need to set the limit higher when they have a program that requires deep recursion and a platform that supports a higher limit. This should be done with care, because a too-high limit can lead to a crash. If the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth, a *note RecursionError: d6b. exception is raised. Changed in version 3.5.1: A *note RecursionError: d6b. exception is now raised if the new limit is too low at the current recursion depth. -- Function: sys.setswitchinterval (interval) Set the interpreter’s thread switch interval (in seconds). This floating-point value determines the ideal duration of the “timeslices” allocated to concurrently running Python threads. Please note that the actual value can be higher, especially if long-running internal functions or methods are used. Also, which thread becomes scheduled at the end of the interval is the operating system’s decision. The interpreter doesn’t have its own scheduler. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: sys.settrace (tracefunc) Set the system’s trace function, which allows you to implement a Python source code debugger in Python. The function is thread-specific; for a debugger to support multiple threads, it must register a trace function using *note settrace(): 14ca. for each thread being debugged or use *note threading.settrace(): 844. Trace functions should have three arguments: 'frame', 'event', and 'arg'. 'frame' is the current stack frame. 'event' is a string: ‘'call'’, ‘'line'’, ‘'return'’, ‘'exception'’ or ‘'opcode'’. 'arg' depends on the event type. The trace function is invoked (with 'event' set to ‘'call'’) whenever a new local scope is entered; it should return a reference to a local trace function to be used for the new scope, or ‘None’ if the scope shouldn’t be traced. The local trace function should return a reference to itself, or to another function which would then be used as the local trace function for the scope. If there is any error occurred in the trace function, it will be unset, just like ‘settrace(None)’ is called. Note: Tracing is disabled while calling the trace function (e.g. a function set by ‘settrace()’). For recursive tracing see *note call_tracing(): 1832. The events have the following meaning: ‘'call'’ A function is called (or some other code block entered). The global trace function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the local trace function. ‘'line'’ The interpreter is about to execute a new line of code or re-execute the condition of a loop. The local trace function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new local trace function. See ‘Objects/lnotab_notes.txt’ for a detailed explanation of how this works. Per-line events may be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: bdb. to *note False: b37. on that *note frame: 6db. ‘'return'’ A function (or other code block) is about to return. The local trace function is called; 'arg' is the value that will be returned, or ‘None’ if the event is caused by an exception being raised. The trace function’s return value is ignored. ‘'exception'’ An exception has occurred. The local trace function is called; 'arg' is a tuple ‘(exception, value, traceback)’; the return value specifies the new local trace function. ‘'opcode'’ The interpreter is about to execute a new opcode (see *note dis: 38. for opcode details). The local trace function is called; 'arg' is ‘None’; the return value specifies the new local trace function. Per-opcode events are not emitted by default: they must be explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: bdc. to *note True: c0d. on the *note frame: 6db. Note that as an exception is propagated down the chain of callers, an ‘'exception'’ event is generated at each level. For more fine-grained usage, it’s possible to set a trace function by assigning ‘frame.f_trace = tracefunc’ explicitly, rather than relying on it being set indirectly via the return value from an already installed trace function. This is also required for activating the trace function on the current frame, which *note settrace(): 14ca. doesn’t do. Note that in order for this to work, a global tracing function must have been installed with *note settrace(): 14ca. in order to enable the runtime tracing machinery, but it doesn’t need to be the same tracing function (e.g. it could be a low overhead tracing function that simply returns ‘None’ to disable itself immediately on each frame). For more information on code and frame objects, refer to *note The standard type hierarchy: 1ee7. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys.settrace’ with no arguments. 'CPython implementation detail:' The *note settrace(): 14ca. function is intended only for implementing debuggers, profilers, coverage tools and the like. Its behavior is part of the implementation platform, rather than part of the language definition, and thus may not be available in all Python implementations. Changed in version 3.7: ‘'opcode'’ event type added; *note f_trace_lines: bdb. and *note f_trace_opcodes: bdc. attributes added to frames -- Function: sys.set_asyncgen_hooks ([firstiter] [, finalizer]) Accepts two optional keyword arguments which are callables that accept an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4396. as an argument. The 'firstiter' callable will be called when an asynchronous generator is iterated for the first time. The 'finalizer' will be called when an asynchronous generator is about to be garbage collected. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_firstiter’ with no arguments. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys.set_asyncgen_hooks_finalizer’ with no arguments. Two auditing events are raised because the underlying API consists of two calls, each of which must raise its own event. Added in version 3.6: See PEP 525(14) for more details, and for a reference example of a 'finalizer' method see the implementation of ‘asyncio.Loop.shutdown_asyncgens’ in Lib/asyncio/base_events.py(15) Note: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see PEP 411(16) for details.) -- Function: sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth (depth) Allows enabling or disabling coroutine origin tracking. When enabled, the ‘cr_origin’ attribute on coroutine objects will contain a tuple of (filename, line number, function name) tuples describing the traceback where the coroutine object was created, with the most recent call first. When disabled, ‘cr_origin’ will be ‘None’. To enable, pass a 'depth' value greater than zero; this sets the number of frames whose information will be captured. To disable, pass set 'depth' to zero. This setting is thread-specific. Added in version 3.7. Note: This function has been added on a provisional basis (see PEP 411(17) for details.) Use it only for debugging purposes. -- Function: sys.activate_stack_trampoline (backend, /) Activate the stack profiler trampoline 'backend'. The only supported backend is ‘"perf"’. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux. Added in version 3.12. See also ........ * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18f. * ‘https://perf.wiki.kernel.org’ -- Function: sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline () Deactivate the current stack profiler trampoline backend. If no stack profiler is activated, this function has no effect. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: sys.is_stack_trampoline_active () Return ‘True’ if a stack profiler trampoline is active. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: sys._enablelegacywindowsfsencoding () Changes the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. to ‘mbcs’ and ‘replace’ respectively, for consistency with versions of Python prior to 3.6. This is equivalent to defining the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable before launching Python. See also *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59. and *note sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce6. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. Note: Changing the filesystem encoding after Python startup is risky because the old fsencoding or paths encoded by the old fsencoding may be cached somewhere. Use *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. instead. Added in version 3.6: See PEP 529(18) for more details. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.16: Use *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. instead. -- Data: sys.stdin -- Data: sys.stdout -- Data: sys.stderr *note File objects: 11b5. used by the interpreter for standard input, output and errors: * ‘stdin’ is used for all interactive input (including calls to *note input(): 12cb.); * ‘stdout’ is used for the output of *note print(): f70. and *note expression: 1f85. statements and for the prompts of *note input(): 12cb.; * The interpreter’s own prompts and its error messages go to ‘stderr’. These streams are regular *note text files: 1c86. like those returned by the *note open(): 517. function. Their parameters are chosen as follows: * The encoding and error handling are is initialized from *note PyConfig.stdio_encoding: 39f. and *note PyConfig.stdio_errors: 43a4. On Windows, UTF-8 is used for the console device. Non-character devices such as disk files and pipes use the system locale encoding (i.e. the ANSI codepage). Non-console character devices such as NUL (i.e. where ‘isatty()’ returns ‘True’) use the value of the console input and output codepages at startup, respectively for stdin and stdout/stderr. This defaults to the system *note locale encoding: 244. if the process is not initially attached to a console. The special behaviour of the console can be overridden by setting the environment variable PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO before starting Python. In that case, the console codepages are used as for any other character device. Under all platforms, you can override the character encoding by setting the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1003. environment variable before starting Python or by using the new *note -X: 176. ‘utf8’ command line option and *note PYTHONUTF8: ad8. environment variable. However, for the Windows console, this only applies when *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c5b. is also set. * When interactive, the ‘stdout’ stream is line-buffered. Otherwise, it is block-buffered like regular text files. The ‘stderr’ stream is line-buffered in both cases. You can make both streams unbuffered by passing the *note -u: 19a3. command-line option or setting the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19a4. environment variable. Changed in version 3.9: Non-interactive ‘stderr’ is now line-buffered instead of fully buffered. Note: To write or read binary data from/to the standard streams, use the underlying binary *note buffer: 1295. object. For example, to write bytes to *note stdout: ad6, use ‘sys.stdout.buffer.write(b'abc')’. However, if you are writing a library (and do not control in which context its code will be executed), be aware that the standard streams may be replaced with file-like objects like *note io.StringIO: f22. which do not support the ‘buffer’ attribute. -- Data: sys.__stdin__ -- Data: sys.__stdout__ -- Data: sys.__stderr__ These objects contain the original values of ‘stdin’, ‘stderr’ and ‘stdout’ at the start of the program. They are used during finalization, and could be useful to print to the actual standard stream no matter if the ‘sys.std*’ object has been redirected. It can also be used to restore the actual files to known working file objects in case they have been overwritten with a broken object. However, the preferred way to do this is to explicitly save the previous stream before replacing it, and restore the saved object. Note: Under some conditions ‘stdin’, ‘stdout’ and ‘stderr’ as well as the original values ‘__stdin__’, ‘__stdout__’ and ‘__stderr__’ can be ‘None’. It is usually the case for Windows GUI apps that aren’t connected to a console and Python apps started with ‘pythonw’. -- Data: sys.stdlib_module_names A frozenset of strings containing the names of standard library modules. It is the same on all platforms. Modules which are not available on some platforms and modules disabled at Python build are also listed. All module kinds are listed: pure Python, built-in, frozen and extension modules. Test modules are excluded. For packages, only the main package is listed: sub-packages and sub-modules are not listed. For example, the ‘email’ package is listed, but the ‘email.mime’ sub-package and the ‘email.message’ sub-module are not listed. See also the *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1c5f. list. Added in version 3.10. -- Data: sys.thread_info A *note named tuple: 64a. holding information about the thread implementation. -- Attribute: thread_info.name The name of the thread implementation: * ‘"nt"’: Windows threads * ‘"pthread"’: POSIX threads * ‘"pthread-stubs"’: stub POSIX threads (on WebAssembly platforms without threading support) * ‘"solaris"’: Solaris threads -- Attribute: thread_info.lock The name of the lock implementation: * ‘"semaphore"’: a lock uses a semaphore * ‘"mutex+cond"’: a lock uses a mutex and a condition variable * ‘None’ if this information is unknown -- Attribute: thread_info.version The name and version of the thread library. It is a string, or ‘None’ if this information is unknown. Added in version 3.3. -- Data: sys.tracebacklimit When this variable is set to an integer value, it determines the maximum number of levels of traceback information printed when an unhandled exception occurs. The default is ‘1000’. When set to ‘0’ or less, all traceback information is suppressed and only the exception type and value are printed. -- Function: sys.unraisablehook (unraisable, /) Handle an unraisable exception. Called when an exception has occurred but there is no way for Python to handle it. For example, when a destructor raises an exception or during garbage collection (*note gc.collect(): a39.). The 'unraisable' argument has the following attributes: * ‘exc_type’: Exception type. * ‘exc_value’: Exception value, can be ‘None’. * ‘exc_traceback’: Exception traceback, can be ‘None’. * ‘err_msg’: Error message, can be ‘None’. * ‘object’: Object causing the exception, can be ‘None’. The default hook formats ‘err_msg’ and ‘object’ as: ‘f'{err_msg}: {object!r}'’; use “Exception ignored in” error message if ‘err_msg’ is ‘None’. *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. can be overridden to control how unraisable exceptions are handled. See also ........ *note excepthook(): 807. which handles uncaught exceptions. Warning: Storing ‘exc_value’ using a custom hook can create a reference cycle. It should be cleared explicitly to break the reference cycle when the exception is no longer needed. Storing ‘object’ using a custom hook can resurrect it if it is set to an object which is being finalized. Avoid storing ‘object’ after the custom hook completes to avoid resurrecting objects. Raise an auditing event ‘sys.unraisablehook’ with arguments 'hook', 'unraisable' when an exception that cannot be handled occurs. The 'unraisable' object is the same as what will be passed to the hook. If no hook has been set, 'hook' may be ‘None’. Added in version 3.8. -- Data: sys.version A string containing the version number of the Python interpreter plus additional information on the build number and compiler used. This string is displayed when the interactive interpreter is started. Do not extract version information out of it, rather, use *note version_info: 69c. and the functions provided by the *note platform: aa. module. -- Data: sys.api_version The C API version for this interpreter. Programmers may find this useful when debugging version conflicts between Python and extension modules. -- Data: sys.version_info A tuple containing the five components of the version number: 'major', 'minor', 'micro', 'releaselevel', and 'serial'. All values except 'releaselevel' are integers; the release level is ‘'alpha'’, ‘'beta'’, ‘'candidate'’, or ‘'final'’. The ‘version_info’ value corresponding to the Python version 2.0 is ‘(2, 0, 0, 'final', 0)’. The components can also be accessed by name, so ‘sys.version_info[0]’ is equivalent to ‘sys.version_info.major’ and so on. Changed in version 3.1: Added named component attributes. -- Data: sys.warnoptions This is an implementation detail of the warnings framework; do not modify this value. Refer to the *note warnings: 112. module for more information on the warnings framework. -- Data: sys.winver The version number used to form registry keys on Windows platforms. This is stored as string resource 1000 in the Python DLL. The value is normally the major and minor versions of the running Python interpreter. It is provided in the *note sys: d9. module for informational purposes; modifying this value has no effect on the registry keys used by Python. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- Data: sys.monitoring Namespace containing functions and constants for register callbacks and controlling monitoring events. See *note sys.monitoring: da. for details. -- Data: sys._xoptions A dictionary of the various implementation-specific flags passed through the *note -X: 176. command-line option. Option names are either mapped to their values, if given explicitly, or to *note True: c0d. Example: $ ./python -Xa=b -Xc Python 3.2a3+ (py3k, Oct 16 2010, 20:14:50) [GCC 4.4.3] on linux2 Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information. >>> import sys >>> sys._xoptions {'a': 'b', 'c': True} 'CPython implementation detail:' This is a CPython-specific way of accessing options passed through *note -X: 176. Other implementations may export them through other means, or not at all. Added in version 3.2. Citations ......... (C99) ISO/IEC 9899:1999. “Programming languages – C.” A public draft of this standard is available at ‘https://www.open-std.org/jtc1/sc22/wg14/www/docs/n1256.pdf’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3149/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/ (4) https://code.activestate.com/recipes/577504-compute-memory-footprint-of-an-object-and-its-cont/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0421/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/ (15) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/asyncio/base_events.py (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/ (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/ (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/  File: python.info, Node: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring, Next: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information, Prev: sys — System-specific parameters and functions, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.2 ‘sys.monitoring’ — Execution event monitoring ---------------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.12. __________________________________________________________________ Note: *note sys.monitoring: da. is a namespace within the *note sys: d9. module, not an independent module, so there is no need to ‘import sys.monitoring’, simply ‘import sys’ and then use ‘sys.monitoring’. This namespace provides access to the functions and constants necessary to activate and control event monitoring. As programs execute, events occur that might be of interest to tools that monitor execution. The *note sys.monitoring: da. namespace provides means to receive callbacks when events of interest occur. The monitoring API consists of three components: * *note Tool identifiers: 43ad. * *note Events: 43ae. * *note Callbacks: 43af. * Menu: * Tool identifiers:: * Events:: * Turning events on and off:: * Registering callback functions::  File: python.info, Node: Tool identifiers, Next: Events, Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring 5.30.2.1 Tool identifiers ......................... A tool identifier is an integer and the associated name. Tool identifiers are used to discourage tools from interfering with each other and to allow multiple tools to operate at the same time. Currently tools are completely independent and cannot be used to monitor each other. This restriction may be lifted in the future. Before registering or activating events, a tool should choose an identifier. Identifiers are integers in the range 0 to 5 inclusive. * Menu: * Registering and using tools::  File: python.info, Node: Registering and using tools, Up: Tool identifiers 5.30.2.2 Registering and using tools .................................... -- Function: sys.monitoring.use_tool_id (tool_id: int, name: str, /) -> None Must be called before 'tool_id' can be used. 'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive. Raises a *note ValueError: 204. if 'tool_id' is in use. -- Function: sys.monitoring.free_tool_id (tool_id: int, /) -> None Should be called once a tool no longer requires 'tool_id'. Note: *note free_tool_id(): 43b2. will not disable global or local events associated with 'tool_id', nor will it unregister any callback functions. This function is only intended to be used to notify the VM that the particular 'tool_id' is no longer in use. -- Function: sys.monitoring.get_tool (tool_id: int, /) -> str | None Returns the name of the tool if 'tool_id' is in use, otherwise it returns ‘None’. 'tool_id' must be in the range 0 to 5 inclusive. All IDs are treated the same by the VM with regard to events, but the following IDs are pre-defined to make co-operation of tools easier: sys.monitoring.DEBUGGER_ID = 0 sys.monitoring.COVERAGE_ID = 1 sys.monitoring.PROFILER_ID = 2 sys.monitoring.OPTIMIZER_ID = 5  File: python.info, Node: Events, Next: Turning events on and off, Prev: Tool identifiers, Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring 5.30.2.3 Events ............... The following events are supported: -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.BRANCH A conditional branch is taken (or not). -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.CALL A call in Python code (event occurs before the call). -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RAISE An exception raised from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs after the exit). -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.C_RETURN Return from any callable, except for Python functions (event occurs after the return). -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.EXCEPTION_HANDLED An exception is handled. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.INSTRUCTION A VM instruction is about to be executed. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.JUMP An unconditional jump in the control flow graph is made. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.LINE An instruction is about to be executed that has a different line number from the preceding instruction. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RESUME Resumption of a Python function (for generator and coroutine functions), except for ‘throw()’ calls. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_RETURN Return from a Python function (occurs immediately before the return, the callee’s frame will be on the stack). -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_START Start of a Python function (occurs immediately after the call, the callee’s frame will be on the stack) -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_THROW A Python function is resumed by a ‘throw()’ call. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_UNWIND Exit from a Python function during exception unwinding. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.PY_YIELD Yield from a Python function (occurs immediately before the yield, the callee’s frame will be on the stack). -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RAISE An exception is raised, except those that cause a *note STOP_ITERATION: 43c1. event. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.RERAISE An exception is re-raised, for example at the end of a *note finally: 9ca. block. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.STOP_ITERATION An artificial *note StopIteration: bfa. is raised; see *note the STOP_ITERATION event: 43c3. More events may be added in the future. These events are attributes of the ‘sys.monitoring.events’ namespace. Each event is represented as a power-of-2 integer constant. To define a set of events, simply bitwise OR the individual events together. For example, to specify both *note PY_RETURN: 43bc. and *note PY_START: 43bd. events, use the expression ‘PY_RETURN | PY_START’. -- monitoring-event: sys.monitoring.events.NO_EVENTS An alias for ‘0’ so users can do explicit comparisons like: if get_events(DEBUGGER_ID) == NO_EVENTS: ... Events are divided into three groups: * Menu: * Local events:: * Ancillary events:: * Other events:: * The STOP_ITERATION event::  File: python.info, Node: Local events, Next: Ancillary events, Up: Events 5.30.2.4 Local events ..................... Local events are associated with normal execution of the program and happen at clearly defined locations. All local events can be disabled. The local events are: * *note PY_START: 43bd. * *note PY_RESUME: 43bb. * *note PY_RETURN: 43bc. * *note PY_YIELD: 43c0. * *note CALL: 1646. * *note LINE: 43ba. * *note INSTRUCTION: 43b8. * *note JUMP: 43b9. * *note BRANCH: 43b4. * *note STOP_ITERATION: 43c1.  File: python.info, Node: Ancillary events, Next: Other events, Prev: Local events, Up: Events 5.30.2.5 Ancillary events ......................... Ancillary events can be monitored like other events, but are controlled by another event: * *note C_RAISE: 43b5. * *note C_RETURN: 43b6. The *note C_RETURN: 43b6. and *note C_RAISE: 43b5. events are controlled by the *note CALL: 1646. event. *note C_RETURN: 43b6. and *note C_RAISE: 43b5. events will only be seen if the corresponding *note CALL: 1646. event is being monitored.  File: python.info, Node: Other events, Next: The STOP_ITERATION event, Prev: Ancillary events, Up: Events 5.30.2.6 Other events ..................... Other events are not necessarily tied to a specific location in the program and cannot be individually disabled. The other events that can be monitored are: * *note PY_THROW: 43be. * *note PY_UNWIND: 43bf. * *note RAISE: 15f0. * *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 43b7.  File: python.info, Node: The STOP_ITERATION event, Prev: Other events, Up: Events 5.30.2.7 The STOP_ITERATION event ................................. PEP 380(1) specifies that a *note StopIteration: bfa. exception is raised when returning a value from a generator or coroutine. However, this is a very inefficient way to return a value, so some Python implementations, notably CPython 3.12+, do not raise an exception unless it would be visible to other code. To allow tools to monitor for real exceptions without slowing down generators and coroutines, the *note STOP_ITERATION: 43c1. event is provided. *note STOP_ITERATION: 43c1. can be locally disabled, unlike *note RAISE: 15f0. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0380/#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values  File: python.info, Node: Turning events on and off, Next: Registering callback functions, Prev: Events, Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring 5.30.2.8 Turning events on and off .................................. In order to monitor an event, it must be turned on and a corresponding callback must be registered. Events can be turned on or off by setting the events either globally or for a particular code object. * Menu: * Setting events globally:: * Per code object events:: * Disabling events::  File: python.info, Node: Setting events globally, Next: Per code object events, Up: Turning events on and off 5.30.2.9 Setting events globally ................................ Events can be controlled globally by modifying the set of events being monitored. -- Function: sys.monitoring.get_events (tool_id: int, /) -> int Returns the ‘int’ representing all the active events. -- Function: sys.monitoring.set_events (tool_id: int, event_set: int, /) -> None Activates all events which are set in 'event_set'. Raises a *note ValueError: 204. if 'tool_id' is not in use. No events are active by default.  File: python.info, Node: Per code object events, Next: Disabling events, Prev: Setting events globally, Up: Turning events on and off 5.30.2.10 Per code object events ................................ Events can also be controlled on a per code object basis. The functions defined below which accept a *note types.CodeType: 2e3. should be prepared to accept a look-alike object from functions which are not defined in Python (see *note Monitoring C API: 15c.). -- Function: sys.monitoring.get_local_events (tool_id: int, code: CodeType, /) -> int Returns all the local events for 'code' -- Function: sys.monitoring.set_local_events (tool_id: int, code: CodeType, event_set: int, /) -> None Activates all the local events for 'code' which are set in 'event_set'. Raises a *note ValueError: 204. if 'tool_id' is not in use. Local events add to global events, but do not mask them. In other words, all global events will trigger for a code object, regardless of the local events.  File: python.info, Node: Disabling events, Prev: Per code object events, Up: Turning events on and off 5.30.2.11 Disabling events .......................... -- Data: sys.monitoring.DISABLE A special value that can be returned from a callback function to disable events for the current code location. Local events can be disabled for a specific code location by returning *note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 43d1. from a callback function. This does not change which events are set, or any other code locations for the same event. Disabling events for specific locations is very important for high performance monitoring. For example, a program can be run under a debugger with no overhead if the debugger disables all monitoring except for a few breakpoints. -- Function: sys.monitoring.restart_events () -> None Enable all the events that were disabled by *note sys.monitoring.DISABLE: 43d1. for all tools.  File: python.info, Node: Registering callback functions, Prev: Turning events on and off, Up: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring 5.30.2.12 Registering callback functions ........................................ To register a callable for events call -- Function: sys.monitoring.register_callback (tool_id: int, event: int, func: Callable | None, /) -> Callable | None Registers the callable 'func' for the 'event' with the given 'tool_id' If another callback was registered for the given 'tool_id' and 'event', it is unregistered and returned. Otherwise *note register_callback(): 41ef. returns ‘None’. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback’ with argument ‘func’. Functions can be unregistered by calling ‘sys.monitoring.register_callback(tool_id, event, None)’. Callback functions can be registered and unregistered at any time. * Menu: * Callback function arguments::  File: python.info, Node: Callback function arguments, Up: Registering callback functions 5.30.2.13 Callback function arguments ..................................... -- Data: sys.monitoring.MISSING A special value that is passed to a callback function to indicate that there are no arguments to the call. When an active event occurs, the registered callback function is called. Different events will provide the callback function with different arguments, as follows: * *note PY_START: 43bd. and *note PY_RESUME: 43bb.: func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any * *note PY_RETURN: 43bc. and *note PY_YIELD: 43c0.: func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, retval: object) -> DISABLE | Any * *note CALL: 1646, *note C_RAISE: 43b5. and *note C_RETURN: 43b6.: func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, callable: object, arg0: object | MISSING) -> DISABLE | Any If there are no arguments, 'arg0' is set to *note sys.monitoring.MISSING: 43d5. * *note RAISE: 15f0, *note RERAISE: 43c2, *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 43b7, *note PY_UNWIND: 43bf, *note PY_THROW: 43be. and *note STOP_ITERATION: 43c1.: func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, exception: BaseException) -> DISABLE | Any * *note LINE: 43ba.: func(code: CodeType, line_number: int) -> DISABLE | Any * *note BRANCH: 43b4. and *note JUMP: 43b9.: func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int, destination_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any Note that the 'destination_offset' is where the code will next execute. For an untaken branch this will be the offset of the instruction following the branch. * *note INSTRUCTION: 43b8.: func(code: CodeType, instruction_offset: int) -> DISABLE | Any  File: python.info, Node: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information, Next: builtins — Built-in objects, Prev: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.3 ‘sysconfig’ — Provide access to Python’s configuration information ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.2. 'Source code:' Lib/sysconfig(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note sysconfig: db. module provides access to Python’s configuration information like the list of installation paths and the configuration variables relevant for the current platform. * Menu: * Configuration variables:: * Installation paths:: * User scheme:: * Home scheme:: * Prefix scheme:: * Installation path functions:: * Other functions: Other functions<3>. * Command-line usage: Command-line usage<3>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/sysconfig  File: python.info, Node: Configuration variables, Next: Installation paths, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.1 Configuration variables ................................ A Python distribution contains a ‘Makefile’ and a ‘pyconfig.h’ header file that are necessary to build both the Python binary itself and third-party C extensions compiled using ‘setuptools’. *note sysconfig: db. puts all variables found in these files in a dictionary that can be accessed using *note get_config_vars(): 1025. or *note get_config_var(): 1024. Notice that on Windows, it’s a much smaller set. -- Function: sysconfig.get_config_vars (*args) With no arguments, return a dictionary of all configuration variables relevant for the current platform. With arguments, return a list of values that result from looking up each argument in the configuration variable dictionary. For each argument, if the value is not found, return ‘None’. -- Function: sysconfig.get_config_var (name) Return the value of a single variable 'name'. Equivalent to ‘get_config_vars().get(name)’. If 'name' is not found, return ‘None’. Example of usage: >>> import sysconfig >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('Py_ENABLE_SHARED') 0 >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBDIR') '/usr/local/lib' >>> sysconfig.get_config_vars('AR', 'CXX') ['ar', 'g++']  File: python.info, Node: Installation paths, Next: User scheme, Prev: Configuration variables, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.2 Installation paths ........................... Python uses an installation scheme that differs depending on the platform and on the installation options. These schemes are stored in *note sysconfig: db. under unique identifiers based on the value returned by *note os.name: 2b0e. The schemes are used by package installers to determine where to copy files to. Python currently supports nine schemes: - 'posix_prefix': scheme for POSIX platforms like Linux or macOS. This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is installed. - 'posix_home': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'home' option is used. This scheme defines paths located under a specific home prefix. - 'posix_user': scheme for POSIX platforms, when the 'user' option is used. This scheme defines paths located under the user’s home directory (*note site.USER_BASE: 130f.). - 'posix_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 111. on POSIX platforms; by default it is the same as 'posix_prefix'. - 'nt': scheme for Windows. This is the default scheme used when Python or a component is installed. - 'nt_user': scheme for Windows, when the 'user' option is used. - 'nt_venv': scheme for *note Python virtual environments: 111. on Windows; by default it is the same as 'nt'. - 'venv': a scheme with values from either 'posix_venv' or 'nt_venv' depending on the platform Python runs on. - 'osx_framework_user': scheme for macOS, when the 'user' option is used. Each scheme is itself composed of a series of paths and each path has a unique identifier. Python currently uses eight paths: - 'stdlib': directory containing the standard Python library files that are not platform-specific. - 'platstdlib': directory containing the standard Python library files that are platform-specific. - 'platlib': directory for site-specific, platform-specific files. - 'purelib': directory for site-specific, non-platform-specific files (‘pure’ Python). - 'include': directory for non-platform-specific header files for the Python C-API. - 'platinclude': directory for platform-specific header files for the Python C-API. - 'scripts': directory for script files. - 'data': directory for data files.  File: python.info, Node: User scheme, Next: Home scheme, Prev: Installation paths, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.3 User scheme .................... This scheme is designed to be the most convenient solution for users that don’t have write permission to the global site-packages directory or don’t want to install into it. Files will be installed into subdirectories of *note site.USER_BASE: 130f. (written as ‘`userbase'’ hereafter). This scheme installs pure Python modules and extension modules in the same location (also known as *note site.USER_SITE: 1d35.). * Menu: * posix_user:: * nt_user:: * osx_framework_user::  File: python.info, Node: posix_user, Next: nt_user, Up: User scheme 5.30.3.4 ‘posix_user’ ..................... Path Installation directory ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'stdlib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’ 'platstdlib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'’ 'platlib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ 'purelib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ 'include' ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’ 'scripts' ‘`userbase'/bin’ 'data' ‘`userbase'’  File: python.info, Node: nt_user, Next: osx_framework_user, Prev: posix_user, Up: User scheme 5.30.3.5 ‘nt_user’ .................. Path Installation directory ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'stdlib' ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’ 'platstdlib' ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'’ 'platlib' ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’ 'purelib' ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\site-packages’ 'include' ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Include’ 'scripts' ‘`userbase'\Python`XY'\Scripts’ 'data' ‘`userbase'’  File: python.info, Node: osx_framework_user, Prev: nt_user, Up: User scheme 5.30.3.6 ‘osx_framework_user’ ............................. Path Installation directory ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'stdlib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python’ 'platstdlib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python’ 'platlib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’ 'purelib' ‘`userbase'/lib/python/site-packages’ 'include' ‘`userbase'/include/python`X.Y'’ 'scripts' ‘`userbase'/bin’ 'data' ‘`userbase'’  File: python.info, Node: Home scheme, Next: Prefix scheme, Prev: User scheme, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.7 Home scheme .................... The idea behind the “home scheme” is that you build and maintain a personal stash of Python modules. This scheme’s name is derived from the idea of a “home” directory on Unix, since it’s not unusual for a Unix user to make their home directory have a layout similar to ‘/usr/’ or ‘/usr/local/’. This scheme can be used by anyone, regardless of the operating system they are installing for. * Menu: * posix_home::  File: python.info, Node: posix_home, Up: Home scheme 5.30.3.8 ‘posix_home’ ..................... Path Installation directory ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'stdlib' ‘`home'/lib/python’ 'platstdlib' ‘`home'/lib/python’ 'platlib' ‘`home'/lib/python’ 'purelib' ‘`home'/lib/python’ 'include' ‘`home'/include/python’ 'platinclude' ‘`home'/include/python’ 'scripts' ‘`home'/bin’ 'data' ‘`home'’  File: python.info, Node: Prefix scheme, Next: Installation path functions, Prev: Home scheme, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.9 Prefix scheme ...................... The “prefix scheme” is useful when you wish to use one Python installation to perform the build/install (i.e., to run the setup script), but install modules into the third-party module directory of a different Python installation (or something that looks like a different Python installation). If this sounds a trifle unusual, it is—that’s why the user and home schemes come before. However, there are at least two known cases where the prefix scheme will be useful. First, consider that many Linux distributions put Python in ‘/usr’, rather than the more traditional ‘/usr/local’. This is entirely appropriate, since in those cases Python is part of “the system” rather than a local add-on. However, if you are installing Python modules from source, you probably want them to go in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’ rather than ‘/usr/lib/python2.`X'’. Another possibility is a network filesystem where the name used to write to a remote directory is different from the name used to read it: for example, the Python interpreter accessed as ‘/usr/local/bin/python’ might search for modules in ‘/usr/local/lib/python2.`X'’, but those modules would have to be installed to, say, ‘/mnt/`@server'/export/lib/python2.`X'’. * Menu: * posix_prefix:: * nt::  File: python.info, Node: posix_prefix, Next: nt, Up: Prefix scheme 5.30.3.10 ‘posix_prefix’ ........................ Path Installation directory ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'stdlib' ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’ 'platstdlib' ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'’ 'platlib' ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ 'purelib' ‘`prefix'/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ 'include' ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’ 'platinclude' ‘`prefix'/include/python`X.Y'’ 'scripts' ‘`prefix'/bin’ 'data' ‘`prefix'’  File: python.info, Node: nt, Prev: posix_prefix, Up: Prefix scheme 5.30.3.11 ‘nt’ .............. Path Installation directory ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'stdlib' ‘`prefix'\Lib’ 'platstdlib' ‘`prefix'\Lib’ 'platlib' ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’ 'purelib' ‘`prefix'\Lib\site-packages’ 'include' ‘`prefix'\Include’ 'platinclude' ‘`prefix'\Include’ 'scripts' ‘`prefix'\Scripts’ 'data' ‘`prefix'’  File: python.info, Node: Installation path functions, Next: Other functions<3>, Prev: Prefix scheme, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.12 Installation path functions ..................................... *note sysconfig: db. provides some functions to determine these installation paths. -- Function: sysconfig.get_scheme_names () Return a tuple containing all schemes currently supported in *note sysconfig: db. -- Function: sysconfig.get_default_scheme () Return the default scheme name for the current platform. Added in version 3.10: This function was previously named ‘_get_default_scheme()’ and considered an implementation detail. Changed in version 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual environment, the 'venv' scheme is returned. -- Function: sysconfig.get_preferred_scheme (key) Return a preferred scheme name for an installation layout specified by 'key'. 'key' must be either ‘"prefix"’, ‘"home"’, or ‘"user"’. The return value is a scheme name listed in *note get_scheme_names(): 43e6. It can be passed to *note sysconfig: db. functions that take a 'scheme' argument, such as *note get_paths(): 1237. Added in version 3.10. Changed in version 3.11: When Python runs from a virtual environment and ‘key="prefix"’, the 'venv' scheme is returned. -- Function: sysconfig._get_preferred_schemes () Return a dict containing preferred scheme names on the current platform. Python implementers and redistributors may add their preferred schemes to the ‘_INSTALL_SCHEMES’ module-level global value, and modify this function to return those scheme names, to e.g. provide different schemes for system and language package managers to use, so packages installed by either do not mix with those by the other. End users should not use this function, but *note get_default_scheme(): 1823. and *note get_preferred_scheme(): 68c. instead. Added in version 3.10. -- Function: sysconfig.get_path_names () Return a tuple containing all path names currently supported in *note sysconfig: db. -- Function: sysconfig.get_path (name[, scheme[, vars[, expand]]]) Return an installation path corresponding to the path 'name', from the install scheme named 'scheme'. 'name' has to be a value from the list returned by *note get_path_names(): 43e8. *note sysconfig: db. stores installation paths corresponding to each path name, for each platform, with variables to be expanded. For instance the 'stdlib' path for the 'nt' scheme is: ‘{base}/Lib’. *note get_path(): 1321. will use the variables returned by *note get_config_vars(): 1025. to expand the path. All variables have default values for each platform so one may call this function and get the default value. If 'scheme' is provided, it must be a value from the list returned by *note get_scheme_names(): 43e6. Otherwise, the default scheme for the current platform is used. If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will update the dictionary returned by *note get_config_vars(): 1025. If 'expand' is set to ‘False’, the path will not be expanded using the variables. If 'name' is not found, raise a *note KeyError: 33f. -- Function: sysconfig.get_paths ([scheme[, vars[, expand]]]) Return a dictionary containing all installation paths corresponding to an installation scheme. See *note get_path(): 1321. for more information. If 'scheme' is not provided, will use the default scheme for the current platform. If 'vars' is provided, it must be a dictionary of variables that will update the dictionary used to expand the paths. If 'expand' is set to false, the paths will not be expanded. If 'scheme' is not an existing scheme, *note get_paths(): 1237. will raise a *note KeyError: 33f.  File: python.info, Node: Other functions<3>, Next: Command-line usage<3>, Prev: Installation path functions, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.13 Other functions ......................... -- Function: sysconfig.get_python_version () Return the ‘MAJOR.MINOR’ Python version number as a string. Similar to ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’. -- Function: sysconfig.get_platform () Return a string that identifies the current platform. This is used mainly to distinguish platform-specific build directories and platform-specific built distributions. Typically includes the OS name and version and the architecture (as supplied by *note os.uname(): 110a.), although the exact information included depends on the OS; e.g., on Linux, the kernel version isn’t particularly important. Examples of returned values: - linux-i586 - linux-alpha (?) - solaris-2.6-sun4u Windows will return one of: - win-amd64 (64-bit Windows on AMD64, aka x86_64, Intel64, and EM64T) - win-arm64 (64-bit Windows on ARM64, aka AArch64) - win32 (all others - specifically, sys.platform is returned) macOS can return: - macosx-10.6-ppc - macosx-10.4-ppc64 - macosx-10.3-i386 - macosx-10.4-fat For other non-POSIX platforms, currently just returns *note sys.platform: a8d. -- Function: sysconfig.is_python_build () Return ‘True’ if the running Python interpreter was built from source and is being run from its built location, and not from a location resulting from e.g. running ‘make install’ or installing via a binary installer. -- Function: sysconfig.parse_config_h (fp[, vars]) Parse a ‘config.h’-style file. 'fp' is a file-like object pointing to the ‘config.h’-like file. A dictionary containing name/value pairs is returned. If an optional dictionary is passed in as the second argument, it is used instead of a new dictionary, and updated with the values read in the file. -- Function: sysconfig.get_config_h_filename () Return the path of ‘pyconfig.h’. -- Function: sysconfig.get_makefile_filename () Return the path of ‘Makefile’.  File: python.info, Node: Command-line usage<3>, Prev: Other functions<3>, Up: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information 5.30.3.14 Command-line usage ............................ You can use *note sysconfig: db. as a script with Python’s '-m' option: $ python -m sysconfig Platform: "macosx-10.4-i386" Python version: "3.2" Current installation scheme: "posix_prefix" Paths: data = "/usr/local" include = "/Users/tarek/Dev/svn.python.org/py3k/Include" platinclude = "." platlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages" platstdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2" purelib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2/site-packages" scripts = "/usr/local/bin" stdlib = "/usr/local/lib/python3.2" Variables: AC_APPLE_UNIVERSAL_BUILD = "0" AIX_GENUINE_CPLUSPLUS = "0" AR = "ar" ARFLAGS = "rc" ... This call will print in the standard output the information returned by *note get_platform(): 1235, *note get_python_version(): 1236, *note get_path(): 1321. and *note get_config_vars(): 1025.  File: python.info, Node: builtins — Built-in objects, Next: __main__ — Top-level code environment, Prev: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.4 ‘builtins’ — Built-in objects ------------------------------------ __________________________________________________________________ This module provides direct access to all ‘built-in’ identifiers of Python; for example, ‘builtins.open’ is the full name for the built-in function *note open(): 517. This module is not normally accessed explicitly by most applications, but can be useful in modules that provide objects with the same name as a built-in value, but in which the built-in of that name is also needed. For example, in a module that wants to implement an *note open(): 517. function that wraps the built-in *note open(): 517, this module can be used directly: import builtins def open(path): f = builtins.open(path, 'r') return UpperCaser(f) class UpperCaser: '''Wrapper around a file that converts output to uppercase.''' def __init__(self, f): self._f = f def read(self, count=-1): return self._f.read(count).upper() # ... As an implementation detail, most modules have the name ‘__builtins__’ made available as part of their globals. The value of ‘__builtins__’ is normally either this module or the value of this module’s *note __dict__: 558. attribute. Since this is an implementation detail, it may not be used by alternate implementations of Python. See also ........ * *note Built-in Constants: 2184. * *note Built-in Exceptions: 1883. * *note Built-in Functions: 1250. * *note Built-in Types: 218e.  File: python.info, Node: __main__ — Top-level code environment, Next: warnings — Warning control, Prev: builtins — Built-in objects, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.5 ‘__main__’ — Top-level code environment ---------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ In Python, the special name ‘__main__’ is used for two important constructs: 1. the name of the top-level environment of the program, which can be checked using the ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ expression; and 2. the ‘__main__.py’ file in Python packages. Both of these mechanisms are related to Python modules; how users interact with them and how they interact with each other. They are explained in detail below. If you’re new to Python modules, see the tutorial section *note Modules: 1c56. for an introduction. * Menu: * __name__ == '__main__':: * __main__.py in Python Packages: __main__ py in Python Packages. * import __main__::  File: python.info, Node: __name__ == '__main__', Next: __main__ py in Python Packages, Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment 5.30.5.1 ‘__name__ == '__main__'’ ................................. When a Python module or package is imported, ‘__name__’ is set to the module’s name. Usually, this is the name of the Python file itself without the ‘.py’ extension: >>> import configparser >>> configparser.__name__ 'configparser' If the file is part of a package, ‘__name__’ will also include the parent package’s path: >>> from concurrent.futures import process >>> process.__name__ 'concurrent.futures.process' However, if the module is executed in the top-level code environment, its ‘__name__’ is set to the string ‘'__main__'’. * Menu: * What is the “top-level code environment”?:: * Idiomatic Usage:: * Packaging Considerations::  File: python.info, Node: What is the “top-level code environment”?, Next: Idiomatic Usage, Up: __name__ == '__main__' 5.30.5.2 What is the “top-level code environment”? .................................................. ‘__main__’ is the name of the environment where top-level code is run. “Top-level code” is the first user-specified Python module that starts running. It’s “top-level” because it imports all other modules that the program needs. Sometimes “top-level code” is called an 'entry point' to the application. The top-level code environment can be: * the scope of an interactive prompt: >>> __name__ '__main__' * the Python module passed to the Python interpreter as a file argument: $ python helloworld.py Hello, world! * the Python module or package passed to the Python interpreter with the *note -m: 5dd. argument: $ python -m tarfile usage: tarfile.py [-h] [-v] (...) * Python code read by the Python interpreter from standard input: $ echo "import this" | python The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters Beautiful is better than ugly. Explicit is better than implicit. ... * Python code passed to the Python interpreter with the *note -c: 5dc. argument: $ python -c "import this" The Zen of Python, by Tim Peters Beautiful is better than ugly. Explicit is better than implicit. ... In each of these situations, the top-level module’s ‘__name__’ is set to ‘'__main__'’. As a result, a module can discover whether or not it is running in the top-level environment by checking its own ‘__name__’, which allows a common idiom for conditionally executing code when the module is not initialized from an import statement: if __name__ == '__main__': # Execute when the module is not initialized from an import statement. ... See also ........ For a more detailed look at how ‘__name__’ is set in all situations, see the tutorial section *note Modules: 1c56.  File: python.info, Node: Idiomatic Usage, Next: Packaging Considerations, Prev: What is the “top-level code environment”?, Up: __name__ == '__main__' 5.30.5.3 Idiomatic Usage ........................ Some modules contain code that is intended for script use only, like parsing command-line arguments or fetching data from standard input. If a module like this was imported from a different module, for example to unit test it, the script code would unintentionally execute as well. This is where using the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ code block comes in handy. Code within this block won’t run unless the module is executed in the top-level environment. Putting as few statements as possible in the block below ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ can improve code clarity and correctness. Most often, a function named ‘main’ encapsulates the program’s primary behavior: # echo.py import shlex import sys def echo(phrase: str) -> None: """A dummy wrapper around print.""" # for demonstration purposes, you can imagine that there is some # valuable and reusable logic inside this function print(phrase) def main() -> int: """Echo the input arguments to standard output""" phrase = shlex.join(sys.argv) echo(phrase) return 0 if __name__ == '__main__': sys.exit(main()) # next section explains the use of sys.exit Note that if the module didn’t encapsulate code inside the ‘main’ function but instead put it directly within the ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block, the ‘phrase’ variable would be global to the entire module. This is error-prone as other functions within the module could be unintentionally using the global variable instead of a local name. A ‘main’ function solves this problem. Using a ‘main’ function has the added benefit of the ‘echo’ function itself being isolated and importable elsewhere. When ‘echo.py’ is imported, the ‘echo’ and ‘main’ functions will be defined, but neither of them will be called, because ‘__name__ != '__main__'’.  File: python.info, Node: Packaging Considerations, Prev: Idiomatic Usage, Up: __name__ == '__main__' 5.30.5.4 Packaging Considerations ................................. ‘main’ functions are often used to create command-line tools by specifying them as entry points for console scripts. When this is done, pip(1) inserts the function call into a template script, where the return value of ‘main’ is passed into *note sys.exit(): 133c. For example: sys.exit(main()) Since the call to ‘main’ is wrapped in *note sys.exit(): 133c, the expectation is that your function will return some value acceptable as an input to *note sys.exit(): 133c.; typically, an integer or ‘None’ (which is implicitly returned if your function does not have a return statement). By proactively following this convention ourselves, our module will have the same behavior when run directly (i.e. ‘python echo.py’) as it will have if we later package it as a console script entry-point in a pip-installable package. In particular, be careful about returning strings from your ‘main’ function. *note sys.exit(): 133c. will interpret a string argument as a failure message, so your program will have an exit code of ‘1’, indicating failure, and the string will be written to *note sys.stderr: 939. The ‘echo.py’ example from earlier exemplifies using the ‘sys.exit(main())’ convention. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide(2) contains a collection of tutorials and references on how to distribute and install Python packages with modern tools. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pip.pypa.io/ (2) https://packaging.python.org/  File: python.info, Node: __main__ py in Python Packages, Next: import __main__, Prev: __name__ == '__main__', Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment 5.30.5.5 ‘__main__.py’ in Python Packages ......................................... If you are not familiar with Python packages, see section *note Packages: 1c67. of the tutorial. Most commonly, the ‘__main__.py’ file is used to provide a command-line interface for a package. Consider the following hypothetical package, “bandclass”: bandclass ├── __init__.py ├── __main__.py └── student.py ‘__main__.py’ will be executed when the package itself is invoked directly from the command line using the *note -m: 5dd. flag. For example: $ python -m bandclass This command will cause ‘__main__.py’ to run. How you utilize this mechanism will depend on the nature of the package you are writing, but in this hypothetical case, it might make sense to allow the teacher to search for students: # bandclass/__main__.py import sys from .student import search_students student_name = sys.argv[1] if len(sys.argv) >= 2 else '' print(f'Found student: {search_students(student_name)}') Note that ‘from .student import search_students’ is an example of a relative import. This import style can be used when referencing modules within a package. For more details, see *note Intra-package References: 1c6c. in the *note Modules: 1c56. section of the tutorial. * Menu: * Idiomatic Usage: Idiomatic Usage<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>, Up: __main__ py in Python Packages 5.30.5.6 Idiomatic Usage ........................ The content of ‘__main__.py’ typically isn’t fenced with an ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block. Instead, those files are kept short and import functions to execute from other modules. Those other modules can then be easily unit-tested and are properly reusable. If used, an ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block will still work as expected for a ‘__main__.py’ file within a package, because its ‘__name__’ attribute will include the package’s path if imported: >>> import asyncio.__main__ >>> asyncio.__main__.__name__ 'asyncio.__main__' This won’t work for ‘__main__.py’ files in the root directory of a ‘.zip’ file though. Hence, for consistency, a minimal ‘__main__.py’ without a ‘__name__’ check is preferred. See also ........ See *note venv: 111. for an example of a package with a minimal ‘__main__.py’ in the standard library. It doesn’t contain a ‘if __name__ == '__main__'’ block. You can invoke it with ‘python -m venv [directory]’. See *note runpy: be. for more details on the *note -m: 5dd. flag to the interpreter executable. See *note zipapp: 130. for how to run applications packaged as '.zip' files. In this case Python looks for a ‘__main__.py’ file in the root directory of the archive.  File: python.info, Node: import __main__, Prev: __main__ py in Python Packages, Up: __main__ — Top-level code environment 5.30.5.7 ‘import __main__’ .......................... Regardless of which module a Python program was started with, other modules running within that same program can import the top-level environment’s scope (*note namespace: 1c57.) by importing the ‘__main__’ module. This doesn’t import a ‘__main__.py’ file but rather whichever module that received the special name ‘'__main__'’. Here is an example module that consumes the ‘__main__’ namespace: # namely.py import __main__ def did_user_define_their_name(): return 'my_name' in dir(__main__) def print_user_name(): if not did_user_define_their_name(): raise ValueError('Define the variable `my_name`!') if '__file__' in dir(__main__): print(__main__.my_name, "found in file", __main__.__file__) else: print(__main__.my_name) Example usage of this module could be as follows: # start.py import sys from namely import print_user_name # my_name = "Dinsdale" def main(): try: print_user_name() except ValueError as ve: return str(ve) if __name__ == "__main__": sys.exit(main()) Now, if we started our program, the result would look like this: $ python start.py Define the variable `my_name`! The exit code of the program would be 1, indicating an error. Uncommenting the line with ‘my_name = "Dinsdale"’ fixes the program and now it exits with status code 0, indicating success: $ python start.py Dinsdale found in file /path/to/start.py Note that importing ‘__main__’ doesn’t cause any issues with unintentionally running top-level code meant for script use which is put in the ‘if __name__ == "__main__"’ block of the ‘start’ module. Why does this work? Python inserts an empty ‘__main__’ module in *note sys.modules: 1550. at interpreter startup, and populates it by running top-level code. In our example this is the ‘start’ module which runs line by line and imports ‘namely’. In turn, ‘namely’ imports ‘__main__’ (which is really ‘start’). That’s an import cycle! Fortunately, since the partially populated ‘__main__’ module is present in *note sys.modules: 1550, Python passes that to ‘namely’. See *note Special considerations for __main__: 200b. in the import system’s reference for details on how this works. The Python REPL is another example of a “top-level environment”, so anything defined in the REPL becomes part of the ‘__main__’ scope: >>> import namely >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name() False >>> namely.print_user_name() Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: Define the variable `my_name`! >>> my_name = 'Jabberwocky' >>> namely.did_user_define_their_name() True >>> namely.print_user_name() Jabberwocky Note that in this case the ‘__main__’ scope doesn’t contain a ‘__file__’ attribute as it’s interactive. The ‘__main__’ scope is used in the implementation of *note pdb: a5. and *note rlcompleter: bd.  File: python.info, Node: warnings — Warning control, Next: dataclasses — Data Classes, Prev: __main__ — Top-level code environment, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.6 ‘warnings’ — Warning control ----------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/warnings.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ Warning messages are typically issued in situations where it is useful to alert the user of some condition in a program, where that condition (normally) doesn’t warrant raising an exception and terminating the program. For example, one might want to issue a warning when a program uses an obsolete module. Python programmers issue warnings by calling the *note warn(): 14e4. function defined in this module. (C programmers use *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1416.; see *note Exception Handling: 43fe. for details). Warning messages are normally written to *note sys.stderr: 939, but their disposition can be changed flexibly, from ignoring all warnings to turning them into exceptions. The disposition of warnings can vary based on the *note warning category: 22b2, the text of the warning message, and the source location where it is issued. Repetitions of a particular warning for the same source location are typically suppressed. There are two stages in warning control: first, each time a warning is issued, a determination is made whether a message should be issued or not; next, if a message is to be issued, it is formatted and printed using a user-settable hook. The determination whether to issue a warning message is controlled by the *note warning filter: 8c8, which is a sequence of matching rules and actions. Rules can be added to the filter by calling *note filterwarnings(): 1472. and reset to its default state by calling *note resetwarnings(): 43ff. The printing of warning messages is done by calling *note showwarning(): 4400, which may be overridden; the default implementation of this function formats the message by calling *note formatwarning(): 1a14, which is also available for use by custom implementations. See also ........ *note logging.captureWarnings(): 2cb6. allows you to handle all warnings with the standard logging infrastructure. * Menu: * Warning Categories:: * The Warnings Filter:: * Temporarily Suppressing Warnings:: * Testing Warnings:: * Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies:: * Available Functions:: * Available Context Managers:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/warnings.py  File: python.info, Node: Warning Categories, Next: The Warnings Filter, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.1 Warning Categories ........................... There are a number of built-in exceptions that represent warning categories. This categorization is useful to be able to filter out groups of warnings. While these are technically *note built-in exceptions: 22b0, they are documented here, because conceptually they belong to the warnings mechanism. User code can define additional warning categories by subclassing one of the standard warning categories. A warning category must always be a subclass of the *note Warning: 22b3. class. The following warnings category classes are currently defined: Class Description ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note Warning: 22b3. This is the base class of all warning category classes. It is a subclass of *note Exception: 9d9. *note UserWarning: 22b4. The default category for *note warn(): 14e4. *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Base category for warnings about deprecated features when those warnings are intended for other Python developers (ignored by default, unless triggered by code in ‘__main__’). *note SyntaxWarning: 461. Base category for warnings about dubious syntactic features. *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. Base category for warnings about dubious runtime features. *note FutureWarning: 411. Base category for warnings about deprecated features when those warnings are intended for end users of applications that are written in Python. *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. Base category for warnings about features that will be deprecated in the future (ignored by default). *note ImportWarning: 4f6. Base category for warnings triggered during the process of importing a module (ignored by default). *note UnicodeWarning: 13ef. Base category for warnings related to Unicode. *note BytesWarning: c23. Base category for warnings related to *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. *note ResourceWarning: 246. Base category for warnings related to resource usage (ignored by default). Changed in version 3.7: Previously *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and *note FutureWarning: 411. were distinguished based on whether a feature was being removed entirely or changing its behaviour. They are now distinguished based on their intended audience and the way they’re handled by the default warnings filters.  File: python.info, Node: The Warnings Filter, Next: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings, Prev: Warning Categories, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.2 The Warnings Filter ............................ The warnings filter controls whether warnings are ignored, displayed, or turned into errors (raising an exception). Conceptually, the warnings filter maintains an ordered list of filter specifications; any specific warning is matched against each filter specification in the list in turn until a match is found; the filter determines the disposition of the match. Each entry is a tuple of the form ('action', 'message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno'), where: * 'action' is one of the following strings: Value Disposition ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘"default"’ print the first occurrence of matching warnings for each location (module + line number) where the warning is issued ‘"error"’ turn matching warnings into exceptions ‘"ignore"’ never print matching warnings ‘"always"’ always print matching warnings ‘"module"’ print the first occurrence of matching warnings for each module where the warning is issued (regardless of line number) ‘"once"’ print only the first occurrence of matching warnings, regardless of location * 'message' is a string containing a regular expression that the start of the warning message must match, case-insensitively. In *note -W: 8c6. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa, 'message' is a literal string that the start of the warning message must contain (case-insensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end of 'message'. * 'category' is a class (a subclass of *note Warning: 22b3.) of which the warning category must be a subclass in order to match. * 'module' is a string containing a regular expression that the start of the fully qualified module name must match, case-sensitively. In *note -W: 8c6. and *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa, 'module' is a literal string that the fully qualified module name must be equal to (case-sensitively), ignoring any whitespace at the start or end of 'module'. * 'lineno' is an integer that the line number where the warning occurred must match, or ‘0’ to match all line numbers. Since the *note Warning: 22b3. class is derived from the built-in *note Exception: 9d9. class, to turn a warning into an error we simply raise ‘category(message)’. If a warning is reported and doesn’t match any registered filter then the “default” action is applied (hence its name). * Menu: * Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria:: * Describing Warning Filters:: * Default Warning Filter:: * Overriding the default filter::  File: python.info, Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria, Next: Describing Warning Filters, Up: The Warnings Filter 5.30.6.3 Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria .............................................. The filters that suppress repeated warnings apply the following criteria to determine if a warning is considered a repeat: - ‘"default"’: A warning is considered a repeat only if the ('message', 'category', 'module', 'lineno') are all the same. - ‘"module"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message', 'category', 'module') are the same, ignoring the line number. - ‘"once"’: A warning is considered a repeat if the ('message', 'category') are the same, ignoring the module and line number.  File: python.info, Node: Describing Warning Filters, Next: Default Warning Filter, Prev: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria, Up: The Warnings Filter 5.30.6.4 Describing Warning Filters ................................... The warnings filter is initialized by *note -W: 8c6. options passed to the Python interpreter command line and the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable. The interpreter saves the arguments for all supplied entries without interpretation in *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac.; the *note warnings: 112. module parses these when it is first imported (invalid options are ignored, after printing a message to *note sys.stderr: 939.). Individual warnings filters are specified as a sequence of fields separated by colons: action:message:category:module:line The meaning of each of these fields is as described in *note The Warnings Filter: 8c8. When listing multiple filters on a single line (as for *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa.), the individual filters are separated by commas and the filters listed later take precedence over those listed before them (as they’re applied left-to-right, and the most recently applied filters take precedence over earlier ones). Commonly used warning filters apply to either all warnings, warnings in a particular category, or warnings raised by particular modules or packages. Some examples: default # Show all warnings (even those ignored by default) ignore # Ignore all warnings error # Convert all warnings to errors error::ResourceWarning # Treat ResourceWarning messages as errors default::DeprecationWarning # Show DeprecationWarning messages ignore,default:::mymodule # Only report warnings triggered by "mymodule" error:::mymodule # Convert warnings to errors in "mymodule"  File: python.info, Node: Default Warning Filter, Next: Overriding the default filter, Prev: Describing Warning Filters, Up: The Warnings Filter 5.30.6.5 Default Warning Filter ............................... By default, Python installs several warning filters, which can be overridden by the *note -W: 8c6. command-line option, the *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable and calls to *note filterwarnings(): 1472. In regular release builds, the default warning filter has the following entries (in order of precedence): default::DeprecationWarning:__main__ ignore::DeprecationWarning ignore::PendingDeprecationWarning ignore::ImportWarning ignore::ResourceWarning In a *note debug build: 1fb, the list of default warning filters is empty. Changed in version 3.2: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is now ignored by default in addition to *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. Changed in version 3.7: *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is once again shown by default when triggered directly by code in ‘__main__’. Changed in version 3.7: *note BytesWarning: c23. no longer appears in the default filter list and is instead configured via *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. when *note -b: 5df. is specified twice.  File: python.info, Node: Overriding the default filter, Prev: Default Warning Filter, Up: The Warnings Filter 5.30.6.6 Overriding the default filter ...................................... Developers of applications written in Python may wish to hide 'all' Python level warnings from their users by default, and only display them when running tests or otherwise working on the application. The *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. attribute used to pass filter configurations to the interpreter can be used as a marker to indicate whether or not warnings should be disabled: import sys if not sys.warnoptions: import warnings warnings.simplefilter("ignore") Developers of test runners for Python code are advised to instead ensure that 'all' warnings are displayed by default for the code under test, using code like: import sys if not sys.warnoptions: import os, warnings warnings.simplefilter("default") # Change the filter in this process os.environ["PYTHONWARNINGS"] = "default" # Also affect subprocesses Finally, developers of interactive shells that run user code in a namespace other than ‘__main__’ are advised to ensure that *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. messages are made visible by default, using code like the following (where ‘user_ns’ is the module used to execute code entered interactively): import warnings warnings.filterwarnings("default", category=DeprecationWarning, module=user_ns.get("__name__"))  File: python.info, Node: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings, Next: Testing Warnings, Prev: The Warnings Filter, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.7 Temporarily Suppressing Warnings ......................................... If you are using code that you know will raise a warning, such as a deprecated function, but do not want to see the warning (even when warnings have been explicitly configured via the command line), then it is possible to suppress the warning using the *note catch_warnings: 581. context manager: import warnings def fxn(): warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning) with warnings.catch_warnings(): warnings.simplefilter("ignore") fxn() While within the context manager all warnings will simply be ignored. This allows you to use known-deprecated code without having to see the warning while not suppressing the warning for other code that might not be aware of its use of deprecated code. Note: this can only be guaranteed in a single-threaded application. If two or more threads use the *note catch_warnings: 581. context manager at the same time, the behavior is undefined.  File: python.info, Node: Testing Warnings, Next: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies, Prev: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.8 Testing Warnings ......................... To test warnings raised by code, use the *note catch_warnings: 581. context manager. With it you can temporarily mutate the warnings filter to facilitate your testing. For instance, do the following to capture all raised warnings to check: import warnings def fxn(): warnings.warn("deprecated", DeprecationWarning) with warnings.catch_warnings(record=True) as w: # Cause all warnings to always be triggered. warnings.simplefilter("always") # Trigger a warning. fxn() # Verify some things assert len(w) == 1 assert issubclass(w[-1].category, DeprecationWarning) assert "deprecated" in str(w[-1].message) One can also cause all warnings to be exceptions by using ‘error’ instead of ‘always’. One thing to be aware of is that if a warning has already been raised because of a ‘once’/‘default’ rule, then no matter what filters are set the warning will not be seen again unless the warnings registry related to the warning has been cleared. Once the context manager exits, the warnings filter is restored to its state when the context was entered. This prevents tests from changing the warnings filter in unexpected ways between tests and leading to indeterminate test results. The *note showwarning(): 4400. function in the module is also restored to its original value. Note: this can only be guaranteed in a single-threaded application. If two or more threads use the *note catch_warnings: 581. context manager at the same time, the behavior is undefined. When testing multiple operations that raise the same kind of warning, it is important to test them in a manner that confirms each operation is raising a new warning (e.g. set warnings to be raised as exceptions and check the operations raise exceptions, check that the length of the warning list continues to increase after each operation, or else delete the previous entries from the warnings list before each new operation).  File: python.info, Node: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies, Next: Available Functions, Prev: Testing Warnings, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.9 Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies ....................................................... Warning categories that are primarily of interest to Python developers (rather than end users of applications written in Python) are ignored by default. Notably, this “ignored by default” list includes *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. (for every module except ‘__main__’), which means developers should make sure to test their code with typically ignored warnings made visible in order to receive timely notifications of future breaking API changes (whether in the standard library or third party packages). In the ideal case, the code will have a suitable test suite, and the test runner will take care of implicitly enabling all warnings when running tests (the test runner provided by the *note unittest: 106. module does this). In less ideal cases, applications can be checked for use of deprecated interfaces by passing *note -Wd: 8c6. to the Python interpreter (this is shorthand for ‘-W default’) or setting ‘PYTHONWARNINGS=default’ in the environment. This enables default handling for all warnings, including those that are ignored by default. To change what action is taken for encountered warnings you can change what argument is passed to *note -W: 8c6. (e.g. ‘-W error’). See the *note -W: 8c6. flag for more details on what is possible.  File: python.info, Node: Available Functions, Next: Available Context Managers, Prev: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.10 Available Functions ............................. -- Function: warnings.warn (message, category=None, stacklevel=1, source=None, *, skip_file_prefixes=()) Issue a warning, or maybe ignore it or raise an exception. The 'category' argument, if given, must be a *note warning category class: 22b2.; it defaults to *note UserWarning: 22b4. Alternatively, 'message' can be a *note Warning: 22b3. instance, in which case 'category' will be ignored and ‘message.__class__’ will be used. In this case, the message text will be ‘str(message)’. This function raises an exception if the particular warning issued is changed into an error by the *note warnings filter: 8c8. The 'stacklevel' argument can be used by wrapper functions written in Python, like this: def deprecated_api(message): warnings.warn(message, DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=2) This makes the warning refer to ‘deprecated_api’’s caller, rather than to the source of ‘deprecated_api’ itself (since the latter would defeat the purpose of the warning message). The 'skip_file_prefixes' keyword argument can be used to indicate which stack frames are ignored when counting stack levels. This can be useful when you want the warning to always appear at call sites outside of a package when a constant 'stacklevel' does not fit all call paths or is otherwise challenging to maintain. If supplied, it must be a tuple of strings. When prefixes are supplied, stacklevel is implicitly overridden to be ‘max(2, stacklevel)’. To cause a warning to be attributed to the caller from outside of the current package you might write: # example/lower.py _warn_skips = (os.path.dirname(__file__),) def one_way(r_luxury_yacht=None, t_wobbler_mangrove=None): if r_luxury_yacht: warnings.warn("Please migrate to t_wobbler_mangrove=.", skip_file_prefixes=_warn_skips) # example/higher.py from . import lower def another_way(**kw): lower.one_way(**kw) This makes the warning refer to both the ‘example.lower.one_way()’ and ‘example.higher.another_way()’ call sites only from calling code living outside of ‘example’ package. 'source', if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a *note ResourceWarning: 246. Changed in version 3.6: Added 'source' parameter. Changed in version 3.12: Added 'skip_file_prefixes'. -- Function: warnings.warn_explicit (message, category, filename, lineno, module=None, registry=None, module_globals=None, source=None) This is a low-level interface to the functionality of *note warn(): 14e4, passing in explicitly the message, category, filename and line number, and optionally the module name and the registry (which should be the ‘__warningregistry__’ dictionary of the module). The module name defaults to the filename with ‘.py’ stripped; if no registry is passed, the warning is never suppressed. 'message' must be a string and 'category' a subclass of *note Warning: 22b3. or 'message' may be a *note Warning: 22b3. instance, in which case 'category' will be ignored. 'module_globals', if supplied, should be the global namespace in use by the code for which the warning is issued. (This argument is used to support displaying source for modules found in zipfiles or other non-filesystem import sources). 'source', if supplied, is the destroyed object which emitted a *note ResourceWarning: 246. Changed in version 3.6: Add the 'source' parameter. -- Function: warnings.showwarning (message, category, filename, lineno, file=None, line=None) Write a warning to a file. The default implementation calls ‘formatwarning(message, category, filename, lineno, line)’ and writes the resulting string to 'file', which defaults to *note sys.stderr: 939. You may replace this function with any callable by assigning to ‘warnings.showwarning’. 'line' is a line of source code to be included in the warning message; if 'line' is not supplied, *note showwarning(): 4400. will try to read the line specified by 'filename' and 'lineno'. -- Function: warnings.formatwarning (message, category, filename, lineno, line=None) Format a warning the standard way. This returns a string which may contain embedded newlines and ends in a newline. 'line' is a line of source code to be included in the warning message; if 'line' is not supplied, *note formatwarning(): 1a14. will try to read the line specified by 'filename' and 'lineno'. -- Function: warnings.filterwarnings (action, message='', category=Warning, module='', lineno=0, append=False) Insert an entry into the list of *note warnings filter specifications: 8c8. The entry is inserted at the front by default; if 'append' is true, it is inserted at the end. This checks the types of the arguments, compiles the 'message' and 'module' regular expressions, and inserts them as a tuple in the list of warnings filters. Entries closer to the front of the list override entries later in the list, if both match a particular warning. Omitted arguments default to a value that matches everything. -- Function: warnings.simplefilter (action, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False) Insert a simple entry into the list of *note warnings filter specifications: 8c8. The meaning of the function parameters is as for *note filterwarnings(): 1472, but regular expressions are not needed as the filter inserted always matches any message in any module as long as the category and line number match. -- Function: warnings.resetwarnings () Reset the warnings filter. This discards the effect of all previous calls to *note filterwarnings(): 1472, including that of the *note -W: 8c6. command line options and calls to *note simplefilter(): 6bd. -- Function: @warnings.deprecated (msg, *, category=DeprecationWarning, stacklevel=1) Decorator to indicate that a class, function or overload is deprecated. When this decorator is applied to an object, deprecation warnings may be emitted at runtime when the object is used. *note static type checkers: 26f. will also generate a diagnostic on usage of the deprecated object. Usage: from warnings import deprecated from typing import overload @deprecated("Use B instead") class A: pass @deprecated("Use g instead") def f(): pass @overload @deprecated("int support is deprecated") def g(x: int) -> int: ... @overload def g(x: str) -> int: ... The warning specified by 'category' will be emitted at runtime on use of deprecated objects. For functions, that happens on calls; for classes, on instantiation and on creation of subclasses. If the 'category' is ‘None’, no warning is emitted at runtime. The 'stacklevel' determines where the warning is emitted. If it is ‘1’ (the default), the warning is emitted at the direct caller of the deprecated object; if it is higher, it is emitted further up the stack. Static type checker behavior is not affected by the 'category' and 'stacklevel' arguments. The deprecation message passed to the decorator is saved in the ‘__deprecated__’ attribute on the decorated object. If applied to an overload, the decorator must be after the *note @overload: 3fb3. decorator for the attribute to exist on the overload as returned by *note typing.get_overloads(): 6aa. Added in version 3.13: See PEP 702(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0702/  File: python.info, Node: Available Context Managers, Prev: Available Functions, Up: warnings — Warning control 5.30.6.11 Available Context Managers .................................... -- Class: warnings.catch_warnings (*, record=False, module=None, action=None, category=Warning, lineno=0, append=False) A context manager that copies and, upon exit, restores the warnings filter and the *note showwarning(): 4400. function. If the 'record' argument is *note False: b37. (the default) the context manager returns *note None: 671. on entry. If 'record' is *note True: c0d, a list is returned that is progressively populated with objects as seen by a custom *note showwarning(): 4400. function (which also suppresses output to ‘sys.stdout’). Each object in the list has attributes with the same names as the arguments to *note showwarning(): 4400. The 'module' argument takes a module that will be used instead of the module returned when you import *note warnings: 112. whose filter will be protected. This argument exists primarily for testing the *note warnings: 112. module itself. If the 'action' argument is not ‘None’, the remaining arguments are passed to *note simplefilter(): 6bd. as if it were called immediately on entering the context. See *note The Warnings Filter: 8c8. for the meaning of the 'category' and 'lineno' parameters. Note: The *note catch_warnings: 581. manager works by replacing and then later restoring the module’s *note showwarning(): 4400. function and internal list of filter specifications. This means the context manager is modifying global state and therefore is not thread-safe. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'action', 'category', 'lineno', and 'append' parameters.  File: python.info, Node: dataclasses — Data Classes, Next: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts, Prev: warnings — Warning control, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.7 ‘dataclasses’ — Data Classes ----------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/dataclasses.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides a decorator and functions for automatically adding generated *note special methods: 18ab. such as *note __init__(): 6ac. and *note __repr__(): 618. to user-defined classes. It was originally described in PEP 557(2). The member variables to use in these generated methods are defined using PEP 526(3) type annotations. For example, this code: from dataclasses import dataclass @dataclass class InventoryItem: """Class for keeping track of an item in inventory.""" name: str unit_price: float quantity_on_hand: int = 0 def total_cost(self) -> float: return self.unit_price * self.quantity_on_hand will add, among other things, a ‘__init__()’ that looks like: def __init__(self, name: str, unit_price: float, quantity_on_hand: int = 0): self.name = name self.unit_price = unit_price self.quantity_on_hand = quantity_on_hand Note that this method is automatically added to the class: it is not directly specified in the ‘InventoryItem’ definition shown above. Added in version 3.7. * Menu: * Module contents: Module contents<4>. * Post-init processing:: * Class variables:: * Init-only variables:: * Frozen instances:: * Inheritance: Inheritance<2>. * Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__(): Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__. * Default factory functions:: * Mutable default values:: * Descriptor-typed fields:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dataclasses.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0557/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/  File: python.info, Node: Module contents<4>, Next: Post-init processing, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.1 Module contents ........................ -- Function: @dataclasses.dataclass (*, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False) This function is a *note decorator: 72c. that is used to add generated *note special methods: 18ab. to classes, as described below. The ‘@dataclass’ decorator examines the class to find ‘field’s. A ‘field’ is defined as a class variable that has a *note type annotation: d55. With two exceptions described below, nothing in ‘@dataclass’ examines the type specified in the variable annotation. The order of the fields in all of the generated methods is the order in which they appear in the class definition. The ‘@dataclass’ decorator will add various “dunder” methods to the class, described below. If any of the added methods already exist in the class, the behavior depends on the parameter, as documented below. The decorator returns the same class that it is called on; no new class is created. If ‘@dataclass’ is used just as a simple decorator with no parameters, it acts as if it has the default values documented in this signature. That is, these three uses of ‘@dataclass’ are equivalent: @dataclass class C: ... @dataclass() class C: ... @dataclass(init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False) class C: ... The parameters to ‘@dataclass’ are: - 'init': If true (the default), a *note __init__(): 6ac. method will be generated. If the class already defines ‘__init__()’, this parameter is ignored. - 'repr': If true (the default), a *note __repr__(): 618. method will be generated. The generated repr string will have the class name and the name and repr of each field, in the order they are defined in the class. Fields that are marked as being excluded from the repr are not included. For example: ‘InventoryItem(name='widget', unit_price=3.0, quantity_on_hand=10)’. If the class already defines ‘__repr__()’, this parameter is ignored. - 'eq': If true (the default), an *note __eq__(): afa. method will be generated. This method compares the class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order. Both instances in the comparison must be of the identical type. If the class already defines ‘__eq__()’, this parameter is ignored. - 'order': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __lt__(): 1292, *note __le__(): 12fe, *note __gt__(): 12ff, and *note __ge__(): 1300. methods will be generated. These compare the class as if it were a tuple of its fields, in order. Both instances in the comparison must be of the identical type. If 'order' is true and 'eq' is false, a *note ValueError: 204. is raised. If the class already defines any of ‘__lt__()’, ‘__le__()’, ‘__gt__()’, or ‘__ge__()’, then *note TypeError: 534. is raised. - 'unsafe_hash': If true, force ‘dataclasses’ to create a *note __hash__(): afb. method, even though it may not be safe to do so. Otherwise, generate a *note __hash__(): afb. method according to how 'eq' and 'frozen' are set. The default value is ‘False’. ‘__hash__()’ is used by built-in *note hash(): 5e7, and when objects are added to hashed collections such as dictionaries and sets. Having a ‘__hash__()’ implies that instances of the class are immutable. Mutability is a complicated property that depends on the programmer’s intent, the existence and behavior of ‘__eq__()’, and the values of the 'eq' and 'frozen' flags in the ‘@dataclass’ decorator. By default, ‘@dataclass’ will not implicitly add a *note __hash__(): afb. method unless it is safe to do so. Neither will it add or change an existing explicitly defined ‘__hash__()’ method. Setting the class attribute ‘__hash__ = None’ has a specific meaning to Python, as described in the ‘__hash__()’ documentation. If ‘__hash__()’ is not explicitly defined, or if it is set to ‘None’, then ‘@dataclass’ 'may' add an implicit ‘__hash__()’ method. Although not recommended, you can force ‘@dataclass’ to create a ‘__hash__()’ method with ‘unsafe_hash=True’. This might be the case if your class is logically immutable but can still be mutated. This is a specialized use case and should be considered carefully. Here are the rules governing implicit creation of a ‘__hash__()’ method. Note that you cannot both have an explicit ‘__hash__()’ method in your dataclass and set ‘unsafe_hash=True’; this will result in a *note TypeError: 534. If 'eq' and 'frozen' are both true, by default ‘@dataclass’ will generate a ‘__hash__()’ method for you. If 'eq' is true and 'frozen' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be set to ‘None’, marking it unhashable (which it is, since it is mutable). If 'eq' is false, ‘__hash__()’ will be left untouched meaning the ‘__hash__()’ method of the superclass will be used (if the superclass is *note object: a8c, this means it will fall back to id-based hashing). - 'frozen': If true (the default is ‘False’), assigning to fields will generate an exception. This emulates read-only frozen instances. If *note __setattr__(): 1f2d. or *note __delattr__(): 1f2e. is defined in the class, then *note TypeError: 534. is raised. See the discussion below. - 'match_args': If true (the default is ‘True’), the *note __match_args__: 18bf. tuple will be created from the list of non keyword-only parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 6ac. method (even if ‘__init__()’ is not generated, see above). If false, or if ‘__match_args__’ is already defined in the class, then ‘__match_args__’ will not be generated. Added in version 3.10. - 'kw_only': If true (the default value is ‘False’), then all fields will be marked as keyword-only. If a field is marked as keyword-only, then the only effect is that the *note __init__(): 6ac. parameter generated from a keyword-only field must be specified with a keyword when ‘__init__()’ is called. See the *note parameter: 1eff. glossary entry for details. Also see the *note KW_ONLY: 4415. section. Keyword-only fields are not included in ‘__match_args__’. Added in version 3.10. - 'slots': If true (the default is ‘False’), *note __slots__: 14b5. attribute will be generated and new class will be returned instead of the original one. If ‘__slots__’ is already defined in the class, then *note TypeError: 534. is raised. Warning: Calling no-arg *note super(): 4d7. in dataclasses using ‘slots=True’ will result in the following exception being raised: ‘TypeError: super(type, obj): obj must be an instance or subtype of type’. The two-arg *note super(): 4d7. is a valid workaround. See gh-90562(1) for full details. Warning: Passing parameters to a base class *note __init_subclass__(): 62d. when using ‘slots=True’ will result in a *note TypeError: 534. Either use ‘__init_subclass__’ with no parameters or use default values as a workaround. See gh-91126(2) for full details. Added in version 3.10. Changed in version 3.11: If a field name is already included in the ‘__slots__’ of a base class, it will not be included in the generated ‘__slots__’ to prevent *note overriding them: 1f6f. Therefore, do not use ‘__slots__’ to retrieve the field names of a dataclass. Use *note fields(): 1742. instead. To be able to determine inherited slots, base class ‘__slots__’ may be any iterable, but 'not' an iterator. - 'weakref_slot': If true (the default is ‘False’), add a slot named “__weakref__”, which is required to make an instance *note weakref-able: fe9. It is an error to specify ‘weakref_slot=True’ without also specifying ‘slots=True’. Added in version 3.11. ‘field’s may optionally specify a default value, using normal Python syntax: @dataclass class C: a: int # 'a' has no default value b: int = 0 # assign a default value for 'b' In this example, both ‘a’ and ‘b’ will be included in the added *note __init__(): 6ac. method, which will be defined as: def __init__(self, a: int, b: int = 0): *note TypeError: 534. will be raised if a field without a default value follows a field with a default value. This is true whether this occurs in a single class, or as a result of class inheritance. -- Function: dataclasses.field (*, default=MISSING, default_factory=MISSING, init=True, repr=True, hash=None, compare=True, metadata=None, kw_only=MISSING) For common and simple use cases, no other functionality is required. There are, however, some dataclass features that require additional per-field information. To satisfy this need for additional information, you can replace the default field value with a call to the provided ‘field()’ function. For example: @dataclass class C: mylist: list[int] = field(default_factory=list) c = C() c.mylist += [1, 2, 3] As shown above, the *note MISSING: 4416. value is a sentinel object used to detect if some parameters are provided by the user. This sentinel is used because ‘None’ is a valid value for some parameters with a distinct meaning. No code should directly use the *note MISSING: 4416. value. The parameters to ‘field()’ are: - 'default': If provided, this will be the default value for this field. This is needed because the ‘field()’ call itself replaces the normal position of the default value. - 'default_factory': If provided, it must be a zero-argument callable that will be called when a default value is needed for this field. Among other purposes, this can be used to specify fields with mutable default values, as discussed below. It is an error to specify both 'default' and 'default_factory'. - 'init': If true (the default), this field is included as a parameter to the generated *note __init__(): 6ac. method. - 'repr': If true (the default), this field is included in the string returned by the generated *note __repr__(): 618. method. - 'hash': This can be a bool or ‘None’. If true, this field is included in the generated *note __hash__(): afb. method. If false, this field is excluded from the generated *note __hash__(): afb. If ‘None’ (the default), use the value of 'compare': this would normally be the expected behavior, since a field should be included in the hash if it’s used for comparisons. Setting this value to anything other than ‘None’ is discouraged. One possible reason to set ‘hash=False’ but ‘compare=True’ would be if a field is expensive to compute a hash value for, that field is needed for equality testing, and there are other fields that contribute to the type’s hash value. Even if a field is excluded from the hash, it will still be used for comparisons. - 'compare': If true (the default), this field is included in the generated equality and comparison methods (*note __eq__(): afa, *note __gt__(): 12ff, et al.). - 'metadata': This can be a mapping or ‘None’. ‘None’ is treated as an empty dict. This value is wrapped in *note MappingProxyType(): 469. to make it read-only, and exposed on the *note Field: 2255. object. It is not used at all by Data Classes, and is provided as a third-party extension mechanism. Multiple third-parties can each have their own key, to use as a namespace in the metadata. - 'kw_only': If true, this field will be marked as keyword-only. This is used when the generated *note __init__(): 6ac. method’s parameters are computed. Keyword-only fields are also not included in ‘__match_args__’. Added in version 3.10. If the default value of a field is specified by a call to ‘field()’, then the class attribute for this field will be replaced by the specified 'default' value. If 'default' is not provided, then the class attribute will be deleted. The intent is that after the *note @dataclass: 1cb. decorator runs, the class attributes will all contain the default values for the fields, just as if the default value itself were specified. For example, after: @dataclass class C: x: int y: int = field(repr=False) z: int = field(repr=False, default=10) t: int = 20 The class attribute ‘C.z’ will be ‘10’, the class attribute ‘C.t’ will be ‘20’, and the class attributes ‘C.x’ and ‘C.y’ will not be set. -- Class: dataclasses.Field ‘Field’ objects describe each defined field. These objects are created internally, and are returned by the *note fields(): 1742. module-level method (see below). Users should never instantiate a ‘Field’ object directly. Its documented attributes are: - ‘name’: The name of the field. - ‘type’: The type of the field. - ‘default’, ‘default_factory’, ‘init’, ‘repr’, ‘hash’, ‘compare’, ‘metadata’, and ‘kw_only’ have the identical meaning and values as they do in the *note field(): 1a1f. function. Other attributes may exist, but they are private and must not be inspected or relied on. -- Class: dataclasses.InitVar ‘InitVar[T]’ type annotations describe variables that are *note init-only: 4417. Fields annotated with ‘InitVar’ are considered pseudo-fields, and thus are neither returned by the *note fields(): 1742. function nor used in any way except adding them as parameters to *note __init__(): 6ac. and an optional *note __post_init__(): 4418. -- Function: dataclasses.fields (class_or_instance) Returns a tuple of *note Field: 2255. objects that define the fields for this dataclass. Accepts either a dataclass, or an instance of a dataclass. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if not passed a dataclass or instance of one. Does not return pseudo-fields which are ‘ClassVar’ or ‘InitVar’. -- Function: dataclasses.asdict (obj, *, dict_factory=dict) Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a dict (by using the factory function 'dict_factory'). Each dataclass is converted to a dict of its fields, as ‘name: value’ pairs. dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are recursed into. Other objects are copied with *note copy.deepcopy(): b6e. Example of using ‘asdict()’ on nested dataclasses: @dataclass class Point: x: int y: int @dataclass class C: mylist: list[Point] p = Point(10, 20) assert asdict(p) == {'x': 10, 'y': 20} c = C([Point(0, 0), Point(10, 4)]) assert asdict(c) == {'mylist': [{'x': 0, 'y': 0}, {'x': 10, 'y': 4}]} To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used: {field.name: getattr(obj, field.name) for field in fields(obj)} ‘asdict()’ raises *note TypeError: 534. if 'obj' is not a dataclass instance. -- Function: dataclasses.astuple (obj, *, tuple_factory=tuple) Converts the dataclass 'obj' to a tuple (by using the factory function 'tuple_factory'). Each dataclass is converted to a tuple of its field values. dataclasses, dicts, lists, and tuples are recursed into. Other objects are copied with *note copy.deepcopy(): b6e. Continuing from the previous example: assert astuple(p) == (10, 20) assert astuple(c) == ([(0, 0), (10, 4)],) To create a shallow copy, the following workaround may be used: tuple(getattr(obj, field.name) for field in dataclasses.fields(obj)) ‘astuple()’ raises *note TypeError: 534. if 'obj' is not a dataclass instance. -- Function: dataclasses.make_dataclass (cls_name, fields, *, bases=(), namespace=None, init=True, repr=True, eq=True, order=False, unsafe_hash=False, frozen=False, match_args=True, kw_only=False, slots=False, weakref_slot=False, module=None) Creates a new dataclass with name 'cls_name', fields as defined in 'fields', base classes as given in 'bases', and initialized with a namespace as given in 'namespace'. 'fields' is an iterable whose elements are each either ‘name’, ‘(name, type)’, or ‘(name, type, Field)’. If just ‘name’ is supplied, *note typing.Any: 6a8. is used for ‘type’. The values of 'init', 'repr', 'eq', 'order', 'unsafe_hash', 'frozen', 'match_args', 'kw_only', 'slots', and 'weakref_slot' have the same meaning as they do in *note @dataclass: 1cb. If 'module' is defined, the ‘__module__’ attribute of the dataclass is set to that value. By default, it is set to the module name of the caller. This function is not strictly required, because any Python mechanism for creating a new class with ‘__annotations__’ can then apply the *note @dataclass: 1cb. function to convert that class to a dataclass. This function is provided as a convenience. For example: C = make_dataclass('C', [('x', int), 'y', ('z', int, field(default=5))], namespace={'add_one': lambda self: self.x + 1}) Is equivalent to: @dataclass class C: x: int y: 'typing.Any' z: int = 5 def add_one(self): return self.x + 1 -- Function: dataclasses.replace (obj, /, **changes) Creates a new object of the same type as 'obj', replacing fields with values from 'changes'. If 'obj' is not a Data Class, raises *note TypeError: 534. If keys in 'changes' are not field names of the given dataclass, raises *note TypeError: 534. The newly returned object is created by calling the *note __init__(): 6ac. method of the dataclass. This ensures that *note __post_init__(): 4418, if present, is also called. Init-only variables without default values, if any exist, must be specified on the call to ‘replace()’ so that they can be passed to ‘__init__()’ and *note __post_init__(): 4418. It is an error for 'changes' to contain any fields that are defined as having ‘init=False’. A *note ValueError: 204. will be raised in this case. Be forewarned about how ‘init=False’ fields work during a call to ‘replace()’. They are not copied from the source object, but rather are initialized in *note __post_init__(): 4418, if they’re initialized at all. It is expected that ‘init=False’ fields will be rarely and judiciously used. If they are used, it might be wise to have alternate class constructors, or perhaps a custom ‘replace()’ (or similarly named) method which handles instance copying. Dataclass instances are also supported by generic function *note copy.replace(): 151. -- Function: dataclasses.is_dataclass (obj) Return ‘True’ if its parameter is a dataclass (including subclasses of a dataclass) or an instance of one, otherwise return ‘False’. If you need to know if a class is an instance of a dataclass (and not a dataclass itself), then add a further check for ‘not isinstance(obj, type)’: def is_dataclass_instance(obj): return is_dataclass(obj) and not isinstance(obj, type) -- Data: dataclasses.MISSING A sentinel value signifying a missing default or default_factory. -- Data: dataclasses.KW_ONLY A sentinel value used as a type annotation. Any fields after a pseudo-field with the type of ‘KW_ONLY’ are marked as keyword-only fields. Note that a pseudo-field of type ‘KW_ONLY’ is otherwise completely ignored. This includes the name of such a field. By convention, a name of ‘_’ is used for a ‘KW_ONLY’ field. Keyword-only fields signify *note __init__(): 6ac. parameters that must be specified as keywords when the class is instantiated. In this example, the fields ‘y’ and ‘z’ will be marked as keyword-only fields: @dataclass class Point: x: float _: KW_ONLY y: float z: float p = Point(0, y=1.5, z=2.0) In a single dataclass, it is an error to specify more than one field whose type is ‘KW_ONLY’. Added in version 3.10. -- Exception: dataclasses.FrozenInstanceError Raised when an implicitly defined *note __setattr__(): 1f2d. or *note __delattr__(): 1f2e. is called on a dataclass which was defined with ‘frozen=True’. It is a subclass of *note AttributeError: 348. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90562 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91126  File: python.info, Node: Post-init processing, Next: Class variables, Prev: Module contents<4>, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.2 Post-init processing ............................. -- Function: dataclasses.__post_init__ () When defined on the class, it will be called by the generated *note __init__(): 6ac, normally as ‘self.__post_init__()’. However, if any ‘InitVar’ fields are defined, they will also be passed to ‘__post_init__()’ in the order they were defined in the class. If no ‘__init__()’ method is generated, then ‘__post_init__()’ will not automatically be called. Among other uses, this allows for initializing field values that depend on one or more other fields. For example: @dataclass class C: a: float b: float c: float = field(init=False) def __post_init__(self): self.c = self.a + self.b The *note __init__(): 6ac. method generated by *note @dataclass: 1cb. does not call base class ‘__init__()’ methods. If the base class has an ‘__init__()’ method that has to be called, it is common to call this method in a *note __post_init__(): 4418. method: class Rectangle: def __init__(self, height, width): self.height = height self.width = width @dataclass class Square(Rectangle): side: float def __post_init__(self): super().__init__(self.side, self.side) Note, however, that in general the dataclass-generated ‘__init__()’ methods don’t need to be called, since the derived dataclass will take care of initializing all fields of any base class that is a dataclass itself. See the section below on init-only variables for ways to pass parameters to ‘__post_init__()’. Also see the warning about how *note replace(): 16f9. handles ‘init=False’ fields.  File: python.info, Node: Class variables, Next: Init-only variables, Prev: Post-init processing, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.3 Class variables ........................ One of the few places where *note @dataclass: 1cb. actually inspects the type of a field is to determine if a field is a class variable as defined in PEP 526(1). It does this by checking if the type of the field is *note typing.ClassVar: 268. If a field is a ‘ClassVar’, it is excluded from consideration as a field and is ignored by the dataclass mechanisms. Such ‘ClassVar’ pseudo-fields are not returned by the module-level *note fields(): 1742. function. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/  File: python.info, Node: Init-only variables, Next: Frozen instances, Prev: Class variables, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.4 Init-only variables ............................ Another place where *note @dataclass: 1cb. inspects a type annotation is to determine if a field is an init-only variable. It does this by seeing if the type of a field is of type *note InitVar: 1822. If a field is an *note InitVar: 1822, it is considered a pseudo-field called an init-only field. As it is not a true field, it is not returned by the module-level *note fields(): 1742. function. Init-only fields are added as parameters to the generated *note __init__(): 6ac. method, and are passed to the optional *note __post_init__(): 4418. method. They are not otherwise used by dataclasses. For example, suppose a field will be initialized from a database, if a value is not provided when creating the class: @dataclass class C: i: int j: int | None = None database: InitVar[DatabaseType | None] = None def __post_init__(self, database): if self.j is None and database is not None: self.j = database.lookup('j') c = C(10, database=my_database) In this case, *note fields(): 1742. will return *note Field: 2255. objects for ‘i’ and ‘j’, but not for ‘database’.  File: python.info, Node: Frozen instances, Next: Inheritance<2>, Prev: Init-only variables, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.5 Frozen instances ......................... It is not possible to create truly immutable Python objects. However, by passing ‘frozen=True’ to the *note @dataclass: 1cb. decorator you can emulate immutability. In that case, dataclasses will add *note __setattr__(): 1f2d. and *note __delattr__(): 1f2e. methods to the class. These methods will raise a *note FrozenInstanceError: 4419. when invoked. There is a tiny performance penalty when using ‘frozen=True’: *note __init__(): 6ac. cannot use simple assignment to initialize fields, and must use ‘object.__setattr__()’.  File: python.info, Node: Inheritance<2>, Next: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__, Prev: Frozen instances, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.6 Inheritance .................... When the dataclass is being created by the *note @dataclass: 1cb. decorator, it looks through all of the class’s base classes in reverse MRO (that is, starting at *note object: a8c.) and, for each dataclass that it finds, adds the fields from that base class to an ordered mapping of fields. After all of the base class fields are added, it adds its own fields to the ordered mapping. All of the generated methods will use this combined, calculated ordered mapping of fields. Because the fields are in insertion order, derived classes override base classes. An example: @dataclass class Base: x: Any = 15.0 y: int = 0 @dataclass class C(Base): z: int = 10 x: int = 15 The final list of fields is, in order, ‘x’, ‘y’, ‘z’. The final type of ‘x’ is *note int: 259, as specified in class ‘C’. The generated *note __init__(): 6ac. method for ‘C’ will look like: def __init__(self, x: int = 15, y: int = 0, z: int = 10):  File: python.info, Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__, Next: Default factory functions, Prev: Inheritance<2>, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.7 Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in ‘__init__()’ ............................................................... After the parameters needed for *note __init__(): 6ac. are computed, any keyword-only parameters are moved to come after all regular (non-keyword-only) parameters. This is a requirement of how keyword-only parameters are implemented in Python: they must come after non-keyword-only parameters. In this example, ‘Base.y’, ‘Base.w’, and ‘D.t’ are keyword-only fields, and ‘Base.x’ and ‘D.z’ are regular fields: @dataclass class Base: x: Any = 15.0 _: KW_ONLY y: int = 0 w: int = 1 @dataclass class D(Base): z: int = 10 t: int = field(kw_only=True, default=0) The generated ‘__init__()’ method for ‘D’ will look like: def __init__(self, x: Any = 15.0, z: int = 10, *, y: int = 0, w: int = 1, t: int = 0): Note that the parameters have been re-ordered from how they appear in the list of fields: parameters derived from regular fields are followed by parameters derived from keyword-only fields. The relative ordering of keyword-only parameters is maintained in the re-ordered ‘__init__()’ parameter list.  File: python.info, Node: Default factory functions, Next: Mutable default values, Prev: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.8 Default factory functions .................................. If a *note field(): 1a1f. specifies a 'default_factory', it is called with zero arguments when a default value for the field is needed. For example, to create a new instance of a list, use: mylist: list = field(default_factory=list) If a field is excluded from *note __init__(): 6ac. (using ‘init=False’) and the field also specifies 'default_factory', then the default factory function will always be called from the generated ‘__init__()’ function. This happens because there is no other way to give the field an initial value.  File: python.info, Node: Mutable default values, Next: Descriptor-typed fields, Prev: Default factory functions, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.9 Mutable default values ............................... Python stores default member variable values in class attributes. Consider this example, not using dataclasses: class C: x = [] def add(self, element): self.x.append(element) o1 = C() o2 = C() o1.add(1) o2.add(2) assert o1.x == [1, 2] assert o1.x is o2.x Note that the two instances of class ‘C’ share the same class variable ‘x’, as expected. Using dataclasses, 'if' this code was valid: @dataclass class D: x: list = [] # This code raises ValueError def add(self, element): self.x.append(element) it would generate code similar to: class D: x = [] def __init__(self, x=x): self.x = x def add(self, element): self.x.append(element) assert D().x is D().x This has the same issue as the original example using class ‘C’. That is, two instances of class ‘D’ that do not specify a value for ‘x’ when creating a class instance will share the same copy of ‘x’. Because dataclasses just use normal Python class creation they also share this behavior. There is no general way for Data Classes to detect this condition. Instead, the *note @dataclass: 1cb. decorator will raise a *note ValueError: 204. if it detects an unhashable default parameter. The assumption is that if a value is unhashable, it is mutable. This is a partial solution, but it does protect against many common errors. Using default factory functions is a way to create new instances of mutable types as default values for fields: @dataclass class D: x: list = field(default_factory=list) assert D().x is not D().x Changed in version 3.11: Instead of looking for and disallowing objects of type *note list: 60d, *note dict: 258, or *note set: 5d5, unhashable objects are now not allowed as default values. Unhashability is used to approximate mutability.  File: python.info, Node: Descriptor-typed fields, Prev: Mutable default values, Up: dataclasses — Data Classes 5.30.7.10 Descriptor-typed fields ................................. Fields that are assigned *note descriptor objects: c4f. as their default value have the following special behaviors: * The value for the field passed to the dataclass’s *note __init__(): 6ac. method is passed to the descriptor’s *note __set__(): 1f6a. method rather than overwriting the descriptor object. * Similarly, when getting or setting the field, the descriptor’s *note __get__(): 14b2. or ‘__set__()’ method is called rather than returning or overwriting the descriptor object. * To determine whether a field contains a default value, *note @dataclass: 1cb. will call the descriptor’s ‘__get__()’ method using its class access form: ‘descriptor.__get__(obj=None, type=cls)’. If the descriptor returns a value in this case, it will be used as the field’s default. On the other hand, if the descriptor raises *note AttributeError: 348. in this situation, no default value will be provided for the field. class IntConversionDescriptor: def __init__(self, *, default): self._default = default def __set_name__(self, owner, name): self._name = "_" + name def __get__(self, obj, type): if obj is None: return self._default return getattr(obj, self._name, self._default) def __set__(self, obj, value): setattr(obj, self._name, int(value)) @dataclass class InventoryItem: quantity_on_hand: IntConversionDescriptor = IntConversionDescriptor(default=100) i = InventoryItem() print(i.quantity_on_hand) # 100 i.quantity_on_hand = 2.5 # calls __set__ with 2.5 print(i.quantity_on_hand) # 2 Note that if a field is annotated with a descriptor type, but is not assigned a descriptor object as its default value, the field will act like a normal field.  File: python.info, Node: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts, Next: abc — Abstract Base Classes, Prev: dataclasses — Data Classes, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.8 ‘contextlib’ — Utilities for ‘with’-statement contexts ------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/contextlib.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides utilities for common tasks involving the *note with: 5ce. statement. For more information see also *note Context Manager Types: 1fbf. and *note With Statement Context Managers: 1fbd. * Menu: * Utilities:: * Examples and Recipes: Examples and Recipes<3>. * Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/contextlib.py  File: python.info, Node: Utilities, Next: Examples and Recipes<3>, Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts 5.30.8.1 Utilities .................. Functions and classes provided: -- Class: contextlib.AbstractContextManager An *note abstract base class: 11a8. for classes that implement *note object.__enter__(): 5c4. and *note object.__exit__(): 12f3. A default implementation for *note object.__enter__(): 5c4. is provided which returns ‘self’ while *note object.__exit__(): 12f3. is an abstract method which by default returns ‘None’. See also the definition of *note Context Manager Types: 1fbf. Added in version 3.6. -- Class: contextlib.AbstractAsyncContextManager An *note abstract base class: 11a8. for classes that implement *note object.__aenter__(): 1fd0. and *note object.__aexit__(): 162a. A default implementation for *note object.__aenter__(): 1fd0. is provided which returns ‘self’ while *note object.__aexit__(): 162a. is an abstract method which by default returns ‘None’. See also the definition of *note Asynchronous Context Managers: 5f8. Added in version 3.7. -- Function: @contextlib.contextmanager This function is a *note decorator: 72c. that can be used to define a factory function for *note with: 5ce. statement context managers, without needing to create a class or separate *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods. While many objects natively support use in with statements, sometimes a resource needs to be managed that isn’t a context manager in its own right, and doesn’t implement a ‘close()’ method for use with ‘contextlib.closing’. An abstract example would be the following to ensure correct resource management: from contextlib import contextmanager @contextmanager def managed_resource(*args, **kwds): # Code to acquire resource, e.g.: resource = acquire_resource(*args, **kwds) try: yield resource finally: # Code to release resource, e.g.: release_resource(resource) The function can then be used like this: >>> with managed_resource(timeout=3600) as resource: ... # Resource is released at the end of this block, ... # even if code in the block raises an exception The function being decorated must return a *note generator: 105a.-iterator when called. This iterator must yield exactly one value, which will be bound to the targets in the *note with: 5ce. statement’s ‘as’ clause, if any. At the point where the generator yields, the block nested in the *note with: 5ce. statement is executed. The generator is then resumed after the block is exited. If an unhandled exception occurs in the block, it is reraised inside the generator at the point where the yield occurred. Thus, you can use a *note try: 6e4.…*note except: 18b.…*note finally: 9ca. statement to trap the error (if any), or ensure that some cleanup takes place. If an exception is trapped merely in order to log it or to perform some action (rather than to suppress it entirely), the generator must reraise that exception. Otherwise the generator context manager will indicate to the ‘with’ statement that the exception has been handled, and execution will resume with the statement immediately following the ‘with’ statement. *note contextmanager(): 11f4. uses *note ContextDecorator: 11f3. so the context managers it creates can be used as decorators as well as in *note with: 5ce. statements. When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on each function call (this allows the otherwise “one-shot” context managers created by *note contextmanager(): 11f4. to meet the requirement that context managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators). Changed in version 3.2: Use of *note ContextDecorator: 11f3. -- Function: @contextlib.asynccontextmanager Similar to *note contextmanager(): 11f4, but creates an *note asynchronous context manager: 5f8. This function is a *note decorator: 72c. that can be used to define a factory function for *note async with: 5d1. statement asynchronous context managers, without needing to create a class or separate *note __aenter__(): 1fd0. and *note __aexit__(): 162a. methods. It must be applied to an *note asynchronous generator: 203e. function. A simple example: from contextlib import asynccontextmanager @asynccontextmanager async def get_connection(): conn = await acquire_db_connection() try: yield conn finally: await release_db_connection(conn) async def get_all_users(): async with get_connection() as conn: return conn.query('SELECT ...') Added in version 3.7. Context managers defined with *note asynccontextmanager(): b2a. can be used either as decorators or with *note async with: 5d1. statements: import time from contextlib import asynccontextmanager @asynccontextmanager async def timeit(): now = time.monotonic() try: yield finally: print(f'it took {time.monotonic() - now}s to run') @timeit() async def main(): # ... async code ... When used as a decorator, a new generator instance is implicitly created on each function call. This allows the otherwise “one-shot” context managers created by *note asynccontextmanager(): b2a. to meet the requirement that context managers support multiple invocations in order to be used as decorators. Changed in version 3.10: Async context managers created with *note asynccontextmanager(): b2a. can be used as decorators. -- Function: contextlib.closing (thing) Return a context manager that closes 'thing' upon completion of the block. This is basically equivalent to: from contextlib import contextmanager @contextmanager def closing(thing): try: yield thing finally: thing.close() And lets you write code like this: from contextlib import closing from urllib.request import urlopen with closing(urlopen('https://www.python.org')) as page: for line in page: print(line) without needing to explicitly close ‘page’. Even if an error occurs, ‘page.close()’ will be called when the *note with: 5ce. block is exited. Note: Most types managing resources support the *note context manager: 5d0. protocol, which closes 'thing' on leaving the *note with: 5ce. statement. As such, ‘closing()’ is most useful for third party types that don’t support context managers. This example is purely for illustration purposes, as *note urlopen(): 295. would normally be used in a context manager. -- Function: contextlib.aclosing (thing) Return an async context manager that calls the ‘aclose()’ method of 'thing' upon completion of the block. This is basically equivalent to: from contextlib import asynccontextmanager @asynccontextmanager async def aclosing(thing): try: yield thing finally: await thing.aclose() Significantly, ‘aclosing()’ supports deterministic cleanup of async generators when they happen to exit early by *note break: aa9. or an exception. For example: from contextlib import aclosing async with aclosing(my_generator()) as values: async for value in values: if value == 42: break This pattern ensures that the generator’s async exit code is executed in the same context as its iterations (so that exceptions and context variables work as expected, and the exit code isn’t run after the lifetime of some task it depends on). Added in version 3.10. -- Function: contextlib.nullcontext (enter_result=None) Return a context manager that returns 'enter_result' from ‘__enter__’, but otherwise does nothing. It is intended to be used as a stand-in for an optional context manager, for example: def myfunction(arg, ignore_exceptions=False): if ignore_exceptions: # Use suppress to ignore all exceptions. cm = contextlib.suppress(Exception) else: # Do not ignore any exceptions, cm has no effect. cm = contextlib.nullcontext() with cm: # Do something An example using 'enter_result': def process_file(file_or_path): if isinstance(file_or_path, str): # If string, open file cm = open(file_or_path) else: # Caller is responsible for closing file cm = nullcontext(file_or_path) with cm as file: # Perform processing on the file It can also be used as a stand-in for *note asynchronous context managers: 5f8.: async def send_http(session=None): if not session: # If no http session, create it with aiohttp cm = aiohttp.ClientSession() else: # Caller is responsible for closing the session cm = nullcontext(session) async with cm as session: # Send http requests with session Added in version 3.7. Changed in version 3.10: *note asynchronous context manager: 5d3. support was added. -- Function: contextlib.suppress (*exceptions) Return a context manager that suppresses any of the specified exceptions if they occur in the body of a ‘with’ statement and then resumes execution with the first statement following the end of the ‘with’ statement. As with any other mechanism that completely suppresses exceptions, this context manager should be used only to cover very specific errors where silently continuing with program execution is known to be the right thing to do. For example: from contextlib import suppress with suppress(FileNotFoundError): os.remove('somefile.tmp') with suppress(FileNotFoundError): os.remove('someotherfile.tmp') This code is equivalent to: try: os.remove('somefile.tmp') except FileNotFoundError: pass try: os.remove('someotherfile.tmp') except FileNotFoundError: pass This context manager is *note reentrant: 442b. If the code within the ‘with’ block raises a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261, suppressed exceptions are removed from the group. Any exceptions of the group which are not suppressed are re-raised in a new group which is created using the original group’s *note derive(): 16c0. method. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.12: ‘suppress’ now supports suppressing exceptions raised as part of a *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261. -- Function: contextlib.redirect_stdout (new_target) Context manager for temporarily redirecting *note sys.stdout: ad6. to another file or file-like object. This tool adds flexibility to existing functions or classes whose output is hardwired to stdout. For example, the output of *note help(): 8d6. normally is sent to 'sys.stdout'. You can capture that output in a string by redirecting the output to an *note io.StringIO: f22. object. The replacement stream is returned from the ‘__enter__’ method and so is available as the target of the *note with: 5ce. statement: with redirect_stdout(io.StringIO()) as f: help(pow) s = f.getvalue() To send the output of *note help(): 8d6. to a file on disk, redirect the output to a regular file: with open('help.txt', 'w') as f: with redirect_stdout(f): help(pow) To send the output of *note help(): 8d6. to 'sys.stderr': with redirect_stdout(sys.stderr): help(pow) Note that the global side effect on *note sys.stdout: ad6. means that this context manager is not suitable for use in library code and most threaded applications. It also has no effect on the output of subprocesses. However, it is still a useful approach for many utility scripts. This context manager is *note reentrant: 442b. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: contextlib.redirect_stderr (new_target) Similar to *note redirect_stdout(): de7. but redirecting *note sys.stderr: 939. to another file or file-like object. This context manager is *note reentrant: 442b. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: contextlib.chdir (path) Non parallel-safe context manager to change the current working directory. As this changes a global state, the working directory, it is not suitable for use in most threaded or async contexts. It is also not suitable for most non-linear code execution, like generators, where the program execution is temporarily relinquished – unless explicitly desired, you should not yield when this context manager is active. This is a simple wrapper around *note chdir(): 609, it changes the current working directory upon entering and restores the old one on exit. This context manager is *note reentrant: 442b. Added in version 3.11. -- Class: contextlib.ContextDecorator A base class that enables a context manager to also be used as a decorator. Context managers inheriting from ‘ContextDecorator’ have to implement ‘__enter__’ and ‘__exit__’ as normal. ‘__exit__’ retains its optional exception handling even when used as a decorator. ‘ContextDecorator’ is used by *note contextmanager(): 11f4, so you get this functionality automatically. Example of ‘ContextDecorator’: from contextlib import ContextDecorator class mycontext(ContextDecorator): def __enter__(self): print('Starting') return self def __exit__(self, *exc): print('Finishing') return False The class can then be used like this: >>> @mycontext() ... def function(): ... print('The bit in the middle') ... >>> function() Starting The bit in the middle Finishing >>> with mycontext(): ... print('The bit in the middle') ... Starting The bit in the middle Finishing This change is just syntactic sugar for any construct of the following form: def f(): with cm(): # Do stuff ‘ContextDecorator’ lets you instead write: @cm() def f(): # Do stuff It makes it clear that the ‘cm’ applies to the whole function, rather than just a piece of it (and saving an indentation level is nice, too). Existing context managers that already have a base class can be extended by using ‘ContextDecorator’ as a mixin class: from contextlib import ContextDecorator class mycontext(ContextBaseClass, ContextDecorator): def __enter__(self): return self def __exit__(self, *exc): return False Note: As the decorated function must be able to be called multiple times, the underlying context manager must support use in multiple *note with: 5ce. statements. If this is not the case, then the original construct with the explicit ‘with’ statement inside the function should be used. Added in version 3.2. -- Class: contextlib.AsyncContextDecorator Similar to *note ContextDecorator: 11f3. but only for asynchronous functions. Example of ‘AsyncContextDecorator’: from asyncio import run from contextlib import AsyncContextDecorator class mycontext(AsyncContextDecorator): async def __aenter__(self): print('Starting') return self async def __aexit__(self, *exc): print('Finishing') return False The class can then be used like this: >>> @mycontext() ... async def function(): ... print('The bit in the middle') ... >>> run(function()) Starting The bit in the middle Finishing >>> async def function(): ... async with mycontext(): ... print('The bit in the middle') ... >>> run(function()) Starting The bit in the middle Finishing Added in version 3.10. -- Class: contextlib.ExitStack A context manager that is designed to make it easy to programmatically combine other context managers and cleanup functions, especially those that are optional or otherwise driven by input data. For example, a set of files may easily be handled in a single with statement as follows: with ExitStack() as stack: files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames] # All opened files will automatically be closed at the end of # the with statement, even if attempts to open files later # in the list raise an exception The *note __enter__(): 5c4. method returns the *note ExitStack: b29. instance, and performs no additional operations. Each instance maintains a stack of registered callbacks that are called in reverse order when the instance is closed (either explicitly or implicitly at the end of a *note with: 5ce. statement). Note that callbacks are 'not' invoked implicitly when the context stack instance is garbage collected. This stack model is used so that context managers that acquire their resources in their ‘__init__’ method (such as file objects) can be handled correctly. Since registered callbacks are invoked in the reverse order of registration, this ends up behaving as if multiple nested *note with: 5ce. statements had been used with the registered set of callbacks. This even extends to exception handling - if an inner callback suppresses or replaces an exception, then outer callbacks will be passed arguments based on that updated state. This is a relatively low level API that takes care of the details of correctly unwinding the stack of exit callbacks. It provides a suitable foundation for higher level context managers that manipulate the exit stack in application specific ways. Added in version 3.3. -- Method: enter_context (cm) Enters a new context manager and adds its *note __exit__(): 12f3. method to the callback stack. The return value is the result of the context manager’s own *note __enter__(): 5c4. method. These context managers may suppress exceptions just as they normally would if used directly as part of a *note with: 5ce. statement. Changed in version 3.11: Raises *note TypeError: 534. instead of *note AttributeError: 348. if 'cm' is not a context manager. -- Method: push (exit) Adds a context manager’s *note __exit__(): 12f3. method to the callback stack. As ‘__enter__’ is 'not' invoked, this method can be used to cover part of an *note __enter__(): 5c4. implementation with a context manager’s own *note __exit__(): 12f3. method. If passed an object that is not a context manager, this method assumes it is a callback with the same signature as a context manager’s *note __exit__(): 12f3. method and adds it directly to the callback stack. By returning true values, these callbacks can suppress exceptions the same way context manager *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods can. The passed in object is returned from the function, allowing this method to be used as a function decorator. -- Method: callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds) Accepts an arbitrary callback function and arguments and adds it to the callback stack. Unlike the other methods, callbacks added this way cannot suppress exceptions (as they are never passed the exception details). The passed in callback is returned from the function, allowing this method to be used as a function decorator. -- Method: pop_all () Transfers the callback stack to a fresh *note ExitStack: b29. instance and returns it. No callbacks are invoked by this operation - instead, they will now be invoked when the new stack is closed (either explicitly or implicitly at the end of a *note with: 5ce. statement). For example, a group of files can be opened as an “all or nothing” operation as follows: with ExitStack() as stack: files = [stack.enter_context(open(fname)) for fname in filenames] # Hold onto the close method, but don't call it yet. close_files = stack.pop_all().close # If opening any file fails, all previously opened files will be # closed automatically. If all files are opened successfully, # they will remain open even after the with statement ends. # close_files() can then be invoked explicitly to close them all. -- Method: close () Immediately unwinds the callback stack, invoking callbacks in the reverse order of registration. For any context managers and exit callbacks registered, the arguments passed in will indicate that no exception occurred. -- Class: contextlib.AsyncExitStack An *note asynchronous context manager: 5f8, similar to *note ExitStack: b29, that supports combining both synchronous and asynchronous context managers, as well as having coroutines for cleanup logic. The *note close(): 442e. method is not implemented; *note aclose(): 442f. must be used instead. -- Method: async enter_async_context (cm) Similar to *note ExitStack.enter_context(): 5cf. but expects an asynchronous context manager. Changed in version 3.11: Raises *note TypeError: 534. instead of *note AttributeError: 348. if 'cm' is not an asynchronous context manager. -- Method: push_async_exit (exit) Similar to *note ExitStack.push(): 442c. but expects either an asynchronous context manager or a coroutine function. -- Method: push_async_callback (callback, /, *args, **kwds) Similar to *note ExitStack.callback(): a83. but expects a coroutine function. -- Method: async aclose () Similar to *note ExitStack.close(): 442e. but properly handles awaitables. Continuing the example for *note asynccontextmanager(): b2a.: async with AsyncExitStack() as stack: connections = [await stack.enter_async_context(get_connection()) for i in range(5)] # All opened connections will automatically be released at the end of # the async with statement, even if attempts to open a connection # later in the list raise an exception. Added in version 3.7.  File: python.info, Node: Examples and Recipes<3>, Next: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers, Prev: Utilities, Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts 5.30.8.2 Examples and Recipes ............................. This section describes some examples and recipes for making effective use of the tools provided by *note contextlib: 23. * Menu: * Supporting a variable number of context managers:: * Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods:: * Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation:: * Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables:: * Using a context manager as a function decorator::  File: python.info, Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers, Next: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods, Up: Examples and Recipes<3> 5.30.8.3 Supporting a variable number of context managers ......................................................... The primary use case for *note ExitStack: b29. is the one given in the class documentation: supporting a variable number of context managers and other cleanup operations in a single *note with: 5ce. statement. The variability may come from the number of context managers needed being driven by user input (such as opening a user specified collection of files), or from some of the context managers being optional: with ExitStack() as stack: for resource in resources: stack.enter_context(resource) if need_special_resource(): special = acquire_special_resource() stack.callback(release_special_resource, special) # Perform operations that use the acquired resources As shown, *note ExitStack: b29. also makes it quite easy to use *note with: 5ce. statements to manage arbitrary resources that don’t natively support the context management protocol.  File: python.info, Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods, Next: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation, Prev: Supporting a variable number of context managers, Up: Examples and Recipes<3> 5.30.8.4 Catching exceptions from ‘__enter__’ methods ..................................................... It is occasionally desirable to catch exceptions from an ‘__enter__’ method implementation, 'without' inadvertently catching exceptions from the *note with: 5ce. statement body or the context manager’s ‘__exit__’ method. By using *note ExitStack: b29. the steps in the context management protocol can be separated slightly in order to allow this: stack = ExitStack() try: x = stack.enter_context(cm) except Exception: # handle __enter__ exception else: with stack: # Handle normal case Actually needing to do this is likely to indicate that the underlying API should be providing a direct resource management interface for use with *note try: 6e4./*note except: 18b./*note finally: 9ca. statements, but not all APIs are well designed in that regard. When a context manager is the only resource management API provided, then *note ExitStack: b29. can make it easier to handle various situations that can’t be handled directly in a *note with: 5ce. statement.  File: python.info, Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation, Next: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables, Prev: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods, Up: Examples and Recipes<3> 5.30.8.5 Cleaning up in an ‘__enter__’ implementation ..................................................... As noted in the documentation of *note ExitStack.push(): 442c, this method can be useful in cleaning up an already allocated resource if later steps in the *note __enter__(): 5c4. implementation fail. Here’s an example of doing this for a context manager that accepts resource acquisition and release functions, along with an optional validation function, and maps them to the context management protocol: from contextlib import contextmanager, AbstractContextManager, ExitStack class ResourceManager(AbstractContextManager): def __init__(self, acquire_resource, release_resource, check_resource_ok=None): self.acquire_resource = acquire_resource self.release_resource = release_resource if check_resource_ok is None: def check_resource_ok(resource): return True self.check_resource_ok = check_resource_ok @contextmanager def _cleanup_on_error(self): with ExitStack() as stack: stack.push(self) yield # The validation check passed and didn't raise an exception # Accordingly, we want to keep the resource, and pass it # back to our caller stack.pop_all() def __enter__(self): resource = self.acquire_resource() with self._cleanup_on_error(): if not self.check_resource_ok(resource): msg = "Failed validation for {!r}" raise RuntimeError(msg.format(resource)) return resource def __exit__(self, *exc_details): # We don't need to duplicate any of our resource release logic self.release_resource()  File: python.info, Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables, Next: Using a context manager as a function decorator, Prev: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation, Up: Examples and Recipes<3> 5.30.8.6 Replacing any use of ‘try-finally’ and flag variables .............................................................. A pattern you will sometimes see is a ‘try-finally’ statement with a flag variable to indicate whether or not the body of the ‘finally’ clause should be executed. In its simplest form (that can’t already be handled just by using an ‘except’ clause instead), it looks something like this: cleanup_needed = True try: result = perform_operation() if result: cleanup_needed = False finally: if cleanup_needed: cleanup_resources() As with any ‘try’ statement based code, this can cause problems for development and review, because the setup code and the cleanup code can end up being separated by arbitrarily long sections of code. *note ExitStack: b29. makes it possible to instead register a callback for execution at the end of a ‘with’ statement, and then later decide to skip executing that callback: from contextlib import ExitStack with ExitStack() as stack: stack.callback(cleanup_resources) result = perform_operation() if result: stack.pop_all() This allows the intended cleanup behaviour to be made explicit up front, rather than requiring a separate flag variable. If a particular application uses this pattern a lot, it can be simplified even further by means of a small helper class: from contextlib import ExitStack class Callback(ExitStack): def __init__(self, callback, /, *args, **kwds): super().__init__() self.callback(callback, *args, **kwds) def cancel(self): self.pop_all() with Callback(cleanup_resources) as cb: result = perform_operation() if result: cb.cancel() If the resource cleanup isn’t already neatly bundled into a standalone function, then it is still possible to use the decorator form of *note ExitStack.callback(): a83. to declare the resource cleanup in advance: from contextlib import ExitStack with ExitStack() as stack: @stack.callback def cleanup_resources(): ... result = perform_operation() if result: stack.pop_all() Due to the way the decorator protocol works, a callback function declared this way cannot take any parameters. Instead, any resources to be released must be accessed as closure variables.  File: python.info, Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator, Prev: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables, Up: Examples and Recipes<3> 5.30.8.7 Using a context manager as a function decorator ........................................................ *note ContextDecorator: 11f3. makes it possible to use a context manager in both an ordinary ‘with’ statement and also as a function decorator. For example, it is sometimes useful to wrap functions or groups of statements with a logger that can track the time of entry and time of exit. Rather than writing both a function decorator and a context manager for the task, inheriting from *note ContextDecorator: 11f3. provides both capabilities in a single definition: from contextlib import ContextDecorator import logging logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO) class track_entry_and_exit(ContextDecorator): def __init__(self, name): self.name = name def __enter__(self): logging.info('Entering: %s', self.name) def __exit__(self, exc_type, exc, exc_tb): logging.info('Exiting: %s', self.name) Instances of this class can be used as both a context manager: with track_entry_and_exit('widget loader'): print('Some time consuming activity goes here') load_widget() And also as a function decorator: @track_entry_and_exit('widget loader') def activity(): print('Some time consuming activity goes here') load_widget() Note that there is one additional limitation when using context managers as function decorators: there’s no way to access the return value of *note __enter__(): 5c4. If that value is needed, then it is still necessary to use an explicit ‘with’ statement. See also ........ PEP 343(1) - The “with” statement The specification, background, and examples for the Python *note with: 5ce. statement. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/  File: python.info, Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers, Prev: Examples and Recipes<3>, Up: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts 5.30.8.8 Single use, reusable and reentrant context managers ............................................................ Most context managers are written in a way that means they can only be used effectively in a *note with: 5ce. statement once. These single use context managers must be created afresh each time they’re used - attempting to use them a second time will trigger an exception or otherwise not work correctly. This common limitation means that it is generally advisable to create context managers directly in the header of the *note with: 5ce. statement where they are used (as shown in all of the usage examples above). Files are an example of effectively single use context managers, since the first *note with: 5ce. statement will close the file, preventing any further IO operations using that file object. Context managers created using *note contextmanager(): 11f4. are also single use context managers, and will complain about the underlying generator failing to yield if an attempt is made to use them a second time: >>> from contextlib import contextmanager >>> @contextmanager ... def singleuse(): ... print("Before") ... yield ... print("After") ... >>> cm = singleuse() >>> with cm: ... pass ... Before After >>> with cm: ... pass ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... RuntimeError: generator didn't yield * Menu: * Reentrant context managers:: * Reusable context managers::  File: python.info, Node: Reentrant context managers, Next: Reusable context managers, Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers 5.30.8.9 Reentrant context managers ................................... More sophisticated context managers may be “reentrant”. These context managers can not only be used in multiple *note with: 5ce. statements, but may also be used 'inside' a ‘with’ statement that is already using the same context manager. *note threading.RLock: 2e2. is an example of a reentrant context manager, as are *note suppress(): f21, *note redirect_stdout(): de7, and *note chdir(): 608. Here’s a very simple example of reentrant use: >>> from contextlib import redirect_stdout >>> from io import StringIO >>> stream = StringIO() >>> write_to_stream = redirect_stdout(stream) >>> with write_to_stream: ... print("This is written to the stream rather than stdout") ... with write_to_stream: ... print("This is also written to the stream") ... >>> print("This is written directly to stdout") This is written directly to stdout >>> print(stream.getvalue()) This is written to the stream rather than stdout This is also written to the stream Real world examples of reentrancy are more likely to involve multiple functions calling each other and hence be far more complicated than this example. Note also that being reentrant is 'not' the same thing as being thread safe. *note redirect_stdout(): de7, for example, is definitely not thread safe, as it makes a global modification to the system state by binding *note sys.stdout: ad6. to a different stream.  File: python.info, Node: Reusable context managers, Prev: Reentrant context managers, Up: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers 5.30.8.10 Reusable context managers ................................... Distinct from both single use and reentrant context managers are “reusable” context managers (or, to be completely explicit, “reusable, but not reentrant” context managers, since reentrant context managers are also reusable). These context managers support being used multiple times, but will fail (or otherwise not work correctly) if the specific context manager instance has already been used in a containing with statement. *note threading.Lock: 1677. is an example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager (for a reentrant lock, it is necessary to use *note threading.RLock: 2e2. instead). Another example of a reusable, but not reentrant, context manager is *note ExitStack: b29, as it invokes 'all' currently registered callbacks when leaving any with statement, regardless of where those callbacks were added: >>> from contextlib import ExitStack >>> stack = ExitStack() >>> with stack: ... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from first context") ... print("Leaving first context") ... Leaving first context Callback: from first context >>> with stack: ... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from second context") ... print("Leaving second context") ... Leaving second context Callback: from second context >>> with stack: ... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context") ... with stack: ... stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context") ... print("Leaving inner context") ... print("Leaving outer context") ... Leaving inner context Callback: from inner context Callback: from outer context Leaving outer context As the output from the example shows, reusing a single stack object across multiple with statements works correctly, but attempting to nest them will cause the stack to be cleared at the end of the innermost with statement, which is unlikely to be desirable behaviour. Using separate *note ExitStack: b29. instances instead of reusing a single instance avoids that problem: >>> from contextlib import ExitStack >>> with ExitStack() as outer_stack: ... outer_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from outer context") ... with ExitStack() as inner_stack: ... inner_stack.callback(print, "Callback: from inner context") ... print("Leaving inner context") ... print("Leaving outer context") ... Leaving inner context Callback: from inner context Leaving outer context Callback: from outer context  File: python.info, Node: abc — Abstract Base Classes, Next: atexit — Exit handlers, Prev: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.9 ‘abc’ — Abstract Base Classes ------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/abc.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides the infrastructure for defining *note abstract base classes: 11a8. (ABCs) in Python, as outlined in PEP 3119(2); see the PEP for why this was added to Python. (See also PEP 3141(3) and the *note numbers: 9e. module regarding a type hierarchy for numbers based on ABCs.) The *note collections: 1d. module has some concrete classes that derive from ABCs; these can, of course, be further derived. In addition, the *note collections.abc: 1e. submodule has some ABCs that can be used to test whether a class or instance provides a particular interface, for example, if it is *note hashable: 60c. or if it is a *note mapping: 11ae. This module provides the metaclass *note ABCMeta: f13. for defining ABCs and a helper class *note ABC: f12. to alternatively define ABCs through inheritance: -- Class: abc.ABC A helper class that has *note ABCMeta: f13. as its metaclass. With this class, an abstract base class can be created by simply deriving from ‘ABC’ avoiding sometimes confusing metaclass usage, for example: from abc import ABC class MyABC(ABC): pass Note that the type of ‘ABC’ is still *note ABCMeta: f13, therefore inheriting from ‘ABC’ requires the usual precautions regarding metaclass usage, as multiple inheritance may lead to metaclass conflicts. One may also define an abstract base class by passing the metaclass keyword and using ‘ABCMeta’ directly, for example: from abc import ABCMeta class MyABC(metaclass=ABCMeta): pass Added in version 3.4. -- Class: abc.ABCMeta Metaclass for defining Abstract Base Classes (ABCs). Use this metaclass to create an ABC. An ABC can be subclassed directly, and then acts as a mix-in class. You can also register unrelated concrete classes (even built-in classes) and unrelated ABCs as “virtual subclasses” – these and their descendants will be considered subclasses of the registering ABC by the built-in *note issubclass(): 7bc. function, but the registering ABC won’t show up in their MRO (Method Resolution Order) nor will method implementations defined by the registering ABC be callable (not even via *note super(): 4d7.). (4) Classes created with a metaclass of ‘ABCMeta’ have the following method: -- Method: register (subclass) Register 'subclass' as a “virtual subclass” of this ABC. For example: from abc import ABC class MyABC(ABC): pass MyABC.register(tuple) assert issubclass(tuple, MyABC) assert isinstance((), MyABC) Changed in version 3.3: Returns the registered subclass, to allow usage as a class decorator. Changed in version 3.4: To detect calls to ‘register()’, you can use the *note get_cache_token(): f11. function. You can also override this method in an abstract base class: -- Method: __subclasshook__ (subclass) (Must be defined as a class method.) Check whether 'subclass' is considered a subclass of this ABC. This means that you can customize the behavior of *note issubclass(): 7bc. further without the need to call *note register(): 1082. on every class you want to consider a subclass of the ABC. (This class method is called from the *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f7d. method of the ABC.) This method should return ‘True’, ‘False’ or *note NotImplemented: 7cd. If it returns ‘True’, the 'subclass' is considered a subclass of this ABC. If it returns ‘False’, the 'subclass' is not considered a subclass of this ABC, even if it would normally be one. If it returns ‘NotImplemented’, the subclass check is continued with the usual mechanism. For a demonstration of these concepts, look at this example ABC definition: class Foo: def __getitem__(self, index): ... def __len__(self): ... def get_iterator(self): return iter(self) class MyIterable(ABC): @abstractmethod def __iter__(self): while False: yield None def get_iterator(self): return self.__iter__() @classmethod def __subclasshook__(cls, C): if cls is MyIterable: if any("__iter__" in B.__dict__ for B in C.__mro__): return True return NotImplemented MyIterable.register(Foo) The ABC ‘MyIterable’ defines the standard iterable method, *note __iter__(): 1f5c, as an abstract method. The implementation given here can still be called from subclasses. The ‘get_iterator()’ method is also part of the ‘MyIterable’ abstract base class, but it does not have to be overridden in non-abstract derived classes. The *note __subclasshook__(): 2531. class method defined here says that any class that has an *note __iter__(): 1f5c. method in its *note __dict__: 558. (or in that of one of its base classes, accessed via the *note __mro__: 1f29. list) is considered a ‘MyIterable’ too. Finally, the last line makes ‘Foo’ a virtual subclass of ‘MyIterable’, even though it does not define an *note __iter__(): 1f5c. method (it uses the old-style iterable protocol, defined in terms of *note __len__(): 1f63. and *note __getitem__(): 285.). Note that this will not make ‘get_iterator’ available as a method of ‘Foo’, so it is provided separately. The ‘abc’ module also provides the following decorator: -- Function: @abc.abstractmethod A decorator indicating abstract methods. Using this decorator requires that the class’s metaclass is *note ABCMeta: f13. or is derived from it. A class that has a metaclass derived from ‘ABCMeta’ cannot be instantiated unless all of its abstract methods and properties are overridden. The abstract methods can be called using any of the normal ‘super’ call mechanisms. ‘abstractmethod()’ may be used to declare abstract methods for properties and descriptors. Dynamically adding abstract methods to a class, or attempting to modify the abstraction status of a method or class once it is created, are only supported using the *note update_abstractmethods(): 443d. function. The ‘abstractmethod()’ only affects subclasses derived using regular inheritance; “virtual subclasses” registered with the ABC’s *note register(): 1082. method are not affected. When ‘abstractmethod()’ is applied in combination with other method descriptors, it should be applied as the innermost decorator, as shown in the following usage examples: class C(ABC): @abstractmethod def my_abstract_method(self, arg1): ... @classmethod @abstractmethod def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg2): ... @staticmethod @abstractmethod def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg3): ... @property @abstractmethod def my_abstract_property(self): ... @my_abstract_property.setter @abstractmethod def my_abstract_property(self, val): ... @abstractmethod def _get_x(self): ... @abstractmethod def _set_x(self, val): ... x = property(_get_x, _set_x) In order to correctly interoperate with the abstract base class machinery, the descriptor must identify itself as abstract using ‘__isabstractmethod__’. In general, this attribute should be ‘True’ if any of the methods used to compose the descriptor are abstract. For example, Python’s built-in *note property: 194. does the equivalent of: class Descriptor: ... @property def __isabstractmethod__(self): return any(getattr(f, '__isabstractmethod__', False) for f in (self._fget, self._fset, self._fdel)) Note: Unlike Java abstract methods, these abstract methods may have an implementation. This implementation can be called via the *note super(): 4d7. mechanism from the class that overrides it. This could be useful as an end-point for a super-call in a framework that uses cooperative multiple-inheritance. The ‘abc’ module also supports the following legacy decorators: -- Function: @abc.abstractclassmethod Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.3: It is now possible to use *note classmethod: 166. with *note abstractmethod(): 107f, making this decorator redundant. A subclass of the built-in *note classmethod(): 166, indicating an abstract classmethod. Otherwise it is similar to *note abstractmethod(): 107f. This special case is deprecated, as the *note classmethod(): 166. decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract method: class C(ABC): @classmethod @abstractmethod def my_abstract_classmethod(cls, arg): ... -- Function: @abc.abstractstaticmethod Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.3: It is now possible to use *note staticmethod: 412. with *note abstractmethod(): 107f, making this decorator redundant. A subclass of the built-in *note staticmethod(): 412, indicating an abstract staticmethod. Otherwise it is similar to *note abstractmethod(): 107f. This special case is deprecated, as the *note staticmethod(): 412. decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract method: class C(ABC): @staticmethod @abstractmethod def my_abstract_staticmethod(arg): ... -- Function: @abc.abstractproperty Deprecated since version 3.3: It is now possible to use *note property: 194, *note property.getter(): 165a, *note property.setter(): 165b. and *note property.deleter(): 165c. with *note abstractmethod(): 107f, making this decorator redundant. A subclass of the built-in *note property(): 194, indicating an abstract property. This special case is deprecated, as the *note property(): 194. decorator is now correctly identified as abstract when applied to an abstract method: class C(ABC): @property @abstractmethod def my_abstract_property(self): ... The above example defines a read-only property; you can also define a read-write abstract property by appropriately marking one or more of the underlying methods as abstract: class C(ABC): @property def x(self): ... @x.setter @abstractmethod def x(self, val): ... If only some components are abstract, only those components need to be updated to create a concrete property in a subclass: class D(C): @C.x.setter def x(self, val): ... The ‘abc’ module also provides the following functions: -- Function: abc.get_cache_token () Returns the current abstract base class cache token. The token is an opaque object (that supports equality testing) identifying the current version of the abstract base class cache for virtual subclasses. The token changes with every call to *note ABCMeta.register(): 1082. on any ABC. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: abc.update_abstractmethods (cls) A function to recalculate an abstract class’s abstraction status. This function should be called if a class’s abstract methods have been implemented or changed after it was created. Usually, this function should be called from within a class decorator. Returns 'cls', to allow usage as a class decorator. If 'cls' is not an instance of *note ABCMeta: f13, does nothing. Note: This function assumes that 'cls'’s superclasses are already updated. It does not update any subclasses. Added in version 3.10. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/abc.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3141/ (4) C++ programmers should note that Python’s virtual base class concept is not the same as C++’s.  File: python.info, Node: atexit — Exit handlers, Next: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback, Prev: abc — Abstract Base Classes, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.10 ‘atexit’ — Exit handlers -------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ The *note atexit: c. module defines functions to register and unregister cleanup functions. Functions thus registered are automatically executed upon normal interpreter termination. *note atexit: c. runs these functions in the 'reverse' order in which they were registered; if you register ‘A’, ‘B’, and ‘C’, at interpreter termination time they will be run in the order ‘C’, ‘B’, ‘A’. 'Note:' The functions registered via this module are not called when the program is killed by a signal not handled by Python, when a Python fatal internal error is detected, or when *note os._exit(): 2298. is called. 'Note:' The effect of registering or unregistering functions from within a cleanup function is undefined. Changed in version 3.7: When used with C-API subinterpreters, registered functions are local to the interpreter they were registered in. -- Function: atexit.register (func, *args, **kwargs) Register 'func' as a function to be executed at termination. Any optional arguments that are to be passed to 'func' must be passed as arguments to *note register(): 87b. It is possible to register the same function and arguments more than once. At normal program termination (for instance, if *note sys.exit(): 133c. is called or the main module’s execution completes), all functions registered are called in last in, first out order. The assumption is that lower level modules will normally be imported before higher level modules and thus must be cleaned up later. If an exception is raised during execution of the exit handlers, a traceback is printed (unless *note SystemExit: d40. is raised) and the exception information is saved. After all exit handlers have had a chance to run, the last exception to be raised is re-raised. This function returns 'func', which makes it possible to use it as a decorator. Warning: Starting new threads or calling *note os.fork(): 197. from a registered function can lead to race condition between the main Python runtime thread freeing thread states while internal *note threading: ed. routines or the new process try to use that state. This can lead to crashes rather than clean shutdown. Changed in version 3.12: Attempts to start a new thread or *note os.fork(): 197. a new process in a registered function now leads to *note RuntimeError: 195. -- Function: atexit.unregister (func) Remove 'func' from the list of functions to be run at interpreter shutdown. *note unregister(): 4440. silently does nothing if 'func' was not previously registered. If 'func' has been registered more than once, every occurrence of that function in the *note atexit: c. call stack will be removed. Equality comparisons (‘==’) are used internally during unregistration, so function references do not need to have matching identities. See also ........ Module *note readline: ba. Useful example of *note atexit: c. to read and write *note readline: ba. history files. * Menu: * atexit Example::  File: python.info, Node: atexit Example, Up: atexit — Exit handlers 5.30.10.1 ‘atexit’ Example .......................... The following simple example demonstrates how a module can initialize a counter from a file when it is imported and save the counter’s updated value automatically when the program terminates without relying on the application making an explicit call into this module at termination. try: with open('counterfile') as infile: _count = int(infile.read()) except FileNotFoundError: _count = 0 def incrcounter(n): global _count _count = _count + n def savecounter(): with open('counterfile', 'w') as outfile: outfile.write('%d' % _count) import atexit atexit.register(savecounter) Positional and keyword arguments may also be passed to *note register(): 87b. to be passed along to the registered function when it is called: def goodbye(name, adjective): print('Goodbye %s, it was %s to meet you.' % (name, adjective)) import atexit atexit.register(goodbye, 'Donny', 'nice') # or: atexit.register(goodbye, adjective='nice', name='Donny') Usage as a *note decorator: 72c.: import atexit @atexit.register def goodbye(): print('You are now leaving the Python sector.') This only works with functions that can be called without arguments.  File: python.info, Node: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback, Next: __future__ — Future statement definitions, Prev: atexit — Exit handlers, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.11 ‘traceback’ — Print or retrieve a stack traceback --------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/traceback.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides a standard interface to extract, format and print stack traces of Python programs. It is more flexible than the interpreter’s default traceback display, and therefore makes it possible to configure certain aspects of the output. Finally, it contains a utility for capturing enough information about an exception to print it later, without the need to save a reference to the actual exception. Since exceptions can be the roots of large objects graph, this utility can significantly improve memory management. The module uses *note traceback objects: af4. — these are objects of type *note types.TracebackType: af2, which are assigned to the *note __traceback__: 12b9. field of *note BaseException: 5b7. instances. See also ........ Module *note faulthandler: 58. Used to dump Python tracebacks explicitly, on a fault, after a timeout, or on a user signal. Module *note pdb: a5. Interactive source code debugger for Python programs. The module’s API can be divided into two parts: * Module-level functions offering basic functionality, which are useful for interactive inspection of exceptions and tracebacks. * *note TracebackException: 25e. class and its helper classes *note StackSummary: e7e. and *note FrameSummary: e7f. These offer both more flexibility in the output generated and the ability to store the information necessary for later formatting without holding references to actual exception and traceback objects. * Menu: * Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<2>. * TracebackException Objects:: * StackSummary Objects:: * FrameSummary Objects:: * Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions:: * Examples of Using TracebackException:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/traceback.py  File: python.info, Node: Module-Level Functions<2>, Next: TracebackException Objects, Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 5.30.11.1 Module-Level Functions ................................ -- Function: traceback.print_tb (tb, limit=None, file=None) Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries from *note traceback object: af4. 'tb' (starting from the caller’s frame) if 'limit' is positive. Otherwise, print the last ‘abs(limit)’ entries. If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all entries are printed. If 'file' is omitted or ‘None’, the output goes to *note sys.stderr: 939.; otherwise it should be an open *note file: 11b5. or *note file-like object: 258f. to receive the output. Note: The meaning of the 'limit' parameter is different than the meaning of *note sys.tracebacklimit: 15db. A negative 'limit' value corresponds to a positive value of ‘sys.tracebacklimit’, whereas the behaviour of a positive 'limit' value cannot be achieved with ‘sys.tracebacklimit’. Changed in version 3.5: Added negative 'limit' support. -- Function: traceback.print_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None, file=None, chain=True) Print exception information and stack trace entries from *note traceback object: af4. 'tb' to 'file'. This differs from *note print_tb(): e80. in the following ways: * if 'tb' is not ‘None’, it prints a header ‘Traceback (most recent call last):’ * it prints the exception type and 'value' after the stack trace * if 'type(value)' is *note SyntaxError: 18d. and 'value' has the appropriate format, it prints the line where the syntax error occurred with a caret indicating the approximate position of the error. Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value' and 'tb', an exception object can be passed as the first argument. If 'value' and 'tb' are provided, the first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards compatibility. The optional 'limit' argument has the same meaning as for *note print_tb(): e80. If 'chain' is true (the default), then chained exceptions (the *note __cause__: 12bb. or *note __context__: 12ba. attributes of the exception) will be printed as well, like the interpreter itself does when printing an unhandled exception. Changed in version 3.5: The 'etype' argument is ignored and inferred from the type of 'value'. Changed in version 3.10: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to 'exc' and is now positional-only. -- Function: traceback.print_exc (limit=None, file=None, chain=True) This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.exception(), limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain)’. -- Function: traceback.print_last (limit=None, file=None, chain=True) This is a shorthand for ‘print_exception(sys.last_exc, limit=limit, file=file, chain=chain)’. In general it will work only after an exception has reached an interactive prompt (see *note sys.last_exc: 4ba.). -- Function: traceback.print_stack (f=None, limit=None, file=None) Print up to 'limit' stack trace entries (starting from the invocation point) if 'limit' is positive. Otherwise, print the last ‘abs(limit)’ entries. If 'limit' is omitted or ‘None’, all entries are printed. The optional 'f' argument can be used to specify an alternate *note stack frame: 6db. to start. The optional 'file' argument has the same meaning as for *note print_tb(): e80. Changed in version 3.5: Added negative 'limit' support. -- Function: traceback.extract_tb (tb, limit=None) Return a *note StackSummary: e7e. object representing a list of “pre-processed” stack trace entries extracted from the *note traceback object: af4. 'tb'. It is useful for alternate formatting of stack traces. The optional 'limit' argument has the same meaning as for *note print_tb(): e80. A “pre-processed” stack trace entry is a *note FrameSummary: e7f. object containing attributes *note filename: 4448, *note lineno: 4449, *note name: 444a, and *note line: 444b. representing the information that is usually printed for a stack trace. -- Function: traceback.extract_stack (f=None, limit=None) Extract the raw traceback from the current *note stack frame: 6db. The return value has the same format as for *note extract_tb(): 4447. The optional 'f' and 'limit' arguments have the same meaning as for *note print_stack(): e81. -- Function: traceback.print_list (extracted_list, file=None) Print the list of tuples as returned by *note extract_tb(): 4447. or *note extract_stack(): 444c. as a formatted stack trace to the given file. If 'file' is ‘None’, the output is written to *note sys.stderr: 939. -- Function: traceback.format_list (extracted_list) Given a list of tuples or *note FrameSummary: e7f. objects as returned by *note extract_tb(): 4447. or *note extract_stack(): 444c, return a list of strings ready for printing. Each string in the resulting list corresponds to the item with the same index in the argument list. Each string ends in a newline; the strings may contain internal newlines as well, for those items whose source text line is not ‘None’. -- Function: traceback.format_exception_only (exc, /[, value], *, show_group=False) Format the exception part of a traceback using an exception value such as given by *note sys.last_value: 4bc. The return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline. The list contains the exception’s message, which is normally a single string; however, for *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions, it contains several lines that (when printed) display detailed information about where the syntax error occurred. Following the message, the list contains the exception’s *note notes: 2282. Since Python 3.10, instead of passing 'value', an exception object can be passed as the first argument. If 'value' is provided, the first argument is ignored in order to provide backwards compatibility. When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance of *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261, the nested exceptions are included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting depth. Changed in version 3.10: The 'etype' parameter has been renamed to 'exc' and is now positional-only. Changed in version 3.11: The returned list now includes any *note notes: 2282. attached to the exception. Changed in version 3.13: 'show_group' parameter was added. -- Function: traceback.format_exception (exc, /[, value, tb], limit=None, chain=True) Format a stack trace and the exception information. The arguments have the same meaning as the corresponding arguments to *note print_exception(): 84b. The return value is a list of strings, each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines. When these lines are concatenated and printed, exactly the same text is printed as does *note print_exception(): 84b. Changed in version 3.5: The 'etype' argument is ignored and inferred from the type of 'value'. Changed in version 3.10: This function’s behavior and signature were modified to match *note print_exception(): 84b. -- Function: traceback.format_exc (limit=None, chain=True) This is like ‘print_exc(limit)’ but returns a string instead of printing to a file. -- Function: traceback.format_tb (tb, limit=None) A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_tb(tb, limit))’. -- Function: traceback.format_stack (f=None, limit=None) A shorthand for ‘format_list(extract_stack(f, limit))’. -- Function: traceback.clear_frames (tb) Clears the local variables of all the stack frames in a *note traceback: af4. 'tb' by calling the *note clear(): 282. method of each *note frame object: 6db. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: traceback.walk_stack (f) Walk a stack following *note f.f_back: 787. from the given frame, yielding the frame and line number for each frame. If 'f' is ‘None’, the current stack is used. This helper is used with *note StackSummary.extract(): 4451. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: traceback.walk_tb (tb) Walk a traceback following *note tb_next: af3. yielding the frame and line number for each frame. This helper is used with *note StackSummary.extract(): 4451. Added in version 3.5.  File: python.info, Node: TracebackException Objects, Next: StackSummary Objects, Prev: Module-Level Functions<2>, Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 5.30.11.2 ‘TracebackException’ Objects ...................................... Added in version 3.5. ‘TracebackException’ objects are created from actual exceptions to capture data for later printing. They offer a more lightweight method of storing this information by avoiding holding references to *note traceback: af4. and *note frame: 6db. objects. In addition, they expose more options to configure the output compared to the module-level functions described above. -- Class: traceback.TracebackException (exc_type, exc_value, exc_traceback, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False, compact=False, max_group_width=15, max_group_depth=10) Capture an exception for later rendering. The meaning of 'limit', 'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note StackSummary: e7e. class. If 'compact' is true, only data that is required by ‘TracebackException’’s *note format(): 61b. method is saved in the class attributes. In particular, the *note __context__: 4453. field is calculated only if *note __cause__: 4454. is ‘None’ and *note __suppress_context__: 4455. is false. Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback. 'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' control the formatting of exception groups (see *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261.). The depth refers to the nesting level of the group, and the width refers to the size of a single exception group’s exceptions array. The formatted output is truncated when either limit is exceeded. Changed in version 3.10: Added the 'compact' parameter. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'max_group_width' and 'max_group_depth' parameters. -- Attribute: __cause__ A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __cause__: 12bb. -- Attribute: __context__ A ‘TracebackException’ of the original *note __context__: 12ba. -- Attribute: exceptions If ‘self’ represents an *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6, this field holds a list of ‘TracebackException’ instances representing the nested exceptions. Otherwise it is ‘None’. Added in version 3.11. -- Attribute: __suppress_context__ The *note __suppress_context__: 20b8. value from the original exception. -- Attribute: __notes__ The *note __notes__: 2282. value from the original exception, or ‘None’ if the exception does not have any notes. If it is not ‘None’ is it formatted in the traceback after the exception string. Added in version 3.11. -- Attribute: stack A *note StackSummary: e7e. representing the traceback. -- Attribute: exc_type The class of the original traceback. Deprecated since version 3.13. -- Attribute: exc_type_str String display of the class of the original exception. Added in version 3.13. -- Attribute: filename For syntax errors - the file name where the error occurred. -- Attribute: lineno For syntax errors - the line number where the error occurred. -- Attribute: end_lineno For syntax errors - the end line number where the error occurred. Can be ‘None’ if not present. Added in version 3.10. -- Attribute: text For syntax errors - the text where the error occurred. -- Attribute: offset For syntax errors - the offset into the text where the error occurred. -- Attribute: end_offset For syntax errors - the end offset into the text where the error occurred. Can be ‘None’ if not present. Added in version 3.10. -- Attribute: msg For syntax errors - the compiler error message. -- Method: classmethod from_exception (exc, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False) Capture an exception for later rendering. 'limit', 'lookup_lines' and 'capture_locals' are as for the *note StackSummary: e7e. class. Note that when locals are captured, they are also shown in the traceback. -- Method: print (*, file=None, chain=True) Print to 'file' (default ‘sys.stderr’) the exception information returned by *note format(): 61b. Added in version 3.11. -- Method: format (*, chain=True) Format the exception. If 'chain' is not ‘True’, *note __cause__: 4454. and *note __context__: 4453. will not be formatted. The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline and some containing internal newlines. *note print_exception(): 84b. is a wrapper around this method which just prints the lines to a file. -- Method: format_exception_only (*, show_group=False) Format the exception part of the traceback. The return value is a generator of strings, each ending in a newline. When 'show_group' is ‘False’, the generator emits the exception’s message followed by its notes (if it has any). The exception message is normally a single string; however, for *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions, it consists of several lines that (when printed) display detailed information about where the syntax error occurred. When 'show_group' is ‘True’, and the exception is an instance of *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261, the nested exceptions are included as well, recursively, with indentation relative to their nesting depth. Changed in version 3.11: The exception’s *note notes: 2282. are now included in the output. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'show_group' parameter.  File: python.info, Node: StackSummary Objects, Next: FrameSummary Objects, Prev: TracebackException Objects, Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 5.30.11.3 ‘StackSummary’ Objects ................................ Added in version 3.5. ‘StackSummary’ objects represent a call stack ready for formatting. -- Class: traceback.StackSummary -- Method: classmethod extract (frame_gen, *, limit=None, lookup_lines=True, capture_locals=False) Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a frame generator (such as is returned by *note walk_stack(): e7c. or *note walk_tb(): e7d.). If 'limit' is supplied, only this many frames are taken from 'frame_gen'. If 'lookup_lines' is ‘False’, the returned *note FrameSummary: e7f. objects will not have read their lines in yet, making the cost of creating the ‘StackSummary’ cheaper (which may be valuable if it may not actually get formatted). If 'capture_locals' is ‘True’ the local variables in each ‘FrameSummary’ are captured as object representations. Changed in version 3.12: Exceptions raised from *note repr(): 7f9. on a local variable (when 'capture_locals' is ‘True’) are no longer propagated to the caller. -- Method: classmethod from_list (a_list) Construct a ‘StackSummary’ object from a supplied list of *note FrameSummary: e7f. objects or old-style list of tuples. Each tuple should be a 4-tuple with 'filename', 'lineno', 'name', 'line' as the elements. -- Method: format () Returns a list of strings ready for printing. Each string in the resulting list corresponds to a single *note frame: 6db. from the stack. Each string ends in a newline; the strings may contain internal newlines as well, for those items with source text lines. For long sequences of the same frame and line, the first few repetitions are shown, followed by a summary line stating the exact number of further repetitions. Changed in version 3.6: Long sequences of repeated frames are now abbreviated. -- Method: format_frame_summary (frame_summary) Returns a string for printing one of the *note frames: 6db. involved in the stack. This method is called for each *note FrameSummary: e7f. object to be printed by *note StackSummary.format(): 4464. If it returns ‘None’, the frame is omitted from the output. Added in version 3.11.  File: python.info, Node: FrameSummary Objects, Next: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions, Prev: StackSummary Objects, Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 5.30.11.4 ‘FrameSummary’ Objects ................................ Added in version 3.5. A ‘FrameSummary’ object represents a single *note frame: 6db. in a *note traceback: af4. -- Class: traceback.FrameSummary (filename, lineno, name, *, lookup_line=True, locals=None, line=None, end_lineno=None, colno=None, end_colno=None) Represents a single *note frame: 6db. in the *note traceback: af4. or stack that is being formatted or printed. It may optionally have a stringified version of the frame’s locals included in it. If 'lookup_line' is ‘False’, the source code is not looked up until the ‘FrameSummary’ has the *note line: 444b. attribute accessed (which also happens when casting it to a *note tuple: 36b.). *note line: 444b. may be directly provided, and will prevent line lookups happening at all. 'locals' is an optional local variable mapping, and if supplied the variable representations are stored in the summary for later display. ‘FrameSummary’ instances have the following attributes: -- Attribute: filename The filename of the source code for this frame. Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_filename: 1359. on a *note frame object: 6db. 'f'. -- Attribute: lineno The line number of the source code for this frame. -- Attribute: name Equivalent to accessing *note f.f_code.co_name: 1f36. on a *note frame object: 6db. 'f'. -- Attribute: line A string representing the source code for this frame, with leading and trailing whitespace stripped. If the source is not available, it is ‘None’. -- Attribute: end_lineno The last line number of the source code for this frame. By default, it is set to ‘lineno’ and indexation starts from 1. Changed in version 3.13: The default value changed from ‘None’ to ‘lineno’. -- Attribute: colno The column number of the source code for this frame. By default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0. -- Attribute: end_colno The last column number of the source code for this frame. By default, it is ‘None’ and indexation starts from 0.  File: python.info, Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions, Next: Examples of Using TracebackException, Prev: FrameSummary Objects, Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 5.30.11.5 Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions ...................................................... This simple example implements a basic read-eval-print loop, similar to (but less useful than) the standard Python interactive interpreter loop. For a more complete implementation of the interpreter loop, refer to the *note code: 1a. module. import sys, traceback def run_user_code(envdir): source = input(">>> ") try: exec(source, envdir) except Exception: print("Exception in user code:") print("-"*60) traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stdout) print("-"*60) envdir = {} while True: run_user_code(envdir) The following example demonstrates the different ways to print and format the exception and traceback: import sys, traceback def lumberjack(): bright_side_of_life() def bright_side_of_life(): return tuple()[0] try: lumberjack() except IndexError as exc: print("*** print_tb:") traceback.print_tb(exc.__traceback__, limit=1, file=sys.stdout) print("*** print_exception:") traceback.print_exception(exc, limit=2, file=sys.stdout) print("*** print_exc:") traceback.print_exc(limit=2, file=sys.stdout) print("*** format_exc, first and last line:") formatted_lines = traceback.format_exc().splitlines() print(formatted_lines[0]) print(formatted_lines[-1]) print("*** format_exception:") print(repr(traceback.format_exception(exc))) print("*** extract_tb:") print(repr(traceback.extract_tb(exc.__traceback__))) print("*** format_tb:") print(repr(traceback.format_tb(exc.__traceback__))) print("*** tb_lineno:", exc.__traceback__.tb_lineno) The output for the example would look similar to this: *** print_tb: File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module> lumberjack() ~~~~~~~~~~^^ *** print_exception: Traceback (most recent call last): File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module> lumberjack() ~~~~~~~~~~^^ File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack bright_side_of_life() ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^ IndexError: tuple index out of range *** print_exc: Traceback (most recent call last): File "<doctest...>", line 10, in <module> lumberjack() ~~~~~~~~~~^^ File "<doctest...>", line 4, in lumberjack bright_side_of_life() ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^ IndexError: tuple index out of range *** format_exc, first and last line: Traceback (most recent call last): IndexError: tuple index out of range *** format_exception: ['Traceback (most recent call last):\n', ' File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n lumberjack()\n ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n', ' File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n bright_side_of_life()\n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n', ' File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n return tuple()[0]\n ~~~~~~~^^^\n', 'IndexError: tuple index out of range\n'] *** extract_tb: [<FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 10 in <module>>, <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 4 in lumberjack>, <FrameSummary file <doctest...>, line 7 in bright_side_of_life>] *** format_tb: [' File "<doctest default[0]>", line 10, in <module>\n lumberjack()\n ~~~~~~~~~~^^\n', ' File "<doctest default[0]>", line 4, in lumberjack\n bright_side_of_life()\n ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^\n', ' File "<doctest default[0]>", line 7, in bright_side_of_life\n return tuple()[0]\n ~~~~~~~^^^\n'] *** tb_lineno: 10 The following example shows the different ways to print and format the stack: >>> import traceback >>> def another_function(): ... lumberstack() ... >>> def lumberstack(): ... traceback.print_stack() ... print(repr(traceback.extract_stack())) ... print(repr(traceback.format_stack())) ... >>> another_function() File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module> another_function() File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function lumberstack() File "<doctest>", line 6, in lumberstack traceback.print_stack() [('<doctest>', 10, '<module>', 'another_function()'), ('<doctest>', 3, 'another_function', 'lumberstack()'), ('<doctest>', 7, 'lumberstack', 'print(repr(traceback.extract_stack()))')] [' File "<doctest>", line 10, in <module>\n another_function()\n', ' File "<doctest>", line 3, in another_function\n lumberstack()\n', ' File "<doctest>", line 8, in lumberstack\n print(repr(traceback.format_stack()))\n'] This last example demonstrates the final few formatting functions: >>> import traceback >>> traceback.format_list([('spam.py', 3, '<module>', 'spam.eggs()'), ... ('eggs.py', 42, 'eggs', 'return "bacon"')]) [' File "spam.py", line 3, in <module>\n spam.eggs()\n', ' File "eggs.py", line 42, in eggs\n return "bacon"\n'] >>> an_error = IndexError('tuple index out of range') >>> traceback.format_exception_only(an_error) ['IndexError: tuple index out of range\n']  File: python.info, Node: Examples of Using TracebackException, Prev: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions, Up: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback 5.30.11.6 Examples of Using ‘TracebackException’ ................................................ With the helper class, we have more options: >>> import sys >>> from traceback import TracebackException >>> >>> def lumberjack(): ... bright_side_of_life() ... >>> def bright_side_of_life(): ... t = "bright", "side", "of", "life" ... return t[5] ... >>> try: ... lumberjack() ... except IndexError as e: ... exc = e ... >>> try: ... try: ... lumberjack() ... except: ... 1/0 ... except Exception as e: ... chained_exc = e ... >>> # limit works as with the module-level functions >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2).print() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack bright_side_of_life() ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^ File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life return t[5] ~^^^ IndexError: tuple index out of range >>> # capture_locals adds local variables in frames >>> TracebackException.from_exception(exc, limit=-2, capture_locals=True).print() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<python-input-1>", line 6, in lumberjack bright_side_of_life() ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^ File "<python-input-1>", line 10, in bright_side_of_life return t[5] ~^^^ t = ("bright", "side", "of", "life") IndexError: tuple index out of range >>> # The *chain* kwarg to print() controls whether chained >>> # exceptions are displayed >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<python-input-19>", line 4, in <module> lumberjack() ~~~~~~~~~~^^ File "<python-input-8>", line 7, in lumberjack bright_side_of_life() ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~^^ File "<python-input-8>", line 11, in bright_side_of_life return t[5] ~^^^ IndexError: tuple index out of range During handling of the above exception, another exception occurred: Traceback (most recent call last): File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module> 1/0 ~^~ ZeroDivisionError: division by zero >>> TracebackException.from_exception(chained_exc).print(chain=False) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<python-input-19>", line 6, in <module> 1/0 ~^~ ZeroDivisionError: division by zero  File: python.info, Node: __future__ — Future statement definitions, Next: gc — Garbage Collector interface, Prev: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.12 ‘__future__’ — Future statement definitions --------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/__future__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ Imports of the form ‘from __future__ import feature’ are called *note future statements: 189. These are special-cased by the Python compiler to allow the use of new Python features in modules containing the future statement before the release in which the feature becomes standard. While these future statements are given additional special meaning by the Python compiler, they are still executed like any other import statement and the *note __future__: 0. exists and is handled by the import system the same way any other Python module would be. This design serves three purposes: * To avoid confusing existing tools that analyze import statements and expect to find the modules they’re importing. * To document when incompatible changes were introduced, and when they will be — or were — made mandatory. This is a form of executable documentation, and can be inspected programmatically via importing *note __future__: 0. and examining its contents. * To ensure that *note future statements: 189. run under releases prior to Python 2.1 at least yield runtime exceptions (the import of *note __future__: 0. will fail, because there was no module of that name prior to 2.1). * Menu: * Module Contents: Module Contents<5>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/__future__.py  File: python.info, Node: Module Contents<5>, Up: __future__ — Future statement definitions 5.30.12.1 Module Contents ......................... No feature description will ever be deleted from *note __future__: 0. Since its introduction in Python 2.1 the following features have found their way into the language using this mechanism: feature optional in mandatory in effect ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- Data: 2.1.0b1 2.2 PEP 227(1): 'Statically __future__.nested_scopes Nested Scopes' -- Data: 2.2.0a1 2.3 PEP 255(2): 'Simple __future__.generators Generators' -- Data: 2.2.0a2 3.0 PEP 238(3): 'Changing the __future__.division Division Operator' -- Data: 2.5.0a1 3.0 PEP 328(4): 'Imports: __future__.absolute_import Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative' -- Data: 2.5.0a1 2.6 PEP 343(5): 'The “with” __future__.with_statement Statement' -- Data: 2.6.0a2 3.0 PEP 3105(6): 'Make print a __future__.print_function function' -- Data: 2.6.0a2 3.0 PEP 3112(7): 'Bytes __future__.unicode_literals literals in Python 3000' -- Data: 3.5.0b1 3.7 PEP 479(8): 'StopIteration __future__.generator_stop handling inside generators' -- Data: 3.7.0b1 Never (9) PEP 563(10): 'Postponed __future__.annotations evaluation of annotations' -- Class: __future__._Feature Each statement in ‘__future__.py’ is of the form: FeatureName = _Feature(OptionalRelease, MandatoryRelease, CompilerFlag) where, normally, 'OptionalRelease' is less than 'MandatoryRelease', and both are 5-tuples of the same form as *note sys.version_info: 69c.: (PY_MAJOR_VERSION, # the 2 in 2.1.0a3; an int PY_MINOR_VERSION, # the 1; an int PY_MICRO_VERSION, # the 0; an int PY_RELEASE_LEVEL, # "alpha", "beta", "candidate" or "final"; string PY_RELEASE_SERIAL # the 3; an int ) -- Method: _Feature.getOptionalRelease () 'OptionalRelease' records the first release in which the feature was accepted. -- Method: _Feature.getMandatoryRelease () In the case of a 'MandatoryRelease' that has not yet occurred, 'MandatoryRelease' predicts the release in which the feature will become part of the language. Else 'MandatoryRelease' records when the feature became part of the language; in releases at or after that, modules no longer need a future statement to use the feature in question, but may continue to use such imports. 'MandatoryRelease' may also be ‘None’, meaning that a planned feature got dropped or that it is not yet decided. -- Attribute: _Feature.compiler_flag 'CompilerFlag' is the (bitfield) flag that should be passed in the fourth argument to the built-in function *note compile(): 192. to enable the feature in dynamically compiled code. This flag is stored in the *note _Feature.compiler_flag: 1f46. attribute on *note _Feature: 2165. instances. See also ........ *note Future statements: 189. How the compiler treats future imports. PEP 236(11) - Back to the __future__ The original proposal for the __future__ mechanism. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0227/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0255/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-3105/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-3112/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0479/ (9) ‘from __future__ import annotations’ was previously scheduled to become mandatory in Python 3.10, but the Python Steering Council twice decided to delay the change (announcement for Python 3.10 (https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/CLVXXPQ2T2LQ5MP2Y53VVQFCXYWQJHKZ/); announcement for Python 3.11 (https://mail.python.org/archives/list/python-dev@python.org/message/VIZEBX5EYMSYIJNDBF6DMUMZOCWHARSO/)). No final decision has been made yet. See also PEP 563 (https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/) and PEP 649 (https://peps.python.org/pep-0649/). (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0563/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0236/  File: python.info, Node: gc — Garbage Collector interface, Next: inspect — Inspect live objects, Prev: __future__ — Future statement definitions, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.13 ‘gc’ — Garbage Collector interface ------------------------------------------ __________________________________________________________________ This module provides an interface to the optional garbage collector. It provides the ability to disable the collector, tune the collection frequency, and set debugging options. It also provides access to unreachable objects that the collector found but cannot free. Since the collector supplements the reference counting already used in Python, you can disable the collector if you are sure your program does not create reference cycles. Automatic collection can be disabled by calling ‘gc.disable()’. To debug a leaking program call ‘gc.set_debug(gc.DEBUG_LEAK)’. Notice that this includes ‘gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL’, causing garbage-collected objects to be saved in gc.garbage for inspection. The *note gc: 60. module provides the following functions: -- Function: gc.enable () Enable automatic garbage collection. -- Function: gc.disable () Disable automatic garbage collection. -- Function: gc.isenabled () Return ‘True’ if automatic collection is enabled. -- Function: gc.collect (generation=2) With no arguments, run a full collection. The optional argument 'generation' may be an integer specifying which generation to collect (from 0 to 2). A *note ValueError: 204. is raised if the generation number is invalid. The sum of collected objects and uncollectable objects is returned. The free lists maintained for a number of built-in types are cleared whenever a full collection or collection of the highest generation (2) is run. Not all items in some free lists may be freed due to the particular implementation, in particular *note float: 2f1. The effect of calling ‘gc.collect()’ while the interpreter is already performing a collection is undefined. -- Function: gc.set_debug (flags) Set the garbage collection debugging flags. Debugging information will be written to ‘sys.stderr’. See below for a list of debugging flags which can be combined using bit operations to control debugging. -- Function: gc.get_debug () Return the debugging flags currently set. -- Function: gc.get_objects (generation=None) Returns a list of all objects tracked by the collector, excluding the list returned. If 'generation' is not ‘None’, return only the objects tracked by the collector that are in that generation. Changed in version 3.8: New 'generation' parameter. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘gc.get_objects’ with argument ‘generation’. -- Function: gc.get_stats () Return a list of three per-generation dictionaries containing collection statistics since interpreter start. The number of keys may change in the future, but currently each dictionary will contain the following items: * ‘collections’ is the number of times this generation was collected; * ‘collected’ is the total number of objects collected inside this generation; * ‘uncollectable’ is the total number of objects which were found to be uncollectable (and were therefore moved to the *note garbage: 11b3. list) inside this generation. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: gc.set_threshold (threshold0[, threshold1[, threshold2]]) Set the garbage collection thresholds (the collection frequency). Setting 'threshold0' to zero disables collection. The GC classifies objects into three generations depending on how many collection sweeps they have survived. New objects are placed in the youngest generation (generation ‘0’). If an object survives a collection it is moved into the next older generation. Since generation ‘2’ is the oldest generation, objects in that generation remain there after a collection. In order to decide when to run, the collector keeps track of the number object allocations and deallocations since the last collection. When the number of allocations minus the number of deallocations exceeds 'threshold0', collection starts. Initially only generation ‘0’ is examined. If generation ‘0’ has been examined more than 'threshold1' times since generation ‘1’ has been examined, then generation ‘1’ is examined as well. With the third generation, things are a bit more complicated, see Collecting the oldest generation(1) for more information. -- Function: gc.get_count () Return the current collection counts as a tuple of ‘(count0, count1, count2)’. -- Function: gc.get_threshold () Return the current collection thresholds as a tuple of ‘(threshold0, threshold1, threshold2)’. -- Function: gc.get_referrers (*objs) Return the list of objects that directly refer to any of objs. This function will only locate those containers which support garbage collection; extension types which do refer to other objects but do not support garbage collection will not be found. Note that objects which have already been dereferenced, but which live in cycles and have not yet been collected by the garbage collector can be listed among the resulting referrers. To get only currently live objects, call *note collect(): a39. before calling *note get_referrers(): 800. Warning: Care must be taken when using objects returned by *note get_referrers(): 800. because some of them could still be under construction and hence in a temporarily invalid state. Avoid using *note get_referrers(): 800. for any purpose other than debugging. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘gc.get_referrers’ with argument ‘objs’. -- Function: gc.get_referents (*objs) Return a list of objects directly referred to by any of the arguments. The referents returned are those objects visited by the arguments’ C-level *note tp_traverse: 779. methods (if any), and may not be all objects actually directly reachable. *note tp_traverse: 779. methods are supported only by objects that support garbage collection, and are only required to visit objects that may be involved in a cycle. So, for example, if an integer is directly reachable from an argument, that integer object may or may not appear in the result list. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘gc.get_referents’ with argument ‘objs’. -- Function: gc.is_tracked (obj) Returns ‘True’ if the object is currently tracked by the garbage collector, ‘False’ otherwise. As a general rule, instances of atomic types aren’t tracked and instances of non-atomic types (containers, user-defined objects…) are. However, some type-specific optimizations can be present in order to suppress the garbage collector footprint of simple instances (e.g. dicts containing only atomic keys and values): >>> gc.is_tracked(0) False >>> gc.is_tracked("a") False >>> gc.is_tracked([]) True >>> gc.is_tracked({}) False >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": 1}) False >>> gc.is_tracked({"a": []}) True Added in version 3.1. -- Function: gc.is_finalized (obj) Returns ‘True’ if the given object has been finalized by the garbage collector, ‘False’ otherwise. >>> x = None >>> class Lazarus: ... def __del__(self): ... global x ... x = self ... >>> lazarus = Lazarus() >>> gc.is_finalized(lazarus) False >>> del lazarus >>> gc.is_finalized(x) True Added in version 3.9. -- Function: gc.freeze () Freeze all the objects tracked by the garbage collector; move them to a permanent generation and ignore them in all the future collections. If a process will ‘fork()’ without ‘exec()’, avoiding unnecessary copy-on-write in child processes will maximize memory sharing and reduce overall memory usage. This requires both avoiding creation of freed “holes” in memory pages in the parent process and ensuring that GC collections in child processes won’t touch the ‘gc_refs’ counter of long-lived objects originating in the parent process. To accomplish both, call ‘gc.disable()’ early in the parent process, ‘gc.freeze()’ right before ‘fork()’, and ‘gc.enable()’ early in child processes. Added in version 3.7. -- Function: gc.unfreeze () Unfreeze the objects in the permanent generation, put them back into the oldest generation. Added in version 3.7. -- Function: gc.get_freeze_count () Return the number of objects in the permanent generation. Added in version 3.7. The following variables are provided for read-only access (you can mutate the values but should not rebind them): -- Data: gc.garbage A list of objects which the collector found to be unreachable but could not be freed (uncollectable objects). Starting with Python 3.4, this list should be empty most of the time, except when using instances of C extension types with a non-‘NULL’ ‘tp_del’ slot. If *note DEBUG_SAVEALL: 4485. is set, then all unreachable objects will be added to this list rather than freed. Changed in version 3.2: If this list is non-empty at *note interpreter shutdown: 14e, a *note ResourceWarning: 246. is emitted, which is silent by default. If *note DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE: 11b4. is set, in addition all uncollectable objects are printed. Changed in version 3.4: Following PEP 442(2), objects with a *note __del__(): 1f61. method don’t end up in *note gc.garbage: 11b3. anymore. -- Data: gc.callbacks A list of callbacks that will be invoked by the garbage collector before and after collection. The callbacks will be called with two arguments, 'phase' and 'info'. 'phase' can be one of two values: “start”: The garbage collection is about to start. “stop”: The garbage collection has finished. 'info' is a dict providing more information for the callback. The following keys are currently defined: “generation”: The oldest generation being collected. “collected”: When 'phase' is “stop”, the number of objects successfully collected. “uncollectable”: When 'phase' is “stop”, the number of objects that could not be collected and were put in *note garbage: 11b3. Applications can add their own callbacks to this list. The primary use cases are: Gathering statistics about garbage collection, such as how often various generations are collected, and how long the collection takes. Allowing applications to identify and clear their own uncollectable types when they appear in *note garbage: 11b3. Added in version 3.3. The following constants are provided for use with *note set_debug(): 4480.: -- Data: gc.DEBUG_STATS Print statistics during collection. This information can be useful when tuning the collection frequency. -- Data: gc.DEBUG_COLLECTABLE Print information on collectable objects found. -- Data: gc.DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE Print information of uncollectable objects found (objects which are not reachable but cannot be freed by the collector). These objects will be added to the ‘garbage’ list. Changed in version 3.2: Also print the contents of the *note garbage: 11b3. list at *note interpreter shutdown: 14e, if it isn’t empty. -- Data: gc.DEBUG_SAVEALL When set, all unreachable objects found will be appended to 'garbage' rather than being freed. This can be useful for debugging a leaking program. -- Data: gc.DEBUG_LEAK The debugging flags necessary for the collector to print information about a leaking program (equal to ‘DEBUG_COLLECTABLE | DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE | DEBUG_SAVEALL’). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/garbage_collector/#collecting-the-oldest-generation (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/  File: python.info, Node: inspect — Inspect live objects, Next: site — Site-specific configuration hook, Prev: gc — Garbage Collector interface, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.14 ‘inspect’ — Inspect live objects ---------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/inspect.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note inspect: 7e. module provides several useful functions to help get information about live objects such as modules, classes, methods, functions, tracebacks, frame objects, and code objects. For example, it can help you examine the contents of a class, retrieve the source code of a method, extract and format the argument list for a function, or get all the information you need to display a detailed traceback. There are four main kinds of services provided by this module: type checking, getting source code, inspecting classes and functions, and examining the interpreter stack. * Menu: * Types and members:: * Retrieving source code:: * Introspecting callables with the Signature object:: * Classes and functions: Classes and functions<2>. * The interpreter stack:: * Fetching attributes statically:: * Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. * Code Objects Bit Flags:: * Buffer flags:: * Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<3>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/inspect.py  File: python.info, Node: Types and members, Next: Retrieving source code, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.1 Types and members ........................... The *note getmembers(): 1854. function retrieves the members of an object such as a class or module. The functions whose names begin with “is” are mainly provided as convenient choices for the second argument to *note getmembers(): 1854. They also help you determine when you can expect to find the following special attributes (see *note Import-related attributes on module objects: 1f14. for module attributes): Type Attribute Description ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ class __doc__ documentation string __name__ name with which this class was defined __qualname__ qualified name __module__ name of module in which this class was defined __type_params__ A tuple containing the *note type parameters: 2b5. of a generic class method __doc__ documentation string __name__ name with which this method was defined __qualname__ qualified name __func__ function object containing implementation of method __self__ instance to which this method is bound, or ‘None’ __module__ name of module in which this method was defined function __doc__ documentation string __name__ name with which this function was defined __qualname__ qualified name __code__ code object containing compiled function *note bytecode: 187. __defaults__ tuple of any default values for positional or keyword parameters __kwdefaults__ mapping of any default values for keyword-only parameters __globals__ global namespace in which this function was defined __builtins__ builtins namespace __annotations__ mapping of parameters names to annotations; ‘"return"’ key is reserved for return annotations. __type_params__ A tuple containing the *note type parameters: 2b5. of a generic function __module__ name of module in which this function was defined traceback tb_frame frame object at this level tb_lasti index of last attempted instruction in bytecode tb_lineno current line number in Python source code tb_next next inner traceback object (called by this level) frame f_back next outer frame object (this frame’s caller) f_builtins builtins namespace seen by this frame f_code code object being executed in this frame f_globals global namespace seen by this frame f_lasti index of last attempted instruction in bytecode f_lineno current line number in Python source code f_locals local namespace seen by this frame f_trace tracing function for this frame, or ‘None’ code co_argcount number of arguments (not including keyword only arguments, * or ** args) co_code string of raw compiled bytecode co_cellvars tuple of names of cell variables (referenced by containing scopes) co_consts tuple of constants used in the bytecode co_filename name of file in which this code object was created co_firstlineno number of first line in Python source code co_flags bitmap of ‘CO_*’ flags, read more *note here: 1f45. co_lnotab encoded mapping of line numbers to bytecode indices co_freevars tuple of names of free variables (referenced via a function’s closure) co_posonlyargcount number of positional only arguments co_kwonlyargcount number of keyword only arguments (not including ** arg) co_name name with which this code object was defined co_qualname fully qualified name with which this code object was defined co_names tuple of names other than arguments and function locals co_nlocals number of local variables co_stacksize virtual machine stack space required co_varnames tuple of names of arguments and local variables generator __name__ name __qualname__ qualified name gi_frame frame gi_running is the generator running? gi_code code gi_yieldfrom object being iterated by ‘yield from’, or ‘None’ async generator __name__ name __qualname__ qualified name ag_await object being awaited on, or ‘None’ ag_frame frame ag_running is the generator running? ag_code code coroutine __name__ name __qualname__ qualified name cr_await object being awaited on, or ‘None’ cr_frame frame cr_running is the coroutine running? cr_code code cr_origin where coroutine was created, or ‘None’. See *note sys.set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth(): b8c. builtin __doc__ documentation string __name__ original name of this function or method __qualname__ qualified name __self__ instance to which a method is bound, or ‘None’ Changed in version 3.5: Add ‘__qualname__’ and ‘gi_yieldfrom’ attributes to generators. The ‘__name__’ attribute of generators is now set from the function name, instead of the code name, and it can now be modified. Changed in version 3.7: Add ‘cr_origin’ attribute to coroutines. Changed in version 3.10: Add ‘__builtins__’ attribute to functions. -- Function: inspect.getmembers (object[, predicate]) Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’ pairs sorted by name. If the optional 'predicate' argument—which will be called with the ‘value’ object of each member—is supplied, only members for which the predicate returns a true value are included. Note: *note getmembers(): 1854. will only return class attributes defined in the metaclass when the argument is a class and those attributes have been listed in the metaclass’ custom *note __dir__(): 1f67. -- Function: inspect.getmembers_static (object[, predicate]) Return all the members of an object in a list of ‘(name, value)’ pairs sorted by name without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, __getattr__ or __getattribute__. Optionally, only return members that satisfy a given predicate. Note: *note getmembers_static(): 645. may not be able to retrieve all members that getmembers can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find members that getmembers can’t (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptor objects instead of instance members in some cases. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: inspect.getmodulename (path) Return the name of the module named by the file 'path', without including the names of enclosing packages. The file extension is checked against all of the entries in *note importlib.machinery.all_suffixes(): 448c. If it matches, the final path component is returned with the extension removed. Otherwise, ‘None’ is returned. Note that this function 'only' returns a meaningful name for actual Python modules - paths that potentially refer to Python packages will still return ‘None’. Changed in version 3.3: The function is based directly on *note importlib: 77. -- Function: inspect.ismodule (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a module. -- Function: inspect.isclass (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a class, whether built-in or created in Python code. -- Function: inspect.ismethod (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a bound method written in Python. -- Function: inspect.isfunction (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python function, which includes functions created by a *note lambda: 2743. expression. -- Function: inspect.isgeneratorfunction (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a Python generator function. Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partial(): 410. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a Python generator function. Changed in version 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partialmethod(): a7b. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a Python generator function. -- Function: inspect.isgenerator (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a generator. -- Function: inspect.iscoroutinefunction (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine function: d76. (a function defined with an *note async def: 5cd. syntax), a *note functools.partial(): 410. wrapping a *note coroutine function: d76, or a sync function marked with *note markcoroutinefunction(): 48c. Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partial(): 410. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a *note coroutine function: d76. Changed in version 3.12: Sync functions marked with *note markcoroutinefunction(): 48c. now return ‘True’. Changed in version 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partialmethod(): a7b. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a *note coroutine function: d76. -- Function: inspect.markcoroutinefunction (func) Decorator to mark a callable as a *note coroutine function: d76. if it would not otherwise be detected by *note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8. This may be of use for sync functions that return a *note coroutine: 48d, if the function is passed to an API that requires *note iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8. When possible, using an *note async def: 5cd. function is preferred. Also acceptable is calling the function and testing the return with *note iscoroutine(): e15. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: inspect.iscoroutine (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a *note coroutine: 48d. created by an *note async def: 5cd. function. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: inspect.isawaitable (object) Return ‘True’ if the object can be used in *note await: 1b9. expression. Can also be used to distinguish generator-based coroutines from regular generators: import types def gen(): yield @types.coroutine def gen_coro(): yield assert not isawaitable(gen()) assert isawaitable(gen_coro()) Added in version 3.5. -- Function: inspect.isasyncgenfunction (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator: 203e. function, for example: >>> async def agen(): ... yield 1 ... >>> inspect.isasyncgenfunction(agen) True Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.8: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partial(): 410. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is an *note asynchronous generator: 203e. function. Changed in version 3.13: Functions wrapped in *note functools.partialmethod(): a7b. now return ‘True’ if the wrapped function is a *note coroutine function: d76. -- Function: inspect.isasyncgen (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4396. created by an *note asynchronous generator: 203e. function. Added in version 3.6. -- Function: inspect.istraceback (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a traceback. -- Function: inspect.isframe (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a frame. -- Function: inspect.iscode (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a code. -- Function: inspect.isbuiltin (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a built-in function or a bound built-in method. -- Function: inspect.ismethodwrapper (object) Return ‘True’ if the type of object is a *note MethodWrapperType: 647. These are instances of *note MethodWrapperType: 647, such as *note __str__(): 619, *note __eq__(): afa. and *note __repr__(): 618. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: inspect.isroutine (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a user-defined or built-in function or method. -- Function: inspect.isabstract (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is an abstract base class. -- Function: inspect.ismethoddescriptor (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a method descriptor, but not if *note ismethod(): 448f, *note isclass(): 448e, *note isfunction(): 4490. or *note isbuiltin(): 4496. are true. This, for example, is true of ‘int.__add__’. An object passing this test has a *note __get__(): 14b2. method, but not a *note __set__(): 1f6a. method or a *note __delete__(): 1609. method. Beyond that, the set of attributes varies. A *note __name__: 105f. attribute is usually sensible, and *note __doc__: 927. often is. Methods implemented via descriptors that also pass one of the other tests return ‘False’ from the *note ismethoddescriptor(): 15eb. test, simply because the other tests promise more – you can, e.g., count on having the *note __func__: 12ef. attribute (etc) when an object passes *note ismethod(): 448f. Changed in version 3.13: This function no longer incorrectly reports objects with *note __get__(): 14b2. and *note __delete__(): 1609, but not *note __set__(): 1f6a, as being method descriptors (such objects are data descriptors, not method descriptors). -- Function: inspect.isdatadescriptor (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a data descriptor. Data descriptors have a *note __set__: 1f6a. or a *note __delete__: 1609. method. Examples are properties (defined in Python), getsets, and members. The latter two are defined in C and there are more specific tests available for those types, which is robust across Python implementations. Typically, data descriptors will also have *note __name__: 105f. and ‘__doc__’ attributes (properties, getsets, and members have both of these attributes), but this is not guaranteed. -- Function: inspect.isgetsetdescriptor (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a getset descriptor. 'CPython implementation detail:' getsets are attributes defined in extension modules via *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return ‘False’. -- Function: inspect.ismemberdescriptor (object) Return ‘True’ if the object is a member descriptor. 'CPython implementation detail:' Member descriptors are attributes defined in extension modules via *note PyMemberDef: 54c. structures. For Python implementations without such types, this method will always return ‘False’.  File: python.info, Node: Retrieving source code, Next: Introspecting callables with the Signature object, Prev: Types and members, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.2 Retrieving source code ................................ -- Function: inspect.getdoc (object) Get the documentation string for an object, cleaned up with *note cleandoc(): 16b5. If the documentation string for an object is not provided and the object is a class, a method, a property or a descriptor, retrieve the documentation string from the inheritance hierarchy. Return ‘None’ if the documentation string is invalid or missing. Changed in version 3.5: Documentation strings are now inherited if not overridden. -- Function: inspect.getcomments (object) Return in a single string any lines of comments immediately preceding the object’s source code (for a class, function, or method), or at the top of the Python source file (if the object is a module). If the object’s source code is unavailable, return ‘None’. This could happen if the object has been defined in C or the interactive shell. -- Function: inspect.getfile (object) Return the name of the (text or binary) file in which an object was defined. This will fail with a *note TypeError: 534. if the object is a built-in module, class, or function. -- Function: inspect.getmodule (object) Try to guess which module an object was defined in. Return ‘None’ if the module cannot be determined. -- Function: inspect.getsourcefile (object) Return the name of the Python source file in which an object was defined or ‘None’ if no way can be identified to get the source. This will fail with a *note TypeError: 534. if the object is a built-in module, class, or function. -- Function: inspect.getsourcelines (object) Return a list of source lines and starting line number for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a list of the lines corresponding to the object and the line number indicates where in the original source file the first line of code was found. An *note OSError: 413. is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. A *note TypeError: 534. is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or function. Changed in version 3.3: *note OSError: 413. is raised instead of *note IOError: 104b, now an alias of the former. -- Function: inspect.getsource (object) Return the text of the source code for an object. The argument may be a module, class, method, function, traceback, frame, or code object. The source code is returned as a single string. An *note OSError: 413. is raised if the source code cannot be retrieved. A *note TypeError: 534. is raised if the object is a built-in module, class, or function. Changed in version 3.3: *note OSError: 413. is raised instead of *note IOError: 104b, now an alias of the former. -- Function: inspect.cleandoc (doc) Clean up indentation from docstrings that are indented to line up with blocks of code. All leading whitespace is removed from the first line. Any leading whitespace that can be uniformly removed from the second line onwards is removed. Empty lines at the beginning and end are subsequently removed. Also, all tabs are expanded to spaces.  File: python.info, Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object, Next: Classes and functions<2>, Prev: Retrieving source code, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.3 Introspecting callables with the Signature object ........................................................... Added in version 3.3. The *note Signature: 1cf. object represents the call signature of a callable object and its return annotation. To retrieve a ‘Signature’ object, use the ‘signature()’ function. -- Function: inspect.signature (callable, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False) Return a *note Signature: 1cf. object for the given 'callable': >>> from inspect import signature >>> def foo(a, *, b:int, **kwargs): ... pass >>> sig = signature(foo) >>> str(sig) '(a, *, b: int, **kwargs)' >>> str(sig.parameters['b']) 'b: int' >>> sig.parameters['b'].annotation <class 'int'> Accepts a wide range of Python callables, from plain functions and classes to *note functools.partial(): 410. objects. For objects defined in modules using stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import annotations’), *note signature(): 733. will attempt to automatically un-stringize the annotations using *note get_annotations(): 80f. The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str' parameters are passed into *note get_annotations(): 80f. when resolving the annotations; see the documentation for *note get_annotations(): 80f. for instructions on how to use these parameters. Raises *note ValueError: 204. if no signature can be provided, and *note TypeError: 534. if that type of object is not supported. Also, if the annotations are stringized, and 'eval_str' is not false, the ‘eval()’ call(s) to un-stringize the annotations in *note get_annotations(): 80f. could potentially raise any kind of exception. A slash(/) in the signature of a function denotes that the parameters prior to it are positional-only. For more info, see *note the FAQ entry on positional-only parameters: 2174. Changed in version 3.5: The 'follow_wrapped' parameter was added. Pass ‘False’ to get a signature of 'callable' specifically (‘callable.__wrapped__’ will not be used to unwrap decorated callables.) Changed in version 3.10: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str' parameters were added. Note: Some callables may not be introspectable in certain implementations of Python. For example, in CPython, some built-in functions defined in C provide no metadata about their arguments. 'CPython implementation detail:' If the passed object has a ‘__signature__’ attribute, we may use it to create the signature. The exact semantics are an implementation detail and are subject to unannounced changes. Consult the source code for current semantics. -- Class: inspect.Signature (parameters=None, *, return_annotation=Signature.empty) A ‘Signature’ object represents the call signature of a function and its return annotation. For each parameter accepted by the function it stores a *note Parameter: 1d0. object in its *note parameters: 44a0. collection. The optional 'parameters' argument is a sequence of *note Parameter: 1d0. objects, which is validated to check that there are no parameters with duplicate names, and that the parameters are in the right order, i.e. positional-only first, then positional-or-keyword, and that parameters with defaults follow parameters without defaults. The optional 'return_annotation' argument can be an arbitrary Python object. It represents the “return” annotation of the callable. ‘Signature’ objects are 'immutable'. Use *note Signature.replace(): 44a1. or *note copy.replace(): 151. to make a modified copy. Changed in version 3.5: ‘Signature’ objects are now picklable and *note hashable: 60c. -- Attribute: empty A special class-level marker to specify absence of a return annotation. -- Attribute: parameters An ordered mapping of parameters’ names to the corresponding *note Parameter: 1d0. objects. Parameters appear in strict definition order, including keyword-only parameters. Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3. -- Attribute: return_annotation The “return” annotation for the callable. If the callable has no “return” annotation, this attribute is set to *note Signature.empty: 44a2. -- Method: bind (*args, **kwargs) Create a mapping from positional and keyword arguments to parameters. Returns *note BoundArguments: 1062. if ‘*args’ and ‘**kwargs’ match the signature, or raises a *note TypeError: 534. -- Method: bind_partial (*args, **kwargs) Works the same way as *note Signature.bind(): 1562, but allows the omission of some required arguments (mimics *note functools.partial(): 410. behavior.) Returns *note BoundArguments: 1062, or raises a *note TypeError: 534. if the passed arguments do not match the signature. -- Method: replace (*[, parameters][, return_annotation]) Create a new *note Signature: 1cf. instance based on the instance *note replace(): 44a1. was invoked on. It is possible to pass different 'parameters' and/or 'return_annotation' to override the corresponding properties of the base signature. To remove ‘return_annotation’ from the copied ‘Signature’, pass in *note Signature.empty: 44a2. >>> def test(a, b): ... pass ... >>> sig = signature(test) >>> new_sig = sig.replace(return_annotation="new return anno") >>> str(new_sig) "(a, b) -> 'new return anno'" *note Signature: 1cf. objects are also supported by the generic function *note copy.replace(): 151. -- Method: format (*, max_width=None) Create a string representation of the *note Signature: 1cf. object. If 'max_width' is passed, the method will attempt to fit the signature into lines of at most 'max_width' characters. If the signature is longer than 'max_width', all parameters will be on separate lines. Added in version 3.13. -- Method: classmethod from_callable (obj, *, follow_wrapped=True, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False) Return a *note Signature: 1cf. (or its subclass) object for a given callable 'obj'. This method simplifies subclassing of *note Signature: 1cf.: class MySignature(Signature): pass sig = MySignature.from_callable(sum) assert isinstance(sig, MySignature) Its behavior is otherwise identical to that of *note signature(): 733. Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.10: The 'globals', 'locals', and 'eval_str' parameters were added. -- Class: inspect.Parameter (name, kind, *, default=Parameter.empty, annotation=Parameter.empty) ‘Parameter’ objects are 'immutable'. Instead of modifying a ‘Parameter’ object, you can use *note Parameter.replace(): 44a6. or *note copy.replace(): 151. to create a modified copy. Changed in version 3.5: Parameter objects are now picklable and *note hashable: 60c. -- Attribute: empty A special class-level marker to specify absence of default values and annotations. -- Attribute: name The name of the parameter as a string. The name must be a valid Python identifier. 'CPython implementation detail:' CPython generates implicit parameter names of the form ‘.0’ on the code objects used to implement comprehensions and generator expressions. Changed in version 3.6: These parameter names are now exposed by this module as names like ‘implicit0’. -- Attribute: default The default value for the parameter. If the parameter has no default value, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty: 44a7. -- Attribute: annotation The annotation for the parameter. If the parameter has no annotation, this attribute is set to *note Parameter.empty: 44a7. -- Attribute: kind Describes how argument values are bound to the parameter. The possible values are accessible via *note Parameter: 1d0. (like ‘Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY’), and support comparison and ordering, in the following order: Name Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'POSITIONAL_ONLY' Value must be supplied as a positional argument. Positional only parameters are those which appear before a ‘/’ entry (if present) in a Python function definition. 'POSITIONAL_OR_KEYWORD' Value may be supplied as either a keyword or positional argument (this is the standard binding behaviour for functions implemented in Python.) 'VAR_POSITIONAL' A tuple of positional arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a ‘*args’ parameter in a Python function definition. 'KEYWORD_ONLY' Value must be supplied as a keyword argument. Keyword only parameters are those which appear after a ‘*’ or ‘*args’ entry in a Python function definition. 'VAR_KEYWORD' A dict of keyword arguments that aren’t bound to any other parameter. This corresponds to a ‘**kwargs’ parameter in a Python function definition. Example: print all keyword-only arguments without default values: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10): ... pass >>> sig = signature(foo) >>> for param in sig.parameters.values(): ... if (param.kind == param.KEYWORD_ONLY and ... param.default is param.empty): ... print('Parameter:', param) Parameter: c -- Attribute: kind.description Describes an enum value of *note Parameter.kind: 44ab. Added in version 3.8. Example: print all descriptions of arguments: >>> def foo(a, b, *, c, d=10): ... pass >>> sig = signature(foo) >>> for param in sig.parameters.values(): ... print(param.kind.description) positional or keyword positional or keyword keyword-only keyword-only -- Method: replace (*[, name][, kind][, default][, annotation]) Create a new *note Parameter: 1d0. instance based on the instance replaced was invoked on. To override a ‘Parameter’ attribute, pass the corresponding argument. To remove a default value or/and an annotation from a ‘Parameter’, pass *note Parameter.empty: 44a7. >>> from inspect import Parameter >>> param = Parameter('foo', Parameter.KEYWORD_ONLY, default=42) >>> str(param) 'foo=42' >>> str(param.replace()) # Will create a shallow copy of 'param' 'foo=42' >>> str(param.replace(default=Parameter.empty, annotation='spam')) "foo: 'spam'" *note Parameter: 1d0. objects are also supported by the generic function *note copy.replace(): 151. Changed in version 3.4: In Python 3.3 *note Parameter: 1d0. objects were allowed to have ‘name’ set to ‘None’ if their ‘kind’ was set to ‘POSITIONAL_ONLY’. This is no longer permitted. -- Class: inspect.BoundArguments Result of a *note Signature.bind(): 1562. or *note Signature.bind_partial(): 44a4. call. Holds the mapping of arguments to the function’s parameters. -- Attribute: arguments A mutable mapping of parameters’ names to arguments’ values. Contains only explicitly bound arguments. Changes in *note arguments: 90b. will reflect in *note args: 44ad. and *note kwargs: 44ae. Should be used in conjunction with *note Signature.parameters: 44a0. for any argument processing purposes. Note: Arguments for which *note Signature.bind(): 1562. or *note Signature.bind_partial(): 44a4. relied on a default value are skipped. However, if needed, use *note BoundArguments.apply_defaults(): e14. to add them. Changed in version 3.9: *note arguments: 90b. is now of type *note dict: 258. Formerly, it was of type *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. -- Attribute: args A tuple of positional arguments values. Dynamically computed from the *note arguments: 90b. attribute. -- Attribute: kwargs A dict of keyword arguments values. Dynamically computed from the *note arguments: 90b. attribute. Arguments that can be passed positionally are included in *note args: 44ad. instead. -- Attribute: signature A reference to the parent *note Signature: 1cf. object. -- Method: apply_defaults () Set default values for missing arguments. For variable-positional arguments (‘*args’) the default is an empty tuple. For variable-keyword arguments (‘**kwargs’) the default is an empty dict. >>> def foo(a, b='ham', *args): pass >>> ba = inspect.signature(foo).bind('spam') >>> ba.apply_defaults() >>> ba.arguments {'a': 'spam', 'b': 'ham', 'args': ()} Added in version 3.5. The *note args: 44ad. and *note kwargs: 44ae. properties can be used to invoke functions: def test(a, *, b): ... sig = signature(test) ba = sig.bind(10, b=20) test(*ba.args, **ba.kwargs) See also ........ PEP 362(1) - Function Signature Object. The detailed specification, implementation details and examples. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/  File: python.info, Node: Classes and functions<2>, Next: The interpreter stack, Prev: Introspecting callables with the Signature object, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.4 Classes and functions ............................... -- Function: inspect.getclasstree (classes, unique=False) Arrange the given list of classes into a hierarchy of nested lists. Where a nested list appears, it contains classes derived from the class whose entry immediately precedes the list. Each entry is a 2-tuple containing a class and a tuple of its base classes. If the 'unique' argument is true, exactly one entry appears in the returned structure for each class in the given list. Otherwise, classes using multiple inheritance and their descendants will appear multiple times. -- Function: inspect.getfullargspec (func) Get the names and default values of a Python function’s parameters. A *note named tuple: 64a. is returned: ‘FullArgSpec(args, varargs, varkw, defaults, kwonlyargs, kwonlydefaults, annotations)’ 'args' is a list of the positional parameter names. 'varargs' is the name of the ‘*’ parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary positional arguments are not accepted. 'varkw' is the name of the ‘**’ parameter or ‘None’ if arbitrary keyword arguments are not accepted. 'defaults' is an 'n'-tuple of default argument values corresponding to the last 'n' positional parameters, or ‘None’ if there are no such defaults defined. 'kwonlyargs' is a list of keyword-only parameter names in declaration order. 'kwonlydefaults' is a dictionary mapping parameter names from 'kwonlyargs' to the default values used if no argument is supplied. 'annotations' is a dictionary mapping parameter names to annotations. The special key ‘"return"’ is used to report the function return value annotation (if any). Note that *note signature(): 733. and *note Signature Object: 449e. provide the recommended API for callable introspection, and support additional behaviours (like positional-only arguments) that are sometimes encountered in extension module APIs. This function is retained primarily for use in code that needs to maintain compatibility with the Python 2 ‘inspect’ module API. Changed in version 3.4: This function is now based on *note signature(): 733, but still ignores ‘__wrapped__’ attributes and includes the already bound first parameter in the signature output for bound methods. Changed in version 3.6: This method was previously documented as deprecated in favour of *note signature(): 733. in Python 3.5, but that decision has been reversed in order to restore a clearly supported standard interface for single-source Python 2/3 code migrating away from the legacy ‘getargspec()’ API. Changed in version 3.7: Python only explicitly guaranteed that it preserved the declaration order of keyword-only parameters as of version 3.7, although in practice this order had always been preserved in Python 3. -- Function: inspect.getargvalues (frame) Get information about arguments passed into a particular frame. A *note named tuple: 64a. ‘ArgInfo(args, varargs, keywords, locals)’ is returned. 'args' is a list of the argument names. 'varargs' and 'keywords' are the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’ arguments or ‘None’. 'locals' is the locals dictionary of the given frame. Note: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5. -- Function: inspect.formatargvalues (args[, varargs, varkw, locals, formatarg, formatvarargs, formatvarkw, formatvalue]) Format a pretty argument spec from the four values returned by *note getargvalues(): eb8. The format* arguments are the corresponding optional formatting functions that are called to turn names and values into strings. Note: This function was inadvertently marked as deprecated in Python 3.5. -- Function: inspect.getmro (cls) Return a tuple of class cls’s base classes, including cls, in method resolution order. No class appears more than once in this tuple. Note that the method resolution order depends on cls’s type. Unless a very peculiar user-defined metatype is in use, cls will be the first element of the tuple. -- Function: inspect.getcallargs (func, /, *args, **kwds) Bind the 'args' and 'kwds' to the argument names of the Python function or method 'func', as if it was called with them. For bound methods, bind also the first argument (typically named ‘self’) to the associated instance. A dict is returned, mapping the argument names (including the names of the ‘*’ and ‘**’ arguments, if any) to their values from 'args' and 'kwds'. In case of invoking 'func' incorrectly, i.e. whenever ‘func(*args, **kwds)’ would raise an exception because of incompatible signature, an exception of the same type and the same or similar message is raised. For example: >>> from inspect import getcallargs >>> def f(a, b=1, *pos, **named): ... pass ... >>> getcallargs(f, 1, 2, 3) == {'a': 1, 'named': {}, 'b': 2, 'pos': (3,)} True >>> getcallargs(f, a=2, x=4) == {'a': 2, 'named': {'x': 4}, 'b': 1, 'pos': ()} True >>> getcallargs(f) Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: f() missing 1 required positional argument: 'a' Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.5: Use *note Signature.bind(): 1562. and *note Signature.bind_partial(): 44a4. instead. -- Function: inspect.getclosurevars (func) Get the mapping of external name references in a Python function or method 'func' to their current values. A *note named tuple: 64a. ‘ClosureVars(nonlocals, globals, builtins, unbound)’ is returned. 'nonlocals' maps referenced names to lexical closure variables, 'globals' to the function’s module globals and 'builtins' to the builtins visible from the function body. 'unbound' is the set of names referenced in the function that could not be resolved at all given the current module globals and builtins. *note TypeError: 534. is raised if 'func' is not a Python function or method. Added in version 3.3. -- Function: inspect.unwrap (func, *, stop=None) Get the object wrapped by 'func'. It follows the chain of ‘__wrapped__’ attributes returning the last object in the chain. 'stop' is an optional callback accepting an object in the wrapper chain as its sole argument that allows the unwrapping to be terminated early if the callback returns a true value. If the callback never returns a true value, the last object in the chain is returned as usual. For example, *note signature(): 733. uses this to stop unwrapping if any object in the chain has a ‘__signature__’ attribute defined. *note ValueError: 204. is raised if a cycle is encountered. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: inspect.get_annotations (obj, *, globals=None, locals=None, eval_str=False) Compute the annotations dict for an object. ‘obj’ may be a callable, class, or module. Passing in an object of any other type raises *note TypeError: 534. Returns a dict. ‘get_annotations()’ returns a new dict every time it’s called; calling it twice on the same object will return two different but equivalent dicts. This function handles several details for you: * If ‘eval_str’ is true, values of type ‘str’ will be un-stringized using *note eval(): 180. This is intended for use with stringized annotations (‘from __future__ import annotations’). * If ‘obj’ doesn’t have an annotations dict, returns an empty dict. (Functions and methods always have an annotations dict; classes, modules, and other types of callables may not.) * Ignores inherited annotations on classes. If a class doesn’t have its own annotations dict, returns an empty dict. * All accesses to object members and dict values are done using ‘getattr()’ and ‘dict.get()’ for safety. * Always, always, always returns a freshly created dict. ‘eval_str’ controls whether or not values of type ‘str’ are replaced with the result of calling *note eval(): 180. on those values: * If eval_str is true, *note eval(): 180. is called on values of type ‘str’. (Note that ‘get_annotations’ doesn’t catch exceptions; if *note eval(): 180. raises an exception, it will unwind the stack past the ‘get_annotations’ call.) * If eval_str is false (the default), values of type ‘str’ are unchanged. ‘globals’ and ‘locals’ are passed in to *note eval(): 180.; see the documentation for *note eval(): 180. for more information. If ‘globals’ or ‘locals’ is ‘None’, this function may replace that value with a context-specific default, contingent on ‘type(obj)’: * If ‘obj’ is a module, ‘globals’ defaults to ‘obj.__dict__’. * If ‘obj’ is a class, ‘globals’ defaults to ‘sys.modules[obj.__module__].__dict__’ and ‘locals’ defaults to the ‘obj’ class namespace. * If ‘obj’ is a callable, ‘globals’ defaults to *note obj.__globals__: 12c6, although if ‘obj’ is a wrapped function (using *note functools.update_wrapper(): 101b.) it is first unwrapped. Calling ‘get_annotations’ is best practice for accessing the annotations dict of any object. See *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. for more information on annotations best practices. Added in version 3.10.  File: python.info, Node: The interpreter stack, Next: Fetching attributes statically, Prev: Classes and functions<2>, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.5 The interpreter stack ............................... Some of the following functions return *note FrameInfo: 648. objects. For backwards compatibility these objects allow tuple-like operations on all attributes except ‘positions’. This behavior is considered deprecated and may be removed in the future. -- Class: inspect.FrameInfo -- Attribute: frame The *note frame object: 6db. that the record corresponds to. -- Attribute: filename The file name associated with the code being executed by the frame this record corresponds to. -- Attribute: lineno The line number of the current line associated with the code being executed by the frame this record corresponds to. -- Attribute: function The function name that is being executed by the frame this record corresponds to. -- Attribute: code_context A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being executed by the frame this record corresponds to. -- Attribute: index The index of the current line being executed in the *note code_context: 44ba. list. -- Attribute: positions A *note dis.Positions: 44bd. object containing the start line number, end line number, start column offset, and end column offset associated with the instruction being executed by the frame this record corresponds to. Changed in version 3.5: Return a *note named tuple: 64a. instead of a *note tuple: 36b. Changed in version 3.11: ‘FrameInfo’ is now a class instance (that is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 64a.). -- Class: inspect.Traceback -- Attribute: filename The file name associated with the code being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to. -- Attribute: lineno The line number of the current line associated with the code being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to. -- Attribute: function The function name that is being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to. -- Attribute: code_context A list of lines of context from the source code that’s being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to. -- Attribute: index The index of the current line being executed in the *note code_context: 44c1. list. -- Attribute: positions A *note dis.Positions: 44bd. object containing the start line number, end line number, start column offset, and end column offset associated with the instruction being executed by the frame this traceback corresponds to. Changed in version 3.11: ‘Traceback’ is now a class instance (that is backwards compatible with the previous *note named tuple: 64a.). Note: Keeping references to frame objects, as found in the first element of the frame records these functions return, can cause your program to create reference cycles. Once a reference cycle has been created, the lifespan of all objects which can be accessed from the objects which form the cycle can become much longer even if Python’s optional cycle detector is enabled. If such cycles must be created, it is important to ensure they are explicitly broken to avoid the delayed destruction of objects and increased memory consumption which occurs. Though the cycle detector will catch these, destruction of the frames (and local variables) can be made deterministic by removing the cycle in a *note finally: 9ca. clause. This is also important if the cycle detector was disabled when Python was compiled or using *note gc.disable(): 447e. For example: def handle_stackframe_without_leak(): frame = inspect.currentframe() try: # do something with the frame finally: del frame If you want to keep the frame around (for example to print a traceback later), you can also break reference cycles by using the *note frame.clear(): 282. method. The optional 'context' argument supported by most of these functions specifies the number of lines of context to return, which are centered around the current line. -- Function: inspect.getframeinfo (frame, context=1) Get information about a frame or traceback object. A *note Traceback: 649. object is returned. Changed in version 3.11: A *note Traceback: 649. object is returned instead of a named tuple. -- Function: inspect.getouterframes (frame, context=1) Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects for a frame and all outer frames. These frames represent the calls that lead to the creation of 'frame'. The first entry in the returned list represents 'frame'; the last entry represents the outermost call on 'frame'’s stack. Changed in version 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: 64a. ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’ is returned. Changed in version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects is returned. -- Function: inspect.getinnerframes (traceback, context=1) Get a list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects for a traceback’s frame and all inner frames. These frames represent calls made as a consequence of 'frame'. The first entry in the list represents 'traceback'; the last entry represents where the exception was raised. Changed in version 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: 64a. ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’ is returned. Changed in version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects is returned. -- Function: inspect.currentframe () Return the frame object for the caller’s stack frame. 'CPython implementation detail:' This function relies on Python stack frame support in the interpreter, which isn’t guaranteed to exist in all implementations of Python. If running in an implementation without Python stack frame support this function returns ‘None’. -- Function: inspect.stack (context=1) Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects for the caller’s stack. The first entry in the returned list represents the caller; the last entry represents the outermost call on the stack. Changed in version 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: 64a. ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’ is returned. Changed in version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects is returned. -- Function: inspect.trace (context=1) Return a list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects for the stack between the current frame and the frame in which an exception currently being handled was raised in. The first entry in the list represents the caller; the last entry represents where the exception was raised. Changed in version 3.5: A list of *note named tuples: 64a. ‘FrameInfo(frame, filename, lineno, function, code_context, index)’ is returned. Changed in version 3.11: A list of *note FrameInfo: 648. objects is returned.  File: python.info, Node: Fetching attributes statically, Next: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators, Prev: The interpreter stack, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.6 Fetching attributes statically ........................................ Both *note getattr(): bd1. and *note hasattr(): 4ce. can trigger code execution when fetching or checking for the existence of attributes. Descriptors, like properties, will be invoked and *note __getattr__(): 4cf. and *note __getattribute__(): bd2. may be called. For cases where you want passive introspection, like documentation tools, this can be inconvenient. *note getattr_static(): 490. has the same signature as *note getattr(): bd1. but avoids executing code when it fetches attributes. -- Function: inspect.getattr_static (obj, attr, default=None) Retrieve attributes without triggering dynamic lookup via the descriptor protocol, *note __getattr__(): 4cf. or *note __getattribute__(): bd2. Note: this function may not be able to retrieve all attributes that getattr can fetch (like dynamically created attributes) and may find attributes that getattr can’t (like descriptors that raise AttributeError). It can also return descriptors objects instead of instance members. If the instance *note __dict__: 558. is shadowed by another member (for example a property) then this function will be unable to find instance members. Added in version 3.2. *note getattr_static(): 490. does not resolve descriptors, for example slot descriptors or getset descriptors on objects implemented in C. The descriptor object is returned instead of the underlying attribute. You can handle these with code like the following. Note that for arbitrary getset descriptors invoking these may trigger code execution: # example code for resolving the builtin descriptor types class _foo: __slots__ = ['foo'] slot_descriptor = type(_foo.foo) getset_descriptor = type(type(open(__file__)).name) wrapper_descriptor = type(str.__dict__['__add__']) descriptor_types = (slot_descriptor, getset_descriptor, wrapper_descriptor) result = getattr_static(some_object, 'foo') if type(result) in descriptor_types: try: result = result.__get__() except AttributeError: # descriptors can raise AttributeError to # indicate there is no underlying value # in which case the descriptor itself will # have to do pass  File: python.info, Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators, Next: Code Objects Bit Flags, Prev: Fetching attributes statically, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.7 Current State of Generators, Coroutines, and Asynchronous Generators .............................................................................. When implementing coroutine schedulers and for other advanced uses of generators, it is useful to determine whether a generator is currently executing, is waiting to start or resume or execution, or has already terminated. *note getgeneratorstate(): 1229. allows the current state of a generator to be determined easily. -- Function: inspect.getgeneratorstate (generator) Get current state of a generator-iterator. Possible states are: * GEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. * GEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. * GEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression. * GEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: inspect.getcoroutinestate (coroutine) Get current state of a coroutine object. The function is intended to be used with coroutine objects created by *note async def: 5cd. functions, but will accept any coroutine-like object that has ‘cr_running’ and ‘cr_frame’ attributes. Possible states are: * CORO_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. * CORO_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. * CORO_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at an await expression. * CORO_CLOSED: Execution has completed. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: inspect.getasyncgenstate (agen) Get current state of an asynchronous generator object. The function is intended to be used with asynchronous iterator objects created by *note async def: 5cd. functions which use the *note yield: 9cd. statement, but will accept any asynchronous generator-like object that has ‘ag_running’ and ‘ag_frame’ attributes. Possible states are: * AGEN_CREATED: Waiting to start execution. * AGEN_RUNNING: Currently being executed by the interpreter. * AGEN_SUSPENDED: Currently suspended at a yield expression. * AGEN_CLOSED: Execution has completed. Added in version 3.12. The current internal state of the generator can also be queried. This is mostly useful for testing purposes, to ensure that internal state is being updated as expected: -- Function: inspect.getgeneratorlocals (generator) Get the mapping of live local variables in 'generator' to their current values. A dictionary is returned that maps from variable names to values. This is the equivalent of calling *note locals(): 141. in the body of the generator, and all the same caveats apply. If 'generator' is a *note generator: 105a. with no currently associated frame, then an empty dictionary is returned. *note TypeError: 534. is raised if 'generator' is not a Python generator object. 'CPython implementation detail:' This function relies on the generator exposing a Python stack frame for introspection, which isn’t guaranteed to be the case in all implementations of Python. In such cases, this function will always return an empty dictionary. Added in version 3.3. -- Function: inspect.getcoroutinelocals (coroutine) This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10cc, but works for coroutine objects created by *note async def: 5cd. functions. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: inspect.getasyncgenlocals (agen) This function is analogous to *note getgeneratorlocals(): 10cc, but works for asynchronous generator objects created by *note async def: 5cd. functions which use the *note yield: 9cd. statement. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Code Objects Bit Flags, Next: Buffer flags, Prev: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.8 Code Objects Bit Flags ................................ Python code objects have a *note co_flags: 1f44. attribute, which is a bitmap of the following flags: -- Data: inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED The code object is optimized, using fast locals. -- Data: inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS If set, a new dict will be created for the frame’s *note f_locals: 182. when the code object is executed. -- Data: inspect.CO_VARARGS The code object has a variable positional parameter (‘*args’-like). -- Data: inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS The code object has a variable keyword parameter (‘**kwargs’-like). -- Data: inspect.CO_NESTED The flag is set when the code object is a nested function. -- Data: inspect.CO_GENERATOR The flag is set when the code object is a generator function, i.e. a generator object is returned when the code object is executed. -- Data: inspect.CO_COROUTINE The flag is set when the code object is a coroutine function. When the code object is executed it returns a coroutine object. See PEP 492(1) for more details. Added in version 3.5. -- Data: inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE The flag is used to transform generators into generator-based coroutines. Generator objects with this flag can be used in ‘await’ expression, and can ‘yield from’ coroutine objects. See PEP 492(2) for more details. Added in version 3.5. -- Data: inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR The flag is set when the code object is an asynchronous generator function. When the code object is executed it returns an asynchronous generator object. See PEP 525(3) for more details. Added in version 3.6. Note: The flags are specific to CPython, and may not be defined in other Python implementations. Furthermore, the flags are an implementation detail, and can be removed or deprecated in future Python releases. It’s recommended to use public APIs from the *note inspect: 7e. module for any introspection needs. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/  File: python.info, Node: Buffer flags, Next: Command Line Interface<3>, Prev: Code Objects Bit Flags, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.9 Buffer flags ...................... -- Class: inspect.BufferFlags This is an *note enum.IntFlag: 22fa. that represents the flags that can be passed to the *note __buffer__(): 45a. method of objects implementing the *note buffer protocol: 393. The meaning of the flags is explained at *note Buffer request types: 44d1. -- Attribute: SIMPLE -- Attribute: WRITABLE -- Attribute: FORMAT -- Attribute: ND -- Attribute: STRIDES -- Attribute: C_CONTIGUOUS -- Attribute: F_CONTIGUOUS -- Attribute: ANY_CONTIGUOUS -- Attribute: INDIRECT -- Attribute: CONTIG -- Attribute: CONTIG_RO -- Attribute: STRIDED -- Attribute: STRIDED_RO -- Attribute: RECORDS -- Attribute: RECORDS_RO -- Attribute: FULL -- Attribute: FULL_RO -- Attribute: READ -- Attribute: WRITE Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Command Line Interface<3>, Prev: Buffer flags, Up: inspect — Inspect live objects 5.30.14.10 Command Line Interface ................................. The *note inspect: 7e. module also provides a basic introspection capability from the command line. By default, accepts the name of a module and prints the source of that module. A class or function within the module can be printed instead by appended a colon and the qualified name of the target object. -- Option: --details Print information about the specified object rather than the source code  File: python.info, Node: site — Site-specific configuration hook, Prev: inspect — Inspect live objects, Up: Python Runtime Services 5.30.15 ‘site’ — Site-specific configuration hook ------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/site.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ 'This module is automatically imported during initialization.' The automatic import can be suppressed using the interpreter’s *note -S: 119b. option. Importing this module normally appends site-specific paths to the module search path and adds *note callables: 2187, including *note help(): 8d6. to the built-in namespace. However, Python startup option *note -S: 119b. blocks this and this module can be safely imported with no automatic modifications to the module search path or additions to the builtins. To explicitly trigger the usual site-specific additions, call the *note main(): 1d36. function. Changed in version 3.3: Importing the module used to trigger paths manipulation even when using *note -S: 119b. It starts by constructing up to four directories from a head and a tail part. For the head part, it uses ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’; empty heads are skipped. For the tail part, it uses the empty string and then ‘lib/site-packages’ (on Windows) or ‘lib/python`X.Y[t]'/site-packages’ (on Unix and macOS). (The optional suffix “t” indicates the *note free threading: 1522. build, and is appended if ‘"t"’ is present in the *note sys.abiflags: a63. constant.) For each of the distinct head-tail combinations, it sees if it refers to an existing directory, and if so, adds it to ‘sys.path’ and also inspects the newly added path for configuration files. Changed in version 3.5: Support for the “site-python” directory has been removed. Changed in version 3.13: On Unix, *note Free threading: 1522. Python installations are identified by the “t” suffix in the version-specific directory name, such as ‘lib/python3.13t/’. If a file named “pyvenv.cfg” exists one directory above sys.executable, sys.prefix and sys.exec_prefix are set to that directory and it is also checked for site-packages (sys.base_prefix and sys.base_exec_prefix will always be the “real” prefixes of the Python installation). If “pyvenv.cfg” (a bootstrap configuration file) contains the key “include-system-site-packages” set to anything other than “true” (case-insensitive), the system-level prefixes will not be searched for site-packages; otherwise they will. A path configuration file is a file whose name has the form ‘`name'.pth’ and exists in one of the four directories mentioned above; its contents are additional items (one per line) to be added to ‘sys.path’. Non-existing items are never added to ‘sys.path’, and no check is made that the item refers to a directory rather than a file. No item is added to ‘sys.path’ more than once. Blank lines and lines beginning with ‘#’ are skipped. Lines starting with ‘import’ (followed by space or tab) are executed. Note: An executable line in a ‘.pth’ file is run at every Python startup, regardless of whether a particular module is actually going to be used. Its impact should thus be kept to a minimum. The primary intended purpose of executable lines is to make the corresponding module(s) importable (load 3rd-party import hooks, adjust ‘PATH’ etc). Any other initialization is supposed to be done upon a module’s actual import, if and when it happens. Limiting a code chunk to a single line is a deliberate measure to discourage putting anything more complex here. Changed in version 3.13: The ‘.pth’ files are now decoded by UTF-8 at first and then by the *note locale encoding: 244. if it fails. For example, suppose ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ are set to ‘/usr/local’. The Python X.Y library is then installed in ‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’. Suppose this has a subdirectory ‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'/site-packages’ with three subsubdirectories, ‘foo’, ‘bar’ and ‘spam’, and two path configuration files, ‘foo.pth’ and ‘bar.pth’. Assume ‘foo.pth’ contains the following: # foo package configuration foo bar bletch and ‘bar.pth’ contains: # bar package configuration bar Then the following version-specific directories are added to ‘sys.path’, in this order: /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/bar /usr/local/lib/pythonX.Y/site-packages/foo Note that ‘bletch’ is omitted because it doesn’t exist; the ‘bar’ directory precedes the ‘foo’ directory because ‘bar.pth’ comes alphabetically before ‘foo.pth’; and ‘spam’ is omitted because it is not mentioned in either path configuration file. * Menu: * sitecustomize:: * usercustomize:: * Readline configuration:: * Module contents: Module contents<5>. * Command Line Interface: Command Line Interface<4>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/site.py  File: python.info, Node: sitecustomize, Next: usercustomize, Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook 5.30.15.1 ‘sitecustomize’ ......................... After these path manipulations, an attempt is made to import a module named *note sitecustomize: c8, which can perform arbitrary site-specific customizations. It is typically created by a system administrator in the site-packages directory. If this import fails with an *note ImportError: 415. or its subclass exception, and the exception’s *note name: 2288. attribute equals to ‘'sitecustomize'’, it is silently ignored. If Python is started without output streams available, as with ‘pythonw.exe’ on Windows (which is used by default to start IDLE), attempted output from *note sitecustomize: c8. is ignored. Any other exception causes a silent and perhaps mysterious failure of the process.  File: python.info, Node: usercustomize, Next: Readline configuration, Prev: sitecustomize, Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook 5.30.15.2 ‘usercustomize’ ......................... After this, an attempt is made to import a module named *note usercustomize: 10e, which can perform arbitrary user-specific customizations, if *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 44e9. is true. This file is intended to be created in the user site-packages directory (see below), which is part of ‘sys.path’ unless disabled by *note -s: 1377. If this import fails with an *note ImportError: 415. or its subclass exception, and the exception’s *note name: 2288. attribute equals to ‘'usercustomize'’, it is silently ignored. Note that for some non-Unix systems, ‘sys.prefix’ and ‘sys.exec_prefix’ are empty, and the path manipulations are skipped; however the import of *note sitecustomize: c8. and *note usercustomize: 10e. is still attempted.  File: python.info, Node: Readline configuration, Next: Module contents<5>, Prev: usercustomize, Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook 5.30.15.3 Readline configuration ................................ On systems that support *note readline: ba, this module will also import and configure the *note rlcompleter: bd. module, if Python is started in *note interactive mode: fc1. and without the *note -S: 119b. option. The default behavior is enable tab-completion and to use ‘~/.python_history’ as the history save file. To disable it, delete (or override) the *note sys.__interactivehook__: fc2. attribute in your *note sitecustomize: c8. or *note usercustomize: 10e. module or your *note PYTHONSTARTUP: fc3. file. Changed in version 3.4: Activation of rlcompleter and history was made automatic.  File: python.info, Node: Module contents<5>, Next: Command Line Interface<4>, Prev: Readline configuration, Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook 5.30.15.4 Module contents ......................... -- Data: site.PREFIXES A list of prefixes for site-packages directories. -- Data: site.ENABLE_USER_SITE Flag showing the status of the user site-packages directory. ‘True’ means that it is enabled and was added to ‘sys.path’. ‘False’ means that it was disabled by user request (with *note -s: 1377. or *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1378.). ‘None’ means it was disabled for security reasons (mismatch between user or group id and effective id) or by an administrator. -- Data: site.USER_SITE Path to the user site-packages for the running Python. Can be ‘None’ if *note getusersitepackages(): 1233. hasn’t been called yet. Default value is ‘~/.local/lib/python`X.Y'[t]/site-packages’ for UNIX and non-framework macOS builds, ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'/lib/python/site-packages’ for macOS framework builds, and ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python\Python`XY'\site-packages’ on Windows. The optional “t” indicates the free-threaded build. This directory is a site directory, which means that ‘.pth’ files in it will be processed. -- Data: site.USER_BASE Path to the base directory for the user site-packages. Can be ‘None’ if *note getuserbase(): 1232. hasn’t been called yet. Default value is ‘~/.local’ for UNIX and macOS non-framework builds, ‘~/Library/Python/`X.Y'’ for macOS framework builds, and ‘`%APPDATA%'\Python’ for Windows. This value is used to compute the installation directories for scripts, data files, Python modules, etc. for the *note user installation scheme: 1d47. See also *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1376. -- Function: site.main () Adds all the standard site-specific directories to the module search path. This function is called automatically when this module is imported, unless the Python interpreter was started with the *note -S: 119b. flag. Changed in version 3.3: This function used to be called unconditionally. -- Function: site.addsitedir (sitedir, known_paths=None) Add a directory to sys.path and process its ‘.pth’ files. Typically used in *note sitecustomize: c8. or *note usercustomize: 10e. (see above). -- Function: site.getsitepackages () Return a list containing all global site-packages directories. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: site.getuserbase () Return the path of the user base directory, *note USER_BASE: 130f. If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it, respecting *note PYTHONUSERBASE: 1376. Added in version 3.2. -- Function: site.getusersitepackages () Return the path of the user-specific site-packages directory, *note USER_SITE: 1d35. If it is not initialized yet, this function will also set it, respecting *note USER_BASE: 130f. To determine if the user-specific site-packages was added to ‘sys.path’ *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 44e9. should be used. Added in version 3.2.  File: python.info, Node: Command Line Interface<4>, Prev: Module contents<5>, Up: site — Site-specific configuration hook 5.30.15.5 Command Line Interface ................................ The *note site: c7. module also provides a way to get the user directories from the command line: $ python -m site --user-site /home/user/.local/lib/python3.11/site-packages If it is called without arguments, it will print the contents of *note sys.path: 3b0. on the standard output, followed by the value of *note USER_BASE: 130f. and whether the directory exists, then the same thing for *note USER_SITE: 1d35, and finally the value of *note ENABLE_USER_SITE: 44e9. -- Option: --user-base Print the path to the user base directory. -- Option: --user-site Print the path to the user site-packages directory. If both options are given, user base and user site will be printed (always in this order), separated by *note os.pathsep: 1d44. If any option is given, the script will exit with one of these values: ‘0’ if the user site-packages directory is enabled, ‘1’ if it was disabled by the user, ‘2’ if it is disabled for security reasons or by an administrator, and a value greater than 2 if there is an error. See also ........ * PEP 370(1) – Per user site-packages directory * *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1c60. – The initialization of *note sys.path: 3b0. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0370/  File: python.info, Node: Custom Python Interpreters, Next: Importing Modules, Prev: Python Runtime Services, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.31 Custom Python Interpreters =============================== The modules described in this chapter allow writing interfaces similar to Python’s interactive interpreter. If you want a Python interpreter that supports some special feature in addition to the Python language, you should look at the *note code: 1a. module. (The *note codeop: 1c. module is lower-level, used to support compiling a possibly incomplete chunk of Python code.) The full list of modules described in this chapter is: * Menu: * code — Interpreter base classes:: * codeop — Compile Python code::  File: python.info, Node: code — Interpreter base classes, Next: codeop — Compile Python code, Up: Custom Python Interpreters 5.31.1 ‘code’ — Interpreter base classes ---------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/code.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The ‘code’ module provides facilities to implement read-eval-print loops in Python. Two classes and convenience functions are included which can be used to build applications which provide an interactive interpreter prompt. -- Class: code.InteractiveInterpreter (locals=None) This class deals with parsing and interpreter state (the user’s namespace); it does not deal with input buffering or prompting or input file naming (the filename is always passed in explicitly). The optional 'locals' argument specifies a mapping to use as the namespace in which code will be executed; it defaults to a newly created dictionary with key ‘'__name__'’ set to ‘'__console__'’ and key ‘'__doc__'’ set to ‘None’. Note that functions and classes objects created under an ‘InteractiveInterpreter’ instance will belong to the namespace specified by 'locals'. They are only pickleable if 'locals' is the namespace of an existing module. -- Class: code.InteractiveConsole (locals=None, filename='<console>', local_exit=False) Closely emulate the behavior of the interactive Python interpreter. This class builds on *note InteractiveInterpreter: 15da. and adds prompting using the familiar ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’, and input buffering. If 'local_exit' is true, ‘exit()’ and ‘quit()’ in the console will not raise *note SystemExit: d40, but instead return to the calling code. Changed in version 3.13: Added 'local_exit' parameter. -- Function: code.interact (banner=None, readfunc=None, local=None, exitmsg=None, local_exit=False) Convenience function to run a read-eval-print loop. This creates a new instance of *note InteractiveConsole: 239c. and sets 'readfunc' to be used as the *note InteractiveConsole.raw_input(): 44f6. method, if provided. If 'local' is provided, it is passed to the *note InteractiveConsole: 239c. constructor for use as the default namespace for the interpreter loop. If 'local_exit' is provided, it is passed to the *note InteractiveConsole: 239c. constructor. The *note interact(): 44f7. method of the instance is then run with 'banner' and 'exitmsg' passed as the banner and exit message to use, if provided. The console object is discarded after use. Changed in version 3.6: Added 'exitmsg' parameter. Changed in version 3.13: Added 'local_exit' parameter. -- Function: code.compile_command (source, filename='<input>', symbol='single') This function is useful for programs that want to emulate Python’s interpreter main loop (a.k.a. the read-eval-print loop). The tricky part is to determine when the user has entered an incomplete command that can be completed by entering more text (as opposed to a complete command or a syntax error). This function 'almost' always makes the same decision as the real interpreter main loop. 'source' is the source string; 'filename' is the optional filename from which source was read, defaulting to ‘'<input>'’; and 'symbol' is the optional grammar start symbol, which should be ‘'single'’ (the default), ‘'eval'’ or ‘'exec'’. Returns a code object (the same as ‘compile(source, filename, symbol)’) if the command is complete and valid; ‘None’ if the command is incomplete; raises *note SyntaxError: 18d. if the command is complete and contains a syntax error, or raises *note OverflowError: 87f. or *note ValueError: 204. if the command contains an invalid literal. * Menu: * Interactive Interpreter Objects:: * Interactive Console Objects:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/code.py  File: python.info, Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects, Next: Interactive Console Objects, Up: code — Interpreter base classes 5.31.1.1 Interactive Interpreter Objects ........................................ -- Method: InteractiveInterpreter.runsource (source, filename='<input>', symbol='single') Compile and run some source in the interpreter. Arguments are the same as for *note compile_command(): 44f8.; the default for 'filename' is ‘'<input>'’, and for 'symbol' is ‘'single'’. One of several things can happen: * The input is incorrect; *note compile_command(): 44f8. raised an exception (*note SyntaxError: 18d. or *note OverflowError: 87f.). A syntax traceback will be printed by calling the *note showsyntaxerror(): 44fc. method. *note runsource(): 44fb. returns ‘False’. * The input is incomplete, and more input is required; *note compile_command(): 44f8. returned ‘None’. *note runsource(): 44fb. returns ‘True’. * The input is complete; *note compile_command(): 44f8. returned a code object. The code is executed by calling the *note runcode(): 44fd. (which also handles run-time exceptions, except for *note SystemExit: d40.). *note runsource(): 44fb. returns ‘False’. The return value can be used to decide whether to use ‘sys.ps1’ or ‘sys.ps2’ to prompt the next line. -- Method: InteractiveInterpreter.runcode (code) Execute a code object. When an exception occurs, *note showtraceback(): dcf. is called to display a traceback. All exceptions are caught except *note SystemExit: d40, which is allowed to propagate. A note about *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1.: this exception may occur elsewhere in this code, and may not always be caught. The caller should be prepared to deal with it. -- Method: InteractiveInterpreter.showsyntaxerror (filename=None) Display the syntax error that just occurred. This does not display a stack trace because there isn’t one for syntax errors. If 'filename' is given, it is stuffed into the exception instead of the default filename provided by Python’s parser, because it always uses ‘'<string>'’ when reading from a string. The output is written by the *note write(): 44fe. method. -- Method: InteractiveInterpreter.showtraceback () Display the exception that just occurred. We remove the first stack item because it is within the interpreter object implementation. The output is written by the *note write(): 44fe. method. Changed in version 3.5: The full chained traceback is displayed instead of just the primary traceback. -- Method: InteractiveInterpreter.write (data) Write a string to the standard error stream (‘sys.stderr’). Derived classes should override this to provide the appropriate output handling as needed.  File: python.info, Node: Interactive Console Objects, Prev: Interactive Interpreter Objects, Up: code — Interpreter base classes 5.31.1.2 Interactive Console Objects .................................... The *note InteractiveConsole: 239c. class is a subclass of *note InteractiveInterpreter: 15da, and so offers all the methods of the interpreter objects as well as the following additions. -- Method: InteractiveConsole.interact (banner=None, exitmsg=None) Closely emulate the interactive Python console. The optional 'banner' argument specify the banner to print before the first interaction; by default it prints a banner similar to the one printed by the standard Python interpreter, followed by the class name of the console object in parentheses (so as not to confuse this with the real interpreter – since it’s so close!). The optional 'exitmsg' argument specifies an exit message printed when exiting. Pass the empty string to suppress the exit message. If 'exitmsg' is not given or ‘None’, a default message is printed. Changed in version 3.4: To suppress printing any banner, pass an empty string. Changed in version 3.6: Print an exit message when exiting. -- Method: InteractiveConsole.push (line) Push a line of source text to the interpreter. The line should not have a trailing newline; it may have internal newlines. The line is appended to a buffer and the interpreter’s *note runsource(): 44fb. method is called with the concatenated contents of the buffer as source. If this indicates that the command was executed or invalid, the buffer is reset; otherwise, the command is incomplete, and the buffer is left as it was after the line was appended. The return value is ‘True’ if more input is required, ‘False’ if the line was dealt with in some way (this is the same as ‘runsource()’). -- Method: InteractiveConsole.resetbuffer () Remove any unhandled source text from the input buffer. -- Method: InteractiveConsole.raw_input (prompt='') Write a prompt and read a line. The returned line does not include the trailing newline. When the user enters the EOF key sequence, *note EOFError: 12cc. is raised. The base implementation reads from ‘sys.stdin’; a subclass may replace this with a different implementation.  File: python.info, Node: codeop — Compile Python code, Prev: code — Interpreter base classes, Up: Custom Python Interpreters 5.31.2 ‘codeop’ — Compile Python code ------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/codeop.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note codeop: 1c. module provides utilities upon which the Python read-eval-print loop can be emulated, as is done in the *note code: 1a. module. As a result, you probably don’t want to use the module directly; if you want to include such a loop in your program you probably want to use the *note code: 1a. module instead. There are two parts to this job: 1. Being able to tell if a line of input completes a Python statement: in short, telling whether to print ‘‘>>>’’ or ‘‘...’’ next. 2. Remembering which future statements the user has entered, so subsequent input can be compiled with these in effect. The *note codeop: 1c. module provides a way of doing each of these things, and a way of doing them both. To do just the former: -- Function: codeop.compile_command (source, filename='<input>', symbol='single') Tries to compile 'source', which should be a string of Python code and return a code object if 'source' is valid Python code. In that case, the filename attribute of the code object will be 'filename', which defaults to ‘'<input>'’. Returns ‘None’ if 'source' is 'not' valid Python code, but is a prefix of valid Python code. If there is a problem with 'source', an exception will be raised. *note SyntaxError: 18d. is raised if there is invalid Python syntax, and *note OverflowError: 87f. or *note ValueError: 204. if there is an invalid literal. The 'symbol' argument determines whether 'source' is compiled as a statement (‘'single'’, the default), as a sequence of *note statement: 278b. (‘'exec'’) or as an *note expression: 1f85. (‘'eval'’). Any other value will cause *note ValueError: 204. to be raised. Note: It is possible (but not likely) that the parser stops parsing with a successful outcome before reaching the end of the source; in this case, trailing symbols may be ignored instead of causing an error. For example, a backslash followed by two newlines may be followed by arbitrary garbage. This will be fixed once the API for the parser is better. -- Class: codeop.Compile Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 555. methods identical in signature to the built-in function *note compile(): 192, but with the difference that if the instance compiles program text containing a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance ‘remembers’ and compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force. -- Class: codeop.CommandCompiler Instances of this class have *note __call__(): 555. methods identical in signature to *note compile_command(): 17c8.; the difference is that if the instance compiles program text containing a *note __future__: 0. statement, the instance ‘remembers’ and compiles all subsequent program texts with the statement in force. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/codeop.py  File: python.info, Node: Importing Modules, Next: Python Language Services, Prev: Custom Python Interpreters, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.32 Importing Modules ====================== The modules described in this chapter provide new ways to import other Python modules and hooks for customizing the import process. The full list of modules described in this chapter is: * Menu: * zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives:: * pkgutil — Package extension utility:: * modulefinder — Find modules used by a script:: * runpy — Locating and executing Python modules:: * importlib — The implementation of import:: * importlib.resources – Package resource reading, opening and access: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access. * importlib.resources.abc – Abstract base classes for resources: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. * importlib.metadata – Accessing package metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata. * The initialization of the sys.path module search path: The initialization of the sys path module search path.  File: python.info, Node: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives, Next: pkgutil — Package extension utility, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.1 ‘zipimport’ — Import modules from Zip archives ----------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/zipimport.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module adds the ability to import Python modules (‘*.py’, ‘*.pyc’) and packages from ZIP-format archives. It is usually not needed to use the *note zipimport: 132. module explicitly; it is automatically used by the built-in *note import: 5de. mechanism for *note sys.path: 3b0. items that are paths to ZIP archives. Typically, *note sys.path: 3b0. is a list of directory names as strings. This module also allows an item of *note sys.path: 3b0. to be a string naming a ZIP file archive. The ZIP archive can contain a subdirectory structure to support package imports, and a path within the archive can be specified to only import from a subdirectory. For example, the path ‘example.zip/lib/’ would only import from the ‘lib/’ subdirectory within the archive. Any files may be present in the ZIP archive, but importers are only invoked for ‘.py’ and ‘.pyc’ files. ZIP import of dynamic modules (‘.pyd’, ‘.so’) is disallowed. Note that if an archive only contains ‘.py’ files, Python will not attempt to modify the archive by adding the corresponding ‘.pyc’ file, meaning that if a ZIP archive doesn’t contain ‘.pyc’ files, importing may be rather slow. Changed in version 3.13: ZIP64 is supported Changed in version 3.8: Previously, ZIP archives with an archive comment were not supported. See also ........ PKZIP Application Note(2) Documentation on the ZIP file format by Phil Katz, the creator of the format and algorithms used. PEP 273(3) - Import Modules from Zip Archives Written by James C. Ahlstrom, who also provided an implementation. Python 2.3 follows the specification in PEP 273(4), but uses an implementation written by Just van Rossum that uses the import hooks described in PEP 302(5). *note importlib: 77. - The implementation of the import machinery Package providing the relevant protocols for all importers to implement. This module defines an exception: -- Exception: zipimport.ZipImportError Exception raised by zipimporter objects. It’s a subclass of *note ImportError: 415, so it can be caught as *note ImportError: 415, too. * Menu: * zipimporter Objects:: * Examples: Examples<33>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/zipimport.py (2) https://pkware.cachefly.net/webdocs/casestudies/APPNOTE.TXT (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0273/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/  File: python.info, Node: zipimporter Objects, Next: Examples<33>, Up: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives 5.32.1.1 zipimporter Objects ............................ *note zipimporter: 450f. is the class for importing ZIP files. -- Class: zipimport.zipimporter (archivepath) Create a new zipimporter instance. 'archivepath' must be a path to a ZIP file, or to a specific path within a ZIP file. For example, an 'archivepath' of ‘foo/bar.zip/lib’ will look for modules in the ‘lib’ directory inside the ZIP file ‘foo/bar.zip’ (provided that it exists). *note ZipImportError: 450c. is raised if 'archivepath' doesn’t point to a valid ZIP archive. Changed in version 3.12: Methods ‘find_loader()’ and ‘find_module()’, deprecated in 3.10 are now removed. Use *note find_spec(): 85a. instead. -- Method: create_module (spec) Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.create_module(): cae. that returns *note None: 671. to explicitly request the default semantics. Added in version 3.10. -- Method: exec_module (module) Implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 867. Added in version 3.10. -- Method: find_spec (fullname, target=None) An implementation of *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.find_spec(): 869. Added in version 3.10. -- Method: get_code (fullname) Return the code object for the specified module. Raise *note ZipImportError: 450c. if the module couldn’t be imported. -- Method: get_data (pathname) Return the data associated with 'pathname'. Raise *note OSError: 413. if the file wasn’t found. Changed in version 3.3: *note IOError: 104b. used to be raised, it is now an alias of *note OSError: 413. -- Method: get_filename (fullname) Return the value ‘__file__’ would be set to if the specified module was imported. Raise *note ZipImportError: 450c. if the module couldn’t be imported. Added in version 3.1. -- Method: get_source (fullname) Return the source code for the specified module. Raise *note ZipImportError: 450c. if the module couldn’t be found, return *note None: 671. if the archive does contain the module, but has no source for it. -- Method: is_package (fullname) Return ‘True’ if the module specified by 'fullname' is a package. Raise *note ZipImportError: 450c. if the module couldn’t be found. -- Method: load_module (fullname) Load the module specified by 'fullname'. 'fullname' must be the fully qualified (dotted) module name. Returns the imported module on success, raises *note ZipImportError: 450c. on failure. Deprecated since version 3.10: Use *note exec_module(): 30c. instead. -- Method: invalidate_caches () Clear out the internal cache of information about files found within the ZIP archive. Added in version 3.10. -- Attribute: archive The file name of the importer’s associated ZIP file, without a possible subpath. -- Attribute: prefix The subpath within the ZIP file where modules are searched. This is the empty string for zipimporter objects which point to the root of the ZIP file. The *note archive: 4515. and *note prefix: 4516. attributes, when combined with a slash, equal the original 'archivepath' argument given to the *note zipimporter: 450f. constructor.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<33>, Prev: zipimporter Objects, Up: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives 5.32.1.2 Examples ................. Here is an example that imports a module from a ZIP archive - note that the *note zipimport: 132. module is not explicitly used. $ unzip -l example.zip Archive: example.zip Length Date Time Name -------- ---- ---- ---- 8467 11-26-02 22:30 jwzthreading.py -------- ------- 8467 1 file $ ./python Python 2.3 (#1, Aug 1 2003, 19:54:32) >>> import sys >>> sys.path.insert(0, 'example.zip') # Add .zip file to front of path >>> import jwzthreading >>> jwzthreading.__file__ 'example.zip/jwzthreading.py'  File: python.info, Node: pkgutil — Package extension utility, Next: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script, Prev: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.2 ‘pkgutil’ — Package extension utility -------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/pkgutil.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides utilities for the import system, in particular package support. -- Class: pkgutil.ModuleInfo (module_finder, name, ispkg) A namedtuple that holds a brief summary of a module’s info. Added in version 3.6. -- Function: pkgutil.extend_path (path, name) Extend the search path for the modules which comprise a package. Intended use is to place the following code in a package’s ‘__init__.py’: from pkgutil import extend_path __path__ = extend_path(__path__, __name__) For each directory on *note sys.path: 3b0. that has a subdirectory that matches the package name, add the subdirectory to the package’s *note __path__: 1c6e. This is useful if one wants to distribute different parts of a single logical package as multiple directories. It also looks for ‘*.pkg’ files beginning where ‘*’ matches the 'name' argument. This feature is similar to ‘*.pth’ files (see the *note site: c7. module for more information), except that it doesn’t special-case lines starting with ‘import’. A ‘*.pkg’ file is trusted at face value: apart from skipping blank lines and ignoring comments, all entries found in a ‘*.pkg’ file are added to the path, regardless of whether they exist on the filesystem (this is a feature). If the input path is not a list (as is the case for frozen packages) it is returned unchanged. The input path is not modified; an extended copy is returned. Items are only appended to the copy at the end. It is assumed that *note sys.path: 3b0. is a sequence. Items of *note sys.path: 3b0. that are not strings referring to existing directories are ignored. Unicode items on *note sys.path: 3b0. that cause errors when used as filenames may cause this function to raise an exception (in line with *note os.path.isdir(): a0f. behavior). -- Function: pkgutil.find_loader (fullname) Retrieve a module *note loader: 16b0. for the given 'fullname'. This is a backwards compatibility wrapper around *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. that converts most failures to *note ImportError: 415. and only returns the loader rather than the full *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e64. Changed in version 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note importlib: 77. rather than relying on the package internal PEP 302(2) import emulation. Changed in version 3.4: Updated to be based on PEP 451(3) Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. instead. -- Function: pkgutil.get_importer (path_item) Retrieve a *note finder: 1f1e. for the given 'path_item'. The returned finder is cached in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. if it was newly created by a path hook. The cache (or part of it) can be cleared manually if a rescan of *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. is necessary. Changed in version 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note importlib: 77. rather than relying on the package internal PEP 302(4) import emulation. -- Function: pkgutil.get_loader (module_or_name) Get a *note loader: 16b0. object for 'module_or_name'. If the module or package is accessible via the normal import mechanism, a wrapper around the relevant part of that machinery is returned. Returns ‘None’ if the module cannot be found or imported. If the named module is not already imported, its containing package (if any) is imported, in order to establish the package ‘__path__’. Changed in version 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note importlib: 77. rather than relying on the package internal PEP 302(5) import emulation. Changed in version 3.4: Updated to be based on PEP 451(6) Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. instead. -- Function: pkgutil.iter_importers (fullname='') Yield *note finder: 1f1e. objects for the given module name. If 'fullname' contains a ‘'.'’, the finders will be for the package containing 'fullname', otherwise they will be all registered top level finders (i.e. those on both *note sys.meta_path: d2b. and *note sys.path_hooks: 101d.). If the named module is in a package, that package is imported as a side effect of invoking this function. If no module name is specified, all top level finders are produced. Changed in version 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note importlib: 77. rather than relying on the package internal PEP 302(7) import emulation. -- Function: pkgutil.iter_modules (path=None, prefix='') Yields *note ModuleInfo: d4b. for all submodules on 'path', or, if 'path' is ‘None’, all top-level modules on *note sys.path: 3b0. 'path' should be either ‘None’ or a list of paths to look for modules in. 'prefix' is a string to output on the front of every module name on output. Note: Only works for a *note finder: 1f1e. which defines an ‘iter_modules()’ method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides implementations for *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 106b. and *note zipimport.zipimporter: 450f. Changed in version 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note importlib: 77. rather than relying on the package internal PEP 302(8) import emulation. -- Function: pkgutil.walk_packages (path=None, prefix='', onerror=None) Yields *note ModuleInfo: d4b. for all modules recursively on 'path', or, if 'path' is ‘None’, all accessible modules. 'path' should be either ‘None’ or a list of paths to look for modules in. 'prefix' is a string to output on the front of every module name on output. Note that this function must import all 'packages' ('not' all modules!) on the given 'path', in order to access the ‘__path__’ attribute to find submodules. 'onerror' is a function which gets called with one argument (the name of the package which was being imported) if any exception occurs while trying to import a package. If no 'onerror' function is supplied, *note ImportError: 415.s are caught and ignored, while all other exceptions are propagated, terminating the search. Examples: # list all modules python can access walk_packages() # list all submodules of ctypes walk_packages(ctypes.__path__, ctypes.__name__ + '.') Note: Only works for a *note finder: 1f1e. which defines an ‘iter_modules()’ method. This interface is non-standard, so the module also provides implementations for *note importlib.machinery.FileFinder: 106b. and *note zipimport.zipimporter: 450f. Changed in version 3.3: Updated to be based directly on *note importlib: 77. rather than relying on the package internal PEP 302(9) import emulation. -- Function: pkgutil.get_data (package, resource) Get a resource from a package. This is a wrapper for the *note loader: 16b0. *note get_data: 451d. API. The 'package' argument should be the name of a package, in standard module format (‘foo.bar’). The 'resource' argument should be in the form of a relative filename, using ‘/’ as the path separator. The parent directory name ‘..’ is not allowed, and nor is a rooted name (starting with a ‘/’). The function returns a binary string that is the contents of the specified resource. For packages located in the filesystem, which have already been imported, this is the rough equivalent of: d = os.path.dirname(sys.modules[package].__file__) data = open(os.path.join(d, resource), 'rb').read() If the package cannot be located or loaded, or it uses a *note loader: 16b0. which does not support *note get_data: 451d, then ‘None’ is returned. In particular, the *note loader: 16b0. for *note namespace packages: 1c68. does not support *note get_data: 451d. -- Function: pkgutil.resolve_name (name) Resolve a name to an object. This functionality is used in numerous places in the standard library (see bpo-12915(10)) - and equivalent functionality is also in widely used third-party packages such as setuptools, Django and Pyramid. It is expected that 'name' will be a string in one of the following formats, where W is shorthand for a valid Python identifier and dot stands for a literal period in these pseudo-regexes: * ‘W(.W)*’ * ‘W(.W)*:(W(.W)*)?’ The first form is intended for backward compatibility only. It assumes that some part of the dotted name is a package, and the rest is an object somewhere within that package, possibly nested inside other objects. Because the place where the package stops and the object hierarchy starts can’t be inferred by inspection, repeated attempts to import must be done with this form. In the second form, the caller makes the division point clear through the provision of a single colon: the dotted name to the left of the colon is a package to be imported, and the dotted name to the right is the object hierarchy within that package. Only one import is needed in this form. If it ends with the colon, then a module object is returned. The function will return an object (which might be a module), or raise one of the following exceptions: *note ValueError: 204. – if 'name' isn’t in a recognised format. *note ImportError: 415. – if an import failed when it shouldn’t have. *note AttributeError: 348. – If a failure occurred when traversing the object hierarchy within the imported package to get to the desired object. Added in version 3.9. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pkgutil.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (10) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=12915  File: python.info, Node: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script, Next: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules, Prev: pkgutil — Package extension utility, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.3 ‘modulefinder’ — Find modules used by a script ----------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/modulefinder.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides a *note ModuleFinder: 1a02. class that can be used to determine the set of modules imported by a script. ‘modulefinder.py’ can also be run as a script, giving the filename of a Python script as its argument, after which a report of the imported modules will be printed. -- Function: modulefinder.AddPackagePath (pkg_name, path) Record that the package named 'pkg_name' can be found in the specified 'path'. -- Function: modulefinder.ReplacePackage (oldname, newname) Allows specifying that the module named 'oldname' is in fact the package named 'newname'. -- Class: modulefinder.ModuleFinder (path=None, debug=0, excludes=[], replace_paths=[]) This class provides *note run_script(): 4523. and *note report(): 4524. methods to determine the set of modules imported by a script. 'path' can be a list of directories to search for modules; if not specified, ‘sys.path’ is used. 'debug' sets the debugging level; higher values make the class print debugging messages about what it’s doing. 'excludes' is a list of module names to exclude from the analysis. 'replace_paths' is a list of ‘(oldpath, newpath)’ tuples that will be replaced in module paths. -- Method: report () Print a report to standard output that lists the modules imported by the script and their paths, as well as modules that are missing or seem to be missing. -- Method: run_script (pathname) Analyze the contents of the 'pathname' file, which must contain Python code. -- Attribute: modules A dictionary mapping module names to modules. See *note Example usage of ModuleFinder: 4526. * Menu: * Example usage of ModuleFinder:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/modulefinder.py  File: python.info, Node: Example usage of ModuleFinder, Up: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script 5.32.3.1 Example usage of ‘ModuleFinder’ ........................................ The script that is going to get analyzed later on (bacon.py): import re, itertools try: import baconhameggs except ImportError: pass try: import guido.python.ham except ImportError: pass The script that will output the report of bacon.py: from modulefinder import ModuleFinder finder = ModuleFinder() finder.run_script('bacon.py') print('Loaded modules:') for name, mod in finder.modules.items(): print('%s: ' % name, end='') print(','.join(list(mod.globalnames.keys())[:3])) print('-'*50) print('Modules not imported:') print('\n'.join(finder.badmodules.keys())) Sample output (may vary depending on the architecture): Loaded modules: _types: copyreg: _inverted_registry,_slotnames,__all__ re._compiler: isstring,_sre,_optimize_unicode _sre: re._constants: REPEAT_ONE,makedict,AT_END_LINE sys: re: __module__,finditer,_expand itertools: __main__: re,itertools,baconhameggs re._parser: _PATTERNENDERS,SRE_FLAG_UNICODE array: types: __module__,IntType,TypeType --------------------------------------------------- Modules not imported: guido.python.ham baconhameggs  File: python.info, Node: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules, Next: importlib — The implementation of import, Prev: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.4 ‘runpy’ — Locating and executing Python modules ------------------------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/runpy.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note runpy: be. module is used to locate and run Python modules without importing them first. Its main use is to implement the *note -m: 5dd. command line switch that allows scripts to be located using the Python module namespace rather than the filesystem. Note that this is 'not' a sandbox module - all code is executed in the current process, and any side effects (such as cached imports of other modules) will remain in place after the functions have returned. Furthermore, any functions and classes defined by the executed code are not guaranteed to work correctly after a *note runpy: be. function has returned. If that limitation is not acceptable for a given use case, *note importlib: 77. is likely to be a more suitable choice than this module. The *note runpy: be. module provides two functions: -- Function: runpy.run_module (mod_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None, alter_sys=False) Execute the code of the specified module and return the resulting module’s globals dictionary. The module’s code is first located using the standard import mechanism (refer to PEP 302(2) for details) and then executed in a fresh module namespace. The 'mod_name' argument should be an absolute module name. If the module name refers to a package rather than a normal module, then that package is imported and the *note __main__: 1. submodule within that package is then executed and the resulting module globals dictionary returned. The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to pre-populate the module’s globals dictionary before the code is executed. 'init_globals' will not be modified. If any of the special global variables below are defined in 'init_globals', those definitions are overridden by *note run_module(): 180b. The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals dictionary before the module code is executed. (Note that this is a minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an interpreter implementation detail.) ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not *note None: 671, to ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’ if the named module is a package and to the 'mod_name' argument otherwise. ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the 'actually' imported module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be 'mod_name' or ‘mod_name + '.__main__'’, never 'run_name'). ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are *note set as normal: 1f14. based on the module spec. If the argument 'alter_sys' is supplied and evaluates to *note True: c0d, then ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of ‘__file__’ and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary module object for the module being executed. Both ‘sys.argv[0]’ and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ are restored to their original values before the function returns. Note that this manipulation of *note sys: d9. is not thread-safe. Other threads may see the partially initialised module, as well as the altered list of arguments. It is recommended that the ‘sys’ module be left alone when invoking this function from threaded code. See also ........ The *note -m: 5dd. option offering equivalent functionality from the command line. Changed in version 3.1: Added ability to execute packages by looking for a *note __main__: 1. submodule. Changed in version 3.2: Added ‘__cached__’ global variable (see PEP 3147(3)). Changed in version 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by PEP 451(4). This allows ‘__cached__’ to be set correctly for modules run this way, as well as ensuring the real module name is always accessible as ‘__spec__.name’. Changed in version 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’, and ‘__package__’ are deprecated. See *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. for alternatives. -- Function: runpy.run_path (path_name, init_globals=None, run_name=None) Execute the code at the named filesystem location and return the resulting module’s globals dictionary. As with a script name supplied to the CPython command line, 'file_path' may refer to a Python source file, a compiled bytecode file or a valid *note sys.path: 3b0. entry containing a *note __main__: 1. module (e.g. a zipfile containing a top-level ‘__main__.py’ file). For a simple script, the specified code is simply executed in a fresh module namespace. For a valid *note sys.path: 3b0. entry (typically a zipfile or directory), the entry is first added to the beginning of ‘sys.path’. The function then looks for and executes a *note __main__: 1. module using the updated path. Note that there is no special protection against invoking an existing ‘__main__’ entry located elsewhere on ‘sys.path’ if there is no such module at the specified location. The optional dictionary argument 'init_globals' may be used to pre-populate the module’s globals dictionary before the code is executed. 'init_globals' will not be modified. If any of the special global variables below are defined in 'init_globals', those definitions are overridden by *note run_path(): 181. The special global variables ‘__name__’, ‘__spec__’, ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ are set in the globals dictionary before the module code is executed. (Note that this is a minimal set of variables - other variables may be set implicitly as an interpreter implementation detail.) ‘__name__’ is set to 'run_name' if this optional argument is not *note None: 671. and to ‘'<run_path>'’ otherwise. If 'file_path' directly references a script file (whether as source or as precompiled byte code), then ‘__file__’ will be set to 'file_path', and ‘__spec__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ will all be set to *note None: 671. If 'file_path' is a reference to a valid *note sys.path: 3b0. entry, then ‘__spec__’ will be set appropriately for the imported *note __main__: 1. module (that is, ‘__spec__.name’ will always be ‘__main__’). ‘__file__’, ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’ and ‘__package__’ will be *note set as normal: 1f14. based on the module spec. A number of alterations are also made to the *note sys: d9. module. Firstly, *note sys.path: 3b0. may be altered as described above. ‘sys.argv[0]’ is updated with the value of 'file_path' and ‘sys.modules[__name__]’ is updated with a temporary module object for the module being executed. All modifications to items in *note sys: d9. are reverted before the function returns. Note that, unlike *note run_module(): 180b, the alterations made to *note sys: d9. are not optional in this function as these adjustments are essential to allowing the execution of *note sys.path: 3b0. entries. As the thread-safety limitations still apply, use of this function in threaded code should be either serialised with the import lock or delegated to a separate process. See also ........ *note Interface options: 1d29. for equivalent functionality on the command line (‘python path/to/script’). Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.4: Updated to take advantage of the module spec feature added by PEP 451(5). This allows ‘__cached__’ to be set correctly in the case where ‘__main__’ is imported from a valid *note sys.path: 3b0. entry rather than being executed directly. Changed in version 3.12: The setting of ‘__cached__’, ‘__loader__’, and ‘__package__’ are deprecated. See also ........ PEP 338(6) – Executing modules as scripts PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan. PEP 366(7) – Main module explicit relative imports PEP written and implemented by Nick Coghlan. PEP 451(8) – A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System PEP written and implemented by Eric Snow *note Command line and environment: 19be. - CPython command line details The *note importlib.import_module(): 513. function ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/runpy.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0338/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/  File: python.info, Node: importlib — The implementation of import, Next: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access, Prev: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.5 ‘importlib’ — The implementation of ‘import’ --------------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.1. 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/__init__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<12>. * Functions: Functions<12>. * importlib.abc – Abstract base classes related to import: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. * importlib.machinery – Importers and path hooks: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. * importlib.util – Utility code for importers: importlib util – Utility code for importers. * Examples: Examples<34>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/__init__.py  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<12>, Next: Functions<12>, Up: importlib — The implementation of import 5.32.5.1 Introduction ..................... The purpose of the *note importlib: 77. package is three-fold. One is to provide the implementation of the *note import: 5de. statement (and thus, by extension, the *note __import__(): 8d3. function) in Python source code. This provides an implementation of ‘import’ which is portable to any Python interpreter. This also provides an implementation which is easier to comprehend than one implemented in a programming language other than Python. Two, the components to implement *note import: 5de. are exposed in this package, making it easier for users to create their own custom objects (known generically as an *note importer: 1ff5.) to participate in the import process. Three, the package contains modules exposing additional functionality for managing aspects of Python packages: * *note importlib.metadata: 7a. presents access to metadata from third-party distributions. * *note importlib.resources: 7b. provides routines for accessing non-code “resources” from Python packages. See also ........ *note The import statement: 5de. The language reference for the *note import: 5de. statement. Packages specification(1) Original specification of packages. Some semantics have changed since the writing of this document (e.g. redirecting based on ‘None’ in *note sys.modules: 1550.). The *note __import__(): 1066. function The *note import: 5de. statement is syntactic sugar for this function. *note The initialization of the sys.path module search path: 1c60. The initialization of *note sys.path: 3b0. PEP 235(2) Import on Case-Insensitive Platforms PEP 263(3) Defining Python Source Code Encodings PEP 302(4) New Import Hooks PEP 328(5) Imports: Multi-Line and Absolute/Relative PEP 366(6) Main module explicit relative imports PEP 420(7) Implicit namespace packages PEP 451(8) A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System PEP 488(9) Elimination of PYO files PEP 489(10) Multi-phase extension module initialization PEP 552(11) Deterministic pycs PEP 3120(12) Using UTF-8 as the Default Source Encoding PEP 3147(13) PYC Repository Directories ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.python.org/doc/essays/packages/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0235/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0328/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0366/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/ (10) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-3120/ (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: Functions<12>, Next: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import, Prev: Introduction<12>, Up: importlib — The implementation of import 5.32.5.2 Functions .................. -- Function: importlib.__import__ (name, globals=None, locals=None, fromlist=(), level=0) An implementation of the built-in *note __import__(): 8d3. function. Note: Programmatic importing of modules should use *note import_module(): 513. instead of this function. -- Function: importlib.import_module (name, package=None) Import a module. The 'name' argument specifies what module to import in absolute or relative terms (e.g. either ‘pkg.mod’ or ‘..mod’). If the name is specified in relative terms, then the 'package' argument must be set to the name of the package which is to act as the anchor for resolving the package name (e.g. ‘import_module('..mod', 'pkg.subpkg')’ will import ‘pkg.mod’). The *note import_module(): 513. function acts as a simplifying wrapper around *note importlib.__import__(): 1066. This means all semantics of the function are derived from *note importlib.__import__(): 1066. The most important difference between these two functions is that *note import_module(): 513. returns the specified package or module (e.g. ‘pkg.mod’), while *note __import__(): 8d3. returns the top-level package or module (e.g. ‘pkg’). If you are dynamically importing a module that was created since the interpreter began execution (e.g., created a Python source file), you may need to call *note invalidate_caches(): c10. in order for the new module to be noticed by the import system. Changed in version 3.3: Parent packages are automatically imported. -- Function: importlib.invalidate_caches () Invalidate the internal caches of finders stored at *note sys.meta_path: d2b. If a finder implements ‘invalidate_caches()’ then it will be called to perform the invalidation. This function should be called if any modules are created/installed while your program is running to guarantee all finders will notice the new module’s existence. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.10: Namespace packages created/installed in a different *note sys.path: 3b0. location after the same namespace was already imported are noticed. -- Function: importlib.reload (module) Reload a previously imported 'module'. The argument must be a module object, so it must have been successfully imported before. This is useful if you have edited the module source file using an external editor and want to try out the new version without leaving the Python interpreter. The return value is the module object (which can be different if re-importing causes a different object to be placed in *note sys.modules: 1550.). When *note reload(): 514. is executed: * Python module’s code is recompiled and the module-level code re-executed, defining a new set of objects which are bound to names in the module’s dictionary by reusing the *note loader: 16b0. which originally loaded the module. The ‘init’ function of extension modules is not called a second time. * As with all other objects in Python the old objects are only reclaimed after their reference counts drop to zero. * The names in the module namespace are updated to point to any new or changed objects. * Other references to the old objects (such as names external to the module) are not rebound to refer to the new objects and must be updated in each namespace where they occur if that is desired. There are a number of other caveats: When a module is reloaded, its dictionary (containing the module’s global variables) is retained. Redefinitions of names will override the old definitions, so this is generally not a problem. If the new version of a module does not define a name that was defined by the old version, the old definition remains. This feature can be used to the module’s advantage if it maintains a global table or cache of objects — with a *note try: 6e4. statement it can test for the table’s presence and skip its initialization if desired: try: cache except NameError: cache = {} It is generally not very useful to reload built-in or dynamically loaded modules. Reloading *note sys: d9, *note __main__: 1, *note builtins: 12. and other key modules is not recommended. In many cases extension modules are not designed to be initialized more than once, and may fail in arbitrary ways when reloaded. If a module imports objects from another module using *note from: 129e. … *note import: 5de. …, calling *note reload(): 514. for the other module does not redefine the objects imported from it — one way around this is to re-execute the ‘from’ statement, another is to use ‘import’ and qualified names ('module.name') instead. If a module instantiates instances of a class, reloading the module that defines the class does not affect the method definitions of the instances — they continue to use the old class definition. The same is true for derived classes. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.7: *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. is raised when the module being reloaded lacks a *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. Warning: This function is not thread-safe. Calling it from multiple threads can result in unexpected behavior. It’s recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 1677. or other synchronization primitives for thread-safe module reloading.  File: python.info, Node: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import, Next: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks, Prev: Functions<12>, Up: importlib — The implementation of import 5.32.5.3 ‘importlib.abc’ – Abstract base classes related to import .................................................................. 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/abc.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note importlib.abc: 78. module contains all of the core abstract base classes used by *note import: 5de. Some subclasses of the core abstract base classes are also provided to help in implementing the core ABCs. ABC hierarchy: object +-- MetaPathFinder +-- PathEntryFinder +-- Loader +-- ResourceLoader --------+ +-- InspectLoader | +-- ExecutionLoader --+ +-- FileLoader +-- SourceLoader -- Class: importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder An abstract base class representing a *note meta path finder: 1069. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.10: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’. -- Method: find_spec (fullname, path, target=None) An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1f16. for the specified module. If this is a top-level import, 'path' will be ‘None’. Otherwise, this is a search for a subpackage or module and 'path' will be the value of *note __path__: 1c6e. from the parent package. If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is returned. When passed in, ‘target’ is a module object that the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return. *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 86a. may be useful for implementing concrete ‘MetaPathFinders’. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: invalidate_caches () An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal cache used by the finder. Used by *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c10. when invalidating the caches of all finders on *note sys.meta_path: d2b. Changed in version 3.4: Returns ‘None’ when called instead of *note NotImplemented: 7cd. -- Class: importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder An abstract base class representing a *note path entry finder: 106a. Though it bears some similarities to *note MetaPathFinder: 86b, ‘PathEntryFinder’ is meant for use only within the path-based import subsystem provided by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder: 101c. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.10: No longer a subclass of ‘Finder’. -- Method: find_spec (fullname, target=None) An abstract method for finding a *note spec: 1f16. for the specified module. The finder will search for the module only within the *note path entry: 2004. to which it is assigned. If a spec cannot be found, ‘None’ is returned. When passed in, ‘target’ is a module object that the finder may use to make a more educated guess about what spec to return. *note importlib.util.spec_from_loader(): 86a. may be useful for implementing concrete ‘PathEntryFinders’. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: invalidate_caches () An optional method which, when called, should invalidate any internal cache used by the finder. Used by *note importlib.machinery.PathFinder.invalidate_caches(): c0f. when invalidating the caches of all cached finders. -- Class: importlib.abc.Loader An abstract base class for a *note loader: 16b0. See PEP 302(2) for the exact definition for a loader. Loaders that wish to support resource reading should implement a ‘get_resource_reader()’ method as specified by *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4531. Changed in version 3.7: Introduced the optional ‘get_resource_reader()’ method. -- Method: create_module (spec) A method that returns the module object to use when importing a module. This method may return ‘None’, indicating that default module creation semantics should take place. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.6: This method is no longer optional when *note exec_module(): 867. is defined. -- Method: exec_module (module) An abstract method that executes the module in its own namespace when a module is imported or reloaded. The module should already be initialized when *note exec_module(): 867. is called. When this method exists, *note create_module(): cae. must be defined. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.6: *note create_module(): cae. must also be defined. -- Method: load_module (fullname) A legacy method for loading a module. If the module cannot be loaded, *note ImportError: 415. is raised, otherwise the loaded module is returned. If the requested module already exists in *note sys.modules: 1550, that module should be used and reloaded. Otherwise the loader should create a new module and insert it into *note sys.modules: 1550. before any loading begins, to prevent recursion from the import. If the loader inserted a module and the load fails, it must be removed by the loader from *note sys.modules: 1550.; modules already in *note sys.modules: 1550. before the loader began execution should be left alone. The loader should set several attributes on the module (note that some of these attributes can change when a module is reloaded): - *note module.__name__: 1374. - *note module.__file__: 1f1d. - *note module.__cached__: 2d9. '(deprecated)' - *note module.__path__: 1c6e. - *note module.__package__: 2db. '(deprecated)' - *note module.__loader__: 2e6. '(deprecated)' When *note exec_module(): 867. is available then backwards-compatible functionality is provided. Changed in version 3.4: Raise *note ImportError: 415. when called instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. Functionality provided when *note exec_module(): 867. is available. Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: The recommended API for loading a module is *note exec_module(): 867. (and *note create_module(): cae.). Loaders should implement it instead of *note load_module(): 866. The import machinery takes care of all the other responsibilities of *note load_module(): 866. when *note exec_module(): 867. is implemented. -- Class: importlib.abc.ResourceLoader 'Superseded by TraversableResources' An abstract base class for a *note loader: 16b0. which implements the optional PEP 302(3) protocol for loading arbitrary resources from the storage back-end. Deprecated since version 3.7: This ABC is deprecated in favour of supporting resource loading through *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. -- Method: abstractmethod get_data (path) An abstract method to return the bytes for the data located at 'path'. Loaders that have a file-like storage back-end that allows storing arbitrary data can implement this abstract method to give direct access to the data stored. *note OSError: 413. is to be raised if the 'path' cannot be found. The 'path' is expected to be constructed using a module’s *note __file__: 1f1d. attribute or an item from a package’s *note __path__: 1c6e. Changed in version 3.4: Raises *note OSError: 413. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. -- Class: importlib.abc.InspectLoader An abstract base class for a *note loader: 16b0. which implements the optional PEP 302(4) protocol for loaders that inspect modules. -- Method: get_code (fullname) Return the code object for a module, or ‘None’ if the module does not have a code object (as would be the case, for example, for a built-in module). Raise an *note ImportError: 415. if loader cannot find the requested module. Note: While the method has a default implementation, it is suggested that it be overridden if possible for performance. Changed in version 3.4: No longer abstract and a concrete implementation is provided. -- Method: abstractmethod get_source (fullname) An abstract method to return the source of a module. It is returned as a text string using *note universal newlines: d3a, translating all recognized line separators into ‘'\n'’ characters. Returns ‘None’ if no source is available (e.g. a built-in module). Raises *note ImportError: 415. if the loader cannot find the module specified. Changed in version 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 415. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. -- Method: is_package (fullname) An optional method to return a true value if the module is a package, a false value otherwise. *note ImportError: 415. is raised if the *note loader: 16b0. cannot find the module. Changed in version 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 415. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. -- Method: static source_to_code (data, path='<string>') Create a code object from Python source. The 'data' argument can be whatever the *note compile(): 192. function supports (i.e. string or bytes). The 'path' argument should be the “path” to where the source code originated from, which can be an abstract concept (e.g. location in a zip file). With the subsequent code object one can execute it in a module by running ‘exec(code, module.__dict__)’. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.5: Made the method static. -- Method: exec_module (module) Implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 867. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: load_module (fullname) Implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 866. Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: use *note exec_module(): 100b. instead. -- Class: importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader An abstract base class which inherits from *note InspectLoader: f4f. that, when implemented, helps a module to be executed as a script. The ABC represents an optional PEP 302(5) protocol. -- Method: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname) An abstract method that is to return the value of *note __file__: 1f1d. for the specified module. If no path is available, *note ImportError: 415. is raised. If source code is available, then the method should return the path to the source file, regardless of whether a bytecode was used to load the module. Changed in version 3.4: Raises *note ImportError: 415. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. -- Class: importlib.abc.FileLoader (fullname, path) An abstract base class which inherits from *note ResourceLoader: be7. and *note ExecutionLoader: 4534, providing concrete implementations of *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 451d. and *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 4535. The 'fullname' argument is a fully resolved name of the module the loader is to handle. The 'path' argument is the path to the file for the module. Added in version 3.3. -- Attribute: name The name of the module the loader can handle. -- Attribute: path Path to the file of the module. -- Method: load_module (fullname) Calls super’s ‘load_module()’. Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note Loader.exec_module(): 867. instead. -- Method: abstractmethod get_filename (fullname) Returns *note path: 4537. -- Method: abstractmethod get_data (path) Reads 'path' as a binary file and returns the bytes from it. -- Class: importlib.abc.SourceLoader An abstract base class for implementing source (and optionally bytecode) file loading. The class inherits from both *note ResourceLoader: be7. and *note ExecutionLoader: 4534, requiring the implementation of: * *note ResourceLoader.get_data(): 451d. * *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 4535. Should only return the path to the source file; sourceless loading is not supported. The abstract methods defined by this class are to add optional bytecode file support. Not implementing these optional methods (or causing them to raise *note NotImplementedError: 22a.) causes the loader to only work with source code. Implementing the methods allows the loader to work with source 'and' bytecode files; it does not allow for 'sourceless' loading where only bytecode is provided. Bytecode files are an optimization to speed up loading by removing the parsing step of Python’s compiler, and so no bytecode-specific API is exposed. -- Method: path_stats (path) Optional abstract method which returns a *note dict: 258. containing metadata about the specified path. Supported dictionary keys are: - ‘'mtime'’ (mandatory): an integer or floating-point number representing the modification time of the source code; - ‘'size'’ (optional): the size in bytes of the source code. Any other keys in the dictionary are ignored, to allow for future extensions. If the path cannot be handled, *note OSError: 413. is raised. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: Raise *note OSError: 413. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. -- Method: path_mtime (path) Optional abstract method which returns the modification time for the specified path. Deprecated since version 3.3: This method is deprecated in favour of *note path_stats(): 117e. You don’t have to implement it, but it is still available for compatibility purposes. Raise *note OSError: 413. if the path cannot be handled. Changed in version 3.4: Raise *note OSError: 413. instead of *note NotImplementedError: 22a. -- Method: set_data (path, data) Optional abstract method which writes the specified bytes to a file path. Any intermediate directories which do not exist are to be created automatically. When writing to the path fails because the path is read-only (*note errno.EACCES: 22ad./*note PermissionError: d42.), do not propagate the exception. Changed in version 3.4: No longer raises *note NotImplementedError: 22a. when called. -- Method: get_code (fullname) Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_code(): f50. -- Method: exec_module (module) Concrete implementation of *note Loader.exec_module(): 867. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: load_module (fullname) Concrete implementation of *note Loader.load_module(): 866. Deprecated since version 3.4, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note exec_module(): 100c. instead. -- Method: get_source (fullname) Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.get_source(): f53. -- Method: is_package (fullname) Concrete implementation of *note InspectLoader.is_package(): 4532. A module is determined to be a package if its file path (as provided by *note ExecutionLoader.get_filename(): 4535.) is a file named ‘__init__’ when the file extension is removed 'and' the module name itself does not end in ‘__init__’. -- Class: importlib.abc.ResourceReader 'Superseded by TraversableResources' An *note abstract base class: 11a8. to provide the ability to read 'resources'. From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact that is shipped within a package. Typically this is something like a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the package and its data file(s) are stored e.g. in a zip file versus on the file system. For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected to be a *note path-like object: 2a2. which represents conceptually just a file name. This means that no subdirectory paths should be included in the 'resource' argument. This is because the location of the package the reader is for, acts as the “directory”. Hence the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and resources, respectively. This is also why instances of this class are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead of potentially representing multiple packages or a module). Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface. If the module specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return *note None: 671. An object compatible with this ABC should only be returned when the specified module is a package. Added in version 3.7. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. instead. -- Method: abstractmethod open_resource (resource) Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 258f. for binary reading of the 'resource'. If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError: 427. is raised. -- Method: abstractmethod resource_path (resource) Returns the file system path to the 'resource'. If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system, raise *note FileNotFoundError: 427. -- Method: abstractmethod is_resource (name) Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a resource. *note FileNotFoundError: 427. is raised if 'name' does not exist. -- Method: abstractmethod contents () Returns an *note iterable: 121a. of strings over the contents of the package. Do note that it is not required that all names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is acceptable to return names for which *note is_resource(): 4542. would be false. Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for situations where how a package and its resources are stored are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful. For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that when it is known that the package and resources are stored on the file system then those subdirectory names can be used directly. The abstract method returns an iterable of no items. -- Class: importlib.abc.Traversable An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 22b. methods suitable for traversing directories and opening files. For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 489. Added in version 3.9. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. instead. -- Attribute: name Abstract. The base name of this object without any parent references. -- Method: abstractmethod iterdir () Yield ‘Traversable’ objects in ‘self’. -- Method: abstractmethod is_dir () Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a directory. -- Method: abstractmethod is_file () Return ‘True’ if ‘self’ is a file. -- Method: abstractmethod joinpath (child) Return Traversable child in ‘self’. -- Method: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child) Return ‘Traversable’ child in ‘self’. -- Method: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs) 'mode' may be ‘r’ or ‘rb’ to open as text or binary. Return a handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open: 27cb.). When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b6. -- Method: read_bytes () Read contents of ‘self’ as bytes. -- Method: read_text (encoding=None) Read contents of ‘self’ as text. -- Class: importlib.abc.TraversableResources An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the *note importlib.resources.files(): 48a. interface. Subclasses *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4531. and provides concrete implementations of the *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4531.’s abstract methods. Therefore, any loader supplying *note importlib.abc.TraversableResources: 1882. also supplies ResourceReader. Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to implement this interface. Added in version 3.9. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14: Use *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. instead. -- Method: abstractmethod files () Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. object for the loaded package. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/abc.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/  File: python.info, Node: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks, Next: importlib util – Utility code for importers, Prev: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import, Up: importlib — The implementation of import 5.32.5.4 ‘importlib.machinery’ – Importers and path hooks ......................................................... 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/machinery.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module contains the various objects that help *note import: 5de. find and load modules. -- Data: importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for source modules. Added in version 3.3. -- Data: importlib.machinery.DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES A list of strings representing the file suffixes for non-optimized bytecode modules. Added in version 3.3. Deprecated since version 3.5: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 511. instead. -- Data: importlib.machinery.OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES A list of strings representing the file suffixes for optimized bytecode modules. Added in version 3.3. Deprecated since version 3.5: Use *note BYTECODE_SUFFIXES: 511. instead. -- Data: importlib.machinery.BYTECODE_SUFFIXES A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for bytecode modules (including the leading dot). Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.5: The value is no longer dependent on ‘__debug__’. -- Data: importlib.machinery.EXTENSION_SUFFIXES A list of strings representing the recognized file suffixes for extension modules. Added in version 3.3. -- Function: importlib.machinery.all_suffixes () Returns a combined list of strings representing all file suffixes for modules recognized by the standard import machinery. This is a helper for code which simply needs to know if a filesystem path potentially refers to a module without needing any details on the kind of module (for example, *note inspect.getmodulename(): d39.). Added in version 3.3. -- Class: importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter An *note importer: 1ff5. for built-in modules. All known built-in modules are listed in *note sys.builtin_module_names: 1c5f. This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. and *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f4f. ABCs. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation. Changed in version 3.5: As part of PEP 489(2), the builtin importer now implements ‘Loader.create_module()’ and ‘Loader.exec_module()’ -- Class: importlib.machinery.FrozenImporter An *note importer: 1ff5. for frozen modules. This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. and *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f4f. ABCs. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation. Changed in version 3.4: Gained ‘create_module()’ and ‘exec_module()’ methods. -- Class: importlib.machinery.WindowsRegistryFinder *note Finder: 1f1e. for modules declared in the Windows registry. This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. ABC. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation. Added in version 3.3. Deprecated since version 3.6: Use *note site: c7. configuration instead. Future versions of Python may not enable this finder by default. -- Class: importlib.machinery.PathFinder A *note Finder: 1f1e. for *note sys.path: 3b0. and package ‘__path__’ attributes. This class implements the *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. ABC. Only class methods are defined by this class to alleviate the need for instantiation. -- Method: classmethod find_spec (fullname, path=None, target=None) Class method that attempts to find a *note spec: 1f16. for the module specified by 'fullname' on *note sys.path: 3b0. or, if defined, on 'path'. For each path entry that is searched, *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. is checked. If a non-false object is found then it is used as the *note path entry finder: 106a. to look for the module being searched for. If no entry is found in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0, then *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. is searched for a finder for the path entry and, if found, is stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. along with being queried about the module. If no finder is ever found then ‘None’ is both stored in the cache and returned. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.5: If the current working directory – represented by an empty string – is no longer valid then ‘None’ is returned but no value is cached in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. -- Method: classmethod invalidate_caches () Calls *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder.invalidate_caches(): 4530. on all finders stored in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. that define the method. Otherwise entries in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. set to ‘None’ are deleted. Changed in version 3.7: Entries of ‘None’ in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. are deleted. Changed in version 3.4: Calls objects in *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. with the current working directory for ‘''’ (i.e. the empty string). -- Class: importlib.machinery.FileFinder (path, *loader_details) A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86c. which caches results from the file system. The 'path' argument is the directory for which the finder is in charge of searching. The 'loader_details' argument is a variable number of 2-item tuples each containing a loader and a sequence of file suffixes the loader recognizes. The loaders are expected to be callables which accept two arguments of the module’s name and the path to the file found. The finder will cache the directory contents as necessary, making stat calls for each module search to verify the cache is not outdated. Because cache staleness relies upon the granularity of the operating system’s state information of the file system, there is a potential race condition of searching for a module, creating a new file, and then searching for the module the new file represents. If the operations happen fast enough to fit within the granularity of stat calls, then the module search will fail. To prevent this from happening, when you create a module dynamically, make sure to call *note importlib.invalidate_caches(): c10. Added in version 3.3. -- Attribute: path The path the finder will search in. -- Method: find_spec (fullname, target=None) Attempt to find the spec to handle 'fullname' within *note path: 4550. Added in version 3.4. -- Method: invalidate_caches () Clear out the internal cache. -- Method: classmethod path_hook (*loader_details) A class method which returns a closure for use on *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. An instance of *note FileFinder: 106b. is returned by the closure using the path argument given to the closure directly and 'loader_details' indirectly. If the argument to the closure is not an existing directory, *note ImportError: 415. is raised. -- Class: importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader (fullname, path) A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 453b. by subclassing *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 106c. and providing some concrete implementations of other methods. Added in version 3.3. -- Attribute: name The name of the module that this loader will handle. -- Attribute: path The path to the source file. -- Method: is_package (fullname) Return ‘True’ if *note path: 4554. appears to be for a package. -- Method: path_stats (path) Concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.path_stats(): 117e. -- Method: set_data (path, data) Concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader.set_data(): 453c. -- Method: load_module (name=None) Concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 866. where specifying the name of the module to load is optional. Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 867. instead. -- Class: importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader (fullname, path) A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.FileLoader: 106c. which can import bytecode files (i.e. no source code files exist). Please note that direct use of bytecode files (and thus not source code files) inhibits your modules from being usable by all Python implementations or new versions of Python which change the bytecode format. Added in version 3.3. -- Attribute: name The name of the module the loader will handle. -- Attribute: path The path to the bytecode file. -- Method: is_package (fullname) Determines if the module is a package based on *note path: 4559. -- Method: get_code (fullname) Returns the code object for *note name: 4558. created from *note path: 4559. -- Method: get_source (fullname) Returns ‘None’ as bytecode files have no source when this loader is used. -- Method: load_module (name=None) Concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.Loader.load_module(): 866. where specifying the name of the module to load is optional. Deprecated since version 3.6, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note importlib.abc.Loader.exec_module(): 867. instead. -- Class: importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader (fullname, path) A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader: 4534. for extension modules. The 'fullname' argument specifies the name of the module the loader is to support. The 'path' argument is the path to the extension module’s file. Note that, by default, importing an extension module will fail in subinterpreters if it doesn’t implement multi-phase init (see PEP 489(3)), even if it would otherwise import successfully. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.12: Multi-phase init is now required for use in subinterpreters. -- Attribute: name Name of the module the loader supports. -- Attribute: path Path to the extension module. -- Method: create_module (spec) Creates the module object from the given specification in accordance with PEP 489(4). Added in version 3.5. -- Method: exec_module (module) Initializes the given module object in accordance with PEP 489(5). Added in version 3.5. -- Method: is_package (fullname) Returns ‘True’ if the file path points to a package’s ‘__init__’ module based on *note EXTENSION_SUFFIXES: 510. -- Method: get_code (fullname) Returns ‘None’ as extension modules lack a code object. -- Method: get_source (fullname) Returns ‘None’ as extension modules do not have source code. -- Method: get_filename (fullname) Returns *note path: 455e. Added in version 3.4. -- Class: importlib.machinery.NamespaceLoader (name, path, path_finder) A concrete implementation of *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader: f4f. for namespace packages. This is an alias for a private class and is only made public for introspecting the ‘__loader__’ attribute on namespace packages: >>> from importlib.machinery import NamespaceLoader >>> import my_namespace >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, NamespaceLoader) True >>> import importlib.abc >>> isinstance(my_namespace.__loader__, importlib.abc.Loader) True Added in version 3.11. -- Class: importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec (name, loader, *, origin=None, loader_state=None, is_package=None) A specification for a module’s import-system-related state. This is typically exposed as the module’s *note __spec__: 1f17. attribute. Many of these attributes are also available directly on a module: for example, ‘module.__spec__.origin == module.__file__’. Note, however, that while the 'values' are usually equivalent, they can differ since there is no synchronization between the two objects. For example, it is possible to update the module’s *note __file__: 1f1d. at runtime and this will not be automatically reflected in the module’s *note __spec__.origin: 4564, and vice versa. Added in version 3.4. -- Attribute: name The module’s fully qualified name (see *note module.__name__: 1374.). The *note finder: 1f1e. should always set this attribute to a non-empty string. -- Attribute: loader The *note loader: 16b0. used to load the module (see *note module.__loader__: 2e6.). The *note finder: 1f1e. should always set this attribute. -- Attribute: origin The location the *note loader: 16b0. should use to load the module (see *note module.__file__: 1f1d.). For example, for modules loaded from a ‘.py’ file this is the filename. The *note finder: 1f1e. should always set this attribute to a meaningful value for the *note loader: 16b0. to use. In the uncommon case that there is not one (like for namespace packages), it should be set to ‘None’. -- Attribute: submodule_search_locations A (possibly empty) *note sequence: 4ed. of strings enumerating the locations in which a package’s submodules will be found (see *note module.__path__: 1c6e.). Most of the time there will only be a single directory in this list. The *note finder: 1f1e. should set this attribute to a sequence, even an empty one, to indicate to the import system that the module is a package. It should be set to ‘None’ for non-package modules. It is set automatically later to a special object for namespace packages. -- Attribute: loader_state The *note finder: 1f1e. may set this attribute to an object containing additional, module-specific data to use when loading the module. Otherwise it should be set to ‘None’. -- Attribute: cached The filename of a compiled version of the module’s code (see *note module.__cached__: 2d9.). The *note finder: 1f1e. should always set this attribute but it may be ‘None’ for modules that do not need compiled code stored. -- Attribute: parent (Read-only) The fully qualified name of the package the module is in (or the empty string for a top-level module). See *note module.__package__: 2db. If the module is a package then this is the same as *note name: 1f18. -- Attribute: has_location ‘True’ if the spec’s *note origin: 4564. refers to a loadable location, ‘False’ otherwise. This value impacts how ‘origin’ is interpreted and how the module’s *note __file__: 1f1d. is populated. -- Class: importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader (name, path) A specialization of *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cb0. that is able to load extension modules in Framework format. For compatibility with the iOS App Store, 'all' binary modules in an iOS app must be dynamic libraries, contained in a framework with appropriate metadata, stored in the ‘Frameworks’ folder of the packaged app. There can be only a single binary per framework, and there can be no executable binary material outside the Frameworks folder. To accommodate this requirement, when running on iOS, extension module binaries are 'not' packaged as ‘.so’ files on ‘sys.path’, but as individual standalone frameworks. To discover those frameworks, this loader is be registered against the ‘.fwork’ file extension, with a ‘.fwork’ file acting as a placeholder in the original location of the binary on ‘sys.path’. The ‘.fwork’ file contains the path of the actual binary in the ‘Frameworks’ folder, relative to the app bundle. To allow for resolving a framework-packaged binary back to the original location, the framework is expected to contain a ‘.origin’ file that contains the location of the ‘.fwork’ file, relative to the app bundle. For example, consider the case of an import ‘from foo.bar import _whiz’, where ‘_whiz’ is implemented with the binary module ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.so’, with ‘sources’ being the location registered on ‘sys.path’, relative to the application bundle. This module 'must' be distributed as ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz’ (creating the framework name from the full import path of the module), with an ‘Info.plist’ file in the ‘.framework’ directory identifying the binary as a framework. The ‘foo.bar._whiz’ module would be represented in the original location with a ‘sources/foo/bar/_whiz.abi3.fwork’ marker file, containing the path ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz/foo.bar._whiz’. The framework would also contain ‘Frameworks/foo.bar._whiz.framework/foo.bar._whiz.origin’, containing the path to the ‘.fwork’ file. When a module is loaded with this loader, the ‘__file__’ for the module will report as the location of the ‘.fwork’ file. This allows code to use the ‘__file__’ of a module as an anchor for file system traveral. However, the spec origin will reference the location of the 'actual' binary in the ‘.framework’ folder. The Xcode project building the app is responsible for converting any ‘.so’ files from wherever they exist in the ‘PYTHONPATH’ into frameworks in the ‘Frameworks’ folder (including stripping extensions from the module file, the addition of framework metadata, and signing the resulting framework), and creating the ‘.fwork’ and ‘.origin’ files. This will usually be done with a build step in the Xcode project; see the iOS documentation for details on how to construct this build step. Added in version 3.13. *note Availability: 1d54.: iOS. -- Attribute: name Name of the module the loader supports. -- Attribute: path Path to the ‘.fwork’ file for the extension module. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/machinery.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: importlib util – Utility code for importers, Next: Examples<34>, Prev: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks, Up: importlib — The implementation of import 5.32.5.5 ‘importlib.util’ – Utility code for importers ...................................................... 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/util.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module contains the various objects that help in the construction of an *note importer: 1ff5. -- Data: importlib.util.MAGIC_NUMBER The bytes which represent the bytecode version number. If you need help with loading/writing bytecode then consider *note importlib.abc.SourceLoader: 453b. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: importlib.util.cache_from_source (path, debug_override=None, *, optimization=None) Return the PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path to the byte-compiled file associated with the source 'path'. For example, if 'path' is ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ the return value would be ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2. The ‘cpython-32’ string comes from the current magic tag (see ‘get_tag()’; if ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is not defined then *note NotImplementedError: 22a. will be raised). The 'optimization' parameter is used to specify the optimization level of the bytecode file. An empty string represents no optimization, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an 'optimization' of ‘''’ will result in a bytecode path of ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’. ‘None’ causes the interpreter’s optimization level to be used. Any other value’s string representation is used, so ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ with an 'optimization' of ‘2’ will lead to the bytecode path of ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.opt-2.pyc’. The string representation of 'optimization' can only be alphanumeric, else *note ValueError: 204. is raised. The 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated and can be used to override the system’s value for ‘__debug__’. A ‘True’ value is the equivalent of setting 'optimization' to the empty string. A ‘False’ value is the same as setting 'optimization' to ‘1’. If both 'debug_override' an 'optimization' are not ‘None’ then *note TypeError: 534. is raised. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.5: The 'optimization' parameter was added and the 'debug_override' parameter was deprecated. Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. -- Function: importlib.util.source_from_cache (path) Given the 'path' to a PEP 3147(4) file name, return the associated source code file path. For example, if 'path' is ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ the returned path would be ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’. 'path' need not exist, however if it does not conform to PEP 3147(5) or PEP 488(6) format, a *note ValueError: 204. is raised. If ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is not defined, *note NotImplementedError: 22a. is raised. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. -- Function: importlib.util.decode_source (source_bytes) Decode the given bytes representing source code and return it as a string with universal newlines (as required by *note importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source(): f53.). Added in version 3.4. -- Function: importlib.util.resolve_name (name, package) Resolve a relative module name to an absolute one. If 'name' has no leading dots, then 'name' is simply returned. This allows for usage such as ‘importlib.util.resolve_name('sys', __spec__.parent)’ without doing a check to see if the 'package' argument is needed. *note ImportError: 415. is raised if 'name' is a relative module name but 'package' is a false value (e.g. ‘None’ or the empty string). *note ImportError: 415. is also raised if a relative name would escape its containing package (e.g. requesting ‘..bacon’ from within the ‘spam’ package). Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.9: To improve consistency with import statements, raise *note ImportError: 415. instead of *note ValueError: 204. for invalid relative import attempts. -- Function: importlib.util.find_spec (name, package=None) Find the *note spec: 1f16. for a module, optionally relative to the specified 'package' name. If the module is in *note sys.modules: 1550, then ‘sys.modules[name].__spec__’ is returned (unless the spec would be ‘None’ or is not set, in which case *note ValueError: 204. is raised). Otherwise a search using *note sys.meta_path: d2b. is done. ‘None’ is returned if no spec is found. If 'name' is for a submodule (contains a dot), the parent module is automatically imported. 'name' and 'package' work the same as for ‘import_module()’. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.7: Raises *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. instead of *note AttributeError: 348. if 'package' is in fact not a package (i.e. lacks a *note __path__: 1c6e. attribute). -- Function: importlib.util.module_from_spec (spec) Create a new module based on 'spec' and *note spec.loader.create_module: cae. If *note spec.loader.create_module: cae. does not return ‘None’, then any pre-existing attributes will not be reset. Also, no *note AttributeError: 348. will be raised if triggered while accessing 'spec' or setting an attribute on the module. This function is preferred over using *note types.ModuleType: e12. to create a new module as 'spec' is used to set as many import-controlled attributes on the module as possible. Added in version 3.5. -- Function: importlib.util.spec_from_loader (name, loader, *, origin=None, is_package=None) A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. instance based on a loader. The parameters have the same meaning as they do for ModuleSpec. The function uses available *note loader: 16b0. APIs, such as ‘InspectLoader.is_package()’, to fill in any missing information on the spec. Added in version 3.4. -- Function: importlib.util.spec_from_file_location (name, location, *, loader=None, submodule_search_locations=None) A factory function for creating a *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. instance based on the path to a file. Missing information will be filled in on the spec by making use of loader APIs and by the implication that the module will be file-based. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. -- Function: importlib.util.source_hash (source_bytes) Return the hash of 'source_bytes' as bytes. A hash-based ‘.pyc’ file embeds the *note source_hash(): 456a. of the corresponding source file’s contents in its header. Added in version 3.7. -- Function: importlib.util._incompatible_extension_module_restrictions (*, disable_check) A context manager that can temporarily skip the compatibility check for extension modules. By default the check is enabled and will fail when a single-phase init module is imported in a subinterpreter. It will also fail for a multi-phase init module that doesn’t explicitly support a per-interpreter GIL, when imported in an interpreter with its own GIL. Note that this function is meant to accommodate an unusual case; one which is likely to eventually go away. There’s is a pretty good chance this is not what you were looking for. You can get the same effect as this function by implementing the basic interface of multi-phase init ( PEP 489(7)) and lying about support for multiple interpreters (or per-interpreter GIL). Warning: Using this function to disable the check can lead to unexpected behavior and even crashes. It should only be used during extension module development. Added in version 3.12. -- Class: importlib.util.LazyLoader (loader) A class which postpones the execution of the loader of a module until the module has an attribute accessed. This class 'only' works with loaders that define *note exec_module(): 867. as control over what module type is used for the module is required. For those same reasons, the loader’s *note create_module(): cae. method must return ‘None’ or a type for which its ‘__class__’ attribute can be mutated along with not using *note slots: 5db. Finally, modules which substitute the object placed into *note sys.modules: 1550. will not work as there is no way to properly replace the module references throughout the interpreter safely; *note ValueError: 204. is raised if such a substitution is detected. Note: For projects where startup time is critical, this class allows for potentially minimizing the cost of loading a module if it is never used. For projects where startup time is not essential then use of this class is 'heavily' discouraged due to error messages created during loading being postponed and thus occurring out of context. Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.6: Began calling *note create_module(): cae, removing the compatibility warning for *note importlib.machinery.BuiltinImporter: caf. and *note importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader: cb0. -- Method: classmethod factory (loader) A class method which returns a callable that creates a lazy loader. This is meant to be used in situations where the loader is passed by class instead of by instance. suffixes = importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES loader = importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader lazy_loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader.factory(loader) finder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder(path, (lazy_loader, suffixes)) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/util.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: Examples<34>, Prev: importlib util – Utility code for importers, Up: importlib — The implementation of import 5.32.5.6 Examples ................. * Menu: * Importing programmatically:: * Checking if a module can be imported:: * Importing a source file directly:: * Implementing lazy imports:: * Setting up an importer:: * Approximating importlib.import_module(): Approximating importlib import_module.  File: python.info, Node: Importing programmatically, Next: Checking if a module can be imported, Up: Examples<34> 5.32.5.7 Importing programmatically ................................... To programmatically import a module, use *note importlib.import_module(): 513. import importlib itertools = importlib.import_module('itertools')  File: python.info, Node: Checking if a module can be imported, Next: Importing a source file directly, Prev: Importing programmatically, Up: Examples<34> 5.32.5.8 Checking if a module can be imported ............................................. If you need to find out if a module can be imported without actually doing the import, then you should use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. Note that if ‘name’ is a submodule (contains a dot), *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. will import the parent module. import importlib.util import sys # For illustrative purposes. name = 'itertools' if name in sys.modules: print(f"{name!r} already in sys.modules") elif (spec := importlib.util.find_spec(name)) is not None: # If you chose to perform the actual import ... module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec) sys.modules[name] = module spec.loader.exec_module(module) print(f"{name!r} has been imported") else: print(f"can't find the {name!r} module")  File: python.info, Node: Importing a source file directly, Next: Implementing lazy imports, Prev: Checking if a module can be imported, Up: Examples<34> 5.32.5.9 Importing a source file directly ......................................... This recipe should be used with caution: it is an approximation of an import statement where the file path is specified directly, rather than *note sys.path: 3b0. being searched. Alternatives should first be considered first, such as modifying *note sys.path: 3b0. when a proper module is required, or using *note runpy.run_path(): 181. when the global namespace resulting from running a Python file is appropriate. To import a Python source file directly from a path, use the following recipe: import importlib.util import sys def import_from_path(module_name, file_path): spec = importlib.util.spec_from_file_location(module_name, file_path) module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec) sys.modules[module_name] = module spec.loader.exec_module(module) return module # For illustrative purposes only (use of `json` is arbitrary). import json file_path = json.__file__ module_name = json.__name__ # Similar outcome as `import json`. json = import_from_path(module_name, file_path)  File: python.info, Node: Implementing lazy imports, Next: Setting up an importer, Prev: Importing a source file directly, Up: Examples<34> 5.32.5.10 Implementing lazy imports ................................... The example below shows how to implement lazy imports: >>> import importlib.util >>> import sys >>> def lazy_import(name): ... spec = importlib.util.find_spec(name) ... loader = importlib.util.LazyLoader(spec.loader) ... spec.loader = loader ... module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec) ... sys.modules[name] = module ... loader.exec_module(module) ... return module ... >>> lazy_typing = lazy_import("typing") >>> #lazy_typing is a real module object, >>> #but it is not loaded in memory yet. >>> lazy_typing.TYPE_CHECKING False  File: python.info, Node: Setting up an importer, Next: Approximating importlib import_module, Prev: Implementing lazy imports, Up: Examples<34> 5.32.5.11 Setting up an importer ................................ For deep customizations of import, you typically want to implement an *note importer: 1ff5. This means managing both the *note finder: 1f1e. and *note loader: 16b0. side of things. For finders there are two flavours to choose from depending on your needs: a *note meta path finder: 1069. or a *note path entry finder: 106a. The former is what you would put on *note sys.meta_path: d2b. while the latter is what you create using a *note path entry hook: 2006. on *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. which works with *note sys.path: 3b0. entries to potentially create a finder. This example will show you how to register your own importers so that import will use them (for creating an importer for yourself, read the documentation for the appropriate classes defined within this package): import importlib.machinery import sys # For illustrative purposes only. SpamMetaPathFinder = importlib.machinery.PathFinder SpamPathEntryFinder = importlib.machinery.FileFinder loader_details = (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader, importlib.machinery.SOURCE_SUFFIXES) # Setting up a meta path finder. # Make sure to put the finder in the proper location in the list in terms of # priority. sys.meta_path.append(SpamMetaPathFinder) # Setting up a path entry finder. # Make sure to put the path hook in the proper location in the list in terms # of priority. sys.path_hooks.append(SpamPathEntryFinder.path_hook(loader_details))  File: python.info, Node: Approximating importlib import_module, Prev: Setting up an importer, Up: Examples<34> 5.32.5.12 Approximating ‘importlib.import_module()’ ................................................... Import itself is implemented in Python code, making it possible to expose most of the import machinery through importlib. The following helps illustrate the various APIs that importlib exposes by providing an approximate implementation of *note importlib.import_module(): 513.: import importlib.util import sys def import_module(name, package=None): """An approximate implementation of import.""" absolute_name = importlib.util.resolve_name(name, package) try: return sys.modules[absolute_name] except KeyError: pass path = None if '.' in absolute_name: parent_name, _, child_name = absolute_name.rpartition('.') parent_module = import_module(parent_name) path = parent_module.__spec__.submodule_search_locations for finder in sys.meta_path: spec = finder.find_spec(absolute_name, path) if spec is not None: break else: msg = f'No module named {absolute_name!r}' raise ModuleNotFoundError(msg, name=absolute_name) module = importlib.util.module_from_spec(spec) sys.modules[absolute_name] = module spec.loader.exec_module(module) if path is not None: setattr(parent_module, child_name, module) return module  File: python.info, Node: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access, Next: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources, Prev: importlib — The implementation of import, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.6 ‘importlib.resources’ – Package resource reading, opening and access --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ Added in version 3.7. This module leverages Python’s import system to provide access to 'resources' within 'packages'. “Resources” are file-like resources associated with a module or package in Python. The resources may be contained directly in a package, within a subdirectory contained in that package, or adjacent to modules outside a package. Resources may be text or binary. As a result, a package’s Python module sources (.py), compilation artifacts (pycache), and installation artifacts (like *note reserved filenames: 225. in directories) are technically de-facto resources of that package. In practice, however, resources are primarily those non-Python artifacts exposed specifically by the package author. Resources can be opened or read in either binary or text mode. Resources are roughly akin to files inside directories, though it’s important to keep in mind that this is just a metaphor. Resources and packages 'do not' have to exist as physical files and directories on the file system: for example, a package and its resources can be imported from a zip file using *note zipimport: 132. Note: This module provides functionality similar to pkg_resources(2) Basic Resource Access(3) without the performance overhead of that package. This makes reading resources included in packages easier, with more stable and consistent semantics. The standalone backport of this module provides more information on using importlib.resources(4) and migrating from pkg_resources to importlib.resources(5). *note Loaders: ec0. that wish to support resource reading should implement a ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ method as specified by *note importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader: 4531. -- Class: importlib.resources.Anchor Represents an anchor for resources, either a *note module object: e12. or a module name as a string. Defined as ‘Union[str, ModuleType]’. -- Function: importlib.resources.files (anchor: Anchor | None = None) Returns a *note Traversable: 1f5. object representing the resource container (think directory) and its resources (think files). A Traversable may contain other containers (think subdirectories). 'anchor' is an optional *note Anchor: 4577. If the anchor is a package, resources are resolved from that package. If a module, resources are resolved adjacent to that module (in the same package or the package root). If the anchor is omitted, the caller’s module is used. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.12: 'package' parameter was renamed to 'anchor'. 'anchor' can now be a non-package module and if omitted will default to the caller’s module. 'package' is still accepted for compatibility but will raise a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. Consider passing the anchor positionally or using ‘importlib_resources >= 5.10’ for a compatible interface on older Pythons. -- Function: importlib.resources.as_file (traversable) Given a *note Traversable: 1f5. object representing a file or directory, typically from *note importlib.resources.files(): 48a, return a context manager for use in a *note with: 5ce. statement. The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path: 22b. object. Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary file or directory created when the resource was extracted from e.g. a zip file. Use ‘as_file’ when the Traversable methods (‘read_text’, etc) are insufficient and an actual file or directory on the file system is required. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.12: Added support for 'traversable' representing a directory. * Menu: * Functional API:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/resources/__init__.py (2) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html (3) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#basic-resource-access (4) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/using.html (5) https://importlib-resources.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html  File: python.info, Node: Functional API, Up: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access 5.32.6.1 Functional API ....................... A set of simplified, backwards-compatible helpers is available. These allow common operations in a single function call. For all the following functions: - 'anchor' is an *note Anchor: 4577, as in *note files(): 48a. Unlike in ‘files’, it may not be omitted. - 'path_names' are components of a resource’s path name, relative to the anchor. For example, to get the text of resource named ‘info.txt’, use: importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info.txt") Like *note Traversable.joinpath: 1f5, The individual components should use forward slashes (‘/’) as path separators. For example, the following are equivalent: importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics/painting.png") importlib.resources.read_binary(my_module, "pics", "painting.png") For backward compatibility reasons, functions that read text require an explicit 'encoding' argument if multiple 'path_names' are given. For example, to get the text of ‘info/chapter1.txt’, use: importlib.resources.read_text(my_module, "info", "chapter1.txt", encoding='utf-8') -- Function: importlib.resources.open_binary (anchor, *path_names) Open the named resource for binary reading. See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. This function returns a *note BinaryIO: 3fb1. object, that is, a binary stream open for reading. This function is roughly equivalent to: files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('rb') Changed in version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted. -- Function: importlib.resources.open_text (anchor, *path_names, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict') Open the named resource for text reading. By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8. See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. 'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as in built-in *note open(): 517. For backward compatibility reasons, the 'encoding' argument must be given explicitly if there are multiple 'path_names'. This limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15. This function returns a *note TextIO: 3fb0. object, that is, a text stream open for reading. This function is roughly equivalent to: files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).open('r', encoding=encoding) Changed in version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted. 'encoding' and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments. -- Function: importlib.resources.read_binary (anchor, *path_names) Read and return the contents of the named resource as *note bytes: 1c2. See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. This function is roughly equivalent to: files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_bytes() Changed in version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted. -- Function: importlib.resources.read_text (anchor, *path_names, encoding='utf-8', errors='strict') Read and return the contents of the named resource as *note str: 447. By default, the contents are read as strict UTF-8. See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. 'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as in built-in *note open(): 517. For backward compatibility reasons, the 'encoding' argument must be given explicitly if there are multiple 'path_names'. This limitation is scheduled to be removed in Python 3.15. This function is roughly equivalent to: files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).read_text(encoding=encoding) Changed in version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted. 'encoding' and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments. -- Function: importlib.resources.path (anchor, *path_names) Provides the path to the 'resource' as an actual file system path. This function returns a context manager for use in a *note with: 5ce. statement. The context manager provides a *note pathlib.Path: 22b. object. Exiting the context manager cleans up any temporary files created, e.g. when the resource needs to be extracted from a zip file. For example, the *note stat(): 81f. method requires an actual file system path; it can be used like this: with importlib.resources.path(anchor, "resource.txt") as fspath: result = fspath.stat() See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. This function is roughly equivalent to: as_file(files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names)) Changed in version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted. 'encoding' and 'errors' must be given as keyword arguments. -- Function: importlib.resources.is_resource (anchor, *path_names) Return ‘True’ if the named resource exists, otherwise ‘False’. This function does not consider directories to be resources. See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. This function is roughly equivalent to: files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).is_file() Changed in version 3.13: Multiple 'path_names' are accepted. -- Function: importlib.resources.contents (anchor, *path_names) Return an iterable over the named items within the package or path. The iterable returns names of resources (e.g. files) and non-resources (e.g. directories) as *note str: 447. The iterable does not recurse into subdirectories. See *note the introduction: 4579. for details on 'anchor' and 'path_names'. This function is roughly equivalent to: for resource in files(anchor).joinpath(*path_names).iterdir(): yield resource.name Deprecated since version 3.11: Prefer ‘iterdir()’ as above, which offers more control over the results and richer functionality.  File: python.info, Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources, Next: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata, Prev: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.7 ‘importlib.resources.abc’ – Abstract base classes for resources ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ Added in version 3.11. -- Class: importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader 'Superseded by TraversableResources' An *note abstract base class: 11a8. to provide the ability to read 'resources'. From the perspective of this ABC, a 'resource' is a binary artifact that is shipped within a package. Typically this is something like a data file that lives next to the ‘__init__.py’ file of the package. The purpose of this class is to help abstract out the accessing of such data files so that it does not matter if the package and its data file(s) are stored e.g. in a zip file versus on the file system. For any of methods of this class, a 'resource' argument is expected to be a *note path-like object: 2a2. which represents conceptually just a file name. This means that no subdirectory paths should be included in the 'resource' argument. This is because the location of the package the reader is for, acts as the “directory”. Hence the metaphor for directories and file names is packages and resources, respectively. This is also why instances of this class are expected to directly correlate to a specific package (instead of potentially representing multiple packages or a module). Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to provide a method called ‘get_resource_reader(fullname)’ which returns an object implementing this ABC’s interface. If the module specified by fullname is not a package, this method should return *note None: 671. An object compatible with this ABC should only be returned when the specified module is a package. Deprecated since version 3.12: Use *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. instead. -- Method: abstractmethod open_resource (resource) Returns an opened, *note file-like object: 258f. for binary reading of the 'resource'. If the resource cannot be found, *note FileNotFoundError: 427. is raised. -- Method: abstractmethod resource_path (resource) Returns the file system path to the 'resource'. If the resource does not concretely exist on the file system, raise *note FileNotFoundError: 427. -- Method: abstractmethod is_resource (name) Returns ‘True’ if the named 'name' is considered a resource. *note FileNotFoundError: 427. is raised if 'name' does not exist. -- Method: abstractmethod contents () Returns an *note iterable: 121a. of strings over the contents of the package. Do note that it is not required that all names returned by the iterator be actual resources, e.g. it is acceptable to return names for which *note is_resource(): 457e. would be false. Allowing non-resource names to be returned is to allow for situations where how a package and its resources are stored are known a priori and the non-resource names would be useful. For instance, returning subdirectory names is allowed so that when it is known that the package and resources are stored on the file system then those subdirectory names can be used directly. The abstract method returns an iterable of no items. -- Class: importlib.resources.abc.Traversable An object with a subset of *note pathlib.Path: 22b. methods suitable for traversing directories and opening files. For a representation of the object on the file-system, use *note importlib.resources.as_file(): 489. -- Attribute: name Abstract. The base name of this object without any parent references. -- Method: abstractmethod iterdir () Yield Traversable objects in self. -- Method: abstractmethod is_dir () Return ‘True’ if self is a directory. -- Method: abstractmethod is_file () Return ‘True’ if self is a file. -- Method: abstractmethod joinpath (*pathsegments) Traverse directories according to 'pathsegments' and return the result as ‘Traversable’. Each 'pathsegments' argument may contain multiple names separated by forward slashes (‘/’, ‘posixpath.sep’ ). For example, the following are equivalent: files.joinpath('subdir', 'subsuddir', 'file.txt') files.joinpath('subdir/subsuddir/file.txt') Note that some ‘Traversable’ implementations might not be updated to the latest version of the protocol. For compatibility with such implementations, provide a single argument without path separators to each call to ‘joinpath’. For example: files.joinpath('subdir').joinpath('subsubdir').joinpath('file.txt') Changed in version 3.11: ‘joinpath’ accepts multiple 'pathsegments', and these segments may contain forward slashes as path separators. Previously, only a single 'child' argument was accepted. -- Method: abstractmethod __truediv__ (child) Return Traversable child in self. Equivalent to ‘joinpath(child)’. -- Method: abstractmethod open (mode='r', *args, **kwargs) 'mode' may be ‘r’ or ‘rb’ to open as text or binary. Return a handle suitable for reading (same as *note pathlib.Path.open: 27cb.). When opening as text, accepts encoding parameters such as those accepted by *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b6. -- Method: read_bytes () Read contents of self as bytes. -- Method: read_text (encoding=None) Read contents of self as text. -- Class: importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources An abstract base class for resource readers capable of serving the *note importlib.resources.files(): 48a. interface. Subclasses *note ResourceReader: 4531. and provides concrete implementations of the ‘ResourceReader’’s abstract methods. Therefore, any loader supplying ‘TraversableResources’ also supplies ‘ResourceReader’. Loaders that wish to support resource reading are expected to implement this interface. -- Method: abstractmethod files () Returns a *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. object for the loaded package. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/resources/abc.py  File: python.info, Node: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata, Next: The initialization of the sys path module search path, Prev: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.8 ‘importlib.metadata’ – Accessing package metadata -------------------------------------------------------- Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.10: ‘importlib.metadata’ is no longer provisional. 'Source code:' Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py(1) ‘importlib.metadata’ is a library that provides access to the metadata of an installed Distribution Package(2), such as its entry points or its top-level names (Import Package(3)s, modules, if any). Built in part on Python’s import system, this library intends to replace similar functionality in the entry point API(4) and metadata API(5) of ‘pkg_resources’. Along with *note importlib.resources: 7b, this package can eliminate the need to use the older and less efficient ‘pkg_resources’ package. ‘importlib.metadata’ operates on third-party 'distribution packages' installed into Python’s ‘site-packages’ directory via tools such as pip(6). Specifically, it works with distributions with discoverable ‘dist-info’ or ‘egg-info’ directories, and metadata defined by the Core metadata specifications(7). Important: These are 'not' necessarily equivalent to or correspond 1:1 with the top-level 'import package' names that can be imported inside Python code. One 'distribution package' can contain multiple 'import packages' (and single modules), and one top-level 'import package' may map to multiple 'distribution packages' if it is a namespace package. You can use *note packages_distributions(): 80c. to get a mapping between them. By default, distribution metadata can live on the file system or in zip archives on *note sys.path: 3b0. Through an extension mechanism, the metadata can live almost anywhere. See also ........ ‘https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/’ The documentation for ‘importlib_metadata’, which supplies a backport of ‘importlib.metadata’. This includes an API reference(8) for this module’s classes and functions, as well as a migration guide(9) for existing users of ‘pkg_resources’. * Menu: * Overview: Overview<3>. * Functional API: Functional API<2>. * Distributions:: * Distribution Discovery:: * Extending the search algorithm:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/importlib/metadata/__init__.py (2) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package (3) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package (4) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#entry-points (5) https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/pkg_resources.html#metadata-api (6) https://pypi.org/project/pip/ (7) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata (8) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html (9) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/migration.html  File: python.info, Node: Overview<3>, Next: Functional API<2>, Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata 5.32.8.1 Overview ................. Let’s say you wanted to get the version string for a Distribution Package(1) you’ve installed using ‘pip’. We start by creating a virtual environment and installing something into it: $ python -m venv example $ source example/bin/activate (example) $ python -m pip install wheel You can get the version string for ‘wheel’ by running the following: (example) $ python >>> from importlib.metadata import version >>> version('wheel') '0.32.3' You can also get a collection of entry points selectable by properties of the EntryPoint (typically ‘group’ or ‘name’), such as ‘console_scripts’, ‘distutils.commands’ and others. Each group contains a collection of *note EntryPoint: 286. objects. You can get the *note metadata for a distribution: 458e.: >>> list(metadata('wheel')) ['Metadata-Version', 'Name', 'Version', 'Summary', 'Home-page', 'Author', 'Author-email', 'Maintainer', 'Maintainer-email', 'License', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Project-URL', 'Keywords', 'Platform', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Classifier', 'Requires-Python', 'Provides-Extra', 'Requires-Dist', 'Requires-Dist'] You can also get a *note distribution’s version number: 458f, list its *note constituent files: 4590, and get a list of the distribution’s *note Distribution requirements: 4591. -- Exception: importlib.metadata.PackageNotFoundError Subclass of *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. raised by several functions in this module when queried for a distribution package which is not installed in the current Python environment. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package  File: python.info, Node: Functional API<2>, Next: Distributions, Prev: Overview<3>, Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata 5.32.8.2 Functional API ....................... This package provides the following functionality via its public API. * Menu: * Entry points:: * Distribution metadata:: * Distribution versions:: * Distribution files:: * Distribution requirements:: * Mapping import to distribution packages::  File: python.info, Node: Entry points, Next: Distribution metadata, Up: Functional API<2> 5.32.8.3 Entry points ..................... -- Function: importlib.metadata.entry_points (**select_params) Returns a *note EntryPoints: 4596. instance describing entry points for the current environment. Any given keyword parameters are passed to the ‘select()’ method for comparison to the attributes of the individual entry point definitions. Note: it is not currently possible to query for entry points based on their ‘EntryPoint.dist’ attribute (as different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare equal, even if they have the same attributes) -- Class: importlib.metadata.EntryPoints Details of a collection of installed entry points. Also provides a ‘.groups’ attribute that reports all identified entry point groups, and a ‘.names’ attribute that reports all identified entry point names. -- Class: importlib.metadata.EntryPoint Details of an installed entry point. Each ‘EntryPoint’ instance has ‘.name’, ‘.group’, and ‘.value’ attributes and a ‘.load()’ method to resolve the value. There are also ‘.module’, ‘.attr’, and ‘.extras’ attributes for getting the components of the ‘.value’ attribute, and ‘.dist’ for obtaining information regarding the distribution package that provides the entry point. Query all entry points: >>> eps = entry_points() The ‘entry_points()’ function returns a ‘EntryPoints’ object, a collection of all ‘EntryPoint’ objects with ‘names’ and ‘groups’ attributes for convenience: >>> sorted(eps.groups) ['console_scripts', 'distutils.commands', 'distutils.setup_keywords', 'egg_info.writers', 'setuptools.installation'] ‘EntryPoints’ has a ‘select()’ method to select entry points matching specific properties. Select entry points in the ‘console_scripts’ group: >>> scripts = eps.select(group='console_scripts') Equivalently, since ‘entry_points()’ passes keyword arguments through to select: >>> scripts = entry_points(group='console_scripts') Pick out a specific script named “wheel” (found in the wheel project): >>> 'wheel' in scripts.names True >>> wheel = scripts['wheel'] Equivalently, query for that entry point during selection: >>> (wheel,) = entry_points(group='console_scripts', name='wheel') >>> (wheel,) = entry_points().select(group='console_scripts', name='wheel') Inspect the resolved entry point: >>> wheel EntryPoint(name='wheel', value='wheel.cli:main', group='console_scripts') >>> wheel.module 'wheel.cli' >>> wheel.attr 'main' >>> wheel.extras [] >>> main = wheel.load() >>> main <function main at 0x103528488> The ‘group’ and ‘name’ are arbitrary values defined by the package author and usually a client will wish to resolve all entry points for a particular group. Read the setuptools docs(1) for more information on entry points, their definition, and usage. Changed in version 3.12: The “selectable” entry points were introduced in ‘importlib_metadata’ 3.6 and Python 3.10. Prior to those changes, ‘entry_points’ accepted no parameters and always returned a dictionary of entry points, keyed by group. With ‘importlib_metadata’ 5.0 and Python 3.12, ‘entry_points’ always returns an ‘EntryPoints’ object. See backports.entry_points_selectable(2) for compatibility options. Changed in version 3.13: ‘EntryPoint’ objects no longer present a tuple-like interface (*note __getitem__(): 285.). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/userguide/entry_point.html (2) https://pypi.org/project/backports.entry_points_selectable/  File: python.info, Node: Distribution metadata, Next: Distribution versions, Prev: Entry points, Up: Functional API<2> 5.32.8.4 Distribution metadata .............................. -- Function: importlib.metadata.metadata (distribution_name) Return the distribution metadata corresponding to the named distribution package as a *note PackageMetadata: 459a. instance. Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4592. if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment. -- Class: importlib.metadata.PackageMetadata A concrete implementation of the PackageMetadata protocol(1). In addition to providing the defined protocol methods and attributes, subscripting the instance is equivalent to calling the ‘get()’ method. Every Distribution Package(2) includes some metadata, which you can extract using the ‘metadata()’ function: >>> wheel_metadata = metadata('wheel') The keys of the returned data structure name the metadata keywords, and the values are returned unparsed from the distribution metadata: >>> wheel_metadata['Requires-Python'] '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*' *note PackageMetadata: 459a. also presents a ‘json’ attribute that returns all the metadata in a JSON-compatible form per PEP 566(3): >>> wheel_metadata.json['requires_python'] '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*' The full set of available metadata is not described here. See the PyPA Core metadata specification(4) for additional details. Changed in version 3.10: The ‘Description’ is now included in the metadata when presented through the payload. Line continuation characters have been removed. The ‘json’ attribute was added. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://importlib-metadata.readthedocs.io/en/latest/api.html#importlib_metadata.PackageMetadata (2) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0566/ (4) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata  File: python.info, Node: Distribution versions, Next: Distribution files, Prev: Distribution metadata, Up: Functional API<2> 5.32.8.5 Distribution versions .............................. -- Function: importlib.metadata.version (distribution_name) Return the installed distribution package version(1) for the named distribution package. Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4592. if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment. The ‘version()’ function is the quickest way to get a Distribution Package(2)’s version number, as a string: >>> version('wheel') '0.32.3' ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#version (2) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package  File: python.info, Node: Distribution files, Next: Distribution requirements, Prev: Distribution versions, Up: Functional API<2> 5.32.8.6 Distribution files ........................... -- Function: importlib.metadata.files (distribution_name) Return the full set of files contained within the named distribution package. Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4592. if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment. Returns *note None: 671. if the distribution is found but the installation database records reporting the files associated with the distribuion package are missing. -- Class: importlib.metadata.PackagePath A *note pathlib.PurePath: 4a2. derived object with additional ‘dist’, ‘size’, and ‘hash’ properties corresponding to the distribution package’s installation metadata for that file. The ‘files()’ function takes a Distribution Package(1) name and returns all of the files installed by this distribution. Each file is reported as a *note PackagePath: 459e. instance. For example: >>> util = [p for p in files('wheel') if 'util.py' in str(p)][0] >>> util PackagePath('wheel/util.py') >>> util.size 859 >>> util.dist <importlib.metadata._hooks.PathDistribution object at 0x101e0cef0> >>> util.hash <FileHash mode: sha256 value: bYkw5oMccfazVCoYQwKkkemoVyMAFoR34mmKBx8R1NI> Once you have the file, you can also read its contents: >>> print(util.read_text()) import base64 import sys ... def as_bytes(s): if isinstance(s, text_type): return s.encode('utf-8') return s You can also use the ‘locate()’ method to get the absolute path to the file: >>> util.locate() PosixPath('/home/gustav/example/lib/site-packages/wheel/util.py') In the case where the metadata file listing files (‘RECORD’ or ‘SOURCES.txt’) is missing, ‘files()’ will return *note None: 671. The caller may wish to wrap calls to ‘files()’ in always_iterable(2) or otherwise guard against this condition if the target distribution is not known to have the metadata present. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package (2) https://more-itertools.readthedocs.io/en/stable/api.html#more_itertools.always_iterable  File: python.info, Node: Distribution requirements, Next: Mapping import to distribution packages, Prev: Distribution files, Up: Functional API<2> 5.32.8.7 Distribution requirements .................................. -- Function: importlib.metadata.requires (distribution_name) Return the declared dependency specifiers for the named distribution package. Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4592. if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment. To get the full set of requirements for a Distribution Package(1), use the ‘requires()’ function: >>> requires('wheel') ["pytest (>=3.0.0) ; extra == 'test'", "pytest-cov ; extra == 'test'"] ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package  File: python.info, Node: Mapping import to distribution packages, Prev: Distribution requirements, Up: Functional API<2> 5.32.8.8 Mapping import to distribution packages ................................................ -- Function: importlib.metadata.packages_distributions () Return a mapping from the top level module and import package names found via *note sys.meta_path: d2b. to the names of the distribution packages (if any) that provide the corresponding files. To allow for namespace packages (which may have members provided by multiple distribution packages), each top level import name maps to a list of distribution names rather than mapping directly to a single name. A convenience method to resolve the Distribution Package(1) name (or names, in the case of a namespace package) that provide each importable top-level Python module or Import Package(2): >>> packages_distributions() {'importlib_metadata': ['importlib-metadata'], 'yaml': ['PyYAML'], 'jaraco': ['jaraco.classes', 'jaraco.functools'], ...} Some editable installs, do not supply top-level names(3), and thus this function is not reliable with such installs. Added in version 3.10. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package (2) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Import-Package (3) https://github.com/pypa/packaging-problems/issues/609  File: python.info, Node: Distributions, Next: Distribution Discovery, Prev: Functional API<2>, Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata 5.32.8.9 Distributions ...................... -- Function: importlib.metadata.distribution (distribution_name) Return a *note Distribution: 45a6. instance describing the named distribution package. Raises *note PackageNotFoundError: 4592. if the named distribution package is not installed in the current Python environment. -- Class: importlib.metadata.Distribution Details of an installed distribution package. Note: different ‘Distribution’ instances do not currently compare equal, even if they relate to the same installed distribution and accordingly have the same attributes. While the module level API described above is the most common and convenient usage, you can get all of that information from the ‘Distribution’ class. ‘Distribution’ is an abstract object that represents the metadata for a Python Distribution Package(1). You can get the concrete ‘Distribution’ subclass instance for an installed distribution package by calling the *note distribution(): 45a5. function: >>> from importlib.metadata import distribution >>> dist = distribution('wheel') >>> type(dist) <class 'importlib.metadata.PathDistribution'> Thus, an alternative way to get the version number is through the ‘Distribution’ instance: >>> dist.version '0.32.3' There are all kinds of additional metadata available on ‘Distribution’ instances: >>> dist.metadata['Requires-Python'] '>=2.7, !=3.0.*, !=3.1.*, !=3.2.*, !=3.3.*' >>> dist.metadata['License'] 'MIT' For editable packages, an ‘origin’ property may present PEP 610(2) metadata: >>> dist.origin.url 'file:///path/to/wheel-0.32.3.editable-py3-none-any.whl' The full set of available metadata is not described here. See the PyPA Core metadata specification(3) for additional details. Added in version 3.13: The ‘.origin’ property was added. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0610/ (3) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/specifications/core-metadata/#core-metadata  File: python.info, Node: Distribution Discovery, Next: Extending the search algorithm, Prev: Distributions, Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata 5.32.8.10 Distribution Discovery ................................ By default, this package provides built-in support for discovery of metadata for file system and zip file Distribution Package(1)s. This metadata finder search defaults to ‘sys.path’, but varies slightly in how it interprets those values from how other import machinery does. In particular: - ‘importlib.metadata’ does not honor *note bytes: 1c2. objects on ‘sys.path’. - ‘importlib.metadata’ will incidentally honor *note pathlib.Path: 22b. objects on ‘sys.path’ even though such values will be ignored for imports. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package  File: python.info, Node: Extending the search algorithm, Prev: Distribution Discovery, Up: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata 5.32.8.11 Extending the search algorithm ........................................ Because Distribution Package(1) metadata is not available through *note sys.path: 3b0. searches, or package loaders directly, the metadata for a distribution is found through import system *note finders: 1ff3. To find a distribution package’s metadata, ‘importlib.metadata’ queries the list of *note meta path finders: 1069. on *note sys.meta_path: d2b. By default ‘importlib.metadata’ installs a finder for distribution packages found on the file system. This finder doesn’t actually find any 'distributions', but it can find their metadata. The abstract class *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. defines the interface expected of finders by Python’s import system. ‘importlib.metadata’ extends this protocol by looking for an optional ‘find_distributions’ callable on the finders from *note sys.meta_path: d2b. and presents this extended interface as the ‘DistributionFinder’ abstract base class, which defines this abstract method: @abc.abstractmethod def find_distributions(context=DistributionFinder.Context()): """Return an iterable of all Distribution instances capable of loading the metadata for packages for the indicated ``context``. """ The ‘DistributionFinder.Context’ object provides ‘.path’ and ‘.name’ properties indicating the path to search and name to match and may supply other relevant context. What this means in practice is that to support finding distribution package metadata in locations other than the file system, subclass ‘Distribution’ and implement the abstract methods. Then from a custom finder, return instances of this derived ‘Distribution’ in the ‘find_distributions()’ method. * Menu: * Example: Example<14>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/glossary/#term-Distribution-Package  File: python.info, Node: Example<14>, Up: Extending the search algorithm 5.32.8.12 Example ................. Consider for example a custom finder that loads Python modules from a database: class DatabaseImporter(importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder): def __init__(self, db): self.db = db def find_spec(self, fullname, target=None) -> ModuleSpec: return self.db.spec_from_name(fullname) sys.meta_path.append(DatabaseImporter(connect_db(...))) That importer now presumably provides importable modules from a database, but it provides no metadata or entry points. For this custom importer to provide metadata, it would also need to implement ‘DistributionFinder’: from importlib.metadata import DistributionFinder class DatabaseImporter(DistributionFinder): ... def find_distributions(self, context=DistributionFinder.Context()): query = dict(name=context.name) if context.name else {} for dist_record in self.db.query_distributions(query): yield DatabaseDistribution(dist_record) In this way, ‘query_distributions’ would return records for each distribution served by the database matching the query. For example, if ‘requests-1.0’ is in the database, ‘find_distributions’ would yield a ‘DatabaseDistribution’ for ‘Context(name='requests')’ or ‘Context(name=None)’. For the sake of simplicity, this example ignores ‘context.path’. The ‘path’ attribute defaults to ‘sys.path’ and is the set of import paths to be considered in the search. A ‘DatabaseImporter’ could potentially function without any concern for a search path. Assuming the importer does no partitioning, the “path” would be irrelevant. In order to illustrate the purpose of ‘path’, the example would need to illustrate a more complex ‘DatabaseImporter’ whose behavior varied depending on ‘sys.path’/‘PYTHONPATH’. In that case, the ‘find_distributions’ should honor the ‘context.path’ and only yield ‘Distribution’s pertinent to that path. ‘DatabaseDistribution’, then, would look something like: class DatabaseDistribution(importlib.metadata.Distribution): def __init__(self, record): self.record = record def read_text(self, filename): """ Read a file like "METADATA" for the current distribution. """ if filename == "METADATA": return f"""Name: {self.record.name} Version: {self.record.version} """ if filename == "entry_points.txt": return "\n".join( f"""[{ep.group}]\n{ep.name}={ep.value}""" for ep in self.record.entry_points) def locate_file(self, path): raise RuntimeError("This distribution has no file system") This basic implementation should provide metadata and entry points for packages served by the ‘DatabaseImporter’, assuming that the ‘record’ supplies suitable ‘.name’, ‘.version’, and ‘.entry_points’ attributes. The ‘DatabaseDistribution’ may also provide other metadata files, like ‘RECORD’ (required for ‘Distribution.files’) or override the implementation of ‘Distribution.files’. See the source for more inspiration.  File: python.info, Node: The initialization of the sys path module search path, Prev: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata, Up: Importing Modules 5.32.9 The initialization of the ‘sys.path’ module search path -------------------------------------------------------------- A module search path is initialized when Python starts. This module search path may be accessed at *note sys.path: 3b0. The first entry in the module search path is the directory that contains the input script, if there is one. Otherwise, the first entry is the current directory, which is the case when executing the interactive shell, a *note -c: 5dc. command, or *note -m: 5dd. module. The *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. environment variable is often used to add directories to the search path. If this environment variable is found then the contents are added to the module search path. Note: *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. will affect all installed Python versions/environments. Be wary of setting this in your shell profile or global environment variables. The *note site: c7. module offers more nuanced techniques as mentioned below. The next items added are the directories containing standard Python modules as well as any *note extension module: 45ac.s that these modules depend on. Extension modules are ‘.pyd’ files on Windows and ‘.so’ files on other platforms. The directory with the platform-independent Python modules is called ‘prefix’. The directory with the extension modules is called ‘exec_prefix’. The *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable may be used to set the ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ locations. Otherwise these directories are found by using the Python executable as a starting point and then looking for various ‘landmark’ files and directories. Note that any symbolic links are followed so the real Python executable location is used as the search starting point. The Python executable location is called ‘home’. Once ‘home’ is determined, the ‘prefix’ directory is found by first looking for ‘python`majorversion'`minorversion'.zip’ (‘python311.zip’). On Windows the zip archive is searched for in ‘home’ and on Unix the archive is expected to be in ‘lib’. Note that the expected zip archive location is added to the module search path even if the archive does not exist. If no archive was found, Python on Windows will continue the search for ‘prefix’ by looking for ‘Lib\os.py’. Python on Unix will look for ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/os.py’ (‘lib/python3.11/os.py’). On Windows ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are the same, however on other platforms ‘lib/python`majorversion'.`minorversion'/lib-dynload’ (‘lib/python3.11/lib-dynload’) is searched for and used as an anchor for ‘exec_prefix’. On some platforms ‘lib’ may be ‘lib64’ or another value, see *note sys.platlibdir: 938. and *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1940. Once found, ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are available at *note sys.prefix: 3b2. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. respectively. Finally, the *note site: c7. module is processed and ‘site-packages’ directories are added to the module search path. A common way to customize the search path is to create *note sitecustomize: c8. or *note usercustomize: 10e. modules as described in the *note site: c7. module documentation. Note: Certain command line options may further affect path calculations. See *note -E: 95d, *note -I: 95e, *note -s: 1377. and *note -S: 119b. for further details. * Menu: * Virtual environments: Virtual environments<2>. * _pth files:: * Embedded Python::  File: python.info, Node: Virtual environments<2>, Next: _pth files, Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path 5.32.9.1 Virtual environments ............................. If Python is run in a virtual environment (as described at *note Virtual Environments and Packages: 1cfe.) then ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’ are specific to the virtual environment. If a ‘pyvenv.cfg’ file is found alongside the main executable, or in the directory one level above the executable, the following variations apply: * If ‘home’ is an absolute path and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. is not set, this path is used instead of the path to the main executable when deducing ‘prefix’ and ‘exec_prefix’.  File: python.info, Node: _pth files, Next: Embedded Python, Prev: Virtual environments<2>, Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path 5.32.9.2 _pth files ................... To completely override *note sys.path: 3b0. create a ‘._pth’ file with the same name as the shared library or executable (‘python._pth’ or ‘python311._pth’). The shared library path is always known on Windows, however it may not be available on other platforms. In the ‘._pth’ file specify one line for each path to add to *note sys.path: 3b0. The file based on the shared library name overrides the one based on the executable, which allows paths to be restricted for any program loading the runtime if desired. When the file exists, all registry and environment variables are ignored, isolated mode is enabled, and *note site: c7. is not imported unless one line in the file specifies ‘import site’. Blank paths and lines starting with ‘#’ are ignored. Each path may be absolute or relative to the location of the file. Import statements other than to ‘site’ are not permitted, and arbitrary code cannot be specified. Note that ‘.pth’ files (without leading underscore) will be processed normally by the *note site: c7. module when ‘import site’ has been specified.  File: python.info, Node: Embedded Python, Prev: _pth files, Up: The initialization of the sys path module search path 5.32.9.3 Embedded Python ........................ If Python is embedded within another application *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. and the *note PyConfig: 3a2. structure can be used to initialize Python. The path specific details are described at *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. See also ........ * *note Finding modules: c21. for detailed Windows notes. * *note Using Python on Unix platforms: 1d58. for Unix details.  File: python.info, Node: Python Language Services, Next: MS Windows Specific Services, Prev: Importing Modules, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.33 Python Language Services ============================= Python provides a number of modules to assist in working with the Python language. These modules support tokenizing, parsing, syntax analysis, bytecode disassembly, and various other facilities. These modules include: * Menu: * ast — Abstract Syntax Trees:: * symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables:: * token — Constants used with Python parse trees:: * keyword — Testing for Python keywords:: * tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source:: * tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation:: * pyclbr — Python module browser support:: * py_compile — Compile Python source files:: * compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries:: * dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode:: * pickletools — Tools for pickle developers::  File: python.info, Node: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees, Next: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.1 ‘ast’ — Abstract Syntax Trees ------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/ast.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note ast: 8. module helps Python applications to process trees of the Python abstract syntax grammar. The abstract syntax itself might change with each Python release; this module helps to find out programmatically what the current grammar looks like. An abstract syntax tree can be generated by passing *note ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST: 45b5. as a flag to the *note compile(): 192. built-in function, or using the *note parse(): 1a8. helper provided in this module. The result will be a tree of objects whose classes all inherit from *note ast.AST: 1a6. An abstract syntax tree can be compiled into a Python code object using the built-in *note compile(): 192. function. * Menu: * Abstract Grammar:: * Node classes:: * ast Helpers:: * Compiler Flags:: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<4>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/ast.py  File: python.info, Node: Abstract Grammar, Next: Node classes, Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees 5.33.1.1 Abstract Grammar ......................... The abstract grammar is currently defined as follows: -- ASDL's 4 builtin types are: -- identifier, int, string, constant module Python { mod = Module(stmt* body, type_ignore* type_ignores) | Interactive(stmt* body) | Expression(expr body) | FunctionType(expr* argtypes, expr returns) stmt = FunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args, stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns, string? type_comment, type_param* type_params) | AsyncFunctionDef(identifier name, arguments args, stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, expr? returns, string? type_comment, type_param* type_params) | ClassDef(identifier name, expr* bases, keyword* keywords, stmt* body, expr* decorator_list, type_param* type_params) | Return(expr? value) | Delete(expr* targets) | Assign(expr* targets, expr value, string? type_comment) | TypeAlias(expr name, type_param* type_params, expr value) | AugAssign(expr target, operator op, expr value) -- 'simple' indicates that we annotate simple name without parens | AnnAssign(expr target, expr annotation, expr? value, int simple) -- use 'orelse' because else is a keyword in target languages | For(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment) | AsyncFor(expr target, expr iter, stmt* body, stmt* orelse, string? type_comment) | While(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse) | If(expr test, stmt* body, stmt* orelse) | With(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment) | AsyncWith(withitem* items, stmt* body, string? type_comment) | Match(expr subject, match_case* cases) | Raise(expr? exc, expr? cause) | Try(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody) | TryStar(stmt* body, excepthandler* handlers, stmt* orelse, stmt* finalbody) | Assert(expr test, expr? msg) | Import(alias* names) | ImportFrom(identifier? module, alias* names, int? level) | Global(identifier* names) | Nonlocal(identifier* names) | Expr(expr value) | Pass | Break | Continue -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset) -- BoolOp() can use left & right? expr = BoolOp(boolop op, expr* values) | NamedExpr(expr target, expr value) | BinOp(expr left, operator op, expr right) | UnaryOp(unaryop op, expr operand) | Lambda(arguments args, expr body) | IfExp(expr test, expr body, expr orelse) | Dict(expr* keys, expr* values) | Set(expr* elts) | ListComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators) | SetComp(expr elt, comprehension* generators) | DictComp(expr key, expr value, comprehension* generators) | GeneratorExp(expr elt, comprehension* generators) -- the grammar constrains where yield expressions can occur | Await(expr value) | Yield(expr? value) | YieldFrom(expr value) -- need sequences for compare to distinguish between -- x < 4 < 3 and (x < 4) < 3 | Compare(expr left, cmpop* ops, expr* comparators) | Call(expr func, expr* args, keyword* keywords) | FormattedValue(expr value, int conversion, expr? format_spec) | JoinedStr(expr* values) | Constant(constant value, string? kind) -- the following expression can appear in assignment context | Attribute(expr value, identifier attr, expr_context ctx) | Subscript(expr value, expr slice, expr_context ctx) | Starred(expr value, expr_context ctx) | Name(identifier id, expr_context ctx) | List(expr* elts, expr_context ctx) | Tuple(expr* elts, expr_context ctx) -- can appear only in Subscript | Slice(expr? lower, expr? upper, expr? step) -- col_offset is the byte offset in the utf8 string the parser uses attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset) expr_context = Load | Store | Del boolop = And | Or operator = Add | Sub | Mult | MatMult | Div | Mod | Pow | LShift | RShift | BitOr | BitXor | BitAnd | FloorDiv unaryop = Invert | Not | UAdd | USub cmpop = Eq | NotEq | Lt | LtE | Gt | GtE | Is | IsNot | In | NotIn comprehension = (expr target, expr iter, expr* ifs, int is_async) excepthandler = ExceptHandler(expr? type, identifier? name, stmt* body) attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset) arguments = (arg* posonlyargs, arg* args, arg? vararg, arg* kwonlyargs, expr* kw_defaults, arg? kwarg, expr* defaults) arg = (identifier arg, expr? annotation, string? type_comment) attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset) -- keyword arguments supplied to call (NULL identifier for **kwargs) keyword = (identifier? arg, expr value) attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset) -- import name with optional 'as' alias. alias = (identifier name, identifier? asname) attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int? end_lineno, int? end_col_offset) withitem = (expr context_expr, expr? optional_vars) match_case = (pattern pattern, expr? guard, stmt* body) pattern = MatchValue(expr value) | MatchSingleton(constant value) | MatchSequence(pattern* patterns) | MatchMapping(expr* keys, pattern* patterns, identifier? rest) | MatchClass(expr cls, pattern* patterns, identifier* kwd_attrs, pattern* kwd_patterns) | MatchStar(identifier? name) -- The optional "rest" MatchMapping parameter handles capturing extra mapping keys | MatchAs(pattern? pattern, identifier? name) | MatchOr(pattern* patterns) attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset) type_ignore = TypeIgnore(int lineno, string tag) type_param = TypeVar(identifier name, expr? bound, expr? default_value) | ParamSpec(identifier name, expr? default_value) | TypeVarTuple(identifier name, expr? default_value) attributes (int lineno, int col_offset, int end_lineno, int end_col_offset) }  File: python.info, Node: Node classes, Next: ast Helpers, Prev: Abstract Grammar, Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees 5.33.1.2 Node classes ..................... -- Class: ast.AST This is the base of all AST node classes. The actual node classes are derived from the ‘Parser/Python.asdl’ file, which is reproduced *note above: 45b6. They are defined in the ‘_ast’ C module and re-exported in *note ast: 8. There is one class defined for each left-hand side symbol in the abstract grammar (for example, ‘ast.stmt’ or ‘ast.expr’). In addition, there is one class defined for each constructor on the right-hand side; these classes inherit from the classes for the left-hand side trees. For example, *note ast.BinOp: 19cc. inherits from ‘ast.expr’. For production rules with alternatives (aka “sums”), the left-hand side class is abstract: only instances of specific constructor nodes are ever created. -- Attribute: _fields Each concrete class has an attribute ‘_fields’ which gives the names of all child nodes. Each instance of a concrete class has one attribute for each child node, of the type as defined in the grammar. For example, *note ast.BinOp: 19cc. instances have an attribute ‘left’ of type ‘ast.expr’. If these attributes are marked as optional in the grammar (using a question mark), the value might be ‘None’. If the attributes can have zero-or-more values (marked with an asterisk), the values are represented as Python lists. All possible attributes must be present and have valid values when compiling an AST with *note compile(): 192. -- Attribute: _field_types The ‘_field_types’ attribute on each concrete class is a dictionary mapping field names (as also listed in *note _fields: 15a4.) to their types. >>> ast.TypeVar._field_types {'name': <class 'str'>, 'bound': ast.expr | None, 'default_value': ast.expr | None} Added in version 3.13. -- Attribute: lineno -- Attribute: col_offset -- Attribute: end_lineno -- Attribute: end_col_offset Instances of ‘ast.expr’ and ‘ast.stmt’ subclasses have *note lineno: 45b9, *note col_offset: 45ba, *note end_lineno: 45bb, and *note end_col_offset: 45bc. attributes. The *note lineno: 45b9. and *note end_lineno: 45bb. are the first and last line numbers of source text span (1-indexed so the first line is line 1) and the *note col_offset: 45ba. and *note end_col_offset: 45bc. are the corresponding UTF-8 byte offsets of the first and last tokens that generated the node. The UTF-8 offset is recorded because the parser uses UTF-8 internally. Note that the end positions are not required by the compiler and are therefore optional. The end offset is 'after' the last symbol, for example one can get the source segment of a one-line expression node using ‘source_line[node.col_offset : node.end_col_offset]’. The constructor of a class ‘ast.T’ parses its arguments as follows: * If there are positional arguments, there must be as many as there are items in ‘T._fields’; they will be assigned as attributes of these names. * If there are keyword arguments, they will set the attributes of the same names to the given values. For example, to create and populate an *note ast.UnaryOp: 45bd. node, you could use node = ast.UnaryOp(ast.USub(), ast.Constant(5, lineno=0, col_offset=0), lineno=0, col_offset=0) If a field that is optional in the grammar is omitted from the constructor, it defaults to ‘None’. If a list field is omitted, it defaults to the empty list. If a field of type ‘ast.expr_context’ is omitted, it defaults to *note Load(): 1a4. If any other field is omitted, a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. is raised and the AST node will not have this field. In Python 3.15, this condition will raise an error. Changed in version 3.8: Class *note ast.Constant: 2bb. is now used for all constants. Changed in version 3.9: Simple indices are represented by their value, extended slices are represented as tuples. Deprecated since version 3.8: Old classes ‘ast.Num’, ‘ast.Str’, ‘ast.Bytes’, ‘ast.NameConstant’ and ‘ast.Ellipsis’ are still available, but they will be removed in future Python releases. In the meantime, instantiating them will return an instance of a different class. Deprecated since version 3.9: Old classes ‘ast.Index’ and ‘ast.ExtSlice’ are still available, but they will be removed in future Python releases. In the meantime, instantiating them will return an instance of a different class. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Previous versions of Python allowed the creation of AST nodes that were missing required fields. Similarly, AST node constructors allowed arbitrary keyword arguments that were set as attributes of the AST node, even if they did not match any of the fields of the AST node. This behavior is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.15. Note: The descriptions of the specific node classes displayed here were initially adapted from the fantastic Green Tree Snakes(1) project and all its contributors. * Menu: * Root nodes:: * Literals: Literals<3>. * Variables:: * Expressions: Expressions<2>. * Statements:: * Control flow:: * Pattern matching:: * Type annotations:: * Type parameters:: * Function and class definitions:: * Async and await:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/en/latest/  File: python.info, Node: Root nodes, Next: Literals<3>, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.3 Root nodes ................... -- Class: ast.Module (body, type_ignores) A Python module, as with *note file input: 213e. Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. in the default ‘"exec"’ 'mode'. ‘body’ is a *note list: 60d. of the module’s *note Statements: 45c1. ‘type_ignores’ is a *note list: 60d. of the module’s type ignore comments; see *note ast.parse(): 1a8. for more details. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Name(id='x', ctx=Store())], value=Constant(value=1))]) -- Class: ast.Expression (body) A single Python *note expression input: 2144. Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. when 'mode' is ‘"eval"’. ‘body’ is a single node, one of the *note expression types: 45c3. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Constant(value=123)) -- Class: ast.Interactive (body) A single *note interactive input: 2141, like in *note Interactive Mode: 16f. Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. when 'mode' is ‘"single"’. ‘body’ is a *note list: 60d. of *note statement nodes: 45c1. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1; y = 2', mode='single'), indent=4)) Interactive( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Name(id='x', ctx=Store())], value=Constant(value=1)), Assign( targets=[ Name(id='y', ctx=Store())], value=Constant(value=2))]) -- Class: ast.FunctionType (argtypes, returns) A representation of an old-style type comments for functions, as Python versions prior to 3.5 didn’t support PEP 484(1) annotations. Node type generated by *note ast.parse(): 1a8. when 'mode' is ‘"func_type"’. Such type comments would look like this: def sum_two_number(a, b): # type: (int, int) -> int return a + b ‘argtypes’ is a *note list: 60d. of *note expression nodes: 45c3. ‘returns’ is a single *note expression node: 45c3. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(int, str) -> List[int]', mode='func_type'), indent=4)) FunctionType( argtypes=[ Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), Name(id='str', ctx=Load())], returns=Subscript( value=Name(id='List', ctx=Load()), slice=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), ctx=Load())) Added in version 3.8. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/  File: python.info, Node: Literals<3>, Next: Variables, Prev: Root nodes, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.4 Literals ................. -- Class: ast.Constant (value) A constant value. The ‘value’ attribute of the ‘Constant’ literal contains the Python object it represents. The values represented can be instances of *note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2, *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1, *note complex: 2f2, and *note bool: 463, and the constants *note None: 671. and *note Ellipsis: 2185. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('123', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Constant(value=123)) -- Class: ast.FormattedValue (value, conversion, format_spec) Node representing a single formatting field in an f-string. If the string contains a single formatting field and nothing else the node can be isolated otherwise it appears in *note JoinedStr: 16ea. * ‘value’ is any expression node (such as a literal, a variable, or a function call). * ‘conversion’ is an integer: * -1: no formatting * 115: ‘!s’ string formatting * 114: ‘!r’ repr formatting * 97: ‘!a’ ascii formatting * ‘format_spec’ is a *note JoinedStr: 16ea. node representing the formatting of the value, or ‘None’ if no format was specified. Both ‘conversion’ and ‘format_spec’ can be set at the same time. -- Class: ast.JoinedStr (values) An f-string, comprising a series of *note FormattedValue: 45c7. and *note Constant: 2bb. nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('f"sin({a}) is {sin(a):.3}"', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=JoinedStr( values=[ Constant(value='sin('), FormattedValue( value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), conversion=-1), Constant(value=') is '), FormattedValue( value=Call( func=Name(id='sin', ctx=Load()), args=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Load())]), conversion=-1, format_spec=JoinedStr( values=[ Constant(value='.3')]))])) -- Class: ast.List (elts, ctx) -- Class: ast.Tuple (elts, ctx) A list or tuple. ‘elts’ holds a list of nodes representing the elements. ‘ctx’ is *note Store: 45ca. if the container is an assignment target (i.e. ‘(x,y)=something’), and *note Load: 1a4. otherwise. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[1, 2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=List( elts=[ Constant(value=1), Constant(value=2), Constant(value=3)], ctx=Load())) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(1, 2, 3)', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Tuple( elts=[ Constant(value=1), Constant(value=2), Constant(value=3)], ctx=Load())) -- Class: ast.Set (elts) A set. ‘elts’ holds a list of nodes representing the set’s elements. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{1, 2, 3}', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Set( elts=[ Constant(value=1), Constant(value=2), Constant(value=3)])) -- Class: ast.Dict (keys, values) A dictionary. ‘keys’ and ‘values’ hold lists of nodes representing the keys and the values respectively, in matching order (what would be returned when calling ‘dictionary.keys()’ and ‘dictionary.values()’). When doing dictionary unpacking using dictionary literals the expression to be expanded goes in the ‘values’ list, with a ‘None’ at the corresponding position in ‘keys’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('{"a":1, **d}', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Dict( keys=[ Constant(value='a'), None], values=[ Constant(value=1), Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))  File: python.info, Node: Variables, Next: Expressions<2>, Prev: Literals<3>, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.5 Variables .................. -- Class: ast.Name (id, ctx) A variable name. ‘id’ holds the name as a string, and ‘ctx’ is one of the following types. -- Class: ast.Load -- Class: ast.Store -- Class: ast.Del Variable references can be used to load the value of a variable, to assign a new value to it, or to delete it. Variable references are given a context to distinguish these cases. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Expr( value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()))]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = 1'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Store())], value=Constant(value=1))]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del a'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Delete( targets=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Del())])]) -- Class: ast.Starred (value, ctx) A ‘*var’ variable reference. ‘value’ holds the variable, typically a *note Name: 193f. node. This type must be used when building a *note Call: 45cf. node with ‘*args’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a, *b = it'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Tuple( elts=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Store()), Starred( value=Name(id='b', ctx=Store()), ctx=Store())], ctx=Store())], value=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()))])  File: python.info, Node: Expressions<2>, Next: Statements, Prev: Variables, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.6 Expressions .................... -- Class: ast.Expr (value) When an expression, such as a function call, appears as a statement by itself with its return value not used or stored, it is wrapped in this container. ‘value’ holds one of the other nodes in this section, a *note Constant: 2bb, a *note Name: 193f, a *note Lambda: 45d2, a *note Yield: 45d3. or *note YieldFrom: 45d4. node. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('-a'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Expr( value=UnaryOp( op=USub(), operand=Name(id='a', ctx=Load())))]) -- Class: ast.UnaryOp (op, operand) A unary operation. ‘op’ is the operator, and ‘operand’ any expression node. -- Class: ast.UAdd -- Class: ast.USub -- Class: ast.Not -- Class: ast.Invert Unary operator tokens. *note Not: 45d7. is the ‘not’ keyword, *note Invert: 45d8. is the ‘~’ operator. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('not x', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=UnaryOp( op=Not(), operand=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()))) -- Class: ast.BinOp (left, op, right) A binary operation (like addition or division). ‘op’ is the operator, and ‘left’ and ‘right’ are any expression nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x + y', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=BinOp( left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), op=Add(), right=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))) -- Class: ast.Add -- Class: ast.Sub -- Class: ast.Mult -- Class: ast.Div -- Class: ast.FloorDiv -- Class: ast.Mod -- Class: ast.Pow -- Class: ast.LShift -- Class: ast.RShift -- Class: ast.BitOr -- Class: ast.BitXor -- Class: ast.BitAnd -- Class: ast.MatMult Binary operator tokens. -- Class: ast.BoolOp (op, values) A boolean operation, ‘or’ or ‘and’. ‘op’ is *note Or: 45e7. or *note And: 45e8. ‘values’ are the values involved. Consecutive operations with the same operator, such as ‘a or b or c’, are collapsed into one node with several values. This doesn’t include ‘not’, which is a *note UnaryOp: 45bd. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x or y', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=BoolOp( op=Or(), values=[ Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), Name(id='y', ctx=Load())])) -- Class: ast.And -- Class: ast.Or Boolean operator tokens. -- Class: ast.Compare (left, ops, comparators) A comparison of two or more values. ‘left’ is the first value in the comparison, ‘ops’ the list of operators, and ‘comparators’ the list of values after the first element in the comparison. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('1 <= a < 10', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Compare( left=Constant(value=1), ops=[ LtE(), Lt()], comparators=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), Constant(value=10)])) -- Class: ast.Eq -- Class: ast.NotEq -- Class: ast.Lt -- Class: ast.LtE -- Class: ast.Gt -- Class: ast.GtE -- Class: ast.Is -- Class: ast.IsNot -- Class: ast.In -- Class: ast.NotIn Comparison operator tokens. -- Class: ast.Call (func, args, keywords) A function call. ‘func’ is the function, which will often be a *note Name: 193f. or *note Attribute: 45f4. object. Of the arguments: * ‘args’ holds a list of the arguments passed by position. * ‘keywords’ holds a list of *note keyword: 45f5. objects representing arguments passed by keyword. The ‘args’ and ‘keywords’ arguments are optional and default to empty lists. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('func(a, b=c, *d, **e)', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Call( func=Name(id='func', ctx=Load()), args=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), Starred( value=Name(id='d', ctx=Load()), ctx=Load())], keywords=[ keyword( arg='b', value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load())), keyword( value=Name(id='e', ctx=Load()))])) -- Class: ast.keyword (arg, value) A keyword argument to a function call or class definition. ‘arg’ is a raw string of the parameter name, ‘value’ is a node to pass in. -- Class: ast.IfExp (test, body, orelse) An expression such as ‘a if b else c’. Each field holds a single node, so in the following example, all three are *note Name: 193f. nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a if b else c', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=IfExp( test=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()), body=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), orelse=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))) -- Class: ast.Attribute (value, attr, ctx) Attribute access, e.g. ‘d.keys’. ‘value’ is a node, typically a *note Name: 193f. ‘attr’ is a bare string giving the name of the attribute, and ‘ctx’ is *note Load: 1a4, *note Store: 45ca. or *note Del: 45cd. according to how the attribute is acted on. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('snake.colour', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Attribute( value=Name(id='snake', ctx=Load()), attr='colour', ctx=Load())) -- Class: ast.NamedExpr (target, value) A named expression. This AST node is produced by the assignment expressions operator (also known as the walrus operator). As opposed to the *note Assign: 45f8. node in which the first argument can be multiple nodes, in this case both ‘target’ and ‘value’ must be single nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(x := 4)', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=NamedExpr( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), value=Constant(value=4))) Added in version 3.8. * Menu: * Subscripting:: * Comprehensions::  File: python.info, Node: Subscripting, Next: Comprehensions, Up: Expressions<2> 5.33.1.7 Subscripting ..................... -- Class: ast.Subscript (value, slice, ctx) A subscript, such as ‘l[1]’. ‘value’ is the subscripted object (usually sequence or mapping). ‘slice’ is an index, slice or key. It can be a *note Tuple: 45c9. and contain a *note Slice: 45fb. ‘ctx’ is *note Load: 1a4, *note Store: 45ca. or *note Del: 45cd. according to the action performed with the subscript. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2, 3]', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Subscript( value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()), slice=Tuple( elts=[ Slice( lower=Constant(value=1), upper=Constant(value=2)), Constant(value=3)], ctx=Load()), ctx=Load())) -- Class: ast.Slice (lower, upper, step) Regular slicing (on the form ‘lower:upper’ or ‘lower:upper:step’). Can occur only inside the 'slice' field of *note Subscript: 45fa, either directly or as an element of *note Tuple: 45c9. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('l[1:2]', mode='eval'), indent=4)) Expression( body=Subscript( value=Name(id='l', ctx=Load()), slice=Slice( lower=Constant(value=1), upper=Constant(value=2)), ctx=Load()))  File: python.info, Node: Comprehensions, Prev: Subscripting, Up: Expressions<2> 5.33.1.8 Comprehensions ....................... -- Class: ast.ListComp (elt, generators) -- Class: ast.SetComp (elt, generators) -- Class: ast.GeneratorExp (elt, generators) -- Class: ast.DictComp (key, value, generators) List and set comprehensions, generator expressions, and dictionary comprehensions. ‘elt’ (or ‘key’ and ‘value’) is a single node representing the part that will be evaluated for each item. ‘generators’ is a list of *note comprehension: 4601. nodes. >>> print(ast.dump( ... ast.parse('[x for x in numbers]', mode='eval'), ... indent=4, ... )) Expression( body=ListComp( elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), generators=[ comprehension( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()), is_async=0)])) >>> print(ast.dump( ... ast.parse('{x: x**2 for x in numbers}', mode='eval'), ... indent=4, ... )) Expression( body=DictComp( key=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), value=BinOp( left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), op=Pow(), right=Constant(value=2)), generators=[ comprehension( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()), is_async=0)])) >>> print(ast.dump( ... ast.parse('{x for x in numbers}', mode='eval'), ... indent=4, ... )) Expression( body=SetComp( elt=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), generators=[ comprehension( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='numbers', ctx=Load()), is_async=0)])) -- Class: ast.comprehension (target, iter, ifs, is_async) One ‘for’ clause in a comprehension. ‘target’ is the reference to use for each element - typically a *note Name: 193f. or *note Tuple: 45c9. node. ‘iter’ is the object to iterate over. ‘ifs’ is a list of test expressions: each ‘for’ clause can have multiple ‘ifs’. ‘is_async’ indicates a comprehension is asynchronous (using an ‘async for’ instead of ‘for’). The value is an integer (0 or 1). >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[ord(c) for line in file for c in line]', mode='eval'), ... indent=4)) # Multiple comprehensions in one. Expression( body=ListComp( elt=Call( func=Name(id='ord', ctx=Load()), args=[ Name(id='c', ctx=Load())]), generators=[ comprehension( target=Name(id='line', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='file', ctx=Load()), is_async=0), comprehension( target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='line', ctx=Load()), is_async=0)])) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(n**2 for n in it if n>5 if n<10)', mode='eval'), ... indent=4)) # generator comprehension Expression( body=GeneratorExp( elt=BinOp( left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()), op=Pow(), right=Constant(value=2)), generators=[ comprehension( target=Name(id='n', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='it', ctx=Load()), ifs=[ Compare( left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()), ops=[ Gt()], comparators=[ Constant(value=5)]), Compare( left=Name(id='n', ctx=Load()), ops=[ Lt()], comparators=[ Constant(value=10)])], is_async=0)])) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('[i async for i in soc]', mode='eval'), ... indent=4)) # Async comprehension Expression( body=ListComp( elt=Name(id='i', ctx=Load()), generators=[ comprehension( target=Name(id='i', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='soc', ctx=Load()), is_async=1)]))  File: python.info, Node: Statements, Next: Control flow, Prev: Expressions<2>, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.9 Statements ................... -- Class: ast.Assign (targets, value, type_comment) An assignment. ‘targets’ is a list of nodes, and ‘value’ is a single node. Multiple nodes in ‘targets’ represents assigning the same value to each. Unpacking is represented by putting a *note Tuple: 45c9. or *note List: 45c8. within ‘targets’. -- Attribute: type_comment ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation as a comment. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a = b = 1'), indent=4)) # Multiple assignment Module( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Store()), Name(id='b', ctx=Store())], value=Constant(value=1))]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a,b = c'), indent=4)) # Unpacking Module( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Tuple( elts=[ Name(id='a', ctx=Store()), Name(id='b', ctx=Store())], ctx=Store())], value=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()))]) -- Class: ast.AnnAssign (target, annotation, value, simple) An assignment with a type annotation. ‘target’ is a single node and can be a *note Name: 193f, an *note Attribute: 45f4. or a *note Subscript: 45fa. ‘annotation’ is the annotation, such as a *note Constant: 2bb. or *note Name: 193f. node. ‘value’ is a single optional node. ‘simple’ is always either 0 (indicating a “complex” target) or 1 (indicating a “simple” target). A “simple” target consists solely of a *note Name: 193f. node that does not appear between parentheses; all other targets are considered complex. Only simple targets appear in the ‘__annotations__’ dictionary of modules and classes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('c: int'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ AnnAssign( target=Name(id='c', ctx=Store()), annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), simple=1)]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('(a): int = 1'), indent=4)) # Annotation with parenthesis Module( body=[ AnnAssign( target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()), annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), value=Constant(value=1), simple=0)]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a.b: int'), indent=4)) # Attribute annotation Module( body=[ AnnAssign( target=Attribute( value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), attr='b', ctx=Store()), annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), simple=0)]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('a[1]: int'), indent=4)) # Subscript annotation Module( body=[ AnnAssign( target=Subscript( value=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), slice=Constant(value=1), ctx=Store()), annotation=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), simple=0)]) -- Class: ast.AugAssign (target, op, value) Augmented assignment, such as ‘a += 1’. In the following example, ‘target’ is a *note Name: 193f. node for ‘x’ (with the *note Store: 45ca. context), ‘op’ is *note Add: 45d9, and ‘value’ is a *note Constant: 2bb. with value for 1. The ‘target’ attribute cannot be of class *note Tuple: 45c9. or *note List: 45c8, unlike the targets of *note Assign: 45f8. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x += 2'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ AugAssign( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), op=Add(), value=Constant(value=2))]) -- Class: ast.Raise (exc, cause) A ‘raise’ statement. ‘exc’ is the exception object to be raised, normally a *note Call: 45cf. or *note Name: 193f, or ‘None’ for a standalone ‘raise’. ‘cause’ is the optional part for ‘y’ in ‘raise x from y’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('raise x from y'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Raise( exc=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cause=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))]) -- Class: ast.Assert (test, msg) An assertion. ‘test’ holds the condition, such as a *note Compare: 45e9. node. ‘msg’ holds the failure message. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('assert x,y'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Assert( test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), msg=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()))]) -- Class: ast.Delete (targets) Represents a ‘del’ statement. ‘targets’ is a list of nodes, such as *note Name: 193f, *note Attribute: 45f4. or *note Subscript: 45fa. nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('del x,y,z'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Delete( targets=[ Name(id='x', ctx=Del()), Name(id='y', ctx=Del()), Name(id='z', ctx=Del())])]) -- Class: ast.Pass A ‘pass’ statement. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('pass'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Pass()]) -- Class: ast.TypeAlias (name, type_params, value) A *note type alias: 44f. created through the *note type: 433. statement. ‘name’ is the name of the alias, ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 460a, and ‘value’ is the value of the type alias. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('type Alias = int'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ TypeAlias( name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()), value=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()))]) Added in version 3.12. Other statements which are only applicable inside functions or loops are described in other sections. * Menu: * Imports::  File: python.info, Node: Imports, Up: Statements 5.33.1.10 Imports ................. -- Class: ast.Import (names) An import statement. ‘names’ is a list of *note alias: 18be. nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('import x,y,z'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Import( names=[ alias(name='x'), alias(name='y'), alias(name='z')])]) -- Class: ast.ImportFrom (module, names, level) Represents ‘from x import y’. ‘module’ is a raw string of the ‘from’ name, without any leading dots, or ‘None’ for statements such as ‘from . import foo’. ‘level’ is an integer holding the level of the relative import (0 means absolute import). >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from y import x,y,z'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ ImportFrom( module='y', names=[ alias(name='x'), alias(name='y'), alias(name='z')], level=0)]) -- Class: ast.alias (name, asname) Both parameters are raw strings of the names. ‘asname’ can be ‘None’ if the regular name is to be used. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('from ..foo.bar import a as b, c'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ ImportFrom( module='foo.bar', names=[ alias(name='a', asname='b'), alias(name='c')], level=2)])  File: python.info, Node: Control flow, Next: Pattern matching, Prev: Statements, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.11 Control flow ...................... Note: Optional clauses such as ‘else’ are stored as an empty list if they’re not present. -- Class: ast.If (test, body, orelse) An ‘if’ statement. ‘test’ holds a single node, such as a *note Compare: 45e9. node. ‘body’ and ‘orelse’ each hold a list of nodes. ‘elif’ clauses don’t have a special representation in the AST, but rather appear as extra *note If: 460f. nodes within the ‘orelse’ section of the previous one. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... if x: ... ... ... elif y: ... ... ... else: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ If( test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], orelse=[ If( test=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], orelse=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) -- Class: ast.For (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment) A ‘for’ loop. ‘target’ holds the variable(s) the loop assigns to, as a single *note Name: 193f, *note Tuple: 45c9, *note List: 45c8, *note Attribute: 45f4. or *note Subscript: 45fa. node. ‘iter’ holds the item to be looped over, again as a single node. ‘body’ and ‘orelse’ contain lists of nodes to execute. Those in ‘orelse’ are executed if the loop finishes normally, rather than via a ‘break’ statement. -- Attribute: type_comment ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation as a comment. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... for x in y: ... ... ... else: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ For( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='y', ctx=Load()), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], orelse=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])]) -- Class: ast.While (test, body, orelse) A ‘while’ loop. ‘test’ holds the condition, such as a *note Compare: 45e9. node. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... while x: ... ... ... else: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ While( test=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], orelse=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])]) -- Class: ast.Break -- Class: ast.Continue The ‘break’ and ‘continue’ statements. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... for a in b: ... if a > 5: ... break ... else: ... continue ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ For( target=Name(id='a', ctx=Store()), iter=Name(id='b', ctx=Load()), body=[ If( test=Compare( left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), ops=[ Gt()], comparators=[ Constant(value=5)]), body=[ Break()], orelse=[ Continue()])])]) -- Class: ast.Try (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody) ‘try’ blocks. All attributes are list of nodes to execute, except for ‘handlers’, which is a list of *note ExceptHandler: 4616. nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... try: ... ... ... except Exception: ... ... ... except OtherException as e: ... ... ... else: ... ... ... finally: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Try( body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], handlers=[ ExceptHandler( type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]), ExceptHandler( type=Name(id='OtherException', ctx=Load()), name='e', body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])], orelse=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], finalbody=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])]) -- Class: ast.TryStar (body, handlers, orelse, finalbody) ‘try’ blocks which are followed by ‘except*’ clauses. The attributes are the same as for *note Try: 4615. but the *note ExceptHandler: 4616. nodes in ‘handlers’ are interpreted as ‘except*’ blocks rather then ‘except’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... try: ... ... ... except* Exception: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ TryStar( body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))], handlers=[ ExceptHandler( type=Name(id='Exception', ctx=Load()), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.11. -- Class: ast.ExceptHandler (type, name, body) A single ‘except’ clause. ‘type’ is the exception type it will match, typically a *note Name: 193f. node (or ‘None’ for a catch-all ‘except:’ clause). ‘name’ is a raw string for the name to hold the exception, or ‘None’ if the clause doesn’t have ‘as foo’. ‘body’ is a list of nodes. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... try: ... a + 1 ... except TypeError: ... pass ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Try( body=[ Expr( value=BinOp( left=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), op=Add(), right=Constant(value=1)))], handlers=[ ExceptHandler( type=Name(id='TypeError', ctx=Load()), body=[ Pass()])])]) -- Class: ast.With (items, body, type_comment) A ‘with’ block. ‘items’ is a list of *note withitem: 4619. nodes representing the context managers, and ‘body’ is the indented block inside the context. -- Attribute: type_comment ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation as a comment. -- Class: ast.withitem (context_expr, optional_vars) A single context manager in a ‘with’ block. ‘context_expr’ is the context manager, often a *note Call: 45cf. node. ‘optional_vars’ is a *note Name: 193f, *note Tuple: 45c9. or *note List: 45c8. for the ‘as foo’ part, or ‘None’ if that isn’t used. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... with a as b, c as d: ... something(b, d) ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ With( items=[ withitem( context_expr=Name(id='a', ctx=Load()), optional_vars=Name(id='b', ctx=Store())), withitem( context_expr=Name(id='c', ctx=Load()), optional_vars=Name(id='d', ctx=Store()))], body=[ Expr( value=Call( func=Name(id='something', ctx=Load()), args=[ Name(id='b', ctx=Load()), Name(id='d', ctx=Load())]))])])  File: python.info, Node: Pattern matching, Next: Type annotations, Prev: Control flow, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.12 Pattern matching .......................... -- Class: ast.Match (subject, cases) A ‘match’ statement. ‘subject’ holds the subject of the match (the object that is being matched against the cases) and ‘cases’ contains an iterable of *note match_case: 461d. nodes with the different cases. Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.match_case (pattern, guard, body) A single case pattern in a ‘match’ statement. ‘pattern’ contains the match pattern that the subject will be matched against. Note that the *note AST: 1a6. nodes produced for patterns differ from those produced for expressions, even when they share the same syntax. The ‘guard’ attribute contains an expression that will be evaluated if the pattern matches the subject. ‘body’ contains a list of nodes to execute if the pattern matches and the result of evaluating the guard expression is true. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case [x] if x>0: ... ... ... case tuple(): ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchSequence( patterns=[ MatchAs(name='x')]), guard=Compare( left=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), ops=[ Gt()], comparators=[ Constant(value=0)]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]), match_case( pattern=MatchClass( cls=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load())), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchValue (value) A match literal or value pattern that compares by equality. ‘value’ is an expression node. Permitted value nodes are restricted as described in the match statement documentation. This pattern succeeds if the match subject is equal to the evaluated value. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case "Relevant": ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchValue( value=Constant(value='Relevant')), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchSingleton (value) A match literal pattern that compares by identity. ‘value’ is the singleton to be compared against: ‘None’, ‘True’, or ‘False’. This pattern succeeds if the match subject is the given constant. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case None: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchSingleton(value=None), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchSequence (patterns) A match sequence pattern. ‘patterns’ contains the patterns to be matched against the subject elements if the subject is a sequence. Matches a variable length sequence if one of the subpatterns is a ‘MatchStar’ node, otherwise matches a fixed length sequence. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case [1, 2]: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchSequence( patterns=[ MatchValue( value=Constant(value=1)), MatchValue( value=Constant(value=2))]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchStar (name) Matches the rest of the sequence in a variable length match sequence pattern. If ‘name’ is not ‘None’, a list containing the remaining sequence elements is bound to that name if the overall sequence pattern is successful. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case [1, 2, *rest]: ... ... ... case [*_]: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchSequence( patterns=[ MatchValue( value=Constant(value=1)), MatchValue( value=Constant(value=2)), MatchStar(name='rest')]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]), match_case( pattern=MatchSequence( patterns=[ MatchStar()]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchMapping (keys, patterns, rest) A match mapping pattern. ‘keys’ is a sequence of expression nodes. ‘patterns’ is a corresponding sequence of pattern nodes. ‘rest’ is an optional name that can be specified to capture the remaining mapping elements. Permitted key expressions are restricted as described in the match statement documentation. This pattern succeeds if the subject is a mapping, all evaluated key expressions are present in the mapping, and the value corresponding to each key matches the corresponding subpattern. If ‘rest’ is not ‘None’, a dict containing the remaining mapping elements is bound to that name if the overall mapping pattern is successful. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case {1: _, 2: _}: ... ... ... case {**rest}: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchMapping( keys=[ Constant(value=1), Constant(value=2)], patterns=[ MatchAs(), MatchAs()]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]), match_case( pattern=MatchMapping(rest='rest'), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchClass (cls, patterns, kwd_attrs, kwd_patterns) A match class pattern. ‘cls’ is an expression giving the nominal class to be matched. ‘patterns’ is a sequence of pattern nodes to be matched against the class defined sequence of pattern matching attributes. ‘kwd_attrs’ is a sequence of additional attributes to be matched (specified as keyword arguments in the class pattern), ‘kwd_patterns’ are the corresponding patterns (specified as keyword values in the class pattern). This pattern succeeds if the subject is an instance of the nominated class, all positional patterns match the corresponding class-defined attributes, and any specified keyword attributes match their corresponding pattern. Note: classes may define a property that returns self in order to match a pattern node against the instance being matched. Several builtin types are also matched that way, as described in the match statement documentation. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case Point2D(0, 0): ... ... ... case Point3D(x=0, y=0, z=0): ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchClass( cls=Name(id='Point2D', ctx=Load()), patterns=[ MatchValue( value=Constant(value=0)), MatchValue( value=Constant(value=0))]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]), match_case( pattern=MatchClass( cls=Name(id='Point3D', ctx=Load()), kwd_attrs=[ 'x', 'y', 'z'], kwd_patterns=[ MatchValue( value=Constant(value=0)), MatchValue( value=Constant(value=0)), MatchValue( value=Constant(value=0))]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchAs (pattern, name) A match “as-pattern”, capture pattern or wildcard pattern. ‘pattern’ contains the match pattern that the subject will be matched against. If the pattern is ‘None’, the node represents a capture pattern (i.e a bare name) and will always succeed. The ‘name’ attribute contains the name that will be bound if the pattern is successful. If ‘name’ is ‘None’, ‘pattern’ must also be ‘None’ and the node represents the wildcard pattern. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case [x] as y: ... ... ... case _: ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchAs( pattern=MatchSequence( patterns=[ MatchAs(name='x')]), name='y'), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))]), match_case( pattern=MatchAs(), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10. -- Class: ast.MatchOr (patterns) A match “or-pattern”. An or-pattern matches each of its subpatterns in turn to the subject, until one succeeds. The or-pattern is then deemed to succeed. If none of the subpatterns succeed the or-pattern fails. The ‘patterns’ attribute contains a list of match pattern nodes that will be matched against the subject. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse(""" ... match x: ... case [x] | (y): ... ... ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Match( subject=Name(id='x', ctx=Load()), cases=[ match_case( pattern=MatchOr( patterns=[ MatchSequence( patterns=[ MatchAs(name='x')]), MatchAs(name='y')]), body=[ Expr( value=Constant(value=Ellipsis))])])]) Added in version 3.10.  File: python.info, Node: Type annotations, Next: Type parameters, Prev: Pattern matching, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.13 Type annotations .......................... -- Class: ast.TypeIgnore (lineno, tag) A ‘# type: ignore’ comment located at 'lineno'. 'tag' is the optional tag specified by the form ‘# type: ignore <tag>’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x = 1 # type: ignore', type_comments=True), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Assign( targets=[ Name(id='x', ctx=Store())], value=Constant(value=1))], type_ignores=[ TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='')]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('x: bool = 1 # type: ignore[assignment]', type_comments=True), indent=4)) Module( body=[ AnnAssign( target=Name(id='x', ctx=Store()), annotation=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()), value=Constant(value=1), simple=1)], type_ignores=[ TypeIgnore(lineno=1, tag='[assignment]')]) Note: ‘TypeIgnore’ nodes are not generated when the 'type_comments' parameter is set to ‘False’ (default). See *note ast.parse(): 1a8. for more details. Added in version 3.8.  File: python.info, Node: Type parameters, Next: Function and class definitions, Prev: Type annotations, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.14 Type parameters ......................... *note Type parameters: 2b5. can exist on classes, functions, and type aliases. -- Class: ast.TypeVar (name, bound, default_value) A *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. ‘name’ is the name of the type variable. ‘bound’ is the bound or constraints, if any. If ‘bound’ is a *note Tuple: 45c9, it represents constraints; otherwise it represents the bound. ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the ‘TypeVar’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[T: int = bool] = list[T]"), indent=4)) Module( body=[ TypeAlias( name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()), type_params=[ TypeVar( name='T', bound=Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), default_value=Name(id='bool', ctx=Load()))], value=Subscript( value=Name(id='list', ctx=Load()), slice=Name(id='T', ctx=Load()), ctx=Load()))]) Added in version 3.12. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter. -- Class: ast.ParamSpec (name, default_value) A *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e. ‘name’ is the name of the parameter specification. ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the ‘ParamSpec’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[**P = [int, str]] = Callable[P, int]"), indent=4)) Module( body=[ TypeAlias( name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()), type_params=[ ParamSpec( name='P', default_value=List( elts=[ Name(id='int', ctx=Load()), Name(id='str', ctx=Load())], ctx=Load()))], value=Subscript( value=Name(id='Callable', ctx=Load()), slice=Tuple( elts=[ Name(id='P', ctx=Load()), Name(id='int', ctx=Load())], ctx=Load()), ctx=Load()))]) Added in version 3.12. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter. -- Class: ast.TypeVarTuple (name, default_value) A *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f. ‘name’ is the name of the type variable tuple. ‘default_value’ is the default value; if the ‘TypeVarTuple’ has no default, this attribute will be set to ‘None’. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("type Alias[*Ts = ()] = tuple[*Ts]"), indent=4)) Module( body=[ TypeAlias( name=Name(id='Alias', ctx=Store()), type_params=[ TypeVarTuple( name='Ts', default_value=Tuple(ctx=Load()))], value=Subscript( value=Name(id='tuple', ctx=Load()), slice=Tuple( elts=[ Starred( value=Name(id='Ts', ctx=Load()), ctx=Load())], ctx=Load()), ctx=Load()))]) Added in version 3.12. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'default_value' parameter.  File: python.info, Node: Function and class definitions, Next: Async and await, Prev: Type parameters, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.15 Function and class definitions ........................................ -- Class: ast.FunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns, type_comment, type_params) A function definition. * ‘name’ is a raw string of the function name. * ‘args’ is an *note arguments: 462c. node. * ‘body’ is the list of nodes inside the function. * ‘decorator_list’ is the list of decorators to be applied, stored outermost first (i.e. the first in the list will be applied last). * ‘returns’ is the return annotation. * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 460a. -- Attribute: type_comment ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation as a comment. Changed in version 3.12: Added ‘type_params’. -- Class: ast.Lambda (args, body) ‘lambda’ is a minimal function definition that can be used inside an expression. Unlike *note FunctionDef: 1707, ‘body’ holds a single node. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('lambda x,y: ...'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Expr( value=Lambda( args=arguments( args=[ arg(arg='x'), arg(arg='y')]), body=Constant(value=Ellipsis)))]) -- Class: ast.arguments (posonlyargs, args, vararg, kwonlyargs, kw_defaults, kwarg, defaults) The arguments for a function. * ‘posonlyargs’, ‘args’ and ‘kwonlyargs’ are lists of *note arg: 462e. nodes. * ‘vararg’ and ‘kwarg’ are single *note arg: 462e. nodes, referring to the ‘*args, **kwargs’ parameters. * ‘kw_defaults’ is a list of default values for keyword-only arguments. If one is ‘None’, the corresponding argument is required. * ‘defaults’ is a list of default values for arguments that can be passed positionally. If there are fewer defaults, they correspond to the last n arguments. -- Class: ast.arg (arg, annotation, type_comment) A single argument in a list. ‘arg’ is a raw string of the argument name; ‘annotation’ is its annotation, such as a *note Name: 193f. node. -- Attribute: type_comment ‘type_comment’ is an optional string with the type annotation as a comment >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... @decorator1 ... @decorator2 ... def f(a: 'annotation', b=1, c=2, *d, e, f=3, **g) -> 'return annotation': ... pass ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ FunctionDef( name='f', args=arguments( args=[ arg( arg='a', annotation=Constant(value='annotation')), arg(arg='b'), arg(arg='c')], vararg=arg(arg='d'), kwonlyargs=[ arg(arg='e'), arg(arg='f')], kw_defaults=[ None, Constant(value=3)], kwarg=arg(arg='g'), defaults=[ Constant(value=1), Constant(value=2)]), body=[ Pass()], decorator_list=[ Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()), Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())], returns=Constant(value='return annotation'))]) -- Class: ast.Return (value) A ‘return’ statement. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('return 4'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Return( value=Constant(value=4))]) -- Class: ast.Yield (value) -- Class: ast.YieldFrom (value) A ‘yield’ or ‘yield from’ expression. Because these are expressions, they must be wrapped in an *note Expr: 45d1. node if the value sent back is not used. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield x'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Expr( value=Yield( value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('yield from x'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Expr( value=YieldFrom( value=Name(id='x', ctx=Load())))]) -- Class: ast.Global (names) -- Class: ast.Nonlocal (names) ‘global’ and ‘nonlocal’ statements. ‘names’ is a list of raw strings. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('global x,y,z'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Global( names=[ 'x', 'y', 'z'])]) >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse('nonlocal x,y,z'), indent=4)) Module( body=[ Nonlocal( names=[ 'x', 'y', 'z'])]) -- Class: ast.ClassDef (name, bases, keywords, body, decorator_list, type_params) A class definition. * ‘name’ is a raw string for the class name * ‘bases’ is a list of nodes for explicitly specified base classes. * ‘keywords’ is a list of *note keyword: 45f5. nodes, principally for ‘metaclass’. Other keywords will be passed to the metaclass, as per PEP 3115(1). * ‘body’ is a list of nodes representing the code within the class definition. * ‘decorator_list’ is a list of nodes, as in *note FunctionDef: 1707. * ‘type_params’ is a list of *note type parameters: 460a. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... @decorator1 ... @decorator2 ... class Foo(base1, base2, metaclass=meta): ... pass ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ ClassDef( name='Foo', bases=[ Name(id='base1', ctx=Load()), Name(id='base2', ctx=Load())], keywords=[ keyword( arg='metaclass', value=Name(id='meta', ctx=Load()))], body=[ Pass()], decorator_list=[ Name(id='decorator1', ctx=Load()), Name(id='decorator2', ctx=Load())])]) Changed in version 3.12: Added ‘type_params’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3115/  File: python.info, Node: Async and await, Prev: Function and class definitions, Up: Node classes 5.33.1.16 Async and await ......................... -- Class: ast.AsyncFunctionDef (name, args, body, decorator_list, returns, type_comment, type_params) An ‘async def’ function definition. Has the same fields as *note FunctionDef: 1707. Changed in version 3.12: Added ‘type_params’. -- Class: ast.Await (value) An ‘await’ expression. ‘value’ is what it waits for. Only valid in the body of an *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1706. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... async def f(): ... await other_func() ... """), indent=4)) Module( body=[ AsyncFunctionDef( name='f', args=arguments(), body=[ Expr( value=Await( value=Call( func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()))))])]) -- Class: ast.AsyncFor (target, iter, body, orelse, type_comment) -- Class: ast.AsyncWith (items, body, type_comment) ‘async for’ loops and ‘async with’ context managers. They have the same fields as *note For: 4610. and *note With: 4618, respectively. Only valid in the body of an *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1706. Note: When a string is parsed by *note ast.parse(): 1a8, operator nodes (subclasses of ‘ast.operator’, ‘ast.unaryop’, ‘ast.cmpop’, ‘ast.boolop’ and ‘ast.expr_context’) on the returned tree will be singletons. Changes to one will be reflected in all other occurrences of the same value (e.g. *note ast.Add: 45d9.).  File: python.info, Node: ast Helpers, Next: Compiler Flags, Prev: Node classes, Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees 5.33.1.17 ‘ast’ Helpers ....................... Apart from the node classes, the *note ast: 8. module defines these utility functions and classes for traversing abstract syntax trees: -- Function: ast.parse (source, filename='<unknown>', mode='exec', *, type_comments=False, feature_version=None, optimize=-1) Parse the source into an AST node. Equivalent to ‘compile(source, filename, mode, flags=FLAGS_VALUE, optimize=optimize)’, where ‘FLAGS_VALUE’ is ‘ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST’ if ‘optimize <= 0’ and ‘ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST’ otherwise. If ‘type_comments=True’ is given, the parser is modified to check and return type comments as specified by PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2). This is equivalent to adding *note ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 4638. to the flags passed to *note compile(): 192. This will report syntax errors for misplaced type comments. Without this flag, type comments will be ignored, and the ‘type_comment’ field on selected AST nodes will always be ‘None’. In addition, the locations of ‘# type: ignore’ comments will be returned as the ‘type_ignores’ attribute of *note Module: 45c0. (otherwise it is always an empty list). In addition, if ‘mode’ is ‘'func_type'’, the input syntax is modified to correspond to PEP 484(3) “signature type comments”, e.g. ‘(str, int) -> List[str]’. Setting ‘feature_version’ to a tuple ‘(major, minor)’ will result in a “best-effort” attempt to parse using that Python version’s grammar. For example, setting ‘feature_version=(3, 9)’ will attempt to disallow parsing of *note match: 809. statements. Currently ‘major’ must equal to ‘3’. The lowest supported version is ‘(3, 7)’ (and this may increase in future Python versions); the highest is ‘sys.version_info[0:2]’. “Best-effort” attempt means there is no guarantee that the parse (or success of the parse) is the same as when run on the Python version corresponding to ‘feature_version’. If source contains a null character (‘\0’), *note ValueError: 204. is raised. Warning: Note that successfully parsing source code into an AST object doesn’t guarantee that the source code provided is valid Python code that can be executed as the compilation step can raise further *note SyntaxError: 18d. exceptions. For instance, the source ‘return 42’ generates a valid AST node for a return statement, but it cannot be compiled alone (it needs to be inside a function node). In particular, *note ast.parse(): 1a8. won’t do any scoping checks, which the compilation step does. Warning: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter with a sufficiently large/complex string due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler. Changed in version 3.8: Added ‘type_comments’, ‘mode='func_type'’ and ‘feature_version’. Changed in version 3.13: The minimum supported version for ‘feature_version’ is now ‘(3, 7)’. The ‘optimize’ argument was added. -- Function: ast.unparse (ast_obj) Unparse an *note ast.AST: 1a6. object and generate a string with code that would produce an equivalent *note ast.AST: 1a6. object if parsed back with *note ast.parse(): 1a8. Warning: The produced code string will not necessarily be equal to the original code that generated the *note ast.AST: 1a6. object (without any compiler optimizations, such as constant tuples/frozensets). Warning: Trying to unparse a highly complex expression would result with *note RecursionError: d6b. Added in version 3.9. -- Function: ast.literal_eval (node_or_string) Evaluate an expression node or a string containing only a Python literal or container display. The string or node provided may only consist of the following Python literal structures: strings, bytes, numbers, tuples, lists, dicts, sets, booleans, ‘None’ and ‘Ellipsis’. This can be used for evaluating strings containing Python values without the need to parse the values oneself. It is not capable of evaluating arbitrarily complex expressions, for example involving operators or indexing. This function had been documented as “safe” in the past without defining what that meant. That was misleading. This is specifically designed not to execute Python code, unlike the more general *note eval(): 180. There is no namespace, no name lookups, or ability to call out. But it is not free from attack: A relatively small input can lead to memory exhaustion or to C stack exhaustion, crashing the process. There is also the possibility for excessive CPU consumption denial of service on some inputs. Calling it on untrusted data is thus not recommended. Warning: It is possible to crash the Python interpreter due to stack depth limitations in Python’s AST compiler. It can raise *note ValueError: 204, *note TypeError: 534, *note SyntaxError: 18d, *note MemoryError: 1576. and *note RecursionError: d6b. depending on the malformed input. Changed in version 3.2: Now allows bytes and set literals. Changed in version 3.9: Now supports creating empty sets with ‘'set()'’. Changed in version 3.10: For string inputs, leading spaces and tabs are now stripped. -- Function: ast.get_docstring (node, clean=True) Return the docstring of the given 'node' (which must be a *note FunctionDef: 1707, *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1706, *note ClassDef: 1705, or *note Module: 45c0. node), or ‘None’ if it has no docstring. If 'clean' is true, clean up the docstring’s indentation with *note inspect.cleandoc(): 16b5. Changed in version 3.5: *note AsyncFunctionDef: 1706. is now supported. -- Function: ast.get_source_segment (source, node, *, padded=False) Get source code segment of the 'source' that generated 'node'. If some location information (*note lineno: 45b9, *note end_lineno: 45bb, *note col_offset: 45ba, or *note end_col_offset: 45bc.) is missing, return ‘None’. If 'padded' is ‘True’, the first line of a multi-line statement will be padded with spaces to match its original position. Added in version 3.8. -- Function: ast.fix_missing_locations (node) When you compile a node tree with *note compile(): 192, the compiler expects *note lineno: 45b9. and *note col_offset: 45ba. attributes for every node that supports them. This is rather tedious to fill in for generated nodes, so this helper adds these attributes recursively where not already set, by setting them to the values of the parent node. It works recursively starting at 'node'. -- Function: ast.increment_lineno (node, n=1) Increment the line number and end line number of each node in the tree starting at 'node' by 'n'. This is useful to “move code” to a different location in a file. -- Function: ast.copy_location (new_node, old_node) Copy source location (*note lineno: 45b9, *note col_offset: 45ba, *note end_lineno: 45bb, and *note end_col_offset: 45bc.) from 'old_node' to 'new_node' if possible, and return 'new_node'. -- Function: ast.iter_fields (node) Yield a tuple of ‘(fieldname, value)’ for each field in ‘node._fields’ that is present on 'node'. -- Function: ast.iter_child_nodes (node) Yield all direct child nodes of 'node', that is, all fields that are nodes and all items of fields that are lists of nodes. -- Function: ast.walk (node) Recursively yield all descendant nodes in the tree starting at 'node' (including 'node' itself), in no specified order. This is useful if you only want to modify nodes in place and don’t care about the context. -- Class: ast.NodeVisitor A node visitor base class that walks the abstract syntax tree and calls a visitor function for every node found. This function may return a value which is forwarded by the *note visit(): 463e. method. This class is meant to be subclassed, with the subclass adding visitor methods. -- Method: visit (node) Visit a node. The default implementation calls the method called ‘self.visit_CLASSNAME’ where 'classname' is the name of the node class, or *note generic_visit(): 463f. if that method doesn’t exist. -- Method: generic_visit (node) This visitor calls *note visit(): 463e. on all children of the node. Note that child nodes of nodes that have a custom visitor method won’t be visited unless the visitor calls *note generic_visit(): 463f. or visits them itself. -- Method: visit_Constant (node) Handles all constant nodes. Don’t use the *note NodeVisitor: a6d. if you want to apply changes to nodes during traversal. For this a special visitor exists (*note NodeTransformer: 4640.) that allows modifications. Deprecated since version 3.8: Methods ‘visit_Num()’, ‘visit_Str()’, ‘visit_Bytes()’, ‘visit_NameConstant()’ and ‘visit_Ellipsis()’ are deprecated now and will not be called in future Python versions. Add the *note visit_Constant(): a6e. method to handle all constant nodes. -- Class: ast.NodeTransformer A *note NodeVisitor: a6d. subclass that walks the abstract syntax tree and allows modification of nodes. The *note NodeTransformer: 4640. will walk the AST and use the return value of the visitor methods to replace or remove the old node. If the return value of the visitor method is ‘None’, the node will be removed from its location, otherwise it is replaced with the return value. The return value may be the original node in which case no replacement takes place. Here is an example transformer that rewrites all occurrences of name lookups (‘foo’) to ‘data['foo']’: class RewriteName(NodeTransformer): def visit_Name(self, node): return Subscript( value=Name(id='data', ctx=Load()), slice=Constant(value=node.id), ctx=node.ctx ) Keep in mind that if the node you’re operating on has child nodes you must either transform the child nodes yourself or call the *note generic_visit(): 463f. method for the node first. For nodes that were part of a collection of statements (that applies to all statement nodes), the visitor may also return a list of nodes rather than just a single node. If *note NodeTransformer: 4640. introduces new nodes (that weren’t part of original tree) without giving them location information (such as *note lineno: 45b9.), *note fix_missing_locations(): 4639. should be called with the new sub-tree to recalculate the location information: tree = ast.parse('foo', mode='eval') new_tree = fix_missing_locations(RewriteName().visit(tree)) Usually you use the transformer like this: node = YourTransformer().visit(node) -- Function: ast.dump (node, annotate_fields=True, include_attributes=False, *, indent=None, show_empty=False) Return a formatted dump of the tree in 'node'. This is mainly useful for debugging purposes. If 'annotate_fields' is true (by default), the returned string will show the names and the values for fields. If 'annotate_fields' is false, the result string will be more compact by omitting unambiguous field names. Attributes such as line numbers and column offsets are not dumped by default. If this is wanted, 'include_attributes' can be set to true. If 'indent' is a non-negative integer or string, then the tree will be pretty-printed with that indent level. An indent level of 0, negative, or ‘""’ will only insert newlines. ‘None’ (the default) selects the single line representation. Using a positive integer indent indents that many spaces per level. If 'indent' is a string (such as ‘"\t"’), that string is used to indent each level. If 'show_empty' is false (the default), optional empty lists will be omitted from the output. Optional ‘None’ values are always omitted. Changed in version 3.9: Added the 'indent' option. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'show_empty' option. >>> print(ast.dump(ast.parse("""\ ... async def f(): ... await other_func() ... """), indent=4, show_empty=True)) Module( body=[ AsyncFunctionDef( name='f', args=arguments( posonlyargs=[], args=[], kwonlyargs=[], kw_defaults=[], defaults=[]), body=[ Expr( value=Await( value=Call( func=Name(id='other_func', ctx=Load()), args=[], keywords=[])))], decorator_list=[], type_params=[])], type_ignores=[]) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/  File: python.info, Node: Compiler Flags, Next: Command-Line Usage<4>, Prev: ast Helpers, Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees 5.33.1.18 Compiler Flags ........................ The following flags may be passed to *note compile(): 192. in order to change effects on the compilation of a program: -- Data: ast.PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT Enables support for top-level ‘await’, ‘async for’, ‘async with’ and async comprehensions. Added in version 3.8. -- Data: ast.PyCF_ONLY_AST Generates and returns an abstract syntax tree instead of returning a compiled code object. -- Data: ast.PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST The returned AST is optimized according to the 'optimize' argument in *note compile(): 192. or *note ast.parse(): 1a8. Added in version 3.13. -- Data: ast.PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS Enables support for PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2) style type comments (‘# type: <type>’, ‘# type: ignore <stuff>’). Added in version 3.8. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Usage<4>, Prev: Compiler Flags, Up: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees 5.33.1.19 Command-Line Usage ............................ Added in version 3.9. The *note ast: 8. module can be executed as a script from the command line. It is as simple as: python -m ast [-m <mode>] [-a] [infile] The following options are accepted: -- Option: -h, --help Show the help message and exit. -- Option: -m <mode> -- Option: --mode <mode> Specify what kind of code must be compiled, like the 'mode' argument in *note parse(): 1a8. -- Option: --no-type-comments Don’t parse type comments. -- Option: -a, --include-attributes Include attributes such as line numbers and column offsets. -- Option: -i <indent> -- Option: --indent <indent> Indentation of nodes in AST (number of spaces). If ‘infile’ is specified its contents are parsed to AST and dumped to stdout. Otherwise, the content is read from stdin. See also ........ Green Tree Snakes(1), an external documentation resource, has good details on working with Python ASTs. ASTTokens(2) annotates Python ASTs with the positions of tokens and text in the source code that generated them. This is helpful for tools that make source code transformations. leoAst.py(3) unifies the token-based and parse-tree-based views of python programs by inserting two-way links between tokens and ast nodes. LibCST(4) parses code as a Concrete Syntax Tree that looks like an ast tree and keeps all formatting details. It’s useful for building automated refactoring (codemod) applications and linters. Parso(5) is a Python parser that supports error recovery and round-trip parsing for different Python versions (in multiple Python versions). Parso is also able to list multiple syntax errors in your Python file. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://greentreesnakes.readthedocs.io/ (2) https://asttokens.readthedocs.io/en/latest/user-guide.html (3) https://leo-editor.github.io/leo-editor/appendices.html#leoast-py (4) https://libcst.readthedocs.io/ (5) https://parso.readthedocs.io  File: python.info, Node: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables, Next: token — Constants used with Python parse trees, Prev: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.2 ‘symtable’ — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables ---------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/symtable.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ Symbol tables are generated by the compiler from AST just before bytecode is generated. The symbol table is responsible for calculating the scope of every identifier in the code. *note symtable: d8. provides an interface to examine these tables. * Menu: * Generating Symbol Tables:: * Examining Symbol Tables:: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<5>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/symtable.py  File: python.info, Node: Generating Symbol Tables, Next: Examining Symbol Tables, Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables 5.33.2.1 Generating Symbol Tables ................................. -- Function: symtable.symtable (code, filename, compile_type) Return the toplevel *note SymbolTable: 4652. for the Python source 'code'. 'filename' is the name of the file containing the code. 'compile_type' is like the 'mode' argument to *note compile(): 192.  File: python.info, Node: Examining Symbol Tables, Next: Command-Line Usage<5>, Prev: Generating Symbol Tables, Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables 5.33.2.2 Examining Symbol Tables ................................ -- Class: symtable.SymbolTableType An enumeration indicating the type of a *note SymbolTable: 4652. object. -- Attribute: MODULE = "module" Used for the symbol table of a module. -- Attribute: FUNCTION = "function" Used for the symbol table of a function. -- Attribute: CLASS = "class" Used for the symbol table of a class. The following members refer to different flavors of *note annotation scopes: 188. -- Attribute: ANNOTATION = "annotation" Used for annotations if ‘from __future__ import annotations’ is active. -- Attribute: TYPE_ALIAS = "type alias" Used for the symbol table of *note type: 433. constructions. -- Attribute: TYPE_PARAMETERS = "type parameters" Used for the symbol table of *note generic functions: 44e. or *note generic classes: 44d. -- Attribute: TYPE_VARIABLE = "type variable" Used for the symbol table of the bound, the constraint tuple or the default value of a single type variable in the formal sense, i.e., a TypeVar, a TypeVarTuple or a ParamSpec object (the latter two do not support a bound or a constraint tuple). Added in version 3.13. -- Class: symtable.SymbolTable A namespace table for a block. The constructor is not public. -- Method: get_type () Return the type of the symbol table. Possible values are members of the *note SymbolTableType: 160d. enumeration. Changed in version 3.12: Added ‘'annotation'’, ‘'TypeVar bound'’, ‘'type alias'’, and ‘'type parameter'’ as possible return values. Changed in version 3.13: Return values are members of the *note SymbolTableType: 160d. enumeration. The exact values of the returned string may change in the future, and thus, it is recommended to use *note SymbolTableType: 160d. members instead of hard-coded strings. -- Method: get_id () Return the table’s identifier. -- Method: get_name () Return the table’s name. This is the name of the class if the table is for a class, the name of the function if the table is for a function, or ‘'top'’ if the table is global (*note get_type(): 160e. returns ‘'module'’). For type parameter scopes (which are used for generic classes, functions, and type aliases), it is the name of the underlying class, function, or type alias. For type alias scopes, it is the name of the type alias. For *note TypeVar: 15d. bound scopes, it is the name of the ‘TypeVar’. -- Method: get_lineno () Return the number of the first line in the block this table represents. -- Method: is_optimized () Return ‘True’ if the locals in this table can be optimized. -- Method: is_nested () Return ‘True’ if the block is a nested class or function. -- Method: has_children () Return ‘True’ if the block has nested namespaces within it. These can be obtained with *note get_children(): 4661. -- Method: get_identifiers () Return a view object containing the names of symbols in the table. See the *note documentation of view objects: 2243. -- Method: lookup (name) Lookup 'name' in the table and return a *note Symbol: 16ce. instance. -- Method: get_symbols () Return a list of *note Symbol: 16ce. instances for names in the table. -- Method: get_children () Return a list of the nested symbol tables. -- Class: symtable.Function A namespace for a function or method. This class inherits from *note SymbolTable: 4652. -- Method: get_parameters () Return a tuple containing names of parameters to this function. -- Method: get_locals () Return a tuple containing names of locals in this function. -- Method: get_globals () Return a tuple containing names of globals in this function. -- Method: get_nonlocals () Return a tuple containing names of explicitly declared nonlocals in this function. -- Method: get_frees () Return a tuple containing names of *note free (closure) variables: 1f3f. in this function. -- Class: symtable.Class A namespace of a class. This class inherits from *note SymbolTable: 4652. -- Method: get_methods () Return a tuple containing the names of method-like functions declared in the class. Here, the term ‘method’ designates 'any' function defined in the class body via *note def: 1423. or *note async def: 5cd. Functions defined in a deeper scope (e.g., in an inner class) are not picked up by *note get_methods(): 2e9. For example: >>> import symtable >>> st = symtable.symtable(''' ... def outer(): pass ... ... class A: ... def f(): ... def w(): pass ... ... def g(self): pass ... ... @classmethod ... async def h(cls): pass ... ... global outer ... def outer(self): pass ... ''', 'test', 'exec') >>> class_A = st.get_children()[1] >>> class_A.get_methods() ('f', 'g', 'h') Although ‘A().f()’ raises *note TypeError: 534. at runtime, ‘A.f’ is still considered as a method-like function. -- Class: symtable.Symbol An entry in a *note SymbolTable: 4652. corresponding to an identifier in the source. The constructor is not public. -- Method: get_name () Return the symbol’s name. -- Method: is_referenced () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is used in its block. -- Method: is_imported () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is created from an import statement. -- Method: is_parameter () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is a parameter. -- Method: is_global () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is global. -- Method: is_nonlocal () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is nonlocal. -- Method: is_declared_global () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is declared global with a global statement. -- Method: is_local () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is local to its block. -- Method: is_annotated () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is annotated. Added in version 3.6. -- Method: is_free () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is referenced in its block, but not assigned to. -- Method: is_assigned () Return ‘True’ if the symbol is assigned to in its block. -- Method: is_namespace () Return ‘True’ if name binding introduces new namespace. If the name is used as the target of a function or class statement, this will be true. For example: >>> table = symtable.symtable("def some_func(): pass", "string", "exec") >>> table.lookup("some_func").is_namespace() True Note that a single name can be bound to multiple objects. If the result is ‘True’, the name may also be bound to other objects, like an int or list, that does not introduce a new namespace. -- Method: get_namespaces () Return a list of namespaces bound to this name. -- Method: get_namespace () Return the namespace bound to this name. If more than one or no namespace is bound to this name, a *note ValueError: 204. is raised.  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Usage<5>, Prev: Examining Symbol Tables, Up: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables 5.33.2.3 Command-Line Usage ........................... Added in version 3.13. The *note symtable: d8. module can be executed as a script from the command line. python -m symtable [infile...] Symbol tables are generated for the specified Python source files and dumped to stdout. If no input file is specified, the content is read from stdin.  File: python.info, Node: token — Constants used with Python parse trees, Next: keyword — Testing for Python keywords, Prev: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.3 ‘token’ — Constants used with Python parse trees ------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/token.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides constants which represent the numeric values of leaf nodes of the parse tree (terminal tokens). Refer to the file ‘Grammar/Tokens’ in the Python distribution for the definitions of the names in the context of the language grammar. The specific numeric values which the names map to may change between Python versions. The module also provides a mapping from numeric codes to names and some functions. The functions mirror definitions in the Python C header files. Note that a token’s value may depend on tokenizer options. For example, a ‘"+"’ token may be reported as either *note PLUS: 467c. or *note OP: 467d, or a ‘"match"’ token may be either *note NAME: 467e. or *note SOFT_KEYWORD: 467f. -- Data: token.tok_name Dictionary mapping the numeric values of the constants defined in this module back to name strings, allowing more human-readable representation of parse trees to be generated. -- Function: token.ISTERMINAL (x) Return ‘True’ for terminal token values. -- Function: token.ISNONTERMINAL (x) Return ‘True’ for non-terminal token values. -- Function: token.ISEOF (x) Return ‘True’ if 'x' is the marker indicating the end of input. The token constants are: -- Data: token.NAME Token value that indicates an *note identifier: 1e94. Note that keywords are also initially tokenized as ‘NAME’ tokens. -- Data: token.NUMBER Token value that indicates a *note numeric literal: 1ec5. -- Data: token.STRING Token value that indicates a *note string or byte literal: 1ea4, excluding *note formatted string literals: 9a9. The token string is not interpreted: it includes the surrounding quotation marks and the prefix (if given); backslashes are included literally, without processing escape sequences. -- Data: token.OP A generic token value that indicates an *note operator: 1edf. or *note delimiter: 1ee0. 'CPython implementation detail:' This value is only reported by the *note tokenize: fb. module. Internally, the tokenizer uses *note exact token types: 4686. instead. -- Data: token.COMMENT Token value used to indicate a comment. The parser ignores ‘COMMENT’ tokens. -- Data: token.NEWLINE Token value that indicates the end of a *note logical line: 1e81. -- Data: token.NL Token value used to indicate a non-terminating newline. ‘NL’ tokens are generated when a logical line of code is continued over multiple physical lines. The parser ignores ‘NL’ tokens. -- Data: token.INDENT Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 1e81. to indicate the start of an *note indented block: 1e8f. -- Data: token.DEDENT Token value used at the beginning of a *note logical line: 1e81. to indicate the end of an *note indented block: 1e8f. -- Data: token.FSTRING_START Token value used to indicate the beginning of an *note f-string literal: 9a9. 'CPython implementation detail:' The token string includes the prefix and the opening quote(s), but none of the contents of the literal. -- Data: token.FSTRING_MIDDLE Token value used for literal text inside an *note f-string literal: 9a9, including format specifications. 'CPython implementation detail:' Replacement fields (that is, the non-literal parts of f-strings) use the same tokens as other expressions, and are delimited by *note LBRACE: 468d, *note RBRACE: 468e, *note EXCLAMATION: 468f. and *note COLON: 4690. tokens. -- Data: token.FSTRING_END Token value used to indicate the end of a *note f-string: 9a9. 'CPython implementation detail:' The token string contains the closing quote(s). -- Data: token.ENDMARKER Token value that indicates the end of input. -- Data: token.ENCODING Token value that indicates the encoding used to decode the source bytes into text. The first token returned by *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d5. will always be an ‘ENCODING’ token. 'CPython implementation detail:' This token type isn’t used by the C tokenizer but is needed for the *note tokenize: fb. module. The following token types are not produced by the *note tokenize: fb. module, and are defined for special uses in the tokenizer or parser: -- Data: token.TYPE_IGNORE Token value indicating that a ‘type: ignore’ comment was recognized. Such tokens are produced instead of regular *note COMMENT: 4687. tokens only with the *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 4638. flag. -- Data: token.TYPE_COMMENT Token value indicating that a type comment was recognized. Such tokens are produced instead of regular *note COMMENT: 4687. tokens only with the *note PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS: 4638. flag. -- Data: token.SOFT_KEYWORD Token value indicating a *note soft keyword: 808. The tokenizer never produces this value. To check for a soft keyword, pass a *note NAME: 467e. token’s string to *note keyword.issoftkeyword(): 4696. -- Data: token.ERRORTOKEN Token value used to indicate wrong input. The *note tokenize: fb. module generally indicates errors by raising exceptions instead of emitting this token. It can also emit tokens such as *note OP: 467d. or *note NAME: 467e. with strings that are later rejected by the parser. The remaining tokens represent specific *note operators: 1edf. and *note delimiters: 1ee0. (The *note tokenize: fb. module reports these as *note OP: 467d.; see ‘exact_type’ in the *note tokenize: fb. documentation for details.) Token Value -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- Data: token.LPAR ‘"("’ -- Data: token.RPAR ‘")"’ -- Data: token.LSQB ‘"["’ -- Data: token.RSQB ‘"]"’ -- Data: token.COLON ‘":"’ -- Data: token.COMMA ‘","’ -- Data: token.SEMI ‘";"’ -- Data: token.PLUS ‘"+"’ -- Data: token.MINUS ‘"-"’ -- Data: token.STAR ‘"*"’ -- Data: token.SLASH ‘"/"’ -- Data: token.VBAR ‘"|"’ -- Data: token.AMPER ‘"&"’ -- Data: token.LESS ‘"<"’ -- Data: token.GREATER ‘">"’ -- Data: token.EQUAL ‘"="’ -- Data: token.DOT ‘"."’ -- Data: token.PERCENT ‘"%"’ -- Data: token.LBRACE ‘"{"’ -- Data: token.RBRACE ‘"}"’ -- Data: token.EQEQUAL ‘"=="’ -- Data: token.NOTEQUAL ‘"!="’ -- Data: token.LESSEQUAL ‘"<="’ -- Data: token.GREATEREQUAL ‘">="’ -- Data: token.TILDE ‘"~"’ -- Data: token.CIRCUMFLEX ‘"^"’ -- Data: token.LEFTSHIFT ‘"<<"’ -- Data: token.RIGHTSHIFT ‘">>"’ -- Data: token.DOUBLESTAR ‘"**"’ -- Data: token.PLUSEQUAL ‘"+="’ -- Data: token.MINEQUAL ‘"-="’ -- Data: token.STAREQUAL ‘"*="’ -- Data: token.SLASHEQUAL ‘"/="’ -- Data: token.PERCENTEQUAL ‘"%="’ -- Data: token.AMPEREQUAL ‘"&="’ -- Data: token.VBAREQUAL ‘"|="’ -- Data: token.CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL ‘"^="’ -- Data: token.LEFTSHIFTEQUAL ‘"<<="’ -- Data: token.RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL ‘">>="’ -- Data: token.DOUBLESTAREQUAL ‘"**="’ -- Data: token.DOUBLESLASH ‘"//"’ -- Data: token.DOUBLESLASHEQUAL ‘"//="’ -- Data: token.AT ‘"@"’ -- Data: token.ATEQUAL ‘"@="’ -- Data: token.RARROW ‘"->"’ -- Data: token.ELLIPSIS ‘"..."’ -- Data: token.COLONEQUAL ‘":="’ -- Data: token.EXCLAMATION ‘"!"’ The following non-token constants are provided: -- Data: token.N_TOKENS The number of token types defined in this module. -- Data: token.EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES A dictionary mapping the string representation of a token to its numeric code. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.5: Added ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens. Changed in version 3.7: Added *note COMMENT: 4687, *note NL: 4689. and *note ENCODING: 4693. tokens. Changed in version 3.7: Removed ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens. “async” and “await” are now tokenized as *note NAME: 467e. tokens. Changed in version 3.8: Added *note TYPE_COMMENT: 4695, *note TYPE_IGNORE: 4694, *note COLONEQUAL: 46c2. Added ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens back (they’re needed to support parsing older Python versions for *note ast.parse(): 1a8. with ‘feature_version’ set to 6 or lower). Changed in version 3.12: Added *note EXCLAMATION: 468f. Changed in version 3.13: Removed ‘AWAIT’ and ‘ASYNC’ tokens again. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/token.py  File: python.info, Node: keyword — Testing for Python keywords, Next: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source, Prev: token — Constants used with Python parse trees, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.4 ‘keyword’ — Testing for Python keywords ---------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/keyword.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module allows a Python program to determine if a string is a *note keyword: 1e9c. or *note soft keyword: 808. -- Function: keyword.iskeyword (s) Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note keyword: 1e9c. -- Data: keyword.kwlist Sequence containing all the *note keywords: 1e9c. defined for the interpreter. If any keywords are defined to only be active when particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in effect, these will be included as well. -- Function: keyword.issoftkeyword (s) Return ‘True’ if 's' is a Python *note soft keyword: 808. Added in version 3.9. -- Data: keyword.softkwlist Sequence containing all the *note soft keywords: 808. defined for the interpreter. If any soft keywords are defined to only be active when particular *note __future__: 0. statements are in effect, these will be included as well. Added in version 3.9. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/keyword.py  File: python.info, Node: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source, Next: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation, Prev: keyword — Testing for Python keywords, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.5 ‘tokenize’ — Tokenizer for Python source ----------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tokenize.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tokenize: fb. module provides a lexical scanner for Python source code, implemented in Python. The scanner in this module returns comments as tokens as well, making it useful for implementing “pretty-printers”, including colorizers for on-screen displays. To simplify token stream handling, all *note operator: 1edf. and *note delimiter: 1ee0. tokens and *note Ellipsis: 2185. are returned using the generic *note OP: 467d. token type. The exact type can be determined by checking the ‘exact_type’ property on the *note named tuple: 64a. returned from *note tokenize.tokenize(): 4d5. Warning: Note that the functions in this module are only designed to parse syntactically valid Python code (code that does not raise when parsed using *note ast.parse(): 1a8.). The behavior of the functions in this module is 'undefined' when providing invalid Python code and it can change at any point. * Menu: * Tokenizing Input:: * Command-Line Usage: Command-Line Usage<6>. * Examples: Examples<35>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tokenize.py  File: python.info, Node: Tokenizing Input, Next: Command-Line Usage<6>, Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source 5.33.5.1 Tokenizing Input ......................... The primary entry point is a *note generator: 105a.: -- Function: tokenize.tokenize (readline) The *note tokenize(): 4d5. generator requires one argument, 'readline', which must be a callable object which provides the same interface as the *note io.IOBase.readline(): 131c. method of file objects. Each call to the function should return one line of input as bytes. The generator produces 5-tuples with these members: the token type; the token string; a 2-tuple ‘(srow, scol)’ of ints specifying the row and column where the token begins in the source; a 2-tuple ‘(erow, ecol)’ of ints specifying the row and column where the token ends in the source; and the line on which the token was found. The line passed (the last tuple item) is the 'physical' line. The 5 tuple is returned as a *note named tuple: 64a. with the field names: ‘type string start end line’. The returned *note named tuple: 64a. has an additional property named ‘exact_type’ that contains the exact operator type for *note OP: 467d. tokens. For all other token types ‘exact_type’ equals the named tuple ‘type’ field. Changed in version 3.1: Added support for named tuples. Changed in version 3.3: Added support for ‘exact_type’. *note tokenize(): 4d5. determines the source encoding of the file by looking for a UTF-8 BOM or encoding cookie, according to PEP 263(1). -- Function: tokenize.generate_tokens (readline) Tokenize a source reading unicode strings instead of bytes. Like *note tokenize(): 4d5, the 'readline' argument is a callable returning a single line of input. However, *note generate_tokens(): 4d6. expects 'readline' to return a str object rather than bytes. The result is an iterator yielding named tuples, exactly like *note tokenize(): 4d5. It does not yield an *note ENCODING: 4693. token. All constants from the *note token: fa. module are also exported from *note tokenize: fb. Another function is provided to reverse the tokenization process. This is useful for creating tools that tokenize a script, modify the token stream, and write back the modified script. -- Function: tokenize.untokenize (iterable) Converts tokens back into Python source code. The 'iterable' must return sequences with at least two elements, the token type and the token string. Any additional sequence elements are ignored. The result is guaranteed to tokenize back to match the input so that the conversion is lossless and round-trips are assured. The guarantee applies only to the token type and token string as the spacing between tokens (column positions) may change. It returns bytes, encoded using the *note ENCODING: 4693. token, which is the first token sequence output by *note tokenize(): 4d5. If there is no encoding token in the input, it returns a str instead. *note tokenize(): 4d5. needs to detect the encoding of source files it tokenizes. The function it uses to do this is available: -- Function: tokenize.detect_encoding (readline) The *note detect_encoding(): 2868. function is used to detect the encoding that should be used to decode a Python source file. It requires one argument, readline, in the same way as the *note tokenize(): 4d5. generator. It will call readline a maximum of twice, and return the encoding used (as a string) and a list of any lines (not decoded from bytes) it has read in. It detects the encoding from the presence of a UTF-8 BOM or an encoding cookie as specified in PEP 263(2). If both a BOM and a cookie are present, but disagree, a *note SyntaxError: 18d. will be raised. Note that if the BOM is found, ‘'utf-8-sig'’ will be returned as an encoding. If no encoding is specified, then the default of ‘'utf-8'’ will be returned. Use *note open(): 2867. to open Python source files: it uses *note detect_encoding(): 2868. to detect the file encoding. -- Function: tokenize.open (filename) Open a file in read only mode using the encoding detected by *note detect_encoding(): 2868. Added in version 3.2. -- Exception: tokenize.TokenError Raised when either a docstring or expression that may be split over several lines is not completed anywhere in the file, for example: """Beginning of docstring or: [1, 2, 3 ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Usage<6>, Next: Examples<35>, Prev: Tokenizing Input, Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source 5.33.5.2 Command-Line Usage ........................... Added in version 3.3. The *note tokenize: fb. module can be executed as a script from the command line. It is as simple as: python -m tokenize [-e] [filename.py] The following options are accepted: -- Option: -h, --help show this help message and exit -- Option: -e, --exact display token names using the exact type If ‘filename.py’ is specified its contents are tokenized to stdout. Otherwise, tokenization is performed on stdin.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<35>, Prev: Command-Line Usage<6>, Up: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source 5.33.5.3 Examples ................. Example of a script rewriter that transforms float literals into Decimal objects: from tokenize import tokenize, untokenize, NUMBER, STRING, NAME, OP from io import BytesIO def decistmt(s): """Substitute Decimals for floats in a string of statements. >>> from decimal import Decimal >>> s = 'print(+21.3e-5*-.1234/81.7)' >>> decistmt(s) "print (+Decimal ('21.3e-5')*-Decimal ('.1234')/Decimal ('81.7'))" The format of the exponent is inherited from the platform C library. Known cases are "e-007" (Windows) and "e-07" (not Windows). Since we're only showing 12 digits, and the 13th isn't close to 5, the rest of the output should be platform-independent. >>> exec(s) #doctest: +ELLIPSIS -3.21716034272e-0...7 Output from calculations with Decimal should be identical across all platforms. >>> exec(decistmt(s)) -3.217160342717258261933904529E-7 """ result = [] g = tokenize(BytesIO(s.encode('utf-8')).readline) # tokenize the string for toknum, tokval, _, _, _ in g: if toknum == NUMBER and '.' in tokval: # replace NUMBER tokens result.extend([ (NAME, 'Decimal'), (OP, '('), (STRING, repr(tokval)), (OP, ')') ]) else: result.append((toknum, tokval)) return untokenize(result).decode('utf-8') Example of tokenizing from the command line. The script: def say_hello(): print("Hello, World!") say_hello() will be tokenized to the following output where the first column is the range of the line/column coordinates where the token is found, the second column is the name of the token, and the final column is the value of the token (if any) $ python -m tokenize hello.py 0,0-0,0: ENCODING 'utf-8' 1,0-1,3: NAME 'def' 1,4-1,13: NAME 'say_hello' 1,13-1,14: OP '(' 1,14-1,15: OP ')' 1,15-1,16: OP ':' 1,16-1,17: NEWLINE '\n' 2,0-2,4: INDENT ' ' 2,4-2,9: NAME 'print' 2,9-2,10: OP '(' 2,10-2,25: STRING '"Hello, World!"' 2,25-2,26: OP ')' 2,26-2,27: NEWLINE '\n' 3,0-3,1: NL '\n' 4,0-4,0: DEDENT '' 4,0-4,9: NAME 'say_hello' 4,9-4,10: OP '(' 4,10-4,11: OP ')' 4,11-4,12: NEWLINE '\n' 5,0-5,0: ENDMARKER '' The exact token type names can be displayed using the *note -e: 46cf. option: $ python -m tokenize -e hello.py 0,0-0,0: ENCODING 'utf-8' 1,0-1,3: NAME 'def' 1,4-1,13: NAME 'say_hello' 1,13-1,14: LPAR '(' 1,14-1,15: RPAR ')' 1,15-1,16: COLON ':' 1,16-1,17: NEWLINE '\n' 2,0-2,4: INDENT ' ' 2,4-2,9: NAME 'print' 2,9-2,10: LPAR '(' 2,10-2,25: STRING '"Hello, World!"' 2,25-2,26: RPAR ')' 2,26-2,27: NEWLINE '\n' 3,0-3,1: NL '\n' 4,0-4,0: DEDENT '' 4,0-4,9: NAME 'say_hello' 4,9-4,10: LPAR '(' 4,10-4,11: RPAR ')' 4,11-4,12: NEWLINE '\n' 5,0-5,0: ENDMARKER '' Example of tokenizing a file programmatically, reading unicode strings instead of bytes with *note generate_tokens(): 4d6.: import tokenize with tokenize.open('hello.py') as f: tokens = tokenize.generate_tokens(f.readline) for token in tokens: print(token) Or reading bytes directly with *note tokenize(): 4d5.: import tokenize with open('hello.py', 'rb') as f: tokens = tokenize.tokenize(f.readline) for token in tokens: print(token)  File: python.info, Node: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation, Next: pyclbr — Python module browser support, Prev: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.6 ‘tabnanny’ — Detection of ambiguous indentation ------------------------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/tabnanny.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ For the time being this module is intended to be called as a script. However it is possible to import it into an IDE and use the function *note check(): 46d4. described below. Note: The API provided by this module is likely to change in future releases; such changes may not be backward compatible. -- Function: tabnanny.check (file_or_dir) If 'file_or_dir' is a directory and not a symbolic link, then recursively descend the directory tree named by 'file_or_dir', checking all ‘.py’ files along the way. If 'file_or_dir' is an ordinary Python source file, it is checked for whitespace related problems. The diagnostic messages are written to standard output using the *note print(): f70. function. -- Data: tabnanny.verbose Flag indicating whether to print verbose messages. This is incremented by the ‘-v’ option if called as a script. -- Data: tabnanny.filename_only Flag indicating whether to print only the filenames of files containing whitespace related problems. This is set to true by the ‘-q’ option if called as a script. -- Exception: tabnanny.NannyNag Raised by *note process_tokens(): 46d8. if detecting an ambiguous indent. Captured and handled in *note check(): 46d4. -- Function: tabnanny.process_tokens (tokens) This function is used by *note check(): 46d4. to process tokens generated by the *note tokenize: fb. module. See also ........ Module *note tokenize: fb. Lexical scanner for Python source code. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tabnanny.py  File: python.info, Node: pyclbr — Python module browser support, Next: py_compile — Compile Python source files, Prev: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.7 ‘pyclbr’ — Python module browser support ----------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/pyclbr.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note pyclbr: b4. module provides limited information about the functions, classes, and methods defined in a Python-coded module. The information is sufficient to implement a module browser. The information is extracted from the Python source code rather than by importing the module, so this module is safe to use with untrusted code. This restriction makes it impossible to use this module with modules not implemented in Python, including all standard and optional extension modules. -- Function: pyclbr.readmodule (module, path=None) Return a dictionary mapping module-level class names to class descriptors. If possible, descriptors for imported base classes are included. Parameter 'module' is a string with the name of the module to read; it may be the name of a module within a package. If given, 'path' is a sequence of directory paths prepended to ‘sys.path’, which is used to locate the module source code. This function is the original interface and is only kept for back compatibility. It returns a filtered version of the following. -- Function: pyclbr.readmodule_ex (module, path=None) Return a dictionary-based tree containing a function or class descriptors for each function and class defined in the module with a ‘def’ or ‘class’ statement. The returned dictionary maps module-level function and class names to their descriptors. Nested objects are entered into the children dictionary of their parent. As with readmodule, 'module' names the module to be read and 'path' is prepended to sys.path. If the module being read is a package, the returned dictionary has a key ‘'__path__'’ whose value is a list containing the package search path. Added in version 3.7: Descriptors for nested definitions. They are accessed through the new children attribute. Each has a new parent attribute. The descriptors returned by these functions are instances of Function and Class classes. Users are not expected to create instances of these classes. * Menu: * Function Objects:: * Class Objects: Class Objects<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pyclbr.py  File: python.info, Node: Function Objects, Next: Class Objects<2>, Up: pyclbr — Python module browser support 5.33.7.1 Function Objects ......................... -- Class: pyclbr.Function Class ‘Function’ instances describe functions defined by def statements. They have the following attributes: -- Attribute: file Name of the file in which the function is defined. -- Attribute: module The name of the module defining the function described. -- Attribute: name The name of the function. -- Attribute: lineno The line number in the file where the definition starts. -- Attribute: parent For top-level functions, ‘None’. For nested functions, the parent. Added in version 3.7. -- Attribute: children A *note dictionary: 258. mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and classes. Added in version 3.7. -- Attribute: is_async ‘True’ for functions that are defined with the *note async: 5cd. prefix, ‘False’ otherwise. Added in version 3.10.  File: python.info, Node: Class Objects<2>, Prev: Function Objects, Up: pyclbr — Python module browser support 5.33.7.2 Class Objects ...................... -- Class: pyclbr.Class Class ‘Class’ instances describe classes defined by class statements. They have the same attributes as *note Functions: 46dd. and two more. -- Attribute: file Name of the file in which the class is defined. -- Attribute: module The name of the module defining the class described. -- Attribute: name The name of the class. -- Attribute: lineno The line number in the file where the definition starts. -- Attribute: parent For top-level classes, ‘None’. For nested classes, the parent. Added in version 3.7. -- Attribute: children A dictionary mapping names to descriptors for nested functions and classes. Added in version 3.7. -- Attribute: super A list of ‘Class’ objects which describe the immediate base classes of the class being described. Classes which are named as superclasses but which are not discoverable by *note readmodule_ex(): 828. are listed as a string with the class name instead of as ‘Class’ objects. -- Attribute: methods A *note dictionary: 258. mapping method names to line numbers. This can be derived from the newer *note children: 46ed. dictionary, but remains for back-compatibility.  File: python.info, Node: py_compile — Compile Python source files, Next: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries, Prev: pyclbr — Python module browser support, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.8 ‘py_compile’ — Compile Python source files ------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/py_compile.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note py_compile: b3. module provides a function to generate a byte-code file from a source file, and another function used when the module source file is invoked as a script. Though not often needed, this function can be useful when installing modules for shared use, especially if some of the users may not have permission to write the byte-code cache files in the directory containing the source code. -- Exception: py_compile.PyCompileError Exception raised when an error occurs while attempting to compile the file. -- Function: py_compile.compile (file, cfile=None, dfile=None, doraise=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP, quiet=0) Compile a source file to byte-code and write out the byte-code cache file. The source code is loaded from the file named 'file'. The byte-code is written to 'cfile', which defaults to the PEP 3147(2)/ PEP 488(3) path, ending in ‘.pyc’. For example, if 'file' is ‘/foo/bar/baz.py’ 'cfile' will default to ‘/foo/bar/__pycache__/baz.cpython-32.pyc’ for Python 3.2. If 'dfile' is specified, it is used instead of 'file' as the name of the source file from which source lines are obtained for display in exception tracebacks. If 'doraise' is true, a *note PyCompileError: 46f2. is raised when an error is encountered while compiling 'file'. If 'doraise' is false (the default), an error string is written to ‘sys.stderr’, but no exception is raised. This function returns the path to byte-compiled file, i.e. whatever 'cfile' value was used. The 'doraise' and 'quiet' arguments determine how errors are handled while compiling file. If 'quiet' is 0 or 1, and 'doraise' is false, the default behaviour is enabled: an error string is written to ‘sys.stderr’, and the function returns ‘None’ instead of a path. If 'doraise' is true, a *note PyCompileError: 46f2. is raised instead. However if 'quiet' is 2, no message is written, and 'doraise' has no effect. If the path that 'cfile' becomes (either explicitly specified or computed) is a symlink or non-regular file, *note FileExistsError: 1019. will be raised. This is to act as a warning that import will turn those paths into regular files if it is allowed to write byte-compiled files to those paths. This is a side-effect of import using file renaming to place the final byte-compiled file into place to prevent concurrent file writing issues. 'optimize' controls the optimization level and is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 192. function. The default of ‘-1’ selects the optimization level of the current interpreter. 'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note PycInvalidationMode: 46f3. enum and controls how the generated bytecode cache is invalidated at runtime. The default is *note PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 46f4. if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is set, otherwise the default is *note PycInvalidationMode.TIMESTAMP: 46f5. Changed in version 3.2: Changed default value of 'cfile' to be PEP 3147(4)-compliant. Previous default was 'file' + ‘'c'’ (‘'o'’ if optimization was enabled). Also added the 'optimize' parameter. Changed in version 3.4: Changed code to use *note importlib: 77. for the byte-code cache file writing. This means file creation/writing semantics now match what *note importlib: 77. does, e.g. permissions, write-and-move semantics, etc. Also added the caveat that *note FileExistsError: 1019. is raised if 'cfile' is a symlink or non-regular file. Changed in version 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added as specified in PEP 552(5). If the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is set, 'invalidation_mode' will be forced to *note PycInvalidationMode.CHECKED_HASH: 46f4. Changed in version 3.7.2: The ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable no longer overrides the value of the 'invalidation_mode' argument, and determines its default value instead. Changed in version 3.8: The 'quiet' parameter was added. -- Class: py_compile.PycInvalidationMode An enumeration of possible methods the interpreter can use to determine whether a bytecode file is up to date with a source file. The ‘.pyc’ file indicates the desired invalidation mode in its header. See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 5e8. for more information on how Python invalidates ‘.pyc’ files at runtime. Added in version 3.7. -- Attribute: TIMESTAMP The ‘.pyc’ file includes the timestamp and size of the source file, which Python will compare against the metadata of the source file at runtime to determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs to be regenerated. -- Attribute: CHECKED_HASH The ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash of the source file content, which Python will compare against the source at runtime to determine if the ‘.pyc’ file needs to be regenerated. -- Attribute: UNCHECKED_HASH Like *note CHECKED_HASH: 46f4, the ‘.pyc’ file includes a hash of the source file content. However, Python will at runtime assume the ‘.pyc’ file is up to date and not validate the ‘.pyc’ against the source file at all. This option is useful when the ‘.pycs’ are kept up to date by some system external to Python like a build system. * Menu: * Command-Line Interface: Command-Line Interface<6>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/py_compile.py (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0488/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/  File: python.info, Node: Command-Line Interface<6>, Up: py_compile — Compile Python source files 5.33.8.1 Command-Line Interface ............................... This module can be invoked as a script to compile several source files. The files named in 'filenames' are compiled and the resulting bytecode is cached in the normal manner. This program does not search a directory structure to locate source files; it only compiles files named explicitly. The exit status is nonzero if one of the files could not be compiled. -- Option: <file> ... <fileN> -- Option: - Positional arguments are files to compile. If ‘-’ is the only parameter, the list of files is taken from standard input. -- Option: -q, --quiet Suppress errors output. Changed in version 3.2: Added support for ‘-’. Changed in version 3.10: Added support for *note -q: 46fb. See also ........ Module *note compileall: 20. Utilities to compile all Python source files in a directory tree.  File: python.info, Node: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries, Next: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode, Prev: py_compile — Compile Python source files, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.9 ‘compileall’ — Byte-compile Python libraries --------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/compileall.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module provides some utility functions to support installing Python libraries. These functions compile Python source files in a directory tree. This module can be used to create the cached byte-code files at library installation time, which makes them available for use even by users who don’t have write permission to the library directories. *note Availability: 1d54.: not WASI. This module does not work or is not available on WebAssembly. See *note WebAssembly platforms: 17e0. for more information. * Menu: * Command-line use:: * Public functions:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/compileall.py  File: python.info, Node: Command-line use, Next: Public functions, Up: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries 5.33.9.1 Command-line use ......................... This module can work as a script (using ‘python -m compileall’) to compile Python sources. -- Option: directory ... -- Option: file ... Positional arguments are files to compile or directories that contain source files, traversed recursively. If no argument is given, behave as if the command line was ‘-l <DIRECTORIES FROM SYS.PATH>’. -- Option: -l Do not recurse into subdirectories, only compile source code files directly contained in the named or implied directories. -- Option: -f Force rebuild even if timestamps are up-to-date. -- Option: -q Do not print the list of files compiled. If passed once, error messages will still be printed. If passed twice (‘-qq’), all output is suppressed. -- Option: -d destdir Directory prepended to the path to each file being compiled. This will appear in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed. -- Option: -s strip_prefix Remove the given prefix from paths recorded in the ‘.pyc’ files. Paths are made relative to the prefix. This option can be used with ‘-p’ but not with ‘-d’. -- Option: -p prepend_prefix Prepend the given prefix to paths recorded in the ‘.pyc’ files. Use ‘-p /’ to make the paths absolute. This option can be used with ‘-s’ but not with ‘-d’. -- Option: -x regex regex is used to search the full path to each file considered for compilation, and if the regex produces a match, the file is skipped. -- Option: -i list Read the file ‘list’ and add each line that it contains to the list of files and directories to compile. If ‘list’ is ‘-’, read lines from ‘stdin’. -- Option: -b Write the byte-code files to their legacy locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of Python. The default is to write files to their PEP 3147(1) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to coexist. -- Option: -r Control the maximum recursion level for subdirectories. If this is given, then ‘-l’ option will not be taken into account. ‘python -m compileall <directory> -r 0’ is equivalent to ‘python -m compileall <directory> -l’. -- Option: -j N Use 'N' workers to compile the files within the given directory. If ‘0’ is used, then the result of *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4. will be used. -- Option: --invalidation-mode [timestamp|checked-hash|unchecked-hash] Control how the generated byte-code files are invalidated at runtime. The ‘timestamp’ value, means that ‘.pyc’ files with the source timestamp and size embedded will be generated. The ‘checked-hash’ and ‘unchecked-hash’ values cause hash-based pycs to be generated. Hash-based pycs embed a hash of the source file contents rather than a timestamp. See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 5e8. for more information on how Python validates bytecode cache files at runtime. The default is ‘timestamp’ if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is not set, and ‘checked-hash’ if the ‘SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH’ environment variable is set. -- Option: -o level Compile with the given optimization level. May be used multiple times to compile for multiple levels at a time (for example, ‘compileall -o 1 -o 2’). -- Option: -e dir Ignore symlinks pointing outside the given directory. -- Option: --hardlink-dupes If two ‘.pyc’ files with different optimization level have the same content, use hard links to consolidate duplicate files. Changed in version 3.2: Added the ‘-i’, ‘-b’ and ‘-h’ options. Changed in version 3.5: Added the ‘-j’, ‘-r’, and ‘-qq’ options. ‘-q’ option was changed to a multilevel value. ‘-b’ will always produce a byte-code file ending in ‘.pyc’, never ‘.pyo’. Changed in version 3.7: Added the ‘--invalidation-mode’ option. Changed in version 3.9: Added the ‘-s’, ‘-p’, ‘-e’ and ‘--hardlink-dupes’ options. Raised the default recursion limit from 10 to *note sys.getrecursionlimit(): 4c0. Added the possibility to specify the ‘-o’ option multiple times. There is no command-line option to control the optimization level used by the *note compile(): 192. function, because the Python interpreter itself already provides the option: ‘python -O -m compileall’. Similarly, the *note compile(): 192. function respects the *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a4. setting. The generated bytecode cache will only be useful if *note compile(): 192. is run with the same *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a4. (if any) that will be used at runtime. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: Public functions, Prev: Command-line use, Up: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries 5.33.9.2 Public functions ......................... -- Function: compileall.compile_dir (dir, maxlevels=sys.getrecursionlimit(), ddir=None, force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, workers=1, invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None, limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False) Recursively descend the directory tree named by 'dir', compiling all ‘.py’ files along the way. Return a true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise. The 'maxlevels' parameter is used to limit the depth of the recursion; it defaults to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’. If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to each file being compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed. If 'force' is true, modules are re-compiled even if the timestamps are up to date. If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is called on the complete path to each file considered for compilation, and if it returns a true value, the file is skipped. This can be used to exclude files matching a regular expression, given as a *note re.Pattern: f81. object. If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other information are printed to standard out. Set to ‘1’, only errors are printed. Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed. If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of Python. The default is to write files to their PEP 3147(1) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to coexist. 'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler. It is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 192. function. Accepts also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call. The argument 'workers' specifies how many workers are used to compile files in parallel. The default is to not use multiple workers. If the platform can’t use multiple workers and 'workers' argument is given, then sequential compilation will be used as a fallback. If 'workers' is 0, the number of cores in the system is used. If 'workers' is lower than ‘0’, a *note ValueError: 204. will be raised. 'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 46f3. enum and controls how the generated pycs are invalidated at runtime. The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above. They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: c51. If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different optimization level have the same content, use hard links to consolidate duplicate files. Changed in version 3.2: Added the 'legacy' and 'optimize' parameter. Changed in version 3.5: Added the 'workers' parameter. Changed in version 3.5: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a multilevel value. Changed in version 3.5: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of 'optimize' is. Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. Changed in version 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added. Changed in version 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s default value is updated to ‘None’. Changed in version 3.8: Setting 'workers' to 0 now chooses the optimal number of cores. Changed in version 3.9: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments. Default value of 'maxlevels' was changed from ‘10’ to ‘sys.getrecursionlimit()’ -- Function: compileall.compile_file (fullname, ddir=None, force=False, rx=None, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=None, *, stripdir=None, prependdir=None, limit_sl_dest=None, hardlink_dupes=False) Compile the file with path 'fullname'. Return a true value if the file compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise. If 'ddir' is given, it is prepended to the path to the file being compiled for use in compilation time tracebacks, and is also compiled in to the byte-code file, where it will be used in tracebacks and other messages in cases where the source file does not exist at the time the byte-code file is executed. If 'rx' is given, its ‘search’ method is passed the full path name to the file being compiled, and if it returns a true value, the file is not compiled and ‘True’ is returned. This can be used to exclude files matching a regular expression, given as a *note re.Pattern: f81. object. If 'quiet' is ‘False’ or ‘0’ (the default), the filenames and other information are printed to standard out. Set to ‘1’, only errors are printed. Set to ‘2’, all output is suppressed. If 'legacy' is true, byte-code files are written to their legacy locations and names, which may overwrite byte-code files created by another version of Python. The default is to write files to their PEP 3147(2) locations and names, which allows byte-code files from multiple versions of Python to coexist. 'optimize' specifies the optimization level for the compiler. It is passed to the built-in *note compile(): 192. function. Accepts also a sequence of optimization levels which lead to multiple compilations of one ‘.py’ file in one call. 'invalidation_mode' should be a member of the *note py_compile.PycInvalidationMode: 46f3. enum and controls how the generated pycs are invalidated at runtime. The 'stripdir', 'prependdir' and 'limit_sl_dest' arguments correspond to the ‘-s’, ‘-p’ and ‘-e’ options described above. They may be specified as ‘str’ or *note os.PathLike: c51. If 'hardlink_dupes' is true and two ‘.pyc’ files with different optimization level have the same content, use hard links to consolidate duplicate files. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.5: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a multilevel value. Changed in version 3.5: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of 'optimize' is. Changed in version 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added. Changed in version 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s default value is updated to ‘None’. Changed in version 3.9: Added 'stripdir', 'prependdir', 'limit_sl_dest' and 'hardlink_dupes' arguments. -- Function: compileall.compile_path (skip_curdir=True, maxlevels=0, force=False, quiet=0, legacy=False, optimize=-1, invalidation_mode=None) Byte-compile all the ‘.py’ files found along ‘sys.path’. Return a true value if all the files compiled successfully, and a false value otherwise. If 'skip_curdir' is true (the default), the current directory is not included in the search. All other parameters are passed to the *note compile_dir(): b26. function. Note that unlike the other compile functions, ‘maxlevels’ defaults to ‘0’. Changed in version 3.2: Added the 'legacy' and 'optimize' parameter. Changed in version 3.5: 'quiet' parameter was changed to a multilevel value. Changed in version 3.5: The 'legacy' parameter only writes out ‘.pyc’ files, not ‘.pyo’ files no matter what the value of 'optimize' is. Changed in version 3.7: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter was added. Changed in version 3.7.2: The 'invalidation_mode' parameter’s default value is updated to ‘None’. To force a recompile of all the ‘.py’ files in the ‘Lib/’ subdirectory and all its subdirectories: import compileall compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', force=True) # Perform same compilation, excluding files in .svn directories. import re compileall.compile_dir('Lib/', rx=re.compile(r'[/\\][.]svn'), force=True) # pathlib.Path objects can also be used. import pathlib compileall.compile_dir(pathlib.Path('Lib/'), force=True) See also ........ Module *note py_compile: b3. Byte-compile a single source file. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode, Next: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers, Prev: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.10 ‘dis’ — Disassembler for Python bytecode ------------------------------------------------ 'Source code:' Lib/dis.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note dis: 38. module supports the analysis of CPython *note bytecode: 187. by disassembling it. The CPython bytecode which this module takes as an input is defined in the file ‘Include/opcode.h’ and used by the compiler and the interpreter. 'CPython implementation detail:' Bytecode is an implementation detail of the CPython interpreter. No guarantees are made that bytecode will not be added, removed, or changed between versions of Python. Use of this module should not be considered to work across Python VMs or Python releases. Changed in version 3.6: Use 2 bytes for each instruction. Previously the number of bytes varied by instruction. Changed in version 3.10: The argument of jump, exception handling and loop instructions is now the instruction offset rather than the byte offset. Changed in version 3.11: Some instructions are accompanied by one or more inline cache entries, which take the form of *note CACHE: 6f4. instructions. These instructions are hidden by default, but can be shown by passing ‘show_caches=True’ to any *note dis: 38. utility. Furthermore, the interpreter now adapts the bytecode to specialize it for different runtime conditions. The adaptive bytecode can be shown by passing ‘adaptive=True’. Changed in version 3.12: The argument of a jump is the offset of the target instruction relative to the instruction that appears immediately after the jump instruction’s *note CACHE: 6f4. entries. As a consequence, the presence of the *note CACHE: 6f4. instructions is transparent for forward jumps but needs to be taken into account when reasoning about backward jumps. Changed in version 3.13: The output shows logical labels rather than instruction offsets for jump targets and exception handlers. The ‘-O’ command line option and the ‘show_offsets’ argument were added. Example: Given the function ‘myfunc()’: def myfunc(alist): return len(alist) the following command can be used to display the disassembly of ‘myfunc()’: >>> dis.dis(myfunc) 2 RESUME 0 3 LOAD_GLOBAL 1 (len + NULL) LOAD_FAST 0 (alist) CALL 1 RETURN_VALUE (The “2” is a line number). * Menu: * Command-line interface: Command-line interface<3>. * Bytecode analysis:: * Analysis functions:: * Python Bytecode Instructions:: * Opcode collections:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/dis.py  File: python.info, Node: Command-line interface<3>, Next: Bytecode analysis, Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode 5.33.10.1 Command-line interface ................................ The *note dis: 38. module can be invoked as a script from the command line: python -m dis [-h] [-C] [-O] [infile] The following options are accepted: -- Option: -h, --help Display usage and exit. -- Option: -C, --show-caches Show inline caches. Added in version 3.13. -- Option: -O, --show-offsets Show offsets of instructions. Added in version 3.13. If ‘infile’ is specified, its disassembled code will be written to stdout. Otherwise, disassembly is performed on compiled source code received from stdin.  File: python.info, Node: Bytecode analysis, Next: Analysis functions, Prev: Command-line interface<3>, Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode 5.33.10.2 Bytecode analysis ........................... Added in version 3.4. The bytecode analysis API allows pieces of Python code to be wrapped in a *note Bytecode: f29. object that provides easy access to details of the compiled code. -- Class: dis.Bytecode (x, *, first_line=None, current_offset=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, show_offsets=False) Analyse the bytecode corresponding to a function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, string of source code, or a code object (as returned by *note compile(): 192.). This is a convenience wrapper around many of the functions listed below, most notably *note get_instructions(): 1db, as iterating over a *note Bytecode: f29. instance yields the bytecode operations as *note Instruction: 1dc. instances. If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code object. If 'current_offset' is not ‘None’, it refers to an instruction offset in the disassembled code. Setting this means *note dis(): f2a. will display a “current instruction” marker against the specified opcode. If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f2a. will display inline cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode. If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f2a. will display specialized bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode. If 'show_offsets' is ‘True’, *note dis(): f2a. will include instruction offsets in the output. -- Method: classmethod from_traceback (tb, *, show_caches=False) Construct a *note Bytecode: f29. instance from the given traceback, setting 'current_offset' to the instruction responsible for the exception. -- Data: codeobj The compiled code object. -- Data: first_line The first source line of the code object (if available) -- Method: dis () Return a formatted view of the bytecode operations (the same as printed by *note dis.dis(): b34, but returned as a multi-line string). -- Method: info () Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed information about the code object, like *note code_info(): 122c. Changed in version 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters. Example: >>> bytecode = dis.Bytecode(myfunc) >>> for instr in bytecode: ... print(instr.opname) ... RESUME LOAD_GLOBAL LOAD_FAST CALL RETURN_VALUE  File: python.info, Node: Analysis functions, Next: Python Bytecode Instructions, Prev: Bytecode analysis, Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode 5.33.10.3 Analysis functions ............................ The *note dis: 38. module also defines the following analysis functions that convert the input directly to the desired output. They can be useful if only a single operation is being performed, so the intermediate analysis object isn’t useful: -- Function: dis.code_info (x) Return a formatted multi-line string with detailed code object information for the supplied function, generator, asynchronous generator, coroutine, method, source code string or code object. Note that the exact contents of code info strings are highly implementation dependent and they may change arbitrarily across Python VMs or Python releases. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects. -- Function: dis.show_code (x, *, file=None) Print detailed code object information for the supplied function, method, source code string or code object to 'file' (or ‘sys.stdout’ if 'file' is not specified). This is a convenient shorthand for ‘print(code_info(x), file=file)’, intended for interactive exploration at the interpreter prompt. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.4: Added 'file' parameter. -- Function: dis.dis (x=None, *, file=None, depth=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False) Disassemble the 'x' object. 'x' can denote either a module, a class, a method, a function, a generator, an asynchronous generator, a coroutine, a code object, a string of source code or a byte sequence of raw bytecode. For a module, it disassembles all functions. For a class, it disassembles all methods (including class and static methods). For a code object or sequence of raw bytecode, it prints one line per bytecode instruction. It also recursively disassembles nested code objects. These can include generator expressions, nested functions, the bodies of nested classes, and the code objects used for *note annotation scopes: 188. Strings are first compiled to code objects with the *note compile(): 192. built-in function before being disassembled. If no object is provided, this function disassembles the last traceback. The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise. The maximal depth of recursion is limited by 'depth' unless it is ‘None’. ‘depth=0’ means no recursion. If 'show_caches' is ‘True’, this function will display inline cache entries used by the interpreter to specialize the bytecode. If 'adaptive' is ‘True’, this function will display specialized bytecode that may be different from the original bytecode. Changed in version 3.4: Added 'file' parameter. Changed in version 3.7: Implemented recursive disassembling and added 'depth' parameter. Changed in version 3.7: This can now handle coroutine and asynchronous generator objects. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters. -- Function: distb(tb=None, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, -- Function: show_offset=False) Disassemble the top-of-stack function of a traceback, using the last traceback if none was passed. The instruction causing the exception is indicated. The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise. Changed in version 3.4: Added 'file' parameter. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter. -- Function: dis.disassemble (code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False) -- Function: disco(code, lasti=-1, *, file=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False, -- Function: show_offsets=False) Disassemble a code object, indicating the last instruction if 'lasti' was provided. The output is divided in the following columns: 1. the line number, for the first instruction of each line 2. the current instruction, indicated as ‘-->’, 3. a labelled instruction, indicated with ‘>>’, 4. the address of the instruction, 5. the operation code name, 6. operation parameters, and 7. interpretation of the parameters in parentheses. The parameter interpretation recognizes local and global variable names, constant values, branch targets, and compare operators. The disassembly is written as text to the supplied 'file' argument if provided and to ‘sys.stdout’ otherwise. Changed in version 3.4: Added 'file' parameter. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters. Changed in version 3.13: Added the 'show_offsets' parameter. -- Function: dis.get_instructions (x, *, first_line=None, show_caches=False, adaptive=False) Return an iterator over the instructions in the supplied function, method, source code string or code object. The iterator generates a series of *note Instruction: 1dc. named tuples giving the details of each operation in the supplied code. If 'first_line' is not ‘None’, it indicates the line number that should be reported for the first source line in the disassembled code. Otherwise, the source line information (if any) is taken directly from the disassembled code object. The 'adaptive' parameter works as it does in *note dis(): 38. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.11: Added the 'show_caches' and 'adaptive' parameters. Changed in version 3.13: The 'show_caches' parameter is deprecated and has no effect. The iterator generates the *note Instruction: 1dc. instances with the 'cache_info' field populated (regardless of the value of 'show_caches') and it no longer generates separate items for the cache entries. -- Function: dis.findlinestarts (code) This generator function uses the *note co_lines(): 2f5. method of the *note code object: 1d2. 'code' to find the offsets which are starts of lines in the source code. They are generated as ‘(offset, lineno)’ pairs. Changed in version 3.6: Line numbers can be decreasing. Before, they were always increasing. Changed in version 3.10: The PEP 626(1) *note co_lines(): 2f5. method is used instead of the *note co_firstlineno: 1f42. and *note co_lnotab: 2e4. attributes of the *note code object: 1d2. Changed in version 3.13: Line numbers can be ‘None’ for bytecode that does not map to source lines. -- Function: dis.findlabels (code) Detect all offsets in the raw compiled bytecode string 'code' which are jump targets, and return a list of these offsets. -- Function: dis.stack_effect (opcode, oparg=None, *, jump=None) Compute the stack effect of 'opcode' with argument 'oparg'. If the code has a jump target and 'jump' is ‘True’, *note stack_effect(): f2c. will return the stack effect of jumping. If 'jump' is ‘False’, it will return the stack effect of not jumping. And if 'jump' is ‘None’ (default), it will return the maximal stack effect of both cases. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.8: Added 'jump' parameter. Changed in version 3.13: If ‘oparg’ is omitted (or ‘None’), the stack effect is now returned for ‘oparg=0’. Previously this was an error for opcodes that use their arg. It is also no longer an error to pass an integer ‘oparg’ when the ‘opcode’ does not use it; the ‘oparg’ in this case is ignored. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/  File: python.info, Node: Python Bytecode Instructions, Next: Opcode collections, Prev: Analysis functions, Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode 5.33.10.4 Python Bytecode Instructions ...................................... The *note get_instructions(): 1db. function and *note Bytecode: f29. class provide details of bytecode instructions as *note Instruction: 1dc. instances: -- Class: dis.Instruction Details for a bytecode operation -- Data: opcode numeric code for operation, corresponding to the opcode values listed below and the bytecode values in the *note Opcode collections: 4725. -- Data: opname human readable name for operation -- Data: baseopcode numeric code for the base operation if operation is specialized; otherwise equal to *note opcode: 4724. -- Data: baseopname human readable name for the base operation if operation is specialized; otherwise equal to *note opname: 4729. -- Data: arg numeric argument to operation (if any), otherwise ‘None’ -- Data: oparg alias for *note arg: 472a. -- Data: argval resolved arg value (if any), otherwise ‘None’ -- Data: argrepr human readable description of operation argument (if any), otherwise an empty string. -- Data: offset start index of operation within bytecode sequence -- Data: start_offset start index of operation within bytecode sequence, including prefixed ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ operations if present; otherwise equal to *note offset: 472e. -- Data: cache_offset start index of the cache entries following the operation -- Data: end_offset end index of the cache entries following the operation -- Data: starts_line ‘True’ if this opcode starts a source line, otherwise ‘False’ -- Data: line_number source line number associated with this opcode (if any), otherwise ‘None’ -- Data: is_jump_target ‘True’ if other code jumps to here, otherwise ‘False’ -- Data: jump_target bytecode index of the jump target if this is a jump operation, otherwise ‘None’ -- Data: positions *note dis.Positions: 44bd. object holding the start and end locations that are covered by this instruction. -- Data: cache_info Information about the cache entries of this instruction, as triplets of the form ‘(name, size, data)’, where the ‘name’ and ‘size’ describe the cache format and data is the contents of the cache. ‘cache_info’ is ‘None’ if the instruction does not have caches. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.11: Field ‘positions’ is added. Changed in version 3.13: Changed field ‘starts_line’. Added fields ‘start_offset’, ‘cache_offset’, ‘end_offset’, ‘baseopname’, ‘baseopcode’, ‘jump_target’, ‘oparg’, ‘line_number’ and ‘cache_info’. -- Class: dis.Positions In case the information is not available, some fields might be ‘None’. -- Data: lineno -- Data: end_lineno -- Data: col_offset -- Data: end_col_offset Added in version 3.11. The Python compiler currently generates the following bytecode instructions. 'General instructions' In the following, We will refer to the interpreter stack as ‘STACK’ and describe operations on it as if it was a Python list. The top of the stack corresponds to ‘STACK[-1]’ in this language. -- Opcode: NOP Do nothing code. Used as a placeholder by the bytecode optimizer, and to generate line tracing events. -- Opcode: POP_TOP Removes the top-of-stack item: STACK.pop() -- Opcode: END_FOR Removes the top-of-stack item. Equivalent to ‘POP_TOP’. Used to clean up at the end of loops, hence the name. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: END_SEND Implements ‘del STACK[-2]’. Used to clean up when a generator exits. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: COPY (i) Push the i-th item to the top of the stack without removing it from its original location: assert i > 0 STACK.append(STACK[-i]) Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: SWAP (i) Swap the top of the stack with the i-th element: STACK[-i], STACK[-1] = STACK[-1], STACK[-i] Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: CACHE Rather than being an actual instruction, this opcode is used to mark extra space for the interpreter to cache useful data directly in the bytecode itself. It is automatically hidden by all ‘dis’ utilities, but can be viewed with ‘show_caches=True’. Logically, this space is part of the preceding instruction. Many opcodes expect to be followed by an exact number of caches, and will instruct the interpreter to skip over them at runtime. Populated caches can look like arbitrary instructions, so great care should be taken when reading or modifying raw, adaptive bytecode containing quickened data. Added in version 3.11. 'Unary operations' Unary operations take the top of the stack, apply the operation, and push the result back on the stack. -- Opcode: UNARY_NEGATIVE Implements ‘STACK[-1] = -STACK[-1]’. -- Opcode: UNARY_NOT Implements ‘STACK[-1] = not STACK[-1]’. Changed in version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact *note bool: 463. operand. -- Opcode: UNARY_INVERT Implements ‘STACK[-1] = ~STACK[-1]’. -- Opcode: GET_ITER Implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’. -- Opcode: GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER If ‘STACK[-1]’ is a *note generator iterator: bde. or *note coroutine: 48d. object it is left as is. Otherwise, implements ‘STACK[-1] = iter(STACK[-1])’. Added in version 3.5. -- Opcode: TO_BOOL Implements ‘STACK[-1] = bool(STACK[-1])’. Added in version 3.13. 'Binary and in-place operations' Binary operations remove the top two items from the stack (‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’). They perform the operation, then put the result back on the stack. In-place operations are like binary operations, but the operation is done in-place when ‘STACK[-2]’ supports it, and the resulting ‘STACK[-1]’ may be (but does not have to be) the original ‘STACK[-2]’. -- Opcode: BINARY_OP (op) Implements the binary and in-place operators (depending on the value of 'op'): rhs = STACK.pop() lhs = STACK.pop() STACK.append(lhs op rhs) Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: BINARY_SUBSCR Implements: key = STACK.pop() container = STACK.pop() STACK.append(container[key]) -- Opcode: STORE_SUBSCR Implements: key = STACK.pop() container = STACK.pop() value = STACK.pop() container[key] = value -- Opcode: DELETE_SUBSCR Implements: key = STACK.pop() container = STACK.pop() del container[key] -- Opcode: BINARY_SLICE Implements: end = STACK.pop() start = STACK.pop() container = STACK.pop() STACK.append(container[start:end]) Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: STORE_SLICE Implements: end = STACK.pop() start = STACK.pop() container = STACK.pop() values = STACK.pop() container[start:end] = value Added in version 3.12. 'Coroutine opcodes' -- Opcode: GET_AWAITABLE (where) Implements ‘STACK[-1] = get_awaitable(STACK[-1])’, where ‘get_awaitable(o)’ returns ‘o’ if ‘o’ is a coroutine object or a generator object with the *note CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 44ce. flag, or resolves ‘o.__await__’. If the ‘where’ operand is nonzero, it indicates where the instruction occurs: * ‘1’: After a call to ‘__aenter__’ * ‘2’: After a call to ‘__aexit__’ Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this instruction did not have an oparg. -- Opcode: GET_AITER Implements ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-1].__aiter__()’. Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.7: Returning awaitable objects from ‘__aiter__’ is no longer supported. -- Opcode: GET_ANEXT Implement ‘STACK.append(get_awaitable(STACK[-1].__anext__()))’ to the stack. See ‘GET_AWAITABLE’ for details about ‘get_awaitable’. Added in version 3.5. -- Opcode: END_ASYNC_FOR Terminates an *note async for: aab. loop. Handles an exception raised when awaiting a next item. The stack contains the async iterable in ‘STACK[-2]’ and the raised exception in ‘STACK[-1]’. Both are popped. If the exception is not *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a2c, it is re-raised. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items. -- Opcode: CLEANUP_THROW Handles an exception raised during a *note throw(): 4f4. or *note close(): 16f4. call through the current frame. If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note StopIteration: bfa, pop three values from the stack and push its ‘value’ member. Otherwise, re-raise ‘STACK[-1]’. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH Resolves ‘__aenter__’ and ‘__aexit__’ from ‘STACK[-1]’. Pushes ‘__aexit__’ and result of ‘__aenter__()’ to the stack: STACK.extend((__aexit__, __aenter__()) Added in version 3.5. 'Miscellaneous opcodes' -- Opcode: SET_ADD (i) Implements: item = STACK.pop() set.add(STACK[-i], item) Used to implement set comprehensions. -- Opcode: LIST_APPEND (i) Implements: item = STACK.pop() list.append(STACK[-i], item) Used to implement list comprehensions. -- Opcode: MAP_ADD (i) Implements: value = STACK.pop() key = STACK.pop() dict.__setitem__(STACK[-i], key, value) Used to implement dict comprehensions. Added in version 3.1. Changed in version 3.8: Map value is ‘STACK[-1]’ and map key is ‘STACK[-2]’. Before, those were reversed. For all of the *note SET_ADD: 4748, *note LIST_APPEND: 4749. and *note MAP_ADD: aac. instructions, while the added value or key/value pair is popped off, the container object remains on the stack so that it is available for further iterations of the loop. -- Opcode: RETURN_VALUE Returns with ‘STACK[-1]’ to the caller of the function. -- Opcode: RETURN_CONST (consti) Returns with ‘co_consts[consti]’ to the caller of the function. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: YIELD_VALUE Yields ‘STACK.pop()’ from a *note generator: 105a. Changed in version 3.11: oparg set to be the stack depth. Changed in version 3.12: oparg set to be the exception block depth, for efficient closing of generators. Changed in version 3.13: oparg is ‘1’ if this instruction is part of a yield-from or await, and ‘0’ otherwise. -- Opcode: SETUP_ANNOTATIONS Checks whether ‘__annotations__’ is defined in ‘locals()’, if not it is set up to an empty ‘dict’. This opcode is only emitted if a class or module body contains *note variable annotations: d55. statically. Added in version 3.6. -- Opcode: POP_EXCEPT Pops a value from the stack, which is used to restore the exception state. Changed in version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items. -- Opcode: RERAISE Re-raises the exception currently on top of the stack. If oparg is non-zero, pops an additional value from the stack which is used to set *note f_lasti: 886. of the current frame. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.11: Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items. -- Opcode: PUSH_EXC_INFO Pops a value from the stack. Pushes the current exception to the top of the stack. Pushes the value originally popped back to the stack. Used in exception handlers. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: CHECK_EXC_MATCH Performs exception matching for ‘except’. Tests whether the ‘STACK[-2]’ is an exception matching ‘STACK[-1]’. Pops ‘STACK[-1]’ and pushes the boolean result of the test. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: CHECK_EG_MATCH Performs exception matching for ‘except*’. Applies ‘split(STACK[-1])’ on the exception group representing ‘STACK[-2]’. In case of a match, pops two items from the stack and pushes the non-matching subgroup (‘None’ in case of full match) followed by the matching subgroup. When there is no match, pops one item (the match type) and pushes ‘None’. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: WITH_EXCEPT_START Calls the function in position 4 on the stack with arguments (type, val, tb) representing the exception at the top of the stack. Used to implement the call ‘context_manager.__exit__(*exc_info())’ when an exception has occurred in a *note with: 5ce. statement. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.11: The ‘__exit__’ function is in position 4 of the stack rather than 7. Exception representation on the stack now consist of one, not three, items. -- Opcode: LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR Pushes *note AssertionError: 6a5. onto the stack. Used by the *note assert: 968. statement. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: LOAD_BUILD_CLASS Pushes ‘builtins.__build_class__()’ onto the stack. It is later called to construct a class. -- Opcode: BEFORE_WITH This opcode performs several operations before a with block starts. First, it loads *note __exit__(): 12f3. from the context manager and pushes it onto the stack for later use by *note WITH_EXCEPT_START: 474c. Then, *note __enter__(): 5c4. is called. Finally, the result of calling the ‘__enter__()’ method is pushed onto the stack. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: GET_LEN Perform ‘STACK.append(len(STACK[-1]))’. Used in *note match: 809. statements where comparison with structure of pattern is needed. Added in version 3.10. -- Opcode: MATCH_MAPPING If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18a3. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 18bd.), push ‘True’ onto the stack. Otherwise, push ‘False’. Added in version 3.10. -- Opcode: MATCH_SEQUENCE If ‘STACK[-1]’ is an instance of *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b6. and is 'not' an instance of *note str: 447./*note bytes: 1c2./*note bytearray: 53a. (or, more technically: if it has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18a4. flag set in its *note tp_flags: 18bd.), push ‘True’ onto the stack. Otherwise, push ‘False’. Added in version 3.10. -- Opcode: MATCH_KEYS ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of mapping keys, and ‘STACK[-2]’ is the match subject. If ‘STACK[-2]’ contains all of the keys in ‘STACK[-1]’, push a *note tuple: 36b. containing the corresponding values. Otherwise, push ‘None’. Added in version 3.10. Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’). -- Opcode: STORE_NAME (namei) Implements ‘name = STACK.pop()’. 'namei' is the index of 'name' in the attribute *note co_names: 1f41. of the *note code object: 1d2. The compiler tries to use *note STORE_FAST: 16f1. or *note STORE_GLOBAL: 4752. if possible. -- Opcode: DELETE_NAME (namei) Implements ‘del name’, where 'namei' is the index into *note co_names: 1f41. attribute of the *note code object: 1d2. -- Opcode: UNPACK_SEQUENCE (count) Unpacks ‘STACK[-1]’ into 'count' individual values, which are put onto the stack right-to-left. Require there to be exactly 'count' values.: assert(len(STACK[-1]) == count) STACK.extend(STACK.pop()[:-count-1:-1]) -- Opcode: UNPACK_EX (counts) Implements assignment with a starred target: Unpacks an iterable in ‘STACK[-1]’ into individual values, where the total number of values can be smaller than the number of items in the iterable: one of the new values will be a list of all leftover items. The number of values before and after the list value is limited to 255. The number of values before the list value is encoded in the argument of the opcode. The number of values after the list if any is encoded using an ‘EXTENDED_ARG’. As a consequence, the argument can be seen as a two bytes values where the low byte of 'counts' is the number of values before the list value, the high byte of 'counts' the number of values after it. The extracted values are put onto the stack right-to-left, i.e. ‘a, *b, c = d’ will be stored after execution as ‘STACK.extend((a, b, c))’. -- Opcode: STORE_ATTR (namei) Implements: obj = STACK.pop() value = STACK.pop() obj.name = value where 'namei' is the index of name in *note co_names: 1f41. of the *note code object: 1d2. -- Opcode: DELETE_ATTR (namei) Implements: obj = STACK.pop() del obj.name where 'namei' is the index of name into *note co_names: 1f41. of the *note code object: 1d2. -- Opcode: STORE_GLOBAL (namei) Works as *note STORE_NAME: 4751, but stores the name as a global. -- Opcode: DELETE_GLOBAL (namei) Works as *note DELETE_NAME: 4753, but deletes a global name. -- Opcode: LOAD_CONST (consti) Pushes ‘co_consts[consti]’ onto the stack. -- Opcode: LOAD_NAME (namei) Pushes the value associated with ‘co_names[namei]’ onto the stack. The name is looked up within the locals, then the globals, then the builtins. -- Opcode: LOAD_LOCALS Pushes a reference to the locals dictionary onto the stack. This is used to prepare namespace dictionaries for *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF: 4e2. and *note LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS: 4e3. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (i) Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the value for ‘co_names[namei]’. If the name is not found there, looks it up in the globals and then the builtins, similar to *note LOAD_GLOBAL: 16e9. This is used for loading global variables in *note annotation scopes: 188. within class bodies. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: BUILD_TUPLE (count) Creates a tuple consuming 'count' items from the stack, and pushes the resulting tuple onto the stack: if count == 0: value = () else: value = tuple(STACK[-count:]) STACK = STACK[:-count] STACK.append(value) -- Opcode: BUILD_LIST (count) Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4759, but creates a list. -- Opcode: BUILD_SET (count) Works as *note BUILD_TUPLE: 4759, but creates a set. -- Opcode: BUILD_MAP (count) Pushes a new dictionary object onto the stack. Pops ‘2 * count’ items so that the dictionary holds 'count' entries: ‘{..., STACK[-4]: STACK[-3], STACK[-2]: STACK[-1]}’. Changed in version 3.5: The dictionary is created from stack items instead of creating an empty dictionary pre-sized to hold 'count' items. -- Opcode: BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (count) The version of *note BUILD_MAP: 16e2. specialized for constant keys. Pops the top element on the stack which contains a tuple of keys, then starting from ‘STACK[-2]’, pops 'count' values to form values in the built dictionary. Added in version 3.6. -- Opcode: BUILD_STRING (count) Concatenates 'count' strings from the stack and pushes the resulting string onto the stack. Added in version 3.6. -- Opcode: LIST_EXTEND (i) Implements: seq = STACK.pop() list.extend(STACK[-i], seq) Used to build lists. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: SET_UPDATE (i) Implements: seq = STACK.pop() set.update(STACK[-i], seq) Used to build sets. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: DICT_UPDATE (i) Implements: map = STACK.pop() dict.update(STACK[-i], map) Used to build dicts. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: DICT_MERGE (i) Like *note DICT_UPDATE: 475e. but raises an exception for duplicate keys. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: LOAD_ATTR (namei) If the low bit of ‘namei’ is not set, this replaces ‘STACK[-1]’ with ‘getattr(STACK[-1], co_names[namei>>1])’. If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, this will attempt to load a method named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ from the ‘STACK[-1]’ object. ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped. This bytecode distinguishes two cases: if ‘STACK[-1]’ has a method with the correct name, the bytecode pushes the unbound method and ‘STACK[-1]’. ‘STACK[-1]’ will be used as the first argument (‘self’) by *note CALL: 702. or *note CALL_KW: 16e3. when calling the unbound method. Otherwise, ‘NULL’ and the object returned by the attribute lookup are pushed. Changed in version 3.12: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a ‘NULL’ or ‘self’ is pushed to the stack before the attribute or unbound method respectively. -- Opcode: LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (namei) This opcode implements *note super(): 4d7, both in its zero-argument and two-argument forms (e.g. ‘super().method()’, ‘super().attr’ and ‘super(cls, self).method()’, ‘super(cls, self).attr’). It pops three values from the stack (from top of stack down): * ‘self’: the first argument to the current method * ‘cls’: the class within which the current method was defined * the global ‘super’ With respect to its argument, it works similarly to *note LOAD_ATTR: 4da, except that ‘namei’ is shifted left by 2 bits instead of 1. The low bit of ‘namei’ signals to attempt a method load, as with *note LOAD_ATTR: 4da, which results in pushing ‘NULL’ and the loaded method. When it is unset a single value is pushed to the stack. The second-low bit of ‘namei’, if set, means that this was a two-argument call to *note super(): 4d7. (unset means zero-argument). Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: COMPARE_OP (opname) Performs a Boolean operation. The operation name can be found in ‘cmp_op[opname >> 5]’. If the fifth-lowest bit of ‘opname’ is set (‘opname & 16’), the result should be coerced to ‘bool’. Changed in version 3.13: The fifth-lowest bit of the oparg now indicates a forced conversion to *note bool: 463. -- Opcode: IS_OP (invert) Performs ‘is’ comparison, or ‘is not’ if ‘invert’ is 1. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: CONTAINS_OP (invert) Performs ‘in’ comparison, or ‘not in’ if ‘invert’ is 1. Added in version 3.9. -- Opcode: IMPORT_NAME (namei) Imports the module ‘co_names[namei]’. ‘STACK[-1]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’ are popped and provide the 'fromlist' and 'level' arguments of *note __import__(): 8d3. The module object is pushed onto the stack. The current namespace is not affected: for a proper import statement, a subsequent *note STORE_FAST: 16f1. instruction modifies the namespace. -- Opcode: IMPORT_FROM (namei) Loads the attribute ‘co_names[namei]’ from the module found in ‘STACK[-1]’. The resulting object is pushed onto the stack, to be subsequently stored by a *note STORE_FAST: 16f1. instruction. -- Opcode: JUMP_FORWARD (delta) Increments bytecode counter by 'delta'. -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD (delta) Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'. Checks for interrupts. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (delta) Decrements bytecode counter by 'delta'. Does not check for interrupts. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (delta) If ‘STACK[-1]’ is true, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'. ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped. Changed in version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an absolute target. This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward). Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction. Changed in version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact *note bool: 463. operand. -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (delta) If ‘STACK[-1]’ is false, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'. ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped. Changed in version 3.11: The oparg is now a relative delta rather than an absolute target. This opcode is a pseudo-instruction, replaced in final bytecode by the directed versions (forward/backward). Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction. Changed in version 3.13: This instruction now requires an exact *note bool: 463. operand. -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (delta) If ‘STACK[-1]’ is not ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'. ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped. Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction. -- Opcode: POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (delta) If ‘STACK[-1]’ is ‘None’, increments the bytecode counter by 'delta'. ‘STACK[-1]’ is popped. Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.12: This is no longer a pseudo-instruction. -- Opcode: FOR_ITER (delta) ‘STACK[-1]’ is an *note iterator: 1ac. Call its *note __next__(): 12c0. method. If this yields a new value, push it on the stack (leaving the iterator below it). If the iterator indicates it is exhausted then the byte code counter is incremented by 'delta'. Changed in version 3.12: Up until 3.11 the iterator was popped when it was exhausted. -- Opcode: LOAD_GLOBAL (namei) Loads the global named ‘co_names[namei>>1]’ onto the stack. Changed in version 3.11: If the low bit of ‘namei’ is set, then a ‘NULL’ is pushed to the stack before the global variable. -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST (var_num) Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the stack. Changed in version 3.12: This opcode is now only used in situations where the local variable is guaranteed to be initialized. It cannot raise *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums) Pushes references to ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’ onto the stack. Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_CHECK (var_num) Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the stack, raising an *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. if the local variable has not been initialized. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (var_num) Pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ onto the stack (or pushes ‘NULL’ onto the stack if the local variable has not been initialized) and sets ‘co_varnames[var_num]’ to ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: STORE_FAST (var_num) Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’. -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (var_nums) Stores ‘STACK[-1]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and ‘STACK[-2]’ into ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’. Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (var_nums) Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums >> 4]’ and pushes a reference to the local ‘co_varnames[var_nums & 15]’ onto the stack. Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: DELETE_FAST (var_num) Deletes local ‘co_varnames[var_num]’. -- Opcode: MAKE_CELL (i) Creates a new cell in slot ‘i’. If that slot is nonempty then that value is stored into the new cell. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: LOAD_DEREF (i) Loads the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage. Pushes a reference to the object the cell contains on the stack. Changed in version 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note co_varnames: 1f3c. -- Opcode: LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (i) Pops a mapping off the stack and looks up the name associated with slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage in this mapping. If the name is not found there, loads it from the cell contained in slot ‘i’, similar to *note LOAD_DEREF: 4769. This is used for loading *note closure variables: 1f3f. in class bodies (which previously used ‘LOAD_CLASSDEREF’) and in *note annotation scopes: 188. within class bodies. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: STORE_DEREF (i) Stores ‘STACK.pop()’ into the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage. Changed in version 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note co_varnames: 1f3c. -- Opcode: DELETE_DEREF (i) Empties the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage. Used by the *note del: 17a6. statement. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.11: ‘i’ is no longer offset by the length of *note co_varnames: 1f3c. -- Opcode: COPY_FREE_VARS (n) Copies the ‘n’ *note free (closure) variables: 1f3f. from the closure into the frame. Removes the need for special code on the caller’s side when calling closures. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: RAISE_VARARGS (argc) Raises an exception using one of the 3 forms of the ‘raise’ statement, depending on the value of 'argc': * 0: ‘raise’ (re-raise previous exception) * 1: ‘raise STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at ‘STACK[-1]’) * 2: ‘raise STACK[-2] from STACK[-1]’ (raise exception instance or type at ‘STACK[-2]’ with ‘__cause__’ set to ‘STACK[-1]’) -- Opcode: CALL (argc) Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by ‘argc’. On the stack are (in ascending order): * The callable * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’ * The remaining positional arguments ‘argc’ is the total of the positional arguments, excluding ‘self’. ‘CALL’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object. Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.13: The callable now always appears at the same position on the stack. Changed in version 3.13: Calls with keyword arguments are now handled by *note CALL_KW: 16e3. -- Opcode: CALL_KW (argc) Calls a callable object with the number of arguments specified by ‘argc’, including one or more named arguments. On the stack are (in ascending order): * The callable * ‘self’ or ‘NULL’ * The remaining positional arguments * The named arguments * A *note tuple: 36b. of keyword argument names ‘argc’ is the total of the positional and named arguments, excluding ‘self’. The length of the tuple of keyword argument names is the number of named arguments. ‘CALL_KW’ pops all arguments, the keyword names, and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object. Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: CALL_FUNCTION_EX (flags) Calls a callable object with variable set of positional and keyword arguments. If the lowest bit of 'flags' is set, the top of the stack contains a mapping object containing additional keyword arguments. Before the callable is called, the mapping object and iterable object are each “unpacked” and their contents passed in as keyword and positional arguments respectively. ‘CALL_FUNCTION_EX’ pops all arguments and the callable object off the stack, calls the callable object with those arguments, and pushes the return value returned by the callable object. Added in version 3.6. -- Opcode: PUSH_NULL Pushes a ‘NULL’ to the stack. Used in the call sequence to match the ‘NULL’ pushed by *note LOAD_METHOD: c1f. for non-method calls. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: MAKE_FUNCTION Pushes a new function object on the stack built from the code object at ‘STACK[-1]’. Changed in version 3.10: Flag value ‘0x04’ is a tuple of strings instead of dictionary Changed in version 3.11: Qualified name at ‘STACK[-1]’ was removed. Changed in version 3.13: Extra function attributes on the stack, signaled by oparg flags, were removed. They now use *note SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE: 476d. -- Opcode: SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (flag) Sets an attribute on a function object. Expects the function at ‘STACK[-1]’ and the attribute value to set at ‘STACK[-2]’; consumes both and leaves the function at ‘STACK[-1]’. The flag determines which attribute to set: * ‘0x01’ a tuple of default values for positional-only and positional-or-keyword parameters in positional order * ‘0x02’ a dictionary of keyword-only parameters’ default values * ‘0x04’ a tuple of strings containing parameters’ annotations * ‘0x08’ a tuple containing cells for free variables, making a closure Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: BUILD_SLICE (argc) Pushes a slice object on the stack. 'argc' must be 2 or 3. If it is 2, implements: end = STACK.pop() start = STACK.pop() STACK.append(slice(start, end)) if it is 3, implements: step = STACK.pop() end = STACK.pop() start = STACK.pop() STACK.append(slice(start, end, step)) See the *note slice(): 465. built-in function for more information. -- Opcode: EXTENDED_ARG (ext) Prefixes any opcode which has an argument too big to fit into the default one byte. 'ext' holds an additional byte which act as higher bits in the argument. For each opcode, at most three prefixal ‘EXTENDED_ARG’ are allowed, forming an argument from two-byte to four-byte. -- Opcode: CONVERT_VALUE (oparg) Convert value to a string, depending on ‘oparg’: value = STACK.pop() result = func(value) STACK.append(result) * ‘oparg == 1’: call *note str(): 447. on 'value' * ‘oparg == 2’: call *note repr(): 7f9. on 'value' * ‘oparg == 3’: call *note ascii(): 13b2. on 'value' Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings). Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: FORMAT_SIMPLE Formats the value on top of stack: value = STACK.pop() result = value.__format__("") STACK.append(result) Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings). Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: FORMAT_WITH_SPEC Formats the given value with the given format spec: spec = STACK.pop() value = STACK.pop() result = value.__format__(spec) STACK.append(result) Used for implementing formatted string literals (f-strings). Added in version 3.13. -- Opcode: MATCH_CLASS (count) ‘STACK[-1]’ is a tuple of keyword attribute names, ‘STACK[-2]’ is the class being matched against, and ‘STACK[-3]’ is the match subject. 'count' is the number of positional sub-patterns. Pop ‘STACK[-1]’, ‘STACK[-2]’, and ‘STACK[-3]’. If ‘STACK[-3]’ is an instance of ‘STACK[-2]’ and has the positional and keyword attributes required by 'count' and ‘STACK[-1]’, push a tuple of extracted attributes. Otherwise, push ‘None’. Added in version 3.10. Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this instruction also pushed a boolean value indicating success (‘True’) or failure (‘False’). -- Opcode: RESUME (context) A no-op. Performs internal tracing, debugging and optimization checks. The ‘context’ oparand consists of two parts. The lowest two bits indicate where the ‘RESUME’ occurs: * ‘0’ The start of a function, which is neither a generator, coroutine nor an async generator * ‘1’ After a ‘yield’ expression * ‘2’ After a ‘yield from’ expression * ‘3’ After an ‘await’ expression The next bit is ‘1’ if the RESUME is at except-depth ‘1’, and ‘0’ otherwise. Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.13: The oparg value changed to include information about except-depth -- Opcode: RETURN_GENERATOR Create a generator, coroutine, or async generator from the current frame. Used as first opcode of in code object for the above mentioned callables. Clear the current frame and return the newly created generator. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: SEND (delta) Equivalent to ‘STACK[-1] = STACK[-2].send(STACK[-1])’. Used in ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ statements. If the call raises *note StopIteration: bfa, pop the top value from the stack, push the exception’s ‘value’ attribute, and increment the bytecode counter by 'delta'. Added in version 3.11. -- Opcode: HAVE_ARGUMENT This is not really an opcode. It identifies the dividing line between opcodes in the range [0,255] which don’t use their argument and those that do (‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ and ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’, respectively). If your application uses pseudo instructions or specialized instructions, use the *note hasarg: 2a0. collection instead. Changed in version 3.6: Now every instruction has an argument, but opcodes ‘< HAVE_ARGUMENT’ ignore it. Before, only opcodes ‘>= HAVE_ARGUMENT’ had an argument. Changed in version 3.12: Pseudo instructions were added to the *note dis: 38. module, and for them it is not true that comparison with ‘HAVE_ARGUMENT’ indicates whether they use their arg. Deprecated since version 3.13: Use *note hasarg: 2a0. instead. -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_1 Calls an intrinsic function with one argument. Passes ‘STACK[-1]’ as the argument and sets ‘STACK[-1]’ to the result. Used to implement functionality that is not performance critical. The operand determines which intrinsic function is called: Operand Description -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘INTRINSIC_1_INVALID’ Not valid ‘INTRINSIC_PRINT’ Prints the argument to standard out. Used in the REPL. ‘INTRINSIC_IMPORT_STAR’ Performs ‘import *’ for the named module. ‘INTRINSIC_STOPITERATION_ERROR’ Extracts the return value from a ‘StopIteration’ exception. ‘INTRINSIC_ASYNC_GEN_WRAP’ Wraps an async generator value ‘INTRINSIC_UNARY_POSITIVE’ Performs the unary ‘+’ operation ‘INTRINSIC_LIST_TO_TUPLE’ Converts a list to a tuple ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR’ Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. ‘INTRINSIC_PARAMSPEC’ Creates a *note typing.ParamSpec: 15e. ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVARTUPLE’ Creates a *note typing.TypeVarTuple: 15f. ‘INTRINSIC_SUBSCRIPT_GENERIC’ Returns *note typing.Generic: 1619. subscripted with the argument ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEALIAS’ Creates a *note typing.TypeAliasType: 450.; used in the *note type: 433. statement. The argument is a tuple of the type alias’s name, type parameters, and value. Added in version 3.12. -- Opcode: CALL_INTRINSIC_2 Calls an intrinsic function with two arguments. Used to implement functionality that is not performance critical: arg2 = STACK.pop() arg1 = STACK.pop() result = intrinsic2(arg1, arg2) STACK.append(result) The operand determines which intrinsic function is called: Operand Description ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘INTRINSIC_2_INVALID’ Not valid ‘INTRINSIC_PREP_RERAISE_STAR’ Calculates the *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. to raise from a ‘try-except*’. ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_BOUND’ Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. with a bound. ‘INTRINSIC_TYPEVAR_WITH_CONSTRAINTS’ Creates a *note typing.TypeVar: 15d. with constraints. ‘INTRINSIC_SET_FUNCTION_TYPE_PARAMS’ Sets the ‘__type_params__’ attribute of a function. Added in version 3.12. 'Pseudo-instructions' These opcodes do not appear in Python bytecode. They are used by the compiler but are replaced by real opcodes or removed before bytecode is generated. -- Opcode: SETUP_FINALLY (target) Set up an exception handler for the following code block. If an exception occurs, the value stack level is restored to its current state and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’. -- Opcode: SETUP_CLEANUP (target) Like ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, but in case of an exception also pushes the last instruction (‘lasti’) to the stack so that ‘RERAISE’ can restore it. If an exception occurs, the value stack level and the last instruction on the frame are restored to their current state, and control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’. -- Opcode: SETUP_WITH (target) Like ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’, but in case of an exception one more item is popped from the stack before control is transferred to the exception handler at ‘target’. This variant is used in *note with: 5ce. and *note async with: 5d1. constructs, which push the return value of the context manager’s *note __enter__(): 5c4. or *note __aenter__(): 1fd0. to the stack. -- Opcode: POP_BLOCK Marks the end of the code block associated with the last ‘SETUP_FINALLY’, ‘SETUP_CLEANUP’ or ‘SETUP_WITH’. -- Opcode: JUMP -- Opcode: JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT Undirected relative jump instructions which are replaced by their directed (forward/backward) counterparts by the assembler. -- Opcode: LOAD_CLOSURE (i) Pushes a reference to the cell contained in slot ‘i’ of the “fast locals” storage. Note that ‘LOAD_CLOSURE’ is replaced with ‘LOAD_FAST’ in the assembler. Changed in version 3.13: This opcode is now a pseudo-instruction. -- Opcode: LOAD_METHOD Optimized unbound method lookup. Emitted as a ‘LOAD_ATTR’ opcode with a flag set in the arg.  File: python.info, Node: Opcode collections, Prev: Python Bytecode Instructions, Up: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode 5.33.10.5 Opcode collections ............................ These collections are provided for automatic introspection of bytecode instructions: Changed in version 3.12: The collections now contain pseudo instructions and instrumented instructions as well. These are opcodes with values ‘>= MIN_PSEUDO_OPCODE’ and ‘>= MIN_INSTRUMENTED_OPCODE’. -- Data: dis.opname Sequence of operation names, indexable using the bytecode. -- Data: dis.opmap Dictionary mapping operation names to bytecodes. -- Data: dis.cmp_op Sequence of all compare operation names. -- Data: dis.hasarg Sequence of bytecodes that use their argument. Added in version 3.12. -- Data: dis.hasconst Sequence of bytecodes that access a constant. -- Data: dis.hasfree Sequence of bytecodes that access a *note free (closure) variable: 1f3f. ‘free’ in this context refers to names in the current scope that are referenced by inner scopes or names in outer scopes that are referenced from this scope. It does 'not' include references to global or builtin scopes. -- Data: dis.hasname Sequence of bytecodes that access an attribute by name. -- Data: dis.hasjump Sequence of bytecodes that have a jump target. All jumps are relative. Added in version 3.13. -- Data: dis.haslocal Sequence of bytecodes that access a local variable. -- Data: dis.hascompare Sequence of bytecodes of Boolean operations. -- Data: dis.hasexc Sequence of bytecodes that set an exception handler. Added in version 3.12. -- Data: dis.hasjrel Sequence of bytecodes that have a relative jump target. Deprecated since version 3.13: All jumps are now relative. Use *note hasjump: 477d. -- Data: dis.hasjabs Sequence of bytecodes that have an absolute jump target. Deprecated since version 3.13: All jumps are now relative. This list is empty.  File: python.info, Node: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers, Prev: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode, Up: Python Language Services 5.33.11 ‘pickletools’ — Tools for pickle developers --------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/pickletools.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ This module contains various constants relating to the intimate details of the *note pickle: a6. module, some lengthy comments about the implementation, and a few useful functions for analyzing pickled data. The contents of this module are useful for Python core developers who are working on the *note pickle: a6.; ordinary users of the *note pickle: a6. module probably won’t find the *note pickletools: a7. module relevant. * Menu: * Command line usage: Command line usage<2>. * Programmatic Interface: Programmatic Interface<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pickletools.py  File: python.info, Node: Command line usage<2>, Next: Programmatic Interface<2>, Up: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers 5.33.11.1 Command line usage ............................ Added in version 3.2. When invoked from the command line, ‘python -m pickletools’ will disassemble the contents of one or more pickle files. Note that if you want to see the Python object stored in the pickle rather than the details of pickle format, you may want to use ‘-m pickle’ instead. However, when the pickle file that you want to examine comes from an untrusted source, ‘-m pickletools’ is a safer option because it does not execute pickle bytecode. For example, with a tuple ‘(1, 2)’ pickled in file ‘x.pickle’: $ python -m pickle x.pickle (1, 2) $ python -m pickletools x.pickle 0: \x80 PROTO 3 2: K BININT1 1 4: K BININT1 2 6: \x86 TUPLE2 7: q BINPUT 0 9: . STOP highest protocol among opcodes = 2 * Menu: * Command line options: Command line options<3>.  File: python.info, Node: Command line options<3>, Up: Command line usage<2> 5.33.11.2 Command line options .............................. -- Option: -a, --annotate Annotate each line with a short opcode description. -- Option: -o, --output=<file> Name of a file where the output should be written. -- Option: -l, --indentlevel=<num> The number of blanks by which to indent a new MARK level. -- Option: -m, --memo When multiple objects are disassembled, preserve memo between disassemblies. -- Option: -p, --preamble=<preamble> When more than one pickle file are specified, print given preamble before each disassembly.  File: python.info, Node: Programmatic Interface<2>, Prev: Command line usage<2>, Up: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers 5.33.11.3 Programmatic Interface ................................ -- Function: pickletools.dis (pickle, out=None, memo=None, indentlevel=4, annotate=0) Outputs a symbolic disassembly of the pickle to the file-like object 'out', defaulting to ‘sys.stdout’. 'pickle' can be a string or a file-like object. 'memo' can be a Python dictionary that will be used as the pickle’s memo; it can be used to perform disassemblies across multiple pickles created by the same pickler. Successive levels, indicated by ‘MARK’ opcodes in the stream, are indented by 'indentlevel' spaces. If a nonzero value is given to 'annotate', each opcode in the output is annotated with a short description. The value of 'annotate' is used as a hint for the column where annotation should start. Changed in version 3.2: Added the 'annotate' parameter. -- Function: pickletools.genops (pickle) Provides an *note iterator: 1ac. over all of the opcodes in a pickle, returning a sequence of ‘(opcode, arg, pos)’ triples. 'opcode' is an instance of an ‘OpcodeInfo’ class; 'arg' is the decoded value, as a Python object, of the opcode’s argument; 'pos' is the position at which this opcode is located. 'pickle' can be a string or a file-like object. -- Function: pickletools.optimize (picklestring) Returns a new equivalent pickle string after eliminating unused ‘PUT’ opcodes. The optimized pickle is shorter, takes less transmission time, requires less storage space, and unpickles more efficiently.  File: python.info, Node: MS Windows Specific Services, Next: Unix Specific Services, Prev: Python Language Services, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.34 MS Windows Specific Services ================================= This chapter describes modules that are only available on MS Windows platforms. * Menu: * msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime:: * winreg — Windows registry access:: * winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows::  File: python.info, Node: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime, Next: winreg — Windows registry access, Up: MS Windows Specific Services 5.34.1 ‘msvcrt’ — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime ---------------------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ These functions provide access to some useful capabilities on Windows platforms. Some higher-level modules use these functions to build the Windows implementations of their services. For example, the *note getpass: 62. module uses this in the implementation of the *note getpass(): 62. function. Further documentation on these functions can be found in the Platform API documentation. The module implements both the normal and wide char variants of the console I/O api. The normal API deals only with ASCII characters and is of limited use for internationalized applications. The wide char API should be used where ever possible. Changed in version 3.3: Operations in this module now raise *note OSError: 413. where *note IOError: 104b. was raised. * Menu: * File Operations:: * Console I/O:: * Other Functions::  File: python.info, Node: File Operations, Next: Console I/O, Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime 5.34.1.1 File Operations ........................ -- Function: msvcrt.locking (fd, mode, nbytes) Lock part of a file based on file descriptor 'fd' from the C runtime. Raises *note OSError: 413. on failure. The locked region of the file extends from the current file position for 'nbytes' bytes, and may continue beyond the end of the file. 'mode' must be one of the ‘LK_*’ constants listed below. Multiple regions in a file may be locked at the same time, but may not overlap. Adjacent regions are not merged; they must be unlocked individually. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘msvcrt.locking’ with arguments ‘fd’, ‘mode’, ‘nbytes’. -- Data: msvcrt.LK_LOCK -- Data: msvcrt.LK_RLCK Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, the program immediately tries again after 1 second. If, after 10 attempts, the bytes cannot be locked, *note OSError: 413. is raised. -- Data: msvcrt.LK_NBLCK -- Data: msvcrt.LK_NBRLCK Locks the specified bytes. If the bytes cannot be locked, *note OSError: 413. is raised. -- Data: msvcrt.LK_UNLCK Unlocks the specified bytes, which must have been previously locked. -- Function: msvcrt.setmode (fd, flags) Set the line-end translation mode for the file descriptor 'fd'. To set it to text mode, 'flags' should be *note os.O_TEXT: 2b60.; for binary, it should be *note os.O_BINARY: 2b51. -- Function: msvcrt.open_osfhandle (handle, flags) Create a C runtime file descriptor from the file handle 'handle'. The 'flags' parameter should be a bitwise OR of *note os.O_APPEND: 2b53, *note os.O_RDONLY: 2b4f, *note os.O_TEXT: 2b60. and *note os.O_NOINHERIT: 2b5b. The returned file descriptor may be used as a parameter to *note os.fdopen(): 1f32. to create a file object. The file descriptor is inheritable by default. Pass *note os.O_NOINHERIT: 2b5b. flag to make it non inheritable. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘msvcrt.open_osfhandle’ with arguments ‘handle’, ‘flags’. -- Function: msvcrt.get_osfhandle (fd) Return the file handle for the file descriptor 'fd'. Raises *note OSError: 413. if 'fd' is not recognized. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘msvcrt.get_osfhandle’ with argument ‘fd’.  File: python.info, Node: Console I/O, Next: Other Functions, Prev: File Operations, Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime 5.34.1.2 Console I/O .................... -- Function: msvcrt.kbhit () Returns a nonzero value if a keypress is waiting to be read. Otherwise, return 0. -- Function: msvcrt.getch () Read a keypress and return the resulting character as a byte string. Nothing is echoed to the console. This call will block if a keypress is not already available, but will not wait for ‘Enter’ to be pressed. If the pressed key was a special function key, this will return ‘'\000'’ or ‘'\xe0'’; the next call will return the keycode. The ‘Control’-‘C’ keypress cannot be read with this function. -- Function: msvcrt.getwch () Wide char variant of *note getch(): 47a2, returning a Unicode value. -- Function: msvcrt.getche () Similar to *note getch(): 47a2, but the keypress will be echoed if it represents a printable character. -- Function: msvcrt.getwche () Wide char variant of *note getche(): 47a3, returning a Unicode value. -- Function: msvcrt.putch (char) Print the byte string 'char' to the console without buffering. -- Function: msvcrt.putwch (unicode_char) Wide char variant of *note putch(): 47a4, accepting a Unicode value. -- Function: msvcrt.ungetch (char) Cause the byte string 'char' to be “pushed back” into the console buffer; it will be the next character read by *note getch(): 47a2. or *note getche(): 47a3. -- Function: msvcrt.ungetwch (unicode_char) Wide char variant of *note ungetch(): 47a5, accepting a Unicode value.  File: python.info, Node: Other Functions, Prev: Console I/O, Up: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime 5.34.1.3 Other Functions ........................ -- Function: msvcrt.heapmin () Force the ‘malloc()’ heap to clean itself up and return unused blocks to the operating system. On failure, this raises *note OSError: 413. -- Function: msvcrt.set_error_mode (mode) Changes the location where the C runtime writes an error message for an error that might end the program. 'mode' must be one of the ‘OUT_*’ constants listed below or *note REPORT_ERRMODE: 47ab. Returns the old setting or -1 if an error occurs. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Data: msvcrt.OUT_TO_DEFAULT Error sink is determined by the app’s type. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Data: msvcrt.OUT_TO_STDERR Error sink is a standard error. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Data: msvcrt.OUT_TO_MSGBOX Error sink is a message box. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Data: msvcrt.REPORT_ERRMODE Report the current error mode value. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Function: msvcrt.CrtSetReportMode (type, mode) Specifies the destination or destinations for a specific report type generated by ‘_CrtDbgReport()’ in the MS VC++ runtime. 'type' must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants listed below. 'mode' must be one of the ‘CRTDBG_*’ constants listed below. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Function: msvcrt.CrtSetReportFile (type, file) After you use *note CrtSetReportMode(): 47af. to specify *note CRTDBG_MODE_FILE: 47b1, you can specify the file handle to receive the message text. 'type' must be one of the ‘CRT_*’ constants listed below. 'file' should be the file handle your want specified. Only available in *note debug build of Python: 1fb. -- Data: msvcrt.CRT_WARN Warnings, messages, and information that doesn’t need immediate attention. -- Data: msvcrt.CRT_ERROR Errors, unrecoverable problems, and issues that require immediate attention. -- Data: msvcrt.CRT_ASSERT Assertion failures. -- Data: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG Writes the message to the debugger’s output window. -- Data: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_FILE Writes the message to a user-supplied file handle. *note CrtSetReportFile(): 47b0. should be called to define the specific file or stream to use as the destination. -- Data: msvcrt.CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW Creates a message box to display the message along with the ‘Abort’, ‘Retry’, and ‘Ignore’ buttons. -- Data: msvcrt.CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE Returns current 'mode' for the specified 'type'. -- Data: msvcrt.CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION The CRT Assembly version, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file. -- Data: msvcrt.VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN The VC Assembly public key token, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file. -- Data: msvcrt.LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX The Libraries Assembly name prefix, from the ‘crtassem.h’ header file.  File: python.info, Node: winreg — Windows registry access, Next: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows, Prev: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime, Up: MS Windows Specific Services 5.34.2 ‘winreg’ — Windows registry access ----------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ These functions expose the Windows registry API to Python. Instead of using an integer as the registry handle, a *note handle object: 47ba. is used to ensure that the handles are closed correctly, even if the programmer neglects to explicitly close them. Changed in version 3.3: Several functions in this module used to raise a *note WindowsError: 104d, which is now an alias of *note OSError: 413. * Menu: * Functions: Functions<13>. * Constants: Constants<10>. * Registry Handle Objects::  File: python.info, Node: Functions<13>, Next: Constants<10>, Up: winreg — Windows registry access 5.34.2.1 Functions .................. This module offers the following functions: -- Function: winreg.CloseKey (hkey) Closes a previously opened registry key. The 'hkey' argument specifies a previously opened key. Note: If 'hkey' is not closed using this method (or via *note hkey.Close(): 47bf.), it is closed when the 'hkey' object is destroyed by Python. -- Function: winreg.ConnectRegistry (computer_name, key) Establishes a connection to a predefined registry handle on another computer, and returns a *note handle object: 47ba. 'computer_name' is the name of the remote computer, of the form ‘r"\\computername"’. If ‘None’, the local computer is used. 'key' is the predefined handle to connect to. The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.ConnectRegistry’ with arguments ‘computer_name’, ‘key’. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.CreateKey (key, sub_key) Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 47ba. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or creates. If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’. In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function. If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key. The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with argument ‘key’. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.CreateKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_WRITE) Creates or opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 47ba. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that names the key this method opens or creates. 'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero. 'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired security access for the key. Default is *note KEY_WRITE: 47c1. See *note Access Rights: 47c2. for other allowed values. If 'key' is one of the predefined keys, 'sub_key' may be ‘None’. In that case, the handle returned is the same key handle passed in to the function. If the key already exists, this function opens the existing key. The return value is the handle of the opened key. If the function fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.CreateKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with argument ‘key’. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.DeleteKey (key, sub_key) Deletes the specified key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the 'key' parameter. This value must not be ‘None’, and the key may not have subkeys. 'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.' If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed. If the method fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.DeleteKeyEx (key, sub_key, access=KEY_WOW64_64KEY, reserved=0) Deletes the specified key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that must be a subkey of the key identified by the 'key' parameter. This value must not be ‘None’, and the key may not have subkeys. 'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero. 'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired security access for the key. Default is *note KEY_WOW64_64KEY: 47c3. On 32-bit Windows, the WOW64 constants are ignored. See *note Access Rights: 47c2. for other allowed values. 'This method can not delete keys with subkeys.' If the method succeeds, the entire key, including all of its values, is removed. If the method fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. On unsupported Windows versions, *note NotImplementedError: 22a. is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.DeleteKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.DeleteValue (key, value) Removes a named value from a registry key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'value' is a string that identifies the value to remove. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.DeleteValue’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘value’. -- Function: winreg.EnumKey (key, index) Enumerates subkeys of an open registry key, returning a string. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the key to retrieve. The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is typically called repeatedly until an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised, indicating, no more values are available. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.EnumKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘index’. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.EnumValue (key, index) Enumerates values of an open registry key, returning a tuple. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'index' is an integer that identifies the index of the value to retrieve. The function retrieves the name of one subkey each time it is called. It is typically called repeatedly, until an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised, indicating no more values. The result is a tuple of 3 items: Index Meaning ------------------------------------------------------------- ‘0’ A string that identifies the value name ‘1’ An object that holds the value data, and whose type depends on the underlying registry type ‘2’ An integer that identifies the type of the value data (see table in docs for *note SetValueEx(): 178d.) Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.EnumValue’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘index’. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings (str) Expands environment variable placeholders ‘%NAME%’ in strings like *note REG_EXPAND_SZ: 47c4.: >>> ExpandEnvironmentStrings('%windir%') 'C:\\Windows' Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.ExpandEnvironmentStrings’ with argument ‘str’. -- Function: winreg.FlushKey (key) Writes all the attributes of a key to the registry. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. It is not necessary to call *note FlushKey(): 47c5. to change a key. Registry changes are flushed to disk by the registry using its lazy flusher. Registry changes are also flushed to disk at system shutdown. Unlike *note CloseKey(): 47be, the *note FlushKey(): 47c5. method returns only when all the data has been written to the registry. An application should only call *note FlushKey(): 47c5. if it requires absolute certainty that registry changes are on disk. Note: If you don’t know whether a *note FlushKey(): 47c5. call is required, it probably isn’t. -- Function: winreg.LoadKey (key, sub_key, file_name) Creates a subkey under the specified key and stores registration information from a specified file into that subkey. 'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 41f2. or one of the constants *note HKEY_USERS: 47c6. or *note HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE: 47c7. 'sub_key' is a string that identifies the subkey to load. 'file_name' is the name of the file to load registry data from. This file must have been created with the *note SaveKey(): 41fe. function. Under the file allocation table (FAT) file system, the filename may not have an extension. A call to *note LoadKey(): 41f8. fails if the calling process does not have the ‘SE_RESTORE_PRIVILEGE’ privilege. Note that privileges are different from permissions – see the RegLoadKey documentation(1) for more details. If 'key' is a handle returned by *note ConnectRegistry(): 41f2, then the path specified in 'file_name' is relative to the remote computer. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.LoadKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘file_name’. -- Function: winreg.OpenKey (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ) -- Function: winreg.OpenKeyEx (key, sub_key, reserved=0, access=KEY_READ) Opens the specified key, returning a *note handle object: 47ba. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that identifies the sub_key to open. 'reserved' is a reserved integer, and must be zero. The default is zero. 'access' is an integer that specifies an access mask that describes the desired security access for the key. Default is *note KEY_READ: 47c9. See *note Access Rights: 47c2. for other allowed values. The result is a new handle to the specified key. If the function fails, *note OSError: 413. is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.OpenKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘access’. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.OpenKey/result’ with argument ‘key’. Changed in version 3.2: Allow the use of named arguments. Changed in version 3.3: See *note above: 47bb. -- Function: winreg.QueryInfoKey (key) Returns information about a key, as a tuple. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. The result is a tuple of 3 items: Index Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------- ‘0’ An integer giving the number of sub keys this key has. ‘1’ An integer giving the number of values this key has. ‘2’ An integer giving when the key was last modified (if available) as 100’s of nanoseconds since Jan 1, 1601. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.QueryInfoKey’ with argument ‘key’. -- Function: winreg.QueryValue (key, sub_key) Retrieves the unnamed value for a key, as a string. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that holds the name of the subkey with which the value is associated. If this parameter is ‘None’ or empty, the function retrieves the value set by the *note SetValue(): 41ff. method for the key identified by 'key'. Values in the registry have name, type, and data components. This method retrieves the data for a key’s first value that has a ‘NULL’ name. But the underlying API call doesn’t return the type, so always use *note QueryValueEx(): 41fd. if possible. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’. -- Function: winreg.QueryValueEx (key, value_name) Retrieves the type and data for a specified value name associated with an open registry key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'value_name' is a string indicating the value to query. The result is a tuple of 2 items: Index Meaning ---------------------------------------------------------- ‘0’ The value of the registry item. ‘1’ An integer giving the registry type for this value (see table in docs for *note SetValueEx(): 178d.) Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.QueryValue’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘value_name’. -- Function: winreg.SaveKey (key, file_name) Saves the specified key, and all its subkeys to the specified file. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'file_name' is the name of the file to save registry data to. This file cannot already exist. If this filename includes an extension, it cannot be used on file allocation table (FAT) file systems by the *note LoadKey(): 41f8. method. If 'key' represents a key on a remote computer, the path described by 'file_name' is relative to the remote computer. The caller of this method must possess the 'SeBackupPrivilege' security privilege. Note that privileges are different than permissions – see the Conflicts Between User Rights and Permissions documentation(2) for more details. This function passes ‘NULL’ for 'security_attributes' to the API. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.SaveKey’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘file_name’. -- Function: winreg.SetValue (key, sub_key, type, value) Associates a value with a specified key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'sub_key' is a string that names the subkey with which the value is associated. 'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data. Currently this must be *note REG_SZ: 47ca, meaning only strings are supported. Use the *note SetValueEx(): 178d. function for support for other data types. 'value' is a string that specifies the new value. If the key specified by the 'sub_key' parameter does not exist, the SetValue function creates it. Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration registry. This helps the registry perform efficiently. The key identified by the 'key' parameter must have been opened with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47cb. access. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’. -- Function: winreg.SetValueEx (key, value_name, reserved, type, value) Stores data in the value field of an open registry key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. 'value_name' is a string that names the subkey with which the value is associated. 'reserved' can be anything – zero is always passed to the API. 'type' is an integer that specifies the type of the data. See *note Value Types: 47cc. for the available types. 'value' is a string that specifies the new value. This method can also set additional value and type information for the specified key. The key identified by the key parameter must have been opened with *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47cb. access. To open the key, use the *note CreateKey(): 41f3. or *note OpenKey(): 41f9. methods. Value lengths are limited by available memory. Long values (more than 2048 bytes) should be stored as files with the filenames stored in the configuration registry. This helps the registry perform efficiently. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.SetValue’ with arguments ‘key’, ‘sub_key’, ‘type’, ‘value’. -- Function: winreg.DisableReflectionKey (key) Disables registry reflection for 32-bit processes running on a 64-bit operating system. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 22a. if executed on a 32-bit operating system. If the key is not on the reflection list, the function succeeds but has no effect. Disabling reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any subkeys. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.DisableReflectionKey’ with argument ‘key’. -- Function: winreg.EnableReflectionKey (key) Restores registry reflection for the specified disabled key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 22a. if executed on a 32-bit operating system. Restoring reflection for a key does not affect reflection of any subkeys. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.EnableReflectionKey’ with argument ‘key’. -- Function: winreg.QueryReflectionKey (key) Determines the reflection state for the specified key. 'key' is an already open key, or one of the predefined *note HKEY_* constants: 47c0. Returns ‘True’ if reflection is disabled. Will generally raise *note NotImplementedError: 22a. if executed on a 32-bit operating system. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.QueryReflectionKey’ with argument ‘key’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724889%28v=VS.85%29.aspx (2) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx  File: python.info, Node: Constants<10>, Next: Registry Handle Objects, Prev: Functions<13>, Up: winreg — Windows registry access 5.34.2.2 Constants .................. The following constants are defined for use in many *note winreg: 116. functions. * Menu: * HKEY_* Constants:: * Access Rights:: * Value Types::  File: python.info, Node: HKEY_* Constants, Next: Access Rights, Up: Constants<10> 5.34.2.3 HKEY_* Constants ......................... -- Data: winreg.HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT Registry entries subordinate to this key define types (or classes) of documents and the properties associated with those types. Shell and COM applications use the information stored under this key. -- Data: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_USER Registry entries subordinate to this key define the preferences of the current user. These preferences include the settings of environment variables, data about program groups, colors, printers, network connections, and application preferences. -- Data: winreg.HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE Registry entries subordinate to this key define the physical state of the computer, including data about the bus type, system memory, and installed hardware and software. -- Data: winreg.HKEY_USERS Registry entries subordinate to this key define the default user configuration for new users on the local computer and the user configuration for the current user. -- Data: winreg.HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA Registry entries subordinate to this key allow you to access performance data. The data is not actually stored in the registry; the registry functions cause the system to collect the data from its source. -- Data: winreg.HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG Contains information about the current hardware profile of the local computer system. -- Data: winreg.HKEY_DYN_DATA This key is not used in versions of Windows after 98.  File: python.info, Node: Access Rights, Next: Value Types, Prev: HKEY_* Constants, Up: Constants<10> 5.34.2.4 Access Rights ...................... For more information, see Registry Key Security and Access(1). -- Data: winreg.KEY_ALL_ACCESS Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_REQUIRED, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 47d7, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47cb, *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 47d8, *note KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 47d9, *note KEY_NOTIFY: 47da, and *note KEY_CREATE_LINK: 47db. access rights. -- Data: winreg.KEY_WRITE Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_WRITE, *note KEY_SET_VALUE: 47cb, and *note KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY: 47d8. access rights. -- Data: winreg.KEY_READ Combines the STANDARD_RIGHTS_READ, *note KEY_QUERY_VALUE: 47d7, *note KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS: 47d9, and *note KEY_NOTIFY: 47da. values. -- Data: winreg.KEY_EXECUTE Equivalent to *note KEY_READ: 47c9. -- Data: winreg.KEY_QUERY_VALUE Required to query the values of a registry key. -- Data: winreg.KEY_SET_VALUE Required to create, delete, or set a registry value. -- Data: winreg.KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY Required to create a subkey of a registry key. -- Data: winreg.KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS Required to enumerate the subkeys of a registry key. -- Data: winreg.KEY_NOTIFY Required to request change notifications for a registry key or for subkeys of a registry key. -- Data: winreg.KEY_CREATE_LINK Reserved for system use. * Menu: * 64-bit Specific:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724878%28v=VS.85%29.aspx  File: python.info, Node: 64-bit Specific, Up: Access Rights 5.34.2.5 64-bit Specific ........................ For more information, see Accessing an Alternate Registry View(1). -- Data: winreg.KEY_WOW64_64KEY Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on the 64-bit registry view. On 32-bit Windows, this constant is ignored. -- Data: winreg.KEY_WOW64_32KEY Indicates that an application on 64-bit Windows should operate on the 32-bit registry view. On 32-bit Windows, this constant is ignored. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/aa384129(v=VS.85).aspx  File: python.info, Node: Value Types, Prev: Access Rights, Up: Constants<10> 5.34.2.6 Value Types .................... For more information, see Registry Value Types(1). -- Data: winreg.REG_BINARY Binary data in any form. -- Data: winreg.REG_DWORD 32-bit number. -- Data: winreg.REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN A 32-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to *note REG_DWORD: 47e2. -- Data: winreg.REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN A 32-bit number in big-endian format. -- Data: winreg.REG_EXPAND_SZ Null-terminated string containing references to environment variables (‘%PATH%’). -- Data: winreg.REG_LINK A Unicode symbolic link. -- Data: winreg.REG_MULTI_SZ A sequence of null-terminated strings, terminated by two null characters. (Python handles this termination automatically.) -- Data: winreg.REG_NONE No defined value type. -- Data: winreg.REG_QWORD A 64-bit number. Added in version 3.6. -- Data: winreg.REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN A 64-bit number in little-endian format. Equivalent to *note REG_QWORD: d02. Added in version 3.6. -- Data: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_LIST A device-driver resource list. -- Data: winreg.REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR A hardware setting. -- Data: winreg.REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST A hardware resource list. -- Data: winreg.REG_SZ A null-terminated string. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/ms724884%28v=VS.85%29.aspx  File: python.info, Node: Registry Handle Objects, Prev: Constants<10>, Up: winreg — Windows registry access 5.34.2.7 Registry Handle Objects ................................ This object wraps a Windows HKEY object, automatically closing it when the object is destroyed. To guarantee cleanup, you can call either the *note Close(): 47bf. method on the object, or the *note CloseKey(): 47be. function. All registry functions in this module return one of these objects. All registry functions in this module which accept a handle object also accept an integer, however, use of the handle object is encouraged. Handle objects provide semantics for *note __bool__(): 12c8. – thus if handle: print("Yes") will print ‘Yes’ if the handle is currently valid (has not been closed or detached). The object also support comparison semantics, so handle objects will compare true if they both reference the same underlying Windows handle value. Handle objects can be converted to an integer (e.g., using the built-in *note int(): 259. function), in which case the underlying Windows handle value is returned. You can also use the *note Detach(): 41fa. method to return the integer handle, and also disconnect the Windows handle from the handle object. -- Method: PyHKEY.Close () Closes the underlying Windows handle. If the handle is already closed, no error is raised. -- Method: PyHKEY.Detach () Detaches the Windows handle from the handle object. The result is an integer that holds the value of the handle before it is detached. If the handle is already detached or closed, this will return zero. After calling this function, the handle is effectively invalidated, but the handle is not closed. You would call this function when you need the underlying Win32 handle to exist beyond the lifetime of the handle object. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘winreg.PyHKEY.Detach’ with argument ‘key’. -- Method: PyHKEY.__enter__ () -- Method: PyHKEY.__exit__ (*exc_info) The HKEY object implements *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. and thus supports the context protocol for the *note with: 5ce. statement: with OpenKey(HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE, "foo") as key: ... # work with key will automatically close 'key' when control leaves the *note with: 5ce. block.  File: python.info, Node: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows, Prev: winreg — Windows registry access, Up: MS Windows Specific Services 5.34.3 ‘winsound’ — Sound-playing interface for Windows ------------------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ The *note winsound: 117. module provides access to the basic sound-playing machinery provided by Windows platforms. It includes functions and several constants. -- Function: winsound.Beep (frequency, duration) Beep the PC’s speaker. The 'frequency' parameter specifies frequency, in hertz, of the sound, and must be in the range 37 through 32,767. The 'duration' parameter specifies the number of milliseconds the sound should last. If the system is not able to beep the speaker, *note RuntimeError: 195. is raised. -- Function: winsound.PlaySound (sound, flags) Call the underlying ‘PlaySound()’ function from the Platform API. The 'sound' parameter may be a filename, a system sound alias, audio data as a *note bytes-like object: d2d, or ‘None’. Its interpretation depends on the value of 'flags', which can be a bitwise ORed combination of the constants described below. If the 'sound' parameter is ‘None’, any currently playing waveform sound is stopped. If the system indicates an error, *note RuntimeError: 195. is raised. -- Function: winsound.MessageBeep (type=MB_OK) Call the underlying ‘MessageBeep()’ function from the Platform API. This plays a sound as specified in the registry. The 'type' argument specifies which sound to play; possible values are ‘-1’, ‘MB_ICONASTERISK’, ‘MB_ICONEXCLAMATION’, ‘MB_ICONHAND’, ‘MB_ICONQUESTION’, and ‘MB_OK’, all described below. The value ‘-1’ produces a “simple beep”; this is the final fallback if a sound cannot be played otherwise. If the system indicates an error, *note RuntimeError: 195. is raised. -- Data: winsound.SND_FILENAME The 'sound' parameter is the name of a WAV file. Do not use with *note SND_ALIAS: 47f1. -- Data: winsound.SND_ALIAS The 'sound' parameter is a sound association name from the registry. If the registry contains no such name, play the system default sound unless *note SND_NODEFAULT: 47f2. is also specified. If no default sound is registered, raise *note RuntimeError: 195. Do not use with *note SND_FILENAME: 47f0. All Win32 systems support at least the following; most systems support many more: *note PlaySound(): d06. Corresponding Control Panel Sound name 'name' ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘'SystemAsterisk'’ Asterisk ‘'SystemExclamation'’ Exclamation ‘'SystemExit'’ Exit Windows ‘'SystemHand'’ Critical Stop ‘'SystemQuestion'’ Question For example: import winsound # Play Windows exit sound. winsound.PlaySound("SystemExit", winsound.SND_ALIAS) # Probably play Windows default sound, if any is registered (because # "*" probably isn't the registered name of any sound). winsound.PlaySound("*", winsound.SND_ALIAS) -- Data: winsound.SND_LOOP Play the sound repeatedly. The *note SND_ASYNC: 47f4. flag must also be used to avoid blocking. Cannot be used with *note SND_MEMORY: 47f5. -- Data: winsound.SND_MEMORY The 'sound' parameter to *note PlaySound(): d06. is a memory image of a WAV file, as a *note bytes-like object: d2d. Note: This module does not support playing from a memory image asynchronously, so a combination of this flag and *note SND_ASYNC: 47f4. will raise *note RuntimeError: 195. -- Data: winsound.SND_PURGE Stop playing all instances of the specified sound. Note: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms. -- Data: winsound.SND_ASYNC Return immediately, allowing sounds to play asynchronously. -- Data: winsound.SND_NODEFAULT If the specified sound cannot be found, do not play the system default sound. -- Data: winsound.SND_NOSTOP Do not interrupt sounds currently playing. -- Data: winsound.SND_NOWAIT Return immediately if the sound driver is busy. Note: This flag is not supported on modern Windows platforms. -- Data: winsound.SND_APPLICATION The 'sound' parameter is an application-specific alias in the registry. This flag can be combined with the *note SND_ALIAS: 47f1. flag to specify an application-defined sound alias. -- Data: winsound.MB_ICONASTERISK Play the ‘SystemDefault’ sound. -- Data: winsound.MB_ICONEXCLAMATION Play the ‘SystemExclamation’ sound. -- Data: winsound.MB_ICONHAND Play the ‘SystemHand’ sound. -- Data: winsound.MB_ICONQUESTION Play the ‘SystemQuestion’ sound. -- Data: winsound.MB_OK Play the ‘SystemDefault’ sound.  File: python.info, Node: Unix Specific Services, Next: Modules command-line interface CLI, Prev: MS Windows Specific Services, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.35 Unix Specific Services =========================== The modules described in this chapter provide interfaces to features that are unique to the Unix operating system, or in some cases to some or many variants of it. Here’s an overview: * Menu: * posix — The most common POSIX system calls:: * pwd — The password database:: * grp — The group database:: * termios — POSIX style tty control:: * tty — Terminal control functions:: * pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities:: * fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls:: * resource — Resource usage information:: * syslog — Unix syslog library routines::  File: python.info, Node: posix — The most common POSIX system calls, Next: pwd — The password database, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.1 ‘posix’ — The most common POSIX system calls --------------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ This module provides access to operating system functionality that is standardized by the C Standard and the POSIX standard (a thinly disguised Unix interface). *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. 'Do not import this module directly.' Instead, import the module *note os: a1, which provides a 'portable' version of this interface. On Unix, the *note os: a1. module provides a superset of the *note posix: ad. interface. On non-Unix operating systems the *note posix: ad. module is not available, but a subset is always available through the *note os: a1. interface. Once *note os: a1. is imported, there is 'no' performance penalty in using it instead of *note posix: ad. In addition, *note os: a1. provides some additional functionality, such as automatically calling *note putenv(): 91b. when an entry in ‘os.environ’ is changed. Errors are reported as exceptions; the usual exceptions are given for type errors, while errors reported by the system calls raise *note OSError: 413. * Menu: * Large File Support:: * Notable Module Contents::  File: python.info, Node: Large File Support, Next: Notable Module Contents, Up: posix — The most common POSIX system calls 5.35.1.1 Large File Support ........................... Several operating systems (including AIX and Solaris) provide support for files that are larger than 2 GiB from a C programming model where int and long are 32-bit values. This is typically accomplished by defining the relevant size and offset types as 64-bit values. Such files are sometimes referred to as 'large files'. Large file support is enabled in Python when the size of an ‘off_t’ is larger than a long and the long long is at least as large as an ‘off_t’. It may be necessary to configure and compile Python with certain compiler flags to enable this mode. For example, with Solaris 2.6 and 2.7 you need to do something like: CFLAGS="`getconf LFS_CFLAGS`" OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \ ./configure On large-file-capable Linux systems, this might work: CFLAGS='-D_LARGEFILE64_SOURCE -D_FILE_OFFSET_BITS=64' OPT="-g -O2 $CFLAGS" \ ./configure  File: python.info, Node: Notable Module Contents, Prev: Large File Support, Up: posix — The most common POSIX system calls 5.35.1.2 Notable Module Contents ................................ In addition to many functions described in the *note os: a1. module documentation, *note posix: ad. defines the following data item: -- Data: posix.environ A dictionary representing the string environment at the time the interpreter was started. Keys and values are bytes on Unix and str on Windows. For example, ‘environ[b'HOME']’ (‘environ['HOME']’ on Windows) is the pathname of your home directory, equivalent to ‘getenv("HOME")’ in C. Modifying this dictionary does not affect the string environment passed on by *note execv(): 2b24, *note popen(): a87. or *note system(): 1426.; if you need to change the environment, pass ‘environ’ to *note execve(): 10ed. or add variable assignments and export statements to the command string for *note system(): 1426. or *note popen(): a87. Changed in version 3.2: On Unix, keys and values are bytes. Note: The *note os: a1. module provides an alternate implementation of ‘environ’ which updates the environment on modification. Note also that updating *note os.environ: 11ac. will render this dictionary obsolete. Use of the *note os: a1. module version of this is recommended over direct access to the *note posix: ad. module.  File: python.info, Node: pwd — The password database, Next: grp — The group database, Prev: posix — The most common POSIX system calls, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.2 ‘pwd’ — The password database ------------------------------------ __________________________________________________________________ This module provides access to the Unix user account and password database. It is available on all Unix versions. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS. Password database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes correspond to the members of the ‘passwd’ structure (Attribute field below, see ‘<pwd.h>’): Index Attribute Meaning ------------------------------------------------------------------ 0 ‘pw_name’ Login name 1 ‘pw_passwd’ Optional encrypted password 2 ‘pw_uid’ Numerical user ID 3 ‘pw_gid’ Numerical group ID 4 ‘pw_gecos’ User name or comment field 5 ‘pw_dir’ User home directory 6 ‘pw_shell’ User command interpreter The uid and gid items are integers, all others are strings. *note KeyError: 33f. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found. Note: In traditional Unix the field ‘pw_passwd’ usually contains a password encrypted with a DES derived algorithm. However most modern unices use a so-called 'shadow password' system. On those unices the 'pw_passwd' field only contains an asterisk (‘'*'’) or the letter ‘'x'’ where the encrypted password is stored in a file ‘/etc/shadow’ which is not world readable. Whether the 'pw_passwd' field contains anything useful is system-dependent. It defines the following items: -- Function: pwd.getpwuid (uid) Return the password database entry for the given numeric user ID. -- Function: pwd.getpwnam (name) Return the password database entry for the given user name. -- Function: pwd.getpwall () Return a list of all available password database entries, in arbitrary order. See also ........ Module *note grp: 66. An interface to the group database, similar to this.  File: python.info, Node: grp — The group database, Next: termios — POSIX style tty control, Prev: pwd — The password database, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.3 ‘grp’ — The group database --------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ This module provides access to the Unix group database. It is available on all Unix versions. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix, not WASI, not Android, not iOS. Group database entries are reported as a tuple-like object, whose attributes correspond to the members of the ‘group’ structure (Attribute field below, see ‘<grp.h>’): Index Attribute Meaning ------------------------------------------------------------------ 0 gr_name the name of the group 1 gr_passwd the (encrypted) group password; often empty 2 gr_gid the numerical group ID 3 gr_mem all the group member’s user names The gid is an integer, name and password are strings, and the member list is a list of strings. (Note that most users are not explicitly listed as members of the group they are in according to the password database. Check both databases to get complete membership information. Also note that a ‘gr_name’ that starts with a ‘+’ or ‘-’ is likely to be a YP/NIS reference and may not be accessible via *note getgrnam(): 3206. or *note getgrgid(): d26.) It defines the following items: -- Function: grp.getgrgid (id) Return the group database entry for the given numeric group ID. *note KeyError: 33f. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found. Changed in version 3.10: *note TypeError: 534. is raised for non-integer arguments like floats or strings. -- Function: grp.getgrnam (name) Return the group database entry for the given group name. *note KeyError: 33f. is raised if the entry asked for cannot be found. -- Function: grp.getgrall () Return a list of all available group entries, in arbitrary order. See also ........ Module *note pwd: b2. An interface to the user database, similar to this.  File: python.info, Node: termios — POSIX style tty control, Next: tty — Terminal control functions, Prev: grp — The group database, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.4 ‘termios’ — POSIX style tty control ------------------------------------------ __________________________________________________________________ This module provides an interface to the POSIX calls for tty I/O control. For a complete description of these calls, see ‘termios(3)(1)’ Unix manual page. It is only available for those Unix versions that support POSIX 'termios' style tty I/O control configured during installation. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first argument. This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by ‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or a *note file object: 11b5, such as ‘sys.stdin’ itself. This module also defines all the constants needed to work with the functions provided here; these have the same name as their counterparts in C. Please refer to your system documentation for more information on using these terminal control interfaces. The module defines the following functions: -- Function: termios.tcgetattr (fd) Return a list containing the tty attributes for file descriptor 'fd', as follows: ‘[iflag, oflag, cflag, lflag, ispeed, ospeed, cc]’ where 'cc' is a list of the tty special characters (each a string of length 1, except the items with indices ‘VMIN’ and ‘VTIME’, which are integers when these fields are defined). The interpretation of the flags and the speeds as well as the indexing in the 'cc' array must be done using the symbolic constants defined in the *note termios: e1. module. -- Function: termios.tcsetattr (fd, when, attributes) Set the tty attributes for file descriptor 'fd' from the 'attributes', which is a list like the one returned by *note tcgetattr(): 1676. The 'when' argument determines when the attributes are changed: -- Data: termios.TCSANOW Change attributes immediately. -- Data: termios.TCSADRAIN Change attributes after transmitting all queued output. -- Data: termios.TCSAFLUSH Change attributes after transmitting all queued output and discarding all queued input. -- Function: termios.tcsendbreak (fd, duration) Send a break on file descriptor 'fd'. A zero 'duration' sends a break for 0.25–0.5 seconds; a nonzero 'duration' has a system dependent meaning. -- Function: termios.tcdrain (fd) Wait until all output written to file descriptor 'fd' has been transmitted. -- Function: termios.tcflush (fd, queue) Discard queued data on file descriptor 'fd'. The 'queue' selector specifies which queue: ‘TCIFLUSH’ for the input queue, ‘TCOFLUSH’ for the output queue, or ‘TCIOFLUSH’ for both queues. -- Function: termios.tcflow (fd, action) Suspend or resume input or output on file descriptor 'fd'. The 'action' argument can be ‘TCOOFF’ to suspend output, ‘TCOON’ to restart output, ‘TCIOFF’ to suspend input, or ‘TCION’ to restart input. -- Function: termios.tcgetwinsize (fd) Return a tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ containing the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd'. Requires ‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’ or ‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’. Added in version 3.11. -- Function: termios.tcsetwinsize (fd, winsize) Set the tty window size for file descriptor 'fd' from 'winsize', which is a two-item tuple ‘(ws_row, ws_col)’ like the one returned by *note tcgetwinsize(): 4817. Requires at least one of the pairs (‘termios.TIOCGWINSZ’, ‘termios.TIOCSWINSZ’); (‘termios.TIOCGSIZE’, ‘termios.TIOCSSIZE’) to be defined. Added in version 3.11. See also ........ Module *note tty: 100. Convenience functions for common terminal control operations. * Menu: * Example: Example<15>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/termios(3)  File: python.info, Node: Example<15>, Up: termios — POSIX style tty control 5.35.4.1 Example ................ Here’s a function that prompts for a password with echoing turned off. Note the technique using a separate *note tcgetattr(): 1676. call and a *note try: 6e4. … *note finally: 9ca. statement to ensure that the old tty attributes are restored exactly no matter what happens: def getpass(prompt="Password: "): import termios, sys fd = sys.stdin.fileno() old = termios.tcgetattr(fd) new = termios.tcgetattr(fd) new[3] = new[3] & ~termios.ECHO # lflags try: termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, new) passwd = input(prompt) finally: termios.tcsetattr(fd, termios.TCSADRAIN, old) return passwd  File: python.info, Node: tty — Terminal control functions, Next: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities, Prev: termios — POSIX style tty control, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.5 ‘tty’ — Terminal control functions ----------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/tty.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note tty: 100. module defines functions for putting the tty into cbreak and raw modes. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. Because it requires the *note termios: e1. module, it will work only on Unix. The *note tty: 100. module defines the following functions: -- Function: tty.cfmakeraw (mode) Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1676, to that of a tty in raw mode. Added in version 3.12. -- Function: tty.cfmakecbreak (mode) Convert the tty attribute list 'mode', which is a list like the one returned by *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1676, to that of a tty in cbreak mode. This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags in 'mode' as well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay. Added in version 3.12. Changed in version 3.12.2: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared. This matches Linux and macOS ‘stty cbreak’ behavior and what *note setcbreak(): 1678. historically did. -- Function: tty.setraw (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH) Change the mode of the file descriptor 'fd' to raw. If 'when' is omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 4812, and is passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 16f8. The return value of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1676. is saved before setting 'fd' to raw mode; this value is returned. Changed in version 3.12: The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of ‘None’. -- Function: tty.setcbreak (fd, when=termios.TCSAFLUSH) Change the mode of file descriptor 'fd' to cbreak. If 'when' is omitted, it defaults to *note termios.TCSAFLUSH: 4812, and is passed to *note termios.tcsetattr(): 16f8. The return value of *note termios.tcgetattr(): 1676. is saved before setting 'fd' to cbreak mode; this value is returned. This clears the ‘ECHO’ and ‘ICANON’ local mode flags as well as setting the minimum input to 1 byte with no delay. Changed in version 3.12: The return value is now the original tty attributes, instead of ‘None’. Changed in version 3.12.2: The ‘ICRNL’ flag is no longer cleared. This restores the behavior of Python 3.11 and earlier as well as matching what Linux, macOS, & BSDs describe in their ‘stty(1)’ man pages regarding cbreak mode. See also ........ Module *note termios: e1. Low-level terminal control interface. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/tty.py  File: python.info, Node: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities, Next: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls, Prev: tty — Terminal control functions, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.6 ‘pty’ — Pseudo-terminal utilities ---------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/pty.py(1) __________________________________________________________________ The *note pty: b1. module defines operations for handling the pseudo-terminal concept: starting another process and being able to write to and read from its controlling terminal programmatically. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix. Pseudo-terminal handling is highly platform dependent. This code is mainly tested on Linux, FreeBSD, and macOS (it is supposed to work on other POSIX platforms but it’s not been thoroughly tested). The *note pty: b1. module defines the following functions: -- Function: pty.fork () Fork. Connect the child’s controlling terminal to a pseudo-terminal. Return value is ‘(pid, fd)’. Note that the child gets 'pid' 0, and the 'fd' is 'invalid'. The parent’s return value is the 'pid' of the child, and 'fd' is a file descriptor connected to the child’s controlling terminal (and also to the child’s standard input and output). Warning: On macOS the use of this function is unsafe when mixed with using higher-level system APIs, and that includes using *note urllib.request: 10b. -- Function: pty.openpty () Open a new pseudo-terminal pair, using *note os.openpty(): 2b66. if possible, or emulation code for generic Unix systems. Return a pair of file descriptors ‘(master, slave)’, for the master and the slave end, respectively. -- Function: pty.spawn (argv[, master_read[, stdin_read]]) Spawn a process, and connect its controlling terminal with the current process’s standard io. This is often used to baffle programs which insist on reading from the controlling terminal. It is expected that the process spawned behind the pty will eventually terminate, and when it does 'spawn' will return. A loop copies STDIN of the current process to the child and data received from the child to STDOUT of the current process. It is not signaled to the child if STDIN of the current process closes down. The functions 'master_read' and 'stdin_read' are passed a file descriptor which they should read from, and they should always return a byte string. In order to force spawn to return before the child process exits an empty byte array should be returned to signal end of file. The default implementation for both functions will read and return up to 1024 bytes each time the function is called. The 'master_read' callback is passed the pseudoterminal’s master file descriptor to read output from the child process, and 'stdin_read' is passed file descriptor 0, to read from the parent process’s standard input. Returning an empty byte string from either callback is interpreted as an end-of-file (EOF) condition, and that callback will not be called after that. If 'stdin_read' signals EOF the controlling terminal can no longer communicate with the parent process OR the child process. Unless the child process will quit without any input, 'spawn' will then loop forever. If 'master_read' signals EOF the same behavior results (on linux at least). Return the exit status value from *note os.waitpid(): d99. on the child process. *note os.waitstatus_to_exitcode(): 91c. can be used to convert the exit status into an exit code. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘pty.spawn’ with argument ‘argv’. Changed in version 3.4: *note spawn(): f7d. now returns the status value from *note os.waitpid(): d99. on the child process. * Menu: * Example: Example<16>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/pty.py  File: python.info, Node: Example<16>, Up: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities 5.35.6.1 Example ................ The following program acts like the Unix command ‘script(1)(1)’, using a pseudo-terminal to record all input and output of a terminal session in a “typescript”. import argparse import os import pty import sys import time parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() parser.add_argument('-a', dest='append', action='store_true') parser.add_argument('-p', dest='use_python', action='store_true') parser.add_argument('filename', nargs='?', default='typescript') options = parser.parse_args() shell = sys.executable if options.use_python else os.environ.get('SHELL', 'sh') filename = options.filename mode = 'ab' if options.append else 'wb' with open(filename, mode) as script: def read(fd): data = os.read(fd, 1024) script.write(data) return data print('Script started, file is', filename) script.write(('Script started on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode()) pty.spawn(shell, read) script.write(('Script done on %s\n' % time.asctime()).encode()) print('Script done, file is', filename) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/script(1)  File: python.info, Node: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls, Next: resource — Resource usage information, Prev: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.7 ‘fcntl’ — The ‘fcntl’ and ‘ioctl’ system calls ----------------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ This module performs file and I/O control on file descriptors. It is an interface to the ‘fcntl()’ and ‘ioctl()’ Unix routines. See the ‘fcntl(2)(1)’ and ‘ioctl(2)(2)’ Unix manual pages for full details. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix, not WASI. All functions in this module take a file descriptor 'fd' as their first argument. This can be an integer file descriptor, such as returned by ‘sys.stdin.fileno()’, or an *note io.IOBase: 1f7. object, such as ‘sys.stdin’ itself, which provides a *note fileno(): 2856. that returns a genuine file descriptor. Changed in version 3.3: Operations in this module used to raise an *note IOError: 104b. where they now raise an *note OSError: 413. Changed in version 3.8: The ‘fcntl’ module now contains ‘F_ADD_SEALS’, ‘F_GET_SEALS’, and ‘F_SEAL_*’ constants for sealing of *note os.memfd_create(): a0a. file descriptors. Changed in version 3.9: On macOS, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETPATH’ constant, which obtains the path of a file from a file descriptor. On Linux(>=3.15), the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_OFD_GETLK’, ‘F_OFD_SETLK’ and ‘F_OFD_SETLKW’ constants, which are used when working with open file description locks. Changed in version 3.10: On Linux >= 2.6.11, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETPIPE_SZ’ and ‘F_SETPIPE_SZ’ constants, which allow to check and modify a pipe’s size respectively. Changed in version 3.11: On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_DUP2FD’ and ‘F_DUP2FD_CLOEXEC’ constants, which allow to duplicate a file descriptor, the latter setting ‘FD_CLOEXEC’ flag in addition. Changed in version 3.12: On Linux >= 4.5, the *note fcntl: 59. module exposes the ‘FICLONE’ and ‘FICLONERANGE’ constants, which allow to share some data of one file with another file by reflinking on some filesystems (e.g., btrfs, OCFS2, and XFS). This behavior is commonly referred to as “copy-on-write”. Changed in version 3.13: On Linux >= 2.6.32, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETOWN_EX’, ‘F_SETOWN_EX’, ‘F_OWNER_TID’, ‘F_OWNER_PID’, ‘F_OWNER_PGRP’ constants, which allow to direct I/O availability signals to a specific thread, process, or process group. On Linux >= 4.13, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GET_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_RW_HINT’, ‘F_GET_FILE_RW_HINT’, ‘F_SET_FILE_RW_HINT’, and ‘RWH_WRITE_LIFE_*’ constants, which allow to inform the kernel about the relative expected lifetime of writes on a given inode or via a particular open file description. On Linux >= 5.1 and NetBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_SEAL_FUTURE_WRITE’ constant for use with ‘F_ADD_SEALS’ and ‘F_GET_SEALS’ operations. On FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_READAHEAD’, ‘F_ISUNIONSTACK’, and ‘F_KINFO’ constants. On macOS and FreeBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_RDAHEAD’ constant. On NetBSD and AIX, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_CLOSEM’ constant. On NetBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_MAXFD’ constant. On macOS and NetBSD, the ‘fcntl’ module exposes the ‘F_GETNOSIGPIPE’ and ‘F_SETNOSIGPIPE’ constant. The module defines the following functions: -- Function: fcntl.fcntl (fd, cmd, arg=0, /) Perform the operation 'cmd' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 2856. method are accepted as well). The values used for 'cmd' are operating system dependent, and are available as constants in the *note fcntl: 59. module, using the same names as used in the relevant C header files. The argument 'arg' can either be an integer value, a *note bytes: 1c2. object, or a string. The type and size of 'arg' must match the type and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C documentation. When 'arg' is an integer, the function returns the integer return value of the C ‘fcntl()’ call. When the argument is bytes, it represents a binary structure, for example, created by *note struct.pack(): 126a. A string value is encoded to binary using the UTF-8 encoding. The binary data is copied to a buffer whose address is passed to the C ‘fcntl()’ call. The return value after a successful call is the contents of the buffer, converted to a *note bytes: 1c2. object. The length of the returned object will be the same as the length of the 'arg' argument. This is limited to 1024 bytes. If the ‘fcntl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 413. is raised. Note: If the type or the size of 'arg' does not match the type or size of the argument of the operation (for example, if an integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the information returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes), this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘fcntl.fcntl’ with arguments ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘arg’. -- Function: fcntl.ioctl (fd, request, arg=0, mutate_flag=True, /) This function is identical to the *note fcntl(): 344b. function, except that the argument handling is even more complicated. The 'request' parameter is limited to values that can fit in 32-bits or 64-bits, depending on the platform. Additional constants of interest for use as the 'request' argument can be found in the *note termios: e1. module, under the same names as used in the relevant C header files. The parameter 'arg' can be an integer, a *note bytes-like object: d2d, or a string. The type and size of 'arg' must match the type and size of the argument of the operation as specified in the relevant C documentation. If 'arg' does not support the read-write buffer interface or the 'mutate_flag' is false, behavior is as for the *note fcntl(): 344b. function. If 'arg' supports the read-write buffer interface (like *note bytearray: 53a.) and 'mutate_flag' is true (the default), then the buffer is (in effect) passed to the underlying ‘ioctl()’ system call, the latter’s return code is passed back to the calling Python, and the buffer’s new contents reflect the action of the ‘ioctl()’. This is a slight simplification, because if the supplied buffer is less than 1024 bytes long it is first copied into a static buffer 1024 bytes long which is then passed to *note ioctl(): 1443. and copied back into the supplied buffer. If the ‘ioctl()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. Note: If the type or size of 'arg' does not match the type or size of the operation’s argument (for example, if an integer is passed when a pointer is expected, or the information returned in the buffer by the operating system is larger than 1024 bytes, or the size of the mutable bytes-like object is too small), this is most likely to result in a segmentation violation or a more subtle data corruption. An example: >>> import array, fcntl, struct, termios, os >>> os.getpgrp() 13341 >>> struct.unpack('h', fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, " "))[0] 13341 >>> buf = array.array('h', [0]) >>> fcntl.ioctl(0, termios.TIOCGPGRP, buf, 1) 0 >>> buf array('h', [13341]) Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘fcntl.ioctl’ with arguments ‘fd’, ‘request’, ‘arg’. -- Function: fcntl.flock (fd, operation, /) Perform the lock operation 'operation' on file descriptor 'fd' (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 2856. method are accepted as well). See the Unix manual ‘flock(2)(3)’ for details. (On some systems, this function is emulated using ‘fcntl()’.) If the ‘flock()’ call fails, an *note OSError: 413. exception is raised. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘fcntl.flock’ with arguments ‘fd’, ‘operation’. -- Function: fcntl.lockf (fd, cmd, len=0, start=0, whence=0, /) This is essentially a wrapper around the *note fcntl(): 344b. locking calls. 'fd' is the file descriptor (file objects providing a *note fileno(): 2856. method are accepted as well) of the file to lock or unlock, and 'cmd' is one of the following values: -- Data: fcntl.LOCK_UN Release an existing lock. -- Data: fcntl.LOCK_SH Acquire a shared lock. -- Data: fcntl.LOCK_EX Acquire an exclusive lock. -- Data: fcntl.LOCK_NB Bitwise OR with any of the other three ‘LOCK_*’ constants to make the request non-blocking. If ‘LOCK_NB’ is used and the lock cannot be acquired, an *note OSError: 413. will be raised and the exception will have an 'errno' attribute set to *note EACCES: 22ad. or *note EAGAIN: 229e. (depending on the operating system; for portability, check for both values). On at least some systems, ‘LOCK_EX’ can only be used if the file descriptor refers to a file opened for writing. 'len' is the number of bytes to lock, 'start' is the byte offset at which the lock starts, relative to 'whence', and 'whence' is as with *note io.IOBase.seek(): 127f, specifically: * ‘0’ – relative to the start of the file (*note os.SEEK_SET: 1280.) * ‘1’ – relative to the current buffer position (*note os.SEEK_CUR: 1281.) * ‘2’ – relative to the end of the file (*note os.SEEK_END: 1282.) The default for 'start' is 0, which means to start at the beginning of the file. The default for 'len' is 0 which means to lock to the end of the file. The default for 'whence' is also 0. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘fcntl.lockf’ with arguments ‘fd’, ‘cmd’, ‘len’, ‘start’, ‘whence’. Examples (all on a SVR4 compliant system): import struct, fcntl, os f = open(...) rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETFL, os.O_NDELAY) lockdata = struct.pack('hhllhh', fcntl.F_WRLCK, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0) rv = fcntl.fcntl(f, fcntl.F_SETLKW, lockdata) Note that in the first example the return value variable 'rv' will hold an integer value; in the second example it will hold a *note bytes: 1c2. object. The structure lay-out for the 'lockdata' variable is system dependent — therefore using the *note flock(): 41eb. call may be better. See also ........ Module *note os: a1. If the locking flags *note O_SHLOCK: 13fa. and *note O_EXLOCK: 13fb. are present in the *note os: a1. module (on BSD only), the *note os.open(): d91. function provides an alternative to the *note lockf(): 13b8. and *note flock(): 41eb. functions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/fcntl(2) (2) https://manpages.debian.org/ioctl(2) (3) https://manpages.debian.org/flock(2)  File: python.info, Node: resource — Resource usage information, Next: syslog — Unix syslog library routines, Prev: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.8 ‘resource’ — Resource usage information ---------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ This module provides basic mechanisms for measuring and controlling system resources utilized by a program. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix, not WASI. Symbolic constants are used to specify particular system resources and to request usage information about either the current process or its children. An *note OSError: 413. is raised on syscall failure. -- Exception: resource.error A deprecated alias of *note OSError: 413. Changed in version 3.3: Following PEP 3151(1), this class was made an alias of *note OSError: 413. * Menu: * Resource Limits:: * Resource Usage:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/  File: python.info, Node: Resource Limits, Next: Resource Usage, Up: resource — Resource usage information 5.35.8.1 Resource Limits ........................ Resources usage can be limited using the *note setrlimit(): 151d. function described below. Each resource is controlled by a pair of limits: a soft limit and a hard limit. The soft limit is the current limit, and may be lowered or raised by a process over time. The soft limit can never exceed the hard limit. The hard limit can be lowered to any value greater than the soft limit, but not raised. (Only processes with the effective UID of the super-user can raise a hard limit.) The specific resources that can be limited are system dependent. They are described in the ‘getrlimit(2)(1)’ man page. The resources listed below are supported when the underlying operating system supports them; resources which cannot be checked or controlled by the operating system are not defined in this module for those platforms. -- Data: resource.RLIM_INFINITY Constant used to represent the limit for an unlimited resource. -- Function: resource.getrlimit (resource) Returns a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ with the current soft and hard limits of 'resource'. Raises *note ValueError: 204. if an invalid resource is specified, or *note error: 4828. if the underlying system call fails unexpectedly. -- Function: resource.setrlimit (resource, limits) Sets new limits of consumption of 'resource'. The 'limits' argument must be a tuple ‘(soft, hard)’ of two integers describing the new limits. A value of *note RLIM_INFINITY: 151c. can be used to request a limit that is unlimited. Raises *note ValueError: 204. if an invalid resource is specified, if the new soft limit exceeds the hard limit, or if a process tries to raise its hard limit. Specifying a limit of *note RLIM_INFINITY: 151c. when the hard or system limit for that resource is not unlimited will result in a *note ValueError: 204. A process with the effective UID of super-user can request any valid limit value, including unlimited, but *note ValueError: 204. will still be raised if the requested limit exceeds the system imposed limit. ‘setrlimit’ may also raise *note error: 4828. if the underlying system call fails. VxWorks only supports setting *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 482a. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘resource.setrlimit’ with arguments ‘resource’, ‘limits’. -- Function: resource.prlimit (pid, resource[, limits]) Combines *note setrlimit(): 151d. and *note getrlimit(): 151b. in one function and supports to get and set the resources limits of an arbitrary process. If 'pid' is 0, then the call applies to the current process. 'resource' and 'limits' have the same meaning as in *note setrlimit(): 151d, except that 'limits' is optional. When 'limits' is not given the function returns the 'resource' limit of the process 'pid'. When 'limits' is given the 'resource' limit of the process is set and the former resource limit is returned. Raises *note ProcessLookupError: 1054. when 'pid' can’t be found and *note PermissionError: d42. when the user doesn’t have ‘CAP_SYS_RESOURCE’ for the process. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘resource.prlimit’ with arguments ‘pid’, ‘resource’, ‘limits’. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux >= 2.6.36 with glibc >= 2.13. Added in version 3.4. These symbols define resources whose consumption can be controlled using the *note setrlimit(): 151d. and *note getrlimit(): 151b. functions described below. The values of these symbols are exactly the constants used by C programs. The Unix man page for ‘getrlimit(2)(2)’ lists the available resources. Note that not all systems use the same symbol or same value to denote the same resource. This module does not attempt to mask platform differences — symbols not defined for a platform will not be available from this module on that platform. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_CORE The maximum size (in bytes) of a core file that the current process can create. This may result in the creation of a partial core file if a larger core would be required to contain the entire process image. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_CPU The maximum amount of processor time (in seconds) that a process can use. If this limit is exceeded, a ‘SIGXCPU’ signal is sent to the process. (See the *note signal: c6. module documentation for information about how to catch this signal and do something useful, e.g. flush open files to disk.) -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_FSIZE The maximum size of a file which the process may create. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_DATA The maximum size (in bytes) of the process’s heap. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_STACK The maximum size (in bytes) of the call stack for the current process. This only affects the stack of the main thread in a multi-threaded process. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_RSS The maximum resident set size that should be made available to the process. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_NPROC The maximum number of processes the current process may create. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_NOFILE The maximum number of open file descriptors for the current process. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_OFILE The BSD name for *note RLIMIT_NOFILE: 482a. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_MEMLOCK The maximum address space which may be locked in memory. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_VMEM The largest area of mapped memory which the process may occupy. *note Availability: 1d54.: FreeBSD >= 11. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_AS The maximum area (in bytes) of address space which may be taken by the process. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE The number of bytes that can be allocated for POSIX message queues. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux >= 2.6.8. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_NICE The ceiling for the process’s nice level (calculated as 20 - rlim_cur). *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux >= 2.6.12. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_RTPRIO The ceiling of the real-time priority. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux >= 2.6.12. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_RTTIME The time limit (in microseconds) on CPU time that a process can spend under real-time scheduling without making a blocking syscall. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux >= 2.6.25. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_SIGPENDING The number of signals which the process may queue. *note Availability: 1d54.: Linux >= 2.6.8. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_SBSIZE The maximum size (in bytes) of socket buffer usage for this user. This limits the amount of network memory, and hence the amount of mbufs, that this user may hold at any time. *note Availability: 1d54.: FreeBSD. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_SWAP The maximum size (in bytes) of the swap space that may be reserved or used by all of this user id’s processes. This limit is enforced only if bit 1 of the vm.overcommit sysctl is set. Please see tuning(7)(3) for a complete description of this sysctl. *note Availability: 1d54.: FreeBSD. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_NPTS The maximum number of pseudo-terminals created by this user id. *note Availability: 1d54.: FreeBSD. Added in version 3.4. -- Data: resource.RLIMIT_KQUEUES The maximum number of kqueues this user id is allowed to create. *note Availability: 1d54.: FreeBSD >= 11. Added in version 3.10. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2) (2) https://manpages.debian.org/getrlimit(2) (3) https://man.freebsd.org/cgi/man.cgi?query=tuning&sektion=7  File: python.info, Node: Resource Usage, Prev: Resource Limits, Up: resource — Resource usage information 5.35.8.2 Resource Usage ....................... These functions are used to retrieve resource usage information: -- Function: resource.getrusage (who) This function returns an object that describes the resources consumed by either the current process or its children, as specified by the 'who' parameter. The 'who' parameter should be specified using one of the ‘RUSAGE_*’ constants described below. A simple example: from resource import * import time # a non CPU-bound task time.sleep(3) print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF)) # a CPU-bound task for i in range(10 ** 8): _ = 1 + 1 print(getrusage(RUSAGE_SELF)) The fields of the return value each describe how a particular system resource has been used, e.g. amount of time spent running is user mode or number of times the process was swapped out of main memory. Some values are dependent on the clock tick internal, e.g. the amount of memory the process is using. For backward compatibility, the return value is also accessible as a tuple of 16 elements. The fields ‘ru_utime’ and ‘ru_stime’ of the return value are floating-point values representing the amount of time spent executing in user mode and the amount of time spent executing in system mode, respectively. The remaining values are integers. Consult the ‘getrusage(2)(1)’ man page for detailed information about these values. A brief summary is presented here: Index Field Resource ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘0’ ‘ru_utime’ time in user mode (float seconds) ‘1’ ‘ru_stime’ time in system mode (float seconds) ‘2’ ‘ru_maxrss’ maximum resident set size ‘3’ ‘ru_ixrss’ shared memory size ‘4’ ‘ru_idrss’ unshared memory size ‘5’ ‘ru_isrss’ unshared stack size ‘6’ ‘ru_minflt’ page faults not requiring I/O ‘7’ ‘ru_majflt’ page faults requiring I/O ‘8’ ‘ru_nswap’ number of swap outs ‘9’ ‘ru_inblock’ block input operations ‘10’ ‘ru_oublock’ block output operations ‘11’ ‘ru_msgsnd’ messages sent ‘12’ ‘ru_msgrcv’ messages received ‘13’ ‘ru_nsignals’ signals received ‘14’ ‘ru_nvcsw’ voluntary context switches ‘15’ ‘ru_nivcsw’ involuntary context switches This function will raise a *note ValueError: 204. if an invalid 'who' parameter is specified. It may also raise *note error: 4828. exception in unusual circumstances. -- Function: resource.getpagesize () Returns the number of bytes in a system page. (This need not be the same as the hardware page size.) The following ‘RUSAGE_*’ symbols are passed to the *note getrusage(): 13fc. function to specify which processes information should be provided for. -- Data: resource.RUSAGE_SELF Pass to *note getrusage(): 13fc. to request resources consumed by the calling process, which is the sum of resources used by all threads in the process. -- Data: resource.RUSAGE_CHILDREN Pass to *note getrusage(): 13fc. to request resources consumed by child processes of the calling process which have been terminated and waited for. -- Data: resource.RUSAGE_BOTH Pass to *note getrusage(): 13fc. to request resources consumed by both the current process and child processes. May not be available on all systems. -- Data: resource.RUSAGE_THREAD Pass to *note getrusage(): 13fc. to request resources consumed by the current thread. May not be available on all systems. Added in version 3.2. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/getrusage(2)  File: python.info, Node: syslog — Unix syslog library routines, Prev: resource — Resource usage information, Up: Unix Specific Services 5.35.9 ‘syslog’ — Unix syslog library routines ---------------------------------------------- __________________________________________________________________ This module provides an interface to the Unix ‘syslog’ library routines. Refer to the Unix manual pages for a detailed description of the ‘syslog’ facility. *note Availability: 1d54.: Unix, not WASI, not iOS. This module wraps the system ‘syslog’ family of routines. A pure Python library that can speak to a syslog server is available in the *note logging.handlers: 89. module as *note SysLogHandler: 658. The module defines the following functions: -- Function: syslog.syslog (message) -- Function: syslog.syslog (priority, message) Send the string 'message' to the system logger. A trailing newline is added if necessary. Each message is tagged with a priority composed of a 'facility' and a 'level'. The optional 'priority' argument, which defaults to *note LOG_INFO: 483d, determines the message priority. If the facility is not encoded in 'priority' using logical-or (‘LOG_INFO | LOG_USER’), the value given in the *note openlog(): 53b. call is used. If *note openlog(): 53b. has not been called prior to the call to *note syslog(): dc, *note openlog(): 53b. will be called with no arguments. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘syslog.syslog’ with arguments ‘priority’, ‘message’. Changed in version 3.2: In previous versions, *note openlog(): 53b. would not be called automatically if it wasn’t called prior to the call to *note syslog(): dc, deferring to the syslog implementation to call ‘openlog()’. Changed in version 3.12: This function is restricted in subinterpreters. (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.) *note openlog(): 53b. must be called in the main interpreter before *note syslog(): dc. may be used in a subinterpreter. Otherwise it will raise *note RuntimeError: 195. -- Function: syslog.openlog ([ident[, logoption[, facility]]]) Logging options of subsequent *note syslog(): dc. calls can be set by calling *note openlog(): 53b. *note syslog(): dc. will call *note openlog(): 53b. with no arguments if the log is not currently open. The optional 'ident' keyword argument is a string which is prepended to every message, and defaults to ‘sys.argv[0]’ with leading path components stripped. The optional 'logoption' keyword argument (default is 0) is a bit field – see below for possible values to combine. The optional 'facility' keyword argument (default is *note LOG_USER: 483e.) sets the default facility for messages which do not have a facility explicitly encoded. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘syslog.openlog’ with arguments ‘ident’, ‘logoption’, ‘facility’. Changed in version 3.2: In previous versions, keyword arguments were not allowed, and 'ident' was required. Changed in version 3.12: This function is restricted in subinterpreters. (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.) This may only be called in the main interpreter. It will raise *note RuntimeError: 195. if called in a subinterpreter. -- Function: syslog.closelog () Reset the syslog module values and call the system library ‘closelog()’. This causes the module to behave as it does when initially imported. For example, *note openlog(): 53b. will be called on the first *note syslog(): dc. call (if *note openlog(): 53b. hasn’t already been called), and 'ident' and other *note openlog(): 53b. parameters are reset to defaults. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘syslog.closelog’ with no arguments. Changed in version 3.12: This function is restricted in subinterpreters. (Only code that runs in multiple interpreters is affected and the restriction is not relevant for most users.) This may only be called in the main interpreter. It will raise *note RuntimeError: 195. if called in a subinterpreter. -- Function: syslog.setlogmask (maskpri) Set the priority mask to 'maskpri' and return the previous mask value. Calls to *note syslog(): dc. with a priority level not set in 'maskpri' are ignored. The default is to log all priorities. The function ‘LOG_MASK(pri)’ calculates the mask for the individual priority 'pri'. The function ‘LOG_UPTO(pri)’ calculates the mask for all priorities up to and including 'pri'. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘syslog.setlogmask’ with argument ‘maskpri’. The module defines the following constants: -- Data: syslog.LOG_EMERG -- Data: syslog.LOG_ALERT -- Data: syslog.LOG_CRIT -- Data: syslog.LOG_ERR -- Data: syslog.LOG_WARNING -- Data: syslog.LOG_NOTICE -- Data: syslog.LOG_INFO -- Data: syslog.LOG_DEBUG Priority levels (high to low). -- Data: syslog.LOG_AUTH -- Data: syslog.LOG_AUTHPRIV -- Data: syslog.LOG_CRON -- Data: syslog.LOG_DAEMON -- Data: syslog.LOG_FTP -- Data: syslog.LOG_INSTALL -- Data: syslog.LOG_KERN -- Data: syslog.LOG_LAUNCHD -- Data: syslog.LOG_LPR -- Data: syslog.LOG_MAIL -- Data: syslog.LOG_NETINFO -- Data: syslog.LOG_NEWS -- Data: syslog.LOG_RAS -- Data: syslog.LOG_REMOTEAUTH -- Data: syslog.LOG_SYSLOG -- Data: syslog.LOG_USER -- Data: syslog.LOG_UUCP -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL0 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL1 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL2 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL3 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL4 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL5 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL6 -- Data: syslog.LOG_LOCAL7 Facilities, depending on availability in ‘<syslog.h>’ for *note LOG_AUTHPRIV: 4847, *note LOG_FTP: 484a, *note LOG_NETINFO: 4850, *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 4853, *note LOG_INSTALL: 484b. and *note LOG_RAS: 4852. Changed in version 3.13: Added *note LOG_FTP: 484a, *note LOG_NETINFO: 4850, *note LOG_REMOTEAUTH: 4853, *note LOG_INSTALL: 484b, *note LOG_RAS: 4852, and *note LOG_LAUNCHD: 484d. -- Data: syslog.LOG_PID -- Data: syslog.LOG_CONS -- Data: syslog.LOG_NDELAY -- Data: syslog.LOG_ODELAY -- Data: syslog.LOG_NOWAIT -- Data: syslog.LOG_PERROR Log options, depending on availability in ‘<syslog.h>’ for *note LOG_ODELAY: 4861, *note LOG_NOWAIT: 4862. and *note LOG_PERROR: 4863. * Menu: * Examples: Examples<36>.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<36>, Up: syslog — Unix syslog library routines 5.35.9.1 Examples ................. * Menu: * Simple example::  File: python.info, Node: Simple example, Up: Examples<36> 5.35.9.2 Simple example ....................... A simple set of examples: import syslog syslog.syslog('Processing started') if error: syslog.syslog(syslog.LOG_ERR, 'Processing started') An example of setting some log options, these would include the process ID in logged messages, and write the messages to the destination facility used for mail logging: syslog.openlog(logoption=syslog.LOG_PID, facility=syslog.LOG_MAIL) syslog.syslog('E-mail processing initiated...')  File: python.info, Node: Modules command-line interface CLI, Next: Superseded Modules, Prev: Unix Specific Services, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.36 Modules command-line interface (CLI) ========================================= The following modules have a command-line interface. * *note ast: 4644. * *note asyncio: 3284. * *note base64: e. * *note calendar: 24f1. * *note code: 1a. * *note compileall: 4700. * *note cProfile: 27.: see *note profile: 4283. * *note difflib: 2335. * *note dis: 4716. * *note doctest: 3ff1. * ‘encodings.rot_13’ * *note ensurepip: 55. * *note filecmp: 5a. * *note fileinput: 5b. * *note ftplib: 5e. * *note gzip: 2971. * *note http.server: f4c. * ‘idlelib’ * *note inspect: f56. * *note json.tool: 366f. * *note mimetypes: 8f. * *note pdb: a5. * *note pickle: a6. * *note pickletools: 4785. * *note platform: 2d54. * *note poplib: ac. * *note profile: 4283. * *note pstats: b0. * *note py_compile: 46f8. * *note pyclbr: b4. * *note pydoc: b5. * *note quopri: b7. * *note random: 154. * *note runpy: be. * *note site: 44ee. * *note sqlite3: 43c. * *note symtable: 4679. * *note sysconfig: 43ed. * *note tabnanny: dd. * *note tarfile: fc6. * ‘this’ * *note timeit: 42a6. * *note tokenize: 46cc. * *note trace: 42c2. * *note turtledemo: 102. * *note unittest: 4069. * *note uuid: 43f. * *note venv: 111. * *note webbrowser: 115. * *note zipapp: 434d. * *note zipfile: 29df. See also the *note Python command-line interface: 19be.  File: python.info, Node: Superseded Modules, Next: Removed Modules, Prev: Modules command-line interface CLI, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.37 Superseded Modules ======================= The modules described in this chapter have been superseded by other modules for most use cases, and are retained primarily to preserve backwards compatibility. Modules may appear in this chapter because they only cover a limited subset of a problem space, and a more generally applicable solution is available elsewhere in the standard library (for example, *note getopt: 61. covers the very specific task of “mimic the C ‘getopt()’ API in Python”, rather than the broader command line option parsing and argument parsing capabilities offered by *note optparse: a0. and *note argparse: 6.). Alternatively, modules may appear in this chapter because they are deprecated outright, and awaiting removal in a future release, or they are *note soft deprecated: 20b. and their use is actively discouraged in new projects. With the removal of various obsolete modules through PEP 594(1), there are currently no modules in this latter category. * Menu: * getopt — C-style parser for command line options:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/  File: python.info, Node: getopt — C-style parser for command line options, Up: Superseded Modules 5.37.1 ‘getopt’ — C-style parser for command line options --------------------------------------------------------- 'Source code:' Lib/getopt.py(1) Note: This module is considered feature complete. A more declarative and extensible alternative to this API is provided in the *note optparse: a0. module. Further functional enhancements for command line parameter processing are provided either as third party modules on PyPI, or else as features in the *note argparse: 6. module. __________________________________________________________________ This module helps scripts to parse the command line arguments in ‘sys.argv’. It supports the same conventions as the Unix ‘getopt()’ function (including the special meanings of arguments of the form ‘‘-’’ and ‘‘--’‘). Long options similar to those supported by GNU software may be used as well via an optional third argument. Users who are unfamiliar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function should consider using the *note argparse: 6. module instead. Users who are familiar with the Unix ‘getopt()’ function, but would like to get equivalent behavior while writing less code and getting better help and error messages should consider using the *note optparse: a0. module. See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e6d. for additional details. This module provides two functions and an exception: -- Function: getopt.getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[]) Parses command line options and parameter list. 'args' is the argument list to be parsed, without the leading reference to the running program. Typically, this means ‘sys.argv[1:]’. 'shortopts' is the string of option letters that the script wants to recognize, with options that require an argument followed by a colon (‘':'’; i.e., the same format that Unix ‘getopt()’ uses). Note: Unlike GNU ‘getopt()’, after a non-option argument, all further arguments are considered also non-options. This is similar to the way non-GNU Unix systems work. 'longopts', if specified, must be a list of strings with the names of the long options which should be supported. The leading ‘'--'’ characters should not be included in the option name. Long options which require an argument should be followed by an equal sign (‘'='’). Optional arguments are not supported. To accept only long options, 'shortopts' should be an empty string. Long options on the command line can be recognized so long as they provide a prefix of the option name that matches exactly one of the accepted options. For example, if 'longopts' is ‘['foo', 'frob']’, the option ‘--fo’ will match as ‘--foo’, but ‘--f’ will not match uniquely, so *note GetoptError: 486d. will be raised. The return value consists of two elements: the first is a list of ‘(option, value)’ pairs; the second is the list of program arguments left after the option list was stripped (this is a trailing slice of 'args'). Each option-and-value pair returned has the option as its first element, prefixed with a hyphen for short options (e.g., ‘'-x'’) or two hyphens for long options (e.g., ‘'--long-option'’), and the option argument as its second element, or an empty string if the option has no argument. The options occur in the list in the same order in which they were found, thus allowing multiple occurrences. Long and short options may be mixed. -- Function: getopt.gnu_getopt (args, shortopts, longopts=[]) This function works like *note getopt(): 61, except that GNU style scanning mode is used by default. This means that option and non-option arguments may be intermixed. The *note getopt(): 61. function stops processing options as soon as a non-option argument is encountered. If the first character of the option string is ‘'+'’, or if the environment variable ‘POSIXLY_CORRECT’ is set, then option processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered. -- Exception: getopt.GetoptError This is raised when an unrecognized option is found in the argument list or when an option requiring an argument is given none. The argument to the exception is a string indicating the cause of the error. For long options, an argument given to an option which does not require one will also cause this exception to be raised. The attributes ‘msg’ and ‘opt’ give the error message and related option; if there is no specific option to which the exception relates, ‘opt’ is an empty string. -- Exception: getopt.error Alias for *note GetoptError: 486d.; for backward compatibility. An example using only Unix style options: >>> import getopt >>> args = '-a -b -cfoo -d bar a1 a2'.split() >>> args ['-a', '-b', '-cfoo', '-d', 'bar', 'a1', 'a2'] >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'abc:d:') >>> optlist [('-a', ''), ('-b', ''), ('-c', 'foo'), ('-d', 'bar')] >>> args ['a1', 'a2'] Using long option names is equally easy: >>> s = '--condition=foo --testing --output-file abc.def -x a1 a2' >>> args = s.split() >>> args ['--condition=foo', '--testing', '--output-file', 'abc.def', '-x', 'a1', 'a2'] >>> optlist, args = getopt.getopt(args, 'x', [ ... 'condition=', 'output-file=', 'testing']) >>> optlist [('--condition', 'foo'), ('--testing', ''), ('--output-file', 'abc.def'), ('-x', '')] >>> args ['a1', 'a2'] In a script, typical usage is something like this: import getopt, sys def main(): try: opts, args = getopt.getopt(sys.argv[1:], "ho:v", ["help", "output="]) except getopt.GetoptError as err: # print help information and exit: print(err) # will print something like "option -a not recognized" usage() sys.exit(2) output = None verbose = False for o, a in opts: if o == "-v": verbose = True elif o in ("-h", "--help"): usage() sys.exit() elif o in ("-o", "--output"): output = a else: assert False, "unhandled option" process(args, output=output, verbose=verbose) if __name__ == "__main__": main() Note that an equivalent command line interface could be produced with less code and more informative help and error messages by using the *note optparse: a0. module: import optparse if __name__ == '__main__': parser = optparse.OptionParser() parser.add_option('-o', '--output') parser.add_option('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true') opts, args = parser.parse_args() process(args, output=opts.output, verbose=opts.verbose) A roughly equivalent command line interface for this case can also be produced by using the *note argparse: 6. module: import argparse if __name__ == '__main__': parser = argparse.ArgumentParser() parser.add_argument('-o', '--output') parser.add_argument('-v', dest='verbose', action='store_true') parser.add_argument('rest', nargs='*') args = parser.parse_args() process(args.rest, output=args.output, verbose=args.verbose) See *note Choosing an argument parsing library: 2e6d. for details on how the ‘argparse’ version of this code differs in behaviour from the ‘optparse’ (and ‘getopt’) version. See also ........ Module *note optparse: a0. Declarative command line option parsing. Module *note argparse: 6. More opinionated command line option and argument parsing library. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/getopt.py  File: python.info, Node: Removed Modules, Next: Security Considerations<3>, Prev: Superseded Modules, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.38 Removed Modules ==================== The modules described in this chapter have been removed from the Python standard library. They are documented here to help people find replacements. * Menu: * aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files:: * asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler:: * asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler:: * audioop — Manipulate raw audio data:: * cgi — Common Gateway Interface support:: * cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts:: * chunk — Read IFF chunked data:: * crypt — Function to check Unix passwords:: * distutils — Building and installing Python modules:: * imghdr — Determine the type of an image:: * imp — Access the import internals:: * mailcap — Mailcap file handling:: * msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files:: * nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages): nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages. * nntplib — NNTP protocol client:: * ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices:: * pipes — Interface to shell pipelines:: * smtpd — SMTP Server:: * sndhdr — Determine type of sound file:: * spwd — The shadow password database:: * sunau — Read and write Sun AU files:: * telnetlib — Telnet client:: * uu — Encode and decode uuencode files:: * xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data::  File: python.info, Node: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files, Next: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.1 ‘aifc’ — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files -------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘aifc’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/aifc.html  File: python.info, Node: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler, Next: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler, Prev: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.2 ‘asynchat’ — Asynchronous socket command/response handler ---------------------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.12: 4fd. after being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Applications should use the *note asyncio: a. module instead. The last version of Python that provided the ‘asynchat’ module was Python 3.11(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asynchat.html  File: python.info, Node: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler, Next: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data, Prev: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.3 ‘asyncore’ — Asynchronous socket handler ----------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.12: 4fd. after being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Applications should use the *note asyncio: a. module instead. The last version of Python that provided the ‘asyncore’ module was Python 3.11(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/asyncore.html  File: python.info, Node: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data, Next: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support, Prev: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.4 ‘audioop’ — Manipulate raw audio data -------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘audioop’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/audioop.html  File: python.info, Node: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support, Next: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts, Prev: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.5 ‘cgi’ — Common Gateway Interface support ----------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). A fork of the module on PyPI can be used instead: legacy-cgi(2). This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the core Python team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘cgi’ module was Python 3.12(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/ (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgi.html  File: python.info, Node: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts, Next: chunk — Read IFF chunked data, Prev: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.6 ‘cgitb’ — Traceback manager for CGI scripts -------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). A fork of the module on PyPI can now be used instead: legacy-cgi(2). This is a copy of the cgi module, no longer maintained or supported by the core Python team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘cgitb’ module was Python 3.12(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacy-cgi/ (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/cgitb.html  File: python.info, Node: chunk — Read IFF chunked data, Next: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords, Prev: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.7 ‘chunk’ — Read IFF chunked data -------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘chunk’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/chunk.html  File: python.info, Node: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords, Next: distutils — Building and installing Python modules, Prev: chunk — Read IFF chunked data, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.8 ‘crypt’ — Function to check Unix passwords ------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Applications can use the *note hashlib: 68. module from the standard library. Other possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: legacycrypt(2), bcrypt(3), argon2-cffi(4), or passlib(5). These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘crypt’ module was Python 3.12(6). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/legacycrypt/ (3) https://pypi.org/project/bcrypt/ (4) https://pypi.org/project/argon2-cffi/ (5) https://pypi.org/project/passlib/ (6) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/crypt.html  File: python.info, Node: distutils — Building and installing Python modules, Next: imghdr — Determine the type of an image, Prev: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.9 ‘distutils’ — Building and installing Python modules ----------------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.10, removed in version 3.12. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.12: 503. after being deprecated in Python 3.10. The removal was decided in PEP 632(1), which has migration advice(2). The last version of Python that provided the ‘distutils’ module was Python 3.11(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0632/#migration-advice (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/distutils.html  File: python.info, Node: imghdr — Determine the type of an image, Next: imp — Access the import internals, Prev: distutils — Building and installing Python modules, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.10 ‘imghdr’ — Determine the type of an image ------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: filetype(2), puremagic(3), or python-magic(4). These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘imghdr’ module was Python 3.12(5). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/ (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/ (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/ (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/imghdr.html  File: python.info, Node: imp — Access the import internals, Next: mailcap — Mailcap file handling, Prev: imghdr — Determine the type of an image, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.11 ‘imp’ — Access the import internals ------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.4, removed in version 3.12. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.12: 50d. after being deprecated in Python 3.4. The *note removal notice: 50d. includes guidance for migrating code from ‘imp’ to *note importlib: 77. The last version of Python that provided the ‘imp’ module was Python 3.11(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/imp.html  File: python.info, Node: mailcap — Mailcap file handling, Next: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files, Prev: imp — Access the import internals, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.12 ‘mailcap’ — Mailcap file handling ----------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘mailcap’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/mailcap.html  File: python.info, Node: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files, Next: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages, Prev: mailcap — Mailcap file handling, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.13 ‘msilib’ — Read and write Microsoft Installer files ----------------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘msilib’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/msilib.html  File: python.info, Node: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages, Next: nntplib — NNTP protocol client, Prev: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.14 ‘nis’ — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages) ----------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘nis’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nis.html  File: python.info, Node: nntplib — NNTP protocol client, Next: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices, Prev: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.15 ‘nntplib’ — NNTP protocol client ---------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘nntplib’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/nntplib.html  File: python.info, Node: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices, Next: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines, Prev: nntplib — NNTP protocol client, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.16 ‘ossaudiodev’ — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices -------------------------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘ossaudiodev’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/ossaudiodev.html  File: python.info, Node: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines, Next: smtpd — SMTP Server, Prev: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.17 ‘pipes’ — Interface to shell pipelines ---------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Applications should use the *note subprocess: d6. module instead. The last version of Python that provided the ‘pipes’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/pipes.html  File: python.info, Node: smtpd — SMTP Server, Next: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file, Prev: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.18 ‘smtpd’ — SMTP Server ----------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.6, removed in version 3.12. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.12: 4fd. after being deprecated in Python 3.6. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). A possible replacement is the third-party aiosmtpd(2) library. This library is not maintained or supported by the Python core team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘smtpd’ module was Python 3.11(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/aiosmtpd/ (3) https://docs.python.org/3.11/library/smtpd.html  File: python.info, Node: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file, Next: spwd — The shadow password database, Prev: smtpd — SMTP Server, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.19 ‘sndhdr’ — Determine type of sound file ----------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Possible replacements are third-party modules from PyPI: filetype(2), puremagic(3), or python-magic(4). These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘sndhdr’ module was Python 3.12(5). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/filetype/ (3) https://pypi.org/project/puremagic/ (4) https://pypi.org/project/python-magic/ (5) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sndhdr.html  File: python.info, Node: spwd — The shadow password database, Next: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files, Prev: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.20 ‘spwd’ — The shadow password database --------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). A possible replacement is the third-party library python-pam(2). This library is not supported or maintained by the Python core team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘spwd’ module was Python 3.12(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/python-pam/ (3) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/spwd.html  File: python.info, Node: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files, Next: telnetlib — Telnet client, Prev: spwd — The shadow password database, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.21 ‘sunau’ — Read and write Sun AU files --------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘sunau’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/sunau.html  File: python.info, Node: telnetlib — Telnet client, Next: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files, Prev: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.22 ‘telnetlib’ — Telnet client ----------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). Possible replacements are third-party libraries from PyPI: telnetlib3(2) or Exscript(3). These are not supported or maintained by the Python core team. The last version of Python that provided the ‘telnetlib’ module was Python 3.12(4). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/telnetlib3/ (3) https://pypi.org/project/Exscript/ (4) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/telnetlib.html  File: python.info, Node: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files, Next: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data, Prev: telnetlib — Telnet client, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.23 ‘uu’ — Encode and decode uuencode files ----------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘uu’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/uu.html  File: python.info, Node: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data, Prev: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files, Up: Removed Modules 5.38.24 ‘xdrlib’ — Encode and decode XDR data --------------------------------------------- Deprecated since version 3.11, removed in version 3.13. This module is no longer part of the Python standard library. It was *note removed in Python 3.13: 143. after being deprecated in Python 3.11. The removal was decided in PEP 594(1). The last version of Python that provided the ‘xdrlib’ module was Python 3.12(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0594/ (2) https://docs.python.org/3.12/library/xdrlib.html  File: python.info, Node: Security Considerations<3>, Prev: Removed Modules, Up: The Python Standard Library 5.39 Security Considerations ============================ The following modules have specific security considerations: * *note base64: e.: *note base64 security considerations: 3746. in RFC 4648(1) * *note hashlib: 68.: *note all constructors take a “usedforsecurity” keyword-only argument disabling known insecure and blocked algorithms: 2ad7. * *note http.server: 72. is not suitable for production use, only implementing basic security checks. See the *note security considerations: 3b65. * *note logging: 87.: *note Logging configuration uses eval(): 2cbe. * *note multiprocessing: 94.: *note Connection.recv() uses pickle: 3171. * *note pickle: a6.: *note Restricting globals in pickle: 28a0. * *note random: b8. shouldn’t be used for security purposes, use *note secrets: c0. instead * *note shelve: c3.: *note shelve is based on pickle and thus unsuitable for dealing with untrusted sources: 28bc. * *note ssl: d0.: *note SSL/TLS security considerations: 334b. * *note subprocess: d6.: *note Subprocess security considerations: 3216. * *note tempfile: e0.: *note mktemp is deprecated due to vulnerability to race conditions: 285f. * *note xml: 120.: *note XML security: 3774. * *note zipfile: 131.: *note maliciously prepared .zip files can cause disk volume exhaustion: 29ee. The *note -I: 95e. command line option can be used to run Python in isolated mode. When it cannot be used, the *note -P: 5a0. option or the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 5a1. environment variable can be used to not prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3b0. such as the current directory, the script’s directory or an empty string. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc4648.html  File: python.info, Node: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter, Next: Python/C API Reference Manual, Prev: The Python Standard Library, Up: Top 6 Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter ************************************************ This document describes how to write modules in C or C++ to extend the Python interpreter with new modules. Those modules can not only define new functions but also new object types and their methods. The document also describes how to embed the Python interpreter in another application, for use as an extension language. Finally, it shows how to compile and link extension modules so that they can be loaded dynamically (at run time) into the interpreter, if the underlying operating system supports this feature. This document assumes basic knowledge about Python. For an informal introduction to the language, see *note The Python Tutorial: 1bd9. *note The Python Language Reference: 145. gives a more formal definition of the language. *note The Python Standard Library: 144. documents the existing object types, functions and modules (both built-in and written in Python) that give the language its wide application range. For a detailed description of the whole Python/C API, see the separate *note Python/C API Reference Manual: 1bdb. * Menu: * Recommended third party tools:: * Creating extensions without third party tools:: * Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application::  File: python.info, Node: Recommended third party tools, Next: Creating extensions without third party tools, Up: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter 6.1 Recommended third party tools ================================= This guide only covers the basic tools for creating extensions provided as part of this version of CPython. Some *note third party tools: 48a8. offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++ extensions for Python.  File: python.info, Node: Creating extensions without third party tools, Next: Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application, Prev: Recommended third party tools, Up: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter 6.2 Creating extensions without third party tools ================================================= This section of the guide covers creating C and C++ extensions without assistance from third party tools. It is intended primarily for creators of those tools, rather than being a recommended way to create your own C extensions. See also ........ PEP 489(1) – Multi-phase extension module initialization * Menu: * Extending Python with C or C++:: * Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: Defining Extension Types Tutorial. * Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics. * Building C and C++ Extensions:: * Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: Extending Python with C or C++, Next: Defining Extension Types Tutorial, Up: Creating extensions without third party tools 6.2.1 Extending Python with C or C++ ------------------------------------ It is quite easy to add new built-in modules to Python, if you know how to program in C. Such 'extension modules' can do two things that can’t be done directly in Python: they can implement new built-in object types, and they can call C library functions and system calls. To support extensions, the Python API (Application Programmers Interface) defines a set of functions, macros and variables that provide access to most aspects of the Python run-time system. The Python API is incorporated in a C source file by including the header ‘"Python.h"’. The compilation of an extension module depends on its intended use as well as on your system setup; details are given in later chapters. Note: The C extension interface is specific to CPython, and extension modules do not work on other Python implementations. In many cases, it is possible to avoid writing C extensions and preserve portability to other implementations. For example, if your use case is calling C library functions or system calls, you should consider using the *note ctypes: 2a. module or the cffi(1) library rather than writing custom C code. These modules let you write Python code to interface with C code and are more portable between implementations of Python than writing and compiling a C extension module. * Menu: * A Simple Example:: * Intermezzo; Errors and Exceptions: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions. * Back to the Example:: * The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function:: * Compilation and Linkage:: * Calling Python Functions from C:: * Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions:: * Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions:: * Building Arbitrary Values:: * Reference Counts:: * Writing Extensions in C++:: * Providing a C API for an Extension Module:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://cffi.readthedocs.io/  File: python.info, Node: A Simple Example, Next: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.1 A Simple Example ........................ Let’s create an extension module called ‘spam’ (the favorite food of Monty Python fans…) and let’s say we want to create a Python interface to the C library function ‘system()’ (1). This function takes a null-terminated character string as argument and returns an integer. We want this function to be callable from Python as follows: >>> import spam >>> status = spam.system("ls -l") Begin by creating a file ‘spammodule.c’. (Historically, if a module is called ‘spam’, the C file containing its implementation is called ‘spammodule.c’; if the module name is very long, like ‘spammify’, the module name can be just ‘spammify.c’.) The first two lines of our file can be: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> which pulls in the Python API (you can add a comment describing the purpose of the module and a copyright notice if you like). Note: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must' include ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included. ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that ‘Py_ssize_t’ should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’. It is not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward compatibility. See *note Strings and buffers: 386. for a description of this macro. All user-visible symbols defined by ‘Python.h’ have a prefix of ‘Py’ or ‘PY’, except those defined in standard header files. Tip: For backward compatibility, ‘Python.h’ includes several standard header files. C extensions should include the standard headers that they use, and should not rely on these implicit includes. If using the limited C API version 3.13 or newer, the implicit includes are: * ‘<assert.h>’ * ‘<intrin.h>’ (on Windows) * ‘<inttypes.h>’ * ‘<limits.h>’ * ‘<math.h>’ * ‘<stdarg.h>’ * ‘<wchar.h>’ * ‘<sys/types.h>’ (if present) If *note Py_LIMITED_API: 41a. is not defined, or is set to version 3.12 or older, the headers below are also included: * ‘<ctype.h>’ * ‘<unistd.h>’ (on POSIX) If *note Py_LIMITED_API: 41a. is not defined, or is set to version 3.10 or older, the headers below are also included: * ‘<errno.h>’ * ‘<stdio.h>’ * ‘<stdlib.h>’ * ‘<string.h>’ The next thing we add to our module file is the C function that will be called when the Python expression ‘spam.system(string)’ is evaluated (we’ll see shortly how it ends up being called): static PyObject * spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { const char *command; int sts; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command)) return NULL; sts = system(command); return PyLong_FromLong(sts); } There is a straightforward translation from the argument list in Python (for example, the single expression ‘"ls -l"’) to the arguments passed to the C function. The C function always has two arguments, conventionally named 'self' and 'args'. The 'self' argument points to the module object for module-level functions; for a method it would point to the object instance. The 'args' argument will be a pointer to a Python tuple object containing the arguments. Each item of the tuple corresponds to an argument in the call’s argument list. The arguments are Python objects — in order to do anything with them in our C function we have to convert them to C values. The function *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. in the Python API checks the argument types and converts them to C values. It uses a template string to determine the required types of the arguments as well as the types of the C variables into which to store the converted values. More about this later. *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. returns true (nonzero) if all arguments have the right type and its components have been stored in the variables whose addresses are passed. It returns false (zero) if an invalid argument list was passed. In the latter case it also raises an appropriate exception so the calling function can return ‘NULL’ immediately (as we saw in the example). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) An interface for this function already exists in the standard module *note os: a1. — it was chosen as a simple and straightforward example.  File: python.info, Node: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions, Next: Back to the Example, Prev: A Simple Example, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.2 Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions ......................................... An important convention throughout the Python interpreter is the following: when a function fails, it should set an exception condition and return an error value (usually ‘-1’ or a ‘NULL’ pointer). Exception information is stored in three members of the interpreter’s thread state. These are ‘NULL’ if there is no exception. Otherwise they are the C equivalents of the members of the Python tuple returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686. These are the exception type, exception instance, and a traceback object. It is important to know about them to understand how errors are passed around. The Python API defines a number of functions to set various types of exceptions. The most common one is *note PyErr_SetString(): 579. Its arguments are an exception object and a C string. The exception object is usually a predefined object like *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 48b1. The C string indicates the cause of the error and is converted to a Python string object and stored as the “associated value” of the exception. Another useful function is *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 48b2, which only takes an exception argument and constructs the associated value by inspection of the global variable ‘errno’. The most general function is *note PyErr_SetObject(): 578, which takes two object arguments, the exception and its associated value. You don’t need to *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. the objects passed to any of these functions. You can test non-destructively whether an exception has been set with *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. This returns the current exception object, or ‘NULL’ if no exception has occurred. You normally don’t need to call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to see whether an error occurred in a function call, since you should be able to tell from the return value. When a function 'f' that calls another function 'g' detects that the latter fails, 'f' should itself return an error value (usually ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’). It should 'not' call one of the ‘PyErr_*’ functions — one has already been called by 'g'. 'f'’s caller is then supposed to also return an error indication to 'its' caller, again 'without' calling ‘PyErr_*’, and so on — the most detailed cause of the error was already reported by the function that first detected it. Once the error reaches the Python interpreter’s main loop, this aborts the currently executing Python code and tries to find an exception handler specified by the Python programmer. (There are situations where a module can actually give a more detailed error message by calling another ‘PyErr_*’ function, and in such cases it is fine to do so. As a general rule, however, this is not necessary, and can cause information about the cause of the error to be lost: most operations can fail for a variety of reasons.) To ignore an exception set by a function call that failed, the exception condition must be cleared explicitly by calling *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. The only time C code should call *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. is if it doesn’t want to pass the error on to the interpreter but wants to handle it completely by itself (possibly by trying something else, or pretending nothing went wrong). Every failing ‘malloc()’ call must be turned into an exception — the direct caller of ‘malloc()’ (or ‘realloc()’) must call *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 48b3. and return a failure indicator itself. All the object-creating functions (for example, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839.) already do this, so this note is only relevant to those who call ‘malloc()’ directly. Also note that, with the important exception of *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. and friends, functions that return an integer status usually return a positive value or zero for success and ‘-1’ for failure, like Unix system calls. Finally, be careful to clean up garbage (by making *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. or *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. calls for objects you have already created) when you return an error indicator! The choice of which exception to raise is entirely yours. There are predeclared C objects corresponding to all built-in Python exceptions, such as *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 48b1, which you can use directly. Of course, you should choose exceptions wisely — don’t use *note PyExc_TypeError: 48b4. to mean that a file couldn’t be opened (that should probably be *note PyExc_OSError: 48b5.). If something’s wrong with the argument list, the *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. function usually raises *note PyExc_TypeError: 48b4. If you have an argument whose value must be in a particular range or must satisfy other conditions, *note PyExc_ValueError: 48b6. is appropriate. You can also define a new exception that is unique to your module. The simplest way to do this is to declare a static global object variable at the beginning of the file: static PyObject *SpamError = NULL; and initialize it by calling *note PyErr_NewException(): 125d. in the module’s *note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function (‘spam_module_exec()’): SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL); Since ‘SpamError’ is a global variable, it will be overwritten every time the module is reinitialized, when the *note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function is called. For now, let’s avoid the issue: we will block repeated initialization by raising an *note ImportError: 415.: static PyObject *SpamError = NULL; static int spam_module_exec(PyObject *m) { if (SpamError != NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError, "cannot initialize spam module more than once"); return -1; } SpamError = PyErr_NewException("spam.error", NULL, NULL); if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SpamError", SpamError) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } static PyModuleDef_Slot spam_module_slots[] = { {Py_mod_exec, spam_module_exec}, {0, NULL} }; static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "spam", .m_size = 0, // non-negative .m_slots = spam_module_slots, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_spam(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module); } Note that the Python name for the exception object is ‘spam.error’. The *note PyErr_NewException(): 125d. function may create a class with the base class being *note Exception: 9d9. (unless another class is passed in instead of ‘NULL’), described in *note Built-in Exceptions: 1883. Note also that the ‘SpamError’ variable retains a reference to the newly created exception class; this is intentional! Since the exception could be removed from the module by external code, an owned reference to the class is needed to ensure that it will not be discarded, causing ‘SpamError’ to become a dangling pointer. Should it become a dangling pointer, C code which raises the exception could cause a core dump or other unintended side effects. For now, the *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. call to remove this reference is missing. Even when the Python interpreter shuts down, the global ‘SpamError’ variable will not be garbage-collected. It will “leak”. We did, however, ensure that this will happen at most once per process. We discuss the use of *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149e. as a function return type later in this sample. The ‘spam.error’ exception can be raised in your extension module using a call to *note PyErr_SetString(): 579. as shown below: static PyObject * spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { const char *command; int sts; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command)) return NULL; sts = system(command); if (sts < 0) { PyErr_SetString(SpamError, "System command failed"); return NULL; } return PyLong_FromLong(sts); }  File: python.info, Node: Back to the Example, Next: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function, Prev: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.3 Back to the Example ........................... Going back to our example function, you should now be able to understand this statement: if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command)) return NULL; It returns ‘NULL’ (the error indicator for functions returning object pointers) if an error is detected in the argument list, relying on the exception set by *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. Otherwise the string value of the argument has been copied to the local variable ‘command’. This is a pointer assignment and you are not supposed to modify the string to which it points (so in Standard C, the variable ‘command’ should properly be declared as ‘const char *command’). The next statement is a call to the Unix function ‘system()’, passing it the string we just got from *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.: sts = system(command); Our ‘spam.system()’ function must return the value of ‘sts’ as a Python object. This is done using the function *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839. return PyLong_FromLong(sts); In this case, it will return an integer object. (Yes, even integers are objects on the heap in Python!) If you have a C function that returns no useful argument (a function returning void), the corresponding Python function must return ‘None’. You need this idiom to do so (which is implemented by the *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 143c. macro): Py_INCREF(Py_None); return Py_None; *note Py_None: 48b9. is the C name for the special Python object ‘None’. It is a genuine Python object rather than a ‘NULL’ pointer, which means “error” in most contexts, as we have seen.  File: python.info, Node: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function, Next: Compilation and Linkage, Prev: Back to the Example, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.4 The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function ............................................................. I promised to show how ‘spam_system()’ is called from Python programs. First, we need to list its name and address in a “method table”: static PyMethodDef spam_methods[] = { ... {"system", spam_system, METH_VARARGS, "Execute a shell command."}, ... {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; Note the third entry (‘METH_VARARGS’). This is a flag telling the interpreter the calling convention to be used for the C function. It should normally always be ‘METH_VARARGS’ or ‘METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS’; a value of ‘0’ means that an obsolete variant of *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. is used. When using only ‘METH_VARARGS’, the function should expect the Python-level parameters to be passed in as a tuple acceptable for parsing via *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.; more information on this function is provided below. The *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bc. bit may be set in the third field if keyword arguments should be passed to the function. In this case, the C function should accept a third ‘PyObject *’ parameter which will be a dictionary of keywords. Use *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. to parse the arguments to such a function. The method table must be referenced in the module definition structure: static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = { ... .m_methods = spam_methods, ... }; This structure, in turn, must be passed to the interpreter in the module’s initialization function. The initialization function must be named ‘PyInit_name()’, where 'name' is the name of the module, and should be the only non-‘static’ item defined in the module file: PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_spam(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module); } Note that *note PyMODINIT_FUNC: 149e. declares the function as ‘PyObject *’ return type, declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’. ‘PyInit_spam()’ is called when each interpreter imports its module ‘spam’ for the first time. (See below for comments about embedding Python.) A pointer to the module definition must be returned via *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 48bd, so that the import machinery can create the module and store it in ‘sys.modules’. When embedding Python, the ‘PyInit_spam()’ function is not called automatically unless there’s an entry in the ‘PyImport_Inittab’ table. To add the module to the initialization table, use *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3, optionally followed by an import of the module: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { PyStatus status; PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); /* Add a built-in module, before Py_Initialize */ if (PyImport_AppendInittab("spam", PyInit_spam) == -1) { fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not extend in-built modules table\n"); exit(1); } /* Pass argv[0] to the Python interpreter */ status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } /* Initialize the Python interpreter. Required. If this step fails, it will be a fatal error. */ status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } PyConfig_Clear(&config); /* Optionally import the module; alternatively, import can be deferred until the embedded script imports it. */ PyObject *pmodule = PyImport_ImportModule("spam"); if (!pmodule) { PyErr_Print(); fprintf(stderr, "Error: could not import module 'spam'\n"); } // ... use Python C API here ... return 0; exception: PyConfig_Clear(&config); Py_ExitStatusException(status); } Note: If you declare a global variable or a local static one, the module may experience unintended side-effects on re-initialisation, for example when removing entries from ‘sys.modules’ or importing compiled modules into multiple interpreters within a process (or following a ‘fork()’ without an intervening ‘exec()’). If module state is not yet fully *note isolated: 48be, authors should consider marking the module as having no support for subinterpreters (via *note Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED: 48bf.). A more substantial example module is included in the Python source distribution as ‘Modules/xxlimited.c’. This file may be used as a template or simply read as an example.  File: python.info, Node: Compilation and Linkage, Next: Calling Python Functions from C, Prev: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.5 Compilation and Linkage ............................... There are two more things to do before you can use your new extension: compiling and linking it with the Python system. If you use dynamic loading, the details may depend on the style of dynamic loading your system uses; see the chapters about building extension modules (chapter *note Building C and C++ Extensions: 48c2.) and additional information that pertains only to building on Windows (chapter *note Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows: 1e38.) for more information about this. If you can’t use dynamic loading, or if you want to make your module a permanent part of the Python interpreter, you will have to change the configuration setup and rebuild the interpreter. Luckily, this is very simple on Unix: just place your file (‘spammodule.c’ for example) in the ‘Modules/’ directory of an unpacked source distribution, add a line to the file ‘Modules/Setup.local’ describing your file: spam spammodule.o and rebuild the interpreter by running ‘make’ in the toplevel directory. You can also run ‘make’ in the ‘Modules/’ subdirectory, but then you must first rebuild ‘Makefile’ there by running ‘‘make’ Makefile’. (This is necessary each time you change the ‘Setup’ file.) If your module requires additional libraries to link with, these can be listed on the line in the configuration file as well, for instance: spam spammodule.o -lX11  File: python.info, Node: Calling Python Functions from C, Next: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions, Prev: Compilation and Linkage, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.6 Calling Python Functions from C ....................................... So far we have concentrated on making C functions callable from Python. The reverse is also useful: calling Python functions from C. This is especially the case for libraries that support so-called “callback” functions. If a C interface makes use of callbacks, the equivalent Python often needs to provide a callback mechanism to the Python programmer; the implementation will require calling the Python callback functions from a C callback. Other uses are also imaginable. Fortunately, the Python interpreter is easily called recursively, and there is a standard interface to call a Python function. (I won’t dwell on how to call the Python parser with a particular string as input — if you’re interested, have a look at the implementation of the *note -c: 5dc. command line option in ‘Modules/main.c’ from the Python source code.) Calling a Python function is easy. First, the Python program must somehow pass you the Python function object. You should provide a function (or some other interface) to do this. When this function is called, save a pointer to the Python function object (be careful to *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. it!) in a global variable — or wherever you see fit. For example, the following function might be part of a module definition: static PyObject *my_callback = NULL; static PyObject * my_set_callback(PyObject *dummy, PyObject *args) { PyObject *result = NULL; PyObject *temp; if (PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O:set_callback", &temp)) { if (!PyCallable_Check(temp)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "parameter must be callable"); return NULL; } Py_XINCREF(temp); /* Add a reference to new callback */ Py_XDECREF(my_callback); /* Dispose of previous callback */ my_callback = temp; /* Remember new callback */ /* Boilerplate to return "None" */ Py_INCREF(Py_None); result = Py_None; } return result; } This function must be registered with the interpreter using the *note METH_VARARGS: 14d4. flag; this is described in section *note The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function: 48ba. The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. function and its arguments are documented in section *note Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions: 48c5. The macros *note Py_XINCREF(): a64. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. increment/decrement the reference count of an object and are safe in the presence of ‘NULL’ pointers (but note that 'temp' will not be ‘NULL’ in this context). More info on them in section *note Reference Counts: 48c6. Later, when it is time to call the function, you call the C function *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. This function has two arguments, both pointers to arbitrary Python objects: the Python function, and the argument list. The argument list must always be a tuple object, whose length is the number of arguments. To call the Python function with no arguments, pass in ‘NULL’, or an empty tuple; to call it with one argument, pass a singleton tuple. *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. returns a tuple when its format string consists of zero or more format codes between parentheses. For example: int arg; PyObject *arglist; PyObject *result; ... arg = 123; ... /* Time to call the callback */ arglist = Py_BuildValue("(i)", arg); result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist); Py_DECREF(arglist); *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. returns a Python object pointer: this is the return value of the Python function. *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. is “reference-count-neutral” with respect to its arguments. In the example a new tuple was created to serve as the argument list, which is *note Py_DECREF(): 56c.-ed immediately after the *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. call. The return value of *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. is “new”: either it is a brand new object, or it is an existing object whose reference count has been incremented. So, unless you want to save it in a global variable, you should somehow *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. the result, even (especially!) if you are not interested in its value. Before you do this, however, it is important to check that the return value isn’t ‘NULL’. If it is, the Python function terminated by raising an exception. If the C code that called *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. is called from Python, it should now return an error indication to its Python caller, so the interpreter can print a stack trace, or the calling Python code can handle the exception. If this is not possible or desirable, the exception should be cleared by calling *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. For example: if (result == NULL) return NULL; /* Pass error back */ ...use result... Py_DECREF(result); Depending on the desired interface to the Python callback function, you may also have to provide an argument list to *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. In some cases the argument list is also provided by the Python program, through the same interface that specified the callback function. It can then be saved and used in the same manner as the function object. In other cases, you may have to construct a new tuple to pass as the argument list. The simplest way to do this is to call *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. For example, if you want to pass an integral event code, you might use the following code: PyObject *arglist; ... arglist = Py_BuildValue("(l)", eventcode); result = PyObject_CallObject(my_callback, arglist); Py_DECREF(arglist); if (result == NULL) return NULL; /* Pass error back */ /* Here maybe use the result */ Py_DECREF(result); Note the placement of ‘Py_DECREF(arglist)’ immediately after the call, before the error check! Also note that strictly speaking this code is not complete: *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. may run out of memory, and this should be checked. You may also call a function with keyword arguments by using *note PyObject_Call(): 398, which supports arguments and keyword arguments. As in the above example, we use *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. to construct the dictionary. PyObject *dict; ... dict = Py_BuildValue("{s:i}", "name", val); result = PyObject_Call(my_callback, NULL, dict); Py_DECREF(dict); if (result == NULL) return NULL; /* Pass error back */ /* Here maybe use the result */ Py_DECREF(result);  File: python.info, Node: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions, Next: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions, Prev: Calling Python Functions from C, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.7 Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions .................................................... The *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. function is declared as follows: int PyArg_ParseTuple(PyObject *arg, const char *format, ...); The 'arg' argument must be a tuple object containing an argument list passed from Python to a C function. The 'format' argument must be a format string, whose syntax is explained in *note Parsing arguments and building values: 8a7. in the Python/C API Reference Manual. The remaining arguments must be addresses of variables whose type is determined by the format string. Note that while *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. checks that the Python arguments have the required types, it cannot check the validity of the addresses of C variables passed to the call: if you make mistakes there, your code will probably crash or at least overwrite random bits in memory. So be careful! Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are 'borrowed' references; do not decrement their reference count! Some example calls: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> int ok; int i, j; long k, l; const char *s; Py_ssize_t size; ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ""); /* No arguments */ /* Python call: f() */ ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &s); /* A string */ /* Possible Python call: f('whoops!') */ ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "lls", &k, &l, &s); /* Two longs and a string */ /* Possible Python call: f(1, 2, 'three') */ ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "(ii)s#", &i, &j, &s, &size); /* A pair of ints and a string, whose size is also returned */ /* Possible Python call: f((1, 2), 'three') */ { const char *file; const char *mode = "r"; int bufsize = 0; ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s|si", &file, &mode, &bufsize); /* A string, and optionally another string and an integer */ /* Possible Python calls: f('spam') f('spam', 'w') f('spam', 'wb', 100000) */ } { int left, top, right, bottom, h, v; ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "((ii)(ii))(ii)", &left, &top, &right, &bottom, &h, &v); /* A rectangle and a point */ /* Possible Python call: f(((0, 0), (400, 300)), (10, 10)) */ } { Py_complex c; ok = PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "D:myfunction", &c); /* a complex, also providing a function name for errors */ /* Possible Python call: myfunction(1+2j) */ }  File: python.info, Node: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions, Next: Building Arbitrary Values, Prev: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.8 Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions .................................................. The *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. function is declared as follows: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(PyObject *arg, PyObject *kwdict, const char *format, char * const *kwlist, ...); The 'arg' and 'format' parameters are identical to those of the *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. function. The 'kwdict' parameter is the dictionary of keywords received as the third parameter from the Python runtime. The 'kwlist' parameter is a ‘NULL’-terminated list of strings which identify the parameters; the names are matched with the type information from 'format' from left to right. On success, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. returns true, otherwise it returns false and raises an appropriate exception. Note: Nested tuples cannot be parsed when using keyword arguments! Keyword parameters passed in which are not present in the 'kwlist' will cause *note TypeError: 534. to be raised. Here is an example module which uses keywords, based on an example by Geoff Philbrick (<philbrick@hks.com>): #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> static PyObject * keywdarg_parrot(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *keywds) { int voltage; const char *state = "a stiff"; const char *action = "voom"; const char *type = "Norwegian Blue"; static char *kwlist[] = {"voltage", "state", "action", "type", NULL}; if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, keywds, "i|sss", kwlist, &voltage, &state, &action, &type)) return NULL; printf("-- This parrot wouldn't %s if you put %i Volts through it.\n", action, voltage); printf("-- Lovely plumage, the %s -- It's %s!\n", type, state); Py_RETURN_NONE; } static PyMethodDef keywdarg_methods[] = { /* The cast of the function is necessary since PyCFunction values * only take two PyObject* parameters, and keywdarg_parrot() takes * three. */ {"parrot", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))keywdarg_parrot, METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS, "Print a lovely skit to standard output."}, {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL} /* sentinel */ }; static struct PyModuleDef keywdarg_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "keywdarg", .m_size = 0, .m_methods = keywdarg_methods, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_keywdarg(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&keywdarg_module); }  File: python.info, Node: Building Arbitrary Values, Next: Reference Counts, Prev: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.9 Building Arbitrary Values ................................. This function is the counterpart to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. It is declared as follows: PyObject *Py_BuildValue(const char *format, ...); It recognizes a set of format units similar to the ones recognized by *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e, but the arguments (which are input to the function, not output) must not be pointers, just values. It returns a new Python object, suitable for returning from a C function called from Python. One difference with *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.: while the latter requires its first argument to be a tuple (since Python argument lists are always represented as tuples internally), *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. does not always build a tuple. It builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more format units. If the format string is empty, it returns ‘None’; if it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is described by that format unit. To force it to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string. Examples (to the left the call, to the right the resulting Python value): Py_BuildValue("") None Py_BuildValue("i", 123) 123 Py_BuildValue("iii", 123, 456, 789) (123, 456, 789) Py_BuildValue("s", "hello") 'hello' Py_BuildValue("y", "hello") b'hello' Py_BuildValue("ss", "hello", "world") ('hello', 'world') Py_BuildValue("s#", "hello", 4) 'hell' Py_BuildValue("y#", "hello", 4) b'hell' Py_BuildValue("()") () Py_BuildValue("(i)", 123) (123,) Py_BuildValue("(ii)", 123, 456) (123, 456) Py_BuildValue("(i,i)", 123, 456) (123, 456) Py_BuildValue("[i,i]", 123, 456) [123, 456] Py_BuildValue("{s:i,s:i}", "abc", 123, "def", 456) {'abc': 123, 'def': 456} Py_BuildValue("((ii)(ii)) (ii)", 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6) (((1, 2), (3, 4)), (5, 6))  File: python.info, Node: Reference Counts, Next: Writing Extensions in C++, Prev: Building Arbitrary Values, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.10 Reference Counts ......................... In languages like C or C++, the programmer is responsible for dynamic allocation and deallocation of memory on the heap. In C, this is done using the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’. In C++, the operators ‘new’ and ‘delete’ are used with essentially the same meaning and we’ll restrict the following discussion to the C case. Every block of memory allocated with ‘malloc()’ should eventually be returned to the pool of available memory by exactly one call to ‘free()’. It is important to call ‘free()’ at the right time. If a block’s address is forgotten but ‘free()’ is not called for it, the memory it occupies cannot be reused until the program terminates. This is called a 'memory leak'. On the other hand, if a program calls ‘free()’ for a block and then continues to use the block, it creates a conflict with reuse of the block through another ‘malloc()’ call. This is called 'using freed memory'. It has the same bad consequences as referencing uninitialized data — core dumps, wrong results, mysterious crashes. Common causes of memory leaks are unusual paths through the code. For instance, a function may allocate a block of memory, do some calculation, and then free the block again. Now a change in the requirements for the function may add a test to the calculation that detects an error condition and can return prematurely from the function. It’s easy to forget to free the allocated memory block when taking this premature exit, especially when it is added later to the code. Such leaks, once introduced, often go undetected for a long time: the error exit is taken only in a small fraction of all calls, and most modern machines have plenty of virtual memory, so the leak only becomes apparent in a long-running process that uses the leaking function frequently. Therefore, it’s important to prevent leaks from happening by having a coding convention or strategy that minimizes this kind of errors. Since Python makes heavy use of ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, it needs a strategy to avoid memory leaks as well as the use of freed memory. The chosen method is called 'reference counting'. The principle is simple: every object contains a counter, which is incremented when a reference to the object is stored somewhere, and which is decremented when a reference to it is deleted. When the counter reaches zero, the last reference to the object has been deleted and the object is freed. An alternative strategy is called 'automatic garbage collection'. (Sometimes, reference counting is also referred to as a garbage collection strategy, hence my use of “automatic” to distinguish the two.) The big advantage of automatic garbage collection is that the user doesn’t need to call ‘free()’ explicitly. (Another claimed advantage is an improvement in speed or memory usage — this is no hard fact however.) The disadvantage is that for C, there is no truly portable automatic garbage collector, while reference counting can be implemented portably (as long as the functions ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ are available — which the C Standard guarantees). Maybe some day a sufficiently portable automatic garbage collector will be available for C. Until then, we’ll have to live with reference counts. While Python uses the traditional reference counting implementation, it also offers a cycle detector that works to detect reference cycles. This allows applications to not worry about creating direct or indirect circular references; these are the weakness of garbage collection implemented using only reference counting. Reference cycles consist of objects which contain (possibly indirect) references to themselves, so that each object in the cycle has a reference count which is non-zero. Typical reference counting implementations are not able to reclaim the memory belonging to any objects in a reference cycle, or referenced from the objects in the cycle, even though there are no further references to the cycle itself. The cycle detector is able to detect garbage cycles and can reclaim them. The *note gc: 60. module exposes a way to run the detector (the *note collect(): a39. function), as well as configuration interfaces and the ability to disable the detector at runtime. * Menu: * Reference Counting in Python:: * Ownership Rules:: * Thin Ice:: * NULL Pointers::  File: python.info, Node: Reference Counting in Python, Next: Ownership Rules, Up: Reference Counts 6.2.1.11 Reference Counting in Python ..................................... There are two macros, ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and ‘Py_DECREF(x)’, which handle the incrementing and decrementing of the reference count. *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. also frees the object when the count reaches zero. For flexibility, it doesn’t call ‘free()’ directly — rather, it makes a call through a function pointer in the object’s 'type object'. For this purpose (and others), every object also contains a pointer to its type object. The big question now remains: when to use ‘Py_INCREF(x)’ and ‘Py_DECREF(x)’? Let’s first introduce some terms. Nobody “owns” an object; however, you can 'own a reference' to an object. An object’s reference count is now defined as the number of owned references to it. The owner of a reference is responsible for calling *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. when the reference is no longer needed. Ownership of a reference can be transferred. There are three ways to dispose of an owned reference: pass it on, store it, or call *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. Forgetting to dispose of an owned reference creates a memory leak. It is also possible to 'borrow' (1) a reference to an object. The borrower of a reference should not call *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. The borrower must not hold on to the object longer than the owner from which it was borrowed. Using a borrowed reference after the owner has disposed of it risks using freed memory and should be avoided completely (2). The advantage of borrowing over owning a reference is that you don’t need to take care of disposing of the reference on all possible paths through the code — in other words, with a borrowed reference you don’t run the risk of leaking when a premature exit is taken. The disadvantage of borrowing over owning is that there are some subtle situations where in seemingly correct code a borrowed reference can be used after the owner from which it was borrowed has in fact disposed of it. A borrowed reference can be changed into an owned reference by calling *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. This does not affect the status of the owner from which the reference was borrowed — it creates a new owned reference, and gives full owner responsibilities (the new owner must dispose of the reference properly, as well as the previous owner). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The metaphor of “borrowing” a reference is not completely correct: the owner still has a copy of the reference. (2) Checking that the reference count is at least 1 'does not work' — the reference count itself could be in freed memory and may thus be reused for another object!  File: python.info, Node: Ownership Rules, Next: Thin Ice, Prev: Reference Counting in Python, Up: Reference Counts 6.2.1.12 Ownership Rules ........................ Whenever an object reference is passed into or out of a function, it is part of the function’s interface specification whether ownership is transferred with the reference or not. Most functions that return a reference to an object pass on ownership with the reference. In particular, all functions whose function it is to create a new object, such as *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839. and *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6, pass ownership to the receiver. Even if the object is not actually new, you still receive ownership of a new reference to that object. For instance, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839. maintains a cache of popular values and can return a reference to a cached item. Many functions that extract objects from other objects also transfer ownership with the reference, for instance *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 347. The picture is less clear, here, however, since a few common routines are exceptions: *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d2, *note PyList_GetItem(): 357, *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382, and *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 383. all return references that you borrow from the tuple, list or dictionary. The function *note PyImport_AddModule(): 354. also returns a borrowed reference, even though it may actually create the object it returns: this is possible because an owned reference to the object is stored in ‘sys.modules’. When you pass an object reference into another function, in general, the function borrows the reference from you — if it needs to store it, it will use *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. to become an independent owner. There are exactly two important exceptions to this rule: *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. These functions take over ownership of the item passed to them — even if they fail! (Note that *note PyDict_SetItem(): 48d4. and friends don’t take over ownership — they are “normal.”) When a C function is called from Python, it borrows references to its arguments from the caller. The caller owns a reference to the object, so the borrowed reference’s lifetime is guaranteed until the function returns. Only when such a borrowed reference must be stored or passed on, it must be turned into an owned reference by calling *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. The object reference returned from a C function that is called from Python must be an owned reference — ownership is transferred from the function to its caller.  File: python.info, Node: Thin Ice, Next: NULL Pointers, Prev: Ownership Rules, Up: Reference Counts 6.2.1.13 Thin Ice ................. There are a few situations where seemingly harmless use of a borrowed reference can lead to problems. These all have to do with implicit invocations of the interpreter, which can cause the owner of a reference to dispose of it. The first and most important case to know about is using *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. on an unrelated object while borrowing a reference to a list item. For instance: void bug(PyObject *list) { PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0); PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L)); PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */ } This function first borrows a reference to ‘list[0]’, then replaces ‘list[1]’ with the value ‘0’, and finally prints the borrowed reference. Looks harmless, right? But it’s not! Let’s follow the control flow into *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. The list owns references to all its items, so when item 1 is replaced, it has to dispose of the original item 1. Now let’s suppose the original item 1 was an instance of a user-defined class, and let’s further suppose that the class defined a ‘__del__()’ method. If this class instance has a reference count of 1, disposing of it will call its ‘__del__()’ method. Since it is written in Python, the ‘__del__()’ method can execute arbitrary Python code. Could it perhaps do something to invalidate the reference to ‘item’ in ‘bug()’? You bet! Assuming that the list passed into ‘bug()’ is accessible to the ‘__del__()’ method, it could execute a statement to the effect of ‘del list[0]’, and assuming this was the last reference to that object, it would free the memory associated with it, thereby invalidating ‘item’. The solution, once you know the source of the problem, is easy: temporarily increment the reference count. The correct version of the function reads: void no_bug(PyObject *list) { PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0); Py_INCREF(item); PyList_SetItem(list, 1, PyLong_FromLong(0L)); PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); Py_DECREF(item); } This is a true story. An older version of Python contained variants of this bug and someone spent a considerable amount of time in a C debugger to figure out why his ‘__del__()’ methods would fail… The second case of problems with a borrowed reference is a variant involving threads. Normally, multiple threads in the Python interpreter can’t get in each other’s way, because there is a *note global lock: 148. protecting Python’s entire object space. However, it is possible to temporarily release this lock using the macro *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7, and to re-acquire it using *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. This is common around blocking I/O calls, to let other threads use the processor while waiting for the I/O to complete. Obviously, the following function has the same problem as the previous one: void bug(PyObject *list) { PyObject *item = PyList_GetItem(list, 0); Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS ...some blocking I/O call... Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS PyObject_Print(item, stdout, 0); /* BUG! */ }  File: python.info, Node: NULL Pointers, Prev: Thin Ice, Up: Reference Counts 6.2.1.14 NULL Pointers ...................... In general, functions that take object references as arguments do not expect you to pass them ‘NULL’ pointers, and will dump core (or cause later core dumps) if you do so. Functions that return object references generally return ‘NULL’ only to indicate that an exception occurred. The reason for not testing for ‘NULL’ arguments is that functions often pass the objects they receive on to other function — if each function were to test for ‘NULL’, there would be a lot of redundant tests and the code would run more slowly. It is better to test for ‘NULL’ only at the “source:” when a pointer that may be ‘NULL’ is received, for example, from ‘malloc()’ or from a function that may raise an exception. The macros *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. and *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. do not check for ‘NULL’ pointers — however, their variants *note Py_XINCREF(): a64. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. do. The macros for checking for a particular object type (‘Pytype_Check()’) don’t check for ‘NULL’ pointers — again, there is much code that calls several of these in a row to test an object against various different expected types, and this would generate redundant tests. There are no variants with ‘NULL’ checking. The C function calling mechanism guarantees that the argument list passed to C functions (‘args’ in the examples) is never ‘NULL’ — in fact it guarantees that it is always a tuple (1). It is a severe error to ever let a ‘NULL’ pointer “escape” to the Python user. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) These guarantees don’t hold when you use the “old” style calling convention — this is still found in much existing code.  File: python.info, Node: Writing Extensions in C++, Next: Providing a C API for an Extension Module, Prev: Reference Counts, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.15 Writing Extensions in C++ .................................. It is possible to write extension modules in C++. Some restrictions apply. If the main program (the Python interpreter) is compiled and linked by the C compiler, global or static objects with constructors cannot be used. This is not a problem if the main program is linked by the C++ compiler. Functions that will be called by the Python interpreter (in particular, module initialization functions) have to be declared using ‘extern "C"’. It is unnecessary to enclose the Python header files in ‘extern "C" {...}’ — they use this form already if the symbol ‘__cplusplus’ is defined (all recent C++ compilers define this symbol).  File: python.info, Node: Providing a C API for an Extension Module, Prev: Writing Extensions in C++, Up: Extending Python with C or C++ 6.2.1.16 Providing a C API for an Extension Module .................................................. Many extension modules just provide new functions and types to be used from Python, but sometimes the code in an extension module can be useful for other extension modules. For example, an extension module could implement a type “collection” which works like lists without order. Just like the standard Python list type has a C API which permits extension modules to create and manipulate lists, this new collection type should have a set of C functions for direct manipulation from other extension modules. At first sight this seems easy: just write the functions (without declaring them ‘static’, of course), provide an appropriate header file, and document the C API. And in fact this would work if all extension modules were always linked statically with the Python interpreter. When modules are used as shared libraries, however, the symbols defined in one module may not be visible to another module. The details of visibility depend on the operating system; some systems use one global namespace for the Python interpreter and all extension modules (Windows, for example), whereas others require an explicit list of imported symbols at module link time (AIX is one example), or offer a choice of different strategies (most Unices). And even if symbols are globally visible, the module whose functions one wishes to call might not have been loaded yet! Portability therefore requires not to make any assumptions about symbol visibility. This means that all symbols in extension modules should be declared ‘static’, except for the module’s initialization function, in order to avoid name clashes with other extension modules (as discussed in section *note The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function: 48ba.). And it means that symbols that 'should' be accessible from other extension modules must be exported in a different way. Python provides a special mechanism to pass C-level information (pointers) from one extension module to another one: Capsules. A Capsule is a Python data type which stores a pointer (void*). Capsules can only be created and accessed via their C API, but they can be passed around like any other Python object. In particular, they can be assigned to a name in an extension module’s namespace. Other extension modules can then import this module, retrieve the value of this name, and then retrieve the pointer from the Capsule. There are many ways in which Capsules can be used to export the C API of an extension module. Each function could get its own Capsule, or all C API pointers could be stored in an array whose address is published in a Capsule. And the various tasks of storing and retrieving the pointers can be distributed in different ways between the module providing the code and the client modules. Whichever method you choose, it’s important to name your Capsules properly. The function *note PyCapsule_New(): 48dd. takes a name parameter (const char*); you’re permitted to pass in a ‘NULL’ name, but we strongly encourage you to specify a name. Properly named Capsules provide a degree of runtime type-safety; there is no feasible way to tell one unnamed Capsule from another. In particular, Capsules used to expose C APIs should be given a name following this convention: modulename.attributename The convenience function *note PyCapsule_Import(): 186d. makes it easy to load a C API provided via a Capsule, but only if the Capsule’s name matches this convention. This behavior gives C API users a high degree of certainty that the Capsule they load contains the correct C API. The following example demonstrates an approach that puts most of the burden on the writer of the exporting module, which is appropriate for commonly used library modules. It stores all C API pointers (just one in the example!) in an array of void pointers which becomes the value of a Capsule. The header file corresponding to the module provides a macro that takes care of importing the module and retrieving its C API pointers; client modules only have to call this macro before accessing the C API. The exporting module is a modification of the ‘spam’ module from section *note A Simple Example: 48ae. The function ‘spam.system()’ does not call the C library function ‘system()’ directly, but a function ‘PySpam_System()’, which would of course do something more complicated in reality (such as adding “spam” to every command). This function ‘PySpam_System()’ is also exported to other extension modules. The function ‘PySpam_System()’ is a plain C function, declared ‘static’ like everything else: static int PySpam_System(const char *command) { return system(command); } The function ‘spam_system()’ is modified in a trivial way: static PyObject * spam_system(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { const char *command; int sts; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "s", &command)) return NULL; sts = PySpam_System(command); return PyLong_FromLong(sts); } In the beginning of the module, right after the line #include <Python.h> two more lines must be added: #define SPAM_MODULE #include "spammodule.h" The ‘#define’ is used to tell the header file that it is being included in the exporting module, not a client module. Finally, the module’s *note mod_exec: 97e. function must take care of initializing the C API pointer array: static int spam_module_exec(PyObject *m) { static void *PySpam_API[PySpam_API_pointers]; PyObject *c_api_object; /* Initialize the C API pointer array */ PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM] = (void *)PySpam_System; /* Create a Capsule containing the API pointer array's address */ c_api_object = PyCapsule_New((void *)PySpam_API, "spam._C_API", NULL); if (PyModule_Add(m, "_C_API", c_api_object) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } Note that ‘PySpam_API’ is declared ‘static’; otherwise the pointer array would disappear when ‘PyInit_spam()’ terminates! The bulk of the work is in the header file ‘spammodule.h’, which looks like this: #ifndef Py_SPAMMODULE_H #define Py_SPAMMODULE_H #ifdef __cplusplus extern "C" { #endif /* Header file for spammodule */ /* C API functions */ #define PySpam_System_NUM 0 #define PySpam_System_RETURN int #define PySpam_System_PROTO (const char *command) /* Total number of C API pointers */ #define PySpam_API_pointers 1 #ifdef SPAM_MODULE /* This section is used when compiling spammodule.c */ static PySpam_System_RETURN PySpam_System PySpam_System_PROTO; #else /* This section is used in modules that use spammodule's API */ static void **PySpam_API; #define PySpam_System \ (*(PySpam_System_RETURN (*)PySpam_System_PROTO) PySpam_API[PySpam_System_NUM]) /* Return -1 on error, 0 on success. * PyCapsule_Import will set an exception if there's an error. */ static int import_spam(void) { PySpam_API = (void **)PyCapsule_Import("spam._C_API", 0); return (PySpam_API != NULL) ? 0 : -1; } #endif #ifdef __cplusplus } #endif #endif /* !defined(Py_SPAMMODULE_H) */ All that a client module must do in order to have access to the function ‘PySpam_System()’ is to call the function (or rather macro) ‘import_spam()’ in its *note mod_exec: 97e. function: static int client_module_exec(PyObject *m) { if (import_spam() < 0) { return -1; } /* additional initialization can happen here */ return 0; } The main disadvantage of this approach is that the file ‘spammodule.h’ is rather complicated. However, the basic structure is the same for each function that is exported, so it has to be learned only once. Finally it should be mentioned that Capsules offer additional functionality, which is especially useful for memory allocation and deallocation of the pointer stored in a Capsule. The details are described in the Python/C API Reference Manual in the section *note Capsules: 2584. and in the implementation of Capsules (files ‘Include/pycapsule.h’ and ‘Objects/pycapsule.c’ in the Python source code distribution).  File: python.info, Node: Defining Extension Types Tutorial, Next: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics, Prev: Extending Python with C or C++, Up: Creating extensions without third party tools 6.2.2 Defining Extension Types: Tutorial ---------------------------------------- Python allows the writer of a C extension module to define new types that can be manipulated from Python code, much like the built-in *note str: 447. and *note list: 60d. types. The code for all extension types follows a pattern, but there are some details that you need to understand before you can get started. This document is a gentle introduction to the topic. * Menu: * The Basics:: * Adding data and methods to the Basic example:: * Providing finer control over data attributes:: * Supporting cyclic garbage collection:: * Subclassing other types::  File: python.info, Node: The Basics, Next: Adding data and methods to the Basic example, Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial 6.2.2.1 The Basics .................. The *note CPython: 6f1. runtime sees all Python objects as variables of type *note PyObject: 334.*, which serves as a “base type” for all Python objects. The *note PyObject: 334. structure itself only contains the object’s *note reference count: 48e2. and a pointer to the object’s “type object”. This is where the action is; the type object determines which (C) functions get called by the interpreter when, for instance, an attribute gets looked up on an object, a method called, or it is multiplied by another object. These C functions are called “type methods”. So, if you want to define a new extension type, you need to create a new type object. This sort of thing can only be explained by example, so here’s a minimal, but complete, module that defines a new type named ‘Custom’ inside a C extension module ‘custom’: Note: What we’re showing here is the traditional way of defining 'static' extension types. It should be adequate for most uses. The C API also allows defining heap-allocated extension types using the *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. function, which isn’t covered in this tutorial. #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD /* Type-specific fields go here. */ } CustomObject; static PyTypeObject CustomType = { .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "custom.Custom", .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"), .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT, .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew, }; static int custom_module_exec(PyObject *m) { if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = { {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec}, // Just use this while using static types {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED}, {0, NULL} }; static PyModuleDef custom_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "custom", .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.", .m_size = 0, .m_slots = custom_module_slots, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_custom(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module); } Now that’s quite a bit to take in at once, but hopefully bits will seem familiar from the previous chapter. This file defines three things: 1. What a ‘Custom’ 'object' contains: this is the ‘CustomObject’ struct, which is allocated once for each ‘Custom’ instance. 2. How the ‘Custom’ 'type' behaves: this is the ‘CustomType’ struct, which defines a set of flags and function pointers that the interpreter inspects when specific operations are requested. 3. How to define and execute the ‘custom’ module: this is the ‘PyInit_custom’ function and the associated ‘custom_module’ struct for defining the module, and the ‘custom_module_exec’ function to set up a fresh module object. The first bit is: typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD } CustomObject; This is what a Custom object will contain. ‘PyObject_HEAD’ is mandatory at the start of each object struct and defines a field called ‘ob_base’ of type *note PyObject: 334, containing a pointer to a type object and a reference count (these can be accessed using the macros *note Py_TYPE: 77b. and *note Py_REFCNT: 8a8. respectively). The reason for the macro is to abstract away the layout and to enable additional fields in *note debug builds: 1fb. Note: There is no semicolon above after the *note PyObject_HEAD: 12d1. macro. Be wary of adding one by accident: some compilers will complain. Of course, objects generally store additional data besides the standard ‘PyObject_HEAD’ boilerplate; for example, here is the definition for standard Python floats: typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD double ob_fval; } PyFloatObject; The second bit is the definition of the type object. static PyTypeObject CustomType = { .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "custom.Custom", .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"), .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT, .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew, }; Note: We recommend using C99-style designated initializers as above, to avoid listing all the *note PyTypeObject: aa5. fields that you don’t care about and also to avoid caring about the fields’ declaration order. The actual definition of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. in ‘object.h’ has many more *note fields: 98d. than the definition above. The remaining fields will be filled with zeros by the C compiler, and it’s common practice to not specify them explicitly unless you need them. We’re going to pick it apart, one field at a time: .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) This line is mandatory boilerplate to initialize the ‘ob_base’ field mentioned above. .tp_name = "custom.Custom", The name of our type. This will appear in the default textual representation of our objects and in some error messages, for example: >>> "" + custom.Custom() Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> TypeError: can only concatenate str (not "custom.Custom") to str Note that the name is a dotted name that includes both the module name and the name of the type within the module. The module in this case is ‘custom’ and the type is ‘Custom’, so we set the type name to ‘custom.Custom’. Using the real dotted import path is important to make your type compatible with the *note pydoc: b5. and *note pickle: a6. modules. .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, This is so that Python knows how much memory to allocate when creating new ‘Custom’ instances. *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. is only used for variable-sized objects and should otherwise be zero. Note: If you want your type to be subclassable from Python, and your type has the same *note tp_basicsize: 987. as its base type, you may have problems with multiple inheritance. A Python subclass of your type will have to list your type first in its *note __bases__: 1475, or else it will not be able to call your type’s *note __new__(): 57d. method without getting an error. You can avoid this problem by ensuring that your type has a larger value for *note tp_basicsize: 987. than its base type does. Most of the time, this will be true anyway, because either your base type will be *note object: a8c, or else you will be adding data members to your base type, and therefore increasing its size. We set the class flags to *note Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT: 48e3. .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT, All types should include this constant in their flags. It enables all of the members defined until at least Python 3.3. If you need further members, you will need to OR the corresponding flags. We provide a doc string for the type in *note tp_doc: 48e4. .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"), To enable object creation, we have to provide a *note tp_new: 57c. handler. This is the equivalent of the Python method *note __new__(): 57d, but has to be specified explicitly. In this case, we can just use the default implementation provided by the API function *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e5. .tp_new = PyType_GenericNew, Everything else in the file should be familiar, except for some code in ‘custom_module_exec()’: if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } This initializes the ‘Custom’ type, filling in a number of members to the appropriate default values, including *note ob_type: 48e6. that we initially set to ‘NULL’. if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } This adds the type to the module dictionary. This allows us to create ‘Custom’ instances by calling the ‘Custom’ class: >>> import custom >>> mycustom = custom.Custom() That’s it! All that remains is to build it; put the above code in a file called ‘custom.c’, [build-system] requires = ["setuptools"] build-backend = "setuptools.build_meta" [project] name = "custom" version = "1" in a file called ‘pyproject.toml’, and from setuptools import Extension, setup setup(ext_modules=[Extension("custom", ["custom.c"])]) in a file called ‘setup.py’; then typing $ python -m pip install . in a shell should produce a file ‘custom.so’ in a subdirectory and install it; now fire up Python — you should be able to ‘import custom’ and play around with ‘Custom’ objects. That wasn’t so hard, was it? Of course, the current Custom type is pretty uninteresting. It has no data and doesn’t do anything. It can’t even be subclassed.  File: python.info, Node: Adding data and methods to the Basic example, Next: Providing finer control over data attributes, Prev: The Basics, Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial 6.2.2.2 Adding data and methods to the Basic example .................................................... Let’s extend the basic example to add some data and methods. Let’s also make the type usable as a base class. We’ll create a new module, ‘custom2’ that adds these capabilities: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */ typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD PyObject *first; /* first name */ PyObject *last; /* last name */ int number; } CustomObject; static void Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self) { Py_XDECREF(self->first); Py_XDECREF(self->last); Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self); } static PyObject * Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { CustomObject *self; self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->number = 0; } return (PyObject *) self; } static int Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL; if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist, &first, &last, &self->number)) return -1; if (first) { Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first)); } if (last) { Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last)); } return 0; } static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = { {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0, "first name"}, {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0, "last name"}, {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0, "custom number"}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyObject * Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored)) { if (self->first == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first"); return NULL; } if (self->last == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last"); return NULL; } return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = { {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS, "Return the name, combining the first and last name" }, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyTypeObject CustomType = { .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "custom2.Custom", .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"), .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, .tp_new = Custom_new, .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init, .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc, .tp_members = Custom_members, .tp_methods = Custom_methods, }; static int custom_module_exec(PyObject *m) { if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = { {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec}, {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED}, {0, NULL} }; static PyModuleDef custom_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "custom2", .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.", .m_size = 0, .m_slots = custom_module_slots, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_custom2(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module); } This version of the module has a number of changes. The ‘Custom’ type now has three data attributes in its C struct, 'first', 'last', and 'number'. The 'first' and 'last' variables are Python strings containing first and last names. The 'number' attribute is a C integer. The object structure is updated accordingly: typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD PyObject *first; /* first name */ PyObject *last; /* last name */ int number; } CustomObject; Because we now have data to manage, we have to be more careful about object allocation and deallocation. At a minimum, we need a deallocation method: static void Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self) { Py_XDECREF(self->first); Py_XDECREF(self->last); Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self); } which is assigned to the *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. member: .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc, This method first clears the reference counts of the two Python attributes. *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. correctly handles the case where its argument is ‘NULL’ (which might happen here if ‘tp_new’ failed midway). It then calls the *note tp_free: 48e9. member of the object’s type (computed by ‘Py_TYPE(self)’) to free the object’s memory. Note that the object’s type might not be ‘CustomType’, because the object may be an instance of a subclass. Note: The explicit cast to ‘destructor’ above is needed because we defined ‘Custom_dealloc’ to take a ‘CustomObject *’ argument, but the ‘tp_dealloc’ function pointer expects to receive a ‘PyObject *’ argument. Otherwise, the compiler will emit a warning. This is object-oriented polymorphism, in C! We want to make sure that the first and last names are initialized to empty strings, so we provide a ‘tp_new’ implementation: static PyObject * Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { CustomObject *self; self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->number = 0; } return (PyObject *) self; } and install it in the *note tp_new: 57c. member: .tp_new = Custom_new, The ‘tp_new’ handler is responsible for creating (as opposed to initializing) objects of the type. It is exposed in Python as the *note __new__(): 57d. method. It is not required to define a ‘tp_new’ member, and indeed many extension types will simply reuse *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e5. as done in the first version of the ‘Custom’ type above. In this case, we use the ‘tp_new’ handler to initialize the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes to non-‘NULL’ default values. ‘tp_new’ is passed the type being instantiated (not necessarily ‘CustomType’, if a subclass is instantiated) and any arguments passed when the type was called, and is expected to return the instance created. ‘tp_new’ handlers always accept positional and keyword arguments, but they often ignore the arguments, leaving the argument handling to initializer (a.k.a. ‘tp_init’ in C or ‘__init__’ in Python) methods. Note: ‘tp_new’ shouldn’t call ‘tp_init’ explicitly, as the interpreter will do it itself. The ‘tp_new’ implementation calls the *note tp_alloc: 48ea. slot to allocate memory: self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0); Since memory allocation may fail, we must check the *note tp_alloc: 48ea. result against ‘NULL’ before proceeding. Note: We didn’t fill the *note tp_alloc: 48ea. slot ourselves. Rather *note PyType_Ready(): 777. fills it for us by inheriting it from our base class, which is *note object: a8c. by default. Most types use the default allocation strategy. Note: If you are creating a co-operative *note tp_new: 57c. (one that calls a base type’s *note tp_new: 57c. or *note __new__(): 57d.), you must 'not' try to determine what method to call using method resolution order at runtime. Always statically determine what type you are going to call, and call its *note tp_new: 57c. directly, or via ‘type->tp_base->tp_new’. If you do not do this, Python subclasses of your type that also inherit from other Python-defined classes may not work correctly. (Specifically, you may not be able to create instances of such subclasses without getting a *note TypeError: 534.) We also define an initialization function which accepts arguments to provide initial values for our instance: static int Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp; if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|OOi", kwlist, &first, &last, &self->number)) return -1; if (first) { tmp = self->first; Py_INCREF(first); self->first = first; Py_XDECREF(tmp); } if (last) { tmp = self->last; Py_INCREF(last); self->last = last; Py_XDECREF(tmp); } return 0; } by filling the *note tp_init: 57e. slot. .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init, The *note tp_init: 57e. slot is exposed in Python as the *note __init__(): 6ac. method. It is used to initialize an object after it’s created. Initializers always accept positional and keyword arguments, and they should return either ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error. Unlike the ‘tp_new’ handler, there is no guarantee that ‘tp_init’ is called at all (for example, the *note pickle: a6. module by default doesn’t call *note __init__(): 6ac. on unpickled instances). It can also be called multiple times. Anyone can call the ‘__init__()’ method on our objects. For this reason, we have to be extra careful when assigning the new attribute values. We might be tempted, for example to assign the ‘first’ member like this: if (first) { Py_XDECREF(self->first); Py_INCREF(first); self->first = first; } But this would be risky. Our type doesn’t restrict the type of the ‘first’ member, so it could be any kind of object. It could have a destructor that causes code to be executed that tries to access the ‘first’ member; or that destructor could release the *note Global interpreter Lock: 159. and let arbitrary code run in other threads that accesses and modifies our object. To be paranoid and protect ourselves against this possibility, we almost always reassign members before decrementing their reference counts. When don’t we have to do this? * when we absolutely know that the reference count is greater than 1; * when we know that deallocation of the object (1) will neither release the *note GIL: 159. nor cause any calls back into our type’s code; * when decrementing a reference count in a *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. handler on a type which doesn’t support cyclic garbage collection (2). We want to expose our instance variables as attributes. There are a number of ways to do that. The simplest way is to define member definitions: static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = { {"first", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, first), 0, "first name"}, {"last", Py_T_OBJECT_EX, offsetof(CustomObject, last), 0, "last name"}, {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0, "custom number"}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; and put the definitions in the *note tp_members: 48eb. slot: .tp_members = Custom_members, Each member definition has a member name, type, offset, access flags and documentation string. See the *note Generic Attribute Management: 48ec. section below for details. A disadvantage of this approach is that it doesn’t provide a way to restrict the types of objects that can be assigned to the Python attributes. We expect the first and last names to be strings, but any Python objects can be assigned. Further, the attributes can be deleted, setting the C pointers to ‘NULL’. Even though we can make sure the members are initialized to non-‘NULL’ values, the members can be set to ‘NULL’ if the attributes are deleted. We define a single method, ‘Custom.name()’, that outputs the objects name as the concatenation of the first and last names. static PyObject * Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored)) { if (self->first == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "first"); return NULL; } if (self->last == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_AttributeError, "last"); return NULL; } return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } The method is implemented as a C function that takes a ‘Custom’ (or ‘Custom’ subclass) instance as the first argument. Methods always take an instance as the first argument. Methods often take positional and keyword arguments as well, but in this case we don’t take any and don’t need to accept a positional argument tuple or keyword argument dictionary. This method is equivalent to the Python method: def name(self): return "%s %s" % (self.first, self.last) Note that we have to check for the possibility that our ‘first’ and ‘last’ members are ‘NULL’. This is because they can be deleted, in which case they are set to ‘NULL’. It would be better to prevent deletion of these attributes and to restrict the attribute values to be strings. We’ll see how to do that in the next section. Now that we’ve defined the method, we need to create an array of method definitions: static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = { {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS, "Return the name, combining the first and last name" }, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; (note that we used the *note METH_NOARGS: 149f. flag to indicate that the method is expecting no arguments other than 'self') and assign it to the *note tp_methods: 48ed. slot: .tp_methods = Custom_methods, Finally, we’ll make our type usable as a base class for subclassing. We’ve written our methods carefully so far so that they don’t make any assumptions about the type of the object being created or used, so all we need to do is to add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 48ee. to our class flag definition: .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, We rename ‘PyInit_custom()’ to ‘PyInit_custom2()’, update the module name in the *note PyModuleDef: 97d. struct, and update the full class name in the *note PyTypeObject: aa5. struct. Finally, we update our ‘setup.py’ file to include the new module, from setuptools import Extension, setup setup(ext_modules=[ Extension("custom", ["custom.c"]), Extension("custom2", ["custom2.c"]), ]) and then we re-install so that we can ‘import custom2’: $ python -m pip install . ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) This is true when we know that the object is a basic type, like a string or a float. (2) We relied on this in the *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. handler in this example, because our type doesn’t support garbage collection.  File: python.info, Node: Providing finer control over data attributes, Next: Supporting cyclic garbage collection, Prev: Adding data and methods to the Basic example, Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial 6.2.2.3 Providing finer control over data attributes .................................................... In this section, we’ll provide finer control over how the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes are set in the ‘Custom’ example. In the previous version of our module, the instance variables ‘first’ and ‘last’ could be set to non-string values or even deleted. We want to make sure that these attributes always contain strings. #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */ typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD PyObject *first; /* first name */ PyObject *last; /* last name */ int number; } CustomObject; static void Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self) { Py_XDECREF(self->first); Py_XDECREF(self->last); Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self); } static PyObject * Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { CustomObject *self; self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->number = 0; } return (PyObject *) self; } static int Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL; if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist, &first, &last, &self->number)) return -1; if (first) { Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first)); } if (last) { Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last)); } return 0; } static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = { {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0, "custom number"}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyObject * Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure) { return Py_NewRef(self->first); } static int Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { if (value == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute"); return -1; } if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "The first attribute value must be a string"); return -1; } Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value)); return 0; } static PyObject * Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure) { return Py_NewRef(self->last); } static int Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { if (value == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute"); return -1; } if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "The last attribute value must be a string"); return -1; } Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value)); return 0; } static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = { {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst, "first name", NULL}, {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast, "last name", NULL}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyObject * Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored)) { return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = { {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS, "Return the name, combining the first and last name" }, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyTypeObject CustomType = { .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "custom3.Custom", .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"), .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, .tp_new = Custom_new, .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init, .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc, .tp_members = Custom_members, .tp_methods = Custom_methods, .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters, }; static int custom_module_exec(PyObject *m) { if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = { {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec}, {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED}, {0, NULL} }; static PyModuleDef custom_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "custom3", .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.", .m_size = 0, .m_slots = custom_module_slots, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_custom3(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module); } To provide greater control, over the ‘first’ and ‘last’ attributes, we’ll use custom getter and setter functions. Here are the functions for getting and setting the ‘first’ attribute: static PyObject * Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure) { Py_INCREF(self->first); return self->first; } static int Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { PyObject *tmp; if (value == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute"); return -1; } if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "The first attribute value must be a string"); return -1; } tmp = self->first; Py_INCREF(value); self->first = value; Py_DECREF(tmp); return 0; } The getter function is passed a ‘Custom’ object and a “closure”, which is a void pointer. In this case, the closure is ignored. (The closure supports an advanced usage in which definition data is passed to the getter and setter. This could, for example, be used to allow a single set of getter and setter functions that decide the attribute to get or set based on data in the closure.) The setter function is passed the ‘Custom’ object, the new value, and the closure. The new value may be ‘NULL’, in which case the attribute is being deleted. In our setter, we raise an error if the attribute is deleted or if its new value is not a string. We create an array of *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. structures: static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = { {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst, "first name", NULL}, {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast, "last name", NULL}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; and register it in the *note tp_getset: 48f0. slot: .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters, The last item in a *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. structure is the “closure” mentioned above. In this case, we aren’t using a closure, so we just pass ‘NULL’. We also remove the member definitions for these attributes: static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = { {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0, "custom number"}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; We also need to update the *note tp_init: 57e. handler to only allow strings (1) to be passed: static int Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL, *tmp; if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist, &first, &last, &self->number)) return -1; if (first) { tmp = self->first; Py_INCREF(first); self->first = first; Py_DECREF(tmp); } if (last) { tmp = self->last; Py_INCREF(last); self->last = last; Py_DECREF(tmp); } return 0; } With these changes, we can assure that the ‘first’ and ‘last’ members are never ‘NULL’ so we can remove checks for ‘NULL’ values in almost all cases. This means that most of the *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. calls can be converted to *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. calls. The only place we can’t change these calls is in the ‘tp_dealloc’ implementation, where there is the possibility that the initialization of these members failed in ‘tp_new’. We also rename the module initialization function and module name in the initialization function, as we did before, and we add an extra definition to the ‘setup.py’ file. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) We now know that the first and last members are strings, so perhaps we could be less careful about decrementing their reference counts, however, we accept instances of string subclasses. Even though deallocating normal strings won’t call back into our objects, we can’t guarantee that deallocating an instance of a string subclass won’t call back into our objects.  File: python.info, Node: Supporting cyclic garbage collection, Next: Subclassing other types, Prev: Providing finer control over data attributes, Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial 6.2.2.4 Supporting cyclic garbage collection ............................................ Python has a *note cyclic garbage collector (GC): 1919. that can identify unneeded objects even when their reference counts are not zero. This can happen when objects are involved in cycles. For example, consider: >>> l = [] >>> l.append(l) >>> del l In this example, we create a list that contains itself. When we delete it, it still has a reference from itself. Its reference count doesn’t drop to zero. Fortunately, Python’s cyclic garbage collector will eventually figure out that the list is garbage and free it. In the second version of the ‘Custom’ example, we allowed any kind of object to be stored in the ‘first’ or ‘last’ attributes (1). Besides, in the second and third versions, we allowed subclassing ‘Custom’, and subclasses may add arbitrary attributes. For any of those two reasons, ‘Custom’ objects can participate in cycles: >>> import custom3 >>> class Derived(custom3.Custom): pass ... >>> n = Derived() >>> n.some_attribute = n To allow a ‘Custom’ instance participating in a reference cycle to be properly detected and collected by the cyclic GC, our ‘Custom’ type needs to fill two additional slots and to enable a flag that enables these slots: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> #include <stddef.h> /* for offsetof() */ typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD PyObject *first; /* first name */ PyObject *last; /* last name */ int number; } CustomObject; static int Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { Py_VISIT(self->first); Py_VISIT(self->last); return 0; } static int Custom_clear(CustomObject *self) { Py_CLEAR(self->first); Py_CLEAR(self->last); return 0; } static void Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self); Custom_clear(self); Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self); } static PyObject * Custom_new(PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { CustomObject *self; self = (CustomObject *) type->tp_alloc(type, 0); if (self != NULL) { self->first = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->first == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->last = PyUnicode_FromString(""); if (self->last == NULL) { Py_DECREF(self); return NULL; } self->number = 0; } return (PyObject *) self; } static int Custom_init(CustomObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { static char *kwlist[] = {"first", "last", "number", NULL}; PyObject *first = NULL, *last = NULL; if (!PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(args, kwds, "|UUi", kwlist, &first, &last, &self->number)) return -1; if (first) { Py_SETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(first)); } if (last) { Py_SETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(last)); } return 0; } static PyMemberDef Custom_members[] = { {"number", Py_T_INT, offsetof(CustomObject, number), 0, "custom number"}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyObject * Custom_getfirst(CustomObject *self, void *closure) { return Py_NewRef(self->first); } static int Custom_setfirst(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { if (value == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the first attribute"); return -1; } if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "The first attribute value must be a string"); return -1; } Py_XSETREF(self->first, Py_NewRef(value)); return 0; } static PyObject * Custom_getlast(CustomObject *self, void *closure) { return Py_NewRef(self->last); } static int Custom_setlast(CustomObject *self, PyObject *value, void *closure) { if (value == NULL) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "Cannot delete the last attribute"); return -1; } if (!PyUnicode_Check(value)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "The last attribute value must be a string"); return -1; } Py_XSETREF(self->last, Py_NewRef(value)); return 0; } static PyGetSetDef Custom_getsetters[] = { {"first", (getter) Custom_getfirst, (setter) Custom_setfirst, "first name", NULL}, {"last", (getter) Custom_getlast, (setter) Custom_setlast, "last name", NULL}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyObject * Custom_name(CustomObject *self, PyObject *Py_UNUSED(ignored)) { return PyUnicode_FromFormat("%S %S", self->first, self->last); } static PyMethodDef Custom_methods[] = { {"name", (PyCFunction) Custom_name, METH_NOARGS, "Return the name, combining the first and last name" }, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; static PyTypeObject CustomType = { .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "custom4.Custom", .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("Custom objects"), .tp_basicsize = sizeof(CustomObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, .tp_new = Custom_new, .tp_init = (initproc) Custom_init, .tp_dealloc = (destructor) Custom_dealloc, .tp_traverse = (traverseproc) Custom_traverse, .tp_clear = (inquiry) Custom_clear, .tp_members = Custom_members, .tp_methods = Custom_methods, .tp_getset = Custom_getsetters, }; static int custom_module_exec(PyObject *m) { if (PyType_Ready(&CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "Custom", (PyObject *) &CustomType) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } static PyModuleDef_Slot custom_module_slots[] = { {Py_mod_exec, custom_module_exec}, {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED}, {0, NULL} }; static PyModuleDef custom_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "custom4", .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.", .m_size = 0, .m_slots = custom_module_slots, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_custom4(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&custom_module); } First, the traversal method lets the cyclic GC know about subobjects that could participate in cycles: static int Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { int vret; if (self->first) { vret = visit(self->first, arg); if (vret != 0) return vret; } if (self->last) { vret = visit(self->last, arg); if (vret != 0) return vret; } return 0; } For each subobject that can participate in cycles, we need to call the ‘visit()’ function, which is passed to the traversal method. The ‘visit()’ function takes as arguments the subobject and the extra argument 'arg' passed to the traversal method. It returns an integer value that must be returned if it is non-zero. Python provides a *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2. macro that automates calling visit functions. With *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2, we can minimize the amount of boilerplate in ‘Custom_traverse’: static int Custom_traverse(CustomObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { Py_VISIT(self->first); Py_VISIT(self->last); return 0; } Note: The *note tp_traverse: 779. implementation must name its arguments exactly 'visit' and 'arg' in order to use *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2. Second, we need to provide a method for clearing any subobjects that can participate in cycles: static int Custom_clear(CustomObject *self) { Py_CLEAR(self->first); Py_CLEAR(self->last); return 0; } Notice the use of the *note Py_CLEAR(): 575. macro. It is the recommended and safe way to clear data attributes of arbitrary types while decrementing their reference counts. If you were to call *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. instead on the attribute before setting it to ‘NULL’, there is a possibility that the attribute’s destructor would call back into code that reads the attribute again ('especially' if there is a reference cycle). Note: You could emulate *note Py_CLEAR(): 575. by writing: PyObject *tmp; tmp = self->first; self->first = NULL; Py_XDECREF(tmp); Nevertheless, it is much easier and less error-prone to always use *note Py_CLEAR(): 575. when deleting an attribute. Don’t try to micro-optimize at the expense of robustness! The deallocator ‘Custom_dealloc’ may call arbitrary code when clearing attributes. It means the circular GC can be triggered inside the function. Since the GC assumes reference count is not zero, we need to untrack the object from the GC by calling *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. before clearing members. Here is our reimplemented deallocator using *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. and ‘Custom_clear’: static void Custom_dealloc(CustomObject *self) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self); Custom_clear(self); Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self); } Finally, we add the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag to the class flags: .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, That’s pretty much it. If we had written custom *note tp_alloc: 48ea. or *note tp_free: 48e9. handlers, we’d need to modify them for cyclic garbage collection. Most extensions will use the versions automatically provided. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Also, even with our attributes restricted to strings instances, the user could pass arbitrary *note str: 447. subclasses and therefore still create reference cycles.  File: python.info, Node: Subclassing other types, Prev: Supporting cyclic garbage collection, Up: Defining Extension Types Tutorial 6.2.2.5 Subclassing other types ............................... It is possible to create new extension types that are derived from existing types. It is easiest to inherit from the built in types, since an extension can easily use the *note PyTypeObject: aa5. it needs. It can be difficult to share these *note PyTypeObject: aa5. structures between extension modules. In this example we will create a ‘SubList’ type that inherits from the built-in *note list: 60d. type. The new type will be completely compatible with regular lists, but will have an additional ‘increment()’ method that increases an internal counter: >>> import sublist >>> s = sublist.SubList(range(3)) >>> s.extend(s) >>> print(len(s)) 6 >>> print(s.increment()) 1 >>> print(s.increment()) 2 #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> typedef struct { PyListObject list; int state; } SubListObject; static PyObject * SubList_increment(SubListObject *self, PyObject *unused) { self->state++; return PyLong_FromLong(self->state); } static PyMethodDef SubList_methods[] = { {"increment", (PyCFunction) SubList_increment, METH_NOARGS, PyDoc_STR("increment state counter")}, {NULL}, }; static int SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0) return -1; self->state = 0; return 0; } static PyTypeObject SubListType = { .ob_base = PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "sublist.SubList", .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("SubList objects"), .tp_basicsize = sizeof(SubListObject), .tp_itemsize = 0, .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE, .tp_init = (initproc) SubList_init, .tp_methods = SubList_methods, }; static int sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m) { SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type; if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) { return -1; } if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } static PyModuleDef_Slot sublist_module_slots[] = { {Py_mod_exec, sublist_module_exec}, {Py_mod_multiple_interpreters, Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED}, {0, NULL} }; static PyModuleDef sublist_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "sublist", .m_doc = "Example module that creates an extension type.", .m_size = 0, .m_slots = sublist_module_slots, }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_sublist(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&sublist_module); } As you can see, the source code closely resembles the ‘Custom’ examples in previous sections. We will break down the main differences between them. typedef struct { PyListObject list; int state; } SubListObject; The primary difference for derived type objects is that the base type’s object structure must be the first value. The base type will already include the *note PyObject_HEAD(): 12d1. at the beginning of its structure. When a Python object is a ‘SubList’ instance, its ‘PyObject *’ pointer can be safely cast to both ‘PyListObject *’ and ‘SubListObject *’: static int SubList_init(SubListObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { if (PyList_Type.tp_init((PyObject *) self, args, kwds) < 0) return -1; self->state = 0; return 0; } We see above how to call through to the *note __init__(): 6ac. method of the base type. This pattern is important when writing a type with custom *note tp_new: 57c. and *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. members. The *note tp_new: 57c. handler should not actually create the memory for the object with its *note tp_alloc: 48ea, but let the base class handle it by calling its own *note tp_new: 57c. The *note PyTypeObject: aa5. struct supports a *note tp_base: 48f4. specifying the type’s concrete base class. Due to cross-platform compiler issues, you can’t fill that field directly with a reference to *note PyList_Type: 48f5.; it should be done in the *note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function: static int sublist_module_exec(PyObject *m) { SubListType.tp_base = &PyList_Type; if (PyType_Ready(&SubListType) < 0) { return -1; } if (PyModule_AddObjectRef(m, "SubList", (PyObject *) &SubListType) < 0) { return -1; } return 0; } Before calling *note PyType_Ready(): 777, the type structure must have the *note tp_base: 48f4. slot filled in. When we are deriving an existing type, it is not necessary to fill out the *note tp_alloc: 48ea. slot with *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e5. – the allocation function from the base type will be inherited. After that, calling *note PyType_Ready(): 777. and adding the type object to the module is the same as with the basic ‘Custom’ examples.  File: python.info, Node: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics, Next: Building C and C++ Extensions, Prev: Defining Extension Types Tutorial, Up: Creating extensions without third party tools 6.2.3 Defining Extension Types: Assorted Topics ----------------------------------------------- This section aims to give a quick fly-by on the various type methods you can implement and what they do. Here is the definition of *note PyTypeObject: aa5, with some fields only used in *note debug builds: 1fb. omitted: typedef struct _typeobject { PyObject_VAR_HEAD const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */ Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */ /* Methods to implement standard operations */ destructor tp_dealloc; Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset; getattrfunc tp_getattr; setattrfunc tp_setattr; PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2) or tp_reserved (Python 3) */ reprfunc tp_repr; /* Method suites for standard classes */ PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number; PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence; PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping; /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */ hashfunc tp_hash; ternaryfunc tp_call; reprfunc tp_str; getattrofunc tp_getattro; setattrofunc tp_setattro; /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */ PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer; /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */ unsigned long tp_flags; const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */ /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */ /* call function for all accessible objects */ traverseproc tp_traverse; /* delete references to contained objects */ inquiry tp_clear; /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */ /* rich comparisons */ richcmpfunc tp_richcompare; /* weak reference enabler */ Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset; /* Iterators */ getiterfunc tp_iter; iternextfunc tp_iternext; /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */ struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods; struct PyMemberDef *tp_members; struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset; // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type struct _typeobject *tp_base; PyObject *tp_dict; descrgetfunc tp_descr_get; descrsetfunc tp_descr_set; Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset; initproc tp_init; allocfunc tp_alloc; newfunc tp_new; freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */ inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */ PyObject *tp_bases; PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */ PyObject *tp_cache; PyObject *tp_subclasses; PyObject *tp_weaklist; destructor tp_del; /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */ unsigned int tp_version_tag; destructor tp_finalize; vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall; /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */ unsigned char tp_watched; } PyTypeObject; Now that’s a 'lot' of methods. Don’t worry too much though – if you have a type you want to define, the chances are very good that you will only implement a handful of these. As you probably expect by now, we’re going to go over this and give more information about the various handlers. We won’t go in the order they are defined in the structure, because there is a lot of historical baggage that impacts the ordering of the fields. It’s often easiest to find an example that includes the fields you need and then change the values to suit your new type. const char *tp_name; /* For printing */ The name of the type – as mentioned in the previous chapter, this will appear in various places, almost entirely for diagnostic purposes. Try to choose something that will be helpful in such a situation! Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */ These fields tell the runtime how much memory to allocate when new objects of this type are created. Python has some built-in support for variable length structures (think: strings, tuples) which is where the *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. field comes in. This will be dealt with later. const char *tp_doc; Here you can put a string (or its address) that you want returned when the Python script references ‘obj.__doc__’ to retrieve the doc string. Now we come to the basic type methods – the ones most extension types will implement. * Menu: * Finalization and De-allocation:: * Object Presentation:: * Attribute Management:: * Object Comparison:: * Abstract Protocol Support:: * Weak Reference Support:: * More Suggestions::  File: python.info, Node: Finalization and De-allocation, Next: Object Presentation, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.1 Finalization and De-allocation ...................................... destructor tp_dealloc; This function is called when the reference count of the instance of your type is reduced to zero and the Python interpreter wants to reclaim it. If your type has memory to free or other clean-up to perform, you can put it here. The object itself needs to be freed here as well. Here is an example of this function: static void newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj) { free(obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr); Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj); } If your type supports garbage collection, the destructor should call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. before clearing any member fields: static void newdatatype_dealloc(newdatatypeobject *obj) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(obj); Py_CLEAR(obj->other_obj); ... Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject *)obj); } One important requirement of the deallocator function is that it leaves any pending exceptions alone. This is important since deallocators are frequently called as the interpreter unwinds the Python stack; when the stack is unwound due to an exception (rather than normal returns), nothing is done to protect the deallocators from seeing that an exception has already been set. Any actions which a deallocator performs which may cause additional Python code to be executed may detect that an exception has been set. This can lead to misleading errors from the interpreter. The proper way to protect against this is to save a pending exception before performing the unsafe action, and restoring it when done. This can be done using the *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. and *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2. functions: static void my_dealloc(PyObject *obj) { MyObject *self = (MyObject *) obj; PyObject *cbresult; if (self->my_callback != NULL) { PyObject *err_type, *err_value, *err_traceback; /* This saves the current exception state */ PyErr_Fetch(&err_type, &err_value, &err_traceback); cbresult = PyObject_CallNoArgs(self->my_callback); if (cbresult == NULL) PyErr_WriteUnraisable(self->my_callback); else Py_DECREF(cbresult); /* This restores the saved exception state */ PyErr_Restore(err_type, err_value, err_traceback); Py_DECREF(self->my_callback); } Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_free((PyObject*)self); } Note: There are limitations to what you can safely do in a deallocator function. First, if your type supports garbage collection (using *note tp_traverse: 779. and/or *note tp_clear: 48fb.), some of the object’s members can have been cleared or finalized by the time *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. is called. Second, in *note tp_dealloc: 48e8, your object is in an unstable state: its reference count is equal to zero. Any call to a non-trivial object or API (as in the example above) might end up calling *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. again, causing a double free and a crash. Starting with Python 3.4, it is recommended not to put any complex finalization code in *note tp_dealloc: 48e8, and instead use the new *note tp_finalize: aa6. type method. See also ........ PEP 442(1) explains the new finalization scheme. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/  File: python.info, Node: Object Presentation, Next: Attribute Management, Prev: Finalization and De-allocation, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.2 Object Presentation ........................... In Python, there are two ways to generate a textual representation of an object: the *note repr(): 7f9. function, and the *note str(): 447. function. (The *note print(): f70. function just calls *note str(): 447.) These handlers are both optional. reprfunc tp_repr; reprfunc tp_str; The *note tp_repr: 48fd. handler should return a string object containing a representation of the instance for which it is called. Here is a simple example: static PyObject * newdatatype_repr(newdatatypeobject *obj) { return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Repr-ified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}", obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size); } If no *note tp_repr: 48fd. handler is specified, the interpreter will supply a representation that uses the type’s *note tp_name: 18f2. and a uniquely identifying value for the object. The *note tp_str: 48fe. handler is to *note str(): 447. what the *note tp_repr: 48fd. handler described above is to *note repr(): 7f9.; that is, it is called when Python code calls *note str(): 447. on an instance of your object. Its implementation is very similar to the *note tp_repr: 48fd. function, but the resulting string is intended for human consumption. If *note tp_str: 48fe. is not specified, the *note tp_repr: 48fd. handler is used instead. Here is a simple example: static PyObject * newdatatype_str(newdatatypeobject *obj) { return PyUnicode_FromFormat("Stringified_newdatatype{{size:%d}}", obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size); }  File: python.info, Node: Attribute Management, Next: Object Comparison, Prev: Object Presentation, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.3 Attribute Management ............................ For every object which can support attributes, the corresponding type must provide the functions that control how the attributes are resolved. There needs to be a function which can retrieve attributes (if any are defined), and another to set attributes (if setting attributes is allowed). Removing an attribute is a special case, for which the new value passed to the handler is ‘NULL’. Python supports two pairs of attribute handlers; a type that supports attributes only needs to implement the functions for one pair. The difference is that one pair takes the name of the attribute as a char*, while the other accepts a *note PyObject: 334.*. Each type can use whichever pair makes more sense for the implementation’s convenience. getattrfunc tp_getattr; /* char * version */ setattrfunc tp_setattr; /* ... */ getattrofunc tp_getattro; /* PyObject * version */ setattrofunc tp_setattro; If accessing attributes of an object is always a simple operation (this will be explained shortly), there are generic implementations which can be used to provide the *note PyObject: 334.* version of the attribute management functions. The actual need for type-specific attribute handlers almost completely disappeared starting with Python 2.2, though there are many examples which have not been updated to use some of the new generic mechanism that is available. * Menu: * Generic Attribute Management:: * Type-specific Attribute Management::  File: python.info, Node: Generic Attribute Management, Next: Type-specific Attribute Management, Up: Attribute Management 6.2.3.4 Generic Attribute Management .................................... Most extension types only use 'simple' attributes. So, what makes the attributes simple? There are only a couple of conditions that must be met: 1. The name of the attributes must be known when *note PyType_Ready(): 777. is called. 2. No special processing is needed to record that an attribute was looked up or set, nor do actions need to be taken based on the value. Note that this list does not place any restrictions on the values of the attributes, when the values are computed, or how relevant data is stored. When *note PyType_Ready(): 777. is called, it uses three tables referenced by the type object to create *note descriptor: 1572.s which are placed in the dictionary of the type object. Each descriptor controls access to one attribute of the instance object. Each of the tables is optional; if all three are ‘NULL’, instances of the type will only have attributes that are inherited from their base type, and should leave the *note tp_getattro: 16f2. and *note tp_setattro: 4901. fields ‘NULL’ as well, allowing the base type to handle attributes. The tables are declared as three fields of the type object: struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods; struct PyMemberDef *tp_members; struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset; If *note tp_methods: 48ed. is not ‘NULL’, it must refer to an array of *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. structures. Each entry in the table is an instance of this structure: typedef struct PyMethodDef { const char *ml_name; /* method name */ PyCFunction ml_meth; /* implementation function */ int ml_flags; /* flags */ const char *ml_doc; /* docstring */ } PyMethodDef; One entry should be defined for each method provided by the type; no entries are needed for methods inherited from a base type. One additional entry is needed at the end; it is a sentinel that marks the end of the array. The *note ml_name: 4902. field of the sentinel must be ‘NULL’. The second table is used to define attributes which map directly to data stored in the instance. A variety of primitive C types are supported, and access may be read-only or read-write. The structures in the table are defined as: typedef struct PyMemberDef { const char *name; int type; int offset; int flags; const char *doc; } PyMemberDef; For each entry in the table, a *note descriptor: 1572. will be constructed and added to the type which will be able to extract a value from the instance structure. The *note type: 4903. field should contain a type code like *note Py_T_INT: 58c. or *note Py_T_DOUBLE: 58d.; the value will be used to determine how to convert Python values to and from C values. The *note flags: 4904. field is used to store flags which control how the attribute can be accessed: you can set it to *note Py_READONLY: 58e. to prevent Python code from setting it. An interesting advantage of using the *note tp_members: 48eb. table to build descriptors that are used at runtime is that any attribute defined this way can have an associated doc string simply by providing the text in the table. An application can use the introspection API to retrieve the descriptor from the class object, and get the doc string using its *note __doc__: 1cac. attribute. As with the *note tp_methods: 48ed. table, a sentinel entry with a *note ml_name: 4902. value of ‘NULL’ is required.  File: python.info, Node: Type-specific Attribute Management, Prev: Generic Attribute Management, Up: Attribute Management 6.2.3.5 Type-specific Attribute Management .......................................... For simplicity, only the char* version will be demonstrated here; the type of the name parameter is the only difference between the char* and *note PyObject: 334.* flavors of the interface. This example effectively does the same thing as the generic example above, but does not use the generic support added in Python 2.2. It explains how the handler functions are called, so that if you do need to extend their functionality, you’ll understand what needs to be done. The *note tp_getattr: 4906. handler is called when the object requires an attribute look-up. It is called in the same situations where the *note __getattr__(): 4cf. method of a class would be called. Here is an example: static PyObject * newdatatype_getattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name) { if (strcmp(name, "data") == 0) { return PyLong_FromLong(obj->data); } PyErr_Format(PyExc_AttributeError, "'%.100s' object has no attribute '%.400s'", Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_name, name); return NULL; } The *note tp_setattr: 4907. handler is called when the *note __setattr__(): 1f2d. or *note __delattr__(): 1f2e. method of a class instance would be called. When an attribute should be deleted, the third parameter will be ‘NULL’. Here is an example that simply raises an exception; if this were really all you wanted, the *note tp_setattr: 4907. handler should be set to ‘NULL’. static int newdatatype_setattr(newdatatypeobject *obj, char *name, PyObject *v) { PyErr_Format(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Read-only attribute: %s", name); return -1; }  File: python.info, Node: Object Comparison, Next: Abstract Protocol Support, Prev: Attribute Management, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.6 Object Comparison ......................... richcmpfunc tp_richcompare; The *note tp_richcompare: 4909. handler is called when comparisons are needed. It is analogous to the *note rich comparison methods: 1f62, like ‘__lt__()’, and also called by *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490a. and *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19a2. This function is called with two Python objects and the operator as arguments, where the operator is one of ‘Py_EQ’, ‘Py_NE’, ‘Py_LE’, ‘Py_GE’, ‘Py_LT’ or ‘Py_GT’. It should compare the two objects with respect to the specified operator and return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ if the comparison is successful, ‘Py_NotImplemented’ to indicate that comparison is not implemented and the other object’s comparison method should be tried, or ‘NULL’ if an exception was set. Here is a sample implementation, for a datatype that is considered equal if the size of an internal pointer is equal: static PyObject * newdatatype_richcmp(newdatatypeobject *obj1, newdatatypeobject *obj2, int op) { PyObject *result; int c, size1, size2; /* code to make sure that both arguments are of type newdatatype omitted */ size1 = obj1->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size; size2 = obj2->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size; switch (op) { case Py_LT: c = size1 < size2; break; case Py_LE: c = size1 <= size2; break; case Py_EQ: c = size1 == size2; break; case Py_NE: c = size1 != size2; break; case Py_GT: c = size1 > size2; break; case Py_GE: c = size1 >= size2; break; } result = c ? Py_True : Py_False; Py_INCREF(result); return result; }  File: python.info, Node: Abstract Protocol Support, Next: Weak Reference Support, Prev: Object Comparison, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.7 Abstract Protocol Support ................................. Python supports a variety of 'abstract' ‘protocols;’ the specific interfaces provided to use these interfaces are documented in *note Abstract Objects Layer: 490c. A number of these abstract interfaces were defined early in the development of the Python implementation. In particular, the number, mapping, and sequence protocols have been part of Python since the beginning. Other protocols have been added over time. For protocols which depend on several handler routines from the type implementation, the older protocols have been defined as optional blocks of handlers referenced by the type object. For newer protocols there are additional slots in the main type object, with a flag bit being set to indicate that the slots are present and should be checked by the interpreter. (The flag bit does not indicate that the slot values are non-‘NULL’. The flag may be set to indicate the presence of a slot, but a slot may still be unfilled.) PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number; PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence; PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping; If you wish your object to be able to act like a number, a sequence, or a mapping object, then you place the address of a structure that implements the C type *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9, *note PySequenceMethods: 490d, or *note PyMappingMethods: 490e, respectively. It is up to you to fill in this structure with appropriate values. You can find examples of the use of each of these in the ‘Objects’ directory of the Python source distribution. hashfunc tp_hash; This function, if you choose to provide it, should return a hash number for an instance of your data type. Here is a simple example: static Py_hash_t newdatatype_hash(newdatatypeobject *obj) { Py_hash_t result; result = obj->some_size + 32767 * obj->some_number; if (result == -1) result = -2; return result; } *note Py_hash_t: 1257. is a signed integer type with a platform-varying width. Returning ‘-1’ from *note tp_hash: 490f. indicates an error, which is why you should be careful to avoid returning it when hash computation is successful, as seen above. ternaryfunc tp_call; This function is called when an instance of your data type is “called”, for example, if ‘obj1’ is an instance of your data type and the Python script contains ‘obj1('hello')’, the *note tp_call: 556. handler is invoked. This function takes three arguments: 1. 'self' is the instance of the data type which is the subject of the call. If the call is ‘obj1('hello')’, then 'self' is ‘obj1’. 2. 'args' is a tuple containing the arguments to the call. You can use *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. to extract the arguments. 3. 'kwds' is a dictionary of keyword arguments that were passed. If this is non-‘NULL’ and you support keyword arguments, use *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. to extract the arguments. If you do not want to support keyword arguments and this is non-‘NULL’, raise a *note TypeError: 534. with a message saying that keyword arguments are not supported. Here is a toy ‘tp_call’ implementation: static PyObject * newdatatype_call(newdatatypeobject *obj, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) { PyObject *result; const char *arg1; const char *arg2; const char *arg3; if (!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "sss:call", &arg1, &arg2, &arg3)) { return NULL; } result = PyUnicode_FromFormat( "Returning -- value: [%d] arg1: [%s] arg2: [%s] arg3: [%s]\n", obj->obj_UnderlyingDatatypePtr->size, arg1, arg2, arg3); return result; } /* Iterators */ getiterfunc tp_iter; iternextfunc tp_iternext; These functions provide support for the iterator protocol. Both handlers take exactly one parameter, the instance for which they are being called, and return a new reference. In the case of an error, they should set an exception and return ‘NULL’. *note tp_iter: 14b9. corresponds to the Python *note __iter__(): 1f5c. method, while *note tp_iternext: 14ba. corresponds to the Python *note __next__(): 12c0. method. Any *note iterable: 121a. object must implement the *note tp_iter: 14b9. handler, which must return an *note iterator: 1ac. object. Here the same guidelines apply as for Python classes: * For collections (such as lists and tuples) which can support multiple independent iterators, a new iterator should be created and returned by each call to *note tp_iter: 14b9. * Objects which can only be iterated over once (usually due to side effects of iteration, such as file objects) can implement *note tp_iter: 14b9. by returning a new reference to themselves – and should also therefore implement the *note tp_iternext: 14ba. handler. Any *note iterator: 1ac. object should implement both *note tp_iter: 14b9. and *note tp_iternext: 14ba. An iterator’s *note tp_iter: 14b9. handler should return a new reference to the iterator. Its *note tp_iternext: 14ba. handler should return a new reference to the next object in the iteration, if there is one. If the iteration has reached the end, *note tp_iternext: 14ba. may return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception, or it may set *note StopIteration: bfa. 'in addition' to returning ‘NULL’; avoiding the exception can yield slightly better performance. If an actual error occurs, *note tp_iternext: 14ba. should always set an exception and return ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: Weak Reference Support, Next: More Suggestions, Prev: Abstract Protocol Support, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.8 Weak Reference Support .............................. One of the goals of Python’s weak reference implementation is to allow any type to participate in the weak reference mechanism without incurring the overhead on performance-critical objects (such as numbers). See also ........ Documentation for the *note weakref: 114. module. For an object to be weakly referenceable, the extension type must set the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF’ bit of the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field. The legacy *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988. field should be left as zero. Concretely, here is how the statically declared type object would look: static PyTypeObject TrivialType = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) /* ... other members omitted for brevity ... */ .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF | ..., }; The only further addition is that ‘tp_dealloc’ needs to clear any weak references (by calling *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 573.): static void Trivial_dealloc(TrivialObject *self) { /* Clear weakrefs first before calling any destructors */ PyObject_ClearWeakRefs((PyObject *) self); /* ... remainder of destruction code omitted for brevity ... */ Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *) self); }  File: python.info, Node: More Suggestions, Prev: Weak Reference Support, Up: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics 6.2.3.9 More Suggestions ........................ In order to learn how to implement any specific method for your new data type, get the *note CPython: 6f1. source code. Go to the ‘Objects’ directory, then search the C source files for ‘tp_’ plus the function you want (for example, ‘tp_richcompare’). You will find examples of the function you want to implement. When you need to verify that an object is a concrete instance of the type you are implementing, use the *note PyObject_TypeCheck(): 18f7. function. A sample of its use might be something like the following: if (!PyObject_TypeCheck(some_object, &MyType)) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, "arg #1 not a mything"); return NULL; } See also ........ Download CPython source releases. ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/source/’ The CPython project on GitHub, where the CPython source code is developed. ‘https://github.com/python/cpython’  File: python.info, Node: Building C and C++ Extensions, Next: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows, Prev: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics, Up: Creating extensions without third party tools 6.2.4 Building C and C++ Extensions ----------------------------------- A C extension for CPython is a shared library (e.g. a ‘.so’ file on Linux, ‘.pyd’ on Windows), which exports an 'initialization function'. To be importable, the shared library must be available on *note PYTHONPATH: 1016, and must be named after the module name, with an appropriate extension. When using setuptools, the correct filename is generated automatically. The initialization function has the signature: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyInit_modulename (void) It returns either a fully initialized module, or a *note PyModuleDef: 97d. instance. See *note Initializing C modules: 4915. for details. For modules with ASCII-only names, the function must be named ‘PyInit_<NAME>’, with ‘<name>’ replaced by the name of the module. When using *note Multi-phase initialization: 4916, non-ASCII module names are allowed. In this case, the initialization function name is ‘PyInitU_<NAME>’, with ‘<name>’ encoded using Python’s 'punycode' encoding with hyphens replaced by underscores. In Python: def initfunc_name(name): try: suffix = b'_' + name.encode('ascii') except UnicodeEncodeError: suffix = b'U_' + name.encode('punycode').replace(b'-', b'_') return b'PyInit' + suffix It is possible to export multiple modules from a single shared library by defining multiple initialization functions. However, importing them requires using symbolic links or a custom importer, because by default only the function corresponding to the filename is found. See the '“Multiple modules in one library”' section in PEP 489(1) for details. * Menu: * Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools, Up: Building C and C++ Extensions 6.2.4.1 Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools ..................................................... Python 3.12 and newer no longer come with distutils. Please refer to the ‘setuptools’ documentation at ‘https://setuptools.readthedocs.io/en/latest/setuptools.html’ to learn more about how build and distribute C/C++ extensions with setuptools.  File: python.info, Node: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows, Prev: Building C and C++ Extensions, Up: Creating extensions without third party tools 6.2.5 Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows ---------------------------------------------- This chapter briefly explains how to create a Windows extension module for Python using Microsoft Visual C++, and follows with more detailed background information on how it works. The explanatory material is useful for both the Windows programmer learning to build Python extensions and the Unix programmer interested in producing software which can be successfully built on both Unix and Windows. Module authors are encouraged to use the distutils approach for building extension modules, instead of the one described in this section. You will still need the C compiler that was used to build Python; typically Microsoft Visual C++. Note: This chapter mentions a number of filenames that include an encoded Python version number. These filenames are represented with the version number shown as ‘XY’; in practice, ‘'X'’ will be the major version number and ‘'Y'’ will be the minor version number of the Python release you’re working with. For example, if you are using Python 2.2.1, ‘XY’ will actually be ‘22’. * Menu: * A Cookbook Approach:: * Differences Between Unix and Windows:: * Using DLLs in Practice::  File: python.info, Node: A Cookbook Approach, Next: Differences Between Unix and Windows, Up: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows 6.2.5.1 A Cookbook Approach ........................... There are two approaches to building extension modules on Windows, just as there are on Unix: use the ‘setuptools’ package to control the build process, or do things manually. The setuptools approach works well for most extensions; documentation on using ‘setuptools’ to build and package extension modules is available in *note Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools: ef2. If you find you really need to do things manually, it may be instructive to study the project file for the winsound(1) standard library module. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/PCbuild/winsound.vcxproj  File: python.info, Node: Differences Between Unix and Windows, Next: Using DLLs in Practice, Prev: A Cookbook Approach, Up: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows 6.2.5.2 Differences Between Unix and Windows ............................................ Unix and Windows use completely different paradigms for run-time loading of code. Before you try to build a module that can be dynamically loaded, be aware of how your system works. In Unix, a shared object (‘.so’) file contains code to be used by the program, and also the names of functions and data that it expects to find in the program. When the file is joined to the program, all references to those functions and data in the file’s code are changed to point to the actual locations in the program where the functions and data are placed in memory. This is basically a link operation. In Windows, a dynamic-link library (‘.dll’) file has no dangling references. Instead, an access to functions or data goes through a lookup table. So the DLL code does not have to be fixed up at runtime to refer to the program’s memory; instead, the code already uses the DLL’s lookup table, and the lookup table is modified at runtime to point to the functions and data. In Unix, there is only one type of library file (‘.a’) which contains code from several object files (‘.o’). During the link step to create a shared object file (‘.so’), the linker may find that it doesn’t know where an identifier is defined. The linker will look for it in the object files in the libraries; if it finds it, it will include all the code from that object file. In Windows, there are two types of library, a static library and an import library (both called ‘.lib’). A static library is like a Unix ‘.a’ file; it contains code to be included as necessary. An import library is basically used only to reassure the linker that a certain identifier is legal, and will be present in the program when the DLL is loaded. So the linker uses the information from the import library to build the lookup table for using identifiers that are not included in the DLL. When an application or a DLL is linked, an import library may be generated, which will need to be used for all future DLLs that depend on the symbols in the application or DLL. Suppose you are building two dynamic-load modules, B and C, which should share another block of code A. On Unix, you would 'not' pass ‘A.a’ to the linker for ‘B.so’ and ‘C.so’; that would cause it to be included twice, so that B and C would each have their own copy. In Windows, building ‘A.dll’ will also build ‘A.lib’. You 'do' pass ‘A.lib’ to the linker for B and C. ‘A.lib’ does not contain code; it just contains information which will be used at runtime to access A’s code. In Windows, using an import library is sort of like using ‘import spam’; it gives you access to spam’s names, but does not create a separate copy. On Unix, linking with a library is more like ‘from spam import *’; it does create a separate copy.  File: python.info, Node: Using DLLs in Practice, Prev: Differences Between Unix and Windows, Up: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows 6.2.5.3 Using DLLs in Practice .............................. Windows Python is built in Microsoft Visual C++; using other compilers may or may not work. The rest of this section is MSVC++ specific. When creating DLLs in Windows, you must pass ‘pythonXY.lib’ to the linker. To build two DLLs, spam and ni (which uses C functions found in spam), you could use these commands: cl /LD /I/python/include spam.c ../libs/pythonXY.lib cl /LD /I/python/include ni.c spam.lib ../libs/pythonXY.lib The first command created three files: ‘spam.obj’, ‘spam.dll’ and ‘spam.lib’. ‘Spam.dll’ does not contain any Python functions (such as *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.), but it does know how to find the Python code thanks to ‘pythonXY.lib’. The second command created ‘ni.dll’ (and ‘.obj’ and ‘.lib’), which knows how to find the necessary functions from spam, and also from the Python executable. Not every identifier is exported to the lookup table. If you want any other modules (including Python) to be able to see your identifiers, you have to say ‘_declspec(dllexport)’, as in ‘void _declspec(dllexport) initspam(void)’ or ‘PyObject _declspec(dllexport) *NiGetSpamData(void)’. Developer Studio will throw in a lot of import libraries that you do not really need, adding about 100K to your executable. To get rid of them, use the Project Settings dialog, Link tab, to specify 'ignore default libraries'. Add the correct ‘msvcrt`xx'.lib’ to the list of libraries.  File: python.info, Node: Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application, Prev: Creating extensions without third party tools, Up: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter 6.3 Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application ========================================================= Sometimes, rather than creating an extension that runs inside the Python interpreter as the main application, it is desirable to instead embed the CPython runtime inside a larger application. This section covers some of the details involved in doing that successfully. * Menu: * Embedding Python in Another Application::  File: python.info, Node: Embedding Python in Another Application, Up: Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application 6.3.1 Embedding Python in Another Application --------------------------------------------- The previous chapters discussed how to extend Python, that is, how to extend the functionality of Python by attaching a library of C functions to it. It is also possible to do it the other way around: enrich your C/C++ application by embedding Python in it. Embedding provides your application with the ability to implement some of the functionality of your application in Python rather than C or C++. This can be used for many purposes; one example would be to allow users to tailor the application to their needs by writing some scripts in Python. You can also use it yourself if some of the functionality can be written in Python more easily. Embedding Python is similar to extending it, but not quite. The difference is that when you extend Python, the main program of the application is still the Python interpreter, while if you embed Python, the main program may have nothing to do with Python — instead, some parts of the application occasionally call the Python interpreter to run some Python code. So if you are embedding Python, you are providing your own main program. One of the things this main program has to do is initialize the Python interpreter. At the very least, you have to call the function *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. There are optional calls to pass command line arguments to Python. Then later you can call the interpreter from any part of the application. There are several different ways to call the interpreter: you can pass a string containing Python statements to *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4923, or you can pass a stdio file pointer and a file name (for identification in error messages only) to *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4924. You can also call the lower-level operations described in the previous chapters to construct and use Python objects. See also ........ *note Python/C API Reference Manual: 1bdb. The details of Python’s C interface are given in this manual. A great deal of necessary information can be found here. * Menu: * Very High Level Embedding:: * Beyond Very High Level Embedding; An overview: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview. * Pure Embedding:: * Extending Embedded Python:: * Embedding Python in C++:: * Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems::  File: python.info, Node: Very High Level Embedding, Next: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview, Up: Embedding Python in Another Application 6.3.1.1 Very High Level Embedding ................................. The simplest form of embedding Python is the use of the very high level interface. This interface is intended to execute a Python script without needing to interact with the application directly. This can for example be used to perform some operation on a file. #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { PyStatus status; PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); /* optional but recommended */ status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, argv[0]); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } PyConfig_Clear(&config); PyRun_SimpleString("from time import time,ctime\n" "print('Today is', ctime(time()))\n"); if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) { exit(120); } return 0; exception: PyConfig_Clear(&config); Py_ExitStatusException(status); } Note: ‘#define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was used to indicate that ‘Py_ssize_t’ should be used in some APIs instead of ‘int’. It is not necessary since Python 3.13, but we keep it here for backward compatibility. See *note Strings and buffers: 386. for a description of this macro. Setting *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. should be called before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. to inform the interpreter about paths to Python run-time libraries. Next, the Python interpreter is initialized with *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, followed by the execution of a hard-coded Python script that prints the date and time. Afterwards, the *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. call shuts the interpreter down, followed by the end of the program. In a real program, you may want to get the Python script from another source, perhaps a text-editor routine, a file, or a database. Getting the Python code from a file can better be done by using the *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4924. function, which saves you the trouble of allocating memory space and loading the file contents.  File: python.info, Node: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview, Next: Pure Embedding, Prev: Very High Level Embedding, Up: Embedding Python in Another Application 6.3.1.2 Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview ..................................................... The high level interface gives you the ability to execute arbitrary pieces of Python code from your application, but exchanging data values is quite cumbersome to say the least. If you want that, you should use lower level calls. At the cost of having to write more C code, you can achieve almost anything. It should be noted that extending Python and embedding Python is quite the same activity, despite the different intent. Most topics discussed in the previous chapters are still valid. To show this, consider what the extension code from Python to C really does: 1. Convert data values from Python to C, 2. Perform a function call to a C routine using the converted values, and 3. Convert the data values from the call from C to Python. When embedding Python, the interface code does: 1. Convert data values from C to Python, 2. Perform a function call to a Python interface routine using the converted values, and 3. Convert the data values from the call from Python to C. As you can see, the data conversion steps are simply swapped to accommodate the different direction of the cross-language transfer. The only difference is the routine that you call between both data conversions. When extending, you call a C routine, when embedding, you call a Python routine. This chapter will not discuss how to convert data from Python to C and vice versa. Also, proper use of references and dealing with errors is assumed to be understood. Since these aspects do not differ from extending the interpreter, you can refer to earlier chapters for the required information.  File: python.info, Node: Pure Embedding, Next: Extending Embedded Python, Prev: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview, Up: Embedding Python in Another Application 6.3.1.3 Pure Embedding ...................... The first program aims to execute a function in a Python script. Like in the section about the very high level interface, the Python interpreter does not directly interact with the application (but that will change in the next section). The code to run a function defined in a Python script is: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> int main(int argc, char *argv[]) { PyObject *pName, *pModule, *pFunc; PyObject *pArgs, *pValue; int i; if (argc < 3) { fprintf(stderr,"Usage: call pythonfile funcname [args]\n"); return 1; } Py_Initialize(); pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]); /* Error checking of pName left out */ pModule = PyImport_Import(pName); Py_DECREF(pName); if (pModule != NULL) { pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]); /* pFunc is a new reference */ if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) { pArgs = PyTuple_New(argc - 3); for (i = 0; i < argc - 3; ++i) { pValue = PyLong_FromLong(atoi(argv[i + 3])); if (!pValue) { Py_DECREF(pArgs); Py_DECREF(pModule); fprintf(stderr, "Cannot convert argument\n"); return 1; } /* pValue reference stolen here: */ PyTuple_SetItem(pArgs, i, pValue); } pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs); Py_DECREF(pArgs); if (pValue != NULL) { printf("Result of call: %ld\n", PyLong_AsLong(pValue)); Py_DECREF(pValue); } else { Py_DECREF(pFunc); Py_DECREF(pModule); PyErr_Print(); fprintf(stderr,"Call failed\n"); return 1; } } else { if (PyErr_Occurred()) PyErr_Print(); fprintf(stderr, "Cannot find function \"%s\"\n", argv[2]); } Py_XDECREF(pFunc); Py_DECREF(pModule); } else { PyErr_Print(); fprintf(stderr, "Failed to load \"%s\"\n", argv[1]); return 1; } if (Py_FinalizeEx() < 0) { return 120; } return 0; } This code loads a Python script using ‘argv[1]’, and calls the function named in ‘argv[2]’. Its integer arguments are the other values of the ‘argv’ array. If you *note compile and link: 492b. this program (let’s call the finished executable ‘call’), and use it to execute a Python script, such as: def multiply(a,b): print("Will compute", a, "times", b) c = 0 for i in range(0, a): c = c + b return c then the result should be: $ call multiply multiply 3 2 Will compute 3 times 2 Result of call: 6 Although the program is quite large for its functionality, most of the code is for data conversion between Python and C, and for error reporting. The interesting part with respect to embedding Python starts with Py_Initialize(); pName = PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(argv[1]); /* Error checking of pName left out */ pModule = PyImport_Import(pName); After initializing the interpreter, the script is loaded using *note PyImport_Import(): 13c8. This routine needs a Python string as its argument, which is constructed using the *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 171a. data conversion routine. pFunc = PyObject_GetAttrString(pModule, argv[2]); /* pFunc is a new reference */ if (pFunc && PyCallable_Check(pFunc)) { ... } Py_XDECREF(pFunc); Once the script is loaded, the name we’re looking for is retrieved using *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 347. If the name exists, and the object returned is callable, you can safely assume that it is a function. The program then proceeds by constructing a tuple of arguments as normal. The call to the Python function is then made with: pValue = PyObject_CallObject(pFunc, pArgs); Upon return of the function, ‘pValue’ is either ‘NULL’ or it contains a reference to the return value of the function. Be sure to release the reference after examining the value.  File: python.info, Node: Extending Embedded Python, Next: Embedding Python in C++, Prev: Pure Embedding, Up: Embedding Python in Another Application 6.3.1.4 Extending Embedded Python ................................. Until now, the embedded Python interpreter had no access to functionality from the application itself. The Python API allows this by extending the embedded interpreter. That is, the embedded interpreter gets extended with routines provided by the application. While it sounds complex, it is not so bad. Simply forget for a while that the application starts the Python interpreter. Instead, consider the application to be a set of subroutines, and write some glue code that gives Python access to those routines, just like you would write a normal Python extension. For example: static int numargs=0; /* Return the number of arguments of the application command line */ static PyObject* emb_numargs(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { if(!PyArg_ParseTuple(args, ":numargs")) return NULL; return PyLong_FromLong(numargs); } static PyMethodDef emb_module_methods[] = { {"numargs", emb_numargs, METH_VARARGS, "Return the number of arguments received by the process."}, {NULL, NULL, 0, NULL} }; static struct PyModuleDef emb_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "emb", .m_size = 0, .m_methods = emb_module_methods, }; static PyObject* PyInit_emb(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&emb_module); } Insert the above code just above the ‘main()’ function. Also, insert the following two statements before the call to *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab.: numargs = argc; PyImport_AppendInittab("emb", &PyInit_emb); These two lines initialize the ‘numargs’ variable, and make the ‘emb.numargs()’ function accessible to the embedded Python interpreter. With these extensions, the Python script can do things like import emb print("Number of arguments", emb.numargs()) In a real application, the methods will expose an API of the application to Python.  File: python.info, Node: Embedding Python in C++, Next: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems, Prev: Extending Embedded Python, Up: Embedding Python in Another Application 6.3.1.5 Embedding Python in C++ ............................... It is also possible to embed Python in a C++ program; precisely how this is done will depend on the details of the C++ system used; in general you will need to write the main program in C++, and use the C++ compiler to compile and link your program. There is no need to recompile Python itself using C++.  File: python.info, Node: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems, Prev: Embedding Python in C++, Up: Embedding Python in Another Application 6.3.1.6 Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems ..................................................... It is not necessarily trivial to find the right flags to pass to your compiler (and linker) in order to embed the Python interpreter into your application, particularly because Python needs to load library modules implemented as C dynamic extensions (‘.so’ files) linked against it. To find out the required compiler and linker flags, you can execute the ‘python`X.Y'-config’ script which is generated as part of the installation process (a ‘python3-config’ script may also be available). This script has several options, of which the following will be directly useful to you: * ‘pythonX.Y-config --cflags’ will give you the recommended flags when compiling: $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --cflags -I/opt/include/python3.11 -I/opt/include/python3.11 -Wsign-compare -DNDEBUG -g -fwrapv -O3 -Wall * ‘pythonX.Y-config --ldflags --embed’ will give you the recommended flags when linking: $ /opt/bin/python3.11-config --ldflags --embed -L/opt/lib/python3.11/config-3.11-x86_64-linux-gnu -L/opt/lib -lpython3.11 -lpthread -ldl -lutil -lm Note: To avoid confusion between several Python installations (and especially between the system Python and your own compiled Python), it is recommended that you use the absolute path to ‘python`X.Y'-config’, as in the above example. If this procedure doesn’t work for you (it is not guaranteed to work for all Unix-like platforms; however, we welcome *note bug reports: 4931.) you will have to read your system’s documentation about dynamic linking and/or examine Python’s ‘Makefile’ (use *note sysconfig.get_makefile_filename(): 43ec. to find its location) and compilation options. In this case, the *note sysconfig: db. module is a useful tool to programmatically extract the configuration values that you will want to combine together. For example: >>> import sysconfig >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LIBS') '-lpthread -ldl -lutil' >>> sysconfig.get_config_var('LINKFORSHARED') '-Xlinker -export-dynamic'  File: python.info, Node: Python/C API Reference Manual, Next: Installing Python Modules, Prev: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter, Up: Top 7 Python/C API Reference Manual ******************************* This manual documents the API used by C and C++ programmers who want to write extension modules or embed Python. It is a companion to *note Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter: 1bda, which describes the general principles of extension writing but does not document the API functions in detail. * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<13>. * C API Stability:: * The Very High Level Layer:: * Reference Counting:: * Exception Handling:: * Utilities: Utilities<2>. * Abstract Objects Layer:: * Concrete Objects Layer:: * Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: Initialization Finalization and Threads. * Python Initialization Configuration:: * Memory Management:: * Object Implementation Support:: * API and ABI Versioning:: * Monitoring C API:: * Generating Execution Events::  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<13>, Next: C API Stability, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.1 Introduction ================ The Application Programmer’s Interface to Python gives C and C++ programmers access to the Python interpreter at a variety of levels. The API is equally usable from C++, but for brevity it is generally referred to as the Python/C API. There are two fundamentally different reasons for using the Python/C API. The first reason is to write 'extension modules' for specific purposes; these are C modules that extend the Python interpreter. This is probably the most common use. The second reason is to use Python as a component in a larger application; this technique is generally referred to as 'embedding' Python in an application. Writing an extension module is a relatively well-understood process, where a “cookbook” approach works well. There are several tools that automate the process to some extent. While people have embedded Python in other applications since its early existence, the process of embedding Python is less straightforward than writing an extension. Many API functions are useful independent of whether you’re embedding or extending Python; moreover, most applications that embed Python will need to provide a custom extension as well, so it’s probably a good idea to become familiar with writing an extension before attempting to embed Python in a real application. * Menu: * Coding standards:: * Include Files:: * Useful macros:: * Objects, Types and Reference Counts: Objects Types and Reference Counts. * Exceptions: Exceptions<21>. * Embedding Python: Embedding Python<2>. * Debugging Builds:: * Recommended third party tools: Recommended third party tools<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Coding standards, Next: Include Files, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.1 Coding standards ---------------------- If you’re writing C code for inclusion in CPython, you 'must' follow the guidelines and standards defined in PEP 7(1). These guidelines apply regardless of the version of Python you are contributing to. Following these conventions is not necessary for your own third party extension modules, unless you eventually expect to contribute them to Python. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/  File: python.info, Node: Include Files, Next: Useful macros, Prev: Coding standards, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.2 Include Files ------------------- All function, type and macro definitions needed to use the Python/C API are included in your code by the following line: #define PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN #include <Python.h> This implies inclusion of the following standard headers: ‘<stdio.h>’, ‘<string.h>’, ‘<errno.h>’, ‘<limits.h>’, ‘<assert.h>’ and ‘<stdlib.h>’ (if available). Note: Since Python may define some pre-processor definitions which affect the standard headers on some systems, you 'must' include ‘Python.h’ before any standard headers are included. It is recommended to always define ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ before including ‘Python.h’. See *note Parsing arguments and building values: 8a7. for a description of this macro. All user visible names defined by Python.h (except those defined by the included standard headers) have one of the prefixes ‘Py’ or ‘_Py’. Names beginning with ‘_Py’ are for internal use by the Python implementation and should not be used by extension writers. Structure member names do not have a reserved prefix. Note: User code should never define names that begin with ‘Py’ or ‘_Py’. This confuses the reader, and jeopardizes the portability of the user code to future Python versions, which may define additional names beginning with one of these prefixes. The header files are typically installed with Python. On Unix, these are located in the directories ‘`prefix'/include/pythonversion/’ and ‘`exec_prefix'/include/pythonversion/’, where *note prefix: 1d62. and *note exec_prefix: 1d63. are defined by the corresponding parameters to Python’s ‘configure’ script and 'version' is ‘'%d.%d' % sys.version_info[:2]’. On Windows, the headers are installed in ‘`prefix'/include’, where ‘prefix’ is the installation directory specified to the installer. To include the headers, place both directories (if different) on your compiler’s search path for includes. Do 'not' place the parent directories on the search path and then use ‘#include <pythonX.Y/Python.h>’; this will break on multi-platform builds since the platform independent headers under *note prefix: 1d62. include the platform specific headers from *note exec_prefix: 1d63. C++ users should note that although the API is defined entirely using C, the header files properly declare the entry points to be ‘extern "C"’. As a result, there is no need to do anything special to use the API from C++.  File: python.info, Node: Useful macros, Next: Objects Types and Reference Counts, Prev: Include Files, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.3 Useful macros ------------------- Several useful macros are defined in the Python header files. Many are defined closer to where they are useful (e.g. *note Py_RETURN_NONE: 143c.). Others of a more general utility are defined here. This is not necessarily a complete listing. -- C Macro: PyMODINIT_FUNC Declare an extension module ‘PyInit’ initialization function. The function return type is *note PyObject: 334.*. The macro declares any special linkage declarations required by the platform, and for C++ declares the function as ‘extern "C"’. The initialization function must be named ‘PyInit_NAME’, where 'name' is the name of the module, and should be the only non-‘static’ item defined in the module file. Example: static struct PyModuleDef spam_module = { .m_base = PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_name = "spam", ... }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_spam(void) { return PyModuleDef_Init(&spam_module); } -- C Macro: Py_ABS (x) Return the absolute value of ‘x’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Macro: Py_ALWAYS_INLINE Ask the compiler to always inline a static inline function. The compiler can ignore it and decide to not inline the function. It can be used to inline performance critical static inline functions when building Python in debug mode with function inlining disabled. For example, MSC disables function inlining when building in debug mode. Marking blindly a static inline function with Py_ALWAYS_INLINE can result in worse performances (due to increased code size for example). The compiler is usually smarter than the developer for the cost/benefit analysis. If Python is *note built in debug mode: 1fb. (if the *note Py_DEBUG: 4140. macro is defined), the *note Py_ALWAYS_INLINE: 18b6. macro does nothing. It must be specified before the function return type. Usage: static inline Py_ALWAYS_INLINE int random(void) { return 4; } Added in version 3.11. -- C Macro: Py_CHARMASK (c) Argument must be a character or an integer in the range [-128, 127] or [0, 255]. This macro returns ‘c’ cast to an ‘unsigned char’. -- C Macro: Py_DEPRECATED (version) Use this for deprecated declarations. The macro must be placed before the symbol name. Example: Py_DEPRECATED(3.8) PyAPI_FUNC(int) Py_OldFunction(void); Changed in version 3.8: MSVC support was added. -- C Macro: Py_GETENV (s) Like ‘getenv(s)’, but returns ‘NULL’ if *note -E: 95d. was passed on the command line (see *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5.). -- C Macro: Py_MAX (x, y) Return the maximum value between ‘x’ and ‘y’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Macro: Py_MEMBER_SIZE (type, member) Return the size of a structure (‘type’) ‘member’ in bytes. Added in version 3.6. -- C Macro: Py_MIN (x, y) Return the minimum value between ‘x’ and ‘y’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Macro: Py_NO_INLINE Disable inlining on a function. For example, it reduces the C stack consumption: useful on LTO+PGO builds which heavily inline code (see bpo-33720(1)). Usage: Py_NO_INLINE static int random(void) { return 4; } Added in version 3.11. -- C Macro: Py_STRINGIFY (x) Convert ‘x’ to a C string. E.g. ‘Py_STRINGIFY(123)’ returns ‘"123"’. Added in version 3.4. -- C Macro: Py_UNREACHABLE () Use this when you have a code path that cannot be reached by design. For example, in the ‘default:’ clause in a ‘switch’ statement for which all possible values are covered in ‘case’ statements. Use this in places where you might be tempted to put an ‘assert(0)’ or ‘abort()’ call. In release mode, the macro helps the compiler to optimize the code, and avoids a warning about unreachable code. For example, the macro is implemented with ‘__builtin_unreachable()’ on GCC in release mode. A use for ‘Py_UNREACHABLE()’ is following a call a function that never returns but that is not declared ‘_Py_NO_RETURN’. If a code path is very unlikely code but can be reached under exceptional case, this macro must not be used. For example, under low memory condition or if a system call returns a value out of the expected range. In this case, it’s better to report the error to the caller. If the error cannot be reported to caller, *note Py_FatalError(): 983. can be used. Added in version 3.7. -- C Macro: Py_UNUSED (arg) Use this for unused arguments in a function definition to silence compiler warnings. Example: ‘int func(int a, int Py_UNUSED(b)) { return a; }’. Added in version 3.4. -- C Macro: PyDoc_STRVAR (name, str) Creates a variable with name ‘name’ that can be used in docstrings. If Python is built without docstrings, the value will be empty. Use *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1971. for docstrings to support building Python without docstrings, as specified in PEP 7(2). Example: PyDoc_STRVAR(pop_doc, "Remove and return the rightmost element."); static PyMethodDef deque_methods[] = { // ... {"pop", (PyCFunction)deque_pop, METH_NOARGS, pop_doc}, // ... } -- C Macro: PyDoc_STR (str) Creates a docstring for the given input string or an empty string if docstrings are disabled. Use *note PyDoc_STR: 180a. in specifying docstrings to support building Python without docstrings, as specified in PEP 7(3). Example: static PyMethodDef pysqlite_row_methods[] = { {"keys", (PyCFunction)pysqlite_row_keys, METH_NOARGS, PyDoc_STR("Returns the keys of the row.")}, {NULL, NULL} }; ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=33720 (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0007/  File: python.info, Node: Objects Types and Reference Counts, Next: Exceptions<21>, Prev: Useful macros, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.4 Objects, Types and Reference Counts ----------------------------------------- Most Python/C API functions have one or more arguments as well as a return value of type *note PyObject: 334.*. This type is a pointer to an opaque data type representing an arbitrary Python object. Since all Python object types are treated the same way by the Python language in most situations (e.g., assignments, scope rules, and argument passing), it is only fitting that they should be represented by a single C type. Almost all Python objects live on the heap: you never declare an automatic or static variable of type *note PyObject: 334, only pointer variables of type *note PyObject: 334.* can be declared. The sole exception are the type objects; since these must never be deallocated, they are typically static *note PyTypeObject: aa5. objects. All Python objects (even Python integers) have a 'type' and a 'reference count'. An object’s type determines what kind of object it is (e.g., an integer, a list, or a user-defined function; there are many more as explained in *note The standard type hierarchy: 1ee7.). For each of the well-known types there is a macro to check whether an object is of that type; for instance, ‘PyList_Check(a)’ is true if (and only if) the object pointed to by 'a' is a Python list. * Menu: * Reference Counts: Reference Counts<2>. * Types::  File: python.info, Node: Reference Counts<2>, Next: Types, Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts 7.1.4.1 Reference Counts ........................ The reference count is important because today’s computers have a finite (and often severely limited) memory size; it counts how many different places there are that have a *note strong reference: 338. to an object. Such a place could be another object, or a global (or static) C variable, or a local variable in some C function. When the last *note strong reference: 338. to an object is released (i.e. its reference count becomes zero), the object is deallocated. If it contains references to other objects, those references are released. Those other objects may be deallocated in turn, if there are no more references to them, and so on. (There’s an obvious problem with objects that reference each other here; for now, the solution is “don’t do that.”) Reference counts are always manipulated explicitly. The normal way is to use the macro *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. to take a new reference to an object (i.e. increment its reference count by one), and *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. to release that reference (i.e. decrement the reference count by one). The *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. macro is considerably more complex than the incref one, since it must check whether the reference count becomes zero and then cause the object’s deallocator to be called. The deallocator is a function pointer contained in the object’s type structure. The type-specific deallocator takes care of releasing references for other objects contained in the object if this is a compound object type, such as a list, as well as performing any additional finalization that’s needed. There’s no chance that the reference count can overflow; at least as many bits are used to hold the reference count as there are distinct memory locations in virtual memory (assuming ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) >= sizeof(void*)’). Thus, the reference count increment is a simple operation. It is not necessary to hold a *note strong reference: 338. (i.e. increment the reference count) for every local variable that contains a pointer to an object. In theory, the object’s reference count goes up by one when the variable is made to point to it and it goes down by one when the variable goes out of scope. However, these two cancel each other out, so at the end the reference count hasn’t changed. The only real reason to use the reference count is to prevent the object from being deallocated as long as our variable is pointing to it. If we know that there is at least one other reference to the object that lives at least as long as our variable, there is no need to take a new *note strong reference: 338. (i.e. increment the reference count) temporarily. An important situation where this arises is in objects that are passed as arguments to C functions in an extension module that are called from Python; the call mechanism guarantees to hold a reference to every argument for the duration of the call. However, a common pitfall is to extract an object from a list and hold on to it for a while without taking a new reference. Some other operation might conceivably remove the object from the list, releasing that reference, and possibly deallocating it. The real danger is that innocent-looking operations may invoke arbitrary Python code which could do this; there is a code path which allows control to flow back to the user from a *note Py_DECREF(): 56c, so almost any operation is potentially dangerous. A safe approach is to always use the generic operations (functions whose name begins with ‘PyObject_’, ‘PyNumber_’, ‘PySequence_’ or ‘PyMapping_’). These operations always create a new *note strong reference: 338. (i.e. increment the reference count) of the object they return. This leaves the caller with the responsibility to call *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. when they are done with the result; this soon becomes second nature. * Menu: * Reference Count Details::  File: python.info, Node: Reference Count Details, Up: Reference Counts<2> 7.1.4.2 Reference Count Details ............................... The reference count behavior of functions in the Python/C API is best explained in terms of 'ownership of references'. Ownership pertains to references, never to objects (objects are not owned: they are always shared). “Owning a reference” means being responsible for calling Py_DECREF on it when the reference is no longer needed. Ownership can also be transferred, meaning that the code that receives ownership of the reference then becomes responsible for eventually releasing it by calling *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. or *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. when it’s no longer needed—or passing on this responsibility (usually to its caller). When a function passes ownership of a reference on to its caller, the caller is said to receive a 'new' reference. When no ownership is transferred, the caller is said to 'borrow' the reference. Nothing needs to be done for a *note borrowed reference: 339. Conversely, when a calling function passes in a reference to an object, there are two possibilities: the function 'steals' a reference to the object, or it does not. 'Stealing a reference' means that when you pass a reference to a function, that function assumes that it now owns that reference, and you are not responsible for it any longer. Few functions steal references; the two notable exceptions are *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. and *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3, which steal a reference to the item (but not to the tuple or list into which the item is put!). These functions were designed to steal a reference because of a common idiom for populating a tuple or list with newly created objects; for example, the code to create the tuple ‘(1, 2, "three")’ could look like this (forgetting about error handling for the moment; a better way to code this is shown below): PyObject *t; t = PyTuple_New(3); PyTuple_SetItem(t, 0, PyLong_FromLong(1L)); PyTuple_SetItem(t, 1, PyLong_FromLong(2L)); PyTuple_SetItem(t, 2, PyUnicode_FromString("three")); Here, *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839. returns a new reference which is immediately stolen by *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3. When you want to keep using an object although the reference to it will be stolen, use *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. to grab another reference before calling the reference-stealing function. Incidentally, *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3. is the 'only' way to set tuple items; *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a53. and *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947. refuse to do this since tuples are an immutable data type. You should only use *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3. for tuples that you are creating yourself. Equivalent code for populating a list can be written using *note PyList_New(): 4948. and *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. However, in practice, you will rarely use these ways of creating and populating a tuple or list. There’s a generic function, *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6, that can create most common objects from C values, directed by a 'format string'. For example, the above two blocks of code could be replaced by the following (which also takes care of the error checking): PyObject *tuple, *list; tuple = Py_BuildValue("(iis)", 1, 2, "three"); list = Py_BuildValue("[iis]", 1, 2, "three"); It is much more common to use *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947. and friends with items whose references you are only borrowing, like arguments that were passed in to the function you are writing. In that case, their behaviour regarding references is much saner, since you don’t have to take a new reference just so you can give that reference away (“have it be stolen”). For example, this function sets all items of a list (actually, any mutable sequence) to a given item: int set_all(PyObject *target, PyObject *item) { Py_ssize_t i, n; n = PyObject_Length(target); if (n < 0) return -1; for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { PyObject *index = PyLong_FromSsize_t(i); if (!index) return -1; if (PyObject_SetItem(target, index, item) < 0) { Py_DECREF(index); return -1; } Py_DECREF(index); } return 0; } The situation is slightly different for function return values. While passing a reference to most functions does not change your ownership responsibilities for that reference, many functions that return a reference to an object give you ownership of the reference. The reason is simple: in many cases, the returned object is created on the fly, and the reference you get is the only reference to the object. Therefore, the generic functions that return object references, like *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. and *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52, always return a new reference (the caller becomes the owner of the reference). It is important to realize that whether you own a reference returned by a function depends on which function you call only — 'the plumage' (the type of the object passed as an argument to the function) 'doesn’t enter into it!' Thus, if you extract an item from a list using *note PyList_GetItem(): 357, you don’t own the reference — but if you obtain the same item from the same list using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52. (which happens to take exactly the same arguments), you do own a reference to the returned object. Here is an example of how you could write a function that computes the sum of the items in a list of integers; once using *note PyList_GetItem(): 357, and once using *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52. long sum_list(PyObject *list) { Py_ssize_t i, n; long total = 0, value; PyObject *item; n = PyList_Size(list); if (n < 0) return -1; /* Not a list */ for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { item = PyList_GetItem(list, i); /* Can't fail */ if (!PyLong_Check(item)) continue; /* Skip non-integers */ value = PyLong_AsLong(item); if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */ return -1; total += value; } return total; } long sum_sequence(PyObject *sequence) { Py_ssize_t i, n; long total = 0, value; PyObject *item; n = PySequence_Length(sequence); if (n < 0) return -1; /* Has no length */ for (i = 0; i < n; i++) { item = PySequence_GetItem(sequence, i); if (item == NULL) return -1; /* Not a sequence, or other failure */ if (PyLong_Check(item)) { value = PyLong_AsLong(item); Py_DECREF(item); if (value == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) /* Integer too big to fit in a C long, bail out */ return -1; total += value; } else { Py_DECREF(item); /* Discard reference ownership */ } } return total; }  File: python.info, Node: Types, Prev: Reference Counts<2>, Up: Objects Types and Reference Counts 7.1.4.3 Types ............. There are few other data types that play a significant role in the Python/C API; most are simple C types such as int, long, double and char*. A few structure types are used to describe static tables used to list the functions exported by a module or the data attributes of a new object type, and another is used to describe the value of a complex number. These will be discussed together with the functions that use them. -- C Type: type Py_ssize_t ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' A signed integral type such that ‘sizeof(Py_ssize_t) == sizeof(size_t)’. C99 doesn’t define such a thing directly (size_t is an unsigned integral type). See PEP 353(1) for details. ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ is the largest positive value of type *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0353/  File: python.info, Node: Exceptions<21>, Next: Embedding Python<2>, Prev: Objects Types and Reference Counts, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.5 Exceptions ---------------- The Python programmer only needs to deal with exceptions if specific error handling is required; unhandled exceptions are automatically propagated to the caller, then to the caller’s caller, and so on, until they reach the top-level interpreter, where they are reported to the user accompanied by a stack traceback. For C programmers, however, error checking always has to be explicit. All functions in the Python/C API can raise exceptions, unless an explicit claim is made otherwise in a function’s documentation. In general, when a function encounters an error, it sets an exception, discards any object references that it owns, and returns an error indicator. If not documented otherwise, this indicator is either ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’, depending on the function’s return type. A few functions return a Boolean true/false result, with false indicating an error. Very few functions return no explicit error indicator or have an ambiguous return value, and require explicit testing for errors with *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. These exceptions are always explicitly documented. Exception state is maintained in per-thread storage (this is equivalent to using global storage in an unthreaded application). A thread can be in one of two states: an exception has occurred, or not. The function *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. can be used to check for this: it returns a borrowed reference to the exception type object when an exception has occurred, and ‘NULL’ otherwise. There are a number of functions to set the exception state: *note PyErr_SetString(): 579. is the most common (though not the most general) function to set the exception state, and *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. clears the exception state. The full exception state consists of three objects (all of which can be ‘NULL’): the exception type, the corresponding exception value, and the traceback. These have the same meanings as the Python result of ‘sys.exc_info()’; however, they are not the same: the Python objects represent the last exception being handled by a Python *note try: 6e4. … *note except: 18b. statement, while the C level exception state only exists while an exception is being passed on between C functions until it reaches the Python bytecode interpreter’s main loop, which takes care of transferring it to ‘sys.exc_info()’ and friends. Note that starting with Python 1.5, the preferred, thread-safe way to access the exception state from Python code is to call the function *note sys.exc_info(): 686, which returns the per-thread exception state for Python code. Also, the semantics of both ways to access the exception state have changed so that a function which catches an exception will save and restore its thread’s exception state so as to preserve the exception state of its caller. This prevents common bugs in exception handling code caused by an innocent-looking function overwriting the exception being handled; it also reduces the often unwanted lifetime extension for objects that are referenced by the stack frames in the traceback. As a general principle, a function that calls another function to perform some task should check whether the called function raised an exception, and if so, pass the exception state on to its caller. It should discard any object references that it owns, and return an error indicator, but it should 'not' set another exception — that would overwrite the exception that was just raised, and lose important information about the exact cause of the error. A simple example of detecting exceptions and passing them on is shown in the ‘sum_sequence()’ example above. It so happens that this example doesn’t need to clean up any owned references when it detects an error. The following example function shows some error cleanup. First, to remind you why you like Python, we show the equivalent Python code: def incr_item(dict, key): try: item = dict[key] except KeyError: item = 0 dict[key] = item + 1 Here is the corresponding C code, in all its glory: int incr_item(PyObject *dict, PyObject *key) { /* Objects all initialized to NULL for Py_XDECREF */ PyObject *item = NULL, *const_one = NULL, *incremented_item = NULL; int rv = -1; /* Return value initialized to -1 (failure) */ item = PyObject_GetItem(dict, key); if (item == NULL) { /* Handle KeyError only: */ if (!PyErr_ExceptionMatches(PyExc_KeyError)) goto error; /* Clear the error and use zero: */ PyErr_Clear(); item = PyLong_FromLong(0L); if (item == NULL) goto error; } const_one = PyLong_FromLong(1L); if (const_one == NULL) goto error; incremented_item = PyNumber_Add(item, const_one); if (incremented_item == NULL) goto error; if (PyObject_SetItem(dict, key, incremented_item) < 0) goto error; rv = 0; /* Success */ /* Continue with cleanup code */ error: /* Cleanup code, shared by success and failure path */ /* Use Py_XDECREF() to ignore NULL references */ Py_XDECREF(item); Py_XDECREF(const_one); Py_XDECREF(incremented_item); return rv; /* -1 for error, 0 for success */ } This example represents an endorsed use of the ‘goto’ statement in C! It illustrates the use of *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 494d. and *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. to handle specific exceptions, and the use of *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. to dispose of owned references that may be ‘NULL’ (note the ‘'X'’ in the name; *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. would crash when confronted with a ‘NULL’ reference). It is important that the variables used to hold owned references are initialized to ‘NULL’ for this to work; likewise, the proposed return value is initialized to ‘-1’ (failure) and only set to success after the final call made is successful.  File: python.info, Node: Embedding Python<2>, Next: Debugging Builds, Prev: Exceptions<21>, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.6 Embedding Python ---------------------- The one important task that only embedders (as opposed to extension writers) of the Python interpreter have to worry about is the initialization, and possibly the finalization, of the Python interpreter. Most functionality of the interpreter can only be used after the interpreter has been initialized. The basic initialization function is *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. This initializes the table of loaded modules, and creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__: 1, and *note sys: d9. It also initializes the module search path (‘sys.path’). *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. does not set the “script argument list” (‘sys.argv’). If this variable is needed by Python code that will be executed later, setting *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. and *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. must be set: see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. On most systems (in particular, on Unix and Windows, although the details are slightly different), *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. calculates the module search path based upon its best guess for the location of the standard Python interpreter executable, assuming that the Python library is found in a fixed location relative to the Python interpreter executable. In particular, it looks for a directory named ‘lib/python`X.Y'’ relative to the parent directory where the executable named ‘python’ is found on the shell command search path (the environment variable ‘PATH’). For instance, if the Python executable is found in ‘/usr/local/bin/python’, it will assume that the libraries are in ‘/usr/local/lib/python`X.Y'’. (In fact, this particular path is also the “fallback” location, used when no executable file named ‘python’ is found along ‘PATH’.) The user can override this behavior by setting the environment variable *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8, or insert additional directories in front of the standard path by setting *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. The embedding application can steer the search by setting *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. 'before' calling *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. Note that *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. still overrides this and *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. is still inserted in front of the standard path. An application that requires total control has to provide its own implementation of *note Py_GetPath(): 3af, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1, *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad, and *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3. (all defined in ‘Modules/getpath.c’). Sometimes, it is desirable to “uninitialize” Python. For instance, the application may want to start over (make another call to *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab.) or the application is simply done with its use of Python and wants to free memory allocated by Python. This can be accomplished by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. The function *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4950. returns true if Python is currently in the initialized state. More information about these functions is given in a later chapter. Notice that *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. does 'not' free all memory allocated by the Python interpreter, e.g. memory allocated by extension modules currently cannot be released.  File: python.info, Node: Debugging Builds, Next: Recommended third party tools<2>, Prev: Embedding Python<2>, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.7 Debugging Builds ---------------------- Python can be built with several macros to enable extra checks of the interpreter and extension modules. These checks tend to add a large amount of overhead to the runtime so they are not enabled by default. A full list of the various types of debugging builds is in the file ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution. Builds are available that support tracing of reference counts, debugging the memory allocator, or low-level profiling of the main interpreter loop. Only the most frequently used builds will be described in the remainder of this section. -- C Macro: Py_DEBUG Compiling the interpreter with the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro defined produces what is generally meant by *note a debug build of Python: 1fb. ‘Py_DEBUG’ is enabled in the Unix build by adding *note -with-pydebug: 420. to the ‘./configure’ command. It is also implied by the presence of the not-Python-specific ‘_DEBUG’ macro. When ‘Py_DEBUG’ is enabled in the Unix build, compiler optimization is disabled. In addition to the reference count debugging described below, extra checks are performed, see *note Python Debug Build: 1fb. Defining ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ enables reference tracing (see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 390.). When defined, a circular doubly linked list of active objects is maintained by adding two extra fields to every *note PyObject: 334. Total allocations are tracked as well. Upon exit, all existing references are printed. (In interactive mode this happens after every statement run by the interpreter.) Please refer to ‘Misc/SpecialBuilds.txt’ in the Python source distribution for more detailed information.  File: python.info, Node: Recommended third party tools<2>, Prev: Debugging Builds, Up: Introduction<13> 7.1.8 Recommended third party tools ----------------------------------- The following third party tools offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C, C++ and Rust extensions for Python: * Cython(1) * cffi(2) * HPy(3) * nanobind(4) (C++) * Numba(5) * pybind11(6) (C++) * PyO3(7) (Rust) * SWIG(8) Using tools such as these can help avoid writing code that is tightly bound to a particular version of CPython, avoid reference counting errors, and focus more on your own code than on using the CPython API. In general, new versions of Python can be supported by updating the tool, and your code will often use newer and more efficient APIs automatically. Some tools also support compiling for other implementations of Python from a single set of sources. These projects are not supported by the same people who maintain Python, and issues need to be raised with the projects directly. Remember to check that the project is still maintained and supported, as the list above may become outdated. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions(9) The Python Packaging User Guide not only covers several available tools that simplify the creation of binary extensions, but also discusses the various reasons why creating an extension module may be desirable in the first place. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://cython.org/ (2) https://cffi.readthedocs.io (3) https://hpyproject.org/ (4) https://github.com/wjakob/nanobind (5) https://numba.pydata.org/ (6) https://pybind11.readthedocs.io/ (7) https://pyo3.rs/ (8) https://www.swig.org (9) https://packaging.python.org/guides/packaging-binary-extensions/  File: python.info, Node: C API Stability, Next: The Very High Level Layer, Prev: Introduction<13>, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.2 C API Stability =================== Unless documented otherwise, Python’s C API is covered by the Backwards Compatibility Policy, PEP 387(1). Most changes to it are source-compatible (typically by only adding new API). Changing existing API or removing API is only done after a deprecation period or to fix serious issues. CPython’s Application Binary Interface (ABI) is forward- and backwards-compatible across a minor release (if these are compiled the same way; see *note Platform Considerations: 4956. below). So, code compiled for Python 3.10.0 will work on 3.10.8 and vice versa, but will need to be compiled separately for 3.9.x and 3.11.x. There are two tiers of C API with different stability expectations: - *note Unstable API: 544, may change in minor versions without a deprecation period. It is marked by the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix in names. - *note Limited API: 391, is compatible across several minor releases. When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 41a. is defined, only this subset is exposed from ‘Python.h’. These are discussed in more detail below. Names prefixed by an underscore, such as ‘_Py_InternalState’, are private API that can change without notice even in patch releases. If you need to use this API, consider reaching out to CPython developers(2) to discuss adding public API for your use case. * Menu: * Unstable C API:: * Stable Application Binary Interface:: * Platform Considerations:: * Contents of Limited API:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/ (2) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30  File: python.info, Node: Unstable C API, Next: Stable Application Binary Interface, Up: C API Stability 7.2.1 Unstable C API -------------------- Any API named with the ‘PyUnstable’ prefix exposes CPython implementation details, and may change in every minor release (e.g. from 3.9 to 3.10) without any deprecation warnings. However, it will not change in a bugfix release (e.g. from 3.10.0 to 3.10.1). It is generally intended for specialized, low-level tools like debuggers. Projects that use this API are expected to follow CPython development and spend extra effort adjusting to changes.  File: python.info, Node: Stable Application Binary Interface, Next: Platform Considerations, Prev: Unstable C API, Up: C API Stability 7.2.2 Stable Application Binary Interface ----------------------------------------- For simplicity, this document talks about 'extensions', but the Limited API and Stable ABI work the same way for all uses of the API – for example, embedding Python. * Menu: * Limited C API:: * Stable ABI:: * Limited API Scope and Performance:: * Limited API Caveats::  File: python.info, Node: Limited C API, Next: Stable ABI, Up: Stable Application Binary Interface 7.2.2.1 Limited C API ..................... Python 3.2 introduced the 'Limited API', a subset of Python’s C API. Extensions that only use the Limited API can be compiled once and be loaded on multiple versions of Python. Contents of the Limited API are *note listed below: 795. -- C Macro: Py_LIMITED_API Define this macro before including ‘Python.h’ to opt in to only use the Limited API, and to select the Limited API version. Define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to the value of *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 752. corresponding to the lowest Python version your extension supports. The extension will be ABI-compatible with all Python 3 releases from the specified one onward, and can use Limited API introduced up to that version. Rather than using the ‘PY_VERSION_HEX’ macro directly, hardcode a minimum minor version (e.g. ‘0x030A0000’ for Python 3.10) for stability when compiling with future Python versions. You can also define ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ to ‘3’. This works the same as ‘0x03020000’ (Python 3.2, the version that introduced Limited API).  File: python.info, Node: Stable ABI, Next: Limited API Scope and Performance, Prev: Limited C API, Up: Stable Application Binary Interface 7.2.2.2 Stable ABI .................. To enable this, Python provides a 'Stable ABI': a set of symbols that will remain ABI-compatible across Python 3.x versions. Note: The Stable ABI prevents ABI issues, like linker errors due to missing symbols or data corruption due to changes in structure layouts or function signatures. However, other changes in Python can change the 'behavior' of extensions. See Python’s Backwards Compatibility Policy ( PEP 387(1)) for details. The Stable ABI contains symbols exposed in the *note Limited API: 391, but also other ones – for example, functions necessary to support older versions of the Limited API. On Windows, extensions that use the Stable ABI should be linked against ‘python3.dll’ rather than a version-specific library such as ‘python39.dll’. On some platforms, Python will look for and load shared library files named with the ‘abi3’ tag (e.g. ‘mymodule.abi3.so’). It does not check if such extensions conform to a Stable ABI. The user (or their packaging tools) need to ensure that, for example, extensions built with the 3.10+ Limited API are not installed for lower versions of Python. All functions in the Stable ABI are present as functions in Python’s shared library, not solely as macros. This makes them usable from languages that don’t use the C preprocessor. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/  File: python.info, Node: Limited API Scope and Performance, Next: Limited API Caveats, Prev: Stable ABI, Up: Stable Application Binary Interface 7.2.2.3 Limited API Scope and Performance ......................................... The goal for the Limited API is to allow everything that is possible with the full C API, but possibly with a performance penalty. For example, while *note PyList_GetItem(): 357. is available, its “unsafe” macro variant *note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 495d. is not. The macro can be faster because it can rely on version-specific implementation details of the list object. Without ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ defined, some C API functions are inlined or replaced by macros. Defining ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ disables this inlining, allowing stability as Python’s data structures are improved, but possibly reducing performance. By leaving out the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ definition, it is possible to compile a Limited API extension with a version-specific ABI. This can improve performance for that Python version, but will limit compatibility. Compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ will then yield an extension that can be distributed where a version-specific one is not available – for example, for prereleases of an upcoming Python version.  File: python.info, Node: Limited API Caveats, Prev: Limited API Scope and Performance, Up: Stable Application Binary Interface 7.2.2.4 Limited API Caveats ........................... Note that compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is 'not' a complete guarantee that code conforms to the *note Limited API: 391. or the *note Stable ABI: 495b. ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ only covers definitions, but an API also includes other issues, such as expected semantics. One issue that ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ does not guard against is calling a function with arguments that are invalid in a lower Python version. For example, consider a function that starts accepting ‘NULL’ for an argument. In Python 3.9, ‘NULL’ now selects a default behavior, but in Python 3.8, the argument will be used directly, causing a ‘NULL’ dereference and crash. A similar argument works for fields of structs. Another issue is that some struct fields are currently not hidden when ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is defined, even though they’re part of the Limited API. For these reasons, we recommend testing an extension with 'all' minor Python versions it supports, and preferably to build with the 'lowest' such version. We also recommend reviewing documentation of all used API to check if it is explicitly part of the Limited API. Even with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ defined, a few private declarations are exposed for technical reasons (or even unintentionally, as bugs). Also note that the Limited API is not necessarily stable: compiling with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ with Python 3.8 means that the extension will run with Python 3.12, but it will not necessarily 'compile' with Python 3.12. In particular, parts of the Limited API may be deprecated and removed, provided that the Stable ABI stays stable.  File: python.info, Node: Platform Considerations, Next: Contents of Limited API, Prev: Stable Application Binary Interface, Up: C API Stability 7.2.3 Platform Considerations ----------------------------- ABI stability depends not only on Python, but also on the compiler used, lower-level libraries and compiler options. For the purposes of the *note Stable ABI: 495b, these details define a “platform”. They usually depend on the OS type and processor architecture It is the responsibility of each particular distributor of Python to ensure that all Python versions on a particular platform are built in a way that does not break the Stable ABI. This is the case with Windows and macOS releases from ‘python.org’ and many third-party distributors.  File: python.info, Node: Contents of Limited API, Prev: Platform Considerations, Up: C API Stability 7.2.4 Contents of Limited API ----------------------------- Currently, the *note Limited API: 391. includes the following items: * *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 55b. * *note PyAIter_Check(): 4961. * *note PyArg_Parse(): 19e3. * *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. * *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. * *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14d2. * *note PyArg_VaParse(): 4962. * *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37f. * *note PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments(): 4963. * *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. * *note PyBool_FromLong(): 4965. * *note PyBool_Type: 4966. * *note PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides(): 75a. * *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 75b. * *note PyBuffer_FromContiguous(): 757. * *note PyBuffer_GetPointer(): 754. * *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 759. * *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. * *note PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat(): 755. * *note PyBuffer_ToContiguous(): 756. * ‘PyByteArrayIter_Type’ * *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 4967. * *note PyByteArray_Concat(): 4968. * *note PyByteArray_FromObject(): 1382. * *note PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize(): 1383. * *note PyByteArray_Resize(): 4969. * *note PyByteArray_Size(): 496a. * *note PyByteArray_Type: 496b. * ‘PyBytesIter_Type’ * *note PyBytes_AsString(): 885. * *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 496c. * *note PyBytes_Concat(): 496d. * *note PyBytes_ConcatAndDel(): 496e. * ‘PyBytes_DecodeEscape()’ * *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1a28. * *note PyBytes_FromFormatV(): 496f. * *note PyBytes_FromObject(): 4970. * *note PyBytes_FromString(): 4971. * *note PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(): 1381. * ‘PyBytes_Repr()’ * *note PyBytes_Size(): 4972. * *note PyBytes_Type: 4973. * *note PyCFunction: 1440. * *note PyCFunctionFast: 4974. * *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords: 4975. * *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 4976. * ‘PyCFunction_GetFlags()’ * ‘PyCFunction_GetFunction()’ * ‘PyCFunction_GetSelf()’ * *note PyCFunction_New(): 18f3. * *note PyCFunction_NewEx(): 198c. * ‘PyCFunction_Type’ * *note PyCMethod_New(): 18ed. * *note PyCallIter_New(): 4977. * *note PyCallIter_Type: 4978. * *note PyCallable_Check(): 4979. * *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 497a. * *note PyCapsule_GetContext(): 497b. * *note PyCapsule_GetDestructor(): 497c. * *note PyCapsule_GetName(): 497d. * *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 497e. * *note PyCapsule_Import(): 186d. * *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1348. * *note PyCapsule_New(): 48dd. * *note PyCapsule_SetContext(): 497f. * *note PyCapsule_SetDestructor(): 4980. * *note PyCapsule_SetName(): 4981. * *note PyCapsule_SetPointer(): 4982. * ‘PyCapsule_Type’ * ‘PyClassMethodDescr_Type’ * *note PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors(): 4983. * *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. * *note PyCodec_Decoder(): 4984. * *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. * *note PyCodec_Encoder(): 4985. * *note PyCodec_IgnoreErrors(): 4986. * *note PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder(): 4987. * *note PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder(): 4988. * *note PyCodec_KnownEncoding(): 4989. * *note PyCodec_LookupError(): 498a. * *note PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors(): ea8. * *note PyCodec_Register(): 498b. * *note PyCodec_RegisterError(): 498c. * *note PyCodec_ReplaceErrors(): 498d. * *note PyCodec_StreamReader(): 498e. * *note PyCodec_StreamWriter(): 498f. * *note PyCodec_StrictErrors(): 4990. * *note PyCodec_Unregister(): 895. * *note PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors(): 4991. * *note PyComplex_FromDoubles(): 4992. * *note PyComplex_ImagAsDouble(): 1698. * *note PyComplex_RealAsDouble(): 1697. * *note PyComplex_Type: 4993. * *note PyDescr_NewClassMethod(): 4994. * *note PyDescr_NewGetSet(): 4995. * *note PyDescr_NewMember(): 4996. * *note PyDescr_NewMethod(): 198b. * ‘PyDictItems_Type’ * ‘PyDictIterItem_Type’ * ‘PyDictIterKey_Type’ * ‘PyDictIterValue_Type’ * ‘PyDictKeys_Type’ * *note PyDictProxy_New(): 4997. * ‘PyDictProxy_Type’ * ‘PyDictRevIterItem_Type’ * ‘PyDictRevIterKey_Type’ * ‘PyDictRevIterValue_Type’ * ‘PyDictValues_Type’ * *note PyDict_Clear(): 4998. * *note PyDict_Contains(): 333. * *note PyDict_Copy(): 41c. * *note PyDict_DelItem(): 4999. * *note PyDict_DelItemString(): 499a. * *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382. * *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 335. * *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 383. * *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 336. * *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 337. * *note PyDict_Items(): 499b. * *note PyDict_Keys(): 499c. * *note PyDict_Merge(): 499d. * *note PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(): 499e. * *note PyDict_New(): 499f. * *note PyDict_Next(): 1612. * *note PyDict_SetItem(): 48d4. * *note PyDict_SetItemString(): 1601. * *note PyDict_Size(): 49a0. * *note PyDict_Type: 49a1. * *note PyDict_Update(): 49a2. * *note PyDict_Values(): 49a3. * *note PyEllipsis_Type: 49a4. * ‘PyEnum_Type’ * *note PyErr_BadArgument(): 49a5. * *note PyErr_BadInternalCall(): 49a6. * *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 462. * *note PyErr_Clear(): 102a. * ‘PyErr_Display()’ * *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fe. * *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 494d. * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. * *note PyErr_Format(): eaa. * *note PyErr_FormatV(): ea9. * *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76d. * *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 76a. * *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. * *note PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(): 49a7. * *note PyErr_NewException(): 125d. * *note PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc(): 125c. * *note PyErr_NoMemory(): 48b3. * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3f1. * *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. * *note PyErr_Print(): 1945. * *note PyErr_PrintEx(): 49a8. * ‘PyErr_ProgramText()’ * *note PyErr_ResourceWarning(): d17. * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2. * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 49a9. * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1718. * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 49aa. * *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects(): 49ab. * *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76c. * *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 48b2. * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename(): 1717. * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 49ac. * *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects(): 49ad. * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 49ae. * *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1719. * *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 76b. * *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3e. * *note PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass(): d16. * *note PyErr_SetInterrupt(): 49af. * *note PyErr_SetInterruptEx(): 89c. * *note PyErr_SetNone(): 49b0. * *note PyErr_SetObject(): 578. * *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. * *note PyErr_SetString(): 579. * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocation(): 49b1. * *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 49b2. * *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1416. * *note PyErr_WarnExplicit(): 171f. * *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 49b3. * *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 34a. * *note PyEval_AcquireThread(): 3a6. * *note PyEval_EvalCode(): 884. * *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1769. * *note PyEval_EvalFrame(): 49b4. * *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1027. * *note PyEval_GetBuiltins(): 34c. * *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17bc. * *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 34b. * *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 34d. * *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34f. * *note PyEval_GetFuncDesc(): 49b5. * *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 49b6. * *note PyEval_GetGlobals(): 34e. * *note PyEval_GetLocals(): 350. * *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1641. * *note PyEval_ReleaseThread(): 49b7. * *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5. * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. * *note PyExc_ArithmeticError: 49b8. * *note PyExc_AssertionError: 49b9. * *note PyExc_AttributeError: 49ba. * *note PyExc_BaseException: 49bb. * *note PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup: 49bc. * *note PyExc_BlockingIOError: 49bd. * *note PyExc_BrokenPipeError: 49be. * *note PyExc_BufferError: 49bf. * *note PyExc_BytesWarning: 49c0. * *note PyExc_ChildProcessError: 49c1. * *note PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError: 49c2. * *note PyExc_ConnectionError: 49c3. * *note PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError: 49c4. * *note PyExc_ConnectionResetError: 49c5. * *note PyExc_DeprecationWarning: 49c6. * *note PyExc_EOFError: 49c7. * *note PyExc_EncodingWarning: 49c8. * *note PyExc_EnvironmentError: 49c9. * *note PyExc_Exception: 49ca. * *note PyExc_FileExistsError: 49cb. * *note PyExc_FileNotFoundError: 49cc. * *note PyExc_FloatingPointError: 49cd. * *note PyExc_FutureWarning: 49ce. * *note PyExc_GeneratorExit: 49cf. * *note PyExc_IOError: 49d0. * *note PyExc_ImportError: 49d1. * *note PyExc_ImportWarning: 49d2. * *note PyExc_IndentationError: 49d3. * *note PyExc_IndexError: 49d4. * *note PyExc_InterruptedError: 49d5. * *note PyExc_IsADirectoryError: 49d6. * *note PyExc_KeyError: 49d7. * *note PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt: 49d8. * *note PyExc_LookupError: 49d9. * *note PyExc_MemoryError: 49da. * *note PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError: 49db. * *note PyExc_NameError: 49dc. * *note PyExc_NotADirectoryError: 49dd. * *note PyExc_NotImplementedError: 49de. * *note PyExc_OSError: 48b5. * *note PyExc_OverflowError: 49df. * *note PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning: 49e0. * *note PyExc_PermissionError: 49e1. * *note PyExc_ProcessLookupError: 49e2. * *note PyExc_RecursionError: eab. * *note PyExc_ReferenceError: 49e3. * *note PyExc_ResourceWarning: 49e4. * *note PyExc_RuntimeError: 49e5. * *note PyExc_RuntimeWarning: 49e6. * *note PyExc_StopAsyncIteration: 49e7. * *note PyExc_StopIteration: 49e8. * *note PyExc_SyntaxError: 49e9. * *note PyExc_SyntaxWarning: 49ea. * *note PyExc_SystemError: 49eb. * *note PyExc_SystemExit: 49ec. * *note PyExc_TabError: 49ed. * *note PyExc_TimeoutError: 49ee. * *note PyExc_TypeError: 48b4. * *note PyExc_UnboundLocalError: 49ef. * *note PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError: 49f0. * *note PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError: 49f1. * *note PyExc_UnicodeError: 49f2. * *note PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError: 49f3. * *note PyExc_UnicodeWarning: 49f4. * *note PyExc_UserWarning: 49f5. * *note PyExc_ValueError: 48b6. * *note PyExc_Warning: 49f6. * *note PyExc_WindowsError: 49f7. * *note PyExc_ZeroDivisionError: 48b1. * *note PyExceptionClass_Name(): a65. * *note PyException_GetArgs(): 567. * *note PyException_GetCause(): 49f8. * *note PyException_GetContext(): 49f9. * *note PyException_GetTraceback(): 49fa. * *note PyException_SetArgs(): 568. * *note PyException_SetCause(): 49fb. * *note PyException_SetContext(): 49fc. * *note PyException_SetTraceback(): 19e9. * *note PyFile_FromFd(): 49fd. * *note PyFile_GetLine(): 49fe. * *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 49ff. * *note PyFile_WriteString(): 4a00. * ‘PyFilter_Type’ * *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a69. * *note PyFloat_FromDouble(): 4a01. * *note PyFloat_FromString(): 4a02. * *note PyFloat_GetInfo(): 13bc. * *note PyFloat_GetMax(): 13ba. * *note PyFloat_GetMin(): 13bb. * *note PyFloat_Type: 4a03. * *note PyFrameObject: 784. * *note PyFrame_GetCode(): 785. * *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. * *note PyFrozenSet_New(): 1411. * *note PyFrozenSet_Type: 4a04. * *note PyGC_Collect(): 98e. * *note PyGC_Disable(): 8a3. * *note PyGC_Enable(): 8a2. * *note PyGC_IsEnabled(): 8a4. * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. * *note PyGILState_GetThisThreadState(): 4a05. * *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. * ‘PyGILState_STATE’ * *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. * ‘PyGetSetDescr_Type’ * *note PyImport_AddModule(): 354. * *note PyImport_AddModuleObject(): 4a06. * *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 353. * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3. * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4a07. * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4a08. * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 4a09. * *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4a0a. * *note PyImport_GetImporter(): 1716. * *note PyImport_GetMagicNumber(): 1196. * *note PyImport_GetMagicTag(): 4a0b. * *note PyImport_GetModule(): bb3. * *note PyImport_GetModuleDict(): 4a0c. * *note PyImport_Import(): 13c8. * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModule(): 4a0d. * *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 4a0e. * *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevel(): 1197. * *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 4a0f. * *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9. * *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 4a10. * *note PyIndex_Check(): 98a. * *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. * *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 41e4. * *note PyInterpreterState_Delete(): 4a11. * *note PyInterpreterState_Get(): 3a9. * *note PyInterpreterState_GetDict(): 4a12. * *note PyInterpreterState_GetID(): bc6. * *note PyInterpreterState_New(): 41e5. * *note PyIter_Check(): 18f4. * *note PyIter_Next(): 4a13. * *note PyIter_Send(): 896. * ‘PyListIter_Type’ * ‘PyListRevIter_Type’ * *note PyList_Append(): 4a14. * *note PyList_AsTuple(): 4a15. * *note PyList_GetItem(): 357. * *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 356. * *note PyList_GetSlice(): 4a16. * *note PyList_Insert(): 1575. * *note PyList_New(): 4948. * *note PyList_Reverse(): 4a17. * *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. * *note PyList_SetSlice(): 4a18. * *note PyList_Size(): 13e5. * *note PyList_Sort(): 4a19. * *note PyList_Type: 48f5. * *note PyLongObject: 585. * ‘PyLongRangeIter_Type’ * *note PyLong_AsDouble(): 4a1a. * *note PyLong_AsInt(): 35a. * *note PyLong_AsLong(): 35b. * *note PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow(): 125a. * *note PyLong_AsLongLong(): 4a1b. * *note PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow(): 1259. * *note PyLong_AsSize_t(): 4a1c. * *note PyLong_AsSsize_t(): 4a1d. * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLong(): 4a1e. * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong(): 1287. * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask(): 19e5. * *note PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(): 4a1f. * *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4a20. * *note PyLong_FromDouble(): 942. * *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839. * *note PyLong_FromLongLong(): 183a. * *note PyLong_FromSize_t(): 19c2. * *note PyLong_FromSsize_t(): 4a21. * *note PyLong_FromString(): 4a22. * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLong(): 19c0. * *note PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong(): 19c1. * *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4a23. * *note PyLong_GetInfo(): 4a24. * *note PyLong_Type: 4a25. * ‘PyMap_Type’ * *note PyMapping_Check(): 4a26. * *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 343. * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 340. * *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 341. * *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 37a. * *note PyMapping_HasKeyString(): 37c. * *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 37b. * *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 379. * *note PyMapping_Items(): bbe. * *note PyMapping_Keys(): bbc. * *note PyMapping_Length(): 4a27. * *note PyMapping_SetItemString(): 4a28. * *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a55. * *note PyMapping_Values(): bbd. * *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea6. * *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c. * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38e. * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. * *note PyMemberDef: 54c. * ‘PyMemberDescr_Type’ * *note PyMember_GetOne(): 58a. * *note PyMember_SetOne(): 58b. * *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75c. * *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1164. * *note PyMemoryView_FromObject(): 4a29. * *note PyMemoryView_GetContiguous(): 4a2a. * ‘PyMemoryView_Type’ * *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. * ‘PyMethodDescr_Type’ * *note PyModuleDef: 97d. * ‘PyModuleDef_Base’ * *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 48bd. * ‘PyModuleDef_Type’ * *note PyModule_Add(): 35f. * *note PyModule_AddFunctions(): 4a2b. * *note PyModule_AddIntConstant(): 1506. * *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361. * *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360. * *note PyModule_AddStringConstant(): 1507. * *note PyModule_AddType(): 975. * *note PyModule_Create2(): 4a2c. * *note PyModule_ExecDef(): eae. * *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): ead. * *note PyModule_GetDef(): 4a2d. * *note PyModule_GetDict(): 4a2e. * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f4. * *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f5. * *note PyModule_GetName(): 4a2f. * *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4a30. * *note PyModule_GetState(): 980. * *note PyModule_New(): 4a31. * *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4a32. * *note PyModule_SetDocString(): 4a33. * *note PyModule_Type: 4a34. * *note PyNumber_Absolute(): 4a35. * *note PyNumber_Add(): 4a36. * *note PyNumber_And(): 4a37. * *note PyNumber_AsSsize_t(): 4a38. * *note PyNumber_Check(): a66. * *note PyNumber_Divmod(): 4a39. * *note PyNumber_Float(): a68. * *note PyNumber_FloorDivide(): 4a3a. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAdd(): 4a3b. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4a3c. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide(): 4a3d. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceLshift(): 4a3e. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply(): eb0. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply(): 4a3f. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4a40. * *note PyNumber_InPlacePower(): 4a41. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder(): 4a42. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceRshift(): 4a43. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4a44. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide(): 4a45. * *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 4a46. * *note PyNumber_Index(): 891. * *note PyNumber_Invert(): 4a47. * *note PyNumber_Long(): a67. * *note PyNumber_Lshift(): 4a48. * *note PyNumber_MatrixMultiply(): eaf. * *note PyNumber_Multiply(): 4a49. * *note PyNumber_Negative(): 4a4a. * *note PyNumber_Or(): 4a4b. * *note PyNumber_Positive(): 4a4c. * *note PyNumber_Power(): 4a4d. * *note PyNumber_Remainder(): 4a4e. * *note PyNumber_Rshift(): 4a4f. * *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4a50. * *note PyNumber_ToBase(): 17e9. * *note PyNumber_TrueDivide(): 4a51. * *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4a52. * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f6. * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. * *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bc0. * *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbf. * *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 1815. * *note PyOS_FSPath(): d18. * *note PyOS_InputHook: 582. * ‘PyOS_InterruptOccurred()’ * *note PyOS_double_to_string(): 4a53. * *note PyOS_getsig(): 1508. * ‘PyOS_mystricmp()’ * ‘PyOS_mystrnicmp()’ * *note PyOS_setsig(): 1509. * *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4a54. * *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d5. * *note PyOS_string_to_double(): 1288. * *note PyOS_strtol(): 4a55. * *note PyOS_strtoul(): 4a56. * *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14d6. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject.ob_refcnt: 89d. * *note PyObject.ob_type: 48e6. * *note PyObject_ASCII(): 4a57. * *note PyObject_AsFileDescriptor(): 4a58. * *note PyObject_Bytes(): 4a59. * *note PyObject_Call(): 398. * *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 39a. * *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4a5a. * *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b. * *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19fc. * *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 397. * *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. * *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea7. * *note PyObject_CheckBuffer(): 394. * *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 573. * *note PyObject_CopyData(): 758. * *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1538. * *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1539. * *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b. * *note PyObject_DelItemString(): 4a5c. * *note PyObject_Dir(): 4a5d. * *note PyObject_Format(): 4a5e. * *note PyObject_Free(): c65. * *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cf. * *note PyObject_GC_IsFinalized(): 977. * *note PyObject_GC_IsTracked(): 976. * *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14d0. * *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. * *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a5f. * *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 193a. * *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4a60. * *note PyObject_GenericSetDict(): 4a61. * *note PyObject_GetAIter(): 4a62. * *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. * *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 347. * *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. * *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. * *note PyObject_GetIter(): 4a63. * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 344. * *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 345. * *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 546. * *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 376. * *note PyObject_HasAttrString(): 378. * *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 377. * *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 375. * *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff. * *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1392. * *note PyObject_Init(): a6a. * *note PyObject_InitVar(): 1955. * *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e9f. * *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): ea0. * *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 4a64. * *note PyObject_Length(): 4a65. * *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68. * *note PyObject_Not(): 4a66. * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f. * *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028. * *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490a. * *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19a2. * *note PyObject_SelfIter(): 4a67. * *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a68. * *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1602. * *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947. * *note PyObject_Size(): 4a69. * *note PyObject_Str(): 1029. * *note PyObject_Type(): 4a6a. * *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 559. * *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 55a. * *note PyProperty_Type: 4a6b. * ‘PyRangeIter_Type’ * ‘PyRange_Type’ * ‘PyReversed_Type’ * *note PySeqIter_New(): 4a6c. * *note PySeqIter_Type: 4a6d. * *note PySequence_Check(): 4a6e. * *note PySequence_Concat(): 4a6f. * *note PySequence_Contains(): 4a70. * *note PySequence_Count(): 4a71. * *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a54. * *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 4a72. * *note PySequence_Fast(): 4a73. * *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52. * *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 4a74. * ‘PySequence_In()’ * *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 4a75. * *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 4a76. * *note PySequence_Index(): 4a77. * *note PySequence_Length(): 4a78. * *note PySequence_List(): 4a79. * *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4a7a. * *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a53. * *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 4a7b. * *note PySequence_Size(): 1a51. * *note PySequence_Tuple(): 4a7c. * ‘PySetIter_Type’ * *note PySet_Add(): 1412. * *note PySet_Clear(): 4a7d. * *note PySet_Contains(): 1414. * *note PySet_Discard(): 1413. * *note PySet_New(): 1410. * *note PySet_Pop(): 4a7e. * *note PySet_Size(): 1415. * *note PySet_Type: 4a7f. * *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. * *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 4a80. * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f8. * *note PySlice_New(): 4a81. * *note PySlice_Type: 4a82. * *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. * *note PyState_AddModule(): 4a83. * *note PyState_FindModule(): 4a84. * *note PyState_RemoveModule(): 4a85. * *note PyStructSequence_Desc: bba. * *note PyStructSequence_Field: bb9. * *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 4a86. * *note PyStructSequence_New(): 4a87. * *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 4a88. * *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4a89. * *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 982. * ‘PySuper_Type’ * *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. * *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 369. * *note PySys_FormatStderr(): 4a8a. * *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 4a8b. * *note PySys_GetObject(): 384. * *note PySys_GetXOptions(): 4a8c. * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3ab. * *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1640. * *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 163f. * *note PySys_SetObject(): 4a8d. * *note PySys_WriteStderr(): 4a8e. * *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 4a8f. * *note PyThreadState: 788. * *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1621. * *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 199f. * *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36d. * *note PyThreadState_GetDict(): 4a90. * *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 789. * *note PyThreadState_GetID(): 972. * *note PyThreadState_GetInterpreter(): 971. * *note PyThreadState_New(): 4a91. * *note PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc(): bc4. * *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 4a92. * ‘PyThread_GetInfo()’ * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 40a. * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock()’ * ‘PyThread_acquire_lock_timed()’ * ‘PyThread_allocate_lock()’ * *note PyThread_create_key(): 400. * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 402. * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 408. * ‘PyThread_exit_thread()’ * ‘PyThread_free_lock()’ * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 406. * ‘PyThread_get_stacksize()’ * ‘PyThread_get_thread_ident()’ * ‘PyThread_get_thread_native_id()’ * ‘PyThread_init_thread()’ * ‘PyThread_release_lock()’ * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 404. * ‘PyThread_set_stacksize()’ * ‘PyThread_start_new_thread()’ * *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 401. * *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a93. * *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 409. * *note PyThread_tss_free(): 403. * *note PyThread_tss_get(): 407. * *note PyThread_tss_is_created(): 4a94. * *note PyThread_tss_set(): 405. * ‘PyTraceBack_Here()’ * ‘PyTraceBack_Print()’ * ‘PyTraceBack_Type’ * ‘PyTupleIter_Type’ * *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d2. * *note PyTuple_GetSlice(): 4a95. * *note PyTuple_New(): 399. * *note PyTuple_Pack(): 4a96. * *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3. * *note PyTuple_Size(): 4a97. * *note PyTuple_Type: 4a98. * *note PyTypeObject: aa5. * *note PyType_ClearCache(): 4a99. * *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54d. * *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. * *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. * *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. * *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a6b. * *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e5. * *note PyType_GetFlags(): 1954. * *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36e. * *note PyType_GetModule(): 96e. * *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38f. * *note PyType_GetModuleName(): 370. * *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96f. * *note PyType_GetName(): 74d. * *note PyType_GetQualName(): 74e. * *note PyType_GetSlot(): 89a. * *note PyType_GetTypeDataSize(): 547. * *note PyType_IsSubtype(): 4a9a. * *note PyType_Modified(): 17f1. * *note PyType_Ready(): 777. * *note PyType_Slot: 4a9b. * *note PyType_Spec: 171b. * *note PyType_Type: 54a. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create(): 4a9c. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding(): 4a9d. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd(): 4a9e. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject(): 4a9f. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason(): 4aa0. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart(): 4aa1. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd(): 4aa2. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason(): 4aa3. * *note PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart(): 4aa4. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding(): 4aa5. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd(): 4aa6. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject(): 4aa7. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason(): 4aa8. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart(): 4aa9. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd(): 4aaa. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason(): 4aab. * *note PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart(): 4aac. * *note PyUnicodeIter_Type: 4aad. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd(): 4aae. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject(): 4aaf. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason(): 4ab0. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart(): 4ab1. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd(): 4ab2. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason(): 4ab3. * *note PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart(): 4ab4. * ‘PyUnicode_Append()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AppendAndDel()’ * *note PyUnicode_AsASCIIString(): 1186. * *note PyUnicode_AsCharmapString(): 4ab5. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’ * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’ * *note PyUnicode_AsEncodedString(): 4ab6. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’ * *note PyUnicode_AsLatin1String(): 1185. * *note PyUnicode_AsMBCSString(): 1187. * *note PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString(): 1184. * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4(): 116c. * *note PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy(): 8ba. * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF16String(): 4ab7. * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF32String(): 4ab8. * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 897. * *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8String(): 1182. * *note PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString(): 1183. * *note PyUnicode_AsWideChar(): 1a56. * *note PyUnicode_AsWideCharString(): 8bb. * *note PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap(): 16f0. * *note PyUnicode_Compare(): 8b6. * *note PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString(): 125b. * *note PyUnicode_Concat(): 1194. * *note PyUnicode_Contains(): 4ab9. * *note PyUnicode_Count(): 4aba. * *note PyUnicode_Decode(): 19e1. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeASCII(): 4abb. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap(): 4abc. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful(): 4abd. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault(): 171a. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4abe. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1(): 4abf. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocale(): 4ac0. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc9. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4ac1. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4ac2. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape(): 4ac3. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 4ac4. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 4ac5. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 4ac6. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 4ac7. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 4ac8. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful(): 4ac9. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4aca. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful(): 179f. * *note PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape(): 4acb. * *note PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage(): 1188. * *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a50. * *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bca. * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8(): 372. * *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 371. * *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d19. * *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 574. * *note PyUnicode_Find(): 4acc. * *note PyUnicode_FindChar(): 8b8. * *note PyUnicode_Format(): 4acd. * *note PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject(): 4ace. * *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. * *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 571. * *note PyUnicode_FromObject(): 4acf. * *note PyUnicode_FromOrdinal(): 4ad0. * *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. * *note PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize(): 4ad2. * *note PyUnicode_FromWideChar(): 1180. * *note PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding(): 4ad3. * *note PyUnicode_GetLength(): 8b2. * *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1600. * *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8b0. * *note PyUnicode_IsIdentifier(): 199c. * *note PyUnicode_Join(): 1195. * *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 156f. * *note PyUnicode_RPartition(): 1570. * *note PyUnicode_RSplit(): 156e. * *note PyUnicode_ReadChar(): 1165. * *note PyUnicode_Replace(): 4ad4. * ‘PyUnicode_Resize()’ * *note PyUnicode_RichCompare(): 4ad5. * *note PyUnicode_Split(): 4ad6. * *note PyUnicode_Splitlines(): 4ad7. * *note PyUnicode_Substring(): 8b5. * *note PyUnicode_Tailmatch(): 8b7. * *note PyUnicode_Translate(): 4ad8. * *note PyUnicode_Type: 4ad9. * *note PyUnicode_WriteChar(): 1166. * *note PyVarObject: 416a. * ‘PyVarObject.ob_base’ * *note PyVarObject.ob_size: 4ada. * *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 553. * *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 552. * ‘PyWeakReference’ * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. * *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. * *note PyWeakref_NewProxy(): 4adb. * *note PyWeakref_NewRef(): 184e. * ‘PyWrapperDescr_Type’ * *note PyWrapper_New(): 4adc. * ‘PyZip_Type’ * *note Py_AddPendingCall(): 981. * *note Py_AtExit(): 4add. * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. * *note Py_BLOCK_THREADS: 4ade. * *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9c1. * *note Py_CompileString(): 883. * *note Py_DecRef(): 4adf. * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. * *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. * *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. * *note Py_EndInterpreter(): 185f. * *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 973. * *note Py_Exit(): d4e. * *note Py_FatalError(): 983. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’ * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’ * *note Py_Finalize(): 1345. * *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. * *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4ae0. * *note Py_GenericAliasType: 4ae1. * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fd. * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4ae2. * *note Py_GetConstant(): 351. * *note Py_GetConstantBorrowed(): 352. * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4ae3. * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad. * *note Py_GetPath(): 3af. * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4ae4. * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1. * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3. * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5. * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6. * ‘Py_GetRecursionLimit()’ * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4ae5. * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’ * *note Py_IncRef(): 4ae6. * *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4ae7. * *note Py_Is(): 89e. * *note Py_IsFalse(): 8a1. * *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 355. * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4950. * *note Py_IsNone(): 89f. * *note Py_IsTrue(): 8a0. * *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 974. * *note Py_Main(): c25. * ‘Py_MakePendingCalls()’ * *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17b6. * *note Py_NewRef(): 898. * *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4ae8. * *note Py_ReprLeave(): 4ae9. * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 163e. * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 163d. * ‘Py_SetRecursionLimit()’ * *note Py_UCS4: 29d. * *note Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS: 4aea. * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’ * *note Py_VaBuildValue(): 4aeb. * *note Py_Version: 751. * *note Py_XNewRef(): 899. * *note Py_buffer: 753. * ‘Py_intptr_t’ * *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. * ‘Py_uintptr_t’ * *note allocfunc: 4aec. * *note binaryfunc: 4aed. * *note descrgetfunc: 4aee. * *note descrsetfunc: 4aef. * *note destructor: 4af0. * *note getattrfunc: 4af1. * *note getattrofunc: 4af2. * *note getbufferproc: 4af3. * *note getiterfunc: 4af4. * *note getter: 4af5. * *note hashfunc: 4af6. * *note initproc: 4af7. * *note inquiry: 4af8. * *note iternextfunc: 4af9. * *note lenfunc: 4afa. * *note newfunc: 4afb. * *note objobjargproc: 4afc. * *note objobjproc: 4afd. * *note releasebufferproc: 4afe. * *note reprfunc: 4aff. * *note richcmpfunc: 4b00. * *note setattrfunc: 4b01. * *note setattrofunc: 4b02. * *note setter: 4b03. * *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04. * *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b05. * ‘ssizessizeargfunc’ * ‘ssizessizeobjargproc’ * ‘symtable’ * *note ternaryfunc: 4b06. * *note traverseproc: 4b07. * *note unaryfunc: 4b08. * *note vectorcallfunc: 554. * *note visitproc: 4b09.  File: python.info, Node: The Very High Level Layer, Next: Reference Counting, Prev: C API Stability, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.3 The Very High Level Layer ============================= The functions in this chapter will let you execute Python source code given in a file or a buffer, but they will not let you interact in a more detailed way with the interpreter. Several of these functions accept a start symbol from the grammar as a parameter. The available start symbols are *note Py_eval_input: 4b0d, *note Py_file_input: 4b0e, and *note Py_single_input: 4b0f. These are described following the functions which accept them as parameters. Note also that several of these functions take FILE* parameters. One particular issue which needs to be handled carefully is that the ‘FILE’ structure for different C libraries can be different and incompatible. Under Windows (at least), it is possible for dynamically linked extensions to actually use different libraries, so care should be taken that FILE* parameters are only passed to these functions if it is certain that they were created by the same library that the Python runtime is using. -- C Function: int PyRun_AnyFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(): 4b11. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_AnyFileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(): 4b11. below, leaving the 'closeit' argument set to ‘0’. -- C Function: int PyRun_AnyFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_AnyFileExFlags(): 4b11. below, leaving the 'flags' argument set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags) If 'fp' refers to a file associated with an interactive device (console or terminal input or Unix pseudo-terminal), return the value of *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4b14, otherwise return the result of *note PyRun_SimpleFile(): 4924. 'filename' is decoded from the filesystem encoding (*note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59.). If 'filename' is ‘NULL’, this function uses ‘"???"’ as the filename. If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns. -- C Function: int PyRun_SimpleString (const char *command) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4b15. below, leaving the *note PyCompilerFlags: aa1.* argument set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (const char *command, PyCompilerFlags *flags) Executes the Python source code from 'command' in the *note __main__: 1. module according to the 'flags' argument. If *note __main__: 1. does not already exist, it is created. Returns ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised. If there was an error, there is no way to get the exception information. For the meaning of 'flags', see below. Note that if an otherwise unhandled *note SystemExit: d40. is raised, this function will not return ‘-1’, but exit the process, as long as *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. is zero. -- C Function: int PyRun_SimpleFile (FILE *fp, const char *filename) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 1908. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_SimpleFileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags(): 1908. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags) Similar to *note PyRun_SimpleStringFlags(): 4b15, but the Python source code is read from 'fp' instead of an in-memory string. 'filename' should be the name of the file, it is decoded from *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before ‘PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags()’ returns. Note: On Windows, 'fp' should be opened as binary mode (e.g. ‘fopen(filename, "rb")’). Otherwise, Python may not handle script file with LF line ending correctly. -- C Function: int PyRun_InteractiveOne (FILE *fp, const char *filename) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags(): 4b18. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags) Read and execute a single statement from a file associated with an interactive device according to the 'flags' argument. The user will be prompted using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’. 'filename' is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Returns ‘0’ when the input was executed successfully, ‘-1’ if there was an exception, or an error code from the ‘errcode.h’ include file distributed as part of Python if there was a parse error. (Note that ‘errcode.h’ is not included by ‘Python.h’, so must be included specifically if needed.) -- C Function: int PyRun_InteractiveLoop (FILE *fp, const char *filename) This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags(): 4b19. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, PyCompilerFlags *flags) Read and execute statements from a file associated with an interactive device until EOF is reached. The user will be prompted using ‘sys.ps1’ and ‘sys.ps2’. 'filename' is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Returns ‘0’ at EOF or a negative number upon failure. -- C Variable: int (*PyOS_InputHook)(void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Can be set to point to a function with the prototype ‘int func(void)’. The function will be called when Python’s interpreter prompt is about to become idle and wait for user input from the terminal. The return value is ignored. Overriding this hook can be used to integrate the interpreter’s prompt with other event loops, as done in the ‘Modules/_tkinter.c’ in the Python source code. Changed in version 3.12: This function is only called from the *note main interpreter: 584. -- C Variable: char *(*PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer)(FILE*, FILE*, const char*) Can be set to point to a function with the prototype ‘char *func(FILE *stdin, FILE *stdout, char *prompt)’, overriding the default function used to read a single line of input at the interpreter’s prompt. The function is expected to output the string 'prompt' if it’s not ‘NULL’, and then read a line of input from the provided standard input file, returning the resulting string. For example, The *note readline: ba. module sets this hook to provide line-editing and tab-completion features. The result must be a string allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred. Changed in version 3.4: The result must be allocated by *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. or *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d, instead of being allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. or *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. Changed in version 3.12: This function is only called from the *note main interpreter: 584. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyRun_String (const char *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals) 'Return value: New reference.' This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 4b1a. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyRun_StringFlags (const char *str, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags) 'Return value: New reference.' Execute Python source code from 'str' in the context specified by the objects 'globals' and 'locals' with the compiler flags specified by 'flags'. 'globals' must be a dictionary; 'locals' can be any object that implements the mapping protocol. The parameter 'start' specifies the start token that should be used to parse the source code. Returns the result of executing the code as a Python object, or ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyRun_File (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals) 'Return value: New reference.' This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1c. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’ and 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyRun_FileEx (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int closeit) 'Return value: New reference.' This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1c. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyRun_FileFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyCompilerFlags *flags) 'Return value: New reference.' This is a simplified interface to *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1c. below, leaving 'closeit' set to ‘0’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyRun_FileExFlags (FILE *fp, const char *filename, int start, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, int closeit, PyCompilerFlags *flags) 'Return value: New reference.' Similar to *note PyRun_StringFlags(): 4b1a, but the Python source code is read from 'fp' instead of an in-memory string. 'filename' should be the name of the file, it is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. If 'closeit' is true, the file is closed before *note PyRun_FileExFlags(): 4b1c. returns. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_CompileString (const char *str, const char *filename, int start) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a simplified interface to *note Py_CompileStringFlags(): 4b1f. below, leaving 'flags' set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_CompileStringFlags (const char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags) 'Return value: New reference.' This is a simplified interface to *note Py_CompileStringExFlags(): 4b20. below, with 'optimize' set to ‘-1’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_CompileStringObject (const char *str, PyObject *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize) 'Return value: New reference.' Parse and compile the Python source code in 'str', returning the resulting code object. The start token is given by 'start'; this can be used to constrain the code which can be compiled and should be *note Py_eval_input: 4b0d, *note Py_file_input: 4b0e, or *note Py_single_input: 4b0f. The filename specified by 'filename' is used to construct the code object and may appear in tracebacks or *note SyntaxError: 18d. exception messages. This returns ‘NULL’ if the code cannot be parsed or compiled. The integer 'optimize' specifies the optimization level of the compiler; a value of ‘-1’ selects the optimization level of the interpreter as given by *note -O: db4. options. Explicit levels are ‘0’ (no optimization; ‘__debug__’ is true), ‘1’ (asserts are removed, ‘__debug__’ is false) or ‘2’ (docstrings are removed too). Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_CompileStringExFlags (const char *str, const char *filename, int start, PyCompilerFlags *flags, int optimize) 'Return value: New reference.' Like *note Py_CompileStringObject(): 4b21, but 'filename' is a byte string decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_EvalCode (PyObject *co, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a simplified interface to *note PyEval_EvalCodeEx(): 1769, with just the code object, and global and local variables. The other arguments are set to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_EvalCodeEx (PyObject *co, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *const *args, int argcount, PyObject *const *kws, int kwcount, PyObject *const *defs, int defcount, PyObject *kwdefs, PyObject *closure) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Evaluate a precompiled code object, given a particular environment for its evaluation. This environment consists of a dictionary of global variables, a mapping object of local variables, arrays of arguments, keywords and defaults, a dictionary of default values for *note keyword-only: 2a7. arguments and a closure tuple of cells. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_EvalFrame (PyFrameObject *f) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Evaluate an execution frame. This is a simplified interface to *note PyEval_EvalFrameEx(): 1027, for backward compatibility. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_EvalFrameEx (PyFrameObject *f, int throwflag) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the main, unvarnished function of Python interpretation. The code object associated with the execution frame 'f' is executed, interpreting bytecode and executing calls as needed. The additional 'throwflag' parameter can mostly be ignored - if true, then it causes an exception to immediately be thrown; this is used for the *note throw(): 4f4. methods of generator objects. Changed in version 3.4: This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it does not silently discard an active exception. -- C Function: int PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (PyCompilerFlags *cf) This function changes the flags of the current evaluation frame, and returns true on success, false on failure. -- C Variable: int Py_eval_input The start symbol from the Python grammar for isolated expressions; for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 883. -- C Variable: int Py_file_input The start symbol from the Python grammar for sequences of statements as read from a file or other source; for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 883. This is the symbol to use when compiling arbitrarily long Python source code. -- C Variable: int Py_single_input The start symbol from the Python grammar for a single statement; for use with *note Py_CompileString(): 883. This is the symbol used for the interactive interpreter loop. -- C Struct: struct PyCompilerFlags This is the structure used to hold compiler flags. In cases where code is only being compiled, it is passed as ‘int flags’, and in cases where code is being executed, it is passed as ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’. In this case, ‘from __future__ import’ can modify 'flags'. Whenever ‘PyCompilerFlags *flags’ is ‘NULL’, *note cf_flags: 4b23. is treated as equal to ‘0’, and any modification due to ‘from __future__ import’ is discarded. -- C Member: int cf_flags Compiler flags. -- C Member: int cf_feature_version 'cf_feature_version' is the minor Python version. It should be initialized to ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’. The field is ignored by default, it is used if and only if ‘PyCF_ONLY_AST’ flag is set in *note cf_flags: 4b23. Changed in version 3.8: Added 'cf_feature_version' field. The available compiler flags are accessible as macros: -- C Macro: PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT -- C Macro: PyCF_ONLY_AST -- C Macro: PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST -- C Macro: PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS See *note compiler flags: 2164. in documentation of the ‘ast’ Python module, which exports these constants under the same names. The “‘PyCF’” flags above can be combined with “‘CO_FUTURE’” flags such as *note CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS: 4b29. to enable features normally selectable using *note future statements: 189. See *note Code Object Flags: 4b2a. for a complete list.  File: python.info, Node: Reference Counting, Next: Exception Handling, Prev: The Very High Level Layer, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.4 Reference Counting ====================== The functions and macros in this section are used for managing reference counts of Python objects. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. Py_REFCNT (PyObject *o) Get the reference count of the Python object 'o'. Note that the returned value may not actually reflect how many references to the object are actually held. For example, some objects are *note immortal: 4394. and have a very high refcount that does not reflect the actual number of references. Consequently, do not rely on the returned value to be accurate, other than a value of 0 or 1. Use the *note Py_SET_REFCNT(): 8a9. function to set an object reference count. Changed in version 3.10: *note Py_REFCNT(): 8a8. is changed to the inline static function. Changed in version 3.11: The parameter type is no longer const *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: void Py_SET_REFCNT (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t refcnt) Set the object 'o' reference counter to 'refcnt'. On *note Python build with Free Threading: 1d7a, if 'refcnt' is larger than ‘UINT32_MAX’, the object is made *note immortal: 4394. This function has no effect on *note immortal: 4394. objects. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified. -- C Function: void Py_INCREF (PyObject *o) Indicate taking a new *note strong reference: 338. to object 'o', indicating it is in use and should not be destroyed. This function has no effect on *note immortal: 4394. objects. This function is usually used to convert a *note borrowed reference: 339. to a *note strong reference: 338. in-place. The *note Py_NewRef(): 898. function can be used to create a new *note strong reference: 338. When done using the object, release is by calling *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. The object must not be ‘NULL’; if you aren’t sure that it isn’t ‘NULL’, use *note Py_XINCREF(): a64. Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way. For at least some objects(1), this function has no effect. Changed in version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified. -- C Function: void Py_XINCREF (PyObject *o) Similar to *note Py_INCREF(): 56b, but the object 'o' can be ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect. See also *note Py_XNewRef(): 899. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_NewRef (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Create a new *note strong reference: 338. to an object: call *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. on 'o' and return the object 'o'. When the *note strong reference: 338. is no longer needed, *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. should be called on it to release the reference. The object 'o' must not be ‘NULL’; use *note Py_XNewRef(): 899. if 'o' can be ‘NULL’. For example: Py_INCREF(obj); self->attr = obj; can be written as: self->attr = Py_NewRef(obj); See also *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_XNewRef (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Similar to *note Py_NewRef(): 898, but the object 'o' can be NULL. If the object 'o' is ‘NULL’, the function just returns ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: void Py_DECREF (PyObject *o) Release a *note strong reference: 338. to object 'o', indicating the reference is no longer used. This function has no effect on *note immortal: 4394. objects. Once the last *note strong reference: 338. is released (i.e. the object’s reference count reaches 0), the object’s type’s deallocation function (which must not be ‘NULL’) is invoked. This function is usually used to delete a *note strong reference: 338. before exiting its scope. The object must not be ‘NULL’; if you aren’t sure that it isn’t ‘NULL’, use *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. Do not expect this function to actually modify 'o' in any way. For at least some objects(2), this function has no effect. Warning: The deallocation function can cause arbitrary Python code to be invoked (e.g. when a class instance with a *note __del__(): 1f61. method is deallocated). While exceptions in such code are not propagated, the executed code has free access to all Python global variables. This means that any object that is reachable from a global variable should be in a consistent state before *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. is invoked. For example, code to delete an object from a list should copy a reference to the deleted object in a temporary variable, update the list data structure, and then call *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. for the temporary variable. Changed in version 3.12: Immortal objects are not modified. -- C Function: void Py_XDECREF (PyObject *o) Similar to *note Py_DECREF(): 56c, but the object 'o' can be ‘NULL’, in which case this has no effect. The same warning from *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. applies here as well. -- C Function: void Py_CLEAR (PyObject *o) Release a *note strong reference: 338. for object 'o'. The object may be ‘NULL’, in which case the macro has no effect; otherwise the effect is the same as for *note Py_DECREF(): 56c, except that the argument is also set to ‘NULL’. The warning for *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. does not apply with respect to the object passed because the macro carefully uses a temporary variable and sets the argument to ‘NULL’ before releasing the reference. It is a good idea to use this macro whenever releasing a reference to an object that might be traversed during garbage collection. Changed in version 3.12: The macro argument is now only evaluated once. If the argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated. -- C Function: void Py_IncRef (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Indicate taking a new *note strong reference: 338. to object 'o'. A function version of *note Py_XINCREF(): a64. It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of Python. -- C Function: void Py_DecRef (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Release a *note strong reference: 338. to object 'o'. A function version of *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. It can be used for runtime dynamic embedding of Python. -- C Macro: Py_SETREF (dst, src) Macro safely releasing a *note strong reference: 338. to object 'dst' and setting 'dst' to 'src'. As in case of *note Py_CLEAR(): 575, “the obvious” code can be deadly: Py_DECREF(dst); dst = src; The safe way is: Py_SETREF(dst, src); That arranges to set 'dst' to 'src' 'before' releasing the reference to the old value of 'dst', so that any code triggered as a side-effect of 'dst' getting torn down no longer believes 'dst' points to a valid object. Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.12: The macro arguments are now only evaluated once. If an argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated. -- C Macro: Py_XSETREF (dst, src) Variant of *note Py_SETREF: 576. macro that uses *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. instead of *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.12: The macro arguments are now only evaluated once. If an argument has side effects, these are no longer duplicated. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/  File: python.info, Node: Exception Handling, Next: Utilities<2>, Prev: Reference Counting, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.5 Exception Handling ====================== The functions described in this chapter will let you handle and raise Python exceptions. It is important to understand some of the basics of Python exception handling. It works somewhat like the POSIX ‘errno’ variable: there is a global indicator (per thread) of the last error that occurred. Most C API functions don’t clear this on success, but will set it to indicate the cause of the error on failure. Most C API functions also return an error indicator, usually ‘NULL’ if they are supposed to return a pointer, or ‘-1’ if they return an integer (exception: the ‘PyArg_*’ functions return ‘1’ for success and ‘0’ for failure). Concretely, the error indicator consists of three object pointers: the exception’s type, the exception’s value, and the traceback object. Any of those pointers can be ‘NULL’ if non-set (although some combinations are forbidden, for example you can’t have a non-‘NULL’ traceback if the exception type is ‘NULL’). When a function must fail because some function it called failed, it generally doesn’t set the error indicator; the function it called already set it. It is responsible for either handling the error and clearing the exception or returning after cleaning up any resources it holds (such as object references or memory allocations); it should 'not' continue normally if it is not prepared to handle the error. If returning due to an error, it is important to indicate to the caller that an error has been set. If the error is not handled or carefully propagated, additional calls into the Python/C API may not behave as intended and may fail in mysterious ways. Note: The error indicator is 'not' the result of *note sys.exc_info(): 686. The former corresponds to an exception that is not yet caught (and is therefore still propagating), while the latter returns an exception after it is caught (and has therefore stopped propagating). * Menu: * Printing and clearing:: * Raising exceptions:: * Issuing warnings:: * Querying the error indicator:: * Signal Handling: Signal Handling<2>. * Exception Classes:: * Exception Objects:: * Unicode Exception Objects:: * Recursion Control:: * Exception and warning types::  File: python.info, Node: Printing and clearing, Next: Raising exceptions, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.1 Printing and clearing --------------------------- -- C Function: void PyErr_Clear () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Clear the error indicator. If the error indicator is not set, there is no effect. -- C Function: void PyErr_PrintEx (int set_sys_last_vars) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Print a standard traceback to ‘sys.stderr’ and clear the error indicator. 'Unless' the error is a ‘SystemExit’, in that case no traceback is printed and the Python process will exit with the error code specified by the ‘SystemExit’ instance. Call this function 'only' when the error indicator is set. Otherwise it will cause a fatal error! If 'set_sys_last_vars' is nonzero, the variable *note sys.last_exc: 4ba. is set to the printed exception. For backwards compatibility, the deprecated variables *note sys.last_type: 4bb, *note sys.last_value: 4bc. and *note sys.last_traceback: 4bd. are also set to the type, value and traceback of this exception, respectively. Changed in version 3.12: The setting of *note sys.last_exc: 4ba. was added. -- C Function: void PyErr_Print () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Alias for ‘PyErr_PrintEx(1)’. -- C Function: void PyErr_WriteUnraisable (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. using the current exception and 'obj' argument. This utility function prints a warning message to ‘sys.stderr’ when an exception has been set but it is impossible for the interpreter to actually raise the exception. It is used, for example, when an exception occurs in an *note __del__(): 1f61. method. The function is called with a single argument 'obj' that identifies the context in which the unraisable exception occurred. If possible, the repr of 'obj' will be printed in the warning message. If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed. An exception must be set when calling this function. Changed in version 3.4: Print a traceback. Print only traceback if 'obj' is ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. -- C Function: void PyErr_FormatUnraisable (const char *format, ...) Similar to *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 34a, but the 'format' and subsequent parameters help format the warning message; they have the same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. ‘PyErr_WriteUnraisable(obj)’ is roughly equivalent to ‘PyErr_FormatUnraisable("Exception ignored in: %R", obj)’. If 'format' is ‘NULL’, only the traceback is printed. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: void PyErr_DisplayException (PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Print the standard traceback display of ‘exc’ to ‘sys.stderr’, including chained exceptions and notes. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Raising exceptions, Next: Issuing warnings, Prev: Printing and clearing, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.2 Raising exceptions ------------------------ These functions help you set the current thread’s error indicator. For convenience, some of these functions will always return a ‘NULL’ pointer for use in a ‘return’ statement. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetString (PyObject *type, const char *message) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the most common way to set the error indicator. The first argument specifies the exception type; it is normally one of the standard exceptions, e.g. *note PyExc_RuntimeError: 49e5. You need not create a new *note strong reference: 338. to it (e.g. with *note Py_INCREF(): 56b.). The second argument is an error message; it is decoded from ‘'utf-8'’. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This function is similar to *note PyErr_SetString(): 579. but lets you specify an arbitrary Python object for the “value” of the exception. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_Format (PyObject *exception, const char *format, ...) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This function sets the error indicator and returns ‘NULL’. 'exception' should be a Python exception class. The 'format' and subsequent parameters help format the error message; they have the same meaning and values as in *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. 'format' is an ASCII-encoded string. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_FormatV (PyObject *exception, const char *format, va_list vargs) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.5.' Same as *note PyErr_Format(): eaa, but taking a ‘va_list’ argument rather than a variable number of arguments. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetNone (PyObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, Py_None)’. -- C Function: int PyErr_BadArgument () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_TypeError, message)’, where 'message' indicates that a built-in operation was invoked with an illegal argument. It is mostly for internal use. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_NoMemory () 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetNone(PyExc_MemoryError)’; it returns ‘NULL’ so an object allocation function can write ‘return PyErr_NoMemory();’ when it runs out of memory. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetFromErrno (PyObject *type) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a convenience function to raise an exception when a C library function has returned an error and set the C variable ‘errno’. It constructs a tuple object whose first item is the integer ‘errno’ value and whose second item is the corresponding error message (gotten from ‘strerror()’), and then calls ‘PyErr_SetObject(type, object)’. On Unix, when the ‘errno’ value is ‘EINTR’, indicating an interrupted system call, this calls *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 462, and if that set the error indicator, leaves it set to that. The function always returns ‘NULL’, so a wrapper function around a system call can write ‘return PyErr_SetFromErrno(type);’ when the system call returns an error. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrno(): 48b2, with the additional behavior that if 'filenameObject' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the constructor of 'type' as a third parameter. In the case of *note OSError: 413. exception, this is used to define the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (PyObject *type, PyObject *filenameObject, PyObject *filenameObject2) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 49ac, but takes a second filename object, for raising errors when a function that takes two filenames fails. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (PyObject *type, const char *filename) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject(): 49ac, but the filename is given as a C string. 'filename' is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (int ierr) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' This is a convenience function to raise *note OSError: 413. If called with 'ierr' of ‘0’, the error code returned by a call to ‘GetLastError()’ is used instead. It calls the Win32 function ‘FormatMessage()’ to retrieve the Windows description of error code given by 'ierr' or ‘GetLastError()’, then it constructs a *note OSError: 413. object with the *note winerror: 228e. attribute set to the error code, the *note strerror: 228f. attribute set to the corresponding error message (gotten from ‘FormatMessage()’), and then calls ‘PyErr_SetObject(PyExc_OSError, object)’. This function always returns ‘NULL’. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (PyObject *type, int ierr) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 49ae, with an additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (int ierr, const char *filename) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr(): 49ae, with the additional behavior that if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is decoded from the filesystem encoding (*note os.fsdecode(): c54.) and passed to the constructor of *note OSError: 413. as a third parameter to be used to define the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr(): 49a9, with the additional behavior that if 'filename' is not ‘NULL’, it is passed to the constructor of *note OSError: 413. as a third parameter to be used to define the ‘filename’ attribute of the exception instance. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (PyObject *type, int ierr, PyObject *filename, PyObject *filename2) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject(): 49aa, but accepts a second filename object. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (PyObject *type, int ierr, const char *filename) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename(): 1719, with an additional parameter specifying the exception type to be raised. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetImportError (PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' This is a convenience function to raise *note ImportError: 415. 'msg' will be set as the exception’s message string. 'name' and 'path', both of which can be ‘NULL’, will be set as the *note ImportError: 415.’s respective ‘name’ and ‘path’ attributes. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (PyObject *exception, PyObject *msg, PyObject *name, PyObject *path) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.6.' Much like *note PyErr_SetImportError(): d3e. but this function allows for specifying a subclass of *note ImportError: 415. to raise. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (PyObject *filename, int lineno, int col_offset) Set file, line, and offset information for the current exception. If the current exception is not a *note SyntaxError: 18d, then it sets additional attributes, which make the exception printing subsystem think the exception is a *note SyntaxError: 18d. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: void PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (const char *filename, int lineno, int col_offset) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Like *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject(): 4b32, but 'filename' is a byte string decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: void PyErr_SyntaxLocation (const char *filename, int lineno) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Like *note PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx(): 49b2, but the 'col_offset' parameter is omitted. -- C Function: void PyErr_BadInternalCall () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a shorthand for ‘PyErr_SetString(PyExc_SystemError, message)’, where 'message' indicates that an internal operation (e.g. a Python/C API function) was invoked with an illegal argument. It is mostly for internal use.  File: python.info, Node: Issuing warnings, Next: Querying the error indicator, Prev: Raising exceptions, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.3 Issuing warnings ---------------------- Use these functions to issue warnings from C code. They mirror similar functions exported by the Python *note warnings: 112. module. They normally print a warning message to 'sys.stderr'; however, it is also possible that the user has specified that warnings are to be turned into errors, and in that case they will raise an exception. It is also possible that the functions raise an exception because of a problem with the warning machinery. The return value is ‘0’ if no exception is raised, or ‘-1’ if an exception is raised. (It is not possible to determine whether a warning message is actually printed, nor what the reason is for the exception; this is intentional.) If an exception is raised, the caller should do its normal exception handling (for example, *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. owned references and return an error value). -- C Function: int PyErr_WarnEx (PyObject *category, const char *message, Py_ssize_t stack_level) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Issue a warning message. The 'category' argument is a warning category (see below) or ‘NULL’; the 'message' argument is a UTF-8 encoded string. 'stack_level' is a positive number giving a number of stack frames; the warning will be issued from the currently executing line of code in that stack frame. A 'stack_level' of 1 is the function calling *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1416, 2 is the function above that, and so forth. Warning categories must be subclasses of *note PyExc_Warning: 49f6.; *note PyExc_Warning: 49f6. is a subclass of *note PyExc_Exception: 49ca.; the default warning category is *note PyExc_RuntimeWarning: 49e6. The standard Python warning categories are available as global variables whose names are enumerated at *note Warning types: 4b34. For information about warning control, see the documentation for the *note warnings: 112. module and the *note -W: 8c6. option in the command line documentation. There is no C API for warning control. -- C Function: int PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (PyObject *category, PyObject *message, PyObject *filename, int lineno, PyObject *module, PyObject *registry) Issue a warning message with explicit control over all warning attributes. This is a straightforward wrapper around the Python function *note warnings.warn_explicit(): d00.; see there for more information. The 'module' and 'registry' arguments may be set to ‘NULL’ to get the default effect described there. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: int PyErr_WarnExplicit (PyObject *category, const char *message, const char *filename, int lineno, const char *module, PyObject *registry) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyErr_WarnExplicitObject(): 4b35. except that 'message' and 'module' are UTF-8 encoded strings, and 'filename' is decoded from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. -- C Function: int PyErr_WarnFormat (PyObject *category, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Function similar to *note PyErr_WarnEx(): 1416, but use *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. to format the warning message. 'format' is an ASCII-encoded string. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: int PyErr_ResourceWarning (PyObject *source, Py_ssize_t stack_level, const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.6.' Function similar to *note PyErr_WarnFormat(): 49b3, but 'category' is *note ResourceWarning: 246. and it passes 'source' to ‘warnings.WarningMessage’. Added in version 3.6.  File: python.info, Node: Querying the error indicator, Next: Signal Handling<2>, Prev: Issuing warnings, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.4 Querying the error indicator ---------------------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_Occurred () 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Test whether the error indicator is set. If set, return the exception 'type' (the first argument to the last call to one of the ‘PyErr_Set*’ functions or to *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2.). If not set, return ‘NULL’. You do not own a reference to the return value, so you do not need to *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. it. The caller must hold the GIL. Note: Do not compare the return value to a specific exception; use *note PyErr_ExceptionMatches(): 494d. instead, shown below. (The comparison could easily fail since the exception may be an instance instead of a class, in the case of a class exception, or it may be a subclass of the expected exception.) -- C Function: int PyErr_ExceptionMatches (PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Equivalent to ‘PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches(PyErr_Occurred(), exc)’. This should only be called when an exception is actually set; a memory access violation will occur if no exception has been raised. -- C Function: int PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (PyObject *given, PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return true if the 'given' exception matches the exception type in 'exc'. If 'exc' is a class object, this also returns true when 'given' is an instance of a subclass. If 'exc' is a tuple, all exception types in the tuple (and recursively in subtuples) are searched for a match. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_GetRaisedException (void) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Return the exception currently being raised, clearing the error indicator at the same time. Return ‘NULL’ if the error indicator is not set. This function is used by code that needs to catch exceptions, or code that needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily. For example: { PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException(); /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */ PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc); } See also ........ *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 76a, to save the exception currently being handled. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetRaisedException (PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Set 'exc' as the exception currently being raised, clearing the existing exception if one is set. Warning: This call steals a reference to 'exc', which must be a valid exception. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: void PyErr_Fetch (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated since version 3.12: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. Retrieve the error indicator into three variables whose addresses are passed. If the error indicator is not set, set all three variables to ‘NULL’. If it is set, it will be cleared and you own a reference to each object retrieved. The value and traceback object may be ‘NULL’ even when the type object is not. Note: This function is normally only used by legacy code that needs to catch exceptions or save and restore the error indicator temporarily. For example: { PyObject *type, *value, *traceback; PyErr_Fetch(&type, &value, &traceback); /* ... code that might produce other errors ... */ PyErr_Restore(type, value, traceback); } -- C Function: void PyErr_Restore (PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated since version 3.12: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. instead. Set the error indicator from the three objects, 'type', 'value', and 'traceback', clearing the existing exception if one is set. If the objects are ‘NULL’, the error indicator is cleared. Do not pass a ‘NULL’ type and non-‘NULL’ value or traceback. The exception type should be a class. Do not pass an invalid exception type or value. (Violating these rules will cause subtle problems later.) This call takes away a reference to each object: you must own a reference to each object before the call and after the call you no longer own these references. (If you don’t understand this, don’t use this function. I warned you.) Note: This function is normally only used by legacy code that needs to save and restore the error indicator temporarily. Use *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. to save the current error indicator. -- C Function: void PyErr_NormalizeException (PyObject **exc, PyObject **val, PyObject **tb) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated since version 3.12: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead, to avoid any possible de-normalization. Under certain circumstances, the values returned by *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef. below can be “unnormalized”, meaning that ‘*exc’ is a class object but ‘*val’ is not an instance of the same class. This function can be used to instantiate the class in that case. If the values are already normalized, nothing happens. The delayed normalization is implemented to improve performance. Note: This function 'does not' implicitly set the *note __traceback__: 12b9. attribute on the exception value. If setting the traceback appropriately is desired, the following additional snippet is needed: if (tb != NULL) { PyException_SetTraceback(val, tb); } -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_GetHandledException (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Retrieve the active exception instance, as would be returned by *note sys.exception(): 687. This refers to an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised. Returns a new reference to the exception or ‘NULL’. Does not modify the interpreter’s exception state. Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 76b. to restore or clear the exception state. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetHandledException (PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Set the active exception, as known from ‘sys.exception()’. This refers to an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised. To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’. Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 76a. to get the exception state. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: void PyErr_GetExcInfo (PyObject **ptype, PyObject **pvalue, PyObject **ptraceback) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Retrieve the old-style representation of the exception info, as known from *note sys.exc_info(): 686. This refers to an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised. Returns new references for the three objects, any of which may be ‘NULL’. Does not modify the exception info state. This function is kept for backwards compatibility. Prefer using *note PyErr_GetHandledException(): 76a. Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use *note PyErr_SetExcInfo(): 76c. to restore or clear the exception state. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetExcInfo (PyObject *type, PyObject *value, PyObject *traceback) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Set the exception info, as known from ‘sys.exc_info()’. This refers to an exception that was 'already caught', not to an exception that was freshly raised. This function steals the references of the arguments. To clear the exception state, pass ‘NULL’ for all three arguments. This function is kept for backwards compatibility. Prefer using *note PyErr_SetHandledException(): 76b. Note: This function is not normally used by code that wants to handle exceptions. Rather, it can be used when code needs to save and restore the exception state temporarily. Use *note PyErr_GetExcInfo(): 76d. to read the exception state. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.11: The ‘type’ and ‘traceback’ arguments are no longer used and can be NULL. The interpreter now derives them from the exception instance (the ‘value’ argument). The function still steals references of all three arguments.  File: python.info, Node: Signal Handling<2>, Next: Exception Classes, Prev: Querying the error indicator, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.5 Signal Handling --------------------- -- C Function: int PyErr_CheckSignals () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This function interacts with Python’s signal handling. If the function is called from the main thread and under the main Python interpreter, it checks whether a signal has been sent to the processes and if so, invokes the corresponding signal handler. If the *note signal: c6. module is supported, this can invoke a signal handler written in Python. The function attempts to handle all pending signals, and then returns ‘0’. However, if a Python signal handler raises an exception, the error indicator is set and the function returns ‘-1’ immediately (such that other pending signals may not have been handled yet: they will be on the next *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 462. invocation). If the function is called from a non-main thread, or under a non-main Python interpreter, it does nothing and returns ‘0’. This function can be called by long-running C code that wants to be interruptible by user requests (such as by pressing Ctrl-C). Note: The default Python signal handler for ‘SIGINT’ raises the *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. exception. -- C Function: void PyErr_SetInterrupt () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Simulate the effect of a ‘SIGINT’ signal arriving. This is equivalent to ‘PyErr_SetInterruptEx(SIGINT)’. Note: This function is async-signal-safe. It can be called without the *note GIL: 159. and from a C signal handler. -- C Function: int PyErr_SetInterruptEx (int signum) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Simulate the effect of a signal arriving. The next time *note PyErr_CheckSignals(): 462. is called, the Python signal handler for the given signal number will be called. This function can be called by C code that sets up its own signal handling and wants Python signal handlers to be invoked as expected when an interruption is requested (for example when the user presses Ctrl-C to interrupt an operation). If the given signal isn’t handled by Python (it was set to *note signal.SIG_DFL: 1820. or *note signal.SIG_IGN: 181f.), it will be ignored. If 'signum' is outside of the allowed range of signal numbers, ‘-1’ is returned. Otherwise, ‘0’ is returned. The error indicator is never changed by this function. Note: This function is async-signal-safe. It can be called without the *note GIL: 159. and from a C signal handler. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int PySignal_SetWakeupFd (int fd) This utility function specifies a file descriptor to which the signal number is written as a single byte whenever a signal is received. 'fd' must be non-blocking. It returns the previous such file descriptor. The value ‘-1’ disables the feature; this is the initial state. This is equivalent to *note signal.set_wakeup_fd(): b70. in Python, but without any error checking. 'fd' should be a valid file descriptor. The function should only be called from the main thread. Changed in version 3.5: On Windows, the function now also supports socket handles.  File: python.info, Node: Exception Classes, Next: Exception Objects, Prev: Signal Handling<2>, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.6 Exception Classes ----------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_NewException (const char *name, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This utility function creates and returns a new exception class. The 'name' argument must be the name of the new exception, a C string of the form ‘module.classname’. The 'base' and 'dict' arguments are normally ‘NULL’. This creates a class object derived from *note Exception: 9d9. (accessible in C as *note PyExc_Exception: 49ca.). The *note __module__: 36f. attribute of the new class is set to the first part (up to the last dot) of the 'name' argument, and the class name is set to the last part (after the last dot). The 'base' argument can be used to specify alternate base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. The 'dict' argument can be used to specify a dictionary of class variables and methods. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (const char *name, const char *doc, PyObject *base, PyObject *dict) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Same as *note PyErr_NewException(): 125d, except that the new exception class can easily be given a docstring: If 'doc' is non-‘NULL’, it will be used as the docstring for the exception class. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: int PyExceptionClass_Check (PyObject *ob) Return non-zero if 'ob' is an exception class, zero otherwise. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: const char *PyExceptionClass_Name (PyObject *ob) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.8.' Return *note tp_name: 18f2. of the exception class 'ob'.  File: python.info, Node: Exception Objects, Next: Unicode Exception Objects, Prev: Exception Classes, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.7 Exception Objects ----------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyException_GetTraceback (PyObject *ex) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the traceback associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __traceback__: 12b9. attribute. If there is no traceback associated, this returns ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyException_SetTraceback (PyObject *ex, PyObject *tb) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the traceback associated with the exception to 'tb'. Use ‘Py_None’ to clear it. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyException_GetContext (PyObject *ex) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the context (another exception instance during whose handling 'ex' was raised) associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __context__: 12ba. attribute. If there is no context associated, this returns ‘NULL’. -- C Function: void PyException_SetContext (PyObject *ex, PyObject *ctx) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the context associated with the exception to 'ctx'. Use ‘NULL’ to clear it. There is no type check to make sure that 'ctx' is an exception instance. This steals a reference to 'ctx'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyException_GetCause (PyObject *ex) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the cause (either an exception instance, or ‘None’, set by ‘raise ... from ...’) associated with the exception as a new reference, as accessible from Python through the *note __cause__: 12bb. attribute. -- C Function: void PyException_SetCause (PyObject *ex, PyObject *cause) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the cause associated with the exception to 'cause'. Use ‘NULL’ to clear it. There is no type check to make sure that 'cause' is either an exception instance or ‘None’. This steals a reference to 'cause'. The *note __suppress_context__: 20b8. attribute is implicitly set to ‘True’ by this function. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyException_GetArgs (PyObject *ex) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Return *note args: 569. of exception 'ex'. -- C Function: void PyException_SetArgs (PyObject *ex, PyObject *args) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Set *note args: 569. of exception 'ex' to 'args'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (PyObject *orig, PyObject *excs) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Implement part of the interpreter’s implementation of ‘except*’. 'orig' is the original exception that was caught, and 'excs' is the list of the exceptions that need to be raised. This list contains the unhandled part of 'orig', if any, as well as the exceptions that were raised from the ‘except*’ clauses (so they have a different traceback from 'orig') and those that were reraised (and have the same traceback as 'orig'). Return the *note ExceptionGroup: 1b6. that needs to be reraised in the end, or ‘None’ if there is nothing to reraise. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Exception Objects, Next: Recursion Control, Prev: Exception Objects, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.8 Unicode Exception Objects ------------------------------- The following functions are used to create and modify Unicode exceptions from C. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (const char *encoding, const char *object, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, const char *reason) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. object with the attributes 'encoding', 'object', 'length', 'start', 'end' and 'reason'. 'encoding' and 'reason' are UTF-8 encoded strings. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (PyObject *exc) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the 'encoding' attribute of the given exception object. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (PyObject *exc) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (PyObject *exc) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the 'object' attribute of the given exception object. -- C Function: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *start) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get the 'start' attribute of the given exception object and place it into '*start'. 'start' must not be ‘NULL’. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t start) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the 'start' attribute of the given exception object to 'start'. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t *end) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get the 'end' attribute of the given exception object and place it into '*end'. 'end' must not be ‘NULL’. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (PyObject *exc, Py_ssize_t end) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the 'end' attribute of the given exception object to 'end'. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (PyObject *exc) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (PyObject *exc) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the 'reason' attribute of the given exception object. -- C Function: int PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const char *reason) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const char *reason) -- C Function: int PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (PyObject *exc, const char *reason) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the 'reason' attribute of the given exception object to 'reason'. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure.  File: python.info, Node: Recursion Control, Next: Exception and warning types, Prev: Unicode Exception Objects, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.9 Recursion Control ----------------------- These two functions provide a way to perform safe recursive calls at the C level, both in the core and in extension modules. They are needed if the recursive code does not necessarily invoke Python code (which tracks its recursion depth automatically). They are also not needed for 'tp_call' implementations because the *note call protocol: 580. takes care of recursion handling. -- C Function: int Py_EnterRecursiveCall (const char *where) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Marks a point where a recursive C-level call is about to be performed. If ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is defined, this function checks if the OS stack overflowed using *note PyOS_CheckStack(): 1815. If this is the case, it sets a *note MemoryError: 1576. and returns a nonzero value. The function then checks if the recursion limit is reached. If this is the case, a *note RecursionError: d6b. is set and a nonzero value is returned. Otherwise, zero is returned. 'where' should be a UTF-8 encoded string such as ‘" in instance check"’ to be concatenated to the *note RecursionError: d6b. message caused by the recursion depth limit. Changed in version 3.9: This function is now also available in the *note limited API: 391. -- C Function: void Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Ends a *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 973. Must be called once for each 'successful' invocation of *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 973. Changed in version 3.9: This function is now also available in the *note limited API: 391. Properly implementing *note tp_repr: 48fd. for container types requires special recursion handling. In addition to protecting the stack, *note tp_repr: 48fd. also needs to track objects to prevent cycles. The following two functions facilitate this functionality. Effectively, these are the C equivalent to *note reprlib.recursive_repr(): 11e5. -- C Function: int Py_ReprEnter (PyObject *object) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Called at the beginning of the *note tp_repr: 48fd. implementation to detect cycles. If the object has already been processed, the function returns a positive integer. In that case the *note tp_repr: 48fd. implementation should return a string object indicating a cycle. As examples, *note dict: 258. objects return ‘{...}’ and *note list: 60d. objects return ‘[...]’. The function will return a negative integer if the recursion limit is reached. In that case the *note tp_repr: 48fd. implementation should typically return ‘NULL’. Otherwise, the function returns zero and the *note tp_repr: 48fd. implementation can continue normally. -- C Function: void Py_ReprLeave (PyObject *object) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Ends a *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4ae8. Must be called once for each invocation of *note Py_ReprEnter(): 4ae8. that returns zero.  File: python.info, Node: Exception and warning types, Prev: Recursion Control, Up: Exception Handling 7.5.10 Exception and warning types ---------------------------------- All standard Python exceptions and warning categories are available as global variables whose names are ‘PyExc_’ followed by the Python exception name. These have the type *note PyObject: 334.*; they are all class objects. For completeness, here are all the variables: * Menu: * Exception types:: * OSError aliases:: * Warning types::  File: python.info, Node: Exception types, Next: OSError aliases, Up: Exception and warning types 7.5.10.1 Exception types ........................ C name Python name -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note BaseException: 5b7. *PyExc_BaseException ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note BaseExceptionGroup: 261. *PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note Exception: 9d9. *PyExc_Exception ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ArithmeticError: 2283. *PyExc_ArithmeticError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note AssertionError: 6a5. *PyExc_AssertionError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note AttributeError: 348. *PyExc_AttributeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note BlockingIOError: 1050. *PyExc_BlockingIOError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note BrokenPipeError: 1055. *PyExc_BrokenPipeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note BufferError: 1824. *PyExc_BufferError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ChildProcessError: 1051. *PyExc_ChildProcessError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ConnectionAbortedError: 1056. *PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ConnectionError: e09. *PyExc_ConnectionError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ConnectionRefusedError: 1057. *PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ConnectionResetError: 1058. *PyExc_ConnectionResetError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_EOFError *note EOFError: 12cc. ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note FileExistsError: 1019. *PyExc_FileExistsError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note FileNotFoundError: 427. *PyExc_FileNotFoundError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note FloatingPointError: 2284. *PyExc_FloatingPointError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note GeneratorExit: 1393. *PyExc_GeneratorExit ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ImportError: 415. *PyExc_ImportError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note IndentationError: 7a3. *PyExc_IndentationError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note IndexError: 14ff. *PyExc_IndexError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note InterruptedError: d87. *PyExc_InterruptedError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note IsADirectoryError: 1052. *PyExc_IsADirectoryError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_KeyError *note KeyError: 33f. ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. *PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note LookupError: 21cc. *PyExc_LookupError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note MemoryError: 1576. *PyExc_MemoryError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ModuleNotFoundError: b47. *PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.6.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note NameError: 43a. *PyExc_NameError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note NotADirectoryError: 1053. *PyExc_NotADirectoryError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note NotImplementedError: 22a. *PyExc_NotImplementedError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_OSError *note OSError: 413. ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note OverflowError: 87f. *PyExc_OverflowError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note PermissionError: d42. *PyExc_PermissionError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ProcessLookupError: 1054. *PyExc_ProcessLookupError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note PythonFinalizationError: 14d. *PyExc_PythonFinalizationError -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note RecursionError: d6b. *PyExc_RecursionError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ReferenceError: 14d9. *PyExc_ReferenceError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note RuntimeError: 195. *PyExc_RuntimeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a2c. *PyExc_StopAsyncIteration ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note StopIteration: bfa. *PyExc_StopIteration ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note SyntaxError: 18d. *PyExc_SyntaxError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note SystemError: 572. *PyExc_SystemError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note SystemExit: d40. *PyExc_SystemExit ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_TabError *note TabError: 540. ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note TimeoutError: 831. *PyExc_TimeoutError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note TypeError: 534. *PyExc_TypeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. *PyExc_UnboundLocalError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. *PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. *PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UnicodeError: 1296. *PyExc_UnicodeError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UnicodeTranslateError: 229d. *PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ValueError: 204. *PyExc_ValueError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ZeroDivisionError: 945. *PyExc_ZeroDivisionError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Added in version 3.3: *note PyExc_BlockingIOError: 49bd, *note PyExc_BrokenPipeError: 49be, *note PyExc_ChildProcessError: 49c1, *note PyExc_ConnectionError: 49c3, *note PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError: 49c2, *note PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError: 49c4, *note PyExc_ConnectionResetError: 49c5, *note PyExc_FileExistsError: 49cb, *note PyExc_FileNotFoundError: 49cc, *note PyExc_InterruptedError: 49d5, *note PyExc_IsADirectoryError: 49d6, *note PyExc_NotADirectoryError: 49dd, *note PyExc_PermissionError: 49e1, *note PyExc_ProcessLookupError: 49e2. and *note PyExc_TimeoutError: 49ee. were introduced following PEP 3151(1). Added in version 3.5: *note PyExc_StopAsyncIteration: 49e7. and *note PyExc_RecursionError: eab. Added in version 3.6: *note PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError: 49db. Added in version 3.11: *note PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup: 49bc. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3151/  File: python.info, Node: OSError aliases, Next: Warning types, Prev: Exception types, Up: Exception and warning types 7.5.10.2 OSError aliases ........................ The following are a compatibility aliases to *note PyExc_OSError: 48b5. Changed in version 3.3: These aliases used to be separate exception types. C name Python name Notes ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- C Variable: *note OSError: 413. *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_EnvironmentError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note OSError: 413. *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_IOError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note OSError: 413. *note [win]: 4b45. *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_WindowsError ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Notes: (win) ‘PyExc_WindowsError’ is only defined on Windows; protect code that uses this by testing that the preprocessor macro ‘MS_WINDOWS’ is defined.  File: python.info, Node: Warning types, Prev: OSError aliases, Up: Exception and warning types 7.5.10.3 Warning types ...................... C name Python name -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *PyExc_Warning *note Warning: 22b3. ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note BytesWarning: c23. *PyExc_BytesWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. *PyExc_DeprecationWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note EncodingWarning: 1d3d. *PyExc_EncodingWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note FutureWarning: 411. *PyExc_FutureWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ImportWarning: 4f6. *PyExc_ImportWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note PendingDeprecationWarning: 8c7. *PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note ResourceWarning: 246. *PyExc_ResourceWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. *PyExc_RuntimeWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note SyntaxWarning: 461. *PyExc_SyntaxWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UnicodeWarning: 13ef. *PyExc_UnicodeWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *note UserWarning: 22b4. *PyExc_UserWarning ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Added in version 3.2: *note PyExc_ResourceWarning: 49e4. Added in version 3.10: *note PyExc_EncodingWarning: 49c8.  File: python.info, Node: Utilities<2>, Next: Abstract Objects Layer, Prev: Exception Handling, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.6 Utilities ============= The functions in this chapter perform various utility tasks, ranging from helping C code be more portable across platforms, using Python modules from C, and parsing function arguments and constructing Python values from C values. * Menu: * Operating System Utilities:: * System Functions:: * Process Control:: * Importing Modules: Importing Modules<2>. * Data marshalling support:: * Parsing arguments and building values:: * String conversion and formatting:: * PyHash API:: * Reflection:: * Codec registry and support functions:: * PyTime C API:: * Support for Perf Maps::  File: python.info, Node: Operating System Utilities, Next: System Functions, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.1 Operating System Utilities -------------------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyOS_FSPath (PyObject *path) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.6.' Return the file system representation for 'path'. If the object is a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. object, then a new *note strong reference: 338. is returned. If the object implements the *note os.PathLike: c51. interface, then *note __fspath__(): c52. is returned as long as it is a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. object. Otherwise *note TypeError: 534. is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: int Py_FdIsInteractive (FILE *fp, const char *filename) Return true (nonzero) if the standard I/O file 'fp' with name 'filename' is deemed interactive. This is the case for files for which ‘isatty(fileno(fp))’ is true. If the *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c9. is non-zero, this function also returns true if the 'filename' pointer is ‘NULL’ or if the name is equal to one of the strings ‘'<stdin>'’ or ‘'???'’. This function must not be called before Python is initialized. -- C Function: void PyOS_BeforeFork () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on platforms with fork() since version 3.7.' Function to prepare some internal state before a process fork. This should be called before calling ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones the current process. Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined. Warning: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note “main” thread: 4b4e. (of the *note “main” interpreter: 584.). The same is true for ‘PyOS_BeforeFork()’. Added in version 3.7. -- C Function: void PyOS_AfterFork_Parent () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on platforms with fork() since version 3.7.' Function to update some internal state after a process fork. This should be called from the parent process after calling ‘fork()’ or any similar function that clones the current process, regardless of whether process cloning was successful. Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined. Warning: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note “main” thread: 4b4e. (of the *note “main” interpreter: 584.). The same is true for ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Parent()’. Added in version 3.7. -- C Function: void PyOS_AfterFork_Child () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on platforms with fork() since version 3.7.' Function to update internal interpreter state after a process fork. This must be called from the child process after calling ‘fork()’, or any similar function that clones the current process, if there is any chance the process will call back into the Python interpreter. Only available on systems where ‘fork()’ is defined. Warning: The C ‘fork()’ call should only be made from the *note “main” thread: 4b4e. (of the *note “main” interpreter: 584.). The same is true for ‘PyOS_AfterFork_Child()’. Added in version 3.7. See also ........ *note os.register_at_fork(): 2fa. allows registering custom Python functions to be called by *note PyOS_BeforeFork(): bbf, *note PyOS_AfterFork_Parent(): bc0. and *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. -- C Function: void PyOS_AfterFork () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on platforms with fork().' Function to update some internal state after a process fork; this should be called in the new process if the Python interpreter will continue to be used. If a new executable is loaded into the new process, this function does not need to be called. Deprecated since version 3.7: This function is superseded by *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. -- C Function: int PyOS_CheckStack () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on platforms with USE_STACKCHECK since version 3.7.' Return true when the interpreter runs out of stack space. This is a reliable check, but is only available when ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ is defined (currently on certain versions of Windows using the Microsoft Visual C++ compiler). ‘USE_STACKCHECK’ will be defined automatically; you should never change the definition in your own code. -- C Type: typedef void (*PyOS_sighandler_t)(int) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4a54. PyOS_getsig (int i) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the current signal handler for signal 'i'. This is a thin wrapper around either ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’. Do not call those functions directly! -- C Function: *note PyOS_sighandler_t: 4a54. PyOS_setsig (int i, PyOS_sighandler_t h) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the signal handler for signal 'i' to be 'h'; return the old signal handler. This is a thin wrapper around either ‘sigaction()’ or ‘signal()’. Do not call those functions directly! -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_DecodeLocale (const char *arg, size_t *size) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Warning: This function should not be called directly: use the *note PyConfig: 3a2. API with the *note PyConfig_SetBytesString(): 9b4. function which ensures that *note Python is preinitialized: 3d40. This function must not be called before *note Python is preinitialized: 3d40. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. function. Decode a byte string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error handler: 23e6, undecodable bytes are decoded as characters in range U+DC80..U+DCFF; and if a byte sequence can be decoded as a surrogate character, the bytes are escaped using the surrogateescape error handler instead of decoding them. Return a pointer to a newly allocated wide character string, use *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38e. to free the memory. If size is not ‘NULL’, write the number of wide characters excluding the null character into ‘*size’ Return ‘NULL’ on decoding error or memory allocation error. If 'size' is not ‘NULL’, ‘*size’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on memory error or set to ‘(size_t)-2’ on decoding error. The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. are selected by *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e4. and *note filesystem_errors: 3e5. members of *note PyConfig: 3a2. Decoding errors should never happen, unless there is a bug in the C library. Use the *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. function to encode the character string back to a byte string. See also ........ The *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4abe. and *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc9. functions. Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. Changed in version 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. is zero; -- C Function: char *Py_EncodeLocale (const wchar_t *text, size_t *error_pos) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Encode a wide character string to the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. If the error handler is *note surrogateescape error handler: 23e6, surrogate characters in the range U+DC80..U+DCFF are converted to bytes 0x80..0xFF. Return a pointer to a newly allocated byte string, use *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. to free the memory. Return ‘NULL’ on encoding error or memory allocation error. If error_pos is not ‘NULL’, ‘*error_pos’ is set to ‘(size_t)-1’ on success, or set to the index of the invalid character on encoding error. The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. are selected by *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b.: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e4. and *note filesystem_errors: 3e5. members of *note PyConfig: 3a2. Use the *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. function to decode the bytes string back to a wide character string. Warning: This function must not be called before *note Python is preinitialized: 3d40. and so that the LC_CTYPE locale is properly configured: see the *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. function. See also ........ The *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a50. and *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bca. functions. Added in version 3.5. Changed in version 3.7: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding in the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. Changed in version 3.8: The function now uses the UTF-8 encoding on Windows if *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. is zero.  File: python.info, Node: System Functions, Next: Process Control, Prev: Operating System Utilities, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.2 System Functions ---------------------- These are utility functions that make functionality from the *note sys: d9. module accessible to C code. They all work with the current interpreter thread’s *note sys: d9. module’s dict, which is contained in the internal thread state structure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySys_GetObject (const char *name) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the object 'name' from the *note sys: d9. module or ‘NULL’ if it does not exist, without setting an exception. -- C Function: int PySys_SetObject (const char *name, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set 'name' in the *note sys: d9. module to 'v' unless 'v' is ‘NULL’, in which case 'name' is deleted from the sys module. Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error. -- C Function: void PySys_ResetWarnOptions () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Reset *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. to an empty list. This function may be called prior to *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead. -- C Function: void PySys_WriteStdout (const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Write the output string described by 'format' to *note sys.stdout: ad6. No exceptions are raised, even if truncation occurs (see below). 'format' should limit the total size of the formatted output string to 1000 bytes or less – after 1000 bytes, the output string is truncated. In particular, this means that no unrestricted “%s” formats should occur; these should be limited using “%.<N>s” where <N> is a decimal number calculated so that <N> plus the maximum size of other formatted text does not exceed 1000 bytes. Also watch out for “%f”, which can print hundreds of digits for very large numbers. If a problem occurs, or *note sys.stdout: ad6. is unset, the formatted message is written to the real (C level) 'stdout'. -- C Function: void PySys_WriteStderr (const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' As *note PySys_WriteStdout(): 4a8f, but write to *note sys.stderr: 939. or 'stderr' instead. -- C Function: void PySys_FormatStdout (const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Function similar to PySys_WriteStdout() but format the message using *note PyUnicode_FromFormatV(): 571. and don’t truncate the message to an arbitrary length. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: void PySys_FormatStderr (const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' As *note PySys_FormatStdout(): 4a8b, but write to *note sys.stderr: 939. or 'stderr' instead. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySys_GetXOptions () 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return the current dictionary of *note -X: 176. options, similarly to *note sys._xoptions: 1d3f. On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is set. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: int PySys_Audit (const char *event, const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Raise an auditing event with any active hooks. Return zero for success and non-zero with an exception set on failure. The 'event' string argument must not be 'NULL'. If any hooks have been added, 'format' and other arguments will be used to construct a tuple to pass. Apart from ‘N’, the same format characters as used in *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. are available. If the built value is not a tuple, it will be added into a single-element tuple. The ‘N’ format option must not be used. It consumes a reference, but since there is no way to know whether arguments to this function will be consumed, using it may cause reference leaks. Note that ‘#’ format characters should always be treated as *note Py_ssize_t: a5f, regardless of whether ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ was defined. *note sys.audit(): 15b9. performs the same function from Python code. See also *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 369. Added in version 3.8. Changed in version 3.8.2: Require *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. for ‘#’ format characters. Previously, an unavoidable deprecation warning was raised. -- C Function: int PySys_AuditTuple (const char *event, PyObject *args) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Similar to *note PySys_Audit(): 36a, but pass arguments as a Python object. 'args' must be a *note tuple: 36b. To pass no arguments, 'args' can be 'NULL'. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PySys_AddAuditHook (Py_AuditHookFunction hook, void *userData) Append the callable 'hook' to the list of active auditing hooks. Return zero on success and non-zero on failure. If the runtime has been initialized, also set an error on failure. Hooks added through this API are called for all interpreters created by the runtime. The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function. Since hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer should not refer directly to Python state. This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. When called after runtime initialization, existing audit hooks are notified and may silently abort the operation by raising an error subclassed from *note Exception: 9d9. (other errors will not be silenced). The hook function is always called with the GIL held by the Python interpreter that raised the event. See PEP 578(1) for a detailed description of auditing. Functions in the runtime and standard library that raise events are listed in the *note audit events table: 1870. Details are in each function’s documentation. If the interpreter is initialized, this function raises an auditing event ‘sys.addaudithook’ with no arguments. If any existing hooks raise an exception derived from *note Exception: 9d9, the new hook will not be added and the exception is cleared. As a result, callers cannot assume that their hook has been added unless they control all existing hooks. -- C Type: typedef int (*Py_AuditHookFunction)(const char *event, *note PyObject: 334. *args, void *userData) The type of the hook function. 'event' is the C string event argument passed to *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. or *note PySys_AuditTuple(): 369. 'args' is guaranteed to be a *note PyTupleObject: 4b52. 'userData' is the argument passed to PySys_AddAuditHook(). Added in version 3.8. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0578/  File: python.info, Node: Process Control, Next: Importing Modules<2>, Prev: System Functions, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.3 Process Control --------------------- -- C Function: void Py_FatalError (const char *message) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Print a fatal error message and kill the process. No cleanup is performed. This function should only be invoked when a condition is detected that would make it dangerous to continue using the Python interpreter; e.g., when the object administration appears to be corrupted. On Unix, the standard C library function ‘abort()’ is called which will attempt to produce a ‘core’ file. The ‘Py_FatalError()’ function is replaced with a macro which logs automatically the name of the current function, unless the ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ macro is defined. Changed in version 3.9: Log the function name automatically. -- C Function: void Py_Exit (int status) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Exit the current process. This calls *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. and then calls the standard C library function ‘exit(status)’. If *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. indicates an error, the exit status is set to 120. Changed in version 3.6: Errors from finalization no longer ignored. -- C Function: int Py_AtExit (void (*func)()) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Register a cleanup function to be called by *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. The cleanup function will be called with no arguments and should return no value. At most 32 cleanup functions can be registered. When the registration is successful, *note Py_AtExit(): 4add. returns ‘0’; on failure, it returns ‘-1’. The cleanup function registered last is called first. Each cleanup function will be called at most once. Since Python’s internal finalization will have completed before the cleanup function, no Python APIs should be called by 'func'. See also ........ *note PyUnstable_AtExit(): 158b. for passing a ‘void *data’ argument.  File: python.info, Node: Importing Modules<2>, Next: Data marshalling support, Prev: Process Control, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.4 Importing Modules ----------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ImportModule (const char *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a wrapper around *note PyImport_Import(): 13c8. which takes a const char* as an argument instead of a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (const char *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This function is a deprecated alias of *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. Changed in version 3.3: This function used to fail immediately when the import lock was held by another thread. In Python 3.3 though, the locking scheme switched to per-module locks for most purposes, so this function’s special behaviour isn’t needed anymore. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. instead. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ImportModuleEx (const char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist) 'Return value: New reference.' Import a module. This is best described by referring to the built-in Python function *note __import__(): 8d3. The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. Like for *note __import__(): 8d3, the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given. Failing imports remove incomplete module objects, like with *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (PyObject *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Import a module. This is best described by referring to the built-in Python function *note __import__(): 8d3, as the standard *note __import__(): 8d3. function calls this function directly. The return value is a new reference to the imported module or top-level package, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. Like for *note __import__(): 8d3, the return value when a submodule of a package was requested is normally the top-level package, unless a non-empty 'fromlist' was given. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (const char *name, PyObject *globals, PyObject *locals, PyObject *fromlist, int level) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject(): 4a0f, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object. Changed in version 3.3: Negative values for 'level' are no longer accepted. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_Import (PyObject *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a higher-level interface that calls the current “import hook function” (with an explicit 'level' of 0, meaning absolute import). It invokes the *note __import__(): 8d3. function from the ‘__builtins__’ of the current globals. This means that the import is done using whatever import hooks are installed in the current environment. This function always uses absolute imports. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ReloadModule (PyObject *m) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Reload a module. Return a new reference to the reloaded module, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure (the module still exists in this case). -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_AddModuleRef (const char *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return the module object corresponding to a module name. The 'name' argument may be of the form ‘package.module’. First check the modules dictionary if there’s one there, and if not, create a new one and insert it in the modules dictionary. Return a *note strong reference: 338. to the module on success. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. The module name 'name' is decoded from UTF-8. This function does not load or import the module; if the module wasn’t already loaded, you will get an empty module object. Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. or one of its variants to import a module. Package structures implied by a dotted name for 'name' are not created if not already present. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_AddModuleObject (PyObject *name) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 353, but return a *note borrowed reference: 339. and 'name' is a Python *note str: 447. object. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_AddModule (const char *name) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 353, but return a *note borrowed reference: 339. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ExecCodeModule (const char *name, PyObject *co) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Given a module name (possibly of the form ‘package.module’) and a code object read from a Python bytecode file or obtained from the built-in function *note compile(): 192, load the module. Return a new reference to the module object, or ‘NULL’ with an exception set if an error occurred. 'name' is removed from *note sys.modules: 1550. in error cases, even if 'name' was already in *note sys.modules: 1550. on entry to *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4a07. Leaving incompletely initialized modules in *note sys.modules: 1550. is dangerous, as imports of such modules have no way to know that the module object is an unknown (and probably damaged with respect to the module author’s intents) state. The module’s *note __spec__: 1f17. and *note __loader__: 2e6. will be set, if not set already, with the appropriate values. The spec’s loader will be set to the module’s ‘__loader__’ (if set) and to an instance of *note SourceFileLoader: 106d. otherwise. The module’s *note __file__: 1f1d. attribute will be set to the code object’s *note co_filename: 1359. If applicable, *note __cached__: 2d9. will also be set. This function will reload the module if it was already imported. See *note PyImport_ReloadModule(): 4a10. for the intended way to reload a module. If 'name' points to a dotted name of the form ‘package.module’, any package structures not already created will still not be created. See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4a08. and *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4a0a. Changed in version 3.12: The setting of *note __cached__: 2d9. and *note __loader__: 2e6. is deprecated. See *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. for alternatives. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModule(): 4a07, but the *note __file__: 1f1d. attribute of the module object is set to 'pathname' if it is non-‘NULL’. See also *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames(): 4a0a. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (PyObject *name, PyObject *co, PyObject *pathname, PyObject *cpathname) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx(): 4a08, but the *note __cached__: 2d9. attribute of the module object is set to 'cpathname' if it is non-‘NULL’. Of the three functions, this is the preferred one to use. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.12: Setting *note __cached__: 2d9. is deprecated. See *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. for alternatives. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (const char *name, PyObject *co, const char *pathname, const char *cpathname) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Like *note PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject(): 4a09, but 'name', 'pathname' and 'cpathname' are UTF-8 encoded strings. Attempts are also made to figure out what the value for 'pathname' should be from 'cpathname' if the former is set to ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.3: Uses ‘imp.source_from_cache()’ in calculating the source path if only the bytecode path is provided. Changed in version 3.12: No longer uses the removed ‘imp’ module. -- C Function: long PyImport_GetMagicNumber () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the magic number for Python bytecode files (a.k.a. ‘.pyc’ file). The magic number should be present in the first four bytes of the bytecode file, in little-endian byte order. Returns ‘-1’ on error. Changed in version 3.3: Return value of ‘-1’ upon failure. -- C Function: const char *PyImport_GetMagicTag () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the magic tag string for PEP 3147(1) format Python bytecode file names. Keep in mind that the value at ‘sys.implementation.cache_tag’ is authoritative and should be used instead of this function. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_GetModuleDict () 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the dictionary used for the module administration (a.k.a. ‘sys.modules’). Note that this is a per-interpreter variable. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_GetModule (PyObject *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.8.' Return the already imported module with the given name. If the module has not been imported yet then returns ‘NULL’ but does not set an error. Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an error if the lookup failed. Added in version 3.7. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyImport_GetImporter (PyObject *path) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a finder object for a *note sys.path: 3b0./‘pkg.__path__’ item 'path', possibly by fetching it from the *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. dict. If it wasn’t yet cached, traverse *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. until a hook is found that can handle the path item. Return ‘None’ if no hook could; this tells our caller that the *note path based finder: 1ff9. could not find a finder for this path item. Cache the result in *note sys.path_importer_cache: 5e0. Return a new reference to the finder object. -- C Function: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (PyObject *name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Load a frozen module named 'name'. Return ‘1’ for success, ‘0’ if the module is not found, and ‘-1’ with an exception set if the initialization failed. To access the imported module on a successful load, use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. (Note the misnomer — this function would reload the module if it was already imported.) Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: The ‘__file__’ attribute is no longer set on the module. -- C Function: int PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (const char *name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject(): 4a0e, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object. -- C Struct: struct _frozen This is the structure type definition for frozen module descriptors, as generated by the ‘freeze’ utility (see ‘Tools/freeze/’ in the Python source distribution). Its definition, found in ‘Include/import.h’, is: struct _frozen { const char *name; const unsigned char *code; int size; bool is_package; }; Changed in version 3.11: The new ‘is_package’ field indicates whether the module is a package or not. This replaces setting the ‘size’ field to a negative value. -- C Variable: const struct *note _frozen: 770. *PyImport_FrozenModules This pointer is initialized to point to an array of *note _frozen: 770. records, terminated by one whose members are all ‘NULL’ or zero. When a frozen module is imported, it is searched in this table. Third-party code could play tricks with this to provide a dynamically created collection of frozen modules. -- C Function: int PyImport_AppendInittab (const char *name, PyObject *(*initfunc)(void)) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Add a single module to the existing table of built-in modules. This is a convenience wrapper around *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17a4, returning ‘-1’ if the table could not be extended. The new module can be imported by the name 'name', and uses the function 'initfunc' as the initialization function called on the first attempted import. This should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. -- C Struct: struct _inittab Structure describing a single entry in the list of built-in modules. Programs which embed Python may use an array of these structures in conjunction with *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17a4. to provide additional built-in modules. The structure consists of two members: -- C Member: const char *name The module name, as an ASCII encoded string. -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. *(*initfunc)(void) Initialization function for a module built into the interpreter. -- C Function: int PyImport_ExtendInittab (struct _inittab *newtab) Add a collection of modules to the table of built-in modules. The 'newtab' array must end with a sentinel entry which contains ‘NULL’ for the *note name: 4b59. field; failure to provide the sentinel value can result in a memory fault. Returns ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if insufficient memory could be allocated to extend the internal table. In the event of failure, no modules are added to the internal table. This must be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. If Python is initialized multiple times, *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17a4. must be called before each Python initialization. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: Data marshalling support, Next: Parsing arguments and building values, Prev: Importing Modules<2>, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.5 Data marshalling support ------------------------------ These routines allow C code to work with serialized objects using the same data format as the *note marshal: 8d. module. There are functions to write data into the serialization format, and additional functions that can be used to read the data back. Files used to store marshalled data must be opened in binary mode. Numeric values are stored with the least significant byte first. The module supports two versions of the data format: version 0 is the historical version, version 1 shares interned strings in the file, and upon unmarshalling. Version 2 uses a binary format for floating-point numbers. ‘Py_MARSHAL_VERSION’ indicates the current file format (currently 2). -- C Function: void PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (long value, FILE *file, int version) Marshal a long integer, 'value', to 'file'. This will only write the least-significant 32 bits of 'value'; regardless of the size of the native long type. 'version' indicates the file format. This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for that. -- C Function: void PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (PyObject *value, FILE *file, int version) Marshal a Python object, 'value', to 'file'. 'version' indicates the file format. This function can fail, in which case it sets the error indicator. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for that. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (PyObject *value, int version) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a bytes object containing the marshalled representation of 'value'. 'version' indicates the file format. The following functions allow marshalled values to be read back in. -- C Function: long PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (FILE *file) Return a C long from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. Only a 32-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless of the native size of long. On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12cc.) and returns ‘-1’. -- C Function: int PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (FILE *file) Return a C short from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. Only a 16-bit value can be read in using this function, regardless of the native size of short. On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12cc.) and returns ‘-1’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (FILE *file) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a Python object from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12cc, *note ValueError: 204. or *note TypeError: 534.) and returns ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (FILE *file) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a Python object from the data stream in a FILE* opened for reading. Unlike *note PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile(): 4b60, this function assumes that no further objects will be read from the file, allowing it to aggressively load file data into memory so that the de-serialization can operate from data in memory rather than reading a byte at a time from the file. Only use these variant if you are certain that you won’t be reading anything else from the file. On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12cc, *note ValueError: 204. or *note TypeError: 534.) and returns ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (const char *data, Py_ssize_t len) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a Python object from the data stream in a byte buffer containing 'len' bytes pointed to by 'data'. On error, sets the appropriate exception (*note EOFError: 12cc, *note ValueError: 204. or *note TypeError: 534.) and returns ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: Parsing arguments and building values, Next: String conversion and formatting, Prev: Data marshalling support, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.6 Parsing arguments and building values ------------------------------------------- These functions are useful when creating your own extension functions and methods. Additional information and examples are available in *note Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter: 1bda. The first three of these functions described, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e, *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e, and *note PyArg_Parse(): 19e3, all use 'format strings' which are used to tell the function about the expected arguments. The format strings use the same syntax for each of these functions. * Menu: * Parsing arguments: Parsing arguments<2>. * Building values::  File: python.info, Node: Parsing arguments<2>, Next: Building values, Up: Parsing arguments and building values 7.6.6.1 Parsing arguments ......................... A format string consists of zero or more “format units.” A format unit describes one Python object; it is usually a single character or a parenthesized sequence of format units. With a few exceptions, a format unit that is not a parenthesized sequence normally corresponds to a single address argument to these functions. In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that matches the format unit; and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C variable(s) whose address should be passed. * Menu: * Strings and buffers:: * Numbers: Numbers<2>. * Other objects:: * API Functions::  File: python.info, Node: Strings and buffers, Next: Numbers<2>, Up: Parsing arguments<2> 7.6.6.2 Strings and buffers ........................... Note: On Python 3.12 and older, the macro ‘PY_SSIZE_T_CLEAN’ must be defined before including ‘Python.h’ to use all ‘#’ variants of formats (‘s#’, ‘y#’, etc.) explained below. This is not necessary on Python 3.13 and later. These formats allow accessing an object as a contiguous chunk of memory. You don’t have to provide raw storage for the returned unicode or bytes area. Unless otherwise stated, buffers are not NUL-terminated. There are three ways strings and buffers can be converted to C: * Formats such as ‘y*’ and ‘s*’ fill a *note Py_buffer: 753. structure. This locks the underlying buffer so that the caller can subsequently use the buffer even inside a *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. block without the risk of mutable data being resized or destroyed. As a result, 'you have to call' *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. after you have finished processing the data (or in any early abort case). * The ‘es’, ‘es#’, ‘et’ and ‘et#’ formats allocate the result buffer. 'You have to call' *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. after you have finished processing the data (or in any early abort case). * Other formats take a *note str: 447. or a read-only *note bytes-like object: d2d, such as *note bytes: 1c2, and provide a ‘const char *’ pointer to its buffer. In this case the buffer is “borrowed”: it is managed by the corresponding Python object, and shares the lifetime of this object. You won’t have to release any memory yourself. To ensure that the underlying buffer may be safely borrowed, the object’s *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 75e. field must be ‘NULL’. This disallows common mutable objects such as *note bytearray: 53a, but also some read-only objects such as *note memoryview: 464. of *note bytes: 1c2. Besides this ‘bf_releasebuffer’ requirement, there is no check to verify whether the input object is immutable (e.g. whether it would honor a request for a writable buffer, or whether another thread can mutate the data). ‘s’ (*note str: 447.) [const char *] Convert a Unicode object to a C pointer to a character string. A pointer to an existing string is stored in the character pointer variable whose address you pass. The C string is NUL-terminated. The Python string must not contain embedded null code points; if it does, a *note ValueError: 204. exception is raised. Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding. If this conversion fails, a *note UnicodeError: 1296. is raised. Note: This format does not accept *note bytes-like objects: d2d. If you want to accept filesystem paths and convert them to C character strings, it is preferable to use the ‘O&’ format with *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d19. as 'converter'. Changed in version 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 534. was raised when embedded null code points were encountered in the Python string. ‘s*’ (*note str: 447. or *note bytes-like object: d2d.) [Py_buffer] This format accepts Unicode objects as well as bytes-like objects. It fills a *note Py_buffer: 753. structure provided by the caller. In this case the resulting C string may contain embedded NUL bytes. Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding. ‘s#’ (*note str: 447, read-only *note bytes-like object: d2d.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Like ‘s*’, except that it provides a *note borrowed buffer: 4b66. The result is stored into two C variables, the first one a pointer to a C string, the second one its length. The string may contain embedded null bytes. Unicode objects are converted to C strings using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding. ‘z’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *] Like ‘s’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’. ‘z*’ (*note str: 447, *note bytes-like object: d2d. or ‘None’) [Py_buffer] Like ‘s*’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case the ‘buf’ member of the *note Py_buffer: 753. structure is set to ‘NULL’. ‘z#’ (*note str: 447, read-only *note bytes-like object: d2d. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Like ‘s#’, but the Python object may also be ‘None’, in which case the C pointer is set to ‘NULL’. ‘y’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: d2d.) [const char *] This format converts a bytes-like object to a C pointer to a *note borrowed: 4b66. character string; it does not accept Unicode objects. The bytes buffer must not contain embedded null bytes; if it does, a *note ValueError: 204. exception is raised. Changed in version 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 534. was raised when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes buffer. ‘y*’ (*note bytes-like object: d2d.) [Py_buffer] This variant on ‘s*’ doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only bytes-like objects. 'This is the recommended way to accept binary data.' ‘y#’ (read-only *note bytes-like object: d2d.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] This variant on ‘s#’ doesn’t accept Unicode objects, only bytes-like objects. ‘S’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) [PyBytesObject *] Requires that the Python object is a *note bytes: 1c2. object, without attempting any conversion. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if the object is not a bytes object. The C variable may also be declared as *note PyObject: 334.*. ‘Y’ (*note bytearray: 53a.) [PyByteArrayObject *] Requires that the Python object is a *note bytearray: 53a. object, without attempting any conversion. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if the object is not a *note bytearray: 53a. object. The C variable may also be declared as *note PyObject: 334.*. ‘U’ (*note str: 447.) [PyObject *] Requires that the Python object is a Unicode object, without attempting any conversion. Raises *note TypeError: 534. if the object is not a Unicode object. The C variable may also be declared as *note PyObject: 334.*. ‘w*’ (read-write *note bytes-like object: d2d.) [Py_buffer] This format accepts any object which implements the read-write buffer interface. It fills a *note Py_buffer: 753. structure provided by the caller. The buffer may contain embedded null bytes. The caller have to call *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. when it is done with the buffer. ‘es’ (*note str: 447.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer] This variant on ‘s’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer. It only works for encoded data without embedded NUL bytes. This format requires two arguments. The first is only used as input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case ‘'utf-8'’ encoding is used. An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python. The second argument must be a char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text. The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument. *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. will allocate a buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and adjust '*buffer' to reference the newly allocated storage. The caller is responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. to free the allocated buffer after use. ‘et’ (*note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer] Same as ‘es’ except that byte string objects are passed through without recoding them. Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter. ‘es#’ (*note str: 447.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *buffer_length] This variant on ‘s#’ is used for encoding Unicode into a character buffer. Unlike the ‘es’ format, this variant allows input data which contains NUL characters. It requires three arguments. The first is only used as input, and must be a const char* which points to the name of an encoding as a NUL-terminated string, or ‘NULL’, in which case ‘'utf-8'’ encoding is used. An exception is raised if the named encoding is not known to Python. The second argument must be a char**; the value of the pointer it references will be set to a buffer with the contents of the argument text. The text will be encoded in the encoding specified by the first argument. The third argument must be a pointer to an integer; the referenced integer will be set to the number of bytes in the output buffer. There are two modes of operation: If '*buffer' points a ‘NULL’ pointer, the function will allocate a buffer of the needed size, copy the encoded data into this buffer and set '*buffer' to reference the newly allocated storage. The caller is responsible for calling *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. to free the allocated buffer after usage. If '*buffer' points to a non-‘NULL’ pointer (an already allocated buffer), *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. will use this location as the buffer and interpret the initial value of '*buffer_length' as the buffer size. It will then copy the encoded data into the buffer and NUL-terminate it. If the buffer is not large enough, a *note ValueError: 204. will be set. In both cases, '*buffer_length' is set to the length of the encoded data without the trailing NUL byte. ‘et#’ (*note str: 447, *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a.) [const char *encoding, char **buffer, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *buffer_length] Same as ‘es#’ except that byte string objects are passed through without recoding them. Instead, the implementation assumes that the byte string object uses the encoding passed in as parameter. Changed in version 3.12: ‘u’, ‘u#’, ‘Z’, and ‘Z#’ are removed because they used a legacy ‘Py_UNICODE*’ representation.  File: python.info, Node: Numbers<2>, Next: Other objects, Prev: Strings and buffers, Up: Parsing arguments<2> 7.6.6.3 Numbers ............... These formats allow representing Python numbers or single characters as C numbers. Formats that require *note int: 259, *note float: 2f1. or *note complex: 2f2. can also use the corresponding special methods *note __index__(): 718, *note __float__(): 9cc. or *note __complex__(): 5e3. to convert the Python object to the required type. For signed integer formats, *note OverflowError: 87f. is raised if the value is out of range for the C type. For unsigned integer formats, no range checking is done — the most significant bits are silently truncated when the receiving field is too small to receive the value. ‘b’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned char] Convert a nonnegative Python integer to an unsigned tiny integer, stored in a C unsigned char. ‘B’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned char] Convert a Python integer to a tiny integer without overflow checking, stored in a C unsigned char. ‘h’ (*note int: 259.) [short int] Convert a Python integer to a C short int. ‘H’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned short int] Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned short int, without overflow checking. ‘i’ (*note int: 259.) [int] Convert a Python integer to a plain C int. ‘I’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned int] Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned int, without overflow checking. ‘l’ (*note int: 259.) [long int] Convert a Python integer to a C long int. ‘k’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned long] Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long without overflow checking. ‘L’ (*note int: 259.) [long long] Convert a Python integer to a C long long. ‘K’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned long long] Convert a Python integer to a C unsigned long long without overflow checking. ‘n’ (*note int: 259.) [*note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Convert a Python integer to a C *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. ‘c’ (*note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. of length 1) [char] Convert a Python byte, represented as a *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. object of length 1, to a C char. Changed in version 3.3: Allow *note bytearray: 53a. objects. ‘C’ (*note str: 447. of length 1) [int] Convert a Python character, represented as a *note str: 447. object of length 1, to a C int. ‘f’ (*note float: 2f1.) [float] Convert a Python floating-point number to a C float. ‘d’ (*note float: 2f1.) [double] Convert a Python floating-point number to a C double. ‘D’ (*note complex: 2f2.) [Py_complex] Convert a Python complex number to a C *note Py_complex: 4b68. structure.  File: python.info, Node: Other objects, Next: API Functions, Prev: Numbers<2>, Up: Parsing arguments<2> 7.6.6.4 Other objects ..................... ‘O’ (object) [PyObject *] Store a Python object (without any conversion) in a C object pointer. The C program thus receives the actual object that was passed. A new *note strong reference: 338. to the object is not created (i.e. its reference count is not increased). The pointer stored is not ‘NULL’. ‘O!’ (object) ['typeobject', PyObject *] Store a Python object in a C object pointer. This is similar to ‘O’, but takes two C arguments: the first is the address of a Python type object, the second is the address of the C variable (of type *note PyObject: 334.*) into which the object pointer is stored. If the Python object does not have the required type, *note TypeError: 534. is raised. ‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'address'] Convert a Python object to a C variable through a 'converter' function. This takes two arguments: the first is a function, the second is the address of a C variable (of arbitrary type), converted to void*. The 'converter' function in turn is called as follows: status = converter(object, address); where 'object' is the Python object to be converted and 'address' is the void* argument that was passed to the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ function. The returned 'status' should be ‘1’ for a successful conversion and ‘0’ if the conversion has failed. When the conversion fails, the 'converter' function should raise an exception and leave the content of 'address' unmodified. If the 'converter' returns ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’, it may get called a second time if the argument parsing eventually fails, giving the converter a chance to release any memory that it had already allocated. In this second call, the 'object' parameter will be ‘NULL’; 'address' will have the same value as in the original call. Examples of converters: *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d19. and *note PyUnicode_FSDecoder(): 574. Changed in version 3.1: ‘Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED’ was added. ‘p’ (*note bool: 463.) [int] Tests the value passed in for truth (a boolean 'p'redicate) and converts the result to its equivalent C true/false integer value. Sets the int to ‘1’ if the expression was true and ‘0’ if it was false. This accepts any valid Python value. See *note Truth Value Testing: 1548. for more information about how Python tests values for truth. Added in version 3.3. ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 36b.) ['matching-items'] The object must be a Python sequence whose length is the number of format units in 'items'. The C arguments must correspond to the individual format units in 'items'. Format units for sequences may be nested. A few other characters have a meaning in a format string. These may not occur inside nested parentheses. They are: ‘|’ Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are optional. The C variables corresponding to optional arguments should be initialized to their default value — when an optional argument is not specified, *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. does not touch the contents of the corresponding C variable(s). ‘$’ *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. only: Indicates that the remaining arguments in the Python argument list are keyword-only. Currently, all keyword-only arguments must also be optional arguments, so ‘|’ must always be specified before ‘$’ in the format string. Added in version 3.3. ‘:’ The list of format units ends here; the string after the colon is used as the function name in error messages (the “associated value” of the exception that *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. raises). ‘;’ The list of format units ends here; the string after the semicolon is used as the error message 'instead' of the default error message. ‘:’ and ‘;’ mutually exclude each other. Note that any Python object references which are provided to the caller are 'borrowed' references; do not release them (i.e. do not decrement their reference count)! Additional arguments passed to these functions must be addresses of variables whose type is determined by the format string; these are used to store values from the input tuple. There are a few cases, as described in the list of format units above, where these parameters are used as input values; they should match what is specified for the corresponding format unit in that case. For the conversion to succeed, the 'arg' object must match the format and the format must be exhausted. On success, the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ functions return true, otherwise they return false and raise an appropriate exception. When the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ functions fail due to conversion failure in one of the format units, the variables at the addresses corresponding to that and the following format units are left untouched.  File: python.info, Node: API Functions, Prev: Other objects, Up: Parsing arguments<2> 7.6.6.5 API Functions ..................... -- C Function: int PyArg_ParseTuple (PyObject *args, const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Parse the parameters of a function that takes only positional parameters into local variables. Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception. -- C Function: int PyArg_VaParse (PyObject *args, const char *format, va_list vargs) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Identical to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e, except that it accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments. -- C Function: int PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Parse the parameters of a function that takes both positional and keyword parameters into local variables. The 'keywords' argument is a ‘NULL’-terminated array of keyword parameter names specified as null-terminated ASCII or UTF-8 encoded C strings. Empty names denote *note positional-only parameters: a85. Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception. Note: The 'keywords' parameter declaration is char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++. This can be overridden with the *note PY_CXX_CONST: 380. macro. Changed in version 3.6: Added support for *note positional-only parameters: a85. Changed in version 3.13: The 'keywords' parameter has now type char *const* in C and const char *const* in C++, instead of char**. Added support for non-ASCII keyword parameter names. -- C Function: int PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (PyObject *args, PyObject *kw, const char *format, char *const *keywords, va_list vargs) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Identical to *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e, except that it accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments. -- C Function: int PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (PyObject*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Ensure that the keys in the keywords argument dictionary are strings. This is only needed if *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. is not used, since the latter already does this check. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: int PyArg_Parse (PyObject *args, const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Parse the parameter of a function that takes a single positional parameter into a local variable. Returns true on success; on failure, it returns false and raises the appropriate exception. Example: // Function using METH_O calling convention static PyObject* my_function(PyObject *module, PyObject *arg) { int value; if (!PyArg_Parse(arg, "i:my_function", &value)) { return NULL; } // ... use value ... } -- C Function: int PyArg_UnpackTuple (PyObject *args, const char *name, Py_ssize_t min, Py_ssize_t max, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' A simpler form of parameter retrieval which does not use a format string to specify the types of the arguments. Functions which use this method to retrieve their parameters should be declared as *note METH_VARARGS: 14d4. in function or method tables. The tuple containing the actual parameters should be passed as 'args'; it must actually be a tuple. The length of the tuple must be at least 'min' and no more than 'max'; 'min' and 'max' may be equal. Additional arguments must be passed to the function, each of which should be a pointer to a *note PyObject: 334.* variable; these will be filled in with the values from 'args'; they will contain *note borrowed references: 339. The variables which correspond to optional parameters not given by 'args' will not be filled in; these should be initialized by the caller. This function returns true on success and false if 'args' is not a tuple or contains the wrong number of elements; an exception will be set if there was a failure. This is an example of the use of this function, taken from the sources for the ‘_weakref’ helper module for weak references: static PyObject * weakref_ref(PyObject *self, PyObject *args) { PyObject *object; PyObject *callback = NULL; PyObject *result = NULL; if (PyArg_UnpackTuple(args, "ref", 1, 2, &object, &callback)) { result = PyWeakref_NewRef(object, callback); } return result; } The call to *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14d2. in this example is entirely equivalent to this call to *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.: PyArg_ParseTuple(args, "O|O:ref", &object, &callback) -- C Macro: PY_CXX_CONST The value to be inserted, if any, before char *const* in the 'keywords' parameter declaration of *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. and *note PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37f. Default empty for C and ‘const’ for C++ (const char *const*). To override, define it to the desired value before including ‘Python.h’. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: Building values, Prev: Parsing arguments<2>, Up: Parsing arguments and building values 7.6.6.6 Building values ....................... -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_BuildValue (const char *format, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new value based on a format string similar to those accepted by the ‘PyArg_Parse*’ family of functions and a sequence of values. Returns the value or ‘NULL’ in the case of an error; an exception will be raised if ‘NULL’ is returned. *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. does not always build a tuple. It builds a tuple only if its format string contains two or more format units. If the format string is empty, it returns ‘None’; if it contains exactly one format unit, it returns whatever object is described by that format unit. To force it to return a tuple of size 0 or one, parenthesize the format string. When memory buffers are passed as parameters to supply data to build objects, as for the ‘s’ and ‘s#’ formats, the required data is copied. Buffers provided by the caller are never referenced by the objects created by *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. In other words, if your code invokes ‘malloc()’ and passes the allocated memory to *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6, your code is responsible for calling ‘free()’ for that memory once *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. returns. In the following description, the quoted form is the format unit; the entry in (round) parentheses is the Python object type that the format unit will return; and the entry in [square] brackets is the type of the C value(s) to be passed. The characters space, tab, colon and comma are ignored in format strings (but not within format units such as ‘s#’). This can be used to make long format strings a tad more readable. ‘s’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *] Convert a null-terminated C string to a Python *note str: 447. object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding. If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is used. ‘s#’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Convert a C string and its length to a Python *note str: 447. object using ‘'utf-8'’ encoding. If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned. ‘y’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) [const char *] This converts a C string to a Python *note bytes: 1c2. object. If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned. ‘y#’ (*note bytes: 1c2.) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] This converts a C string and its lengths to a Python object. If the C string pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned. ‘z’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *] Same as ‘s’. ‘z#’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Same as ‘s#’. ‘u’ (*note str: 447.) [const wchar_t *] Convert a null-terminated ‘wchar_t’ buffer of Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data to a Python Unicode object. If the Unicode buffer pointer is ‘NULL’, ‘None’ is returned. ‘u#’ (*note str: 447.) [const wchar_t *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Convert a Unicode (UTF-16 or UCS-4) data buffer and its length to a Python Unicode object. If the Unicode buffer pointer is ‘NULL’, the length is ignored and ‘None’ is returned. ‘U’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *] Same as ‘s’. ‘U#’ (*note str: 447. or ‘None’) [const char *, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Same as ‘s#’. ‘i’ (*note int: 259.) [int] Convert a plain C int to a Python integer object. ‘b’ (*note int: 259.) [char] Convert a plain C char to a Python integer object. ‘h’ (*note int: 259.) [short int] Convert a plain C short int to a Python integer object. ‘l’ (*note int: 259.) [long int] Convert a C long int to a Python integer object. ‘B’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned char] Convert a C unsigned char to a Python integer object. ‘H’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned short int] Convert a C unsigned short int to a Python integer object. ‘I’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned int] Convert a C unsigned int to a Python integer object. ‘k’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned long] Convert a C unsigned long to a Python integer object. ‘L’ (*note int: 259.) [long long] Convert a C long long to a Python integer object. ‘K’ (*note int: 259.) [unsigned long long] Convert a C unsigned long long to a Python integer object. ‘n’ (*note int: 259.) [*note Py_ssize_t: a5f.] Convert a C *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. to a Python integer. ‘c’ (*note bytes: 1c2. of length 1) [char] Convert a C int representing a byte to a Python *note bytes: 1c2. object of length 1. ‘C’ (*note str: 447. of length 1) [int] Convert a C int representing a character to Python *note str: 447. object of length 1. ‘d’ (*note float: 2f1.) [double] Convert a C double to a Python floating-point number. ‘f’ (*note float: 2f1.) [float] Convert a C float to a Python floating-point number. ‘D’ (*note complex: 2f2.) [Py_complex *] Convert a C *note Py_complex: 4b68. structure to a Python complex number. ‘O’ (object) [PyObject *] Pass a Python object untouched but create a new *note strong reference: 338. to it (i.e. its reference count is incremented by one). If the object passed in is a ‘NULL’ pointer, it is assumed that this was caused because the call producing the argument found an error and set an exception. Therefore, *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. will return ‘NULL’ but won’t raise an exception. If no exception has been raised yet, *note SystemError: 572. is set. ‘S’ (object) [PyObject *] Same as ‘O’. ‘N’ (object) [PyObject *] Same as ‘O’, except it doesn’t create a new *note strong reference: 338. Useful when the object is created by a call to an object constructor in the argument list. ‘O&’ (object) ['converter', 'anything'] Convert 'anything' to a Python object through a 'converter' function. The function is called with 'anything' (which should be compatible with void*) as its argument and should return a “new” Python object, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred. ‘(items)’ (*note tuple: 36b.) ['matching-items'] Convert a sequence of C values to a Python tuple with the same number of items. ‘[items]’ (*note list: 60d.) ['matching-items'] Convert a sequence of C values to a Python list with the same number of items. ‘{items}’ (*note dict: 258.) ['matching-items'] Convert a sequence of C values to a Python dictionary. Each pair of consecutive C values adds one item to the dictionary, serving as key and value, respectively. If there is an error in the format string, the *note SystemError: 572. exception is set and ‘NULL’ returned. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_VaBuildValue (const char *format, va_list vargs) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Identical to *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6, except that it accepts a va_list rather than a variable number of arguments.  File: python.info, Node: String conversion and formatting, Next: PyHash API, Prev: Parsing arguments and building values, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.7 String conversion and formatting -------------------------------------- Functions for number conversion and formatted string output. -- C Function: int PyOS_snprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char *format, ...) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Output not more than 'size' bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the extra arguments. See the Unix man page ‘snprintf(3)(1)’. -- C Function: int PyOS_vsnprintf (char *str, size_t size, const char *format, va_list va) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Output not more than 'size' bytes to 'str' according to the format string 'format' and the variable argument list 'va'. Unix man page ‘vsnprintf(3)(2)’. *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d5. and *note PyOS_vsnprintf(): 14d6. wrap the Standard C library functions ‘snprintf()’ and ‘vsnprintf()’. Their purpose is to guarantee consistent behavior in corner cases, which the Standard C functions do not. The wrappers ensure that ‘str[size-1]’ is always ‘'\0'’ upon return. They never write more than 'size' bytes (including the trailing ‘'\0'’) into str. Both functions require that ‘str != NULL’, ‘size > 0’, ‘format != NULL’ and ‘size < INT_MAX’. Note that this means there is no equivalent to the C99 ‘n = snprintf(NULL, 0, ...)’ which would determine the necessary buffer size. The return value ('rv') for these functions should be interpreted as follows: * When ‘0 <= rv < size’, the output conversion was successful and 'rv' characters were written to 'str' (excluding the trailing ‘'\0'’ byte at ‘str[rv]’). * When ‘rv >= size’, the output conversion was truncated and a buffer with ‘rv + 1’ bytes would have been needed to succeed. ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’ in this case. * When ‘rv < 0’, “something bad happened.” ‘str[size-1]’ is ‘'\0'’ in this case too, but the rest of 'str' is undefined. The exact cause of the error depends on the underlying platform. The following functions provide locale-independent string to number conversions. -- C Function: unsigned long PyOS_strtoul (const char *str, char **ptr, int base) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Convert the initial part of the string in ‘str’ to an unsigned long value according to the given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special value ‘0’. Leading white space and case of characters are ignored. If ‘base’ is zero it looks for a leading ‘0b’, ‘0o’ or ‘0x’ to tell which base. If these are absent it defaults to ‘10’. Base must be 0 or between 2 and 36 (inclusive). If ‘ptr’ is non-‘NULL’ it will contain a pointer to the end of the scan. If the converted value falls out of range of corresponding return type, range error occurs (‘errno’ is set to ‘ERANGE’) and ‘ULONG_MAX’ is returned. If no conversion can be performed, ‘0’ is returned. See also the Unix man page ‘strtoul(3)(3)’. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: long PyOS_strtol (const char *str, char **ptr, int base) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Convert the initial part of the string in ‘str’ to an long value according to the given ‘base’, which must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’ inclusive, or be the special value ‘0’. Same as *note PyOS_strtoul(): 4a56, but return a long value instead and ‘LONG_MAX’ on overflows. See also the Unix man page ‘strtol(3)(4)’. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: double PyOS_string_to_double (const char *s, char **endptr, PyObject *overflow_exception) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Convert a string ‘s’ to a double, raising a Python exception on failure. The set of accepted strings corresponds to the set of strings accepted by Python’s *note float(): 2f1. constructor, except that ‘s’ must not have leading or trailing whitespace. The conversion is independent of the current locale. If ‘endptr’ is ‘NULL’, convert the whole string. Raise *note ValueError: 204. and return ‘-1.0’ if the string is not a valid representation of a floating-point number. If endptr is not ‘NULL’, convert as much of the string as possible and set ‘*endptr’ to point to the first unconverted character. If no initial segment of the string is the valid representation of a floating-point number, set ‘*endptr’ to point to the beginning of the string, raise ValueError, and return ‘-1.0’. If ‘s’ represents a value that is too large to store in a float (for example, ‘"1e500"’ is such a string on many platforms) then if ‘overflow_exception’ is ‘NULL’ return ‘Py_HUGE_VAL’ (with an appropriate sign) and don’t set any exception. Otherwise, ‘overflow_exception’ must point to a Python exception object; raise that exception and return ‘-1.0’. In both cases, set ‘*endptr’ to point to the first character after the converted value. If any other error occurs during the conversion (for example an out-of-memory error), set the appropriate Python exception and return ‘-1.0’. Added in version 3.1. -- C Function: char *PyOS_double_to_string (double val, char format_code, int precision, int flags, int *ptype) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Convert a double 'val' to a string using supplied 'format_code', 'precision', and 'flags'. 'format_code' must be one of ‘'e'’, ‘'E'’, ‘'f'’, ‘'F'’, ‘'g'’, ‘'G'’ or ‘'r'’. For ‘'r'’, the supplied 'precision' must be 0 and is ignored. The ‘'r'’ format code specifies the standard *note repr(): 7f9. format. 'flags' can be zero or more of the values ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’, ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’, or ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’, or-ed together: * ‘Py_DTSF_SIGN’ means to always precede the returned string with a sign character, even if 'val' is non-negative. * ‘Py_DTSF_ADD_DOT_0’ means to ensure that the returned string will not look like an integer. * ‘Py_DTSF_ALT’ means to apply “alternate” formatting rules. See the documentation for the *note PyOS_snprintf(): 14d5. ‘'#'’ specifier for details. If 'ptype' is non-‘NULL’, then the value it points to will be set to one of ‘Py_DTST_FINITE’, ‘Py_DTST_INFINITE’, or ‘Py_DTST_NAN’, signifying that 'val' is a finite number, an infinite number, or not a number, respectively. The return value is a pointer to 'buffer' with the converted string or ‘NULL’ if the conversion failed. The caller is responsible for freeing the returned string by calling *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. Added in version 3.1. -- C Function: int PyOS_stricmp (const char *s1, const char *s2) Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost identically to ‘strcmp()’ except that it ignores the case. -- C Function: int PyOS_strnicmp (const char *s1, const char *s2, Py_ssize_t size) Case insensitive comparison of strings. The function works almost identically to ‘strncmp()’ except that it ignores the case. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://manpages.debian.org/snprintf(3) (2) https://manpages.debian.org/vsnprintf(3) (3) https://manpages.debian.org/strtoul(3) (4) https://manpages.debian.org/strtol(3)  File: python.info, Node: PyHash API, Next: Reflection, Prev: String conversion and formatting, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.8 PyHash API ---------------- See also the *note PyTypeObject.tp_hash: 490f. member and *note Hashing of numeric types: 21a0. -- C Type: type Py_hash_t Hash value type: signed integer. Added in version 3.2. -- C Type: type Py_uhash_t Hash value type: unsigned integer. Added in version 3.2. -- C Macro: PyHASH_MODULUS The Mersenne prime(1) ‘P = 2**n -1’, used for numeric hash scheme. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: PyHASH_BITS The exponent ‘n’ of ‘P’ in *note PyHASH_MODULUS: 1669. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: PyHASH_MULTIPLIER Prime multiplier used in string and various other hashes. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: PyHASH_INF The hash value returned for a positive infinity. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: PyHASH_IMAG The multiplier used for the imaginary part of a complex number. Added in version 3.13. -- C Type: type PyHash_FuncDef Hash function definition used by *note PyHash_GetFuncDef(): 4b77. -- C Member: *note Py_hash_t: 1257. (*const hash)(const void*, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.) Hash function. -- C Member: const char *name Hash function name (UTF-8 encoded string). -- C Member: const int hash_bits Internal size of the hash value in bits. -- C Member: const int seed_bits Size of seed input in bits. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: *note PyHash_FuncDef: 4b76. *PyHash_GetFuncDef (void) Get the hash function definition. See also ........ PEP 456(2) “Secure and interchangeable hash algorithm”. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: *note Py_hash_t: 1257. Py_HashPointer (const void *ptr) Hash a pointer value: process the pointer value as an integer (cast it to ‘uintptr_t’ internally). The pointer is not dereferenced. The function cannot fail: it cannot return ‘-1’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note Py_hash_t: 1257. PyObject_GenericHash (PyObject *obj) Generic hashing function that is meant to be put into a type object’s ‘tp_hash’ slot. Its result only depends on the object’s identity. 'CPython implementation detail:' In CPython, it is equivalent to *note Py_HashPointer(): 363. Added in version 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mersenne_prime (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0456/  File: python.info, Node: Reflection, Next: Codec registry and support functions, Prev: PyHash API, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.9 Reflection ---------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_GetBuiltins (void) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated since version 3.13: Use *note PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins(): 34b. instead. Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame, or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_GetLocals (void) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated since version 3.13: Use either *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34f. to obtain the same behaviour as calling *note locals(): 141. in Python code, or else call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17bc. to access the *note f_locals: 182. attribute of the currently executing frame. Return a mapping providing access to the local variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing. Refer to *note locals(): 141. for details of the mapping returned at different scopes. As this function returns a *note borrowed reference: 339, the dictionary returned for *note optimized scopes: 17e. is cached on the frame object and will remain alive as long as the frame object does. Unlike *note PyEval_GetFrameLocals(): 34f. and *note locals(): 141, subsequent calls to this function in the same frame will update the contents of the cached dictionary to reflect changes in the state of the local variables rather than returning a new snapshot. Changed in version 3.13: As part of PEP 667(1), *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b, *note locals(): 141, and *note FrameType.f_locals: 182. no longer make use of the shared cache dictionary. Refer to the *note What’s New entry: 142. for additional details. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_GetGlobals (void) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated since version 3.13: Use *note PyEval_GetFrameGlobals(): 34d. instead. Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing. -- C Function: *note PyFrameObject: 784. *PyEval_GetFrame (void) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the current thread state’s frame, which is ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing. See also *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 789. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (void) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return a dictionary of the builtins in the current execution frame, or the interpreter of the thread state if no frame is currently executing. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_GetFrameLocals (void) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return a dictionary of the local variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing. Equivalent to calling *note locals(): 141. in Python code. To access *note f_locals: 182. on the current frame without making an independent snapshot in *note optimized scopes: 17e, call *note PyFrame_GetLocals(): 41b. on the result of *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17bc. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (void) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return a dictionary of the global variables in the current execution frame, or ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing. Equivalent to calling *note globals(): 1867. in Python code. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: const char *PyEval_GetFuncName (PyObject *func) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the name of 'func' if it is a function, class or instance object, else the name of 'func's type. -- C Function: const char *PyEval_GetFuncDesc (PyObject *func) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a description string, depending on the type of 'func'. Return values include “()” for functions and methods, “ constructor”, “ instance”, and “ object”. Concatenated with the result of *note PyEval_GetFuncName(): 49b6, the result will be a description of 'func'. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/  File: python.info, Node: Codec registry and support functions, Next: PyTime C API, Prev: Reflection, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.10 Codec registry and support functions ------------------------------------------- -- C Function: int PyCodec_Register (PyObject *search_function) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Register a new codec search function. As side effect, this tries to load the ‘encodings’ package, if not yet done, to make sure that it is always first in the list of search functions. -- C Function: int PyCodec_Unregister (PyObject *search_function) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Unregister a codec search function and clear the registry’s cache. If the search function is not registered, do nothing. Return 0 on success. Raise an exception and return -1 on error. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int PyCodec_KnownEncoding (const char *encoding) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether there is a registered codec for the given 'encoding'. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_Encode (PyObject *object, const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Generic codec based encoding API. 'object' is passed through the encoder function found for the given 'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'. 'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the codec. Raises a *note LookupError: 21cc. if no encoder can be found. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_Decode (PyObject *object, const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Generic codec based decoding API. 'object' is passed through the decoder function found for the given 'encoding' using the error handling method defined by 'errors'. 'errors' may be ‘NULL’ to use the default method defined for the codec. Raises a *note LookupError: 21cc. if no encoder can be found. * Menu: * Codec lookup API:: * Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers::  File: python.info, Node: Codec lookup API, Next: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers, Up: Codec registry and support functions 7.6.10.1 Codec lookup API ......................... In the following functions, the 'encoding' string is looked up converted to all lower-case characters, which makes encodings looked up through this mechanism effectively case-insensitive. If no codec is found, a *note KeyError: 33f. is set and ‘NULL’ returned. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_Encoder (const char *encoding) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get an encoder function for the given 'encoding'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_Decoder (const char *encoding) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get a decoder function for the given 'encoding'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get an *note IncrementalEncoder: 23c9. object for the given 'encoding'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get an *note IncrementalDecoder: 23ca. object for the given 'encoding'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_StreamReader (const char *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get a *note StreamReader: 23ce. factory function for the given 'encoding'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_StreamWriter (const char *encoding, PyObject *stream, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get a *note StreamWriter: 23cd. factory function for the given 'encoding'.  File: python.info, Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers, Prev: Codec lookup API, Up: Codec registry and support functions 7.6.10.2 Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers ......................................................... -- C Function: int PyCodec_RegisterError (const char *name, PyObject *error) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Register the error handling callback function 'error' under the given 'name'. This callback function will be called by a codec when it encounters unencodable characters/undecodable bytes and 'name' is specified as the error parameter in the call to the encode/decode function. The callback gets a single argument, an instance of *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673, *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. or *note UnicodeTranslateError: 229d. that holds information about the problematic sequence of characters or bytes and their offset in the original string (see *note Unicode Exception Objects: 4b3d. for functions to extract this information). The callback must either raise the given exception, or return a two-item tuple containing the replacement for the problematic sequence, and an integer giving the offset in the original string at which encoding/decoding should be resumed. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_LookupError (const char *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Lookup the error handling callback function registered under 'name'. As a special case ‘NULL’ can be passed, in which case the error handling callback for “strict” will be returned. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_StrictErrors (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: Always NULL.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Raise 'exc' as an exception. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Ignore the unicode error, skipping the faulty input. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Replace the unicode encode error with ‘?’ or ‘U+FFFD’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Replace the unicode encode error with XML character references. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Replace the unicode encode error with backslash escapes (‘\x’, ‘\u’ and ‘\U’). -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (PyObject *exc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Replace the unicode encode error with ‘\N{...}’ escapes. Added in version 3.5.  File: python.info, Node: PyTime C API, Next: Support for Perf Maps, Prev: Codec registry and support functions, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.11 PyTime C API ------------------- Added in version 3.13. The clock C API provides access to system clocks. It is similar to the Python *note time: ee. module. For C API related to the *note datetime: 30. module, see *note DateTime Objects: 4b84. * Menu: * Types: Types<2>. * Clock Functions:: * Raw Clock Functions:: * Conversion functions::  File: python.info, Node: Types<2>, Next: Clock Functions, Up: PyTime C API 7.6.11.1 Types .............. -- C Type: type PyTime_t A timestamp or duration in nanoseconds, represented as a signed 64-bit integer. The reference point for timestamps depends on the clock used. For example, *note PyTime_Time(): 330. returns timestamps relative to the UNIX epoch. The supported range is around [-292.3 years; +292.3 years]. Using the Unix epoch (January 1st, 1970) as reference, the supported date range is around [1677-09-21; 2262-04-11]. The exact limits are exposed as constants: -- C Variable: *note PyTime_t: 328. PyTime_MIN Minimum value of *note PyTime_t: 328. -- C Variable: *note PyTime_t: 328. PyTime_MAX Maximum value of *note PyTime_t: 328.  File: python.info, Node: Clock Functions, Next: Raw Clock Functions, Prev: Types<2>, Up: PyTime C API 7.6.11.2 Clock Functions ........................ The following functions take a pointer to a *note PyTime_t: 328. that they set to the value of a particular clock. Details of each clock are given in the documentation of the corresponding Python function. The functions return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ (with an exception set) on failure. On integer overflow, they set the *note PyExc_OverflowError: 49df. exception and set ‘*result’ to the value clamped to the ‘[PyTime_MIN; PyTime_MAX]’ range. (On current systems, integer overflows are likely caused by misconfigured system time.) As any other C API (unless otherwise specified), the functions must be called with the *note GIL: 159. held. -- C Function: int PyTime_Monotonic (PyTime_t *result) Read the monotonic clock. See *note time.monotonic(): 255. for important details on this clock. -- C Function: int PyTime_PerfCounter (PyTime_t *result) Read the performance counter. See *note time.perf_counter(): a88. for important details on this clock. -- C Function: int PyTime_Time (PyTime_t *result) Read the “wall clock” time. See *note time.time(): 256. for details important on this clock.  File: python.info, Node: Raw Clock Functions, Next: Conversion functions, Prev: Clock Functions, Up: PyTime C API 7.6.11.3 Raw Clock Functions ............................ Similar to clock functions, but don’t set an exception on error and don’t require the caller to hold the GIL. On success, the functions return ‘0’. On failure, they set ‘*result’ to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’, 'without' setting an exception. To get the cause of the error, acquire the GIL and call the regular (non-‘Raw’) function. Note that the regular function may succeed after the ‘Raw’ one failed. -- C Function: int PyTime_MonotonicRaw (PyTime_t *result) Similar to *note PyTime_Monotonic(): 32c, but don’t set an exception on error and don’t require holding the GIL. -- C Function: int PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (PyTime_t *result) Similar to *note PyTime_PerfCounter(): 32e, but don’t set an exception on error and don’t require holding the GIL. -- C Function: int PyTime_TimeRaw (PyTime_t *result) Similar to *note PyTime_Time(): 330, but don’t set an exception on error and don’t require holding the GIL.  File: python.info, Node: Conversion functions, Prev: Raw Clock Functions, Up: PyTime C API 7.6.11.4 Conversion functions ............................. -- C Function: double PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (PyTime_t t) Convert a timestamp to a number of seconds as a C double. The function cannot fail, but note that double has limited accuracy for large values.  File: python.info, Node: Support for Perf Maps, Prev: PyTime C API, Up: Utilities<2> 7.6.12 Support for Perf Maps ---------------------------- On supported platforms (as of this writing, only Linux), the runtime can take advantage of 'perf map files' to make Python functions visible to an external profiling tool (such as perf(1)). A running process may create a file in the ‘/tmp’ directory, which contains entries that can map a section of executable code to a name. This interface is described in the documentation of the Linux Perf tool(2). In Python, these helper APIs can be used by libraries and features that rely on generating machine code on the fly. Note that holding the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL) is not required for these APIs. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (void) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Open the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file, unless it’s already opened, and create a lock to ensure thread-safe writes to the file (provided the writes are done through *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 1739.). Normally, there’s no need to call this explicitly; just use *note PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry(): 1739. and it will initialize the state on first call. Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure to create/open the perf map file, or ‘-2’ on failure to create a lock. Check ‘errno’ for more information about the cause of a failure. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (const void *code_addr, unsigned int code_size, const char *entry_name) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Write one single entry to the ‘/tmp/perf-$pid.map’ file. This function is thread safe. Here is what an example entry looks like: # address size name 7f3529fcf759 b py::bar:/run/t.py Will call *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 173a. before writing the entry, if the perf map file is not already opened. Returns ‘0’ on success, or the same error codes as *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 173a. on failure. -- C Function: void PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (void) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Close the perf map file opened by *note PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init(): 173a. This is called by the runtime itself during interpreter shut-down. In general, there shouldn’t be a reason to explicitly call this, except to handle specific scenarios such as forking. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org/index.php/Main_Page (2) https://git.kernel.org/pub/scm/linux/kernel/git/torvalds/linux.git/tree/tools/perf/Documentation/jit-interface.txt  File: python.info, Node: Abstract Objects Layer, Next: Concrete Objects Layer, Prev: Utilities<2>, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.7 Abstract Objects Layer ========================== The functions in this chapter interact with Python objects regardless of their type, or with wide classes of object types (e.g. all numerical types, or all sequence types). When used on object types for which they do not apply, they will raise a Python exception. It is not possible to use these functions on objects that are not properly initialized, such as a list object that has been created by *note PyList_New(): 4948, but whose items have not been set to some non-‘NULL’ value yet. * Menu: * Object Protocol:: * Call Protocol:: * Number Protocol:: * Sequence Protocol:: * Mapping Protocol:: * Iterator Protocol:: * Buffer Protocol::  File: python.info, Node: Object Protocol, Next: Call Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.1 Object Protocol --------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_GetConstant (unsigned int constant_id) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Get a *note strong reference: 338. to a constant. Set an exception and return ‘NULL’ if 'constant_id' is invalid. 'constant_id' must be one of these constant identifiers: Constant Identifier Value Returned object ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_NONE ‘0’ *note None: 671. -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_FALSE ‘1’ *note False: b37. -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_TRUE ‘2’ *note True: c0d. -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS ‘3’ *note Ellipsis: 2185. -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED ‘4’ *note NotImplemented: 7cd. -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_ZERO ‘5’ ‘0’ -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_ONE ‘6’ ‘1’ -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR ‘7’ ‘''’ -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES ‘8’ ‘b''’ -- C Macro: Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE ‘9’ ‘()’ Numeric values are only given for projects which cannot use the constant identifiers. Added in version 3.13. 'CPython implementation detail:' In CPython, all of these constants are *note immortal: 4394. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_GetConstantBorrowed (unsigned int constant_id) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Similar to *note Py_GetConstant(): 351, but return a *note borrowed reference: 339. This function is primarily intended for backwards compatibility: using *note Py_GetConstant(): 351. is recommended for new code. The reference is borrowed from the interpreter, and is valid until the interpreter finalization. Added in version 3.13. -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_NotImplemented The ‘NotImplemented’ singleton, used to signal that an operation is not implemented for the given type combination. -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED Properly handle returning *note Py_NotImplemented: 4b9b. from within a C function (that is, create a new *note strong reference: 338. to *note NotImplemented: 7cd. and return it). -- C Macro: Py_PRINT_RAW Flag to be used with multiple functions that print the object (like *note PyObject_Print(): 15f2. and *note PyFile_WriteObject(): 49ff.). If passed, these function would use the *note str(): 447. of the object instead of the *note repr(): 7f9. -- C Function: int PyObject_Print (PyObject *o, FILE *fp, int flags) Print an object 'o', on file 'fp'. Returns ‘-1’ on error. The flags argument is used to enable certain printing options. The only option currently supported is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4b9d.; if given, the *note str(): 447. of the object is written instead of the *note repr(): 7f9. -- C Function: int PyObject_HasAttrWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘hasattr(o, attr_name)’. On failure, return ‘-1’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (PyObject *o, const char *attr_name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' This is the same as *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 375, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyObject_HasAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns ‘1’ if 'o' has the attribute 'attr_name', and ‘0’ otherwise. This function always succeeds. Note: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note __getattr__(): 4cf. and *note __getattribute__(): bd2. methods aren’t propagated, but instead given to *note sys.unraisablehook(): 1f9. For proper error handling, use *note PyObject_HasAttrWithError(): 375, *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 344. or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. instead. -- C Function: int PyObject_HasAttrString (PyObject *o, const char *attr_name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyObject_HasAttr(): 376, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Note: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note __getattr__(): 4cf. and *note __getattribute__(): bd2. methods or while creating the temporary *note str: 447. object are silently ignored. For proper error handling, use *note PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError(): 377, *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 345. or *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 347. instead. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Retrieve an attribute named 'attr_name' from object 'o'. Returns the attribute value on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o.attr_name’. If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 344. instead. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char *attr_name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. If the missing attribute should not be treated as a failure, you can use *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString(): 345. instead. -- C Function: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (PyObject *obj, PyObject *attr_name, PyObject **result); ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Variant of *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. which doesn’t raise *note AttributeError: 348. if the attribute is not found. If the attribute is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new *note strong reference: 338. to the attribute. If the attribute is not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note AttributeError: 348. is silenced. If an error other than *note AttributeError: 348. is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (PyObject *obj, const char *attr_name, PyObject **result); ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' This is the same as *note PyObject_GetOptionalAttr(): 344, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GenericGetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Generic attribute getter function that is meant to be put into a type object’s ‘tp_getattro’ slot. It looks for a descriptor in the dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO as well as an attribute in the object’s *note __dict__: 558. (if present). As outlined in *note Implementing Descriptors: c4f, data descriptors take preference over instance attributes, while non-data descriptors don’t. Otherwise, an *note AttributeError: 348. is raised. -- C Function: int PyObject_SetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the value of the attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o', to the value 'v'. Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return ‘0’ on success. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o.attr_name = v’. If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted. This behaviour is deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1538, but there are currently no plans to remove it. -- C Function: int PyObject_SetAttrString (PyObject *o, const char *attr_name, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a68, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the attribute is deleted, but this feature is deprecated in favour of using *note PyObject_DelAttrString(): 1539. The number of different attribute names passed to this function should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated string as 'attr_name'. For attribute names that aren’t known at compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a68. directly. For more details, see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1600, which may be used internally to create a key object. -- C Function: int PyObject_GenericSetAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *name, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Generic attribute setter and deleter function that is meant to be put into a type object’s *note tp_setattro: 4901. slot. It looks for a data descriptor in the dictionary of classes in the object’s MRO, and if found it takes preference over setting or deleting the attribute in the instance dictionary. Otherwise, the attribute is set or deleted in the object’s *note __dict__: 558. (if present). On success, ‘0’ is returned, otherwise an *note AttributeError: 348. is raised and ‘-1’ is returned. -- C Function: int PyObject_DelAttr (PyObject *o, PyObject *attr_name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Delete attribute named 'attr_name', for object 'o'. Returns ‘-1’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o.attr_name’. -- C Function: int PyObject_DelAttrString (PyObject *o, const char *attr_name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' This is the same as *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1538, but 'attr_name' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. The number of different attribute names passed to this function should be kept small, usually by using a statically allocated string as 'attr_name'. For attribute names that aren’t known at compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. and *note PyObject_DelAttr(): 1538. directly. For more details, see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1600, which may be used internally to create a key object for lookup. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GenericGetDict (PyObject *o, void *context) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' A generic implementation for the getter of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor. It creates the dictionary if necessary. This function may also be called to get the *note __dict__: 558. of the object 'o'. Pass ‘NULL’ for 'context' when calling it. Since this function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, it may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. when accessing an attribute on the object. On failure, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: int PyObject_GenericSetDict (PyObject *o, PyObject *value, void *context) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' A generic implementation for the setter of a ‘__dict__’ descriptor. This implementation does not allow the dictionary to be deleted. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. **_PyObject_GetDictPtr (PyObject *obj) Return a pointer to *note __dict__: 558. of the object 'obj'. If there is no ‘__dict__’, return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception. This function may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. when accessing an attribute on the object. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_RichCompare (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compare the values of 'o1' and 'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', which must be one of *note Py_LT: 4b9f, *note Py_LE: 4ba0, *note Py_EQ: 4ba1, *note Py_NE: 4ba2, *note Py_GT: 4ba3, or *note Py_GE: 4ba4, corresponding to ‘<’, ‘<=’, ‘==’, ‘!=’, ‘>’, or ‘>=’ respectively. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 op o2’, where ‘op’ is the operator corresponding to 'opid'. Returns the value of the comparison on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: int PyObject_RichCompareBool (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, int opid) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compare the values of 'o1' and 'o2' using the operation specified by 'opid', like *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490a, but returns ‘-1’ on error, ‘0’ if the result is false, ‘1’ otherwise. Note: If 'o1' and 'o2' are the same object, *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19a2. will always return ‘1’ for *note Py_EQ: 4ba1. and ‘0’ for *note Py_NE: 4ba2. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Format (PyObject *obj, PyObject *format_spec) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Format 'obj' using 'format_spec'. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘format(obj, format_spec)’. 'format_spec' may be ‘NULL’. In this case the call is equivalent to ‘format(obj)’. Returns the formatted string on success, ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Repr (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compute a string representation of object 'o'. Returns the string representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘repr(o)’. Called by the *note repr(): 7f9. built-in function. Changed in version 3.4: This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it does not silently discard an active exception. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_ASCII (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' As *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028, compute a string representation of object 'o', but escape the non-ASCII characters in the string returned by *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028. with ‘\x’, ‘\u’ or ‘\U’ escapes. This generates a string similar to that returned by *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028. in Python 2. Called by the *note ascii(): 13b2. built-in function. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Str (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compute a string representation of object 'o'. Returns the string representation on success, ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘str(o)’. Called by the *note str(): 447. built-in function and, therefore, by the *note print(): f70. function. Changed in version 3.4: This function now includes a debug assertion to help ensure that it does not silently discard an active exception. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Bytes (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compute a bytes representation of object 'o'. ‘NULL’ is returned on failure and a bytes object on success. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘bytes(o)’, when 'o' is not an integer. Unlike ‘bytes(o)’, a TypeError is raised when 'o' is an integer instead of a zero-initialized bytes object. -- C Function: int PyObject_IsSubclass (PyObject *derived, PyObject *cls) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if the class 'derived' is identical to or derived from the class 'cls', otherwise return ‘0’. In case of an error, return ‘-1’. If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in 'cls'. The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’. If 'cls' has a *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f7d. method, it will be called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP 3119(1). Otherwise, 'derived' is a subclass of 'cls' if it is a direct or indirect subclass, i.e. contained in *note cls.__mro__: 1f29. Normally only class objects, i.e. instances of *note type: d48. or a derived class, are considered classes. However, objects can override this by having a *note __bases__: 1475. attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes). -- C Function: int PyObject_IsInstance (PyObject *inst, PyObject *cls) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if 'inst' is an instance of the class 'cls' or a subclass of 'cls', or ‘0’ if not. On error, returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception. If 'cls' is a tuple, the check will be done against every entry in 'cls'. The result will be ‘1’ when at least one of the checks returns ‘1’, otherwise it will be ‘0’. If 'cls' has a *note __instancecheck__(): 1f7c. method, it will be called to determine the subclass status as described in PEP 3119(2). Otherwise, 'inst' is an instance of 'cls' if its class is a subclass of 'cls'. An instance 'inst' can override what is considered its class by having a *note __class__: 1476. attribute. An object 'cls' can override if it is considered a class, and what its base classes are, by having a *note __bases__: 1475. attribute (which must be a tuple of base classes). -- C Function: *note Py_hash_t: 1257. PyObject_Hash (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compute and return the hash value of an object 'o'. On failure, return ‘-1’. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘hash(o)’. Changed in version 3.2: The return type is now Py_hash_t. This is a signed integer the same size as *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. -- C Function: *note Py_hash_t: 1257. PyObject_HashNotImplemented (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set a *note TypeError: 534. indicating that ‘type(o)’ is not *note hashable: 60c. and return ‘-1’. This function receives special treatment when stored in a ‘tp_hash’ slot, allowing a type to explicitly indicate to the interpreter that it is not hashable. -- C Function: int PyObject_IsTrue (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns ‘1’ if the object 'o' is considered to be true, and ‘0’ otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘not not o’. On failure, return ‘-1’. -- C Function: int PyObject_Not (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns ‘0’ if the object 'o' is considered to be true, and ‘1’ otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘not o’. On failure, return ‘-1’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Type (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' When 'o' is non-‘NULL’, returns a type object corresponding to the object type of object 'o'. On failure, raises *note SystemError: 572. and returns ‘NULL’. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘type(o)’. This function creates a new *note strong reference: 338. to the return value. There’s really no reason to use this function instead of the *note Py_TYPE(): 77b. function, which returns a pointer of type *note PyTypeObject: aa5.*, except when a new *note strong reference: 338. is needed. -- C Function: int PyObject_TypeCheck (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type) Return non-zero if the object 'o' is of type 'type' or a subtype of 'type', and ‘0’ otherwise. Both parameters must be non-‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyObject_Size (PyObject *o) -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyObject_Length (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the length of object 'o'. If the object 'o' provides either the sequence and mapping protocols, the sequence length is returned. On error, ‘-1’ is returned. This is the equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyObject_LengthHint (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t defaultvalue) Return an estimated length for the object 'o'. First try to return its actual length, then an estimate using *note __length_hint__(): f06, and finally return the default value. On error return ‘-1’. This is the equivalent to the Python expression ‘operator.length_hint(o, defaultvalue)’. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return element of 'o' corresponding to the object 'key' or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[key]’. -- C Function: int PyObject_SetItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Map the object 'key' to the value 'v'. Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return ‘0’ on success. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[key] = v’. This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'v'. -- C Function: int PyObject_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Remove the mapping for the object 'key' from the object 'o'. Return ‘-1’ on failure. This is equivalent to the Python statement ‘del o[key]’. -- C Function: int PyObject_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Dir (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘dir(o)’, returning a (possibly empty) list of strings appropriate for the object argument, or ‘NULL’ if there was an error. If the argument is ‘NULL’, this is like the Python ‘dir()’, returning the names of the current locals; in this case, if no execution frame is active then ‘NULL’ is returned but *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. will return false. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GetIter (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘iter(o)’. It returns a new iterator for the object argument, or the object itself if the object is already an iterator. Raises *note TypeError: 534. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be iterated. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_SelfIter (PyObject *obj) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is equivalent to the Python ‘__iter__(self): return self’ method. It is intended for *note iterator: 1ac. types, to be used in the *note PyTypeObject.tp_iter: 14b9. slot. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_GetAIter (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' This is the equivalent to the Python expression ‘aiter(o)’. Takes an ‘AsyncIterable’ object and returns an ‘AsyncIterator’ for it. This is typically a new iterator but if the argument is an ‘AsyncIterator’, this returns itself. Raises *note TypeError: 534. and returns ‘NULL’ if the object cannot be iterated. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: void *PyObject_GetTypeData (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *cls) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Get a pointer to subclass-specific data reserved for 'cls'. The object 'o' must be an instance of 'cls', and 'cls' must have been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545. Python does not check this. On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyType_GetTypeDataSize (PyTypeObject *cls) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Return the size of the instance memory space reserved for 'cls', i.e. the size of the memory *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 546. returns. This may be larger than requested using *note -PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545.; it is safe to use this larger size (e.g. with ‘memset()’). The type 'cls' 'must' have been created using negative *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545. Python does not check this. On error, set an exception and return a negative value. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: void *PyObject_GetItemData (PyObject *o) Get a pointer to per-item data for a class with *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 548. On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. *note TypeError: 534. is raised if 'o' does not have *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 548. set. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyObject_VisitManagedDict (PyObject *obj, visitproc visit, void *arg) Visit the managed dictionary of 'obj'. This function must only be called in a traverse function of the type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. flag set. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: void PyObject_ClearManagedDict (PyObject *obj) Clear the managed dictionary of 'obj'. This function must only be called in a traverse function of the type which has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. flag set. Added in version 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-3119/  File: python.info, Node: Call Protocol, Next: Number Protocol, Prev: Object Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.2 Call Protocol ------------------- CPython supports two different calling protocols: 'tp_call' and vectorcall. * Menu: * The tp_call Protocol:: * The Vectorcall Protocol:: * Object Calling API:: * Call Support API::  File: python.info, Node: The tp_call Protocol, Next: The Vectorcall Protocol, Up: Call Protocol 7.7.2.1 The 'tp_call' Protocol .............................. Instances of classes that set *note tp_call: 556. are callable. The signature of the slot is: PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs); A call is made using a tuple for the positional arguments and a dict for the keyword arguments, similarly to ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’ in Python code. 'args' must be non-NULL (use an empty tuple if there are no arguments) but 'kwargs' may be 'NULL' if there are no keyword arguments. This convention is not only used by 'tp_call': *note tp_new: 57c. and *note tp_init: 57e. also pass arguments this way. To call an object, use *note PyObject_Call(): 398. or another *note call API: 4ba8.  File: python.info, Node: The Vectorcall Protocol, Next: Object Calling API, Prev: The tp_call Protocol, Up: Call Protocol 7.7.2.2 The Vectorcall Protocol ............................... Added in version 3.9. The vectorcall protocol was introduced in PEP 590(1) as an additional protocol for making calls more efficient. As rule of thumb, CPython will prefer the vectorcall for internal calls if the callable supports it. However, this is not a hard rule. Additionally, some third-party extensions use 'tp_call' directly (rather than using *note PyObject_Call(): 398.). Therefore, a class supporting vectorcall must also implement *note tp_call: 556. Moreover, the callable must behave the same regardless of which protocol is used. The recommended way to achieve this is by setting *note tp_call: 556. to *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 553. This bears repeating: Warning: A class supporting vectorcall 'must' also implement *note tp_call: 556. with the same semantics. Changed in version 3.12: The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. flag is now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 555. method is reassigned. (This internally sets *note tp_call: 556. only, and thus may make it behave differently than the vectorcall function.) In earlier Python versions, vectorcall should only be used with *note immutable: 3be. or static types. A class should not implement vectorcall if that would be slower than 'tp_call'. For example, if the callee needs to convert the arguments to an args tuple and kwargs dict anyway, then there is no point in implementing vectorcall. Classes can implement the vectorcall protocol by enabling the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. flag and setting *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4baa. to the offset inside the object structure where a 'vectorcallfunc' appears. This is a pointer to a function with the following signature: -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*vectorcallfunc)(*note PyObject: 334. *callable, *note PyObject: 334. *const *args, size_t nargsf, *note PyObject: 334. *kwnames) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' - 'callable' is the object being called. - 'args' is a C array consisting of the positional arguments followed by the values of the keyword arguments. This can be 'NULL' if there are no arguments. - 'nargsf' is the number of positional arguments plus possibly the *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 55b. flag. To get the actual number of positional arguments from 'nargsf', use *note PyVectorcall_NARGS(): 552. - 'kwnames' is a tuple containing the names of the keyword arguments; in other words, the keys of the kwargs dict. These names must be strings (instances of ‘str’ or a subclass) and they must be unique. If there are no keyword arguments, then 'kwnames' can instead be 'NULL'. -- C Macro: PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' If this flag is set in a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, the callee is allowed to temporarily change ‘args[-1]’. In other words, 'args' points to argument 1 (not 0) in the allocated vector. The callee must restore the value of ‘args[-1]’ before returning. For *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 55a, this flag means instead that ‘args[0]’ may be changed. Whenever they can do so cheaply (without additional allocation), callers are encouraged to use *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 55b. Doing so will allow callables such as bound methods to make their onward calls (which include a prepended 'self' argument) very efficiently. Added in version 3.8. To call an object that implements vectorcall, use a *note call API: 4ba8. function as with any other callable. *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 559. will usually be most efficient. * Menu: * Recursion Control: Recursion Control<2>. * Vectorcall Support API:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0590/  File: python.info, Node: Recursion Control<2>, Next: Vectorcall Support API, Up: The Vectorcall Protocol 7.7.2.3 Recursion Control ......................... When using 'tp_call', callees do not need to worry about *note recursion: 4b3e.: CPython uses *note Py_EnterRecursiveCall(): 973. and *note Py_LeaveRecursiveCall(): 974. for calls made using 'tp_call'. For efficiency, this is not the case for calls done using vectorcall: the callee should use 'Py_EnterRecursiveCall' and 'Py_LeaveRecursiveCall' if needed.  File: python.info, Node: Vectorcall Support API, Prev: Recursion Control<2>, Up: The Vectorcall Protocol 7.7.2.4 Vectorcall Support API .............................. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyVectorcall_NARGS (size_t nargsf) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Given a vectorcall 'nargsf' argument, return the actual number of arguments. Currently equivalent to: (Py_ssize_t)(nargsf & ~PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET) However, the function ‘PyVectorcall_NARGS’ should be used to allow for future extensions. Added in version 3.8. -- C Function: *note vectorcallfunc: 554. PyVectorcall_Function (PyObject *op) If 'op' does not support the vectorcall protocol (either because the type does not or because the specific instance does not), return 'NULL'. Otherwise, return the vectorcall function pointer stored in 'op'. This function never raises an exception. This is mostly useful to check whether or not 'op' supports vectorcall, which can be done by checking ‘PyVectorcall_Function(op) != NULL’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyVectorcall_Call (PyObject *callable, PyObject *tuple, PyObject *dict) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Call 'callable'’s *note vectorcallfunc: 554. with positional and keyword arguments given in a tuple and dict, respectively. This is a specialized function, intended to be put in the *note tp_call: 556. slot or be used in an implementation of ‘tp_call’. It does not check the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. flag and it does not fall back to ‘tp_call’. Added in version 3.8.  File: python.info, Node: Object Calling API, Next: Call Support API, Prev: The Vectorcall Protocol, Up: Call Protocol 7.7.2.5 Object Calling API .......................... Various functions are available for calling a Python object. Each converts its arguments to a convention supported by the called object – either 'tp_call' or vectorcall. In order to do as little conversion as possible, pick one that best fits the format of data you have available. The following table summarizes the available functions; please see individual documentation for details. Function callable args kwargs ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note PyObject_Call(): 398. ‘PyObject *’ tuple dict/‘NULL’ *note PyObject_CallNoArgs(): 397. ‘PyObject *’ — — *note PyObject_CallOneArg(): 978. ‘PyObject *’ 1 object — *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. ‘PyObject *’ tuple/‘NULL’ — *note PyObject_CallFunction(): 39a. ‘PyObject *’ format — *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b. obj + ‘char*’ format — *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4a5a. ‘PyObject *’ variadic — *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19fc. obj + name variadic — *note PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs(): 4baf. obj + name — — *note PyObject_CallMethodOneArg(): 4bb0. obj + name 1 object — *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 559. ‘PyObject *’ vectorcall vectorcall *note PyObject_VectorcallDict(): 4bb1. ‘PyObject *’ vectorcall dict/‘NULL’ *note PyObject_VectorcallMethod(): 55a. arg + name vectorcall vectorcall -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Call (PyObject *callable, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call a callable Python object 'callable', with arguments given by the tuple 'args', and named arguments given by the dictionary 'kwargs'. 'args' must not be 'NULL'; use an empty tuple if no arguments are needed. If no named arguments are needed, 'kwargs' can be 'NULL'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args, **kwargs)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallNoArgs (PyObject *callable) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Call a callable Python object 'callable' without any arguments. It is the most efficient way to call a callable Python object without any argument. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallOneArg (PyObject *callable, PyObject *arg) 'Return value: New reference.' Call a callable Python object 'callable' with exactly 1 positional argument 'arg' and no keyword arguments. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallObject (PyObject *callable, PyObject *args) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call a callable Python object 'callable', with arguments given by the tuple 'args'. If no arguments are needed, then 'args' can be 'NULL'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallFunction (PyObject *callable, const char *format, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a variable number of C arguments. The C arguments are described using a *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. style format string. The format can be 'NULL', indicating that no arguments are provided. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(*args)’. Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 334.* args, *note PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs(): 4a5a. is a faster alternative. Changed in version 3.4: The type of 'format' was changed from ‘char *’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallMethod (PyObject *obj, const char *name, const char *format, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call the method named 'name' of object 'obj' with a variable number of C arguments. The C arguments are described by a *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6. format string that should produce a tuple. The format can be 'NULL', indicating that no arguments are provided. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘obj.name(arg1, arg2, ...)’. Note that if you only pass *note PyObject: 334.* args, *note PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs(): 19fc. is a faster alternative. Changed in version 3.4: The types of 'name' and 'format' were changed from ‘char *’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (PyObject *callable, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call a callable Python object 'callable', with a variable number of *note PyObject: 334.* arguments. The arguments are provided as a variable number of parameters followed by 'NULL'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression: ‘callable(arg1, arg2, ...)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Call a method of the Python object 'obj', where the name of the method is given as a Python string object in 'name'. It is called with a variable number of *note PyObject: 334.* arguments. The arguments are provided as a variable number of parameters followed by 'NULL'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name) Call a method of the Python object 'obj' without arguments, where the name of the method is given as a Python string object in 'name'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (PyObject *obj, PyObject *name, PyObject *arg) Call a method of the Python object 'obj' with a single positional argument 'arg', where the name of the method is given as a Python string object in 'name'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Vectorcall (PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Call a callable Python object 'callable'. The arguments are the same as for *note vectorcallfunc: 554. If 'callable' supports *note vectorcall: 54f, this directly calls the vectorcall function stored in 'callable'. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_VectorcallDict (PyObject *callable, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwdict) Call 'callable' with positional arguments passed exactly as in the *note vectorcall: 54f. protocol, but with keyword arguments passed as a dictionary 'kwdict'. The 'args' array contains only the positional arguments. Regardless of which protocol is used internally, a conversion of arguments needs to be done. Therefore, this function should only be used if the caller already has a dictionary ready to use for the keyword arguments, but not a tuple for the positional arguments. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_VectorcallMethod (PyObject *name, PyObject *const *args, size_t nargsf, PyObject *kwnames) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Call a method using the vectorcall calling convention. The name of the method is given as a Python string 'name'. The object whose method is called is 'args[0]', and the 'args' array starting at 'args[1]' represents the arguments of the call. There must be at least one positional argument. 'nargsf' is the number of positional arguments including 'args[0]', plus *note PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET: 55b. if the value of ‘args[0]’ may temporarily be changed. Keyword arguments can be passed just like in *note PyObject_Vectorcall(): 559. If the object has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR: 4bb2. feature, this will call the unbound method object with the full 'args' vector as arguments. Return the result of the call on success, or raise an exception and return 'NULL' on failure. Added in version 3.9.  File: python.info, Node: Call Support API, Prev: Object Calling API, Up: Call Protocol 7.7.2.6 Call Support API ........................ -- C Function: int PyCallable_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Determine if the object 'o' is callable. Return ‘1’ if the object is callable and ‘0’ otherwise. This function always succeeds.  File: python.info, Node: Number Protocol, Next: Sequence Protocol, Prev: Call Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.3 Number Protocol --------------------- -- C Function: int PyNumber_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns ‘1’ if the object 'o' provides numeric protocols, and false otherwise. This function always succeeds. Changed in version 3.8: Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Add (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 + o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Subtract (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 - o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Multiply (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 * o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Returns the result of matrix multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 @ o2’. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_FloorDivide (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the floor of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 // o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_TrueDivide (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The return value is “approximate” because binary floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in base two. This function can return a floating-point value when passed two integers. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 / o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Remainder (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 % o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Divmod (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See the built-in function *note divmod(): 9a1. Returns ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘divmod(o1, o2)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Power (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See the built-in function *note pow(): 9d2. Returns ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’, where 'o3' is optional. If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass *note Py_None: 48b9. in its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would cause an illegal memory access). -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Negative (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘-o’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Positive (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘+o’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Absolute (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the absolute value of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘abs(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Invert (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the bitwise negation of 'o' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘~o’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Lshift (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 << o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Rshift (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 >> o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_And (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the “bitwise and” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 & o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Xor (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the “bitwise exclusive or” of 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 ^ o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Or (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the “bitwise or” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 | o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of adding 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 += o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of subtracting 'o2' from 'o1', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 -= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of multiplying 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 *= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Returns the result of matrix multiplication on 'o1' and 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 @= o2’. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the mathematical floor of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 //= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a reasonable approximation for the mathematical value of 'o1' divided by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The return value is “approximate” because binary floating-point numbers are approximate; it is not possible to represent all real numbers in base two. This function can return a floating-point value when passed two integers. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 /= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the remainder of dividing 'o1' by 'o2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 %= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlacePower (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2, PyObject *o3) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See the built-in function *note pow(): 9d2. Returns ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 **= o2’ when o3 is *note Py_None: 48b9, or an in-place variant of ‘pow(o1, o2, o3)’ otherwise. If 'o3' is to be ignored, pass *note Py_None: 48b9. in its place (passing ‘NULL’ for 'o3' would cause an illegal memory access). -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of left shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 <<= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the result of right shifting 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 >>= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the “bitwise and” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success and ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 &= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceXor (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the “bitwise exclusive or” of 'o1' by 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 ^= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_InPlaceOr (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the “bitwise or” of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o1 |= o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Long (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the 'o' converted to an integer object on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘int(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Float (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the 'o' converted to a float object on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘float(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_Index (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the 'o' converted to a Python int on success or ‘NULL’ with a *note TypeError: 534. exception raised on failure. Changed in version 3.10: The result always has exact type *note int: 259. Previously, the result could have been an instance of a subclass of ‘int’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyNumber_ToBase (PyObject *n, int base) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the integer 'n' converted to base 'base' as a string. The 'base' argument must be one of 2, 8, 10, or 16. For base 2, 8, or 16, the returned string is prefixed with a base marker of ‘'0b'’, ‘'0o'’, or ‘'0x'’, respectively. If 'n' is not a Python int, it is converted with *note PyNumber_Index(): 891. first. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyNumber_AsSsize_t (PyObject *o, PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns 'o' converted to a *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. value if 'o' can be interpreted as an integer. If the call fails, an exception is raised and ‘-1’ is returned. If 'o' can be converted to a Python int but the attempt to convert to a *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. value would raise an *note OverflowError: 87f, then the 'exc' argument is the type of exception that will be raised (usually *note IndexError: 14ff. or *note OverflowError: 87f.). If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, then the exception is cleared and the value is clipped to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ for a negative integer or ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ for a positive integer. -- C Function: int PyIndex_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.8.' Returns ‘1’ if 'o' is an index integer (has the ‘nb_index’ slot of the ‘tp_as_number’ structure filled in), and ‘0’ otherwise. This function always succeeds.  File: python.info, Node: Sequence Protocol, Next: Mapping Protocol, Prev: Number Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.4 Sequence Protocol ----------------------- -- C Function: int PySequence_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if the object provides the sequence protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise. Note that it returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a *note __getitem__(): 285. method, unless they are *note dict: 258. subclasses, since in general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class supports. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySequence_Size (PyObject *o) -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySequence_Length (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the number of objects in sequence 'o' on success, and ‘-1’ on failure. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_Concat (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 + o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_Repeat (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count' times, or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o * count’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_InPlaceConcat (PyObject *o1, PyObject *o2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the concatenation of 'o1' and 'o2' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o1' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o1 += o2’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t count) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the result of repeating sequence object 'o' 'count' times, or ‘NULL’ on failure. The operation is done 'in-place' when 'o' supports it. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o *= count’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_GetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the 'i'th element of 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[i]’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_GetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the slice of sequence object 'o' between 'i1' and 'i2', or ‘NULL’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘o[i1:i2]’. -- C Function: int PySequence_SetItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Assign object 'v' to the 'i'th element of 'o'. Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ on failure; return ‘0’ on success. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[i] = v’. This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'v'. If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the element is deleted, but this feature is deprecated in favour of using *note PySequence_DelItem(): 1a54. -- C Function: int PySequence_DelItem (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Delete the 'i'th element of object 'o'. Returns ‘-1’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o[i]’. -- C Function: int PySequence_SetSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Assign the sequence object 'v' to the slice in sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘o[i1:i2] = v’. -- C Function: int PySequence_DelSlice (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i1, Py_ssize_t i2) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Delete the slice in sequence object 'o' from 'i1' to 'i2'. Returns ‘-1’ on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python statement ‘del o[i1:i2]’. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySequence_Count (PyObject *o, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the number of occurrences of 'value' in 'o', that is, return the number of keys for which ‘o[key] == value’. On failure, return ‘-1’. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.count(value)’. -- C Function: int PySequence_Contains (PyObject *o, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Determine if 'o' contains 'value'. If an item in 'o' is equal to 'value', return ‘1’, otherwise return ‘0’. On error, return ‘-1’. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘value in o’. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySequence_Index (PyObject *o, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the first index 'i' for which ‘o[i] == value’. On error, return ‘-1’. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘o.index(value)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_List (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a list object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The returned list is guaranteed to be new. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘list(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_Tuple (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a tuple object with the same contents as the sequence or iterable 'o', or ‘NULL’ on failure. If 'o' is a tuple, a new reference will be returned, otherwise a tuple will be constructed with the appropriate contents. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘tuple(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_Fast (PyObject *o, const char *m) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the sequence or iterable 'o' as an object usable by the other ‘PySequence_Fast*’ family of functions. If the object is not a sequence or iterable, raises *note TypeError: 534. with 'm' as the message text. Returns ‘NULL’ on failure. The ‘PySequence_Fast*’ functions are thus named because they assume 'o' is a *note PyTupleObject: 4b52. or a *note PyListObject: 4bba. and access the data fields of 'o' directly. As a CPython implementation detail, if 'o' is already a sequence or list, it will be returned. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o) Returns the length of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 4a73. and that 'o' is not ‘NULL’. The size can also be retrieved by calling *note PySequence_Size(): 1a51. on 'o', but *note PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE(): 4bbb. is faster because it can assume 'o' is a list or tuple. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the 'i'th element of 'o', assuming that 'o' was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 4a73, 'o' is not ‘NULL’, and that 'i' is within bounds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. **PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (PyObject *o) Return the underlying array of PyObject pointers. Assumes that 'o' was returned by *note PySequence_Fast(): 4a73. and 'o' is not ‘NULL’. Note, if a list gets resized, the reallocation may relocate the items array. So, only use the underlying array pointer in contexts where the sequence cannot change. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySequence_ITEM (PyObject *o, Py_ssize_t i) 'Return value: New reference.' Return the 'i'th element of 'o' or ‘NULL’ on failure. Faster form of *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52. but without checking that *note PySequence_Check(): 4a6e. on 'o' is true and without adjustment for negative indices.  File: python.info, Node: Mapping Protocol, Next: Iterator Protocol, Prev: Sequence Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.5 Mapping Protocol ---------------------- See also *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342, *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947. and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b. -- C Function: int PyMapping_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if the object provides the mapping protocol or supports slicing, and ‘0’ otherwise. Note that it returns ‘1’ for Python classes with a *note __getitem__(): 285. method, since in general it is impossible to determine what type of keys the class supports. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyMapping_Size (PyObject *o) -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyMapping_Length (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the number of keys in object 'o' on success, and ‘-1’ on failure. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘len(o)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMapping_GetItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (PyObject *obj, PyObject *key, PyObject **result) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Variant of *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. which doesn’t raise *note KeyError: 33f. if the key is not found. If the key is found, return ‘1’ and set '*result' to a new *note strong reference: 338. to the corresponding value. If the key is not found, return ‘0’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’; the *note KeyError: 33f. is silenced. If an error other than *note KeyError: 33f. is raised, return ‘-1’ and set '*result' to ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (PyObject *obj, const char *key, PyObject **result) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' This is the same as *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 340, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyMapping_SetItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key, PyObject *v) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: int PyMapping_DelItem (PyObject *o, PyObject *key) This is an alias of *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b. -- C Function: int PyMapping_DelItemString (PyObject *o, const char *key) This is the same as *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: int PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (PyObject *o, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return ‘1’ if the mapping object has the key 'key' and ‘0’ otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘key in o’. On failure, return ‘-1’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (PyObject *o, const char *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' This is the same as *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 379, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyMapping_HasKey (PyObject *o, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if the mapping object has the key 'key' and ‘0’ otherwise. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘key in o’. This function always succeeds. Note: Exceptions which occur when this calls *note __getitem__(): 285. method are silently ignored. For proper error handling, use *note PyMapping_HasKeyWithError(): 379, *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItem(): 340. or *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. instead. -- C Function: int PyMapping_HasKeyString (PyObject *o, const char *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyMapping_HasKey(): 37a, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Note: Exceptions that occur when this calls *note __getitem__(): 285. method or while creating the temporary *note str: 447. object are silently ignored. For proper error handling, use *note PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError(): 37b, *note PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString(): 341. or *note PyMapping_GetItemString(): 343. instead. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMapping_Keys (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' On success, return a list of the keys in object 'o'. On failure, return ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.7: Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMapping_Values (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' On success, return a list of the values in object 'o'. On failure, return ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.7: Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMapping_Items (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' On success, return a list of the items in object 'o', where each item is a tuple containing a key-value pair. On failure, return ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.7: Previously, the function returned a list or a tuple.  File: python.info, Node: Iterator Protocol, Next: Buffer Protocol, Prev: Mapping Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.6 Iterator Protocol ----------------------- There are two functions specifically for working with iterators. -- C Function: int PyIter_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.8.' Return non-zero if the object 'o' can be safely passed to *note PyIter_Next(): 4a13, and ‘0’ otherwise. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyAIter_Check (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Return non-zero if the object 'o' provides the ‘AsyncIterator’ protocol, and ‘0’ otherwise. This function always succeeds. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyIter_Next (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the next value from the iterator 'o'. The object must be an iterator according to *note PyIter_Check(): 18f4. (it is up to the caller to check this). If there are no remaining values, returns ‘NULL’ with no exception set. If an error occurs while retrieving the item, returns ‘NULL’ and passes along the exception. To write a loop which iterates over an iterator, the C code should look something like this: PyObject *iterator = PyObject_GetIter(obj); PyObject *item; if (iterator == NULL) { /* propagate error */ } while ((item = PyIter_Next(iterator))) { /* do something with item */ ... /* release reference when done */ Py_DECREF(item); } Py_DECREF(iterator); if (PyErr_Occurred()) { /* propagate error */ } else { /* continue doing useful work */ } -- C Type: type PySendResult The enum value used to represent different results of *note PyIter_Send(): 896. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: *note PySendResult: 4bc7. PyIter_Send (PyObject *iter, PyObject *arg, PyObject **presult) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Sends the 'arg' value into the iterator 'iter'. Returns: - ‘PYGEN_RETURN’ if iterator returns. Return value is returned via 'presult'. - ‘PYGEN_NEXT’ if iterator yields. Yielded value is returned via 'presult'. - ‘PYGEN_ERROR’ if iterator has raised and exception. 'presult' is set to ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.10.  File: python.info, Node: Buffer Protocol, Prev: Iterator Protocol, Up: Abstract Objects Layer 7.7.7 Buffer Protocol --------------------- Certain objects available in Python wrap access to an underlying memory array or 'buffer'. Such objects include the built-in *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a, and some extension types like *note array.array: 1a0. Third-party libraries may define their own types for special purposes, such as image processing or numeric analysis. While each of these types have their own semantics, they share the common characteristic of being backed by a possibly large memory buffer. It is then desirable, in some situations, to access that buffer directly and without intermediate copying. Python provides such a facility at the C and Python level in the form of the *note buffer protocol: 393. This protocol has two sides: - on the producer side, a type can export a “buffer interface” which allows objects of that type to expose information about their underlying buffer. This interface is described in the section *note Buffer Object Structures: 4bca.; for Python see *note Emulating buffer types: 1fc3. - on the consumer side, several means are available to obtain a pointer to the raw underlying data of an object (for example a method parameter). For Python see *note memoryview: 464. Simple objects such as *note bytes: 1c2. and *note bytearray: 53a. expose their underlying buffer in byte-oriented form. Other forms are possible; for example, the elements exposed by an *note array.array: 1a0. can be multi-byte values. An example consumer of the buffer interface is the *note write(): cdb. method of file objects: any object that can export a series of bytes through the buffer interface can be written to a file. While ‘write()’ only needs read-only access to the internal contents of the object passed to it, other methods such as *note readinto(): 2c27. need write access to the contents of their argument. The buffer interface allows objects to selectively allow or reject exporting of read-write and read-only buffers. There are two ways for a consumer of the buffer interface to acquire a buffer over a target object: * call *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. with the right parameters; * call *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. (or one of its siblings) with one of the ‘y*’, ‘w*’ or ‘s*’ *note format codes: 8a7. In both cases, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. must be called when the buffer isn’t needed anymore. Failure to do so could lead to various issues such as resource leaks. Added in version 3.12: The buffer protocol is now accessible in Python, see *note Emulating buffer types: 1fc3. and *note memoryview: 464. * Menu: * Buffer structure:: * Buffer request types:: * Complex arrays:: * Buffer-related functions::  File: python.info, Node: Buffer structure, Next: Buffer request types, Up: Buffer Protocol 7.7.7.1 Buffer structure ........................ Buffer structures (or simply “buffers”) are useful as a way to expose the binary data from another object to the Python programmer. They can also be used as a zero-copy slicing mechanism. Using their ability to reference a block of memory, it is possible to expose any data to the Python programmer quite easily. The memory could be a large, constant array in a C extension, it could be a raw block of memory for manipulation before passing to an operating system library, or it could be used to pass around structured data in its native, in-memory format. Contrary to most data types exposed by the Python interpreter, buffers are not *note PyObject: 334. pointers but rather simple C structures. This allows them to be created and copied very simply. When a generic wrapper around a buffer is needed, a *note memoryview: 4bcd. object can be created. For short instructions how to write an exporting object, see *note Buffer Object Structures: 4bca. For obtaining a buffer, see *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. -- C Type: type Py_buffer ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members) since version 3.11.' -- C Member: void *buf A pointer to the start of the logical structure described by the buffer fields. This can be any location within the underlying physical memory block of the exporter. For example, with negative *note strides: 4bcf. the value may point to the end of the memory block. For *note contiguous: 2227. arrays, the value points to the beginning of the memory block. -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. *obj A new reference to the exporting object. The reference is owned by the consumer and automatically released (i.e. reference count decremented) and set to ‘NULL’ by *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. The field is the equivalent of the return value of any standard C-API function. As a special case, for 'temporary' buffers that are wrapped by *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75c. or *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 75b. this field is ‘NULL’. In general, exporting objects MUST NOT use this scheme. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. len ‘product(shape) * itemsize’. For contiguous arrays, this is the length of the underlying memory block. For non-contiguous arrays, it is the length that the logical structure would have if it were copied to a contiguous representation. Accessing ‘((char *)buf)[0] up to ((char *)buf)[len-1]’ is only valid if the buffer has been obtained by a request that guarantees contiguity. In most cases such a request will be *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd2. or *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. -- C Member: int readonly An indicator of whether the buffer is read-only. This field is controlled by the *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. flag. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. itemsize Item size in bytes of a single element. Same as the value of *note struct.calcsize(): 19c3. called on non-‘NULL’ *note format: 4bd5. values. Important exception: If a consumer requests a buffer without the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4bd6. flag, *note format: 4bd5. will be set to ‘NULL’, but *note itemsize: 4bd4. still has the value for the original format. If *note shape: 4bd7. is present, the equality ‘product(shape) * itemsize == len’ still holds and the consumer can use *note itemsize: 4bd4. to navigate the buffer. If *note shape: 4bd7. is ‘NULL’ as a result of a *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd2. or a *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. request, the consumer must disregard *note itemsize: 4bd4. and assume ‘itemsize == 1’. -- C Member: char *format A 'NULL' terminated string in *note struct: d5. module style syntax describing the contents of a single item. If this is ‘NULL’, ‘"B"’ (unsigned bytes) is assumed. This field is controlled by the *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4bd6. flag. -- C Member: int ndim The number of dimensions the memory represents as an n-dimensional array. If it is ‘0’, *note buf: 4bce. points to a single item representing a scalar. In this case, *note shape: 4bd7, *note strides: 4bcf. and *note suboffsets: 4bd9. MUST be ‘NULL’. The maximum number of dimensions is given by *note PyBUF_MAX_NDIM: 4bda. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *shape An array of *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. of length *note ndim: 4bd8. indicating the shape of the memory as an n-dimensional array. Note that ‘shape[0] * ... * shape[ndim-1] * itemsize’ MUST be equal to *note len: 4bd1. Shape values are restricted to ‘shape[n] >= 0’. The case ‘shape[n] == 0’ requires special attention. See *note complex arrays: 4bdb. for further information. The shape array is read-only for the consumer. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *strides An array of *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. of length *note ndim: 4bd8. giving the number of bytes to skip to get to a new element in each dimension. Stride values can be any integer. For regular arrays, strides are usually positive, but a consumer MUST be able to handle the case ‘strides[n] <= 0’. See *note complex arrays: 4bdb. for further information. The strides array is read-only for the consumer. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *suboffsets An array of *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. of length *note ndim: 4bd8. If ‘suboffsets[n] >= 0’, the values stored along the nth dimension are pointers and the suboffset value dictates how many bytes to add to each pointer after de-referencing. A suboffset value that is negative indicates that no de-referencing should occur (striding in a contiguous memory block). If all suboffsets are negative (i.e. no de-referencing is needed), then this field must be ‘NULL’ (the default value). This type of array representation is used by the Python Imaging Library (PIL). See *note complex arrays: 4bdb. for further information how to access elements of such an array. The suboffsets array is read-only for the consumer. -- C Member: void *internal This is for use internally by the exporting object. For example, this might be re-cast as an integer by the exporter and used to store flags about whether or not the shape, strides, and suboffsets arrays must be freed when the buffer is released. The consumer MUST NOT alter this value. Constants: -- C Macro: PyBUF_MAX_NDIM The maximum number of dimensions the memory represents. Exporters MUST respect this limit, consumers of multi-dimensional buffers SHOULD be able to handle up to ‘PyBUF_MAX_NDIM’ dimensions. Currently set to 64.  File: python.info, Node: Buffer request types, Next: Complex arrays, Prev: Buffer structure, Up: Buffer Protocol 7.7.7.2 Buffer request types ............................ Buffers are usually obtained by sending a buffer request to an exporting object via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. Since the complexity of the logical structure of the memory can vary drastically, the consumer uses the 'flags' argument to specify the exact buffer type it can handle. All *note Py_buffer: 753. fields are unambiguously defined by the request type. * Menu: * request-independent fields:: * readonly, format: readonly format. * shape, strides, suboffsets: shape strides suboffsets. * contiguity requests:: * compound requests::  File: python.info, Node: request-independent fields, Next: readonly format, Up: Buffer request types 7.7.7.3 request-independent fields .................................. The following fields are not influenced by 'flags' and must always be filled in with the correct values: *note obj: 4bd0, *note buf: 4bce, *note len: 4bd1, *note itemsize: 4bd4, *note ndim: 4bd8.  File: python.info, Node: readonly format, Next: shape strides suboffsets, Prev: request-independent fields, Up: Buffer request types 7.7.7.4 readonly, format ........................ -- C Macro: PyBUF_WRITABLE Controls the *note readonly: 4bd3. field. If set, the exporter MUST provide a writable buffer or else report failure. Otherwise, the exporter MAY provide either a read-only or writable buffer, but the choice MUST be consistent for all consumers. For example, *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd2. | *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. can be used to request a simple writable buffer. -- C Macro: PyBUF_FORMAT Controls the *note format: 4bd5. field. If set, this field MUST be filled in correctly. Otherwise, this field MUST be ‘NULL’. *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. can be |’d to any of the flags in the next section. Since *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd2. is defined as 0, *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. can be used as a stand-alone flag to request a simple writable buffer. *note PyBUF_FORMAT: 4bd6. must be |’d to any of the flags except *note PyBUF_SIMPLE: 4bd2, because the latter already implies format ‘B’ (unsigned bytes). ‘PyBUF_FORMAT’ cannot be used on its own.  File: python.info, Node: shape strides suboffsets, Next: contiguity requests, Prev: readonly format, Up: Buffer request types 7.7.7.5 shape, strides, suboffsets .................................. The flags that control the logical structure of the memory are listed in decreasing order of complexity. Note that each flag contains all bits of the flags below it. Request shape strides suboffsets ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Macro: PyBUF_INDIRECT yes yes if needed -- C Macro: PyBUF_STRIDES yes yes NULL -- C Macro: PyBUF_ND yes NULL NULL -- C Macro: PyBUF_SIMPLE NULL NULL NULL  File: python.info, Node: contiguity requests, Next: compound requests, Prev: shape strides suboffsets, Up: Buffer request types 7.7.7.6 contiguity requests ........................... C or Fortran *note contiguity: 2227. can be explicitly requested, with and without stride information. Without stride information, the buffer must be C-contiguous. Request shape strides suboffsets contig ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- C Macro: PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS yes yes NULL C -- C Macro: PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS yes yes NULL F -- C Macro: PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS yes yes NULL C or F *note PyBUF_ND: 4be3. yes NULL NULL C  File: python.info, Node: compound requests, Prev: contiguity requests, Up: Buffer request types 7.7.7.7 compound requests ......................... All possible requests are fully defined by some combination of the flags in the previous section. For convenience, the buffer protocol provides frequently used combinations as single flags. In the following table 'U' stands for undefined contiguity. The consumer would have to call *note PyBuffer_IsContiguous(): 759. to determine contiguity. Request shape strides suboffsets contig readonly format ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ -- C Macro: PyBUF_FULL yes yes if needed U 0 yes -- C Macro: PyBUF_FULL_RO yes yes if needed U 1 or 0 yes -- C Macro: PyBUF_RECORDS yes yes NULL U 0 yes -- C Macro: PyBUF_RECORDS_RO yes yes NULL U 1 or 0 yes -- C Macro: PyBUF_STRIDED yes yes NULL U 0 NULL -- C Macro: PyBUF_STRIDED_RO yes yes NULL U 1 or 0 NULL -- C Macro: PyBUF_CONTIG yes NULL NULL C 0 NULL -- C Macro: PyBUF_CONTIG_RO yes NULL NULL C 1 or 0 NULL  File: python.info, Node: Complex arrays, Next: Buffer-related functions, Prev: Buffer request types, Up: Buffer Protocol 7.7.7.8 Complex arrays ...................... * Menu: * NumPy-style; shape and strides: NumPy-style shape and strides. * PIL-style; shape, strides and suboffsets: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets.  File: python.info, Node: NumPy-style shape and strides, Next: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets, Up: Complex arrays 7.7.7.9 NumPy-style: shape and strides ...................................... The logical structure of NumPy-style arrays is defined by *note itemsize: 4bd4, *note ndim: 4bd8, *note shape: 4bd7. and *note strides: 4bcf. If ‘ndim == 0’, the memory location pointed to by *note buf: 4bce. is interpreted as a scalar of size *note itemsize: 4bd4. In that case, both *note shape: 4bd7. and *note strides: 4bcf. are ‘NULL’. If *note strides: 4bcf. is ‘NULL’, the array is interpreted as a standard n-dimensional C-array. Otherwise, the consumer must access an n-dimensional array as follows: ptr = (char *)buf + indices[0] * strides[0] + ... + indices[n-1] * strides[n-1]; item = *((typeof(item) *)ptr); As noted above, *note buf: 4bce. can point to any location within the actual memory block. An exporter can check the validity of a buffer with this function: def verify_structure(memlen, itemsize, ndim, shape, strides, offset): """Verify that the parameters represent a valid array within the bounds of the allocated memory: char *mem: start of the physical memory block memlen: length of the physical memory block offset: (char *)buf - mem """ if offset % itemsize: return False if offset < 0 or offset+itemsize > memlen: return False if any(v % itemsize for v in strides): return False if ndim <= 0: return ndim == 0 and not shape and not strides if 0 in shape: return True imin = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim) if strides[j] <= 0) imax = sum(strides[j]*(shape[j]-1) for j in range(ndim) if strides[j] > 0) return 0 <= offset+imin and offset+imax+itemsize <= memlen  File: python.info, Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets, Prev: NumPy-style shape and strides, Up: Complex arrays 7.7.7.10 PIL-style: shape, strides and suboffsets ................................................. In addition to the regular items, PIL-style arrays can contain pointers that must be followed in order to get to the next element in a dimension. For example, the regular three-dimensional C-array ‘char v[2][2][3]’ can also be viewed as an array of 2 pointers to 2 two-dimensional arrays: ‘char (*v[2])[2][3]’. In suboffsets representation, those two pointers can be embedded at the start of *note buf: 4bce, pointing to two ‘char x[2][3]’ arrays that can be located anywhere in memory. Here is a function that returns a pointer to the element in an N-D array pointed to by an N-dimensional index when there are both non-‘NULL’ strides and suboffsets: void *get_item_pointer(int ndim, void *buf, Py_ssize_t *strides, Py_ssize_t *suboffsets, Py_ssize_t *indices) { char *pointer = (char*)buf; int i; for (i = 0; i < ndim; i++) { pointer += strides[i] * indices[i]; if (suboffsets[i] >=0 ) { pointer = *((char**)pointer) + suboffsets[i]; } } return (void*)pointer; }  File: python.info, Node: Buffer-related functions, Prev: Complex arrays, Up: Buffer Protocol 7.7.7.11 Buffer-related functions ................................. -- C Function: int PyObject_CheckBuffer (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Return ‘1’ if 'obj' supports the buffer interface otherwise ‘0’. When ‘1’ is returned, it doesn’t guarantee that *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. will succeed. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyObject_GetBuffer (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Send a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by 'flags'. If the exporter cannot provide a buffer of the exact type, it MUST raise *note BufferError: 1824, set ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’. On success, fill in 'view', set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to 'exporter' and return 0. In the case of chained buffer providers that redirect requests to a single object, ‘view->obj’ MAY refer to this object instead of 'exporter' (See *note Buffer Object Structures: 4bca.). Successful calls to *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. must be paired with calls to *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396, similar to ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’. Thus, after the consumer is done with the buffer, *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. must be called exactly once. -- C Function: void PyBuffer_Release (Py_buffer *view) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Release the buffer 'view' and release the *note strong reference: 338. (i.e. decrement the reference count) to the view’s supporting object, ‘view->obj’. This function MUST be called when the buffer is no longer being used, otherwise reference leaks may occur. It is an error to call this function on a buffer that was not obtained via *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (const char *format) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Return the implied *note itemsize: 4bd4. from *note format: 4bd5. On error, raise an exception and return -1. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: int PyBuffer_IsContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, char order) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Return ‘1’ if the memory defined by the 'view' is C-style ('order' is ‘'C'’) or Fortran-style ('order' is ‘'F'’) *note contiguous: 2227. or either one ('order' is ‘'A'’). Return ‘0’ otherwise. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: void *PyBuffer_GetPointer (const Py_buffer *view, const Py_ssize_t *indices) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Get the memory area pointed to by the 'indices' inside the given 'view'. 'indices' must point to an array of ‘view->ndim’ indices. -- C Function: int PyBuffer_FromContiguous (const Py_buffer *view, const void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, char fort) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Copy contiguous 'len' bytes from 'buf' to 'view'. 'fort' can be ‘'C'’ or ‘'F'’ (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering). ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error. -- C Function: int PyBuffer_ToContiguous (void *buf, const Py_buffer *src, Py_ssize_t len, char order) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Copy 'len' bytes from 'src' to its contiguous representation in 'buf'. 'order' can be ‘'C'’ or ‘'F'’ or ‘'A'’ (for C-style or Fortran-style ordering or either one). ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error. This function fails if 'len' != 'src->len'. -- C Function: int PyObject_CopyData (PyObject *dest, PyObject *src) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Copy data from 'src' to 'dest' buffer. Can convert between C-style and or Fortran-style buffers. ‘0’ is returned on success, ‘-1’ on error. -- C Function: void PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (int ndims, Py_ssize_t *shape, Py_ssize_t *strides, int itemsize, char order) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Fill the 'strides' array with byte-strides of a *note contiguous: 2227. (C-style if 'order' is ‘'C'’ or Fortran-style if 'order' is ‘'F'’) array of the given shape with the given number of bytes per element. -- C Function: int PyBuffer_FillInfo (Py_buffer *view, PyObject *exporter, void *buf, Py_ssize_t len, int readonly, int flags) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Handle buffer requests for an exporter that wants to expose 'buf' of size 'len' with writability set according to 'readonly'. 'buf' is interpreted as a sequence of unsigned bytes. The 'flags' argument indicates the request type. This function always fills in 'view' as specified by flags, unless 'buf' has been designated as read-only and *note PyBUF_WRITABLE: 1386. is set in 'flags'. On success, set ‘view->obj’ to a new reference to 'exporter' and return 0. Otherwise, raise *note BufferError: 1824, set ‘view->obj’ to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’; If this function is used as part of a *note getbufferproc: 4bca, 'exporter' MUST be set to the exporting object and 'flags' must be passed unmodified. Otherwise, 'exporter' MUST be ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: Concrete Objects Layer, Next: Initialization Finalization and Threads, Prev: Abstract Objects Layer, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.8 Concrete Objects Layer ========================== The functions in this chapter are specific to certain Python object types. Passing them an object of the wrong type is not a good idea; if you receive an object from a Python program and you are not sure that it has the right type, you must perform a type check first; for example, to check that an object is a dictionary, use *note PyDict_Check(): 4bf5. The chapter is structured like the “family tree” of Python object types. Warning: While the functions described in this chapter carefully check the type of the objects which are passed in, many of them do not check for ‘NULL’ being passed instead of a valid object. Allowing ‘NULL’ to be passed in can cause memory access violations and immediate termination of the interpreter. * Menu: * Fundamental Objects:: * Numeric Objects:: * Sequence Objects:: * Container Objects:: * Function Objects: Function Objects<2>. * Other Objects::  File: python.info, Node: Fundamental Objects, Next: Numeric Objects, Up: Concrete Objects Layer 7.8.1 Fundamental Objects ------------------------- This section describes Python type objects and the singleton object ‘None’. * Menu: * Type Objects: Type Objects<2>. * The None Object::  File: python.info, Node: Type Objects<2>, Next: The None Object, Up: Fundamental Objects 7.8.1.1 Type Objects .................... -- C Type: type PyTypeObject ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (as an opaque struct).' The C structure of the objects used to describe built-in types. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyType_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the type object for type objects; it is the same object as *note type: d48. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyType_Check (PyObject *o) Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, including instances of types derived from the standard type object. Return 0 in all other cases. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyType_CheckExact (PyObject *o) Return non-zero if the object 'o' is a type object, but not a subtype of the standard type object. Return 0 in all other cases. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: unsigned int PyType_ClearCache () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Clear the internal lookup cache. Return the current version tag. -- C Function: unsigned long PyType_GetFlags (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the *note tp_flags: 18bd. member of 'type'. This function is primarily meant for use with ‘Py_LIMITED_API’; the individual flag bits are guaranteed to be stable across Python releases, but access to *note tp_flags: 18bd. itself is not part of the *note limited API: 391. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.4: The return type is now ‘unsigned long’ rather than ‘long’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetDict (PyTypeObject *type) Return the type object’s internal namespace, which is otherwise only exposed via a read-only proxy (*note cls.__dict__: c5d.). This is a replacement for accessing *note tp_dict: 171e. directly. The returned dictionary must be treated as read-only. This function is meant for specific embedding and language-binding cases, where direct access to the dict is necessary and indirect access (e.g. via the proxy or *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346.) isn’t adequate. Extension modules should continue to use ‘tp_dict’, directly or indirectly, when setting up their own types. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: void PyType_Modified (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Invalidate the internal lookup cache for the type and all of its subtypes. This function must be called after any manual modification of the attributes or base classes of the type. -- C Function: int PyType_AddWatcher (PyType_WatchCallback callback) Register 'callback' as a type watcher. Return a non-negative integer ID which must be passed to future calls to *note PyType_Watch(): 562. In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception. In free-threaded builds, *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 561. is not thread-safe, so it must be called at start up (before spawning the first thread). Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyType_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id) Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' (previously returned from *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 561.). Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error (e.g. if 'watcher_id' was never registered.) An extension should never call ‘PyType_ClearWatcher’ with a 'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 561. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyType_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *type) Mark 'type' as watched. The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 561. will be called whenever *note PyType_Modified(): 17f1. reports a change to 'type'. (The callback may be called only once for a series of consecutive modifications to 'type', if ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ is not called on 'type' between the modifications; this is an implementation detail and subject to change.) An extension should never call ‘PyType_Watch’ with a 'watcher_id' that was not returned to it by a previous call to *note PyType_AddWatcher(): 561. Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: typedef int (*PyType_WatchCallback)(*note PyObject: 334. *type) Type of a type-watcher callback function. The callback must not modify 'type' or cause *note PyType_Modified(): 17f1. to be called on 'type' or any type in its MRO; violating this rule could cause infinite recursion. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyType_HasFeature (PyTypeObject *o, int feature) Return non-zero if the type object 'o' sets the feature 'feature'. Type features are denoted by single bit flags. -- C Function: int PyType_IS_GC (PyTypeObject *o) Return true if the type object includes support for the cycle detector; this tests the type flag *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. -- C Function: int PyType_IsSubtype (PyTypeObject *a, PyTypeObject *b) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return true if 'a' is a subtype of 'b'. This function only checks for actual subtypes, which means that *note __subclasscheck__(): 1f7d. is not called on 'b'. Call *note PyObject_IsSubclass(): ea0. to do the same check that *note issubclass(): 7bc. would do. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GenericAlloc (PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t nitems) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Generic handler for the *note tp_alloc: 48ea. slot of a type object. Use Python’s default memory allocation mechanism to allocate a new instance and initialize all its contents to ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GenericNew (PyTypeObject *type, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Generic handler for the *note tp_new: 57c. slot of a type object. Create a new instance using the type’s *note tp_alloc: 48ea. slot. -- C Function: int PyType_Ready (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Finalize a type object. This should be called on all type objects to finish their initialization. This function is responsible for adding inherited slots from a type’s base class. Return ‘0’ on success, or return ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error. Note: If some of the base classes implements the GC protocol and the provided type does not include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. in its flags, then the GC protocol will be automatically implemented from its parents. On the contrary, if the type being created does include *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. in its flags then it 'must' implement the GC protocol itself by at least implementing the *note tp_traverse: 779. handle. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetName (PyTypeObject *type) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Return the type’s name. Equivalent to getting the type’s *note __name__: 1474. attribute. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetQualName (PyTypeObject *type) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Return the type’s qualified name. Equivalent to getting the type’s *note __qualname__: 1f26. attribute. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return the type’s fully qualified name. Equivalent to ‘f"{type.__module__}.{type.__qualname__}"’, or *note type.__qualname__: 1f26. if *note type.__module__: 36f. is not a string or is equal to ‘"builtins"’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetModuleName (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return the type’s module name. Equivalent to getting the *note type.__module__: 36f. attribute. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: void *PyType_GetSlot (PyTypeObject *type, int slot) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.4.' Return the function pointer stored in the given slot. If the result is ‘NULL’, this indicates that either the slot is ‘NULL’, or that the function was called with invalid parameters. Callers will typically cast the result pointer into the appropriate function type. See *note PyType_Slot.slot: 4bfe. for possible values of the 'slot' argument. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.10: *note PyType_GetSlot(): 89a. can now accept all types. Previously, it was limited to *note heap types: 965. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetModule (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Return the module object associated with the given type when the type was created using *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note TypeError: 534. and returns ‘NULL’. This function is usually used to get the module in which a method is defined. Note that in such a method, ‘PyType_GetModule(Py_TYPE(self))’ may not return the intended result. ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ may be a 'subclass' of the intended class, and subclasses are not necessarily defined in the same module as their superclass. See *note PyCMethod: 75f. to get the class that defines the method. See *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38f. for cases when ‘PyCMethod’ cannot be used. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: void *PyType_GetModuleState (PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Return the state of the module object associated with the given type. This is a shortcut for calling *note PyModule_GetState(): 980. on the result of *note PyType_GetModule(): 96e. If no module is associated with the given type, sets *note TypeError: 534. and returns ‘NULL’. If the 'type' has an associated module but its state is ‘NULL’, returns ‘NULL’ without setting an exception. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_GetModuleByDef (PyTypeObject *type, struct PyModuleDef *def) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Find the first superclass whose module was created from the given *note PyModuleDef: 97d. 'def', and return that module. If no module is found, raises a *note TypeError: 534. and returns ‘NULL’. This function is intended to be used together with *note PyModule_GetState(): 980. to get module state from slot methods (such as *note tp_init: 57e. or *note nb_add: 4bff.) and other places where a method’s defining class cannot be passed using the *note PyCMethod: 75f. calling convention. The returned reference is *note borrowed: 339. from 'type', and will be valid as long as you hold a reference to 'type'. Do not release it with *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. or similar. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (PyTypeObject *type) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Attempt to assign a version tag to the given type. Returns 1 if the type already had a valid version tag or a new one was assigned, or 0 if a new tag could not be assigned. Added in version 3.12. * Menu: * Creating Heap-Allocated Types::  File: python.info, Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types, Up: Type Objects<2> 7.8.1.2 Creating Heap-Allocated Types ..................................... The following functions and structs are used to create *note heap types: 965. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_FromMetaclass (PyTypeObject *metaclass, PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' Create and return a *note heap type: 965. from the 'spec' (see *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ae.). The metaclass 'metaclass' is used to construct the resulting type object. When 'metaclass' is ‘NULL’, the metaclass is derived from 'bases' (or 'Py_tp_base[s]' slots if 'bases' is ‘NULL’, see below). Metaclasses that override *note tp_new: 57c. are not supported, except if ‘tp_new’ is ‘NULL’. (For backwards compatibility, other ‘PyType_From*’ functions allow such metaclasses. They ignore ‘tp_new’, which may result in incomplete initialization. This is deprecated and in Python 3.14+ such metaclasses will not be supported.) The 'bases' argument can be used to specify base classes; it can either be only one class or a tuple of classes. If 'bases' is ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_bases' slot is used instead. If that also is ‘NULL’, the 'Py_tp_base' slot is used instead. If that also is ‘NULL’, the new type derives from *note object: a8c. The 'module' argument can be used to record the module in which the new class is defined. It must be a module object or ‘NULL’. If not ‘NULL’, the module is associated with the new type and can later be retrieved with *note PyType_GetModule(): 96e. The associated module is not inherited by subclasses; it must be specified for each class individually. This function calls *note PyType_Ready(): 777. on the new type. Note that this function does 'not' fully match the behavior of calling *note type(): d48. or using the *note class: 12ca. statement. With user-provided base types or metaclasses, prefer *note calling: 4ba8. *note type: d48. (or the metaclass) over ‘PyType_From*’ functions. Specifically: * *note __new__(): 57d. is not called on the new class (and it must be set to ‘type.__new__’). * *note __init__(): 6ac. is not called on the new class. * *note __init_subclass__(): 62d. is not called on any bases. * *note __set_name__(): c4e. is not called on new descriptors. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (PyObject *module, PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Equivalent to ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, module, spec, bases)’. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.10: The function now accepts a single class as the 'bases' argument and ‘NULL’ as the ‘tp_doc’ slot. Changed in version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes. Previously, only *note type: d48. instances were returned. The *note tp_new: 57c. of the metaclass is 'ignored'. which may result in incomplete initialization. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57c. is deprecated and in Python 3.14+ it will be no longer allowed. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_FromSpecWithBases (PyType_Spec *spec, PyObject *bases) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.3.' Equivalent to ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, bases)’. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a metaclass corresponding to the provided base classes. Previously, only *note type: d48. instances were returned. The *note tp_new: 57c. of the metaclass is 'ignored'. which may result in incomplete initialization. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57c. is deprecated and in Python 3.14+ it will be no longer allowed. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyType_FromSpec (PyType_Spec *spec) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Equivalent to ‘PyType_FromMetaclass(NULL, NULL, spec, NULL)’. Changed in version 3.12: The function now finds and uses a metaclass corresponding to the base classes provided in 'Py_tp_base[s]' slots. Previously, only *note type: d48. instances were returned. The *note tp_new: 57c. of the metaclass is 'ignored'. which may result in incomplete initialization. Creating classes whose metaclass overrides *note tp_new: 57c. is deprecated and in Python 3.14+ it will be no longer allowed. -- C Type: type PyType_Spec ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Structure defining a type’s behavior. -- C Member: const char *name Name of the type, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_name: 18f2. -- C Member: int basicsize If positive, specifies the size of the instance in bytes. It is used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize: 987. If zero, specifies that *note tp_basicsize: 987. should be inherited. If negative, the absolute value specifies how much space instances of the class need 'in addition' to the superclass. Use *note PyObject_GetTypeData(): 546. to get a pointer to subclass-specific memory reserved this way. For negative ‘basicsize’, Python will insert padding when needed to meet *note tp_basicsize: 987.’s alignment requirements. Changed in version 3.12: Previously, this field could not be negative. -- C Member: int itemsize Size of one element of a variable-size type, in bytes. Used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize: 1f70. See ‘tp_itemsize’ documentation for caveats. If zero, *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. is inherited. Extending arbitrary variable-sized classes is dangerous, since some types use a fixed offset for variable-sized memory, which can then overlap fixed-sized memory used by a subclass. To help prevent mistakes, inheriting ‘itemsize’ is only possible in the following situations: - The base is not variable-sized (its *note tp_itemsize: 1f70.). - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545. is positive, suggesting that the memory layout of the base class is known. - The requested *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545. is zero, suggesting that the subclass does not access the instance’s memory directly. - With the *note Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END: 548. flag. -- C Member: unsigned int flags Type flags, used to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_flags: 18bd. If the ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE’ flag is not set, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. sets it automatically. -- C Member: *note PyType_Slot: 4a9b. *slots Array of *note PyType_Slot: 4a9b. structures. Terminated by the special slot value ‘{0, NULL}’. Each slot ID should be specified at most once. -- C Type: type PyType_Slot ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Structure defining optional functionality of a type, containing a slot ID and a value pointer. -- C Member: int slot A slot ID. Slot IDs are named like the field names of the structures *note PyTypeObject: aa5, *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9, *note PySequenceMethods: 490d, *note PyMappingMethods: 490e. and *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06. with an added ‘Py_’ prefix. For example, use: * ‘Py_tp_dealloc’ to set *note PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc: 48e8. * ‘Py_nb_add’ to set *note PyNumberMethods.nb_add: 4bff. * ‘Py_sq_length’ to set *note PySequenceMethods.sq_length: 4c07. The following “offset” fields cannot be set using *note PyType_Slot: 4a9b.: * *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988. (use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. instead if possible) * *note tp_dictoffset: 4c08. (use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. instead if possible) * *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4baa. (use ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’ in *note PyMemberDef: 4c09.) If it is not possible to switch to a ‘MANAGED’ flag (for example, for vectorcall or to support Python older than 3.12), specify the offset in *note Py_tp_members: 48eb. See *note PyMemberDef documentation: 4c09. for details. The following fields cannot be set at all when creating a heap type: * *note tp_vectorcall: 4c0a. (use *note tp_new: 57c. and/or *note tp_init: 57e.) * Internal fields: *note tp_dict: 171e, *note tp_mro: 4c0b, *note tp_cache: 4c0c, *note tp_subclasses: 56f, and *note tp_weaklist: 4c0d. Setting ‘Py_tp_bases’ or ‘Py_tp_base’ may be problematic on some platforms. To avoid issues, use the 'bases' argument of *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. instead. Changed in version 3.9: Slots in *note PyBufferProcs: 4c0e. may be set in the unlimited API. Changed in version 3.11: *note bf_getbuffer: 75d. and *note bf_releasebuffer: 75e. are now available under the *note limited API: 391. -- C Member: void *pfunc The desired value of the slot. In most cases, this is a pointer to a function. Slots other than ‘Py_tp_doc’ may not be ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: The None Object, Prev: Type Objects<2>, Up: Fundamental Objects 7.8.1.3 The ‘None’ Object ......................... Note that the *note PyTypeObject: aa5. for ‘None’ is not directly exposed in the Python/C API. Since ‘None’ is a singleton, testing for object identity (using ‘==’ in C) is sufficient. There is no ‘PyNone_Check()’ function for the same reason. -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_None The Python ‘None’ object, denoting lack of value. This object has no methods and is *note immortal: 4394. Changed in version 3.12: *note Py_None: 48b9. is *note immortal: 4394. -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_NONE Return *note Py_None: 48b9. from a function.  File: python.info, Node: Numeric Objects, Next: Sequence Objects, Prev: Fundamental Objects, Up: Concrete Objects Layer 7.8.2 Numeric Objects --------------------- * Menu: * Integer Objects:: * Boolean Objects:: * Floating-Point Objects:: * Complex Number Objects::  File: python.info, Node: Integer Objects, Next: Boolean Objects, Up: Numeric Objects 7.8.2.1 Integer Objects ....................... All integers are implemented as “long” integer objects of arbitrary size. On error, most ‘PyLong_As*’ APIs return ‘(return type)-1’ which cannot be distinguished from a number. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Type: type PyLongObject ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (as an opaque struct).' This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python integer object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyLong_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python integer type. This is the same object as *note int: 259. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyLong_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 585. or a subtype of *note PyLongObject: 585. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyLong_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyLongObject: 585, but not a subtype of *note PyLongObject: 585. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromLong (long v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure. The current implementation keeps an array of integer objects for all integers between ‘-5’ and ‘256’. When you create an int in that range you actually just get back a reference to the existing object. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (unsigned long v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from a C unsigned long, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromSsize_t (Py_ssize_t v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from a C *note Py_ssize_t: a5f, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromSize_t (size_t v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from a C ‘size_t’, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromLongLong (long long v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from a C long long, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (unsigned long long v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from a C unsigned long long, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromDouble (double v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. object from the integer part of 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromString (const char *str, char **pend, int base) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyLongObject: 585. based on the string value in 'str', which is interpreted according to the radix in 'base', or ‘NULL’ on failure. If 'pend' is non-‘NULL’, '*pend' will point to the end of 'str' on success or to the first character that could not be processed on error. If 'base' is ‘0’, 'str' is interpreted using the *note Integer literals: 1ec8. definition; in this case, leading zeros in a non-zero decimal number raises a *note ValueError: 204. If 'base' is not ‘0’, it must be between ‘2’ and ‘36’, inclusive. Leading and trailing whitespace and single underscores after a base specifier and between digits are ignored. If there are no digits or 'str' is not NULL-terminated following the digits and trailing whitespace, *note ValueError: 204. will be raised. See also ........ Python methods *note int.to_bytes(): 188f. and *note int.from_bytes(): 184f. to convert a *note PyLongObject: 585. to/from an array of bytes in base ‘256’. You can call those from C using *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (PyObject *u, int base) 'Return value: New reference.' Convert a sequence of Unicode digits in the string 'u' to a Python integer value. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromVoidPtr (void *p) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Python integer from the pointer 'p'. The pointer value can be retrieved from the resulting value using *note PyLong_AsVoidPtr(): 4a20. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromNativeBytes (const void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags) Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first 'n_bytes' of 'buffer', interpreted as a two’s-complement signed number. 'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35c. Passing ‘-1’ will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and assume that the most-significant bit is a sign bit. Passing ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ will produce the same result as calling *note PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes(): 35e. Other flags are ignored. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes (const void *buffer, size_t n_bytes, int flags) Create a Python integer from the value contained in the first 'n_bytes' of 'buffer', interpreted as an unsigned number. 'flags' are as for *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35c. Passing ‘-1’ will select the native endian that CPython was compiled with and assume that the most-significant bit is not a sign bit. Flags other than endian are ignored. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: long PyLong_AsLong (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C long representation of 'obj'. If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585, first call its *note __index__(): 718. method (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'obj' is out of range for a long. Returns ‘-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. Changed in version 3.10: This function will no longer use *note __int__(): 717. -- C Function: long PyLong_AS_LONG (PyObject *obj) A *note soft deprecated: 20b. alias. Exactly equivalent to the preferred ‘PyLong_AsLong’. In particular, it can fail with *note OverflowError: 87f. or another exception. Deprecated since version 3.14: The function is soft deprecated. -- C Function: int PyLong_AsInt (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Similar to *note PyLong_AsLong(): 35b, but store the result in a C int instead of a C long. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: long PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int *overflow) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C long representation of 'obj'. If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585, first call its *note __index__(): 718. method (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 585. If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LONG_MAX’ or less than ‘LONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’. If any other exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual. Returns ‘-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. Changed in version 3.10: This function will no longer use *note __int__(): 717. -- C Function: long long PyLong_AsLongLong (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C long long representation of 'obj'. If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585, first call its *note __index__(): 718. method (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'obj' is out of range for a long long. Returns ‘-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. Changed in version 3.10: This function will no longer use *note __int__(): 717. -- C Function: long long PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (PyObject *obj, int *overflow) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C long long representation of 'obj'. If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585, first call its *note __index__(): 718. method (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 585. If the value of 'obj' is greater than ‘LLONG_MAX’ or less than ‘LLONG_MIN’, set '*overflow' to ‘1’ or ‘-1’, respectively, and return ‘-1’; otherwise, set '*overflow' to ‘0’. If any other exception occurs set '*overflow' to ‘0’ and return ‘-1’ as usual. Returns ‘-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. Changed in version 3.10: This function will no longer use *note __int__(): 717. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyLong_AsSsize_t (PyObject *pylong) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. representation of 'pylong'. 'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of range for a *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. Returns ‘-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (PyObject *pylong) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C unsigned long representation of 'pylong'. 'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of range for a unsigned long. Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: size_t PyLong_AsSize_t (PyObject *pylong) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C ‘size_t’ representation of 'pylong'. 'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of range for a ‘size_t’. Returns ‘(size_t)-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (PyObject *pylong) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C unsigned long long representation of 'pylong'. 'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of range for an unsigned long long. Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Changed in version 3.1: A negative 'pylong' now raises *note OverflowError: 87f, not *note TypeError: 534. -- C Function: unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C unsigned long representation of 'obj'. If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585, first call its *note __index__(): 718. method (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 585. If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long, return the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULONG_MAX + 1’. Returns ‘(unsigned long)-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. Changed in version 3.10: This function will no longer use *note __int__(): 717. -- C Function: unsigned long long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (PyObject *obj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C unsigned long long representation of 'obj'. If 'obj' is not an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585, first call its *note __index__(): 718. method (if present) to convert it to a *note PyLongObject: 585. If the value of 'obj' is out of range for an unsigned long long, return the reduction of that value modulo ‘ULLONG_MAX + 1’. Returns ‘(unsigned long long)-1’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. Changed in version 3.10: This function will no longer use *note __int__(): 717. -- C Function: double PyLong_AsDouble (PyObject *pylong) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C double representation of 'pylong'. 'pylong' must be an instance of *note PyLongObject: 585. Raise *note OverflowError: 87f. if the value of 'pylong' is out of range for a double. Returns ‘-1.0’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: void *PyLong_AsVoidPtr (PyObject *pylong) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Convert a Python integer 'pylong' to a C void pointer. If 'pylong' cannot be converted, an *note OverflowError: 87f. will be raised. This is only assured to produce a usable void pointer for values created with *note PyLong_FromVoidPtr(): 4a23. Returns ‘NULL’ on error. Use *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyLong_AsNativeBytes (PyObject *pylong, void *buffer, Py_ssize_t n_bytes, int flags) Copy the Python integer value 'pylong' to a native 'buffer' of size 'n_bytes'. The 'flags' can be set to ‘-1’ to behave similarly to a C cast, or to values documented below to control the behavior. Returns ‘-1’ with an exception raised on error. This may happen if 'pylong' cannot be interpreted as an integer, or if 'pylong' was negative and the ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ flag was set. Otherwise, returns the number of bytes required to store the value. If this is equal to or less than 'n_bytes', the entire value was copied. All 'n_bytes' of the buffer are written: large buffers are padded with zeroes. If the returned value is greater than 'n_bytes', the value was truncated: as many of the lowest bits of the value as could fit are written, and the higher bits are ignored. This matches the typical behavior of a C-style downcast. Note: Overflow is not considered an error. If the returned value is larger than 'n_bytes', most significant bits were discarded. ‘0’ will never be returned. Values are always copied as two’s-complement. Usage example: int32_t value; Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, &value, sizeof(value), -1); if (bytes < 0) { // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason. return NULL; } else if (bytes <= (Py_ssize_t)sizeof(value)) { // Success! } else { // Overflow occurred, but 'value' contains the truncated // lowest bits of pylong. } Passing zero to 'n_bytes' will return the size of a buffer that would be large enough to hold the value. This may be larger than technically necessary, but not unreasonably so. If 'n_bytes=0', 'buffer' may be ‘NULL’. Note: Passing 'n_bytes=0' to this function is not an accurate way to determine the bit length of the value. To get at the entire Python value of an unknown size, the function can be called twice: first to determine the buffer size, then to fill it: // Ask how much space we need. Py_ssize_t expected = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, NULL, 0, -1); if (expected < 0) { // Failed. A Python exception was set with the reason. return NULL; } assert(expected != 0); // Impossible per the API definition. uint8_t *bignum = malloc(expected); if (!bignum) { PyErr_SetString(PyExc_MemoryError, "bignum malloc failed."); return NULL; } // Safely get the entire value. Py_ssize_t bytes = PyLong_AsNativeBytes(pylong, bignum, expected, -1); if (bytes < 0) { // Exception has been set. free(bignum); return NULL; } else if (bytes > expected) { // This should not be possible. PyErr_SetString(PyExc_RuntimeError, "Unexpected bignum truncation after a size check."); free(bignum); return NULL; } // The expected success given the above pre-check. // ... use bignum ... free(bignum); 'flags' is either ‘-1’ (‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS’) to select defaults that behave most like a C cast, or a combination of the other flags in the table below. Note that ‘-1’ cannot be combined with other flags. Currently, ‘-1’ corresponds to ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN | Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’. Flag Value ------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS ‘-1’ -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN ‘0’ -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN ‘1’ -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN ‘3’ -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER ‘4’ -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE ‘8’ -- C Macro: Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX ‘16’ Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN’ will override any other endian flags. Passing ‘2’ is reserved. By default, sufficient buffer will be requested to include a sign bit. For example, when converting 128 with 'n_bytes=1', the function will return 2 (or more) in order to store a zero sign bit. If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ is specified, a zero sign bit will be omitted from size calculations. This allows, for example, 128 to fit in a single-byte buffer. If the destination buffer is later treated as signed, a positive input value may become negative. Note that the flag does not affect handling of negative values: for those, space for a sign bit is always requested. Specifying ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE’ causes an exception to be set if 'pylong' is negative. Without this flag, negative values will be copied provided there is enough space for at least one sign bit, regardless of whether ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER’ was specified. If ‘Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX’ is specified and a non-integer value is passed, its *note __index__(): 718. method will be called first. This may result in Python code executing and other threads being allowed to run, which could cause changes to other objects or values in use. When 'flags' is ‘-1’, this option is not set, and non-integer values will raise *note TypeError: 534. Note: With the default 'flags' (‘-1’, or 'UNSIGNED_BUFFER' without 'REJECT_NEGATIVE'), multiple Python integers can map to a single value without overflow. For example, both ‘255’ and ‘-1’ fit a single-byte buffer and set all its bits. This matches typical C cast behavior. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyLong_GetInfo (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' On success, return a read only *note named tuple: 64a, that holds information about Python’s internal representation of integers. See *note sys.int_info: 1286. for description of individual fields. On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. Added in version 3.1. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (const PyLongObject *op) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return 1 if 'op' is compact, 0 otherwise. This function makes it possible for performance-critical code to implement a “fast path” for small integers. For compact values use *note PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue(): 587.; for others fall back to a *note PyLong_As*: 4a1c. function or *note PyLong_AsNativeBytes(): 35c. The speedup is expected to be negligible for most users. Exactly what values are considered compact is an implementation detail and is subject to change. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (const PyLongObject *op) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': If 'op' is compact, as determined by *note PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact(): 586, return its value. Otherwise, the return value is undefined. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Boolean Objects, Next: Floating-Point Objects, Prev: Integer Objects, Up: Numeric Objects 7.8.2.2 Boolean Objects ....................... Booleans in Python are implemented as a subclass of integers. There are only two booleans, *note Py_False: 4c25. and *note Py_True: 4c26. As such, the normal creation and deletion functions don’t apply to booleans. The following macros are available, however. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyBool_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python boolean type; it is the same object as *note bool: 463. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyBool_Check (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyBool_Type: 4966. This function always succeeds. -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_False The Python ‘False’ object. This object has no methods and is *note immortal: 4394. Changed in version 3.12: *note Py_False: 4c25. is *note immortal: 4394. -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_True The Python ‘True’ object. This object has no methods and is *note immortal: 4394. Changed in version 3.12: *note Py_True: 4c26. is *note immortal: 4394. -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_FALSE Return *note Py_False: 4c25. from a function. -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_TRUE Return *note Py_True: 4c26. from a function. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyBool_FromLong (long v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return *note Py_True: 4c26. or *note Py_False: 4c25, depending on the truth value of 'v'.  File: python.info, Node: Floating-Point Objects, Next: Complex Number Objects, Prev: Boolean Objects, Up: Numeric Objects 7.8.2.3 Floating-Point Objects .............................. -- C Type: type PyFloatObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python floating-point object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyFloat_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python floating-point type. This is the same object as *note float: 2f1. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyFloat_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4c2b. or a subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4c2b. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyFloat_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyFloatObject: 4c2b, but not a subtype of *note PyFloatObject: 4c2b. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFloat_FromString (PyObject *str) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a *note PyFloatObject: 4c2b. object based on the string value in 'str', or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFloat_FromDouble (double v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a *note PyFloatObject: 4c2b. object from 'v', or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: double PyFloat_AsDouble (PyObject *pyfloat) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a C double representation of the contents of 'pyfloat'. If 'pyfloat' is not a Python floating-point object but has a *note __float__(): 9cc. method, this method will first be called to convert 'pyfloat' into a float. If ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to *note __index__(): 718. This method returns ‘-1.0’ upon failure, so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for errors. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available. -- C Function: double PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (PyObject *pyfloat) Return a C double representation of the contents of 'pyfloat', but without error checking. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFloat_GetInfo (void) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a structseq instance which contains information about the precision, minimum and maximum values of a float. It’s a thin wrapper around the header file ‘float.h’. -- C Function: double PyFloat_GetMax () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the maximum representable finite float 'DBL_MAX' as C double. -- C Function: double PyFloat_GetMin () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the minimum normalized positive float 'DBL_MIN' as C double. * Menu: * Pack and Unpack functions::  File: python.info, Node: Pack and Unpack functions, Up: Floating-Point Objects 7.8.2.4 Pack and Unpack functions ................................. The pack and unpack functions provide an efficient platform-independent way to store floating-point values as byte strings. The Pack routines produce a bytes string from a C double, and the Unpack routines produce a C double from such a bytes string. The suffix (2, 4 or 8) specifies the number of bytes in the bytes string. On platforms that appear to use IEEE 754 formats these functions work by copying bits. On other platforms, the 2-byte format is identical to the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format, the 4-byte format (32-bit) is identical to the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format, and the 8-byte format to the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format, although the packing of INFs and NaNs (if such things exist on the platform) isn’t handled correctly, and attempting to unpack a bytes string containing an IEEE INF or NaN will raise an exception. On non-IEEE platforms with more precision, or larger dynamic range, than IEEE 754 supports, not all values can be packed; on non-IEEE platforms with less precision, or smaller dynamic range, not all values can be unpacked. What happens in such cases is partly accidental (alas). Added in version 3.11. * Menu: * Pack functions:: * Unpack functions::  File: python.info, Node: Pack functions, Next: Unpack functions, Up: Pack and Unpack functions 7.8.2.5 Pack functions ...................... The pack routines write 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'. 'le' is an int argument, non-zero if you want the bytes string in little-endian format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’, or ‘p+6’ ‘p+7’), zero if you want big-endian format (exponent first, at 'p'). The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’ constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big endian processor, or ‘0’ on little endian processor. Return value: ‘0’ if all is OK, ‘-1’ if error (and an exception is set, most likely *note OverflowError: 87f.). There are two problems on non-IEEE platforms: * What this does is undefined if 'x' is a NaN or infinity. * ‘-0.0’ and ‘+0.0’ produce the same bytes string. -- C Function: int PyFloat_Pack2 (double x, char *p, int le) Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format. -- C Function: int PyFloat_Pack4 (double x, char *p, int le) Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format. -- C Function: int PyFloat_Pack8 (double x, char *p, int le) Pack a C double as the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format.  File: python.info, Node: Unpack functions, Prev: Pack functions, Up: Pack and Unpack functions 7.8.2.6 Unpack functions ........................ The unpack routines read 2, 4 or 8 bytes, starting at 'p'. 'le' is an int argument, non-zero if the bytes string is in little-endian format (exponent last, at ‘p+1’, ‘p+3’ or ‘p+6’ and ‘p+7’), zero if big-endian (exponent first, at 'p'). The ‘PY_BIG_ENDIAN’ constant can be used to use the native endian: it is equal to ‘1’ on big endian processor, or ‘0’ on little endian processor. Return value: The unpacked double. On error, this is ‘-1.0’ and *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. is true (and an exception is set, most likely *note OverflowError: 87f.). Note that on a non-IEEE platform this will refuse to unpack a bytes string that represents a NaN or infinity. -- C Function: double PyFloat_Unpack2 (const char *p, int le) Unpack the IEEE 754 binary16 half-precision format as a C double. -- C Function: double PyFloat_Unpack4 (const char *p, int le) Unpack the IEEE 754 binary32 single precision format as a C double. -- C Function: double PyFloat_Unpack8 (const char *p, int le) Unpack the IEEE 754 binary64 double precision format as a C double.  File: python.info, Node: Complex Number Objects, Prev: Floating-Point Objects, Up: Numeric Objects 7.8.2.7 Complex Number Objects .............................. Python’s complex number objects are implemented as two distinct types when viewed from the C API: one is the Python object exposed to Python programs, and the other is a C structure which represents the actual complex number value. The API provides functions for working with both. * Menu: * Complex Numbers as C Structures:: * Complex Numbers as Python Objects::  File: python.info, Node: Complex Numbers as C Structures, Next: Complex Numbers as Python Objects, Up: Complex Number Objects 7.8.2.8 Complex Numbers as C Structures ....................................... Note that the functions which accept these structures as parameters and return them as results do so 'by value' rather than dereferencing them through pointers. This is consistent throughout the API. -- C Type: type Py_complex The C structure which corresponds to the value portion of a Python complex number object. Most of the functions for dealing with complex number objects use structures of this type as input or output values, as appropriate. -- C Member: double real -- C Member: double imag The structure is defined as: typedef struct { double real; double imag; } Py_complex; -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. _Py_c_sum (Py_complex left, Py_complex right) Return the sum of two complex numbers, using the C *note Py_complex: 4b68. representation. -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. _Py_c_diff (Py_complex left, Py_complex right) Return the difference between two complex numbers, using the C *note Py_complex: 4b68. representation. -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. _Py_c_neg (Py_complex num) Return the negation of the complex number 'num', using the C *note Py_complex: 4b68. representation. -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. _Py_c_prod (Py_complex left, Py_complex right) Return the product of two complex numbers, using the C *note Py_complex: 4b68. representation. -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. _Py_c_quot (Py_complex dividend, Py_complex divisor) Return the quotient of two complex numbers, using the C *note Py_complex: 4b68. representation. If 'divisor' is null, this method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to ‘EDOM’. -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. _Py_c_pow (Py_complex num, Py_complex exp) Return the exponentiation of 'num' by 'exp', using the C *note Py_complex: 4b68. representation. If 'num' is null and 'exp' is not a positive real number, this method returns zero and sets ‘errno’ to ‘EDOM’.  File: python.info, Node: Complex Numbers as Python Objects, Prev: Complex Numbers as C Structures, Up: Complex Number Objects 7.8.2.9 Complex Numbers as Python Objects ......................................... -- C Type: type PyComplexObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python complex number object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyComplex_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python complex number type. It is the same object as *note complex: 2f2. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyComplex_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 4c3e. or a subtype of *note PyComplexObject: 4c3e. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyComplex_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyComplexObject: 4c3e, but not a subtype of *note PyComplexObject: 4c3e. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyComplex_FromCComplex (Py_complex v) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new Python complex number object from a C *note Py_complex: 4b68. value. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyComplex_FromDoubles (double real, double imag) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note PyComplexObject: 4c3e. object from 'real' and 'imag'. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error. -- C Function: double PyComplex_RealAsDouble (PyObject *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the real part of 'op' as a C double. If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note __complex__(): 5e3. method, this method will first be called to convert 'op' to a Python complex number object. If ‘__complex__()’ is not defined then it falls back to call *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a69. and returns its result. Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for errors. Changed in version 3.13: Use *note __complex__(): 5e3. if available. -- C Function: double PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (PyObject *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the imaginary part of 'op' as a C double. If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note __complex__(): 5e3. method, this method will first be called to convert 'op' to a Python complex number object. If ‘__complex__()’ is not defined then it falls back to call *note PyFloat_AsDouble(): a69. and returns ‘0.0’ on success. Upon failure, this method returns ‘-1.0’ with an exception set, so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for errors. Changed in version 3.13: Use *note __complex__(): 5e3. if available. -- C Function: *note Py_complex: 4b68. PyComplex_AsCComplex (PyObject *op) Return the *note Py_complex: 4b68. value of the complex number 'op'. If 'op' is not a Python complex number object but has a *note __complex__(): 5e3. method, this method will first be called to convert 'op' to a Python complex number object. If ‘__complex__()’ is not defined then it falls back to *note __float__(): 9cc. If ‘__float__()’ is not defined then it falls back to *note __index__(): 718. Upon failure, this method returns *note Py_complex: 4b68. with *note real: 4c36. set to ‘-1.0’ and with an exception set, so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for errors. Changed in version 3.8: Use *note __index__(): 718. if available.  File: python.info, Node: Sequence Objects, Next: Container Objects, Prev: Numeric Objects, Up: Concrete Objects Layer 7.8.3 Sequence Objects ---------------------- Generic operations on sequence objects were discussed in the previous chapter; this section deals with the specific kinds of sequence objects that are intrinsic to the Python language. * Menu: * Bytes Objects: Bytes Objects<2>. * Byte Array Objects:: * Unicode Objects and Codecs:: * Tuple Objects:: * Struct Sequence Objects:: * List Objects::  File: python.info, Node: Bytes Objects<2>, Next: Byte Array Objects, Up: Sequence Objects 7.8.3.1 Bytes Objects ..................... These functions raise *note TypeError: 534. when expecting a bytes parameter and called with a non-bytes parameter. -- C Type: type PyBytesObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python bytes object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyBytes_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python bytes type; it is the same object as *note bytes: 1c2. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyBytes_Check (PyObject *o) Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object or an instance of a subtype of the bytes type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyBytes_CheckExact (PyObject *o) Return true if the object 'o' is a bytes object, but not an instance of a subtype of the bytes type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyBytes_FromString (const char *v) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v' as value on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure. The parameter 'v' must not be ‘NULL’; it will not be checked. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (const char *v, Py_ssize_t len) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new bytes object with a copy of the string 'v' as value and length 'len' on success, and ‘NULL’ on failure. If 'v' is ‘NULL’, the contents of the bytes object are uninitialized. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyBytes_FromFormat (const char *format, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python bytes object and return a bytes object with the values formatted into it. The variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the 'format' string. The following format characters are allowed: Format Characters Type Comment --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘%%’ 'n/a' The literal % character. ‘%c’ int A single byte, represented as a C int. ‘%d’ int Equivalent to ‘printf("%d")’. (1) ‘%u’ unsigned int Equivalent to ‘printf("%u")’. (2) ‘%ld’ long Equivalent to ‘printf("%ld")’. (3) ‘%lu’ unsigned long Equivalent to ‘printf("%lu")’. (4) ‘%zd’ *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.Equivalent to ‘printf("%zd")’. (5) ‘%zu’ size_t Equivalent to ‘printf("%zu")’. (6) ‘%i’ int Equivalent to ‘printf("%i")’. (7) ‘%x’ int Equivalent to ‘printf("%x")’. (8) ‘%s’ const char* A null-terminated C character array. ‘%p’ const void* The hex representation of a C pointer. Mostly equivalent to ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is guaranteed to start with the literal ‘0x’ regardless of what the platform’s ‘printf’ yields. An unrecognized format character causes all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result object, and any extra arguments discarded. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyBytes_FromFormatV (const char *format, va_list vargs) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Identical to *note PyBytes_FromFormat(): 1a28. except that it takes exactly two arguments. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyBytes_FromObject (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the bytes representation of object 'o' that implements the buffer protocol. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyBytes_Size (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the length of the bytes in bytes object 'o'. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyBytes_GET_SIZE (PyObject *o) Similar to *note PyBytes_Size(): 4972, but without error checking. -- C Function: char *PyBytes_AsString (PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a pointer to the contents of 'o'. The pointer refers to the internal buffer of 'o', which consists of ‘len(o) + 1’ bytes. The last byte in the buffer is always null, regardless of whether there are any other null bytes. The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’. It must not be deallocated. If 'o' is not a bytes object at all, *note PyBytes_AsString(): 885. returns ‘NULL’ and raises *note TypeError: 534. -- C Function: char *PyBytes_AS_STRING (PyObject *string) Similar to *note PyBytes_AsString(): 885, but without error checking. -- C Function: int PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (PyObject *obj, char **buffer, Py_ssize_t *length) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the null-terminated contents of the object 'obj' through the output variables 'buffer' and 'length'. Returns ‘0’ on success. If 'length' is ‘NULL’, the bytes object may not contain embedded null bytes; if it does, the function returns ‘-1’ and a *note ValueError: 204. is raised. The buffer refers to an internal buffer of 'obj', which includes an additional null byte at the end (not counted in 'length'). The data must not be modified in any way, unless the object was just created using ‘PyBytes_FromStringAndSize(NULL, size)’. It must not be deallocated. If 'obj' is not a bytes object at all, *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 496c. returns ‘-1’ and raises *note TypeError: 534. Changed in version 3.5: Previously, *note TypeError: 534. was raised when embedded null bytes were encountered in the bytes object. -- C Function: void PyBytes_Concat (PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new bytes object in '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to 'bytes'; the caller will own the new reference. The reference to the old value of 'bytes' will be stolen. If the new object cannot be created, the old reference to 'bytes' will still be discarded and the value of '*bytes' will be set to ‘NULL’; the appropriate exception will be set. -- C Function: void PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (PyObject **bytes, PyObject *newpart) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new bytes object in '*bytes' containing the contents of 'newpart' appended to 'bytes'. This version releases the *note strong reference: 338. to 'newpart' (i.e. decrements its reference count). -- C Function: int _PyBytes_Resize (PyObject **bytes, Py_ssize_t newsize) Resize a bytes object. 'newsize' will be the new length of the bytes object. You can think of it as creating a new bytes object and destroying the old one, only more efficiently. Pass the address of an existing bytes object as an lvalue (it may be written into), and the new size desired. On success, '*bytes' holds the resized bytes object and ‘0’ is returned; the address in '*bytes' may differ from its input value. If the reallocation fails, the original bytes object at '*bytes' is deallocated, '*bytes' is set to ‘NULL’, *note MemoryError: 1576. is set, and ‘-1’ is returned. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (2) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (3) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (4) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (5) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (6) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (7) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given. (8) For integer specifiers (d, u, ld, lu, zd, zu, i, x): the 0-conversion flag has effect even when a precision is given.  File: python.info, Node: Byte Array Objects, Next: Unicode Objects and Codecs, Prev: Bytes Objects<2>, Up: Sequence Objects 7.8.3.2 Byte Array Objects .......................... -- C Type: type PyByteArrayObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python bytearray object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyByteArray_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python bytearray type; it is the same object as *note bytearray: 53a. in the Python layer. * Menu: * Type check macros:: * Direct API functions:: * Macros::  File: python.info, Node: Type check macros, Next: Direct API functions, Up: Byte Array Objects 7.8.3.3 Type check macros ......................... -- C Function: int PyByteArray_Check (PyObject *o) Return true if the object 'o' is a bytearray object or an instance of a subtype of the bytearray type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyByteArray_CheckExact (PyObject *o) Return true if the object 'o' is a bytearray object, but not an instance of a subtype of the bytearray type. This function always succeeds.  File: python.info, Node: Direct API functions, Next: Macros, Prev: Type check macros, Up: Byte Array Objects 7.8.3.4 Direct API functions ............................ -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyByteArray_FromObject (PyObject *o) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new bytearray object from any object, 'o', that implements the *note buffer protocol: 393. On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (const char *string, Py_ssize_t len) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new bytearray object from 'string' and its length, 'len'. On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyByteArray_Concat (PyObject *a, PyObject *b) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Concat bytearrays 'a' and 'b' and return a new bytearray with the result. On failure, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyByteArray_Size (PyObject *bytearray) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the size of 'bytearray' after checking for a ‘NULL’ pointer. -- C Function: char *PyByteArray_AsString (PyObject *bytearray) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the contents of 'bytearray' as a char array after checking for a ‘NULL’ pointer. The returned array always has an extra null byte appended. -- C Function: int PyByteArray_Resize (PyObject *bytearray, Py_ssize_t len) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Resize the internal buffer of 'bytearray' to 'len'.  File: python.info, Node: Macros, Prev: Direct API functions, Up: Byte Array Objects 7.8.3.5 Macros .............. These macros trade safety for speed and they don’t check pointers. -- C Function: char *PyByteArray_AS_STRING (PyObject *bytearray) Similar to *note PyByteArray_AsString(): 4967, but without error checking. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (PyObject *bytearray) Similar to *note PyByteArray_Size(): 496a, but without error checking.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Objects and Codecs, Next: Tuple Objects, Prev: Byte Array Objects, Up: Sequence Objects 7.8.3.6 Unicode Objects and Codecs .................................. * Menu: * Unicode Objects:: * Built-in Codecs:: * Methods and Slot Functions::  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Objects, Next: Built-in Codecs, Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs 7.8.3.7 Unicode Objects ....................... Since the implementation of PEP 393(1) in Python 3.3, Unicode objects internally use a variety of representations, in order to allow handling the complete range of Unicode characters while staying memory efficient. There are special cases for strings where all code points are below 128, 256, or 65536; otherwise, code points must be below 1114112 (which is the full Unicode range). UTF-8 representation is created on demand and cached in the Unicode object. Note: The *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. representation has been removed since Python 3.12 with deprecated APIs. See PEP 623(2) for more information. * Menu: * Unicode Type:: * Unicode Character Properties:: * Creating and accessing Unicode strings:: * Locale Encoding:: * File System Encoding:: * wchar_t Support:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0393/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0623/  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Type, Next: Unicode Character Properties, Up: Unicode Objects 7.8.3.8 Unicode Type .................... These are the basic Unicode object types used for the Unicode implementation in Python: -- C Type: type Py_UCS4 -- C Type: type Py_UCS2 -- C Type: type Py_UCS1 ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' These types are typedefs for unsigned integer types wide enough to contain characters of 32 bits, 16 bits and 8 bits, respectively. When dealing with single Unicode characters, use *note Py_UCS4: 29d. Added in version 3.3. -- C Type: type Py_UNICODE This is a typedef of ‘wchar_t’, which is a 16-bit type or 32-bit type depending on the platform. Changed in version 3.3: In previous versions, this was a 16-bit type or a 32-bit type depending on whether you selected a “narrow” or “wide” Unicode version of Python at build time. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15. -- C Type: type PyASCIIObject -- C Type: type PyCompactUnicodeObject -- C Type: type PyUnicodeObject These subtypes of *note PyObject: 334. represent a Python Unicode object. In almost all cases, they shouldn’t be used directly, since all API functions that deal with Unicode objects take and return *note PyObject: 334. pointers. Added in version 3.3. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyUnicode_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python Unicode type. It is exposed to Python code as ‘str’. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyUnicodeIter_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python Unicode iterator type. It is used to iterate over Unicode string objects. The following APIs are C macros and static inlined functions for fast checks and access to internal read-only data of Unicode objects: -- C Function: int PyUnicode_Check (PyObject *obj) Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object or an instance of a Unicode subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_CheckExact (PyObject *obj) Return true if the object 'obj' is a Unicode object, but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_READY (PyObject *unicode) Returns ‘0’. This API is kept only for backward compatibility. Added in version 3.3. Deprecated since version 3.10: This API does nothing since Python 3.12. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (PyObject *unicode) Return the length of the Unicode string, in code points. 'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not checked). Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS1: 1167. *PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (PyObject *unicode) -- C Function: *note Py_UCS2: 1168. *PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (PyObject *unicode) -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. *PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (PyObject *unicode) Return a pointer to the canonical representation cast to UCS1, UCS2 or UCS4 integer types for direct character access. No checks are performed if the canonical representation has the correct character size; use *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1171. to select the right function. Added in version 3.3. -- C Macro: PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND -- C Macro: PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND -- C Macro: PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND Return values of the *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1171. macro. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.12: ‘PyUnicode_WCHAR_KIND’ has been removed. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_KIND (PyObject *unicode) Return one of the PyUnicode kind constants (see above) that indicate how many bytes per character this Unicode object uses to store its data. 'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not checked). Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: void *PyUnicode_DATA (PyObject *unicode) Return a void pointer to the raw Unicode buffer. 'unicode' has to be a Unicode object in the “canonical” representation (not checked). Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: void PyUnicode_WRITE (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index, Py_UCS4 value) Write into a canonical representation 'data' (as obtained with *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 116d.). This function performs no sanity checks, and is intended for usage in loops. The caller should cache the 'kind' value and 'data' pointer as obtained from other calls. 'index' is the index in the string (starts at 0) and 'value' is the new code point value which should be written to that location. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. PyUnicode_READ (int kind, void *data, Py_ssize_t index) Read a code point from a canonical representation 'data' (as obtained with *note PyUnicode_DATA(): 116d.). No checks or ready calls are performed. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index) Read a character from a Unicode object 'unicode', which must be in the “canonical” representation. This is less efficient than *note PyUnicode_READ(): 1175. if you do multiple consecutive reads. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (PyObject *unicode) Return the maximum code point that is suitable for creating another string based on 'unicode', which must be in the “canonical” representation. This is always an approximation but more efficient than iterating over the string. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (PyObject *unicode) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if the string is a valid identifier according to the language definition, section *note Identifiers and keywords: 1e94. Return ‘0’ otherwise. Changed in version 3.9: The function does not call *note Py_FatalError(): 983. anymore if the string is not ready.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Character Properties, Next: Creating and accessing Unicode strings, Prev: Unicode Type, Up: Unicode Objects 7.8.3.9 Unicode Character Properties .................................... Unicode provides many different character properties. The most often needed ones are available through these macros which are mapped to C functions depending on the Python configuration. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a whitespace character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a lowercase character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an uppercase character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a titlecase character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a linebreak character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a decimal character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a digit character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a numeric character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphabetic character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is an alphanumeric character. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (Py_UCS4 ch) Return ‘1’ or ‘0’ depending on whether 'ch' is a printable character, in the sense of *note str.isprintable(): dd7. These APIs can be used for fast direct character conversions: -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (Py_UCS4 ch) Return the character 'ch' converted to lower case. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (Py_UCS4 ch) Return the character 'ch' converted to upper case. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (Py_UCS4 ch) Return the character 'ch' converted to title case. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (Py_UCS4 ch) Return the character 'ch' converted to a decimal positive integer. Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible. This function does not raise exceptions. -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (Py_UCS4 ch) Return the character 'ch' converted to a single digit integer. Return ‘-1’ if this is not possible. This function does not raise exceptions. -- C Function: double Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (Py_UCS4 ch) Return the character 'ch' converted to a double. Return ‘-1.0’ if this is not possible. This function does not raise exceptions. These APIs can be used to work with surrogates: -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch) Check if 'ch' is a surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’). -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch) Check if 'ch' is a high surrogate (‘0xD800 <= ch <= 0xDBFF’). -- C Function: int Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (Py_UCS4 ch) Check if 'ch' is a low surrogate (‘0xDC00 <= ch <= 0xDFFF’). -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (Py_UCS4 high, Py_UCS4 low) Join two surrogate code points and return a single *note Py_UCS4: 29d. value. 'high' and 'low' are respectively the leading and trailing surrogates in a surrogate pair. 'high' must be in the range [0xD800; 0xDBFF] and 'low' must be in the range [0xDC00; 0xDFFF].  File: python.info, Node: Creating and accessing Unicode strings, Next: Locale Encoding, Prev: Unicode Character Properties, Up: Unicode Objects 7.8.3.10 Creating and accessing Unicode strings ............................................... To create Unicode objects and access their basic sequence properties, use these APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_New (Py_ssize_t size, Py_UCS4 maxchar) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new Unicode object. 'maxchar' should be the true maximum code point to be placed in the string. As an approximation, it can be rounded up to the nearest value in the sequence 127, 255, 65535, 1114111. This is the recommended way to allocate a new Unicode object. Objects created using this function are not resizable. On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (int kind, const void *buffer, Py_ssize_t size) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new Unicode object with the given 'kind' (possible values are *note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1172. etc., as returned by *note PyUnicode_KIND(): 1171.). The 'buffer' must point to an array of 'size' units of 1, 2 or 4 bytes per character, as given by the kind. If necessary, the input 'buffer' is copied and transformed into the canonical representation. For example, if the 'buffer' is a UCS4 string (*note PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND: 1174.) and it consists only of codepoints in the UCS1 range, it will be transformed into UCS1 (*note PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND: 1172.). Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object from the char buffer 'str'. The bytes will be interpreted as being UTF-8 encoded. The buffer is copied into the new object. The return value might be a shared object, i.e. modification of the data is not allowed. This function raises *note SystemError: 572. when: * 'size' < 0, * 'str' is ‘NULL’ and 'size' > 0 Changed in version 3.12: 'str' == ‘NULL’ with 'size' > 0 is not allowed anymore. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromString (const char *str) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object from a UTF-8 encoded null-terminated char buffer 'str'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromFormat (const char *format, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Take a C ‘printf()’-style 'format' string and a variable number of arguments, calculate the size of the resulting Python Unicode string and return a string with the values formatted into it. The variable arguments must be C types and must correspond exactly to the format characters in the 'format' ASCII-encoded string. A conversion specifier contains two or more characters and has the following components, which must occur in this order: 1. The ‘'%'’ character, which marks the start of the specifier. 2. Conversion flags (optional), which affect the result of some conversion types. 3. Minimum field width (optional). If specified as an ‘'*'’ (asterisk), the actual width is given in the next argument, which must be of type int, and the object to convert comes after the minimum field width and optional precision. 4. Precision (optional), given as a ‘'.'’ (dot) followed by the precision. If specified as ‘'*'’ (an asterisk), the actual precision is given in the next argument, which must be of type int, and the value to convert comes after the precision. 5. Length modifier (optional). 6. Conversion type. The conversion flag characters are: Flag Meaning ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ‘0’ The conversion will be zero padded for numeric values. ‘-’ The converted value is left adjusted (overrides the ‘0’ flag if both are given). The length modifiers for following integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’, ‘o’, ‘u’, ‘x’, or ‘X’) specify the type of the argument (int by default): Modifier Types ------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘l’ long or unsigned long ‘ll’ long long or unsigned long long ‘j’ ‘intmax_t’ or ‘uintmax_t’ ‘z’ ‘size_t’ or ‘ssize_t’ ‘t’ ‘ptrdiff_t’ The length modifier ‘l’ for following conversions ‘s’ or ‘V’ specify that the type of the argument is const wchar_t*. The conversion specifiers are: Conversion Specifier Type Comment ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ ‘%’ 'n/a' The literal ‘%’ character. ‘d’, ‘i’ Specified by the length modifier The decimal representation of a signed C integer. ‘u’ Specified by the length modifier The decimal representation of an unsigned C integer. ‘o’ Specified by the length modifier The octal representation of an unsigned C integer. ‘x’ Specified by the length modifier The hexadecimal representation of an unsigned C integer (lowercase). ‘X’ Specified by the length modifier The hexadecimal representation of an unsigned C integer (uppercase). ‘c’ int A single character. ‘s’ const char* or const wchar_t* A null-terminated C character array. ‘p’ const void* The hex representation of a C pointer. Mostly equivalent to ‘printf("%p")’ except that it is guaranteed to start with the literal ‘0x’ regardless of what the platform’s ‘printf’ yields. ‘A’ *note PyObject: 334.* The result of calling *note ascii(): 13b2. ‘U’ *note PyObject: 334.* A Unicode object. ‘V’ *note PyObject: 334.*, const char* A Unicode object (which may be or const wchar_t* ‘NULL’) and a null-terminated C character array as a second parameter (which will be used, if the first parameter is ‘NULL’). ‘S’ *note PyObject: 334.* The result of calling *note PyObject_Str(): 1029. ‘R’ *note PyObject: 334.* The result of calling *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028. ‘T’ *note PyObject: 334.* Get the fully qualified name of an object type; call *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36e. ‘#T’ *note PyObject: 334.* Similar to ‘T’ format, but use a colon (‘:’) as separator between the module name and the qualified name. ‘N’ *note PyTypeObject: aa5.* Get the fully qualified name of a type; call *note PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName(): 36e. ‘#N’ *note PyTypeObject: aa5.* Similar to ‘N’ format, but use a colon (‘:’) as separator between the module name and the qualified name. Note: The width formatter unit is number of characters rather than bytes. The precision formatter unit is number of bytes or ‘wchar_t’ items (if the length modifier ‘l’ is used) for ‘"%s"’ and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is ‘NULL’), and a number of characters for ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ and ‘"%V"’ (if the ‘PyObject*’ argument is not ‘NULL’). Note: Unlike to C ‘printf()’ the ‘0’ flag has effect even when a precision is given for integer conversions (‘d’, ‘i’, ‘u’, ‘o’, ‘x’, or ‘X’). Changed in version 3.2: Support for ‘"%lld"’ and ‘"%llu"’ added. Changed in version 3.3: Support for ‘"%li"’, ‘"%lli"’ and ‘"%zi"’ added. Changed in version 3.4: Support width and precision formatter for ‘"%s"’, ‘"%A"’, ‘"%U"’, ‘"%V"’, ‘"%S"’, ‘"%R"’ added. Changed in version 3.12: Support for conversion specifiers ‘o’ and ‘X’. Support for length modifiers ‘j’ and ‘t’. Length modifiers are now applied to all integer conversions. Length modifier ‘l’ is now applied to conversion specifiers ‘s’ and ‘V’. Support for variable width and precision ‘*’. Support for flag ‘-’. An unrecognized format character now sets a *note SystemError: 572. In previous versions it caused all the rest of the format string to be copied as-is to the result string, and any extra arguments discarded. Changed in version 3.13: Support for ‘%T’, ‘%#T’, ‘%N’ and ‘%#N’ formats added. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromFormatV (const char *format, va_list vargs) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Identical to *note PyUnicode_FromFormat(): 385. except that it takes exactly two arguments. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromObject (PyObject *obj) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Copy an instance of a Unicode subtype to a new true Unicode object if necessary. If 'obj' is already a true Unicode object (not a subtype), return a new *note strong reference: 338. to the object. Objects other than Unicode or its subtypes will cause a *note TypeError: 534. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (int ordinal) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode Object from the given Unicode code point 'ordinal'. The ordinal must be in ‘range(0x110000)’. A *note ValueError: 204. is raised in the case it is not. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (PyObject *obj, const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Decode an encoded object 'obj' to a Unicode object. *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 53a. and other *note bytes-like objects: d2d. are decoded according to the given 'encoding' and using the error handling defined by 'errors'. Both can be ‘NULL’ to have the interface use the default values (see *note Built-in Codecs: 4c71. for details). All other objects, including Unicode objects, cause a *note TypeError: 534. to be set. The API returns ‘NULL’ if there was an error. The caller is responsible for decref’ing the returned objects. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap (PyObject *string) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a mapping suitable for decoding a custom single-byte encoding. Given a Unicode string 'string' of up to 256 characters representing an encoding table, returns either a compact internal mapping object or a dictionary mapping character ordinals to byte values. Raises a *note TypeError: 534. and return ‘NULL’ on invalid input. .. versionadded:: 3.2 -- C Function: const char *PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the name of the default string encoding, ‘"utf-8"’. See *note sys.getdefaultencoding(): 4392. The returned string does not need to be freed, and is valid until interpreter shutdown. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_GetLength (PyObject *unicode) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return the length of the Unicode object, in code points. On error, set an exception and return ‘-1’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (PyObject *to, Py_ssize_t to_start, PyObject *from, Py_ssize_t from_start, Py_ssize_t how_many) Copy characters from one Unicode object into another. This function performs character conversion when necessary and falls back to ‘memcpy()’ if possible. Returns ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error, otherwise returns the number of copied characters. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_Fill (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t length, Py_UCS4 fill_char) Fill a string with a character: write 'fill_char' into ‘unicode[start:start+length]’. Fail if 'fill_char' is bigger than the string maximum character, or if the string has more than 1 reference. Return the number of written character, or return ‘-1’ and raise an exception on error. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_WriteChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index, Py_UCS4 character) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Write a character to a string. The string must have been created through *note PyUnicode_New(): 8aa. Since Unicode strings are supposed to be immutable, the string must not be shared, or have been hashed yet. This function checks that 'unicode' is a Unicode object, that the index is not out of bounds, and that the object can be modified safely (i.e. that it its reference count is one). Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. PyUnicode_ReadChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t index) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Read a character from a string. This function checks that 'unicode' is a Unicode object and the index is not out of bounds, in contrast to *note PyUnicode_READ_CHAR(): 1176, which performs no error checking. Return character on success, ‘-1’ on error with an exception set. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Substring (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return a substring of 'unicode', from character index 'start' (included) to character index 'end' (excluded). Negative indices are not supported. On error, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (PyObject *unicode, Py_UCS4 *buffer, Py_ssize_t buflen, int copy_null) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Copy the string 'unicode' into a UCS4 buffer, including a null character, if 'copy_null' is set. Returns ‘NULL’ and sets an exception on error (in particular, a *note SystemError: 572. if 'buflen' is smaller than the length of 'unicode'). 'buffer' is returned on success. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note Py_UCS4: 29d. *PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (PyObject *unicode) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Copy the string 'unicode' into a new UCS4 buffer that is allocated using *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. If this fails, ‘NULL’ is returned with a *note MemoryError: 1576. set. The returned buffer always has an extra null code point appended. Added in version 3.3.  File: python.info, Node: Locale Encoding, Next: File System Encoding, Prev: Creating and accessing Unicode strings, Up: Unicode Objects 7.8.3.11 Locale Encoding ........................ The current locale encoding can be used to decode text from the operating system. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (const char *str, Py_ssize_t length, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Decode a string from UTF-8 on Android and VxWorks, or from the current locale encoding on other platforms. The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(1)). The decoder uses ‘"strict"’ error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’. 'str' must end with a null character but cannot contain embedded null characters. Use *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4abe. to decode a string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. See also ........ The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. function. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.7: The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on Android. Previously, *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. was used for the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for ‘strict’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (const char *str, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc9, but compute the string length using ‘strlen()’. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (PyObject *unicode, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Encode a Unicode object to UTF-8 on Android and VxWorks, or to the current locale encoding on other platforms. The supported error handlers are ‘"strict"’ and ‘"surrogateescape"’ ( PEP 383(2)). The encoder uses ‘"strict"’ error handler if 'errors' is ‘NULL’. Return a *note bytes: 1c2. object. 'unicode' cannot contain embedded null characters. Use *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a50. to encode a string to the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. This function ignores the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. See also ........ The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. function. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.7: The function now also uses the current locale encoding for the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler, except on Android. Previously, *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. was used for the ‘surrogateescape’, and the current locale encoding was used for ‘strict’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/  File: python.info, Node: File System Encoding, Next: wchar_t Support, Prev: Locale Encoding, Up: Unicode Objects 7.8.3.12 File System Encoding ............................. Functions encoding to and decoding from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. ( PEP 383(1) and PEP 529(2)). To encode file names to *note bytes: 1c2. during argument parsing, the ‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSConverter()’ as the conversion function: -- C Function: int PyUnicode_FSConverter (PyObject *obj, void *result) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' *note PyArg_Parse* converter: 8a7.: encode *note str: 447. objects – obtained directly or through the *note os.PathLike: c51. interface – to *note bytes: 1c2. using *note PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault(): 1a50.; *note bytes: 1c2. objects are output as-is. 'result' must be an address of a C variable of type *note PyObject: 334.* (or *note PyBytesObject: 78d.*). On success, set the variable to a new *note strong reference: 338. to a *note bytes object: 4c46. which must be released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value (*note Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4b6b.). Embedded null bytes are not allowed in the result. On failure, return ‘0’ with an exception set. If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, the function releases a strong reference stored in the variable referred by 'result' and returns ‘1’. Added in version 3.1. Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. To decode file names to *note str: 447. during argument parsing, the ‘"O&"’ converter should be used, passing ‘PyUnicode_FSDecoder()’ as the conversion function: -- C Function: int PyUnicode_FSDecoder (PyObject *obj, void *result) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' *note PyArg_Parse* converter: 8a7.: decode *note bytes: 1c2. objects – obtained either directly or indirectly through the *note os.PathLike: c51. interface – to *note str: 447. using *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4abe.; *note str: 447. objects are output as-is. 'result' must be an address of a C variable of type *note PyObject: 334.* (or *note PyUnicodeObject: 78f.*). On success, set the variable to a new *note strong reference: 338. to a *note Unicode object: 4c56. which must be released when it is no longer used and return a non-zero value (*note Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED: 4b6b.). Embedded null characters are not allowed in the result. On failure, return ‘0’ with an exception set. If 'obj' is ‘NULL’, release the strong reference to the object referred to by 'result' and return ‘1’. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.6: Accepts a *note path-like object: 2a2. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Decode a string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. If you need to decode a string from the current locale encoding, use *note PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize(): bc9. See also ........ The *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. function. Changed in version 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler: 537. is now used. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (const char *str) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Decode a null-terminated string from the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. If the string length is known, use *note PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize(): 4abe. Changed in version 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler: 537. is now used. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object to the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537, and return *note bytes: 1c2. Note that the resulting *note bytes: 1c2. object can contain null bytes. If you need to encode a string to the current locale encoding, use *note PyUnicode_EncodeLocale(): bca. See also ........ The *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8. function. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.6: The *note filesystem error handler: 537. is now used. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0383/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/  File: python.info, Node: wchar_t Support, Prev: File System Encoding, Up: Unicode Objects 7.8.3.13 wchar_t Support ........................ ‘wchar_t’ support for platforms which support it: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_FromWideChar (const wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object from the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr' of the given 'size'. Passing ‘-1’ as the 'size' indicates that the function must itself compute the length, using ‘wcslen()’. Return ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_AsWideChar (PyObject *unicode, wchar_t *wstr, Py_ssize_t size) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Copy the Unicode object contents into the ‘wchar_t’ buffer 'wstr'. At most 'size' ‘wchar_t’ characters are copied (excluding a possibly trailing null termination character). Return the number of ‘wchar_t’ characters copied or ‘-1’ in case of an error. When 'wstr' is ‘NULL’, instead return the 'size' that would be required to store all of 'unicode' including a terminating null. Note that the resulting wchar_t* string may or may not be null-terminated. It is the responsibility of the caller to make sure that the wchar_t* string is null-terminated in case this is required by the application. Also, note that the wchar_t* string might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with most C functions. -- C Function: wchar_t *PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Convert the Unicode object to a wide character string. The output string always ends with a null character. If 'size' is not ‘NULL’, write the number of wide characters (excluding the trailing null termination character) into '*size'. Note that the resulting ‘wchar_t’ string might contain null characters, which would cause the string to be truncated when used with most C functions. If 'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters a *note ValueError: 204. is raised. Returns a buffer allocated by *note PyMem_New: 14ef. (use *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. to free it) on success. On error, returns ‘NULL’ and '*size' is undefined. Raises a *note MemoryError: 1576. if memory allocation is failed. Added in version 3.2. Changed in version 3.7: Raises a *note ValueError: 204. if 'size' is ‘NULL’ and the wchar_t* string contains null characters.  File: python.info, Node: Built-in Codecs, Next: Methods and Slot Functions, Prev: Unicode Objects, Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs 7.8.3.14 Built-in Codecs ........................ Python provides a set of built-in codecs which are written in C for speed. All of these codecs are directly usable via the following functions. Many of the following APIs take two arguments encoding and errors, and they have the same semantics as the ones of the built-in *note str(): 447. string object constructor. Setting encoding to ‘NULL’ causes the default encoding to be used which is UTF-8. The file system calls should use *note PyUnicode_FSConverter(): d19. for encoding file names. This uses the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. internally. Error handling is set by errors which may also be set to ‘NULL’ meaning to use the default handling defined for the codec. Default error handling for all built-in codecs is “strict” (*note ValueError: 204. is raised). The codecs all use a similar interface. Only deviations from the following generic ones are documented for simplicity. * Menu: * Generic Codecs:: * UTF-8 Codecs:: * UTF-32 Codecs:: * UTF-16 Codecs:: * UTF-7 Codecs:: * Unicode-Escape Codecs:: * Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs:: * Latin-1 Codecs:: * ASCII Codecs:: * Character Map Codecs:: * MBCS codecs for Windows::  File: python.info, Node: Generic Codecs, Next: UTF-8 Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.15 Generic Codecs ....................... These are the generic codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Decode (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the encoded string 'str'. 'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name in the *note str(): 447. built-in function. The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (PyObject *unicode, const char *encoding, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object and return the result as Python bytes object. 'encoding' and 'errors' have the same meaning as the parameters of the same name in the Unicode *note encode(): 8d4. method. The codec to be used is looked up using the Python codec registry. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: UTF-8 Codecs, Next: UTF-32 Codecs, Prev: Generic Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.16 UTF-8 Codecs ..................... These are the UTF-8 codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the UTF-8 encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8(): 4aca. If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, trailing incomplete UTF-8 byte sequences will not be treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object using UTF-8 and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’). -- C Function: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode, Py_ssize_t *size) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Return a pointer to the UTF-8 encoding of the Unicode object, and store the size of the encoded representation (in bytes) in 'size'. The 'size' argument can be ‘NULL’; in this case no size will be stored. The returned buffer always has an extra null byte appended (not included in 'size'), regardless of whether there are any other null code points. On error, set an exception, set 'size' to ‘-1’ (if it’s not NULL) and return ‘NULL’. The function fails if the string contains surrogate code points (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’). This caches the UTF-8 representation of the string in the Unicode object, and subsequent calls will return a pointer to the same buffer. The caller is not responsible for deallocating the buffer. The buffer is deallocated and pointers to it become invalid when the Unicode object is garbage collected. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.7: The return type is now ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’. Changed in version 3.10: This function is a part of the *note limited API: 391. -- C Function: const char *PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (PyObject *unicode) As *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 897, but does not store the size. Warning: This function does not have any special behavior for null characters(1) embedded within 'unicode'. As a result, strings containing null characters will remain in the returned string, which some C functions might interpret as the end of the string, leading to truncation. If truncation is an issue, it is recommended to use *note PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize(): 897. instead. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.7: The return type is now ‘const char *’ rather of ‘char *’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_character  File: python.info, Node: UTF-32 Codecs, Next: UTF-16 Codecs, Prev: UTF-8 Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.17 UTF-32 Codecs ...................... These are the UTF-32 codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-32 encoded buffer string and return the corresponding Unicode object. 'errors' (if non-‘NULL’) defines the error handling. It defaults to “strict”. If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte order: *byteorder == -1: little endian *byteorder == 0: native order *byteorder == 1: big endian If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first four bytes of the input data are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string. If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to the output. After completion, '*byteorder' is set to the current byte order at the end of input data. If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32(): 4ac6. If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful(): 4ac7. will not treat trailing incomplete UTF-32 byte sequences (such as a number of bytes not divisible by four) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a Python byte string using the UTF-32 encoding in native byte order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: UTF-16 Codecs, Next: UTF-7 Codecs, Prev: UTF-32 Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.18 UTF-16 Codecs ...................... These are the UTF-16 codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Decode 'size' bytes from a UTF-16 encoded buffer string and return the corresponding Unicode object. 'errors' (if non-‘NULL’) defines the error handling. It defaults to “strict”. If 'byteorder' is non-‘NULL’, the decoder starts decoding using the given byte order: *byteorder == -1: little endian *byteorder == 0: native order *byteorder == 1: big endian If ‘*byteorder’ is zero, and the first two bytes of the input data are a byte order mark (BOM), the decoder switches to this byte order and the BOM is not copied into the resulting Unicode string. If ‘*byteorder’ is ‘-1’ or ‘1’, any byte order mark is copied to the output (where it will result in either a ‘\ufeff’ or a ‘\ufffe’ character). After completion, ‘*byteorder’ is set to the current byte order at the end of input data. If 'byteorder' is ‘NULL’, the codec starts in native order mode. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, int *byteorder, Py_ssize_t *consumed) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16(): 4ac4. If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful(): 4ac5. will not treat trailing incomplete UTF-16 byte sequences (such as an odd number of bytes or a split surrogate pair) as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a Python byte string using the UTF-16 encoding in native byte order. The string always starts with a BOM mark. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: UTF-7 Codecs, Next: Unicode-Escape Codecs, Prev: UTF-16 Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.19 UTF-7 Codecs ..................... These are the UTF-7 codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the UTF-7 encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7(): 4ac8. If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, trailing incomplete UTF-7 base-64 sections will not be treated as an error. Those bytes will not be decoded and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode-Escape Codecs, Next: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs, Prev: UTF-7 Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.20 Unicode-Escape Codecs .............................. These are the “Unicode Escape” codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object using Unicode-Escape and return the result as a bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs, Next: Latin-1 Codecs, Prev: Unicode-Escape Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.21 Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs .................................. These are the “Raw Unicode Escape” codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the Raw-Unicode-Escape encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object using Raw-Unicode-Escape and return the result as a bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: Latin-1 Codecs, Next: ASCII Codecs, Prev: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.22 Latin-1 Codecs ....................... These are the Latin-1 codec APIs: Latin-1 corresponds to the first 256 Unicode ordinals and only these are accepted by the codecs during encoding. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the Latin-1 encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object using Latin-1 and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: ASCII Codecs, Next: Character Map Codecs, Prev: Latin-1 Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.23 ASCII Codecs ..................... These are the ASCII codec APIs. Only 7-bit ASCII data is accepted. All other codes generate errors. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the ASCII encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object using ASCII and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec.  File: python.info, Node: Character Map Codecs, Next: MBCS codecs for Windows, Prev: ASCII Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.24 Character Map Codecs ............................. This codec is special in that it can be used to implement many different codecs (and this is in fact what was done to obtain most of the standard codecs included in the ‘encodings’ package). The codec uses mappings to encode and decode characters. The mapping objects provided must support the *note __getitem__(): 285. mapping interface; dictionaries and sequences work well. These are the mapping codec APIs: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (const char *str, Py_ssize_t length, PyObject *mapping, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the encoded string 'str' using the given 'mapping' object. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. If 'mapping' is ‘NULL’, Latin-1 decoding will be applied. Else 'mapping' must map bytes ordinals (integers in the range from 0 to 255) to Unicode strings, integers (which are then interpreted as Unicode ordinals) or ‘None’. Unmapped data bytes – ones which cause a *note LookupError: 21cc, as well as ones which get mapped to ‘None’, ‘0xFFFE’ or ‘'\ufffe'’, are treated as undefined mappings and cause an error. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *mapping) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Encode a Unicode object using the given 'mapping' object and return the result as a bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. The 'mapping' object must map Unicode ordinal integers to bytes objects, integers in the range from 0 to 255 or ‘None’. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 21cc.) as well as mapped to ‘None’ are treated as “undefined mapping” and cause an error. The following codec API is special in that maps Unicode to Unicode. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Translate (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *table, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Translate a string by applying a character mapping table to it and return the resulting Unicode object. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. The mapping table must map Unicode ordinal integers to Unicode ordinal integers or ‘None’ (causing deletion of the character). Mapping tables need only provide the *note __getitem__(): 285. interface; dictionaries and sequences work well. Unmapped character ordinals (ones which cause a *note LookupError: 21cc.) are left untouched and are copied as-is. 'errors' has the usual meaning for codecs. It may be ‘NULL’ which indicates to use the default error handling.  File: python.info, Node: MBCS codecs for Windows, Prev: Character Map Codecs, Up: Built-in Codecs 7.8.3.25 MBCS codecs for Windows ................................ These are the MBCS codec APIs. They are currently only available on Windows and use the Win32 MBCS converters to implement the conversions. Note that MBCS (or DBCS) is a class of encodings, not just one. The target encoding is defined by the user settings on the machine running the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Create a Unicode object by decoding 'size' bytes of the MBCS encoded string 'str'. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' If 'consumed' is ‘NULL’, behave like *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS(): 4ac1. If 'consumed' is not ‘NULL’, *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4ac2. will not decode trailing lead byte and the number of bytes that have been decoded will be stored in 'consumed'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (int code_page, const char *str, Py_ssize_t size, const char *errors, Py_ssize_t *consumed) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Similar to *note PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful(): 4ac2, except uses the code page specified by 'code_page'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (PyObject *unicode) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Encode a Unicode object using MBCS and return the result as Python bytes object. Error handling is “strict”. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (int code_page, PyObject *unicode, const char *errors) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. on Windows since version 3.7.' Encode the Unicode object using the specified code page and return a Python bytes object. Return ‘NULL’ if an exception was raised by the codec. Use ‘CP_ACP’ code page to get the MBCS encoder. Added in version 3.3.  File: python.info, Node: Methods and Slot Functions, Prev: Built-in Codecs, Up: Unicode Objects and Codecs 7.8.3.26 Methods and Slot Functions ................................... The following APIs are capable of handling Unicode objects and strings on input (we refer to them as strings in the descriptions) and return Unicode objects or integers as appropriate. They all return ‘NULL’ or ‘-1’ if an exception occurs. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Concat (PyObject *left, PyObject *right) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Concat two strings giving a new Unicode string. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Split (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Split a string giving a list of Unicode strings. If 'sep' is ‘NULL’, splitting will be done at all whitespace substrings. Otherwise, splits occur at the given separator. At most 'maxsplit' splits will be done. If negative, no limit is set. Separators are not included in the resulting list. On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. Equivalent to *note str.split(): ea3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_RSplit (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep, Py_ssize_t maxsplit) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyUnicode_Split(): 4ad6, but splitting will be done beginning at the end of the string. On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. Equivalent to *note str.rsplit(): 1249. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Splitlines (PyObject *unicode, int keepends) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Split a Unicode string at line breaks, returning a list of Unicode strings. CRLF is considered to be one line break. If 'keepends' is ‘0’, the Line break characters are not included in the resulting strings. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Partition (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Split a Unicode string at the first occurrence of 'sep', and return a 3-tuple containing the part before the separator, the separator itself, and the part after the separator. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing the string itself, followed by two empty strings. 'sep' must not be empty. On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. Equivalent to *note str.partition(): ea4. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_RPartition (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *sep) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyUnicode_Partition(): 156f, but split a Unicode string at the last occurrence of 'sep'. If the separator is not found, return a 3-tuple containing two empty strings, followed by the string itself. 'sep' must not be empty. On error, return ‘NULL’ with an exception set. Equivalent to *note str.rpartition(): 124c. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Join (PyObject *separator, PyObject *seq) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Join a sequence of strings using the given 'separator' and return the resulting Unicode string. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_Tailmatch (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if 'substr' matches ‘unicode[start:end]’ at the given tail end ('direction' == ‘-1’ means to do a prefix match, 'direction' == ‘1’ a suffix match), ‘0’ otherwise. Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_Find (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the first position of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction' ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' == ‘-1’ a backward search). The return value is the index of the first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_FindChar (PyObject *unicode, Py_UCS4 ch, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end, int direction) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return the first position of the character 'ch' in ‘unicode[start:end]’ using the given 'direction' ('direction' == ‘1’ means to do a forward search, 'direction' == ‘-1’ a backward search). The return value is the index of the first match; a value of ‘-1’ indicates that no match was found, and ‘-2’ indicates that an error occurred and an exception has been set. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.7: 'start' and 'end' are now adjusted to behave like ‘unicode[start:end]’. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnicode_Count (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, Py_ssize_t start, Py_ssize_t end) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the number of non-overlapping occurrences of 'substr' in ‘unicode[start:end]’. Return ‘-1’ if an error occurred. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Replace (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr, PyObject *replstr, Py_ssize_t maxcount) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Replace at most 'maxcount' occurrences of 'substr' in 'unicode' with 'replstr' and return the resulting Unicode object. 'maxcount' == ‘-1’ means replace all occurrences. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_Compare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compare two strings and return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than, equal, and greater than, respectively. This function returns ‘-1’ upon failure, so one should call *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to check for errors. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (PyObject *unicode, const char *string, Py_ssize_t size) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Compare a Unicode object with a char buffer which is interpreted as being UTF-8 or ASCII encoded and return true (‘1’) if they are equal, or false (‘0’) otherwise. If the Unicode object contains surrogate code points (‘U+D800’ - ‘U+DFFF’) or the C string is not valid UTF-8, false (‘0’) is returned. This function does not raise exceptions. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (PyObject *unicode, const char *string) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Similar to *note PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize(): 371, but compute 'string' length using ‘strlen()’. If the Unicode object contains null characters, false (‘0’) is returned. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (PyObject *unicode, const char *string) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Compare a Unicode object, 'unicode', with 'string' and return ‘-1’, ‘0’, ‘1’ for less than, equal, and greater than, respectively. It is best to pass only ASCII-encoded strings, but the function interprets the input string as ISO-8859-1 if it contains non-ASCII characters. This function does not raise exceptions. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_RichCompare (PyObject *left, PyObject *right, int op) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Rich compare two Unicode strings and return one of the following: * ‘NULL’ in case an exception was raised * *note Py_True: 4c26. or *note Py_False: 4c25. for successful comparisons * *note Py_NotImplemented: 4b9b. in case the type combination is unknown Possible values for 'op' are *note Py_GT: 4ba3, *note Py_GE: 4ba4, *note Py_EQ: 4ba1, *note Py_NE: 4ba2, *note Py_LT: 4b9f, and *note Py_LE: 4ba0. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_Format (PyObject *format, PyObject *args) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new string object from 'format' and 'args'; this is analogous to ‘format % args’. -- C Function: int PyUnicode_Contains (PyObject *unicode, PyObject *substr) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Check whether 'substr' is contained in 'unicode' and return true or false accordingly. 'substr' has to coerce to a one element Unicode string. ‘-1’ is returned if there was an error. -- C Function: void PyUnicode_InternInPlace (PyObject **p_unicode) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Intern the argument **note p_unicode: 8b0. in place. The argument must be the address of a pointer variable pointing to a Python Unicode string object. If there is an existing interned string that is the same as **note p_unicode: 8b0, it sets **note p_unicode: 8b0. to it (releasing the reference to the old string object and creating a new *note strong reference: 338. to the interned string object), otherwise it leaves **note p_unicode: 8b0. alone and interns it. (Clarification: even though there is a lot of talk about references, think of this function as reference-neutral. You must own the object you pass in; after the call you no longer own the passed-in reference, but you newly own the result.) This function never raises an exception. On error, it leaves its argument unchanged without interning it. Instances of subclasses of *note str: 447. may not be interned, that is, *note PyUnicode_CheckExact: 4c5a.(**note p_unicode: 8b0.) must be true. If it is not, then – as with any other error – the argument is left unchanged. Note that interned strings are not “immortal”. You must keep a reference to the result to benefit from interning. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnicode_InternFromString (const char *str) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' A combination of *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. and *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8b0, meant for statically allocated strings. Return a new (“owned”) reference to either a new Unicode string object that has been interned, or an earlier interned string object with the same value. Python may keep a reference to the result, or make it *note immortal: 4394, preventing it from being garbage-collected promptly. For interning an unbounded number of different strings, such as ones coming from user input, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. and *note PyUnicode_InternInPlace(): 8b0. directly.  File: python.info, Node: Tuple Objects, Next: Struct Sequence Objects, Prev: Unicode Objects and Codecs, Up: Sequence Objects 7.8.3.27 Tuple Objects ...................... -- C Type: type PyTupleObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python tuple object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyTuple_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python tuple type; it is the same object as *note tuple: 36b. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyTuple_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a tuple object or an instance of a subtype of the tuple type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyTuple_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a tuple object, but not an instance of a subtype of the tuple type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTuple_New (Py_ssize_t len) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new tuple object of size 'len', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTuple_Pack (Py_ssize_t n, ...) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new tuple object of size 'n', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. The tuple values are initialized to the subsequent 'n' C arguments pointing to Python objects. ‘PyTuple_Pack(2, a, b)’ is equivalent to ‘Py_BuildValue("(OO)", a, b)’. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyTuple_Size (PyObject *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Take a pointer to a tuple object, and return the size of that tuple. On error, return ‘-1’ and with an exception set. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyTuple_GET_SIZE (PyObject *p) Like *note PyTuple_Size(): 4a97, but without error checking. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTuple_GetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the object at position 'pos' in the tuple pointed to by 'p'. If 'pos' is negative or out of bounds, return ‘NULL’ and set an *note IndexError: 14ff. exception. The returned reference is borrowed from the tuple 'p' (that is: it is only valid as long as you hold a reference to 'p'). To get a *note strong reference: 338, use *note Py_NewRef(PyTuple_GetItem(...)): 898. or *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTuple_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Like *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d2, but does no checking of its arguments. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTuple_GetSlice (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the slice of the tuple pointed to by 'p' between 'low' and 'high', or ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. This is the equivalent of the Python expression ‘p[low:high]’. Indexing from the end of the tuple is not supported. -- C Function: int PyTuple_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Insert a reference to object 'o' at position 'pos' of the tuple pointed to by 'p'. Return ‘0’ on success. If 'pos' is out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an *note IndexError: 14ff. exception. Note: This function “steals” a reference to 'o' and discards a reference to an item already in the tuple at the affected position. -- C Function: void PyTuple_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o) Like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3, but does no error checking, and should 'only' be used to fill in brand new tuples. Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in *note debug mode: 1fb. or *note with assertions: 387. Note: This function “steals” a reference to 'o', and, unlike *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3, does 'not' discard a reference to any item that is being replaced; any reference in the tuple at position 'pos' will be leaked. -- C Function: int _PyTuple_Resize (PyObject **p, Py_ssize_t newsize) Can be used to resize a tuple. 'newsize' will be the new length of the tuple. Because tuples are 'supposed' to be immutable, this should only be used if there is only one reference to the object. Do 'not' use this if the tuple may already be known to some other part of the code. The tuple will always grow or shrink at the end. Think of this as destroying the old tuple and creating a new one, only more efficiently. Returns ‘0’ on success. Client code should never assume that the resulting value of ‘*p’ will be the same as before calling this function. If the object referenced by ‘*p’ is replaced, the original ‘*p’ is destroyed. On failure, returns ‘-1’ and sets ‘*p’ to ‘NULL’, and raises *note MemoryError: 1576. or *note SystemError: 572.  File: python.info, Node: Struct Sequence Objects, Next: List Objects, Prev: Tuple Objects, Up: Sequence Objects 7.8.3.28 Struct Sequence Objects ................................ Struct sequence objects are the C equivalent of *note namedtuple(): 1ca. objects, i.e. a sequence whose items can also be accessed through attributes. To create a struct sequence, you first have to create a specific struct sequence type. -- C Function: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. *PyStructSequence_NewType (PyStructSequence_Desc *desc) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new struct sequence type from the data in 'desc', described below. Instances of the resulting type can be created with *note PyStructSequence_New(): 4a87. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. -- C Function: void PyStructSequence_InitType (PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc) Initializes a struct sequence type 'type' from 'desc' in place. -- C Function: int PyStructSequence_InitType2 (PyTypeObject *type, PyStructSequence_Desc *desc) Like *note PyStructSequence_InitType(): ffc, but returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ with an exception set on failure. Added in version 3.4. -- C Type: type PyStructSequence_Desc ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Contains the meta information of a struct sequence type to create. -- C Member: const char *name Fully qualified name of the type; null-terminated UTF-8 encoded. The name must contain the module name. -- C Member: const char *doc Pointer to docstring for the type or ‘NULL’ to omit. -- C Member: *note PyStructSequence_Field: bb9. *fields Pointer to ‘NULL’-terminated array with field names of the new type. -- C Member: int n_in_sequence Number of fields visible to the Python side (if used as tuple). -- C Type: type PyStructSequence_Field ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Describes a field of a struct sequence. As a struct sequence is modeled as a tuple, all fields are typed as *note PyObject: 334.*. The index in the *note fields: 4c8d. array of the *note PyStructSequence_Desc: bba. determines which field of the struct sequence is described. -- C Member: const char *name Name for the field or ‘NULL’ to end the list of named fields, set to *note PyStructSequence_UnnamedField: 982. to leave unnamed. -- C Member: const char *doc Field docstring or ‘NULL’ to omit. -- C Variable: const char *const PyStructSequence_UnnamedField ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Special value for a field name to leave it unnamed. Changed in version 3.9: The type was changed from ‘char *’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyStructSequence_New (PyTypeObject *type) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Creates an instance of 'type', which must have been created with *note PyStructSequence_NewType(): 4a88. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyStructSequence_GetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the object at position 'pos' in the struct sequence pointed to by 'p'. Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in *note debug mode: 1fb. or *note with assertions: 387. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Alias to *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 4a86. Changed in version 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to *note PyStructSequence_GetItem(): 4a86. -- C Function: void PyStructSequence_SetItem (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t pos, PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Sets the field at index 'pos' of the struct sequence 'p' to value 'o'. Like *note PyTuple_SET_ITEM(): 388, this should only be used to fill in brand new instances. Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in *note debug mode: 1fb. or *note with assertions: 387. Note: This function “steals” a reference to 'o'. -- C Function: void PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *pos, PyObject *o) Alias to *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4a89. Changed in version 3.13: Now implemented as an alias to *note PyStructSequence_SetItem(): 4a89.  File: python.info, Node: List Objects, Prev: Struct Sequence Objects, Up: Sequence Objects 7.8.3.29 List Objects ..................... -- C Type: type PyListObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python list object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyList_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python list type. This is the same object as *note list: 60d. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyList_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a list object or an instance of a subtype of the list type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyList_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a list object, but not an instance of a subtype of the list type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyList_New (Py_ssize_t len) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new list of length 'len' on success, or ‘NULL’ on failure. Note: If 'len' is greater than zero, the returned list object’s items are set to ‘NULL’. Thus you cannot use abstract API functions such as *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a53. or expose the object to Python code before setting all items to a real object with *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. or *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 389. The following APIs are safe APIs before the list is fully initialized: *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. and *note PyList_SET_ITEM(): 389. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyList_Size (PyObject *list) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the length of the list object in 'list'; this is equivalent to ‘len(list)’ on a list object. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyList_GET_SIZE (PyObject *list) Similar to *note PyList_Size(): 13e5, but without error checking. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyList_GetItemRef (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return the object at position 'index' in the list pointed to by 'list'. The position must be non-negative; indexing from the end of the list is not supported. If 'index' is out of bounds (‘<0 or >=len(list)’), return ‘NULL’ and set an *note IndexError: 14ff. exception. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyList_GetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Like *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 356, but returns a *note borrowed reference: 339. instead of a *note strong reference: 338. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyList_GET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Similar to *note PyList_GetItem(): 357, but without error checking. -- C Function: int PyList_SetItem (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the item at index 'index' in list to 'item'. Return ‘0’ on success. If 'index' is out of bounds, return ‘-1’ and set an *note IndexError: 14ff. exception. Note: This function “steals” a reference to 'item' and discards a reference to an item already in the list at the affected position. -- C Function: void PyList_SET_ITEM (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t i, PyObject *o) Macro form of *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577. without error checking. This is normally only used to fill in new lists where there is no previous content. Bounds checking is performed as an assertion if Python is built in *note debug mode: 1fb. or *note with assertions: 387. Note: This macro “steals” a reference to 'item', and, unlike *note PyList_SetItem(): 1577, does 'not' discard a reference to any item that is being replaced; any reference in 'list' at position 'i' will be leaked. -- C Function: int PyList_Insert (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t index, PyObject *item) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Insert the item 'item' into list 'list' in front of index 'index'. Return ‘0’ if successful; return ‘-1’ and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to ‘list.insert(index, item)’. -- C Function: int PyList_Append (PyObject *list, PyObject *item) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Append the object 'item' at the end of list 'list'. Return ‘0’ if successful; return ‘-1’ and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to ‘list.append(item)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyList_GetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a list of the objects in 'list' containing the objects 'between' 'low' and 'high'. Return ‘NULL’ and set an exception if unsuccessful. Analogous to ‘list[low:high]’. Indexing from the end of the list is not supported. -- C Function: int PyList_SetSlice (PyObject *list, Py_ssize_t low, Py_ssize_t high, PyObject *itemlist) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the slice of 'list' between 'low' and 'high' to the contents of 'itemlist'. Analogous to ‘list[low:high] = itemlist’. The 'itemlist' may be ‘NULL’, indicating the assignment of an empty list (slice deletion). Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. Indexing from the end of the list is not supported. -- C Function: int PyList_Extend (PyObject *list, PyObject *iterable) Extend 'list' with the contents of 'iterable'. This is the same as ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, iterable)’ and analogous to ‘list.extend(iterable)’ or ‘list += iterable’. Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list: 60d. object. Return 0 on success. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyList_Clear (PyObject *list) Remove all items from 'list'. This is the same as ‘PyList_SetSlice(list, 0, PY_SSIZE_T_MAX, NULL)’ and analogous to ‘list.clear()’ or ‘del list[:]’. Raise an exception and return ‘-1’ if 'list' is not a *note list: 60d. object. Return 0 on success. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyList_Sort (PyObject *list) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Sort the items of 'list' in place. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. This is equivalent to ‘list.sort()’. -- C Function: int PyList_Reverse (PyObject *list) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Reverse the items of 'list' in place. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on failure. This is the equivalent of ‘list.reverse()’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyList_AsTuple (PyObject *list) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new tuple object containing the contents of 'list'; equivalent to ‘tuple(list)’.  File: python.info, Node: Container Objects, Next: Function Objects<2>, Prev: Sequence Objects, Up: Concrete Objects Layer 7.8.4 Container Objects ----------------------- * Menu: * Dictionary Objects:: * Set Objects::  File: python.info, Node: Dictionary Objects, Next: Set Objects, Up: Container Objects 7.8.4.1 Dictionary Objects .......................... -- C Type: type PyDictObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python dictionary object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyDict_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python dictionary type. This is the same object as *note dict: 258. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PyDict_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a dict object or an instance of a subtype of the dict type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyDict_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a dict object, but not an instance of a subtype of the dict type. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_New () 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new empty dictionary, or ‘NULL’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDictProxy_New (PyObject *mapping) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a *note types.MappingProxyType: 469. object for a mapping which enforces read-only behavior. This is normally used to create a view to prevent modification of the dictionary for non-dynamic class types. -- C Function: void PyDict_Clear (PyObject *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Empty an existing dictionary of all key-value pairs. -- C Function: int PyDict_Contains (PyObject *p, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Determine if dictionary 'p' contains 'key'. If an item in 'p' is matches 'key', return ‘1’, otherwise return ‘0’. On error, return ‘-1’. This is equivalent to the Python expression ‘key in p’. -- C Function: int PyDict_ContainsString (PyObject *p, const char *key) This is the same as *note PyDict_Contains(): 333, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_Copy (PyObject *p) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new dictionary that contains the same key-value pairs as 'p'. -- C Function: int PyDict_SetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *val) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Insert 'val' into the dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key'. 'key' must be *note hashable: 60c.; if it isn’t, *note TypeError: 534. will be raised. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure. This function 'does not' steal a reference to 'val'. -- C Function: int PyDict_SetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject *val) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyDict_SetItem(): 48d4, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: int PyDict_DelItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Remove the entry in dictionary 'p' with key 'key'. 'key' must be *note hashable: 60c.; if it isn’t, *note TypeError: 534. is raised. If 'key' is not in the dictionary, *note KeyError: 33f. is raised. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: int PyDict_DelItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyDict_DelItem(): 4999, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: int PyDict_GetItemRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject **result) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return a new *note strong reference: 338. to the object from dictionary 'p' which has a key 'key': * If the key is present, set '*result' to a new *note strong reference: 338. to the value and return ‘1’. * If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ and return ‘0’. * On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’. Added in version 3.13. See also the *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. function. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_GetItem (PyObject *p, PyObject *key) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a *note borrowed reference: 339. to the object from dictionary 'p' which has a key 'key'. Return ‘NULL’ if the key 'key' is missing 'without' setting an exception. Note: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__(): afb. and *note __eq__(): afa. methods are silently ignored. Prefer the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 337. function instead. Changed in version 3.10: Calling this API without *note GIL: 159. held had been allowed for historical reason. It is no longer allowed. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_GetItemWithError (PyObject *p, PyObject *key) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Variant of *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382. that does not suppress exceptions. Return ‘NULL’ 'with' an exception set if an exception occurred. Return ‘NULL’ 'without' an exception set if the key wasn’t present. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_GetItemString (PyObject *p, const char *key) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Note: Exceptions that occur while this calls *note __hash__(): afb. and *note __eq__(): afa. methods or while creating the temporary *note str: 447. object are silently ignored. Prefer using the *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 337. function with your own *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. 'key' instead. -- C Function: int PyDict_GetItemStringRef (PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject **result) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Similar to *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 335, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_SetDefault (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *defaultobj) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' This is the same as the Python-level *note dict.setdefault(): 1072. If present, it returns the value corresponding to 'key' from the dictionary 'p'. If the key is not in the dict, it is inserted with value 'defaultobj' and 'defaultobj' is returned. This function evaluates the hash function of 'key' only once, instead of evaluating it independently for the lookup and the insertion. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: int PyDict_SetDefaultRef (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject *default_value, PyObject **result) Inserts 'default_value' into the dictionary 'p' with a key of 'key' if the key is not already present in the dictionary. If 'result' is not ‘NULL’, then '*result' is set to a *note strong reference: 338. to either 'default_value', if the key was not present, or the existing value, if 'key' was already present in the dictionary. Returns ‘1’ if the key was present and 'default_value' was not inserted, or ‘0’ if the key was not present and 'default_value' was inserted. On failure, returns ‘-1’, sets an exception, and sets ‘*result’ to ‘NULL’. For clarity: if you have a strong reference to 'default_value' before calling this function, then after it returns, you hold a strong reference to both 'default_value' and '*result' (if it’s not ‘NULL’). These may refer to the same object: in that case you hold two separate references to it. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyDict_Pop (PyObject *p, PyObject *key, PyObject **result) Remove 'key' from dictionary 'p' and optionally return the removed value. Do not raise *note KeyError: 33f. if the key missing. - If the key is present, set '*result' to a new reference to the removed value if 'result' is not ‘NULL’, and return ‘1’. - If the key is missing, set '*result' to ‘NULL’ if 'result' is not ‘NULL’, and return ‘0’. - On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’. Similar to *note dict.pop(): 33e, but without the default value and not raising *note KeyError: 33f. if the key missing. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyDict_PopString (PyObject *p, const char *key, PyObject **result) Similar to *note PyDict_Pop(): 33c, but 'key' is specified as a const char* UTF-8 encoded bytes string, rather than a *note PyObject: 334.*. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_Items (PyObject *p) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a *note PyListObject: 4bba. containing all the items from the dictionary. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_Keys (PyObject *p) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a *note PyListObject: 4bba. containing all the keys from the dictionary. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDict_Values (PyObject *p) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a *note PyListObject: 4bba. containing all the values from the dictionary 'p'. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyDict_Size (PyObject *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the number of items in the dictionary. This is equivalent to ‘len(p)’ on a dictionary. -- C Function: int PyDict_Next (PyObject *p, Py_ssize_t *ppos, PyObject **pkey, PyObject **pvalue) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Iterate over all key-value pairs in the dictionary 'p'. The *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. referred to by 'ppos' must be initialized to ‘0’ prior to the first call to this function to start the iteration; the function returns true for each pair in the dictionary, and false once all pairs have been reported. The parameters 'pkey' and 'pvalue' should either point to *note PyObject: 334.* variables that will be filled in with each key and value, respectively, or may be ‘NULL’. Any references returned through them are borrowed. 'ppos' should not be altered during iteration. Its value represents offsets within the internal dictionary structure, and since the structure is sparse, the offsets are not consecutive. For example: PyObject *key, *value; Py_ssize_t pos = 0; while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) { /* do something interesting with the values... */ ... } The dictionary 'p' should not be mutated during iteration. It is safe to modify the values of the keys as you iterate over the dictionary, but only so long as the set of keys does not change. For example: PyObject *key, *value; Py_ssize_t pos = 0; while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) { long i = PyLong_AsLong(value); if (i == -1 && PyErr_Occurred()) { return -1; } PyObject *o = PyLong_FromLong(i + 1); if (o == NULL) return -1; if (PyDict_SetItem(self->dict, key, o) < 0) { Py_DECREF(o); return -1; } Py_DECREF(o); } The function is not thread-safe in the *note free-threaded: 1522. build without external synchronization. You can use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 4c9f. to lock the dictionary while iterating over it: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self->dict); while (PyDict_Next(self->dict, &pos, &key, &value)) { ... } Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION(); -- C Function: int PyDict_Merge (PyObject *a, PyObject *b, int override) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Iterate over mapping object 'b' adding key-value pairs to dictionary 'a'. 'b' may be a dictionary, or any object supporting *note PyMapping_Keys(): bbc. and *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. If 'override' is true, existing pairs in 'a' will be replaced if a matching key is found in 'b', otherwise pairs will only be added if there is not a matching key in 'a'. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised. -- C Function: int PyDict_Update (PyObject *a, PyObject *b) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the same as ‘PyDict_Merge(a, b, 1)’ in C, and is similar to ‘a.update(b)’ in Python except that *note PyDict_Update(): 49a2. doesn’t fall back to the iterating over a sequence of key value pairs if the second argument has no “keys” attribute. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised. -- C Function: int PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (PyObject *a, PyObject *seq2, int override) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Update or merge into dictionary 'a', from the key-value pairs in 'seq2'. 'seq2' must be an iterable object producing iterable objects of length 2, viewed as key-value pairs. In case of duplicate keys, the last wins if 'override' is true, else the first wins. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ if an exception was raised. Equivalent Python (except for the return value): def PyDict_MergeFromSeq2(a, seq2, override): for key, value in seq2: if override or key not in a: a[key] = value -- C Function: int PyDict_AddWatcher (PyDict_WatchCallback callback) Register 'callback' as a dictionary watcher. Return a non-negative integer id which must be passed to future calls to *note PyDict_Watch(): 560. In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyDict_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id) Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55f. Return ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ on error (e.g. if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.) Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyDict_Watch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict) Mark dictionary 'dict' as watched. The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55f. will be called when 'dict' is modified or deallocated. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyDict_Unwatch (int watcher_id, PyObject *dict) Mark dictionary 'dict' as no longer watched. The callback granted 'watcher_id' by *note PyDict_AddWatcher(): 55f. will no longer be called when 'dict' is modified or deallocated. The dict must previously have been watched by this watcher. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on error. Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: type PyDict_WatchEvent Enumeration of possible dictionary watcher events: ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’, ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’, or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’. Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: typedef int (*PyDict_WatchCallback)(*note PyDict_WatchEvent: 4ca2. event, *note PyObject: 334. *dict, *note PyObject: 334. *key, *note PyObject: 334. *new_value) Type of a dict watcher callback function. If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLEARED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, both 'key' and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’. If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ or ‘PyDict_EVENT_MODIFIED’, 'new_value' will be the new value for 'key'. If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DELETED’, 'key' is being deleted from the dictionary and 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’. ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ occurs when 'dict' was previously empty and another dict is merged into it. To maintain efficiency of this operation, per-key ‘PyDict_EVENT_ADDED’ events are not issued in this case; instead a single ‘PyDict_EVENT_CLONED’ is issued, and 'key' will be the source dictionary. The callback may inspect but must not modify 'dict'; doing so could have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion. Do not trigger Python code execution in the callback, as it could modify the dict as a side effect. If 'event' is ‘PyDict_EVENT_DEALLOCATED’, taking a new reference in the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed dictionary will resurrect it and prevent it from being freed at this time. When the resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that time will be called again. Callbacks occur before the notified modification to 'dict' takes place, so the prior state of 'dict' can be inspected. If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 34a. Otherwise it should return ‘0’. There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Set Objects, Prev: Dictionary Objects, Up: Container Objects 7.8.4.2 Set Objects ................... This section details the public API for *note set: 5d5. and *note frozenset: 5d6. objects. Any functionality not listed below is best accessed using either the abstract object protocol (including *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b, *note PyObject_RichCompareBool(): 19a2, *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff, *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028, *note PyObject_IsTrue(): 4a64, *note PyObject_Print(): 15f2, and *note PyObject_GetIter(): 4a63.) or the abstract number protocol (including *note PyNumber_And(): 4a37, *note PyNumber_Subtract(): 4a50, *note PyNumber_Or(): 4a4b, *note PyNumber_Xor(): 4a52, *note PyNumber_InPlaceAnd(): 4a3c, *note PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract(): 4a44, *note PyNumber_InPlaceOr(): 4a40, and *note PyNumber_InPlaceXor(): 4a46.). -- C Type: type PySetObject This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. is used to hold the internal data for both *note set: 5d5. and *note frozenset: 5d6. objects. It is like a *note PyDictObject: 3bd. in that it is a fixed size for small sets (much like tuple storage) and will point to a separate, variable sized block of memory for medium and large sized sets (much like list storage). None of the fields of this structure should be considered public and all are subject to change. All access should be done through the documented API rather than by manipulating the values in the structure. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PySet_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. representing the Python *note set: 5d5. type. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyFrozenSet_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. representing the Python *note frozenset: 5d6. type. The following type check macros work on pointers to any Python object. Likewise, the constructor functions work with any iterable Python object. -- C Function: int PySet_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5d5. object or an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyFrozenSet_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 5d6. object or an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyAnySet_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5d5. object, a *note frozenset: 5d6. object, or an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5d5. object but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int PyAnySet_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a *note set: 5d5. object or a *note frozenset: 5d6. object but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a *note frozenset: 5d6. object but not an instance of a subtype. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySet_New (PyObject *iterable) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note set: 5d5. containing objects returned by the 'iterable'. The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create a new empty set. Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on failure. Raise *note TypeError: 534. if 'iterable' is not actually iterable. The constructor is also useful for copying a set (‘c=set(s)’). -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrozenSet_New (PyObject *iterable) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new *note frozenset: 5d6. containing objects returned by the 'iterable'. The 'iterable' may be ‘NULL’ to create a new empty frozenset. Return the new set on success or ‘NULL’ on failure. Raise *note TypeError: 534. if 'iterable' is not actually iterable. The following functions and macros are available for instances of *note set: 5d5. or *note frozenset: 5d6. or instances of their subtypes. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySet_Size (PyObject *anyset) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the length of a *note set: 5d5. or *note frozenset: 5d6. object. Equivalent to ‘len(anyset)’. Raises a *note SystemError: 572. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 5d5, *note frozenset: 5d6, or an instance of a subtype. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySet_GET_SIZE (PyObject *anyset) Macro form of *note PySet_Size(): 1415. without error checking. -- C Function: int PySet_Contains (PyObject *anyset, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if found, ‘0’ if not found, and ‘-1’ if an error is encountered. Unlike the Python *note __contains__(): 1f5e. method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets. Raise a *note TypeError: 534. if the 'key' is unhashable. Raise *note SystemError: 572. if 'anyset' is not a *note set: 5d5, *note frozenset: 5d6, or an instance of a subtype. -- C Function: int PySet_Add (PyObject *set, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Add 'key' to a *note set: 5d5. instance. Also works with *note frozenset: 5d6. instances (like *note PyTuple_SetItem(): 48d3. it can be used to fill in the values of brand new frozensets before they are exposed to other code). Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure. Raise a *note TypeError: 534. if the 'key' is unhashable. Raise a *note MemoryError: 1576. if there is no room to grow. Raise a *note SystemError: 572. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 5d5. or its subtype. The following functions are available for instances of *note set: 5d5. or its subtypes but not for instances of *note frozenset: 5d6. or its subtypes. -- C Function: int PySet_Discard (PyObject *set, PyObject *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return ‘1’ if found and removed, ‘0’ if not found (no action taken), and ‘-1’ if an error is encountered. Does not raise *note KeyError: 33f. for missing keys. Raise a *note TypeError: 534. if the 'key' is unhashable. Unlike the Python *note discard(): 223d. method, this function does not automatically convert unhashable sets into temporary frozensets. Raise *note SystemError: 572. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 5d5. or its subtype. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySet_Pop (PyObject *set) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new reference to an arbitrary object in the 'set', and removes the object from the 'set'. Return ‘NULL’ on failure. Raise *note KeyError: 33f. if the set is empty. Raise a *note SystemError: 572. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 5d5. or its subtype. -- C Function: int PySet_Clear (PyObject *set) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Empty an existing set of all elements. Return ‘0’ on success. Return ‘-1’ and raise *note SystemError: 572. if 'set' is not an instance of *note set: 5d5. or its subtype.  File: python.info, Node: Function Objects<2>, Next: Other Objects, Prev: Container Objects, Up: Concrete Objects Layer 7.8.5 Function Objects ---------------------- * Menu: * Function Objects: Function Objects<3>. * Instance Method Objects:: * Method Objects: Method Objects<2>. * Cell Objects:: * Code Objects: Code Objects<2>. * Code Object Flags:: * Extra information::  File: python.info, Node: Function Objects<3>, Next: Instance Method Objects, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.1 Function Objects ........................ There are a few functions specific to Python functions. -- C Type: type PyFunctionObject The C structure used for functions. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyFunction_Type This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. and represents the Python function type. It is exposed to Python programmers as ‘types.FunctionType’. -- C Function: int PyFunction_Check (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is a function object (has type *note PyFunction_Type: 4cb3.). The parameter must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_New (PyObject *code, PyObject *globals) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a new function object associated with the code object 'code'. 'globals' must be a dictionary with the global variables accessible to the function. The function’s docstring and name are retrieved from the code object. *note __module__: 1efe. is retrieved from 'globals'. The argument defaults, annotations and closure are set to ‘NULL’. *note __qualname__: 1efd. is set to the same value as the code object’s *note co_qualname: 1f37. field. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_NewWithQualName (PyObject *code, PyObject *globals, PyObject *qualname) 'Return value: New reference.' As *note PyFunction_New(): 4cb5, but also allows setting the function object’s *note __qualname__: 1efd. attribute. 'qualname' should be a unicode object or ‘NULL’; if ‘NULL’, the ‘__qualname__’ attribute is set to the same value as the code object’s *note co_qualname: 1f37. field. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetCode (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the code object associated with the function object 'op'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetGlobals (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the globals dictionary associated with the function object 'op'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetModule (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return a *note borrowed reference: 339. to the *note __module__: 1efe. attribute of the *note function object: 29b. 'op'. It can be 'NULL'. This is normally a *note string: 447. containing the module name, but can be set to any other object by Python code. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetDefaults (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the argument default values of the function object 'op'. This can be a tuple of arguments or ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyFunction_SetDefaults (PyObject *op, PyObject *defaults) Set the argument default values for the function object 'op'. 'defaults' must be ‘Py_None’ or a tuple. Raises *note SystemError: 572. and returns ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: void PyFunction_SetVectorcall (PyFunctionObject *func, vectorcallfunc vectorcall) Set the vectorcall field of a given function object 'func'. Warning: extensions using this API must preserve the behavior of the unaltered (default) vectorcall function! Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetKwDefaults (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the keyword-only argument default values of the function object 'op'. This can be a dictionary of arguments or ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetClosure (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the closure associated with the function object 'op'. This can be ‘NULL’ or a tuple of cell objects. -- C Function: int PyFunction_SetClosure (PyObject *op, PyObject *closure) Set the closure associated with the function object 'op'. 'closure' must be ‘Py_None’ or a tuple of cell objects. Raises *note SystemError: 572. and returns ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GetAnnotations (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the annotations of the function object 'op'. This can be a mutable dictionary or ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyFunction_SetAnnotations (PyObject *op, PyObject *annotations) Set the annotations for the function object 'op'. 'annotations' must be a dictionary or ‘Py_None’. Raises *note SystemError: 572. and returns ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_CODE (PyObject *op) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS (PyObject *op) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_MODULE (PyObject *op) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS (PyObject *op) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS (PyObject *op) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE (PyObject *op) -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS (PyObject *op) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' These functions are similar to their ‘PyFunction_Get*’ counterparts, but do not do type checking. Passing anything other than an instance of *note PyFunction_Type: 4cb3. is undefined behavior. -- C Function: int PyFunction_AddWatcher (PyFunction_WatchCallback callback) Register 'callback' as a function watcher for the current interpreter. Return an ID which may be passed to *note PyFunction_ClearWatcher(): 4cc8. In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyFunction_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id) Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from *note PyFunction_AddWatcher(): 4cc7. for the current interpreter. Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g. if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.) Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: type PyFunction_WatchEvent Enumeration of possible function watcher events: - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_CODE’ - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_DEFAULTS’ - ‘PyFunction_EVENT_MODIFY_KWDEFAULTS’ Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: typedef int (*PyFunction_WatchCallback)(*note PyFunction_WatchEvent: 4cc9. event, *note PyFunctionObject: 55e. *func, *note PyObject: 334. *new_value) Type of a function watcher callback function. If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’ or ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’ then 'new_value' will be ‘NULL’. Otherwise, 'new_value' will hold a *note borrowed reference: 339. to the new value that is about to be stored in 'func' for the attribute that is being modified. The callback may inspect but must not modify 'func'; doing so could have unpredictable effects, including infinite recursion. If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked after 'func' has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked before the modification to 'func' takes place, so the prior state of 'func' can be inspected. The runtime is permitted to optimize away the creation of function objects when possible. In such cases no event will be emitted. Although this creates the possibility of an observable difference of runtime behavior depending on optimization decisions, it does not change the semantics of the Python code being executed. If 'event' is ‘PyFunction_EVENT_DESTROY’, Taking a reference in the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed function will resurrect it, preventing it from being freed at this time. When the resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that time will be called again. If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 34a. Otherwise it should return ‘0’. There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Instance Method Objects, Next: Method Objects<2>, Prev: Function Objects<3>, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.2 Instance Method Objects ............................... An instance method is a wrapper for a *note PyCFunction: 1440. and the new way to bind a *note PyCFunction: 1440. to a class object. It replaces the former call ‘PyMethod_New(func, NULL, class)’. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyInstanceMethod_Type This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python instance method type. It is not exposed to Python programs. -- C Function: int PyInstanceMethod_Check (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is an instance method object (has type *note PyInstanceMethod_Type: 4cce.). The parameter must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyInstanceMethod_New (PyObject *func) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a new instance method object, with 'func' being any callable object. 'func' is the function that will be called when the instance method is called. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyInstanceMethod_Function (PyObject *im) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the function object associated with the instance method 'im'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject *im) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Macro version of *note PyInstanceMethod_Function(): 4cd1. which avoids error checking.  File: python.info, Node: Method Objects<2>, Next: Cell Objects, Prev: Instance Method Objects, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.3 Method Objects ...................... Methods are bound function objects. Methods are always bound to an instance of a user-defined class. Unbound methods (methods bound to a class object) are no longer available. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyMethod_Type This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python method type. This is exposed to Python programs as ‘types.MethodType’. -- C Function: int PyMethod_Check (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is a method object (has type *note PyMethod_Type: 4cd5.). The parameter must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMethod_New (PyObject *func, PyObject *self) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a new method object, with 'func' being any callable object and 'self' the instance the method should be bound. 'func' is the function that will be called when the method is called. 'self' must not be ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMethod_Function (PyObject *meth) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the function object associated with the method 'meth'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (PyObject *meth) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Macro version of *note PyMethod_Function(): 4cd8. which avoids error checking. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMethod_Self (PyObject *meth) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the instance associated with the method 'meth'. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMethod_GET_SELF (PyObject *meth) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Macro version of *note PyMethod_Self(): 4cda. which avoids error checking.  File: python.info, Node: Cell Objects, Next: Code Objects<2>, Prev: Method Objects<2>, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.4 Cell Objects .................... “Cell” objects are used to implement variables referenced by multiple scopes. For each such variable, a cell object is created to store the value; the local variables of each stack frame that references the value contains a reference to the cells from outer scopes which also use that variable. When the value is accessed, the value contained in the cell is used instead of the cell object itself. This de-referencing of the cell object requires support from the generated byte-code; these are not automatically de-referenced when accessed. Cell objects are not likely to be useful elsewhere. -- C Type: type PyCellObject The C structure used for cell objects. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyCell_Type The type object corresponding to cell objects. -- C Function: int PyCell_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is a cell object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCell_New (PyObject *ob) 'Return value: New reference.' Create and return a new cell object containing the value 'ob'. The parameter may be ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCell_Get (PyObject *cell) 'Return value: New reference.' Return the contents of the cell 'cell', which can be ‘NULL’. If 'cell' is not a cell object, returns ‘NULL’ with an exception set. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCell_GET (PyObject *cell) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Return the contents of the cell 'cell', but without checking that 'cell' is non-‘NULL’ and a cell object. -- C Function: int PyCell_Set (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value) Set the contents of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'. This releases the reference to any current content of the cell. 'value' may be ‘NULL’. 'cell' must be non-‘NULL’. On success, return ‘0’. If 'cell' is not a cell object, set an exception and return ‘-1’. -- C Function: void PyCell_SET (PyObject *cell, PyObject *value) Sets the value of the cell object 'cell' to 'value'. No reference counts are adjusted, and no checks are made for safety; 'cell' must be non-‘NULL’ and must be a cell object.  File: python.info, Node: Code Objects<2>, Next: Code Object Flags, Prev: Cell Objects, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.5 Code Objects .................... Code objects are a low-level detail of the CPython implementation. Each one represents a chunk of executable code that hasn’t yet been bound into a function. -- C Type: type PyCodeObject The C structure of the objects used to describe code objects. The fields of this type are subject to change at any time. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyCode_Type This is an instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. representing the Python *note code object: 1d2. -- C Function: int PyCode_Check (PyObject *co) Return true if 'co' is a *note code object: 1d2. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyCode_GetNumFree (PyCodeObject *co) Return the number of *note free (closure) variables: 1f3f. in a code object. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (PyCodeObject *co) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return the position of the first *note free (closure) variable: 1f3f. in a code object. Changed in version 3.13: Renamed from ‘PyCode_GetFirstFree’ as part of *note Unstable C API: 544. The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the signature changes again. -- C Function: *note PyCodeObject: 772. *PyUnstable_Code_New (int argcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return a new code object. If you need a dummy code object to create a frame, use *note PyCode_NewEmpty(): 1344. instead. Since the definition of the bytecode changes often, calling *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4cea. directly can bind you to a precise Python version. The many arguments of this function are inter-dependent in complex ways, meaning that subtle changes to values are likely to result in incorrect execution or VM crashes. Use this function only with extreme care. Changed in version 3.11: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’ parameters. Changed in version 3.12: Renamed from ‘PyCode_New’ as part of *note Unstable C API: 544. The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the signature changes again. -- C Function: *note PyCodeObject: 772. *PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (int argcount, int posonlyargcount, int kwonlyargcount, int nlocals, int stacksize, int flags, PyObject *code, PyObject *consts, PyObject *names, PyObject *varnames, PyObject *freevars, PyObject *cellvars, PyObject *filename, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname, int firstlineno, PyObject *linetable, PyObject *exceptiontable) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Similar to *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4cea, but with an extra “posonlyargcount” for positional-only arguments. The same caveats that apply to ‘PyUnstable_Code_New’ also apply to this function. Added in version 3.8: as ‘PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’ Changed in version 3.11: Added ‘qualname’ and ‘exceptiontable’ parameters. Changed in version 3.12: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs’. The old name is deprecated, but will remain available until the signature changes again. -- C Function: *note PyCodeObject: 772. *PyCode_NewEmpty (const char *filename, const char *funcname, int firstlineno) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a new empty code object with the specified filename, function name, and first line number. The resulting code object will raise an ‘Exception’ if executed. -- C Function: int PyCode_Addr2Line (PyCodeObject *co, int byte_offset) Return the line number of the instruction that occurs on or before ‘byte_offset’ and ends after it. If you just need the line number of a frame, use *note PyFrame_GetLineNumber(): 786. instead. For efficiently iterating over the line numbers in a code object, use the API described in PEP 626(1). -- C Function: int PyCode_Addr2Location (PyObject *co, int byte_offset, int *start_line, int *start_column, int *end_line, int *end_column) Sets the passed ‘int’ pointers to the source code line and column numbers for the instruction at ‘byte_offset’. Sets the value to ‘0’ when information is not available for any particular element. Returns ‘1’ if the function succeeds and 0 otherwise. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCode_GetCode (PyCodeObject *co) Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_code')’. Returns a strong reference to a *note PyBytesObject: 78d. representing the bytecode in a code object. On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised. This ‘PyBytesObject’ may be created on-demand by the interpreter and does not necessarily represent the bytecode actually executed by CPython. The primary use case for this function is debuggers and profilers. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCode_GetVarnames (PyCodeObject *co) Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_varnames')’. Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4b52. containing the names of the local variables. On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCode_GetCellvars (PyCodeObject *co) Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_cellvars')’. Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4b52. containing the names of the local variables that are referenced by nested functions. On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCode_GetFreevars (PyCodeObject *co) Equivalent to the Python code ‘getattr(co, 'co_freevars')’. Returns a new reference to a *note PyTupleObject: 4b52. containing the names of the *note free (closure) variables: 1f3f. On error, ‘NULL’ is returned and an exception is raised. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: int PyCode_AddWatcher (PyCode_WatchCallback callback) Register 'callback' as a code object watcher for the current interpreter. Return an ID which may be passed to *note PyCode_ClearWatcher(): 564. In case of error (e.g. no more watcher IDs available), return ‘-1’ and set an exception. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyCode_ClearWatcher (int watcher_id) Clear watcher identified by 'watcher_id' previously returned from *note PyCode_AddWatcher(): 563. for the current interpreter. Return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ and set an exception on error (e.g. if the given 'watcher_id' was never registered.) Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: type PyCodeEvent Enumeration of possible code object watcher events: - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’ - ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’ Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: typedef int (*PyCode_WatchCallback)(*note PyCodeEvent: 4cec. event, *note PyCodeObject: 772. *co) Type of a code object watcher callback function. If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_CREATE’, then the callback is invoked after 'co' has been fully initialized. Otherwise, the callback is invoked before the destruction of 'co' takes place, so the prior state of 'co' can be inspected. If 'event' is ‘PY_CODE_EVENT_DESTROY’, taking a reference in the callback to the about-to-be-destroyed code object will resurrect it and prevent it from being freed at this time. When the resurrected object is destroyed later, any watcher callbacks active at that time will be called again. Users of this API should not rely on internal runtime implementation details. Such details may include, but are not limited to, the exact order and timing of creation and destruction of code objects. While changes in these details may result in differences observable by watchers (including whether a callback is invoked or not), it does not change the semantics of the Python code being executed. If the callback sets an exception, it must return ‘-1’; this exception will be printed as an unraisable exception using *note PyErr_WriteUnraisable(): 34a. Otherwise it should return ‘0’. There may already be a pending exception set on entry to the callback. In this case, the callback should return ‘0’ with the same exception still set. This means the callback may not call any other API that can set an exception unless it saves and clears the exception state first, and restores it before returning. Added in version 3.12. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers  File: python.info, Node: Code Object Flags, Next: Extra information, Prev: Code Objects<2>, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.6 Code Object Flags ......................... Code objects contain a bit-field of flags, which can be retrieved as the *note co_flags: 1f44. Python attribute (for example using *note PyObject_GetAttrString(): 347.), and set using a 'flags' argument to *note PyUnstable_Code_New(): 4cea. and similar functions. Flags whose names start with ‘CO_FUTURE_’ correspond to features normally selectable by *note future statements: 189. These flags can be used in *note PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags: 4b23. Note that many ‘CO_FUTURE_’ flags are mandatory in current versions of Python, and setting them has no effect. The following flags are available. For their meaning, see the linked documentation of their Python equivalents. Flag Meaning -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Macro: CO_OPTIMIZED *note inspect.CO_OPTIMIZED: 44c7. -- C Macro: CO_NEWLOCALS *note inspect.CO_NEWLOCALS: 44c8. -- C Macro: CO_VARARGS *note inspect.CO_VARARGS: 44c9. -- C Macro: CO_VARKEYWORDS *note inspect.CO_VARKEYWORDS: 44ca. -- C Macro: CO_NESTED *note inspect.CO_NESTED: 44cb. -- C Macro: CO_GENERATOR *note inspect.CO_GENERATOR: 44cc. -- C Macro: CO_COROUTINE *note inspect.CO_COROUTINE: 44cd. -- C Macro: CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE *note inspect.CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE: 44ce. -- C Macro: CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR *note inspect.CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR: 44cf. -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_DIVISION no effect (*note __future__.division: 4471.) -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT no effect (*note __future__.absolute_import: 4472.) -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT no effect (*note __future__.with_statement: 4473.) -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION no effect (*note __future__.print_function: 4474.) -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS no effect (*note __future__.unicode_literals: 4475.) -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP no effect (*note __future__.generator_stop: 4476.) -- C Macro: CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS *note __future__.annotations: 4477.  File: python.info, Node: Extra information, Prev: Code Object Flags, Up: Function Objects<2> 7.8.5.7 Extra information ......................... To support low-level extensions to frame evaluation, such as external just-in-time compilers, it is possible to attach arbitrary extra data to code objects. These functions are part of the unstable C API tier: this functionality is a CPython implementation detail, and the API may change without deprecation warnings. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (freefunc free) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return a new an opaque index value used to adding data to code objects. You generally call this function once (per interpreter) and use the result with ‘PyCode_GetExtra’ and ‘PyCode_SetExtra’ to manipulate data on individual code objects. If 'free' is not ‘NULL’: when a code object is deallocated, 'free' will be called on non-‘NULL’ data stored under the new index. Use *note Py_DecRef(): 4adf. when storing *note PyObject: 334. Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’ Changed in version 3.12: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex’. The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API changes. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void **extra) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Set 'extra' to the extra data stored under the given index. Return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on failure. If no data was set under the index, set 'extra' to ‘NULL’ and return 0 without setting an exception. Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_GetExtra’ Changed in version 3.12: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra’. The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API changes. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (PyObject *code, Py_ssize_t index, void *extra) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Set the extra data stored under the given index to 'extra'. Return 0 on success. Set an exception and return -1 on failure. Added in version 3.6: as ‘_PyCode_SetExtra’ Changed in version 3.12: Renamed to ‘PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra’. The old private name is deprecated, but will be available until the API changes.  File: python.info, Node: Other Objects, Prev: Function Objects<2>, Up: Concrete Objects Layer 7.8.6 Other Objects ------------------- * Menu: * File Objects:: * Module Objects:: * Iterator Objects:: * Descriptor Objects:: * Slice Objects:: * MemoryView objects:: * Weak Reference Objects: Weak Reference Objects<2>. * Capsules: Capsules<2>. * Frame Objects:: * Generator Objects:: * Coroutine Objects: Coroutine Objects<2>. * Context Variables Objects:: * DateTime Objects: DateTime Objects<2>. * Objects for Type Hinting::  File: python.info, Node: File Objects, Next: Module Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.1 File Objects .................... These APIs are a minimal emulation of the Python 2 C API for built-in file objects, which used to rely on the buffered I/O (FILE*) support from the C standard library. In Python 3, files and streams use the new *note io: 7f. module, which defines several layers over the low-level unbuffered I/O of the operating system. The functions described below are convenience C wrappers over these new APIs, and meant mostly for internal error reporting in the interpreter; third-party code is advised to access the *note io: 7f. APIs instead. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFile_FromFd (int fd, const char *name, const char *mode, int buffering, const char *encoding, const char *errors, const char *newline, int closefd) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a Python file object from the file descriptor of an already opened file 'fd'. The arguments 'name', 'encoding', 'errors' and 'newline' can be ‘NULL’ to use the defaults; 'buffering' can be '-1' to use the default. 'name' is ignored and kept for backward compatibility. Return ‘NULL’ on failure. For a more comprehensive description of the arguments, please refer to the *note io.open(): 518. function documentation. Warning: Since Python streams have their own buffering layer, mixing them with OS-level file descriptors can produce various issues (such as unexpected ordering of data). Changed in version 3.2: Ignore 'name' attribute. -- C Function: int PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (PyObject *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the file descriptor associated with 'p' as an int. If the object is an integer, its value is returned. If not, the object’s *note fileno(): 2856. method is called if it exists; the method must return an integer, which is returned as the file descriptor value. Sets an exception and returns ‘-1’ on failure. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFile_GetLine (PyObject *p, int n) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Equivalent to ‘p.readline([n])’, this function reads one line from the object 'p'. 'p' may be a file object or any object with a *note readline(): 131c. method. If 'n' is ‘0’, exactly one line is read, regardless of the length of the line. If 'n' is greater than ‘0’, no more than 'n' bytes will be read from the file; a partial line can be returned. In both cases, an empty string is returned if the end of the file is reached immediately. If 'n' is less than ‘0’, however, one line is read regardless of length, but *note EOFError: 12cc. is raised if the end of the file is reached immediately. -- C Function: int PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (Py_OpenCodeHookFunction handler) Overrides the normal behavior of *note io.open_code(): 1727. to pass its parameter through the provided handler. The 'handler' is a function of type: -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*Py_OpenCodeHookFunction)(*note PyObject: 334.*, void*) Equivalent of *note PyObject: 334. *(*)(*note PyObject: 334. *path, void *userData), where 'path' is guaranteed to be *note PyUnicodeObject: 78f. The 'userData' pointer is passed into the hook function. Since hook functions may be called from different runtimes, this pointer should not refer directly to Python state. As this hook is intentionally used during import, avoid importing new modules during its execution unless they are known to be frozen or available in ‘sys.modules’. Once a hook has been set, it cannot be removed or replaced, and later calls to *note PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook(): 1729. will fail. On failure, the function returns -1 and sets an exception if the interpreter has been initialized. This function is safe to call before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘setopencodehook’ with no arguments. Added in version 3.8. -- C Function: int PyFile_WriteObject (PyObject *obj, PyObject *p, int flags) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Write object 'obj' to file object 'p'. The only supported flag for 'flags' is *note Py_PRINT_RAW: 4b9d.; if given, the *note str(): 447. of the object is written instead of the *note repr(): 7f9. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the appropriate exception will be set. -- C Function: int PyFile_WriteString (const char *s, PyObject *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Write string 's' to file object 'p'. Return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ on failure; the appropriate exception will be set.  File: python.info, Node: Module Objects, Next: Iterator Objects, Prev: File Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.2 Module Objects ...................... -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyModule_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python module type. This is exposed to Python programs as ‘types.ModuleType’. -- C Function: int PyModule_Check (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a module object, or a subtype of a module object. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyModule_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if 'p' is a module object, but not a subtype of *note PyModule_Type: 4a34. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_NewObject (PyObject *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return a new module object with *note module.__name__: 1374. set to 'name'. The module’s ‘__name__’, *note __doc__: 1852, *note __package__: 2db. and *note __loader__: 2e6. attributes are filled in (all but ‘__name__’ are set to ‘None’). The caller is responsible for setting a *note __file__: 1f1d. attribute. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error. Added in version 3.3. Changed in version 3.4: *note __package__: 2db. and *note __loader__: 2e6. are now set to ‘None’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_New (const char *name) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyModule_NewObject(): 4a32, but the name is a UTF-8 encoded string instead of a Unicode object. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_GetDict (PyObject *module) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the dictionary object that implements 'module'’s namespace; this object is the same as the *note __dict__: 558. attribute of the module object. If 'module' is not a module object (or a subtype of a module object), *note SystemError: 572. is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned. It is recommended extensions use other ‘PyModule_*’ and ‘PyObject_*’ functions rather than directly manipulate a module’s *note __dict__: 558. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_GetNameObject (PyObject *module) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return 'module'’s *note __name__: 1374. value. If the module does not provide one, or if it is not a string, *note SystemError: 572. is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: const char *PyModule_GetName (PyObject *module) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyModule_GetNameObject(): 4a30. but return the name encoded to ‘'utf-8'’. -- C Function: void *PyModule_GetState (PyObject *module) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the “state” of the module, that is, a pointer to the block of memory allocated at module creation time, or ‘NULL’. See *note PyModuleDef.m_size: 97f. -- C Function: *note PyModuleDef: 97d. *PyModule_GetDef (PyObject *module) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a pointer to the *note PyModuleDef: 97d. struct from which the module was created, or ‘NULL’ if the module wasn’t created from a definition. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_GetFilenameObject (PyObject *module) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the name of the file from which 'module' was loaded using 'module'’s *note __file__: 1f1d. attribute. If this is not defined, or if it is not a string, raise *note SystemError: 572. and return ‘NULL’; otherwise return a reference to a Unicode object. Added in version 3.2. -- C Function: const char *PyModule_GetFilename (PyObject *module) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f5. but return the filename encoded to ‘utf-8’. Deprecated since version 3.2: *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f4. raises *note UnicodeEncodeError: 673. on unencodable filenames, use *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f5. instead. * Menu: * Initializing C modules:: * Module lookup::  File: python.info, Node: Initializing C modules, Next: Module lookup, Up: Module Objects 7.8.6.3 Initializing C modules .............................. Modules objects are usually created from extension modules (shared libraries which export an initialization function), or compiled-in modules (where the initialization function is added using *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3.). See *note Building C and C++ Extensions: 48c2. or *note Extending Embedded Python: 492d. for details. The initialization function can either pass a module definition instance to *note PyModule_Create(): 4d0d, and return the resulting module object, or request “multi-phase initialization” by returning the definition struct itself. -- C Type: type PyModuleDef ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' The module definition struct, which holds all information needed to create a module object. There is usually only one statically initialized variable of this type for each module. -- C Member: PyModuleDef_Base m_base Always initialize this member to ‘PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT’. -- C Member: const char *m_name Name for the new module. -- C Member: const char *m_doc Docstring for the module; usually a docstring variable created with *note PyDoc_STRVAR: 1971. is used. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. m_size Module state may be kept in a per-module memory area that can be retrieved with *note PyModule_GetState(): 980, rather than in static globals. This makes modules safe for use in multiple sub-interpreters. This memory area is allocated based on 'm_size' on module creation, and freed when the module object is deallocated, after the *note m_free: 97c. function has been called, if present. Setting ‘m_size’ to ‘-1’ means that the module does not support sub-interpreters, because it has global state. Setting it to a non-negative value means that the module can be re-initialized and specifies the additional amount of memory it requires for its state. Non-negative ‘m_size’ is required for multi-phase initialization. See PEP 3121(1) for more details. -- C Member: *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. *m_methods A pointer to a table of module-level functions, described by *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. values. Can be ‘NULL’ if no functions are present. -- C Member: *note PyModuleDef_Slot: 4d13. *m_slots An array of slot definitions for multi-phase initialization, terminated by a ‘{0, NULL}’ entry. When using single-phase initialization, 'm_slots' must be ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.5: Prior to version 3.5, this member was always set to ‘NULL’, and was defined as: -- C Member: *note inquiry: 4af8. m_reload -- C Member: *note traverseproc: 4b07. m_traverse A traversal function to call during GC traversal of the module object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed. This function is not called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (*note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function). More precisely, this function is not called if *note m_size: 97f. is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 980.) is ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.9: No longer called before the module state is allocated. -- C Member: *note inquiry: 4af8. m_clear A clear function to call during GC clearing of the module object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed. This function is not called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (*note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function). More precisely, this function is not called if *note m_size: 97f. is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 980.) is ‘NULL’. Like *note PyTypeObject.tp_clear: 48fb, this function is not 'always' called before a module is deallocated. For example, when reference counting is enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not involved and *note m_free: 97c. is called directly. Changed in version 3.9: No longer called before the module state is allocated. -- C Member: *note freefunc: 4d15. m_free A function to call during deallocation of the module object, or ‘NULL’ if not needed. This function is not called if the module state was requested but is not allocated yet. This is the case immediately after the module is created and before the module is executed (*note Py_mod_exec: 97e. function). More precisely, this function is not called if *note m_size: 97f. is greater than 0 and the module state (as returned by *note PyModule_GetState(): 980.) is ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.9: No longer called before the module state is allocated. * Menu: * Single-phase initialization:: * Multi-phase initialization:: * Low-level module creation functions:: * Support functions:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3121/  File: python.info, Node: Single-phase initialization, Next: Multi-phase initialization, Up: Initializing C modules 7.8.6.4 Single-phase initialization ................................... The module initialization function may create and return the module object directly. This is referred to as “single-phase initialization”, and uses one of the following two module creation functions: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_Create (PyModuleDef *def) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def'. This behaves like *note PyModule_Create2(): 4a2c. with 'module_api_version' set to ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_Create2 (PyModuleDef *def, int module_api_version) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def', assuming the API version 'module_api_version'. If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter, a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. is emitted. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error. Note: Most uses of this function should be using *note PyModule_Create(): 4d0d. instead; only use this if you are sure you need it. Before it is returned from in the initialization function, the resulting module object is typically populated using functions like *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360.  File: python.info, Node: Multi-phase initialization, Next: Low-level module creation functions, Prev: Single-phase initialization, Up: Initializing C modules 7.8.6.5 Multi-phase initialization .................................. An alternate way to specify extensions is to request “multi-phase initialization”. Extension modules created this way behave more like Python modules: the initialization is split between the 'creation phase', when the module object is created, and the 'execution phase', when it is populated. The distinction is similar to the *note __new__(): 57d. and *note __init__(): 6ac. methods of classes. Unlike modules created using single-phase initialization, these modules are not singletons. For example, if the *note sys.modules: 1550. entry is removed and the module is re-imported, a new module object is created, and typically populated with fresh method and type objects. The old module is subject to normal garbage collection. This mirrors the behavior of pure-Python modules. Additional module instances may be created in *note sub-interpreters: 584. or after after Python runtime reinitialization (*note Py_Finalize(): 1345. and *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab.). In these cases, sharing Python objects between module instances would likely cause crashes or undefined behavior. To avoid such issues, each instance of an extension module should be 'isolated': changes to one instance should not implicitly affect the others, and all state, including references to Python objects, should be specific to a particular module instance. See *note Isolating Extension Modules: 48be. for more details and a practical guide. A simpler way to avoid these issues is *note raising an error on repeated initialization: 4d18. All modules created using multi-phase initialization are expected to support *note sub-interpreters: 584, or otherwise explicitly signal a lack of support. This is usually achieved by isolation or blocking repeated initialization, as above. A module may also be limited to the main interpreter using the *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters: 4d19. slot. To request multi-phase initialization, the initialization function (PyInit_modulename) returns a *note PyModuleDef: 97d. instance with non-empty *note m_slots: 4d12. Before it is returned, the ‘PyModuleDef’ instance must be initialized with the following function: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModuleDef_Init (PyModuleDef *def) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.5.' Ensures a module definition is a properly initialized Python object that correctly reports its type and reference count. Returns 'def' cast to ‘PyObject*’, or ‘NULL’ if an error occurred. Added in version 3.5. The 'm_slots' member of the module definition must point to an array of ‘PyModuleDef_Slot’ structures: -- C Type: type PyModuleDef_Slot -- C Member: int slot A slot ID, chosen from the available values explained below. -- C Member: void *value Value of the slot, whose meaning depends on the slot ID. Added in version 3.5. The 'm_slots' array must be terminated by a slot with id 0. The available slot types are: -- C Macro: Py_mod_create Specifies a function that is called to create the module object itself. The 'value' pointer of this slot must point to a function of the signature: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *create_module (PyObject *spec, PyModuleDef *def) The function receives a *note ModuleSpec: 1e64. instance, as defined in PEP 451(1), and the module definition. It should return a new module object, or set an error and return ‘NULL’. This function should be kept minimal. In particular, it should not call arbitrary Python code, as trying to import the same module again may result in an infinite loop. Multiple ‘Py_mod_create’ slots may not be specified in one module definition. If ‘Py_mod_create’ is not specified, the import machinery will create a normal module object using *note PyModule_New(): 4a31. The name is taken from 'spec', not the definition, to allow extension modules to dynamically adjust to their place in the module hierarchy and be imported under different names through symlinks, all while sharing a single module definition. There is no requirement for the returned object to be an instance of *note PyModule_Type: 4a34. Any type can be used, as long as it supports setting and getting import-related attributes. However, only ‘PyModule_Type’ instances may be returned if the ‘PyModuleDef’ has non-‘NULL’ ‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’, ‘m_free’; non-zero ‘m_size’; or slots other than ‘Py_mod_create’. -- C Macro: Py_mod_exec Specifies a function that is called to 'execute' the module. This is equivalent to executing the code of a Python module: typically, this function adds classes and constants to the module. The signature of the function is: -- C Function: int exec_module (PyObject *module) If multiple ‘Py_mod_exec’ slots are specified, they are processed in the order they appear in the 'm_slots' array. -- C Macro: Py_mod_multiple_interpreters Specifies one of the following values: -- C Macro: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED The module does not support being imported in subinterpreters. -- C Macro: Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, but only when they share the main interpreter’s GIL. (See *note Isolating Extension Modules: 48be.) -- C Macro: Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED The module supports being imported in subinterpreters, even when they have their own GIL. (See *note Isolating Extension Modules: 48be.) This slot determines whether or not importing this module in a subinterpreter will fail. Multiple ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ slots may not be specified in one module definition. If ‘Py_mod_multiple_interpreters’ is not specified, the import machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED’. Added in version 3.12. -- C Macro: Py_mod_gil Specifies one of the following values: -- C Macro: Py_MOD_GIL_USED The module depends on the presence of the global interpreter lock (GIL), and may access global state without synchronization. -- C Macro: Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED The module is safe to run without an active GIL. This slot is ignored by Python builds not configured with *note -disable-gil: 174. Otherwise, it determines whether or not importing this module will cause the GIL to be automatically enabled. See *note Free-threaded CPython: 13f. for more detail. Multiple ‘Py_mod_gil’ slots may not be specified in one module definition. If ‘Py_mod_gil’ is not specified, the import machinery defaults to ‘Py_MOD_GIL_USED’. Added in version 3.13. See PEP 489(2) for more details on multi-phase initialization. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0451/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: Low-level module creation functions, Next: Support functions, Prev: Multi-phase initialization, Up: Initializing C modules 7.8.6.6 Low-level module creation functions ........................................... The following functions are called under the hood when using multi-phase initialization. They can be used directly, for example when creating module objects dynamically. Note that both ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’ and ‘PyModule_ExecDef’ must be called to fully initialize a module. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec'. This behaves like *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2(): ead. with 'module_api_version' set to ‘PYTHON_API_VERSION’. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (PyModuleDef *def, PyObject *spec, int module_api_version) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Create a new module object, given the definition in 'def' and the ModuleSpec 'spec', assuming the API version 'module_api_version'. If that version does not match the version of the running interpreter, a *note RuntimeWarning: 1bd. is emitted. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set on error. Note: Most uses of this function should be using *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): eac. instead; only use this if you are sure you need it. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: int PyModule_ExecDef (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Process any execution slots (*note Py_mod_exec: 97e.) given in 'def'. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: int PyModule_SetDocString (PyObject *module, const char *docstring) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Set the docstring for 'module' to 'docstring'. This function is called automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: int PyModule_AddFunctions (PyObject *module, PyMethodDef *functions) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Add the functions from the ‘NULL’ terminated 'functions' array to 'module'. Refer to the *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. documentation for details on individual entries (due to the lack of a shared module namespace, module level “functions” implemented in C typically receive the module as their first parameter, making them similar to instance methods on Python classes). This function is called automatically when creating a module from ‘PyModuleDef’, using either ‘PyModule_Create’ or ‘PyModule_FromDefAndSpec’. Added in version 3.5.  File: python.info, Node: Support functions, Prev: Low-level module creation functions, Up: Initializing C modules 7.8.6.7 Support functions ......................... The module initialization function (if using single phase initialization) or a function called from a module execution slot (if using multi-phase initialization), can use the following functions to help initialize the module state: -- C Function: int PyModule_AddObjectRef (PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Add an object to 'module' as 'name'. This is a convenience function which can be used from the module’s initialization function. On success, return ‘0’. On error, raise an exception and return ‘-1’. Example usage: static int add_spam(PyObject *module, int value) { PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value); if (obj == NULL) { return -1; } int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj); Py_DECREF(obj); return res; } To be convenient, the function accepts ‘NULL’ 'value' with an exception set. In this case, return ‘-1’ and just leave the raised exception unchanged. The example can also be written without checking explicitly if 'obj' is ‘NULL’: static int add_spam(PyObject *module, int value) { PyObject *obj = PyLong_FromLong(value); int res = PyModule_AddObjectRef(module, "spam", obj); Py_XDECREF(obj); return res; } Note that ‘Py_XDECREF()’ should be used instead of ‘Py_DECREF()’ in this case, since 'obj' can be ‘NULL’. The number of different 'name' strings passed to this function should be kept small, usually by only using statically allocated strings as 'name'. For names that aren’t known at compile time, prefer calling *note PyUnicode_FromString(): 4ad1. and *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a68. directly. For more details, see *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1600, which may be used internally to create a key object. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int PyModule_Add (PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Similar to *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360, but “steals” a reference to 'value'. It can be called with a result of function that returns a new reference without bothering to check its result or even saving it to a variable. Example usage: if (PyModule_Add(module, "spam", PyBytes_FromString(value)) < 0) { goto error; } Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int PyModule_AddObject (PyObject *module, const char *name, PyObject *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Similar to *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360, but steals a reference to 'value' on success (if it returns ‘0’). The new *note PyModule_Add(): 35f. or *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360. functions are recommended, since it is easy to introduce reference leaks by misusing the *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361. function. Note: Unlike other functions that steal references, ‘PyModule_AddObject()’ only releases the reference to 'value' 'on success'. This means that its return value must be checked, and calling code must *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. 'value' manually on error. Example usage: PyObject *obj = PyBytes_FromString(value); if (PyModule_AddObject(module, "spam", obj) < 0) { // If 'obj' is not NULL and PyModule_AddObject() failed, // 'obj' strong reference must be deleted with Py_XDECREF(). // If 'obj' is NULL, Py_XDECREF() does nothing. Py_XDECREF(obj); goto error; } // PyModule_AddObject() stole a reference to obj: // Py_XDECREF(obj) is not needed here. Deprecated since version 3.13: *note PyModule_AddObject(): 361. is *note soft deprecated: 20b. -- C Function: int PyModule_AddIntConstant (PyObject *module, const char *name, long value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Add an integer constant to 'module' as 'name'. This convenience function can be used from the module’s initialization function. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. This is a convenience function that calls *note PyLong_FromLong(): 1839. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360.; see their documentation for details. -- C Function: int PyModule_AddStringConstant (PyObject *module, const char *name, const char *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Add a string constant to 'module' as 'name'. This convenience function can be used from the module’s initialization function. The string 'value' must be ‘NULL’-terminated. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. This is a convenience function that calls *note PyUnicode_InternFromString(): 1600. and *note PyModule_AddObjectRef(): 360.; see their documentation for details. -- C Macro: PyModule_AddIntMacro (module, macro) Add an int constant to 'module'. The name and the value are taken from 'macro'. For example ‘PyModule_AddIntMacro(module, AF_INET)’ adds the int constant 'AF_INET' with the value of 'AF_INET' to 'module'. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. -- C Macro: PyModule_AddStringMacro (module, macro) Add a string constant to 'module'. -- C Function: int PyModule_AddType (PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *type) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Add a type object to 'module'. The type object is finalized by calling internally *note PyType_Ready(): 777. The name of the type object is taken from the last component of *note tp_name: 18f2. after dot. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (PyObject *module, void *gil) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Indicate that 'module' does or does not support running without the global interpreter lock (GIL), using one of the values from *note Py_mod_gil: 158. It must be called during 'module'’s initialization function. If this function is not called during module initialization, the import machinery assumes the module does not support running without the GIL. This function is only available in Python builds configured with *note -disable-gil: 174. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: Module lookup, Prev: Initializing C modules, Up: Module Objects 7.8.6.8 Module lookup ..................... Single-phase initialization creates singleton modules that can be looked up in the context of the current interpreter. This allows the module object to be retrieved later with only a reference to the module definition. These functions will not work on modules created using multi-phase initialization, since multiple such modules can be created from a single definition. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyState_FindModule (PyModuleDef *def) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Returns the module object that was created from 'def' for the current interpreter. This method requires that the module object has been attached to the interpreter state with *note PyState_AddModule(): 4a83. beforehand. In case the corresponding module object is not found or has not been attached to the interpreter state yet, it returns ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyState_AddModule (PyObject *module, PyModuleDef *def) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.3.' Attaches the module object passed to the function to the interpreter state. This allows the module object to be accessible via *note PyState_FindModule(): 4a84. Only effective on modules created using single-phase initialization. Python calls ‘PyState_AddModule’ automatically after importing a module, so it is unnecessary (but harmless) to call it from module initialization code. An explicit call is needed only if the module’s own init code subsequently calls ‘PyState_FindModule’. The function is mainly intended for implementing alternative import mechanisms (either by calling it directly, or by referring to its implementation for details of the required state updates). The caller must hold the GIL. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: int PyState_RemoveModule (PyModuleDef *def) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.3.' Removes the module object created from 'def' from the interpreter state. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. The caller must hold the GIL. Added in version 3.3.  File: python.info, Node: Iterator Objects, Next: Descriptor Objects, Prev: Module Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.9 Iterator Objects ........................ Python provides two general-purpose iterator objects. The first, a sequence iterator, works with an arbitrary sequence supporting the *note __getitem__(): 285. method. The second works with a callable object and a sentinel value, calling the callable for each item in the sequence, and ending the iteration when the sentinel value is returned. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PySeqIter_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Type object for iterator objects returned by *note PySeqIter_New(): 4a6c. and the one-argument form of the *note iter(): 7d2. built-in function for built-in sequence types. -- C Function: int PySeqIter_Check (PyObject *op) Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PySeqIter_Type: 4a6d. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySeqIter_New (PyObject *seq) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return an iterator that works with a general sequence object, 'seq'. The iteration ends when the sequence raises *note IndexError: 14ff. for the subscripting operation. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyCallIter_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Type object for iterator objects returned by *note PyCallIter_New(): 4977. and the two-argument form of the *note iter(): 7d2. built-in function. -- C Function: int PyCallIter_Check (PyObject *op) Return true if the type of 'op' is *note PyCallIter_Type: 4978. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCallIter_New (PyObject *callable, PyObject *sentinel) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new iterator. The first parameter, 'callable', can be any Python callable object that can be called with no parameters; each call to it should return the next item in the iteration. When 'callable' returns a value equal to 'sentinel', the iteration will be terminated.  File: python.info, Node: Descriptor Objects, Next: Slice Objects, Prev: Iterator Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.10 Descriptor Objects ........................... “Descriptors” are objects that describe some attribute of an object. They are found in the dictionary of type objects. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyProperty_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The type object for the built-in descriptor types. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDescr_NewGetSet (PyTypeObject *type, struct PyGetSetDef *getset) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDescr_NewMember (PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMemberDef *meth) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDescr_NewMethod (PyTypeObject *type, struct PyMethodDef *meth) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDescr_NewWrapper (PyTypeObject *type, struct wrapperbase *wrapper, void *wrapped) 'Return value: New reference.' -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDescr_NewClassMethod (PyTypeObject *type, PyMethodDef *method) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: int PyDescr_IsData (PyObject *descr) Return non-zero if the descriptor objects 'descr' describes a data attribute, or ‘0’ if it describes a method. 'descr' must be a descriptor object; there is no error checking. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyWrapper_New (PyObject*, PyObject*) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.'  File: python.info, Node: Slice Objects, Next: MemoryView objects, Prev: Descriptor Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.11 Slice Objects ...................... -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PySlice_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The type object for slice objects. This is the same as *note slice: 465. in the Python layer. -- C Function: int PySlice_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is a slice object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PySlice_New (PyObject *start, PyObject *stop, PyObject *step) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a new slice object with the given values. The 'start', 'stop', and 'step' parameters are used as the values of the slice object attributes of the same names. Any of the values may be ‘NULL’, in which case the ‘None’ will be used for the corresponding attribute. Return ‘NULL’ with an exception set if the new object could not be allocated. -- C Function: int PySlice_GetIndices (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Retrieve the start, stop and step indices from the slice object 'slice', assuming a sequence of length 'length'. Treats indices greater than 'length' as errors. Returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with no exception set (unless one of the indices was not ‘None’ and failed to be converted to an integer, in which case ‘-1’ is returned with an exception set). You probably do not want to use this function. Changed in version 3.2: The parameter type for the 'slice' parameter was ‘PySliceObject*’ before. -- C Function: int PySlice_GetIndicesEx (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step, Py_ssize_t *slicelength) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Usable replacement for *note PySlice_GetIndices(): 4a80. Retrieve the start, stop, and step indices from the slice object 'slice' assuming a sequence of length 'length', and store the length of the slice in 'slicelength'. Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of normal slices. Return ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error with an exception set. Note: This function is considered not safe for resizable sequences. Its invocation should be replaced by a combination of *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. where if (PySlice_GetIndicesEx(slice, length, &start, &stop, &step, &slicelength) < 0) { // return error } is replaced by if (PySlice_Unpack(slice, &start, &stop, &step) < 0) { // return error } slicelength = PySlice_AdjustIndices(length, &start, &stop, step); Changed in version 3.2: The parameter type for the 'slice' parameter was ‘PySliceObject*’ before. Changed in version 3.6.1: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is not set or set to the value between ‘0x03050400’ and ‘0x03060000’ (not including) or ‘0x03060100’ or higher ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is implemented as a macro using ‘PySlice_Unpack()’ and ‘PySlice_AdjustIndices()’. Arguments 'start', 'stop' and 'step' are evaluated more than once. Deprecated since version 3.6.1: If ‘Py_LIMITED_API’ is set to the value less than ‘0x03050400’ or between ‘0x03060000’ and ‘0x03060100’ (not including) ‘PySlice_GetIndicesEx()’ is a deprecated function. -- C Function: int PySlice_Unpack (PyObject *slice, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t *step) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Extract the start, stop and step data members from a slice object as C integers. Silently reduce values larger than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’, silently boost the start and stop values less than ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’ to ‘PY_SSIZE_T_MIN’, and silently boost the step values less than ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’ to ‘-PY_SSIZE_T_MAX’. Return ‘-1’ with an exception set on error, ‘0’ on success. Added in version 3.6.1. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PySlice_AdjustIndices (Py_ssize_t length, Py_ssize_t *start, Py_ssize_t *stop, Py_ssize_t step) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Adjust start/end slice indices assuming a sequence of the specified length. Out of bounds indices are clipped in a manner consistent with the handling of normal slices. Return the length of the slice. Always successful. Doesn’t call Python code. Added in version 3.6.1. * Menu: * Ellipsis Object::  File: python.info, Node: Ellipsis Object, Up: Slice Objects 7.8.6.12 Ellipsis Object ........................ -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyEllipsis_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The type of Python *note Ellipsis: 2185. object. Same as *note types.EllipsisType: 84d. in the Python layer. -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_Ellipsis The Python ‘Ellipsis’ object. This object has no methods. Like *note Py_None: 48b9, it is an *note immortal: 4394. singleton object. Changed in version 3.12: *note Py_Ellipsis: 4d34. is immortal.  File: python.info, Node: MemoryView objects, Next: Weak Reference Objects<2>, Prev: Slice Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.13 MemoryView objects ........................... A *note memoryview: 464. object exposes the C level *note buffer interface: 393. as a Python object which can then be passed around like any other object. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMemoryView_FromObject (PyObject *obj) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a memoryview object from an object that provides the buffer interface. If 'obj' supports writable buffer exports, the memoryview object will be read/write, otherwise it may be either read-only or read/write at the discretion of the exporter. -- C Macro: PyBUF_READ Flag to request a readonly buffer. -- C Macro: PyBUF_WRITE Flag to request a writable buffer. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMemoryView_FromMemory (char *mem, Py_ssize_t size, int flags) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Create a memoryview object using 'mem' as the underlying buffer. 'flags' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 1690. or *note PyBUF_WRITE: 1691. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (const Py_buffer *view) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' Create a memoryview object wrapping the given buffer structure 'view'. For simple byte buffers, *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1164. is the preferred function. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (PyObject *obj, int buffertype, char order) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a memoryview object to a *note contiguous: 2227. chunk of memory (in either ‘C’ or ‘F’ortran 'order') from an object that defines the buffer interface. If memory is contiguous, the memoryview object points to the original memory. Otherwise, a copy is made and the memoryview points to a new bytes object. 'buffertype' can be one of *note PyBUF_READ: 1690. or *note PyBUF_WRITE: 1691. -- C Function: int PyMemoryView_Check (PyObject *obj) Return true if the object 'obj' is a memoryview object. It is not currently allowed to create subclasses of *note memoryview: 464. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note Py_buffer: 753. *PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (PyObject *mview) Return a pointer to the memoryview’s private copy of the exporter’s buffer. 'mview' 'must' be a memoryview instance; this macro doesn’t check its type, you must do it yourself or you will risk crashes. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (PyObject *mview) Return either a pointer to the exporting object that the memoryview is based on or ‘NULL’ if the memoryview has been created by one of the functions *note PyMemoryView_FromMemory(): 1164. or *note PyMemoryView_FromBuffer(): 75c. 'mview' 'must' be a memoryview instance.  File: python.info, Node: Weak Reference Objects<2>, Next: Capsules<2>, Prev: MemoryView objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.14 Weak Reference Objects ............................... Python supports 'weak references' as first-class objects. There are two specific object types which directly implement weak references. The first is a simple reference object, and the second acts as a proxy for the original object as much as it can. -- C Function: int PyWeakref_Check (PyObject *ob) Return non-zero if 'ob' is either a reference or proxy object. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyWeakref_CheckRef (PyObject *ob) Return non-zero if 'ob' is a reference object. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyWeakref_CheckProxy (PyObject *ob) Return non-zero if 'ob' is a proxy object. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyWeakref_NewRef (PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a weak reference object for the object 'ob'. This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing reference object may be returned. The second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object itself. 'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’. If 'ob' is not a weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable, ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note TypeError: 534. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyWeakref_NewProxy (PyObject *ob, PyObject *callback) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a weak reference proxy object for the object 'ob'. This will always return a new reference, but is not guaranteed to create a new object; an existing proxy object may be returned. The second parameter, 'callback', can be a callable object that receives notification when 'ob' is garbage collected; it should accept a single parameter, which will be the weak reference object itself. 'callback' may also be ‘None’ or ‘NULL’. If 'ob' is not a weakly referenceable object, or if 'callback' is not callable, ‘None’, or ‘NULL’, this will return ‘NULL’ and raise *note TypeError: 534. -- C Function: int PyWeakref_GetRef (PyObject *ref, PyObject **pobj) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Get a *note strong reference: 338. to the referenced object from a weak reference, 'ref', into '*pobj'. * On success, set '*pobj' to a new *note strong reference: 338. to the referenced object and return 1. * If the reference is dead, set '*pobj' to ‘NULL’ and return 0. * On error, raise an exception and return -1. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyWeakref_GetObject (PyObject *ref) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a *note borrowed reference: 339. to the referenced object from a weak reference, 'ref'. If the referent is no longer live, returns ‘Py_None’. Note: This function returns a *note borrowed reference: 339. to the referenced object. This means that you should always call *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. on the object except when it cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. instead. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (PyObject *ref) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Similar to *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374, but does no error checking. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. instead. -- C Function: void PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (PyObject *object) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This function is called by the *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. handler to clear weak references. This iterates through the weak references for 'object' and calls callbacks for those references which have one. It returns when all callbacks have been attempted. -- C Function: void PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks (PyObject *object) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Clears the weakrefs for 'object' without calling the callbacks. This function is called by the *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. handler for types with finalizers (i.e., *note __del__(): 1f61.). The handler for those objects first calls *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 573. to clear weakrefs and call their callbacks, then the finalizer, and finally this function to clear any weakrefs that may have been created by the finalizer. In most circumstances, it’s more appropriate to use *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 573. to clear weakrefs instead of this function. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: Capsules<2>, Next: Frame Objects, Prev: Weak Reference Objects<2>, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.15 Capsules ................. Refer to *note Providing a C API for an Extension Module: 1349. for more information on using these objects. Added in version 3.1. -- C Type: type PyCapsule This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents an opaque value, useful for C extension modules who need to pass an opaque value (as a void* pointer) through Python code to other C code. It is often used to make a C function pointer defined in one module available to other modules, so the regular import mechanism can be used to access C APIs defined in dynamically loaded modules. -- C Type: type PyCapsule_Destructor ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The type of a destructor callback for a capsule. Defined as: typedef void (*PyCapsule_Destructor)(PyObject *); See *note PyCapsule_New(): 48dd. for the semantics of PyCapsule_Destructor callbacks. -- C Function: int PyCapsule_CheckExact (PyObject *p) Return true if its argument is a *note PyCapsule: 1266. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCapsule_New (void *pointer, const char *name, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a *note PyCapsule: 1266. encapsulating the 'pointer'. The 'pointer' argument may not be ‘NULL’. On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. The 'name' string may either be ‘NULL’ or a pointer to a valid C string. If non-‘NULL’, this string must outlive the capsule. (Though it is permitted to free it inside the 'destructor'.) If the 'destructor' argument is not ‘NULL’, it will be called with the capsule as its argument when it is destroyed. If this capsule will be stored as an attribute of a module, the 'name' should be specified as ‘modulename.attributename’. This will enable other modules to import the capsule using *note PyCapsule_Import(): 186d. -- C Function: void *PyCapsule_GetPointer (PyObject *capsule, const char *name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Retrieve the 'pointer' stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. The 'name' parameter must compare exactly to the name stored in the capsule. If the name stored in the capsule is ‘NULL’, the 'name' passed in must also be ‘NULL’. Python uses the C function ‘strcmp()’ to compare capsule names. -- C Function: *note PyCapsule_Destructor: 497a. PyCapsule_GetDestructor (PyObject *capsule) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the current destructor stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ destructor. This makes a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1348. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: void *PyCapsule_GetContext (PyObject *capsule) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the current context stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ context. This makes a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1348. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: const char *PyCapsule_GetName (PyObject *capsule) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the current name stored in the capsule. On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. It is legal for a capsule to have a ‘NULL’ name. This makes a ‘NULL’ return code somewhat ambiguous; use *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1348. or *note PyErr_Occurred(): 18f1. to disambiguate. -- C Function: void *PyCapsule_Import (const char *name, int no_block) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Import a pointer to a C object from a capsule attribute in a module. The 'name' parameter should specify the full name to the attribute, as in ‘module.attribute’. The 'name' stored in the capsule must match this string exactly. This function splits 'name' on the ‘.’ character, and imports the first element. It then processes further elements using attribute lookups. Return the capsule’s internal 'pointer' on success. On failure, set an exception and return ‘NULL’. Note: If 'name' points to an attribute of some submodule or subpackage, this submodule or subpackage must be previously imported using other means (for example, by using *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba.) for the attribute lookups to succeed. Changed in version 3.3: 'no_block' has no effect anymore. -- C Function: int PyCapsule_IsValid (PyObject *capsule, const char *name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Determines whether or not 'capsule' is a valid capsule. A valid capsule is non-‘NULL’, passes *note PyCapsule_CheckExact(): 4d42, has a non-‘NULL’ pointer stored in it, and its internal name matches the 'name' parameter. (See *note PyCapsule_GetPointer(): 497e. for information on how capsule names are compared.) In other words, if *note PyCapsule_IsValid(): 1348. returns a true value, calls to any of the accessors (any function starting with ‘PyCapsule_Get’) are guaranteed to succeed. Return a nonzero value if the object is valid and matches the name passed in. Return ‘0’ otherwise. This function will not fail. -- C Function: int PyCapsule_SetContext (PyObject *capsule, void *context) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the context pointer inside 'capsule' to 'context'. Return ‘0’ on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure. -- C Function: int PyCapsule_SetDestructor (PyObject *capsule, PyCapsule_Destructor destructor) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the destructor inside 'capsule' to 'destructor'. Return ‘0’ on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure. -- C Function: int PyCapsule_SetName (PyObject *capsule, const char *name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the name inside 'capsule' to 'name'. If non-‘NULL’, the name must outlive the capsule. If the previous 'name' stored in the capsule was not ‘NULL’, no attempt is made to free it. Return ‘0’ on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure. -- C Function: int PyCapsule_SetPointer (PyObject *capsule, void *pointer) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the void pointer inside 'capsule' to 'pointer'. The pointer may not be ‘NULL’. Return ‘0’ on success. Return nonzero and set an exception on failure.  File: python.info, Node: Frame Objects, Next: Generator Objects, Prev: Capsules<2>, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.16 Frame Objects ...................... -- C Type: type PyFrameObject ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (as an opaque struct).' The C structure of the objects used to describe frame objects. There are no public members in this structure. Changed in version 3.11: The members of this structure were removed from the public C API. Refer to the *note What’s New entry: 783. for details. The *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17bc. and *note PyThreadState_GetFrame(): 789. functions can be used to get a frame object. See also *note Reflection: 4b7e. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyFrame_Type The type of frame objects. It is the same object as *note types.FrameType: 1851. in the Python layer. Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this type was only available after including ‘<frameobject.h>’. -- C Function: int PyFrame_Check (PyObject *obj) Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame object. Changed in version 3.11: Previously, this function was only available after including ‘<frameobject.h>’. -- C Function: *note PyFrameObject: 784. *PyFrame_GetBack (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.' Get the 'frame' next outer frame. Return a *note strong reference: 338, or ‘NULL’ if 'frame' has no outer frame. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrame_GetBuiltins (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.' Get the 'frame'’s *note f_builtins: 1f4d. attribute. Return a *note strong reference: 338. The result cannot be ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyCodeObject: 772. *PyFrame_GetCode (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Get the 'frame' code. Return a *note strong reference: 338. The result (frame code) cannot be ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrame_GetGenerator (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.' Get the generator, coroutine, or async generator that owns this frame, or ‘NULL’ if this frame is not owned by a generator. Does not raise an exception, even if the return value is ‘NULL’. Return a *note strong reference: 338, or ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrame_GetGlobals (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.' Get the 'frame'’s *note f_globals: 1f4c. attribute. Return a *note strong reference: 338. The result cannot be ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: int PyFrame_GetLasti (PyFrameObject *frame) Get the 'frame'’s *note f_lasti: 886. attribute. Returns -1 if ‘frame.f_lasti’ is ‘None’. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrame_GetVar (PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name) 'Return value: New reference.' Get the variable 'name' of 'frame'. * Return a *note strong reference: 338. to the variable value on success. * Raise *note NameError: 43a. and return ‘NULL’ if the variable does not exist. * Raise an exception and return ‘NULL’ on error. 'name' type must be a *note str: 447. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrame_GetVarString (PyFrameObject *frame, const char *name) 'Return value: New reference.' Similar to *note PyFrame_GetVar(): 565, but the variable name is a C string encoded in UTF-8. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyFrame_GetLocals (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.' Get the 'frame'’s *note f_locals: 182. attribute. If the frame refers to an *note optimized scope: 17e, this returns a write-through proxy object that allows modifying the locals. In all other cases (classes, modules, *note exec(): 17f, *note eval(): 180.) it returns the mapping representing the frame locals directly (as described for *note locals(): 141.). Return a *note strong reference: 338. Added in version 3.11. Changed in version 3.13: As part of PEP 667(1), return an instance of *note PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type: 4d45. -- C Function: int PyFrame_GetLineNumber (PyFrameObject *frame) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Return the line number that 'frame' is currently executing. * Menu: * Frame Locals Proxies:: * Internal Frames:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/  File: python.info, Node: Frame Locals Proxies, Next: Internal Frames, Up: Frame Objects 7.8.6.17 Frame Locals Proxies ............................. Added in version 3.13. The *note f_locals: 182. attribute on a *note frame object: 6db. is an instance of a “frame-locals proxy”. The proxy object exposes a write-through view of the underlying locals dictionary for the frame. This ensures that the variables exposed by ‘f_locals’ are always up to date with the live local variables in the frame itself. See PEP 667(1) for more information. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type The type of frame *note locals(): 141. proxy objects. -- C Function: int PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (PyObject *obj) Return non-zero if 'obj' is a frame *note locals(): 141. proxy. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0667/  File: python.info, Node: Internal Frames, Prev: Frame Locals Proxies, Up: Frame Objects 7.8.6.18 Internal Frames ........................ Unless using PEP 523(1), you will not need this. -- C Struct: struct _PyInterpreterFrame The interpreter’s internal frame representation. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame); This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return a *note strong reference: 338. to the code object for the frame. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame); This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return the byte offset into the last executed instruction. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (struct _PyInterpreterFrame *frame); This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return the currently executing line number, or -1 if there is no line number. Added in version 3.12. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/  File: python.info, Node: Generator Objects, Next: Coroutine Objects<2>, Prev: Frame Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.19 Generator Objects .......................... Generator objects are what Python uses to implement generator iterators. They are normally created by iterating over a function that yields values, rather than explicitly calling *note PyGen_New(): 4d50. or *note PyGen_NewWithQualName(): 4d51. -- C Type: type PyGenObject The C structure used for generator objects. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyGen_Type The type object corresponding to generator objects. -- C Function: int PyGen_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is a generator object; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyGen_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob'’s type is *note PyGen_Type: 4d53.; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyGen_New (PyFrameObject *frame) 'Return value: New reference.' Create and return a new generator object based on the 'frame' object. A reference to 'frame' is stolen by this function. The argument must not be ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyGen_NewWithQualName (PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname) 'Return value: New reference.' Create and return a new generator object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'. A reference to 'frame' is stolen by this function. The 'frame' argument must not be ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: Coroutine Objects<2>, Next: Context Variables Objects, Prev: Generator Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.20 Coroutine Objects .......................... Added in version 3.5. Coroutine objects are what functions declared with an ‘async’ keyword return. -- C Type: type PyCoroObject The C structure used for coroutine objects. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyCoro_Type The type object corresponding to coroutine objects. -- C Function: int PyCoro_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob'’s type is *note PyCoro_Type: 4d59.; 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCoro_New (PyFrameObject *frame, PyObject *name, PyObject *qualname) 'Return value: New reference.' Create and return a new coroutine object based on the 'frame' object, with ‘__name__’ and ‘__qualname__’ set to 'name' and 'qualname'. A reference to 'frame' is stolen by this function. The 'frame' argument must not be ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: Context Variables Objects, Next: DateTime Objects<2>, Prev: Coroutine Objects<2>, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.21 Context Variables Objects .................................. Added in version 3.7. Changed in version 3.7.1: Note: In Python 3.7.1 the signatures of all context variables C APIs were 'changed' to use *note PyObject: 334. pointers instead of *note PyContext: 4d5e, *note PyContextVar: 4d5f, and *note PyContextToken: 4d60, e.g.: // in 3.7.0: PyContext *PyContext_New(void); // in 3.7.1+: PyObject *PyContext_New(void); See bpo-34762(1) for more details. This section details the public C API for the *note contextvars: 24. module. -- C Type: type PyContext The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Context: 15a9. object. -- C Type: type PyContextVar The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.ContextVar: 155d. object. -- C Type: type PyContextToken The C structure used to represent a *note contextvars.Token: 325b. object. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyContext_Type The type object representing the 'context' type. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyContextVar_Type The type object representing the 'context variable' type. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyContextToken_Type The type object representing the 'context variable token' type. Type-check macros: -- C Function: int PyContext_CheckExact (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContext_Type: 4d61. 'o' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyContextVar_CheckExact (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextVar_Type: 4d62. 'o' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyContextToken_CheckExact (PyObject *o) Return true if 'o' is of type *note PyContextToken_Type: 4d63. 'o' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. Context object management functions: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyContext_New (void) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new empty context object. Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyContext_Copy (PyObject *ctx) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a shallow copy of the passed 'ctx' context object. Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyContext_CopyCurrent (void) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a shallow copy of the current thread context. Returns ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred. -- C Function: int PyContext_Enter (PyObject *ctx) Set 'ctx' as the current context for the current thread. Returns ‘0’ on success, and ‘-1’ on error. -- C Function: int PyContext_Exit (PyObject *ctx) Deactivate the 'ctx' context and restore the previous context as the current context for the current thread. Returns ‘0’ on success, and ‘-1’ on error. Context variable functions: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyContextVar_New (const char *name, PyObject *def) 'Return value: New reference.' Create a new ‘ContextVar’ object. The 'name' parameter is used for introspection and debug purposes. The 'def' parameter specifies a default value for the context variable, or ‘NULL’ for no default. If an error has occurred, this function returns ‘NULL’. -- C Function: int PyContextVar_Get (PyObject *var, PyObject *default_value, PyObject **value) Get the value of a context variable. Returns ‘-1’ if an error has occurred during lookup, and ‘0’ if no error occurred, whether or not a value was found. If the context variable was found, 'value' will be a pointer to it. If the context variable was 'not' found, 'value' will point to: - 'default_value', if not ‘NULL’; - the default value of 'var', if not ‘NULL’; - ‘NULL’ Except for ‘NULL’, the function returns a new reference. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyContextVar_Set (PyObject *var, PyObject *value) 'Return value: New reference.' Set the value of 'var' to 'value' in the current context. Returns a new token object for this change, or ‘NULL’ if an error has occurred. -- C Function: int PyContextVar_Reset (PyObject *var, PyObject *token) Reset the state of the 'var' context variable to that it was in before *note PyContextVar_Set(): 4d6e. that returned the 'token' was called. This function returns ‘0’ on success and ‘-1’ on error. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://bugs.python.org/issue?@action=redirect&bpo=34762  File: python.info, Node: DateTime Objects<2>, Next: Objects for Type Hinting, Prev: Context Variables Objects, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.22 DateTime Objects ......................... Various date and time objects are supplied by the *note datetime: 30. module. Before using any of these functions, the header file ‘datetime.h’ must be included in your source (note that this is not included by ‘Python.h’), and the macro ‘PyDateTime_IMPORT’ must be invoked, usually as part of the module initialisation function. The macro puts a pointer to a C structure into a static variable, ‘PyDateTimeAPI’, that is used by the following macros. -- C Type: type PyDateTime_Date This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python date object. -- C Type: type PyDateTime_DateTime This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python datetime object. -- C Type: type PyDateTime_Time This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents a Python time object. -- C Type: type PyDateTime_Delta This subtype of *note PyObject: 334. represents the difference between two datetime values. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyDateTime_DateType This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python date type; it is the same object as *note datetime.date: 1cd. in the Python layer. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyDateTime_DateTimeType This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python datetime type; it is the same object as *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. in the Python layer. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyDateTime_TimeType This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python time type; it is the same object as *note datetime.time: 1ce. in the Python layer. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyDateTime_DeltaType This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents Python type for the difference between two datetime values; it is the same object as *note datetime.timedelta: 9cf. in the Python layer. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyDateTime_TZInfoType This instance of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. represents the Python time zone info type; it is the same object as *note datetime.tzinfo: 5da. in the Python layer. Macro for access to the UTC singleton: -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC Returns the time zone singleton representing UTC, the same object as *note datetime.timezone.utc: 610. Added in version 3.7. Type-check macros: -- C Function: int PyDate_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4d76. or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateType’. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyDate_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateType: 4d76. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4d77. or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DateTimeType’. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DateTimeType: 4d77. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyTime_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4d78. or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TimeType’. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyTime_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TimeType: 4d78. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyDelta_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4d79. or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_DeltaType’. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyDelta_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_DeltaType: 4d79. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyTZInfo_Check (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4d7a. or a subtype of ‘PyDateTime_TZInfoType’. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. -- C Function: int PyTZInfo_CheckExact (PyObject *ob) Return true if 'ob' is of type *note PyDateTime_TZInfoType: 4d7a. 'ob' must not be ‘NULL’. This function always succeeds. Macros to create objects: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDate_FromDate (int year, int month, int day) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.date: 1cd. object with the specified year, month and day. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. object with the specified year, month, day, hour, minute, second and microsecond. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (int year, int month, int day, int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. object with the specified year, month, day, hour, minute, second, microsecond and fold. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTime_FromTime (int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.time: 1ce. object with the specified hour, minute, second and microsecond. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (int hour, int minute, int second, int usecond, int fold) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.time: 1ce. object with the specified hour, minute, second, microsecond and fold. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDelta_FromDSU (int days, int seconds, int useconds) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.timedelta: 9cf. object representing the given number of days, seconds and microseconds. Normalization is performed so that the resulting number of microseconds and seconds lie in the ranges documented for *note datetime.timedelta: 9cf. objects. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTimeZone_FromOffset (PyObject *offset) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.timezone: 10b5. object with an unnamed fixed offset represented by the 'offset' argument. Added in version 3.7. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (PyObject *offset, PyObject *name) 'Return value: New reference.' Return a *note datetime.timezone: 10b5. object with a fixed offset represented by the 'offset' argument and with tzname 'name'. Added in version 3.7. Macros to extract fields from date objects. The argument must be an instance of *note PyDateTime_Date: 4d72, including subclasses (such as *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4d73.). The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked: -- C Function: int PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (PyDateTime_Date *o) Return the year, as a positive int. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (PyDateTime_Date *o) Return the month, as an int from 1 through 12. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_GET_DAY (PyDateTime_Date *o) Return the day, as an int from 1 through 31. Macros to extract fields from datetime objects. The argument must be an instance of *note PyDateTime_DateTime: 4d73, including subclasses. The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked: -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_DateTime *o) Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_DateTime *o) Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o) Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_DateTime *o) Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_DateTime *o) Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (PyDateTime_DateTime *o) Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’). Added in version 3.10. Macros to extract fields from time objects. The argument must be an instance of *note PyDateTime_Time: 4d74, including subclasses. The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked: -- C Function: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (PyDateTime_Time *o) Return the hour, as an int from 0 through 23. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (PyDateTime_Time *o) Return the minute, as an int from 0 through 59. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o) Return the second, as an int from 0 through 59. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (PyDateTime_Time *o) Return the microsecond, as an int from 0 through 999999. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (PyDateTime_Time *o) Return the fold, as an int from 0 through 1. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (PyDateTime_Time *o) Return the tzinfo (which may be ‘None’). Added in version 3.10. Macros to extract fields from time delta objects. The argument must be an instance of *note PyDateTime_Delta: 4d75, including subclasses. The argument must not be ‘NULL’, and the type is not checked: -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (PyDateTime_Delta *o) Return the number of days, as an int from -999999999 to 999999999. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o) Return the number of seconds, as an int from 0 through 86399. Added in version 3.3. -- C Function: int PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (PyDateTime_Delta *o) Return the number of microseconds, as an int from 0 through 999999. Added in version 3.3. Macros for the convenience of modules implementing the DB API: -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (PyObject *args) 'Return value: New reference.' Create and return a new *note datetime.datetime: 1cc. object given an argument tuple suitable for passing to *note datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(): 4e9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyDate_FromTimestamp (PyObject *args) 'Return value: New reference.' Create and return a new *note datetime.date: 1cd. object given an argument tuple suitable for passing to *note datetime.date.fromtimestamp(): 160a.  File: python.info, Node: Objects for Type Hinting, Prev: DateTime Objects<2>, Up: Other Objects 7.8.6.23 Objects for Type Hinting ................................. Various built-in types for type hinting are provided. Currently, two types exist – *note GenericAlias: 6ae. and *note Union: 7bd. Only ‘GenericAlias’ is exposed to C. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *Py_GenericAlias (PyObject *origin, PyObject *args) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Create a *note GenericAlias: 6ae. object. Equivalent to calling the Python class *note types.GenericAlias: 7e6. The 'origin' and 'args' arguments set the ‘GenericAlias’‘s ‘__origin__’ and ‘__args__’ attributes respectively. 'origin' should be a *note PyTypeObject: aa5.*, and 'args' can be a *note PyTupleObject: 4b52.* or any ‘PyObject*’. If 'args' passed is not a tuple, a 1-tuple is automatically constructed and ‘__args__’ is set to ‘(args,)’. Minimal checking is done for the arguments, so the function will succeed even if 'origin' is not a type. The ‘GenericAlias’‘s ‘__parameters__’ attribute is constructed lazily from ‘__args__’. On failure, an exception is raised and ‘NULL’ is returned. Here’s an example of how to make an extension type generic: ... static PyMethodDef my_obj_methods[] = { // Other methods. ... {"__class_getitem__", Py_GenericAlias, METH_O|METH_CLASS, "See PEP 585"} ... } See also ........ The data model method *note __class_getitem__(): 736. Added in version 3.9. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. Py_GenericAliasType ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' The C type of the object returned by *note Py_GenericAlias(): 4ae0. Equivalent to *note types.GenericAlias: 7e6. in Python. Added in version 3.9.  File: python.info, Node: Initialization Finalization and Threads, Next: Python Initialization Configuration, Prev: Concrete Objects Layer, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.9 Initialization, Finalization, and Threads ============================================= See *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. for details on how to configure the interpreter prior to initialization. * Menu: * Before Python Initialization:: * Global configuration variables:: * Initializing and finalizing the interpreter:: * Process-wide parameters:: * Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock:: * Sub-interpreter support:: * Asynchronous Notifications:: * Profiling and Tracing:: * Reference tracing:: * Advanced Debugger Support:: * Thread Local Storage Support:: * Synchronization Primitives: Synchronization Primitives<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Before Python Initialization, Next: Global configuration variables, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.1 Before Python Initialization ---------------------------------- In an application embedding Python, the *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. function must be called before using any other Python/C API functions; with the exception of a few functions and the *note global configuration variables: 4da3. The following functions can be safely called before Python is initialized: * Functions that initialize the interpreter: * *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. * *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4ae7. * *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. * *note Py_BytesMain(): 9c1. * *note Py_Main(): c25. * the runtime pre-initialization functions covered in *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. * Configuration functions: * *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3. * *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17a4. * ‘PyInitFrozenExtensions()’ * *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 588. * *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. * *note PyObject_SetArenaAllocator(): 4da4. * *note Py_SetProgramName(): 163e. * *note Py_SetPythonHome(): 163d. * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3ab. * the configuration functions covered in *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. * Informative functions: * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4950. * *note PyMem_GetAllocator(): 4da5. * *note PyObject_GetArenaAllocator(): 4da6. * *note Py_GetBuildInfo(): 13fd. * *note Py_GetCompiler(): 4ae2. * *note Py_GetCopyright(): 4ae3. * *note Py_GetPlatform(): 4ae4. * *note Py_GetVersion(): 4ae5. * *note Py_IsInitialized(): 4950. * Utilities: * *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. * the status reporting and utility functions covered in *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. * Memory allocators: * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c. * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38e. * Synchronization: * *note PyMutex_Lock(): 325. * *note PyMutex_Unlock(): 326. Note: Despite their apparent similarity to some of the functions listed above, the following functions 'should not be called' before the interpreter has been initialized: *note Py_EncodeLocale(): bc8, *note Py_GetPath(): 3af, *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1, *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad, *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3, *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6, *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5, *note PyEval_InitThreads(): 1641, and *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5.  File: python.info, Node: Global configuration variables, Next: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter, Prev: Before Python Initialization, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.2 Global configuration variables ------------------------------------ Python has variables for the global configuration to control different features and options. By default, these flags are controlled by *note command line options: 1d29. When a flag is set by an option, the value of the flag is the number of times that the option was set. For example, ‘-b’ sets *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0. to 1 and ‘-bb’ sets *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0. to 2. -- C Variable: int Py_BytesWarningFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3d1. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Issue a warning when comparing *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. with *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. with *note int: 259. Issue an error if greater or equal to ‘2’. Set by the *note -b: 5df. option. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_DebugFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.parser_debug: 3c3. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation options). Set by the *note -d: 1d31. option and the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1d32. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d7. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. If set to non-zero, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the import of source modules. Set by the *note -B: 1399. option and the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 139a. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_FrozenFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Suppress error messages when calculating the module search path in *note Py_GetPath(): 3af. Private flag used by ‘_freeze_module’ and ‘frozenmain’ programs. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_HashRandomizationFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.hash_seed: 3de. and *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3dd. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1076. environment variable is set to a non-empty string. If the flag is non-zero, read the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1076. environment variable to initialize the secret hash seed. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Ignore all ‘PYTHON*’ environment variables, e.g. *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. and *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8, that might be set. Set by the *note -E: 95d. and *note -I: 95e. options. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_InspectFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. When a script is passed as first argument or the *note -c: 5dc. option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 539. does not appear to be a terminal. Set by the *note -i: 14a6. option and the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a5. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_InteractiveFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c9. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Set by the *note -i: 14a6. option. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.15. -- C Variable: int Py_IsolatedFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Run Python in isolated mode. In isolated mode *note sys.path: 3b0. contains neither the script’s directory nor the user’s site-packages directory. Set by the *note -I: 95e. option. Added in version 3.4. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. If the flag is non-zero, use the ‘mbcs’ encoding with ‘replace’ error handler, instead of the UTF-8 encoding with ‘surrogatepass’ error handler, for the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable is set to a non-empty string. See PEP 529(1) for more details. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. If the flag is non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 1303. instead of ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys: d9. standard streams. Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c5b. environment variable is set to a non-empty string. See PEP 528(2) for more details. *note Availability: 1d54.: Windows. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_NoSiteFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.site_import: 3cf. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Disable the import of the module *note site: c7. and the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 3b0. that it entails. Also disable these manipulations if *note site: c7. is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1d36. if you want them to be triggered). Set by the *note -S: 119b. option. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_NoUserSiteDirectory This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d9. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Don’t add the *note user site-packages directory: 1d35. to *note sys.path: 3b0. Set by the *note -s: 1377. and *note -I: 95e. options, and the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1378. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_OptimizeFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cd. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Set by the *note -O: db4. option and the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1d33. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_QuietFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c7. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Don’t display the copyright and version messages even in interactive mode. Set by the *note -q: 1d34. option. Added in version 3.2. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3db. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Force the stdout and stderr streams to be unbuffered. Set by the *note -u: 19a3. option and the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19a4. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. -- C Variable: int Py_VerboseFlag This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c5. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Print a message each time a module is initialized, showing the place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded. If greater or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file that is checked for when searching for a module. Also provides information on module cleanup at exit. Set by the *note -v: 13f0. option and the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1d37. environment variable. Deprecated since version 3.12, will be removed in version 3.14. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0529/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/  File: python.info, Node: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter, Next: Process-wide parameters, Prev: Global configuration variables, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.3 Initializing and finalizing the interpreter ------------------------------------------------- -- C Function: void Py_Initialize () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Initialize the Python interpreter. In an application embedding Python, this should be called before using any other Python/C API functions; see *note Before Python Initialization: bc5. for the few exceptions. This initializes the table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’), and creates the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__: 1. and *note sys: d9. It also initializes the module search path (‘sys.path’). It does not set ‘sys.argv’; use the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. API for that. This is a no-op when called for a second time (without calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. first). There is no return value; it is a fatal error if the initialization fails. Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. to customize the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Note: On Windows, changes the console mode from ‘O_TEXT’ to ‘O_BINARY’, which will also affect non-Python uses of the console using the C Runtime. -- C Function: void Py_InitializeEx (int initsigs) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This function works like *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. if 'initsigs' is ‘1’. If 'initsigs' is ‘0’, it skips initialization registration of signal handlers, which may be useful when CPython is embedded as part of a larger application. Use *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. to customize the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. Py_InitializeFromConfig (const PyConfig *config) Initialize Python from 'config' configuration, as described in *note Initialization with PyConfig: 4da9. See the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. section for details on pre-initializing the interpreter, populating the runtime configuration structure, and querying the returned status structure. -- C Function: int Py_IsInitialized () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return true (nonzero) when the Python interpreter has been initialized, false (zero) if not. After *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. is called, this returns false until *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. is called again. -- C Function: int Py_IsFinalizing () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Return true (non-zero) if the main Python interpreter is *note shutting down: 14e. Return false (zero) otherwise. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: int Py_FinalizeEx () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.6.' Undo all initializations made by *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. and subsequent use of Python/C API functions, and destroy all sub-interpreters (see *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17b6. below) that were created and not yet destroyed since the last call to *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Ideally, this frees all memory allocated by the Python interpreter. This is a no-op when called for a second time (without calling *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. again first). Since this is the reverse of *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, it should be called in the same thread with the same interpreter active. That means the main thread and the main interpreter. This should never be called while *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. is running. Normally the return value is ‘0’. If there were errors during finalization (flushing buffered data), ‘-1’ is returned. This function is provided for a number of reasons. An embedding application might want to restart Python without having to restart the application itself. An application that has loaded the Python interpreter from a dynamically loadable library (or DLL) might want to free all memory allocated by Python before unloading the DLL. During a hunt for memory leaks in an application a developer might want to free all memory allocated by Python before exiting from the application. 'Bugs and caveats:' The destruction of modules and objects in modules is done in random order; this may cause destructors (*note __del__(): 1f61. methods) to fail when they depend on other objects (even functions) or modules. Dynamically loaded extension modules loaded by Python are not unloaded. Small amounts of memory allocated by the Python interpreter may not be freed (if you find a leak, please report it). Memory tied up in circular references between objects is not freed. Some memory allocated by extension modules may not be freed. Some extensions may not work properly if their initialization routine is called more than once; this can happen if an application calls *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. and *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. more than once. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘cpython._PySys_ClearAuditHooks’ with no arguments. Added in version 3.6. -- C Function: void Py_Finalize () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is a backwards-compatible version of *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. that disregards the return value. -- C Function: int Py_BytesMain (int argc, char **argv) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.8.' Similar to *note Py_Main(): c25. but 'argv' is an array of bytes strings, allowing the calling application to delegate the text decoding step to the CPython runtime. Added in version 3.8. -- C Function: int Py_Main (int argc, wchar_t **argv) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The main program for the standard interpreter, encapsulating a full initialization/finalization cycle, as well as additional behaviour to implement reading configurations settings from the environment and command line, and then executing ‘__main__’ in accordance with *note Command line: 1000. This is made available for programs which wish to support the full CPython command line interface, rather than just embedding a Python runtime in a larger application. The 'argc' and 'argv' parameters are similar to those which are passed to a C program’s ‘main()’ function, except that the 'argv' entries are first converted to ‘wchar_t’ using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. It is also important to note that the argument list entries may be modified to point to strings other than those passed in (however, the contents of the strings pointed to by the argument list are not modified). The return value is ‘2’ if the argument list does not represent a valid Python command line, and otherwise the same as *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. In terms of the CPython runtime configuration APIs documented in the *note runtime configuration: 3a3. section (and without accounting for error handling), ‘Py_Main’ is approximately equivalent to: PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); PyConfig_SetArgv(&config, argc, argv); Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); PyConfig_Clear(&config); Py_RunMain(); In normal usage, an embedding application will call this function 'instead' of calling *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4ae7. or *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. directly, and all settings will be applied as described elsewhere in this documentation. If this function is instead called 'after' a preceding runtime initialization API call, then exactly which environmental and command line configuration settings will be updated is version dependent (as it depends on which settings correctly support being modified after they have already been set once when the runtime was first initialized). -- C Function: int Py_RunMain (void) Executes the main module in a fully configured CPython runtime. Executes the command (*note PyConfig.run_command: 4daa.), the script (*note PyConfig.run_filename: 4dab.) or the module (*note PyConfig.run_module: 4dac.) specified on the command line or in the configuration. If none of these values are set, runs the interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module’s global namespace. If *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. is not set (the default), the return value will be ‘0’ if the interpreter exits normally (that is, without raising an exception), the exit status of an unhandled *note SystemExit: d40, or ‘1’ for any other unhandled exception. If *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. is set (such as when the *note -i: 14a6. option is used), rather than returning when the interpreter exits, execution will instead resume in an interactive Python prompt (REPL) using the ‘__main__’ module’s global namespace. If the interpreter exited with an exception, it is immediately raised in the REPL session. The function return value is then determined by the way the 'REPL session' terminates: ‘0’, ‘1’, or the status of a *note SystemExit: d40, as specified above. This function always finalizes the Python interpreter before it returns. See *note Python Configuration: 4dad. for an example of a customized Python that always runs in isolated mode using *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. -- C Function: int PyUnstable_AtExit (PyInterpreterState *interp, void (*func)(void*), void *data) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Register an *note atexit: c. callback for the target interpreter 'interp'. This is similar to *note Py_AtExit(): 4add, but takes an explicit interpreter and data pointer for the callback. The *note GIL: 159. must be held for 'interp'. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: Process-wide parameters, Next: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock, Prev: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.4 Process-wide parameters ----------------------------- -- C Function: void Py_SetProgramName (const wchar_t *name) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. This function should be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. is called for the first time, if it is called at all. It tells the interpreter the value of the ‘argv[0]’ argument to the ‘main()’ function of the program (converted to wide characters). This is used by *note Py_GetPath(): 3af. and some other functions below to find the Python run-time libraries relative to the interpreter executable. The default value is ‘'python'’. The argument should point to a zero-terminated wide character string in static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of the program’s execution. No code in the Python interpreter will change the contents of this storage. Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string. Deprecated since version 3.11. -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramName () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the program name set with *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0, or the default. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_GetPrefix () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the 'prefix' for installed platform-independent files. This is derived through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. and some environment variables; for example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. This corresponds to the ‘prefix’ variable in the top-level ‘Makefile’ and the *note -prefix: 1d62. argument to the ‘configure’ script at build time. The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.base_prefix’. It is only useful on Unix. See also the next function. This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb. instead, or *note sys.prefix: 3b2. if *note virtual environments: 4331. need to be handled. -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_GetExecPrefix () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the 'exec-prefix' for installed platform-'dependent' files. This is derived through a number of complicated rules from the program name set with *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. and some environment variables; for example, if the program name is ‘'/usr/local/bin/python'’, the exec-prefix is ‘'/usr/local'’. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. This corresponds to the ‘exec_prefix’ variable in the top-level ‘Makefile’ and the ‘--exec-prefix’ argument to the ‘configure’ script at build time. The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.base_exec_prefix’. It is only useful on Unix. Background: The exec-prefix differs from the prefix when platform dependent files (such as executables and shared libraries) are installed in a different directory tree. In a typical installation, platform dependent files may be installed in the ‘/usr/local/plat’ subtree while platform independent may be installed in ‘/usr/local’. Generally speaking, a platform is a combination of hardware and software families, e.g. Sparc machines running the Solaris 2.x operating system are considered the same platform, but Intel machines running Solaris 2.x are another platform, and Intel machines running Linux are yet another platform. Different major revisions of the same operating system generally also form different platforms. Non-Unix operating systems are a different story; the installation strategies on those systems are so different that the prefix and exec-prefix are meaningless, and set to the empty string. Note that compiled Python bytecode files are platform independent (but not independent from the Python version by which they were compiled!). System administrators will know how to configure the ‘mount’ or ‘automount’ programs to share ‘/usr/local’ between platforms while having ‘/usr/local/plat’ be a different filesystem for each platform. This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3ea. instead, or *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. if *note virtual environments: 4331. need to be handled. -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_GetProgramFullPath () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the full program name of the Python executable; this is computed as a side-effect of deriving the default module search path from the program name (set by *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0.). The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.executable’. This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_GetPath () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the default module search path; this is computed from the program name (set by *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0.) and some environment variables. The returned string consists of a series of directory names separated by a platform dependent delimiter character. The delimiter character is ‘':'’ on Unix and macOS, ‘';'’ on Windows. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The list *note sys.path: 3b0. is initialized with this value on interpreter startup; it can be (and usually is) modified later to change the search path for loading modules. This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get *note sys.path: 3b0. instead. -- C Function: const char *Py_GetVersion () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the version of this Python interpreter. This is a string that looks something like "3.0a5+ (py3k:63103M, May 12 2008, 00:53:55) \n[GCC 4.2.3]" The first word (up to the first space character) is the current Python version; the first characters are the major and minor version separated by a period. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as *note sys.version: 178. See also the *note Py_Version: 751. constant. -- C Function: const char *Py_GetPlatform () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the platform identifier for the current platform. On Unix, this is formed from the “official” name of the operating system, converted to lower case, followed by the major revision number; e.g., for Solaris 2.x, which is also known as SunOS 5.x, the value is ‘'sunos5'’. On macOS, it is ‘'darwin'’. On Windows, it is ‘'win'’. The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.platform’. -- C Function: const char *Py_GetCopyright () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the official copyright string for the current Python version, for example ‘'Copyright 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, Amsterdam'’ The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as ‘sys.copyright’. -- C Function: const char *Py_GetCompiler () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return an indication of the compiler used to build the current Python version, in square brackets, for example: "[GCC 2.7.2.2]" The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as part of the variable ‘sys.version’. -- C Function: const char *Py_GetBuildInfo () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return information about the sequence number and build date and time of the current Python interpreter instance, for example "#67, Aug 1 1997, 22:34:28" The returned string points into static storage; the caller should not modify its value. The value is available to Python code as part of the variable ‘sys.version’. -- C Function: void PySys_SetArgvEx (int argc, wchar_t **argv, int updatepath) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. and *note PyConfig.safe_path: 76e. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Set *note sys.argv: 1258. based on 'argc' and 'argv'. These parameters are similar to those passed to the program’s ‘main()’ function with the difference that the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter. If there isn’t a script that will be run, the first entry in 'argv' can be an empty string. If this function fails to initialize *note sys.argv: 1258, a fatal condition is signalled using *note Py_FatalError(): 983. If 'updatepath' is zero, this is all the function does. If 'updatepath' is non-zero, the function also modifies *note sys.path: 3b0. according to the following algorithm: - If the name of an existing script is passed in ‘argv[0]’, the absolute path of the directory where the script is located is prepended to *note sys.path: 3b0. - Otherwise (that is, if 'argc' is ‘0’ or ‘argv[0]’ doesn’t point to an existing file name), an empty string is prepended to *note sys.path: 3b0, which is the same as prepending the current working directory (‘"."’). Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string. See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 892. and *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Note: It is recommended that applications embedding the Python interpreter for purposes other than executing a single script pass ‘0’ as 'updatepath', and update *note sys.path: 3b0. themselves if desired. See CVE 2008-5983(1). On versions before 3.1.3, you can achieve the same effect by manually popping the first *note sys.path: 3b0. element after having called *note PySys_SetArgv(): 1640, for example using: PyRun_SimpleString("import sys; sys.path.pop(0)\n"); Added in version 3.1.3. Deprecated since version 3.11. -- C Function: void PySys_SetArgv (int argc, wchar_t **argv) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. and *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. This function works like *note PySys_SetArgvEx(): 163f. with 'updatepath' set to ‘1’ unless the ‘python’ interpreter was started with the *note -I: 95e. Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string. See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 892. and *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. members of the *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Changed in version 3.4: The 'updatepath' value depends on *note -I: 95e. Deprecated since version 3.11. -- C Function: void Py_SetPythonHome (const wchar_t *home) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This API is kept for backward compatibility: setting *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. should be used instead, see *note Python Initialization Configuration: 3a3. Set the default “home” directory, that is, the location of the standard Python libraries. See *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. for the meaning of the argument string. The argument should point to a zero-terminated character string in static storage whose contents will not change for the duration of the program’s execution. No code in the Python interpreter will change the contents of this storage. Use *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. to decode a bytes string to get a wchar_t* string. Deprecated since version 3.11. -- C Function: wchar_t *Py_GetPythonHome () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the default “home”, that is, the value set by *note PyConfig.home: 3b7, or the value of the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable if it is set. This function should not be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, otherwise it returns ‘NULL’. Changed in version 3.10: It now returns ‘NULL’ if called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Deprecated since version 3.13, will be removed in version 3.15: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. or *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.cve.org/CVERecord?id=CVE-2008-5983  File: python.info, Node: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock, Next: Sub-interpreter support, Prev: Process-wide parameters, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.5 Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock -------------------------------------------------- The Python interpreter is not fully thread-safe. In order to support multi-threaded Python programs, there’s a global lock, called the *note global interpreter lock: 148. or *note GIL: 159, that must be held by the current thread before it can safely access Python objects. Without the lock, even the simplest operations could cause problems in a multi-threaded program: for example, when two threads simultaneously increment the reference count of the same object, the reference count could end up being incremented only once instead of twice. Therefore, the rule exists that only the thread that has acquired the *note GIL: 159. may operate on Python objects or call Python/C API functions. In order to emulate concurrency of execution, the interpreter regularly tries to switch threads (see *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 94a.). The lock is also released around potentially blocking I/O operations like reading or writing a file, so that other Python threads can run in the meantime. The Python interpreter keeps some thread-specific bookkeeping information inside a data structure called *note PyThreadState: 788. There’s also one global variable pointing to the current *note PyThreadState: 788.: it can be retrieved using *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36d. * Menu: * Releasing the GIL from extension code:: * Non-Python created threads:: * Cautions about fork(): Cautions about fork. * High-level API:: * Low-level API::  File: python.info, Node: Releasing the GIL from extension code, Next: Non-Python created threads, Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock 7.9.5.1 Releasing the GIL from extension code ............................................. Most extension code manipulating the *note GIL: 159. has the following simple structure: Save the thread state in a local variable. Release the global interpreter lock. ... Do some blocking I/O operation ... Reacquire the global interpreter lock. Restore the thread state from the local variable. This is so common that a pair of macros exists to simplify it: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS ... Do some blocking I/O operation ... Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS The *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. macro opens a new block and declares a hidden local variable; the *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. macro closes the block. The block above expands to the following code: PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread(); ... Do some blocking I/O operation ... PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); Here is how these functions work: the global interpreter lock is used to protect the pointer to the current thread state. When releasing the lock and saving the thread state, the current thread state pointer must be retrieved before the lock is released (since another thread could immediately acquire the lock and store its own thread state in the global variable). Conversely, when acquiring the lock and restoring the thread state, the lock must be acquired before storing the thread state pointer. Note: Calling system I/O functions is the most common use case for releasing the GIL, but it can also be useful before calling long-running computations which don’t need access to Python objects, such as compression or cryptographic functions operating over memory buffers. For example, the standard *note zlib: 133. and *note hashlib: 68. modules release the GIL when compressing or hashing data.  File: python.info, Node: Non-Python created threads, Next: Cautions about fork, Prev: Releasing the GIL from extension code, Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock 7.9.5.2 Non-Python created threads .................................. When threads are created using the dedicated Python APIs (such as the *note threading: ed. module), a thread state is automatically associated to them and the code showed above is therefore correct. However, when threads are created from C (for example by a third-party library with its own thread management), they don’t hold the GIL, nor is there a thread state structure for them. If you need to call Python code from these threads (often this will be part of a callback API provided by the aforementioned third-party library), you must first register these threads with the interpreter by creating a thread state data structure, then acquiring the GIL, and finally storing their thread state pointer, before you can start using the Python/C API. When you are done, you should reset the thread state pointer, release the GIL, and finally free the thread state data structure. The *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. functions do all of the above automatically. The typical idiom for calling into Python from a C thread is: PyGILState_STATE gstate; gstate = PyGILState_Ensure(); /* Perform Python actions here. */ result = CallSomeFunction(); /* evaluate result or handle exception */ /* Release the thread. No Python API allowed beyond this point. */ PyGILState_Release(gstate); Note that the ‘PyGILState_*’ functions assume there is only one global interpreter (created automatically by *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab.). Python supports the creation of additional interpreters (using *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17b6.), but mixing multiple interpreters and the ‘PyGILState_*’ API is unsupported.  File: python.info, Node: Cautions about fork, Next: High-level API, Prev: Non-Python created threads, Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock 7.9.5.3 Cautions about fork() ............................. Another important thing to note about threads is their behaviour in the face of the C ‘fork()’ call. On most systems with ‘fork()’, after a process forks only the thread that issued the fork will exist. This has a concrete impact both on how locks must be handled and on all stored state in CPython’s runtime. The fact that only the “current” thread remains means any locks held by other threads will never be released. Python solves this for *note os.fork(): 197. by acquiring the locks it uses internally before the fork, and releasing them afterwards. In addition, it resets any *note Lock objects: 310b. in the child. When extending or embedding Python, there is no way to inform Python of additional (non-Python) locks that need to be acquired before or reset after a fork. OS facilities such as ‘pthread_atfork()’ would need to be used to accomplish the same thing. Additionally, when extending or embedding Python, calling ‘fork()’ directly rather than through *note os.fork(): 197. (and returning to or calling into Python) may result in a deadlock by one of Python’s internal locks being held by a thread that is defunct after the fork. *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. tries to reset the necessary locks, but is not always able to. The fact that all other threads go away also means that CPython’s runtime state there must be cleaned up properly, which *note os.fork(): 197. does. This means finalizing all other *note PyThreadState: 788. objects belonging to the current interpreter and all other *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. objects. Due to this and the special nature of the *note “main” interpreter: 584, ‘fork()’ should only be called in that interpreter’s “main” thread, where the CPython global runtime was originally initialized. The only exception is if ‘exec()’ will be called immediately after.  File: python.info, Node: High-level API, Next: Low-level API, Prev: Cautions about fork, Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock 7.9.5.4 High-level API ...................... These are the most commonly used types and functions when writing C extension code, or when embedding the Python interpreter: -- C Type: type PyInterpreterState ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (as an opaque struct).' This data structure represents the state shared by a number of cooperating threads. Threads belonging to the same interpreter share their module administration and a few other internal items. There are no public members in this structure. Threads belonging to different interpreters initially share nothing, except process state like available memory, open file descriptors and such. The global interpreter lock is also shared by all threads, regardless of to which interpreter they belong. -- C Type: type PyThreadState ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (as an opaque struct).' This data structure represents the state of a single thread. The only public data member is: -- C Member: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *interp This thread’s interpreter state. -- C Function: void PyEval_InitThreads () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Deprecated function which does nothing. In Python 3.6 and older, this function created the GIL if it didn’t exist. Changed in version 3.9: The function now does nothing. Changed in version 3.7: This function is now called by *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab, so you don’t have to call it yourself anymore. Changed in version 3.2: This function cannot be called before *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. anymore. Deprecated since version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyEval_SaveThread () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Release the global interpreter lock (if it has been created) and reset the thread state to ‘NULL’, returning the previous thread state (which is not ‘NULL’). If the lock has been created, the current thread must have acquired it. -- C Function: void PyEval_RestoreThread (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Acquire the global interpreter lock (if it has been created) and set the thread state to 'tstate', which must not be ‘NULL’. If the lock has been created, the current thread must not have acquired it, otherwise deadlock ensues. Note: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python. You can use *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 355. or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8f. to check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling this function to avoid unwanted termination. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyThreadState_Get () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the current thread state. The global interpreter lock must be held. When the current thread state is ‘NULL’, this issues a fatal error (so that the caller needn’t check for ‘NULL’). See also *note PyThreadState_GetUnchecked(): 36c. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyThreadState_GetUnchecked () Similar to *note PyThreadState_Get(): 36d, but don’t kill the process with a fatal error if it is NULL. The caller is responsible to check if the result is NULL. Added in version 3.13: In Python 3.5 to 3.12, the function was private and known as ‘_PyThreadState_UncheckedGet()’. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyThreadState_Swap (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Swap the current thread state with the thread state given by the argument 'tstate', which may be ‘NULL’. The *note GIL: 159. does not need to be held, but will be held upon returning if 'tstate' is non-‘NULL’. The following functions use thread-local storage, and are not compatible with sub-interpreters: -- C Function: PyGILState_STATE PyGILState_Ensure () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Ensure that the current thread is ready to call the Python C API regardless of the current state of Python, or of the global interpreter lock. This may be called as many times as desired by a thread as long as each call is matched with a call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. In general, other thread-related APIs may be used between *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. calls as long as the thread state is restored to its previous state before the Release(). For example, normal usage of the *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. macros is acceptable. The return value is an opaque “handle” to the thread state when *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. was called, and must be passed to *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. to ensure Python is left in the same state. Even though recursive calls are allowed, these handles 'cannot' be shared - each unique call to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. must save the handle for its call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. When the function returns, the current thread will hold the GIL and be able to call arbitrary Python code. Failure is a fatal error. Note: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python. You can use *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 355. or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8f. to check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling this function to avoid unwanted termination. -- C Function: void PyGILState_Release (PyGILState_STATE) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Release any resources previously acquired. After this call, Python’s state will be the same as it was prior to the corresponding *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. call (but generally this state will be unknown to the caller, hence the use of the GILState API). Every call to *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. must be matched by a call to *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. on the same thread. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyGILState_GetThisThreadState () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get the current thread state for this thread. May return ‘NULL’ if no GILState API has been used on the current thread. Note that the main thread always has such a thread-state, even if no auto-thread-state call has been made on the main thread. This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function. -- C Function: int PyGILState_Check () Return ‘1’ if the current thread is holding the GIL and ‘0’ otherwise. This function can be called from any thread at any time. Only if it has had its Python thread state initialized and currently is holding the GIL will it return ‘1’. This is mainly a helper/diagnostic function. It can be useful for example in callback contexts or memory allocation functions when knowing that the GIL is locked can allow the caller to perform sensitive actions or otherwise behave differently. Added in version 3.4. The following macros are normally used without a trailing semicolon; look for example usage in the Python source distribution. -- C Macro: Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This macro expands to ‘{ PyThreadState *_save; _save = PyEval_SaveThread();’. Note that it contains an opening brace; it must be matched with a following *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. macro. See above for further discussion of this macro. -- C Macro: Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This macro expands to ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save); }’. Note that it contains a closing brace; it must be matched with an earlier *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. macro. See above for further discussion of this macro. -- C Macro: Py_BLOCK_THREADS ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This macro expands to ‘PyEval_RestoreThread(_save);’: it is equivalent to *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. without the closing brace. -- C Macro: Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This macro expands to ‘_save = PyEval_SaveThread();’: it is equivalent to *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. without the opening brace and variable declaration.  File: python.info, Node: Low-level API, Prev: High-level API, Up: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock 7.9.5.5 Low-level API ..................... All of the following functions must be called after *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. Changed in version 3.7: *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab. now initializes the *note GIL: 159. -- C Function: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *PyInterpreterState_New () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new interpreter state object. The global interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this function. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_New’ with no arguments. -- C Function: void PyInterpreterState_Clear (PyInterpreterState *interp) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Reset all information in an interpreter state object. The global interpreter lock must be held. Raises an *note auditing event: 18ba. ‘cpython.PyInterpreterState_Clear’ with no arguments. -- C Function: void PyInterpreterState_Delete (PyInterpreterState *interp) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Destroy an interpreter state object. The global interpreter lock need not be held. The interpreter state must have been reset with a previous call to *note PyInterpreterState_Clear(): 41e4. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyThreadState_New (PyInterpreterState *interp) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new thread state object belonging to the given interpreter object. The global interpreter lock need not be held, but may be held if it is necessary to serialize calls to this function. -- C Function: void PyThreadState_Clear (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Reset all information in a thread state object. The global interpreter lock must be held. Changed in version 3.9: This function now calls the ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback. Previously, that happened in *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 199f. Changed in version 3.13: The ‘PyThreadState.on_delete’ callback was removed. -- C Function: void PyThreadState_Delete (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Destroy a thread state object. The global interpreter lock need not be held. The thread state must have been reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1621. -- C Function: void PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (void) Destroy the current thread state and release the global interpreter lock. Like *note PyThreadState_Delete(): 199f, the global interpreter lock must be held. The thread state must have been reset with a previous call to *note PyThreadState_Clear(): 1621. -- C Function: *note PyFrameObject: 784. *PyThreadState_GetFrame (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Get the current frame of the Python thread state 'tstate'. Return a *note strong reference: 338. Return ‘NULL’ if no frame is currently executing. See also *note PyEval_GetFrame(): 17bc. 'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: uint64_t PyThreadState_GetID (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Get the unique thread state identifier of the Python thread state 'tstate'. 'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Get the interpreter of the Python thread state 'tstate'. 'tstate' must not be ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: void PyThreadState_EnterTracing (PyThreadState *tstate) Suspend tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate'. Resume them using the *note PyThreadState_LeaveTracing(): 750. function. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: void PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (PyThreadState *tstate) Resume tracing and profiling in the Python thread state 'tstate' suspended by the *note PyThreadState_EnterTracing(): 74f. function. See also *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d. and *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c8. functions. Added in version 3.11. -- C Function: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *PyInterpreterState_Get (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Get the current interpreter. Issue a fatal error if there no current Python thread state or no current interpreter. It cannot return NULL. The caller must hold the GIL. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: int64_t PyInterpreterState_GetID (PyInterpreterState *interp) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return the interpreter’s unique ID. If there was any error in doing so then ‘-1’ is returned and an error is set. The caller must hold the GIL. Added in version 3.7. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyInterpreterState_GetDict (PyInterpreterState *interp) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.8.' Return a dictionary in which interpreter-specific data may be stored. If this function returns ‘NULL’ then no exception has been raised and the caller should assume no interpreter-specific dict is available. This is not a replacement for *note PyModule_GetState(): 980, which extensions should use to store interpreter-specific state information. Added in version 3.8. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule (PyInterpreterState *interp) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Return a *note strong reference: 338. to the ‘__main__’ *note module object: 4d09. for the given interpreter. The caller must hold the GIL. Added in version 3.13. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*_PyFrameEvalFunction)(*note PyThreadState: 788. *tstate, *note _PyInterpreterFrame: 4d49. *frame, int throwflag) Type of a frame evaluation function. The 'throwflag' parameter is used by the ‘throw()’ method of generators: if non-zero, handle the current exception. Changed in version 3.9: The function now takes a 'tstate' parameter. Changed in version 3.11: The 'frame' parameter changed from ‘PyFrameObject*’ to ‘_PyInterpreterFrame*’. -- C Function: *note _PyFrameEvalFunction: 771. _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState *interp) Get the frame evaluation function. See the PEP 523(1) “Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython”. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: void _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (PyInterpreterState *interp, _PyFrameEvalFunction eval_frame) Set the frame evaluation function. See the PEP 523(2) “Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython”. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyThreadState_GetDict () 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return a dictionary in which extensions can store thread-specific state information. Each extension should use a unique key to use to store state in the dictionary. It is okay to call this function when no current thread state is available. If this function returns ‘NULL’, no exception has been raised and the caller should assume no current thread state is available. -- C Function: int PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (unsigned long id, PyObject *exc) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Asynchronously raise an exception in a thread. The 'id' argument is the thread id of the target thread; 'exc' is the exception object to be raised. This function does not steal any references to 'exc'. To prevent naive misuse, you must write your own C extension to call this. Must be called with the GIL held. Returns the number of thread states modified; this is normally one, but will be zero if the thread id isn’t found. If 'exc' is ‘NULL’, the pending exception (if any) for the thread is cleared. This raises no exceptions. Changed in version 3.7: The type of the 'id' parameter changed from long to unsigned long. -- C Function: void PyEval_AcquireThread (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Acquire the global interpreter lock and set the current thread state to 'tstate', which must not be ‘NULL’. The lock must have been created earlier. If this thread already has the lock, deadlock ensues. Note: Calling this function from a thread when the runtime is finalizing will terminate the thread, even if the thread was not created by Python. You can use *note Py_IsFinalizing(): 355. or *note sys.is_finalizing(): a8f. to check if the interpreter is in process of being finalized before calling this function to avoid unwanted termination. Changed in version 3.8: Updated to be consistent with *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5, *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS(): a8e, and *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7, and terminate the current thread if called while the interpreter is finalizing. *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5. is a higher-level function which is always available (even when threads have not been initialized). -- C Function: void PyEval_ReleaseThread (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Reset the current thread state to ‘NULL’ and release the global interpreter lock. The lock must have been created earlier and must be held by the current thread. The 'tstate' argument, which must not be ‘NULL’, is only used to check that it represents the current thread state — if it isn’t, a fatal error is reported. *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. is a higher-level function which is always available (even when threads have not been initialized). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0523/  File: python.info, Node: Sub-interpreter support, Next: Asynchronous Notifications, Prev: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.6 Sub-interpreter support ----------------------------- While in most uses, you will only embed a single Python interpreter, there are cases where you need to create several independent interpreters in the same process and perhaps even in the same thread. Sub-interpreters allow you to do that. The “main” interpreter is the first one created when the runtime initializes. It is usually the only Python interpreter in a process. Unlike sub-interpreters, the main interpreter has unique process-global responsibilities like signal handling. It is also responsible for execution during runtime initialization and is usually the active interpreter during runtime finalization. The *note PyInterpreterState_Main(): 4dbb. function returns a pointer to its state. You can switch between sub-interpreters using the *note PyThreadState_Swap(): 4a92. function. You can create and destroy them using the following functions: -- C Type: type PyInterpreterConfig Structure containing most parameters to configure a sub-interpreter. Its values are used only in *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 457. and never modified by the runtime. Added in version 3.12. Structure fields: -- C Member: int use_main_obmalloc If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter will use its own “object” allocator state. Otherwise it will use (share) the main interpreter’s. If this is ‘0’ then *note check_multi_interp_extensions: 4dbc. must be ‘1’ (non-zero). If this is ‘1’ then *note gil: 4dbd. must not be *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4dbe. -- C Member: int allow_fork If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support forking the process in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active. Otherwise fork is unrestricted. Note that the *note subprocess: d6. module still works when fork is disallowed. -- C Member: int allow_exec If this is ‘0’ then the runtime will not support replacing the current process via exec (e.g. *note os.execv(): 2b24.) in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active. Otherwise exec is unrestricted. Note that the *note subprocess: d6. module still works when exec is disallowed. -- C Member: int allow_threads If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: ed. module won’t create threads. Otherwise threads are allowed. -- C Member: int allow_daemon_threads If this is ‘0’ then the sub-interpreter’s *note threading: ed. module won’t create daemon threads. Otherwise daemon threads are allowed (as long as *note allow_threads: 4dc1. is non-zero). -- C Member: int check_multi_interp_extensions If this is ‘0’ then all extension modules may be imported, including legacy (single-phase init) modules, in any thread where the sub-interpreter is currently active. Otherwise only multi-phase init extension modules (see PEP 489(1)) may be imported. (Also see *note Py_mod_multiple_interpreters: 4d19.) This must be ‘1’ (non-zero) if *note use_main_obmalloc: 4395. is ‘0’. -- C Member: int gil This determines the operation of the GIL for the sub-interpreter. It may be one of the following: -- C Macro: PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL Use the default selection (*note PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL: 4dc4.). -- C Macro: PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL Use (share) the main interpreter’s GIL. -- C Macro: PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL Use the sub-interpreter’s own GIL. If this is *note PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL: 4dbe. then *note PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc: 4395. must be ‘0’. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (PyThreadState **tstate_p, const PyInterpreterConfig *config) Create a new sub-interpreter. This is an (almost) totally separate environment for the execution of Python code. In particular, the new interpreter has separate, independent versions of all imported modules, including the fundamental modules *note builtins: 12, *note __main__: 1. and *note sys: d9. The table of loaded modules (‘sys.modules’) and the module search path (‘sys.path’) are also separate. The new environment has no ‘sys.argv’ variable. It has new standard I/O stream file objects ‘sys.stdin’, ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ (however these refer to the same underlying file descriptors). The given 'config' controls the options with which the interpreter is initialized. Upon success, 'tstate_p' will be set to the first thread state created in the new sub-interpreter. This thread state is made in the current thread state. Note that no actual thread is created; see the discussion of thread states below. If creation of the new interpreter is unsuccessful, 'tstate_p' is set to ‘NULL’; no exception is set since the exception state is stored in the current thread state and there may not be a current thread state. Like all other Python/C API functions, the global interpreter lock must be held before calling this function and is still held when it returns. Likewise a current thread state must be set on entry. On success, the returned thread state will be set as current. If the sub-interpreter is created with its own GIL then the GIL of the calling interpreter will be released. When the function returns, the new interpreter’s GIL will be held by the current thread and the previously interpreter’s GIL will remain released here. Added in version 3.12. Sub-interpreters are most effective when isolated from each other, with certain functionality restricted: PyInterpreterConfig config = { .use_main_obmalloc = 0, .allow_fork = 0, .allow_exec = 0, .allow_threads = 1, .allow_daemon_threads = 0, .check_multi_interp_extensions = 1, .gil = PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL, }; PyThreadState *tstate = NULL; PyStatus status = Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(&tstate, &config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { Py_ExitStatusException(status); } Note that the config is used only briefly and does not get modified. During initialization the config’s values are converted into various *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. values. A read-only copy of the config may be stored internally on the *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. Extension modules are shared between (sub-)interpreters as follows: * For modules using multi-phase initialization, e.g. *note PyModule_FromDefAndSpec(): eac, a separate module object is created and initialized for each interpreter. Only C-level static and global variables are shared between these module objects. * For modules using single-phase initialization, e.g. *note PyModule_Create(): 4d0d, the first time a particular extension is imported, it is initialized normally, and a (shallow) copy of its module’s dictionary is squirreled away. When the same extension is imported by another (sub-)interpreter, a new module is initialized and filled with the contents of this copy; the extension’s ‘init’ function is not called. Objects in the module’s dictionary thus end up shared across (sub-)interpreters, which might cause unwanted behavior (see *note Bugs and caveats: 4dc5. below). Note that this is different from what happens when an extension is imported after the interpreter has been completely re-initialized by calling *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. and *note Py_Initialize(): 8ab.; in that case, the extension’s ‘initmodule’ function 'is' called again. As with multi-phase initialization, this means that only C-level static and global variables are shared between these modules. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *Py_NewInterpreter (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Create a new sub-interpreter. This is essentially just a wrapper around *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 457. with a config that preserves the existing behavior. The result is an unisolated sub-interpreter that shares the main interpreter’s GIL, allows fork/exec, allows daemon threads, and allows single-phase init modules. -- C Function: void Py_EndInterpreter (PyThreadState *tstate) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Destroy the (sub-)interpreter represented by the given thread state. The given thread state must be the current thread state. See the discussion of thread states below. When the call returns, the current thread state is ‘NULL’. All thread states associated with this interpreter are destroyed. The global interpreter lock used by the target interpreter must be held before calling this function. No GIL is held when it returns. *note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. will destroy all sub-interpreters that haven’t been explicitly destroyed at that point. * Menu: * A Per-Interpreter GIL:: * Bugs and caveats:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0489/  File: python.info, Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL, Next: Bugs and caveats, Up: Sub-interpreter support 7.9.6.1 A Per-Interpreter GIL ............................. Using *note Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig(): 457. you can create a sub-interpreter that is completely isolated from other interpreters, including having its own GIL. The most important benefit of this isolation is that such an interpreter can execute Python code without being blocked by other interpreters or blocking any others. Thus a single Python process can truly take advantage of multiple CPU cores when running Python code. The isolation also encourages a different approach to concurrency than that of just using threads. (See PEP 554(1).) Using an isolated interpreter requires vigilance in preserving that isolation. That especially means not sharing any objects or mutable state without guarantees about thread-safety. Even objects that are otherwise immutable (e.g. ‘None’, ‘(1, 5)’) can’t normally be shared because of the refcount. One simple but less-efficient approach around this is to use a global lock around all use of some state (or object). Alternately, effectively immutable objects (like integers or strings) can be made safe in spite of their refcounts by making them *note immortal: 4394. In fact, this has been done for the builtin singletons, small integers, and a number of other builtin objects. If you preserve isolation then you will have access to proper multi-core computing without the complications that come with free-threading. Failure to preserve isolation will expose you to the full consequences of free-threading, including races and hard-to-debug crashes. Aside from that, one of the main challenges of using multiple isolated interpreters is how to communicate between them safely (not break isolation) and efficiently. The runtime and stdlib do not provide any standard approach to this yet. A future stdlib module would help mitigate the effort of preserving isolation and expose effective tools for communicating (and sharing) data between interpreters. Added in version 3.12. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0554/  File: python.info, Node: Bugs and caveats, Prev: A Per-Interpreter GIL, Up: Sub-interpreter support 7.9.6.2 Bugs and caveats ........................ Because sub-interpreters (and the main interpreter) are part of the same process, the insulation between them isn’t perfect — for example, using low-level file operations like *note os.close(): b74. they can (accidentally or maliciously) affect each other’s open files. Because of the way extensions are shared between (sub-)interpreters, some extensions may not work properly; this is especially likely when using single-phase initialization or (static) global variables. It is possible to insert objects created in one sub-interpreter into a namespace of another (sub-)interpreter; this should be avoided if possible. Special care should be taken to avoid sharing user-defined functions, methods, instances or classes between sub-interpreters, since import operations executed by such objects may affect the wrong (sub-)interpreter’s dictionary of loaded modules. It is equally important to avoid sharing objects from which the above are reachable. Also note that combining this functionality with ‘PyGILState_*’ APIs is delicate, because these APIs assume a bijection between Python thread states and OS-level threads, an assumption broken by the presence of sub-interpreters. It is highly recommended that you don’t switch sub-interpreters between a pair of matching *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. calls. Furthermore, extensions (such as *note ctypes: 2a.) using these APIs to allow calling of Python code from non-Python created threads will probably be broken when using sub-interpreters.  File: python.info, Node: Asynchronous Notifications, Next: Profiling and Tracing, Prev: Sub-interpreter support, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.7 Asynchronous Notifications -------------------------------- A mechanism is provided to make asynchronous notifications to the main interpreter thread. These notifications take the form of a function pointer and a void pointer argument. -- C Function: int Py_AddPendingCall (int (*func)(void*), void *arg) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Schedule a function to be called from the main interpreter thread. On success, ‘0’ is returned and 'func' is queued for being called in the main thread. On failure, ‘-1’ is returned without setting any exception. When successfully queued, 'func' will be 'eventually' called from the main interpreter thread with the argument 'arg'. It will be called asynchronously with respect to normally running Python code, but with both these conditions met: * on a *note bytecode: 187. boundary; * with the main thread holding the *note global interpreter lock: 148. ('func' can therefore use the full C API). 'func' must return ‘0’ on success, or ‘-1’ on failure with an exception set. 'func' won’t be interrupted to perform another asynchronous notification recursively, but it can still be interrupted to switch threads if the global interpreter lock is released. This function doesn’t need a current thread state to run, and it doesn’t need the global interpreter lock. To call this function in a subinterpreter, the caller must hold the GIL. Otherwise, the function 'func' can be scheduled to be called from the wrong interpreter. Warning: This is a low-level function, only useful for very special cases. There is no guarantee that 'func' will be called as quick as possible. If the main thread is busy executing a system call, 'func' won’t be called before the system call returns. This function is generally 'not' suitable for calling Python code from arbitrary C threads. Instead, use the *note PyGILState API: 4db2. Added in version 3.1. Changed in version 3.9: If this function is called in a subinterpreter, the function 'func' is now scheduled to be called from the subinterpreter, rather than being called from the main interpreter. Each subinterpreter now has its own list of scheduled calls.  File: python.info, Node: Profiling and Tracing, Next: Reference tracing, Prev: Asynchronous Notifications, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.8 Profiling and Tracing --------------------------- The Python interpreter provides some low-level support for attaching profiling and execution tracing facilities. These are used for profiling, debugging, and coverage analysis tools. This C interface allows the profiling or tracing code to avoid the overhead of calling through Python-level callable objects, making a direct C function call instead. The essential attributes of the facility have not changed; the interface allows trace functions to be installed per-thread, and the basic events reported to the trace function are the same as had been reported to the Python-level trace functions in previous versions. -- C Type: typedef int (*Py_tracefunc)(*note PyObject: 334. *obj, *note PyFrameObject: 784. *frame, int what, *note PyObject: 334. *arg) The type of the trace function registered using *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c8. and *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d. The first parameter is the object passed to the registration function as 'obj', 'frame' is the frame object to which the event pertains, 'what' is one of the constants *note PyTrace_CALL: 4dcb, *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4dcc, *note PyTrace_LINE: 4dcd, *note PyTrace_RETURN: 4dce, *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4dcf, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4dd0, *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4dd1, or *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4dd2, and 'arg' depends on the value of 'what': Value of 'what' Meaning of 'arg' --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note PyTrace_CALL: 4dcb. Always *note Py_None: 48b9. *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4dcc. Exception information as returned by *note sys.exc_info(): 686. *note PyTrace_LINE: 4dcd. Always *note Py_None: 48b9. *note PyTrace_RETURN: 4dce. Value being returned to the caller, or ‘NULL’ if caused by an exception. *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4dcf. Function object being called. *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4dd0. Function object being called. *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4dd1. Function object being called. *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4dd2. Always *note Py_None: 48b9. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_CALL The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. function when a new call to a function or method is being reported, or a new entry into a generator. Note that the creation of the iterator for a generator function is not reported as there is no control transfer to the Python bytecode in the corresponding frame. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_EXCEPTION The value of the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. function when an exception has been raised. The callback function is called with this value for 'what' when after any bytecode is processed after which the exception becomes set within the frame being executed. The effect of this is that as exception propagation causes the Python stack to unwind, the callback is called upon return to each frame as the exception propagates. Only trace functions receives these events; they are not needed by the profiler. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_LINE The value passed as the 'what' parameter to a *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. function (but not a profiling function) when a line-number event is being reported. It may be disabled for a frame by setting *note f_trace_lines: bdb. to '0' on that frame. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_RETURN The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. functions when a call is about to return. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_C_CALL The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. functions when a C function is about to be called. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. functions when a C function has raised an exception. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_C_RETURN The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. functions when a C function has returned. -- C Variable: int PyTrace_OPCODE The value for the 'what' parameter to *note Py_tracefunc: 4dca. functions (but not profiling functions) when a new opcode is about to be executed. This event is not emitted by default: it must be explicitly requested by setting *note f_trace_opcodes: bdc. to '1' on the frame. -- C Function: void PyEval_SetProfile (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj) Set the profiler function to 'func'. The 'obj' parameter is passed to the function as its first parameter, and may be any Python object, or ‘NULL’. If the profile function needs to maintain state, using a different value for 'obj' for each thread provides a convenient and thread-safe place to store it. The profile function is called for all monitored events except *note PyTrace_LINE: 4dcd. *note PyTrace_OPCODE: 4dd2. and *note PyTrace_EXCEPTION: 4dcc. See also the *note sys.setprofile(): 14c9. function. The caller must hold the *note GIL: 159. -- C Function: void PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj) Like *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c8. but sets the profile function in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of the setting it only on the current thread. The caller must hold the *note GIL: 159. As *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c8, this function ignores any exceptions raised while setting the profile functions in all threads. Added in version 3.12. -- C Function: void PyEval_SetTrace (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj) Set the tracing function to 'func'. This is similar to *note PyEval_SetProfile(): 14c8, except the tracing function does receive line-number events and per-opcode events, but does not receive any event related to C function objects being called. Any trace function registered using *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d. will not receive *note PyTrace_C_CALL: 4dcf, *note PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION: 4dd0. or *note PyTrace_C_RETURN: 4dd1. as a value for the 'what' parameter. See also the *note sys.settrace(): 14ca. function. The caller must hold the *note GIL: 159. -- C Function: void PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (Py_tracefunc func, PyObject *obj) Like *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d. but sets the tracing function in all running threads belonging to the current interpreter instead of the setting it only on the current thread. The caller must hold the *note GIL: 159. As *note PyEval_SetTrace(): 41d, this function ignores any exceptions raised while setting the trace functions in all threads. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: Reference tracing, Next: Advanced Debugger Support, Prev: Profiling and Tracing, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.9 Reference tracing ----------------------- Added in version 3.13. -- C Type: typedef int (*PyRefTracer)(*note PyObject: 334.*, int event, void *data) The type of the trace function registered using *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 367. The first parameter is a Python object that has been just created (when 'event' is set to *note PyRefTracer_CREATE: 4dd5.) or about to be destroyed (when 'event' is set to *note PyRefTracer_DESTROY: 4dd6.). The 'data' argument is the opaque pointer that was provided when *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 367. was called. Added in version 3.13. -- C Variable: int PyRefTracer_CREATE The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 4dd4. functions when a Python object has been created. -- C Variable: int PyRefTracer_DESTROY The value for the 'event' parameter to *note PyRefTracer: 4dd4. functions when a Python object has been destroyed. -- C Function: int PyRefTracer_SetTracer (PyRefTracer tracer, void *data) Register a reference tracer function. The function will be called when a new Python has been created or when an object is going to be destroyed. If 'data' is provided it must be an opaque pointer that will be provided when the tracer function is called. Return ‘0’ on success. Set an exception and return ‘-1’ on error. Not that tracer functions 'must not' create Python objects inside or otherwise the call will be re-entrant. The tracer also 'must not' clear any existing exception or set an exception. The GIL will be held every time the tracer function is called. The GIL must be held when calling this function. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: *note PyRefTracer: 4dd4. PyRefTracer_GetTracer (void **data) Get the registered reference tracer function and the value of the opaque data pointer that was registered when *note PyRefTracer_SetTracer(): 367. was called. If no tracer was registered this function will return NULL and will set the 'data' pointer to NULL. The GIL must be held when calling this function. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: Advanced Debugger Support, Next: Thread Local Storage Support, Prev: Reference tracing, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.10 Advanced Debugger Support -------------------------------- These functions are only intended to be used by advanced debugging tools. -- C Function: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *PyInterpreterState_Head () Return the interpreter state object at the head of the list of all such objects. -- C Function: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *PyInterpreterState_Main () Return the main interpreter state object. -- C Function: *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. *PyInterpreterState_Next (PyInterpreterState *interp) Return the next interpreter state object after 'interp' from the list of all such objects. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (PyInterpreterState *interp) Return the pointer to the first *note PyThreadState: 788. object in the list of threads associated with the interpreter 'interp'. -- C Function: *note PyThreadState: 788. *PyThreadState_Next (PyThreadState *tstate) Return the next thread state object after 'tstate' from the list of all such objects belonging to the same *note PyInterpreterState: 8bc. object.  File: python.info, Node: Thread Local Storage Support, Next: Synchronization Primitives<2>, Prev: Advanced Debugger Support, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.11 Thread Local Storage Support ----------------------------------- The Python interpreter provides low-level support for thread-local storage (TLS) which wraps the underlying native TLS implementation to support the Python-level thread local storage API (*note threading.local: 154e.). The CPython C level APIs are similar to those offered by pthreads and Windows: use a thread key and functions to associate a void* value per thread. The GIL does 'not' need to be held when calling these functions; they supply their own locking. Note that ‘Python.h’ does not include the declaration of the TLS APIs, you need to include ‘pythread.h’ to use thread-local storage. Note: None of these API functions handle memory management on behalf of the void* values. You need to allocate and deallocate them yourself. If the void* values happen to be *note PyObject: 334.*, these functions don’t do refcount operations on them either. * Menu: * Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: Thread Specific Storage TSS API. * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: Thread Local Storage TLS API.  File: python.info, Node: Thread Specific Storage TSS API, Next: Thread Local Storage TLS API, Up: Thread Local Storage Support 7.9.11.1 Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API .......................................... TSS API is introduced to supersede the use of the existing TLS API within the CPython interpreter. This API uses a new type *note Py_tss_t: adf. instead of int to represent thread keys. Added in version 3.7. See also ........ “A New C-API for Thread-Local Storage in CPython” ( PEP 539(1)) -- C Type: type Py_tss_t This data structure represents the state of a thread key, the definition of which may depend on the underlying TLS implementation, and it has an internal field representing the key’s initialization state. There are no public members in this structure. When *note Py_LIMITED_API: 550. is not defined, static allocation of this type by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4ddc. is allowed. -- C Macro: Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT This macro expands to the initializer for *note Py_tss_t: adf. variables. Note that this macro won’t be defined with *note Py_LIMITED_API: 550. * Menu: * Dynamic Allocation:: * Methods: Methods<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0539/  File: python.info, Node: Dynamic Allocation, Next: Methods<2>, Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API 7.9.11.2 Dynamic Allocation ........................... Dynamic allocation of the *note Py_tss_t: adf, required in extension modules built with *note Py_LIMITED_API: 550, where static allocation of this type is not possible due to its implementation being opaque at build time. -- C Function: *note Py_tss_t: adf. *PyThread_tss_alloc () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return a value which is the same state as a value initialized with *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4ddc, or ‘NULL’ in the case of dynamic allocation failure. -- C Function: void PyThread_tss_free (Py_tss_t *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Free the given 'key' allocated by *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 401, after first calling *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 409. to ensure any associated thread locals have been unassigned. This is a no-op if the 'key' argument is ‘NULL’. Note: A freed key becomes a dangling pointer. You should reset the key to ‘NULL’.  File: python.info, Node: Methods<2>, Prev: Dynamic Allocation, Up: Thread Specific Storage TSS API 7.9.11.3 Methods ................ The parameter 'key' of these functions must not be ‘NULL’. Moreover, the behaviors of *note PyThread_tss_set(): 405. and *note PyThread_tss_get(): 407. are undefined if the given *note Py_tss_t: adf. has not been initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a93. -- C Function: int PyThread_tss_is_created (Py_tss_t *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return a non-zero value if the given *note Py_tss_t: adf. has been initialized by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a93. -- C Function: int PyThread_tss_create (Py_tss_t *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return a zero value on successful initialization of a TSS key. The behavior is undefined if the value pointed to by the 'key' argument is not initialized by *note Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT: 4ddc. This function can be called repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already initialized key is a no-op and immediately returns success. -- C Function: void PyThread_tss_delete (Py_tss_t *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Destroy a TSS key to forget the values associated with the key across all threads, and change the key’s initialization state to uninitialized. A destroyed key is able to be initialized again by *note PyThread_tss_create(): 4a93. This function can be called repeatedly on the same key – calling it on an already destroyed key is a no-op. -- C Function: int PyThread_tss_set (Py_tss_t *key, void *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return a zero value to indicate successfully associating a void* value with a TSS key in the current thread. Each thread has a distinct mapping of the key to a void* value. -- C Function: void *PyThread_tss_get (Py_tss_t *key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Return the void* value associated with a TSS key in the current thread. This returns ‘NULL’ if no value is associated with the key in the current thread.  File: python.info, Node: Thread Local Storage TLS API, Prev: Thread Specific Storage TSS API, Up: Thread Local Storage Support 7.9.11.4 Thread Local Storage (TLS) API ....................................... Deprecated since version 3.7: This API is superseded by *note Thread Specific Storage (TSS) API: ade. Note: This version of the API does not support platforms where the native TLS key is defined in a way that cannot be safely cast to ‘int’. On such platforms, *note PyThread_create_key(): 400. will return immediately with a failure status, and the other TLS functions will all be no-ops on such platforms. Due to the compatibility problem noted above, this version of the API should not be used in new code. -- C Function: int PyThread_create_key () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: void PyThread_delete_key (int key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: int PyThread_set_key_value (int key, void *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: void *PyThread_get_key_value (int key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: void PyThread_delete_key_value (int key) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Function: void PyThread_ReInitTLS () ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.'  File: python.info, Node: Synchronization Primitives<2>, Prev: Thread Local Storage Support, Up: Initialization Finalization and Threads 7.9.12 Synchronization Primitives --------------------------------- The C-API provides a basic mutual exclusion lock. -- C Type: type PyMutex A mutual exclusion lock. The ‘PyMutex’ should be initialized to zero to represent the unlocked state. For example: PyMutex mutex = {0}; Instances of ‘PyMutex’ should not be copied or moved. Both the contents and address of a ‘PyMutex’ are meaningful, and it must remain at a fixed, writable location in memory. Note: A ‘PyMutex’ currently occupies one byte, but the size should be considered unstable. The size may change in future Python releases without a deprecation period. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: void PyMutex_Lock (PyMutex *m) Lock mutex 'm'. If another thread has already locked it, the calling thread will block until the mutex is unlocked. While blocked, the thread will temporarily release the *note GIL: 159. if it is held. Added in version 3.13. -- C Function: void PyMutex_Unlock (PyMutex *m) Unlock mutex 'm'. The mutex must be locked — otherwise, the function will issue a fatal error. Added in version 3.13. * Menu: * Python Critical Section API::  File: python.info, Node: Python Critical Section API, Up: Synchronization Primitives<2> 7.9.12.1 Python Critical Section API .................................... The critical section API provides a deadlock avoidance layer on top of per-object locks for *note free-threaded: 1522. CPython. They are intended to replace reliance on the *note global interpreter lock: 148, and are no-ops in versions of Python with the global interpreter lock. Critical sections avoid deadlocks by implicitly suspending active critical sections and releasing the locks during calls to *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. When *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5. is called, the most recent critical section is resumed, and its locks reacquired. This means the critical section API provides weaker guarantees than traditional locks – they are useful because their behavior is similar to the *note GIL: 159. The functions and structs used by the macros are exposed for cases where C macros are not available. They should only be used as in the given macro expansions. Note that the sizes and contents of the structures may change in future Python versions. Note: Operations that need to lock two objects at once must use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2: 4de3. You 'cannot' use nested critical sections to lock more than one object at once, because the inner critical section may suspend the outer critical sections. This API does not provide a way to lock more than two objects at once. Example usage: static PyObject * set_field(MyObject *self, PyObject *value) { Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(self); Py_SETREF(self->field, Py_XNewRef(value)); Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION(); Py_RETURN_NONE; } In the above example, *note Py_SETREF: 576. calls *note Py_DECREF: 56c, which can call arbitrary code through an object’s deallocation function. The critical section API avoids potential deadlocks due to reentrancy and lock ordering by allowing the runtime to temporarily suspend the critical section if the code triggered by the finalizer blocks and calls *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. -- C Macro: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (op) Acquires the per-object lock for the object 'op' and begins a critical section. In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to: { PyCriticalSection _py_cs; PyCriticalSection_Begin(&_py_cs, (PyObject*)(op)) In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION () Ends the critical section and releases the per-object lock. In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to: PyCriticalSection_End(&_py_cs); } In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (a, b) Acquires the per-objects locks for the objects 'a' and 'b' and begins a critical section. The locks are acquired in a consistent order (lowest address first) to avoid lock ordering deadlocks. In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to: { PyCriticalSection2 _py_cs2; PyCriticalSection2_Begin(&_py_cs2, (PyObject*)(a), (PyObject*)(b)) In the default build, this macro expands to ‘{’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Macro: Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 () Ends the critical section and releases the per-object locks. In the free-threaded build, this macro expands to: PyCriticalSection2_End(&_py_cs2); } In the default build, this macro expands to ‘}’. Added in version 3.13.  File: python.info, Node: Python Initialization Configuration, Next: Memory Management, Prev: Initialization Finalization and Threads, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.10 Python Initialization Configuration ======================================== Added in version 3.8. Python can be initialized with *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. and the *note PyConfig: 3a2. structure. It can be preinitialized with *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. and the *note PyPreConfig: 9ac. structure. There are two kinds of configuration: * The *note Python Configuration: 4dad. can be used to build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python. For example, environment variables and command line arguments are used to configure Python. * The *note Isolated Configuration: 4de8. can be used to embed Python into an application. It isolates Python from the system. For example, environment variables are ignored, the LC_CTYPE locale is left unchanged and no signal handler is registered. The *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. function can be used to write a customized Python program. See also *note Initialization, Finalization, and Threads: 4da0. See also ........ PEP 587(1) “Python Initialization Configuration”. * Menu: * Example: Example<17>. * PyWideStringList:: * PyStatus:: * PyPreConfig:: * Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig:: * PyConfig:: * Initialization with PyConfig:: * Isolated Configuration:: * Python Configuration:: * Python Path Configuration:: * Py_GetArgcArgv(): Py_GetArgcArgv. * Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0587/  File: python.info, Node: Example<17>, Next: PyWideStringList, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.1 Example -------------- Example of customized Python always running in isolated mode: int main(int argc, char **argv) { PyStatus status; PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); config.isolated = 1; /* Decode command line arguments. Implicitly preinitialize Python (in isolated mode). */ status = PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(&config, argc, argv); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } PyConfig_Clear(&config); return Py_RunMain(); exception: PyConfig_Clear(&config); if (PyStatus_IsExit(status)) { return status.exitcode; } /* Display the error message and exit the process with non-zero exit code */ Py_ExitStatusException(status); }  File: python.info, Node: PyWideStringList, Next: PyStatus, Prev: Example<17>, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.2 PyWideStringList ----------------------- -- C Type: type PyWideStringList List of ‘wchar_t*’ strings. If 'length' is non-zero, 'items' must be non-‘NULL’ and all strings must be non-‘NULL’. Methods: -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyWideStringList_Append (PyWideStringList *list, const wchar_t *item) Append 'item' to 'list'. Python must be preinitialized to call this function. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyWideStringList_Insert (PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t index, const wchar_t *item) Insert 'item' into 'list' at 'index'. If 'index' is greater than or equal to 'list' length, append 'item' to 'list'. 'index' must be greater than or equal to ‘0’. Python must be preinitialized to call this function. Structure fields: -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. length List length. -- C Member: wchar_t **items List items.  File: python.info, Node: PyStatus, Next: PyPreConfig, Prev: PyWideStringList, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.3 PyStatus --------------- -- C Type: type PyStatus Structure to store an initialization function status: success, error or exit. For an error, it can store the C function name which created the error. Structure fields: -- C Member: int exitcode Exit code. Argument passed to ‘exit()’. -- C Member: const char *err_msg Error message. -- C Member: const char *func Name of the function which created an error, can be ‘NULL’. Functions to create a status: -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyStatus_Ok (void) Success. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyStatus_Error (const char *err_msg) Initialization error with a message. 'err_msg' must not be ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyStatus_NoMemory (void) Memory allocation failure (out of memory). -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyStatus_Exit (int exitcode) Exit Python with the specified exit code. Functions to handle a status: -- C Function: int PyStatus_Exception (PyStatus status) Is the status an error or an exit? If true, the exception must be handled; by calling *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9c2. for example. -- C Function: int PyStatus_IsError (PyStatus status) Is the result an error? -- C Function: int PyStatus_IsExit (PyStatus status) Is the result an exit? -- C Function: void Py_ExitStatusException (PyStatus status) Call ‘exit(exitcode)’ if 'status' is an exit. Print the error message and exit with a non-zero exit code if 'status' is an error. Must only be called if ‘PyStatus_Exception(status)’ is non-zero. Note: Internally, Python uses macros which set ‘PyStatus.func’, whereas functions to create a status set ‘func’ to ‘NULL’. Example: PyStatus alloc(void **ptr, size_t size) { *ptr = PyMem_RawMalloc(size); if (*ptr == NULL) { return PyStatus_NoMemory(); } return PyStatus_Ok(); } int main(int argc, char **argv) { void *ptr; PyStatus status = alloc(&ptr, 16); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { Py_ExitStatusException(status); } PyMem_Free(ptr); return 0; }  File: python.info, Node: PyPreConfig, Next: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig, Prev: PyStatus, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.4 PyPreConfig ------------------ -- C Type: type PyPreConfig Structure used to preinitialize Python. Function to initialize a preconfiguration: -- C Function: void PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyPreConfig *preconfig) Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Python Configuration: 4dad. -- C Function: void PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyPreConfig *preconfig) Initialize the preconfiguration with *note Isolated Configuration: 4de8. Structure fields: -- C Member: int allocator Name of the Python memory allocators: * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’ (‘0’): don’t change memory allocators (use defaults). * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEFAULT’ (‘1’): *note default memory allocators: 1d50. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_DEBUG’ (‘2’): *note default memory allocators: 1d50. with *note debug hooks: 1d53. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC’ (‘3’): use ‘malloc()’ of the C library. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘4’): force usage of ‘malloc()’ with *note debug hooks: 1d53. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ (‘5’): *note Python pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘6’): *note Python pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. with *note debug hooks: 1d53. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ (‘6’): use ‘mimalloc’, a fast malloc replacement. * ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ (‘7’): use ‘mimalloc’, a fast malloc replacement with *note debug hooks: 1d53. ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC’ and ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_PYMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python is *note configured using -without-pymalloc: 1db0. ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC’ and ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_MIMALLOC_DEBUG’ are not supported if Python is *note configured using -without-mimalloc: 1daf. or if the underlying atomic support isn’t available. See *note Memory Management: 4df3. Default: ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’. -- C Member: int configure_locale Set the LC_CTYPE locale to the user preferred locale. If equals to ‘0’, set *note coerce_c_locale: 4df5. and *note coerce_c_locale_warn: 4df6. members to ‘0’. See the *note locale encoding: 244. Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int coerce_c_locale If equals to ‘2’, coerce the C locale. If equals to ‘1’, read the LC_CTYPE locale to decide if it should be coerced. See the *note locale encoding: 244. Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int coerce_c_locale_warn If non-zero, emit a warning if the C locale is coerced. Default: ‘-1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int dev_mode *note Python Development Mode: 1fa.: see *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 4df8. Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: int isolated Isolated mode: see *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: int legacy_windows_fs_encoding If non-zero: * Set *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. to ‘0’, * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. to ‘"mbcs"’, * Set *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e5. to ‘"replace"’. Initialized from the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable value. Only available on Windows. ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be used for Windows specific code. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int parse_argv If non-zero, *note Py_PreInitializeFromArgs(): 9c3. and *note Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs(): 9c4. parse their ‘argv’ argument the same way the regular Python parses command line arguments: see *note Command Line Arguments: 1000. Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int use_environment Use *note environment variables: 5ed.? See *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int utf8_mode If non-zero, enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. Set to ‘0’ or ‘1’ by the *note -X utf8: 176. command line option and the *note PYTHONUTF8: ad8. environment variable. Also set to ‘1’ if the ‘LC_CTYPE’ locale is ‘C’ or ‘POSIX’. Default: ‘-1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config.  File: python.info, Node: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig, Next: PyConfig, Prev: PyPreConfig, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.5 Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig -------------------------------------------- The preinitialization of Python: * Set the Python memory allocators (*note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4df2.) * Configure the LC_CTYPE locale (*note locale encoding: 244.) * Set the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. (*note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6.) The current preconfiguration (‘PyPreConfig’ type) is stored in ‘_PyRuntime.preconfig’. Functions to preinitialize Python: -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. Py_PreInitialize (const PyPreConfig *preconfig) Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration. 'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (const PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, char *const *argv) Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration. Parse 'argv' command line arguments (bytes strings) if *note parse_argv: 4dfa. of 'preconfig' is non-zero. 'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (const PyPreConfig *preconfig, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv) Preinitialize Python from 'preconfig' preconfiguration. Parse 'argv' command line arguments (wide strings) if *note parse_argv: 4dfa. of 'preconfig' is non-zero. 'preconfig' must not be ‘NULL’. The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9b9. and *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9c2. For *note Python Configuration: 4dad. (*note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b7.), if Python is initialized with command line arguments, the command line arguments must also be passed to preinitialize Python, since they have an effect on the pre-configuration like encodings. For example, the *note -X utf8: 176. command line option enables the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. ‘PyMem_SetAllocator()’ can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. and before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. to install a custom memory allocator. It can be called before *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. if *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4df2. is set to ‘PYMEM_ALLOCATOR_NOT_SET’. Python memory allocation functions like *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. must not be used before the Python preinitialization, whereas calling directly ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ is always safe. *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. must not be called before the Python preinitialization. Example using the preinitialization to enable the *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652.: PyStatus status; PyPreConfig preconfig; PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(&preconfig); preconfig.utf8_mode = 1; status = Py_PreInitialize(&preconfig); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { Py_ExitStatusException(status); } /* at this point, Python speaks UTF-8 */ Py_Initialize(); /* ... use Python API here ... */ Py_Finalize();  File: python.info, Node: PyConfig, Next: Initialization with PyConfig, Prev: Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.6 PyConfig --------------- -- C Type: type PyConfig Structure containing most parameters to configure Python. When done, the *note PyConfig_Clear(): 9af. function must be used to release the configuration memory. Structure methods: -- C Function: void PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (PyConfig *config) Initialize configuration with the *note Python Configuration: 4dad. -- C Function: void PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (PyConfig *config) Initialize configuration with the *note Isolated Configuration: 4de8. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyConfig_SetString (PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const wchar_t *str) Copy the wide character string 'str' into ‘*config_str’. *note Preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyConfig_SetBytesString (PyConfig *config, wchar_t *const *config_str, const char *str) Decode 'str' using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. and set the result into ‘*config_str’. *note Preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyConfig_SetArgv (PyConfig *config, int argc, wchar_t *const *argv) Set command line arguments (*note argv: 3bf. member of 'config') from the 'argv' list of wide character strings. *note Preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (PyConfig *config, int argc, char *const *argv) Set command line arguments (*note argv: 3bf. member of 'config') from the 'argv' list of bytes strings. Decode bytes using *note Py_DecodeLocale(): bc7. *note Preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyConfig_SetWideStringList (PyConfig *config, PyWideStringList *list, Py_ssize_t length, wchar_t **items) Set the list of wide strings 'list' to 'length' and 'items'. *note Preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. PyConfig_Read (PyConfig *config) Read all Python configuration. Fields which are already initialized are left unchanged. Fields for *note path configuration: 8ac. are no longer calculated or modified when calling this function, as of Python 3.11. The *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. function only parses *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf, parsing arguments twice would parse the application options as Python options. *note Preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. Changed in version 3.10: The *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. arguments are now only parsed once, *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed, and arguments are only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. equals ‘1’. Changed in version 3.11: *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. no longer calculates all paths, and so fields listed under *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. may no longer be updated until *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. is called. -- C Function: void PyConfig_Clear (PyConfig *config) Release configuration memory. Most ‘PyConfig’ methods *note preinitialize Python: 3d40. if needed. In that case, the Python preinitialization configuration (*note PyPreConfig: 9ac.) in based on the *note PyConfig: 3a2. If configuration fields which are in common with *note PyPreConfig: 9ac. are tuned, they must be set before calling a *note PyConfig: 3a2. method: * *note PyConfig.dev_mode: 4df8. * *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. * *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. * *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. Moreover, if *note PyConfig_SetArgv(): 9b2. or *note PyConfig_SetBytesArgv(): 9b3. is used, this method must be called before other methods, since the preinitialization configuration depends on command line arguments (if *note parse_argv: 1928. is non-zero). The caller of these methods is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using ‘PyStatus_Exception()’ and ‘Py_ExitStatusException()’. Structure fields: -- C Member: *note PyWideStringList: 9ae. argv Set *note sys.argv: 1258. command line arguments based on *note argv: 3bf. These parameters are similar to those passed to the program’s ‘main()’ function with the difference that the first entry should refer to the script file to be executed rather than the executable hosting the Python interpreter. If there isn’t a script that will be run, the first entry in *note argv: 3bf. can be an empty string. Set *note parse_argv: 1928. to ‘1’ to parse *note argv: 3bf. the same way the regular Python parses Python command line arguments and then to strip Python arguments from *note argv: 3bf. If *note argv: 3bf. is empty, an empty string is added to ensure that *note sys.argv: 1258. always exists and is never empty. Default: ‘NULL’. See also the *note orig_argv: 892. member. -- C Member: int safe_path If equals to zero, ‘Py_RunMain()’ prepends a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3b0. at startup: * If *note argv[0]: 3bf. is equal to ‘L"-m"’ (‘python -m module’), prepend the current working directory. * If running a script (‘python script.py’), prepend the script’s directory. If it’s a symbolic link, resolve symbolic links. * Otherwise (‘python -c code’ and ‘python’), prepend an empty string, which means the current working directory. Set to ‘1’ by the *note -P: 5a0. command line option and the *note PYTHONSAFEPATH: 5a1. environment variable. Default: ‘0’ in Python config, ‘1’ in isolated config. Added in version 3.11. -- C Member: wchar_t *base_exec_prefix *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3ea. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. See also *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4dff. -- C Member: wchar_t *base_executable Python base executable: ‘sys._base_executable’. Set by the ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable. Set from *note PyConfig.executable: 3a1. if ‘NULL’. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. See also *note PyConfig.executable: 3a1. -- C Member: wchar_t *base_prefix *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. See also *note PyConfig.prefix: 4e02. -- C Member: int buffered_stdio If equals to ‘0’ and *note configure_c_stdio: 4e03. is non-zero, disable buffering on the C streams stdout and stderr. Set to ‘0’ by the *note -u: 19a3. command line option and the *note PYTHONUNBUFFERED: 19a4. environment variable. stdin is always opened in buffered mode. Default: ‘1’. -- C Member: int bytes_warning If equals to ‘1’, issue a warning when comparing *note bytes: 1c2. or *note bytearray: 53a. with *note str: 447, or comparing *note bytes: 1c2. with *note int: 259. If equal or greater to ‘2’, raise a *note BytesWarning: c23. exception in these cases. Incremented by the *note -b: 5df. command line option. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int warn_default_encoding If non-zero, emit a *note EncodingWarning: 1d3d. warning when *note io.TextIOWrapper: 7b6. uses its default encoding. See *note Opt-in EncodingWarning: 1d55. for details. Default: ‘0’. Added in version 3.10. -- C Member: int code_debug_ranges If equals to ‘0’, disables the inclusion of the end line and column mappings in code objects. Also disables traceback printing carets to specific error locations. Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: 5b2. environment variable and by the *note -X no_debug_ranges: 176. command line option. Default: ‘1’. Added in version 3.11. -- C Member: wchar_t *check_hash_pycs_mode Control the validation behavior of hash-based ‘.pyc’ files: value of the *note -check-hash-based-pycs: 1d30. command line option. Valid values: - ‘L"always"’: Hash the source file for invalidation regardless of value of the ‘check_source’ flag. - ‘L"never"’: Assume that hash-based pycs always are valid. - ‘L"default"’: The ‘check_source’ flag in hash-based pycs determines invalidation. Default: ‘L"default"’. See also PEP 552(1) “Deterministic pycs”. -- C Member: int configure_c_stdio If non-zero, configure C standard streams: * On Windows, set the binary mode (‘O_BINARY’) on stdin, stdout and stderr. * If *note buffered_stdio: 3db. equals zero, disable buffering of stdin, stdout and stderr streams. * If *note interactive: 3c9. is non-zero, enable stream buffering on stdin and stdout (only stdout on Windows). Default: ‘1’ in Python config, ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int dev_mode If non-zero, enable the *note Python Development Mode: 1fa. Set to ‘1’ by the *note -X dev: 176. option and the *note PYTHONDEVMODE: aed. environment variable. Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: int dump_refs Dump Python references? If non-zero, dump all objects which are still alive at exit. Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONDUMPREFS: 9a6. environment variable. Needs a special build of Python with the ‘Py_TRACE_REFS’ macro defined: see the *note configure -with-trace-refs option: 390. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: wchar_t *exec_prefix The site-specific directory prefix where the platform-dependent Python files are installed: *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. See also *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4dfe. -- C Member: wchar_t *executable The absolute path of the executable binary for the Python interpreter: *note sys.executable: 3b4. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. See also *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4e00. -- C Member: int faulthandler Enable faulthandler? If non-zero, call *note faulthandler.enable(): c9e. at startup. Set to ‘1’ by *note -X faulthandler: 176. and the *note PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: 1079. environment variable. Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: wchar_t *filesystem_encoding *note Filesystem encoding: 537.: *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59. On macOS, Android and VxWorks: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default. On Windows: use ‘"utf-8"’ by default, or ‘"mbcs"’ if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. of *note PyPreConfig: 9ac. is non-zero. Default encoding on other platforms: * ‘"utf-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. is non-zero. * ‘"ascii"’ if Python detects that ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ announces the ASCII encoding, whereas the ‘mbstowcs()’ function decodes from a different encoding (usually Latin1). * ‘"utf-8"’ if ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ returns an empty string. * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 244.: ‘nl_langinfo(CODESET)’ result. At Python startup, the encoding name is normalized to the Python codec name. For example, ‘"ANSI_X3.4-1968"’ is replaced with ‘"ascii"’. See also the *note filesystem_errors: 3e5. member. -- C Member: wchar_t *filesystem_errors *note Filesystem error handler: 537.: *note sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce6. On Windows: use ‘"surrogatepass"’ by default, or ‘"replace"’ if *note legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. of *note PyPreConfig: 9ac. is non-zero. On other platforms: use ‘"surrogateescape"’ by default. Supported error handlers: * ‘"strict"’ * ‘"surrogateescape"’ * ‘"surrogatepass"’ (only supported with the UTF-8 encoding) See also the *note filesystem_encoding: 3e4. member. -- C Member: unsigned long hash_seed -- C Member: int use_hash_seed Randomized hash function seed. If *note use_hash_seed: 3dd. is zero, a seed is chosen randomly at Python startup, and *note hash_seed: 3de. is ignored. Set by the *note PYTHONHASHSEED: 1076. environment variable. Default 'use_hash_seed' value: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: wchar_t *home Set the default Python “home” directory, that is, the location of the standard Python libraries (see *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8.). Set by the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. input. -- C Member: int import_time If non-zero, profile import time. Set the ‘1’ by the *note -X importtime: 176. option and the *note PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: af5. environment variable. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int inspect Enter interactive mode after executing a script or a command. If greater than ‘0’, enable inspect: when a script is passed as first argument or the -c option is used, enter interactive mode after executing the script or the command, even when *note sys.stdin: 539. does not appear to be a terminal. Incremented by the *note -i: 14a6. command line option. Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONINSPECT: 14a5. environment variable is non-empty. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int install_signal_handlers Install Python signal handlers? Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: int interactive If greater than ‘0’, enable the interactive mode (REPL). Incremented by the *note -i: 14a6. command line option. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int int_max_str_digits Configures the *note integer string conversion length limitation: 5f1. An initial value of ‘-1’ means the value will be taken from the command line or environment or otherwise default to 4300 (*note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 227b.). A value of ‘0’ disables the limitation. Values greater than zero but less than 640 (*note sys.int_info.str_digits_check_threshold: 43a2.) are unsupported and will produce an error. Configured by the *note -X int_max_str_digits: 176. command line flag or the *note PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: 17bd. environment variable. Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode. 4300 (*note sys.int_info.default_max_str_digits: 227b.) in isolated mode. Added in version 3.12. -- C Member: int cpu_count If the value of *note cpu_count: 4e0b. is not ‘-1’ then it will override the return values of *note os.cpu_count(): 1c5, *note os.process_cpu_count(): 1c4, and *note multiprocessing.cpu_count(): f6a. Configured by the ‘-X cpu_count=N|DEFAULT’ command line flag or the *note PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: 212. environment variable. Default: ‘-1’. Added in version 3.13. -- C Member: int isolated If greater than ‘0’, enable isolated mode: * Set *note safe_path: 76e. to ‘1’: don’t prepend a potentially unsafe path to *note sys.path: 3b0. at Python startup, such as the current directory, the script’s directory or an empty string. * Set *note use_environment: 3d5. to ‘0’: ignore ‘PYTHON’ environment variables. * Set *note user_site_directory: 3d9. to ‘0’: don’t add the user site directory to *note sys.path: 3b0. * Python REPL doesn’t import *note readline: ba. nor enable default readline configuration on interactive prompts. Set to ‘1’ by the *note -I: 95e. command line option. Default: ‘0’ in Python mode, ‘1’ in isolated mode. See also the *note Isolated Configuration: 4de8. and *note PyPreConfig.isolated: 4df9. -- C Member: int legacy_windows_stdio If non-zero, use *note io.FileIO: 1303. instead of ‘io._WindowsConsoleIO’ for *note sys.stdin: 539, *note sys.stdout: ad6. and *note sys.stderr: 939. Set to ‘1’ if the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: c5b. environment variable is set to a non-empty string. Only available on Windows. ‘#ifdef MS_WINDOWS’ macro can be used for Windows specific code. Default: ‘0’. See also the PEP 528(2) (Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8). -- C Member: int malloc_stats If non-zero, dump statistics on *note Python pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. at exit. Set to ‘1’ by the *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b55. environment variable. The option is ignored if Python is *note configured using the -without-pymalloc option: 1db0. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: wchar_t *platlibdir Platform library directory name: *note sys.platlibdir: 938. Set by the *note PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: 1940. environment variable. Default: value of the ‘PLATLIBDIR’ macro which is set by the *note configure -with-platlibdir option: 1d78. (default: ‘"lib"’, or ‘"DLLs"’ on Windows). Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. input. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.11: This macro is now used on Windows to locate the standard library extension modules, typically under ‘DLLs’. However, for compatibility, note that this value is ignored for any non-standard layouts, including in-tree builds and virtual environments. -- C Member: wchar_t *pythonpath_env Module search paths (*note sys.path: 3b0.) as a string separated by ‘DELIM’ (*note os.pathsep: 1d44.). Set by the *note PYTHONPATH: 1016. environment variable. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. input. -- C Member: *note PyWideStringList: 9ae. module_search_paths -- C Member: int module_search_paths_set Module search paths: *note sys.path: 3b0. If *note module_search_paths_set: 5eb. is equal to ‘0’, *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. will replace *note module_search_paths: 39e. and sets *note module_search_paths_set: 5eb. to ‘1’. Default: empty list (‘module_search_paths’) and ‘0’ (‘module_search_paths_set’). Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. -- C Member: int optimization_level Compilation optimization level: * ‘0’: Peephole optimizer, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘True’. * ‘1’: Level 0, remove assertions, set ‘__debug__’ to ‘False’. * ‘2’: Level 1, strip docstrings. Incremented by the *note -O: db4. command line option. Set to the *note PYTHONOPTIMIZE: 1d33. environment variable value. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: *note PyWideStringList: 9ae. orig_argv The list of the original command line arguments passed to the Python executable: *note sys.orig_argv: 83c. If *note orig_argv: 892. list is empty and *note argv: 3bf. is not a list only containing an empty string, *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. copies *note argv: 3bf. into *note orig_argv: 892. before modifying *note argv: 3bf. (if *note parse_argv: 1928. is non-zero). See also the *note argv: 3bf. member and the *note Py_GetArgcArgv(): 1956. function. Default: empty list. Added in version 3.10. -- C Member: int parse_argv Parse command line arguments? If equals to ‘1’, parse *note argv: 3bf. the same way the regular Python parses *note command line arguments: 1000, and strip Python arguments from *note argv: 3bf. The *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. function only parses *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. arguments once: *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. is set to ‘2’ after arguments are parsed. Since Python arguments are stripped from *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf, parsing arguments twice would parse the application options as Python options. Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. Changed in version 3.10: The *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. arguments are now only parsed if *note PyConfig.parse_argv: 1928. equals to ‘1’. -- C Member: int parser_debug Parser debug mode. If greater than ‘0’, turn on parser debugging output (for expert only, depending on compilation options). Incremented by the *note -d: 1d31. command line option. Set to the *note PYTHONDEBUG: 1d32. environment variable value. Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1fb. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro must be defined). Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int pathconfig_warnings If non-zero, calculation of path configuration is allowed to log warnings into ‘stderr’. If equals to ‘0’, suppress these warnings. Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. input. Changed in version 3.11: Now also applies on Windows. -- C Member: wchar_t *prefix The site-specific directory prefix where the platform independent Python files are installed: *note sys.prefix: 3b2. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. output. See also *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4e01. -- C Member: wchar_t *program_name Program name used to initialize *note executable: 3a1. and in early error messages during Python initialization. * On macOS, use *note PYTHONEXECUTABLE: 1d48. environment variable if set. * If the ‘WITH_NEXT_FRAMEWORK’ macro is defined, use ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable if set. * Use ‘argv[0]’ of *note argv: 3bf. if available and non-empty. * Otherwise, use ‘L"python"’ on Windows, or ‘L"python3"’ on other platforms. Default: ‘NULL’. Part of the *note Python Path Configuration: 8ac. input. -- C Member: wchar_t *pycache_prefix Directory where cached ‘.pyc’ files are written: *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a4. Set by the *note -X pycache_prefix=PATH: 176. command line option and the *note PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: 9a3. environment variable. The command-line option takes precedence. If ‘NULL’, *note sys.pycache_prefix: 9a4. is set to ‘None’. Default: ‘NULL’. -- C Member: int quiet Quiet mode. If greater than ‘0’, don’t display the copyright and version at Python startup in interactive mode. Incremented by the *note -q: 1d34. command line option. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: wchar_t *run_command Value of the *note -c: 5dc. command line option. Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. Default: ‘NULL’. -- C Member: wchar_t *run_filename Filename passed on the command line: trailing command line argument without *note -c: 5dc. or *note -m: 5dd. It is used by the *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. function. For example, it is set to ‘script.py’ by the ‘python3 script.py arg’ command line. See also the *note PyConfig.skip_source_first_line: 4e0f. option. Default: ‘NULL’. -- C Member: wchar_t *run_module Value of the *note -m: 5dd. command line option. Used by *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. Default: ‘NULL’. -- C Member: wchar_t *run_presite ‘package.module’ path to module that should be imported before ‘site.py’ is run. Set by the *note -X presite=package.module: 176. command-line option and the *note PYTHON_PRESITE: 1d3e. environment variable. The command-line option takes precedence. Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1fb. (the ‘Py_DEBUG’ macro must be defined). Default: ‘NULL’. -- C Member: int show_ref_count Show total reference count at exit (excluding *note immortal: 4394. objects)? Set to ‘1’ by *note -X showrefcount: 176. command line option. Needs a *note debug build of Python: 1fb. (the ‘Py_REF_DEBUG’ macro must be defined). Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: int site_import Import the *note site: c7. module at startup? If equal to zero, disable the import of the module site and the site-dependent manipulations of *note sys.path: 3b0. that it entails. Also disable these manipulations if the *note site: c7. module is explicitly imported later (call *note site.main(): 1d36. if you want them to be triggered). Set to ‘0’ by the *note -S: 119b. command line option. *note sys.flags.no_site: 688. is set to the inverted value of *note site_import: 3cf. Default: ‘1’. -- C Member: int skip_source_first_line If non-zero, skip the first line of the *note PyConfig.run_filename: 4dab. source. It allows the usage of non-Unix forms of ‘#!cmd’. This is intended for a DOS specific hack only. Set to ‘1’ by the *note -x: 1d3a. command line option. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: wchar_t *stdio_encoding -- C Member: wchar_t *stdio_errors Encoding and encoding errors of *note sys.stdin: 539, *note sys.stdout: ad6. and *note sys.stderr: 939. (but *note sys.stderr: 939. always uses ‘"backslashreplace"’ error handler). Use the *note PYTHONIOENCODING: 1003. environment variable if it is non-empty. Default encoding: * ‘"UTF-8"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. is non-zero. * Otherwise, use the *note locale encoding: 244. Default error handler: * On Windows: use ‘"surrogateescape"’. * ‘"surrogateescape"’ if *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. is non-zero, or if the LC_CTYPE locale is “C” or “POSIX”. * ‘"strict"’ otherwise. See also *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. -- C Member: int tracemalloc Enable tracemalloc? If non-zero, call *note tracemalloc.start(): 1d3b. at startup. Set by *note -X tracemalloc=N: 176. command line option and by the *note PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: 1d3c. environment variable. Default: ‘-1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: int perf_profiling Enable compatibility mode with the perf profiler? If non-zero, initialize the perf trampoline. See *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18f. for more information. Set by *note -X perf: 176. command-line option and by the *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. environment variable for perf support with stack pointers and *note -X perf_jit: 176. command-line option and by the *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. environment variable for perf support with DWARF JIT information. Default: ‘-1’. Added in version 3.12. -- C Member: int use_environment Use *note environment variables: 5ed.? If equals to zero, ignore the *note environment variables: 5ed. Set to ‘0’ by the *note -E: 95d. environment variable. Default: ‘1’ in Python config and ‘0’ in isolated config. -- C Member: int user_site_directory If non-zero, add the user site directory to *note sys.path: 3b0. Set to ‘0’ by the *note -s: 1377. and *note -I: 95e. command line options. Set to ‘0’ by the *note PYTHONNOUSERSITE: 1378. environment variable. Default: ‘1’ in Python mode, ‘0’ in isolated mode. -- C Member: int verbose Verbose mode. If greater than ‘0’, print a message each time a module is imported, showing the place (filename or built-in module) from which it is loaded. If greater than or equal to ‘2’, print a message for each file that is checked for when searching for a module. Also provides information on module cleanup at exit. Incremented by the *note -v: 13f0. command line option. Set by the *note PYTHONVERBOSE: 1d37. environment variable value. Default: ‘0’. -- C Member: *note PyWideStringList: 9ae. warnoptions Options of the *note warnings: 112. module to build warnings filters, lowest to highest priority: *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. The *note warnings: 112. module adds *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. in the reverse order: the last *note PyConfig.warnoptions: 39c. item becomes the first item of ‘warnings.filters’ which is checked first (highest priority). The *note -W: 8c6. command line options adds its value to *note warnoptions: 39c, it can be used multiple times. The *note PYTHONWARNINGS: baa. environment variable can also be used to add warning options. Multiple options can be specified, separated by commas (‘,’). Default: empty list. -- C Member: int write_bytecode If equal to ‘0’, Python won’t try to write ‘.pyc’ files on the import of source modules. Set to ‘0’ by the *note -B: 1399. command line option and the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 139a. environment variable. *note sys.dont_write_bytecode: 436d. is initialized to the inverted value of *note write_bytecode: 3d7. Default: ‘1’. -- C Member: *note PyWideStringList: 9ae. xoptions Values of the *note -X: 176. command line options: *note sys._xoptions: 1d3f. Default: empty list. If *note parse_argv: 1928. is non-zero, *note argv: 3bf. arguments are parsed the same way the regular Python parses *note command line arguments: 1000, and Python arguments are stripped from *note argv: 3bf. The *note xoptions: 39d. options are parsed to set other options: see the *note -X: 176. command line option. Changed in version 3.9: The ‘show_alloc_count’ field has been removed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0552/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0528/  File: python.info, Node: Initialization with PyConfig, Next: Isolated Configuration, Prev: PyConfig, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.7 Initialization with PyConfig ----------------------------------- Initializing the interpreter from a populated configuration struct is handled by calling *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. The caller is responsible to handle exceptions (error or exit) using *note PyStatus_Exception(): 9b9. and *note Py_ExitStatusException(): 9c2. If *note PyImport_FrozenModules(): 2e2a, *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17a4. are used, they must be set or called after Python preinitialization and before the Python initialization. If Python is initialized multiple times, *note PyImport_AppendInittab(): 17a3. or *note PyImport_ExtendInittab(): 17a4. must be called before each Python initialization. The current configuration (‘PyConfig’ type) is stored in ‘PyInterpreterState.config’. Example setting the program name: void init_python(void) { PyStatus status; PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); /* Set the program name. Implicitly preinitialize Python. */ status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.program_name, L"/path/to/my_program"); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto exception; } PyConfig_Clear(&config); return; exception: PyConfig_Clear(&config); Py_ExitStatusException(status); } More complete example modifying the default configuration, read the configuration, and then override some parameters. Note that since 3.11, many parameters are not calculated until initialization, and so values cannot be read from the configuration structure. Any values set before initialize is called will be left unchanged by initialization: PyStatus init_python(const char *program_name) { PyStatus status; PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); /* Set the program name before reading the configuration (decode byte string from the locale encoding). Implicitly preinitialize Python. */ status = PyConfig_SetBytesString(&config, &config.program_name, program_name); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto done; } /* Read all configuration at once */ status = PyConfig_Read(&config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto done; } /* Specify sys.path explicitly */ /* If you want to modify the default set of paths, finish initialization first and then use PySys_GetObject("path") */ config.module_search_paths_set = 1; status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths, L"/path/to/stdlib"); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto done; } status = PyWideStringList_Append(&config.module_search_paths, L"/path/to/more/modules"); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto done; } /* Override executable computed by PyConfig_Read() */ status = PyConfig_SetString(&config, &config.executable, L"/path/to/my_executable"); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { goto done; } status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); done: PyConfig_Clear(&config); return status; }  File: python.info, Node: Isolated Configuration, Next: Python Configuration, Prev: Initialization with PyConfig, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.8 Isolated Configuration ----------------------------- *note PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9b6. and *note PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig(): 9b0. functions create a configuration to isolate Python from the system. For example, to embed Python into an application. This configuration ignores global configuration variables, environment variables, command line arguments (*note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. is not parsed) and user site directory. The C standard streams (ex: ‘stdout’) and the LC_CTYPE locale are left unchanged. Signal handlers are not installed. Configuration files are still used with this configuration to determine paths that are unspecified. Ensure *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. is specified to avoid computing the default path configuration.  File: python.info, Node: Python Configuration, Next: Python Path Configuration, Prev: Isolated Configuration, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.9 Python Configuration --------------------------- *note PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b7. and *note PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(): 9b1. functions create a configuration to build a customized Python which behaves as the regular Python. Environments variables and command line arguments are used to configure Python, whereas global configuration variables are ignored. This function enables C locale coercion ( PEP 538(1)) and *note Python UTF-8 Mode: 652. ( PEP 540(2)) depending on the LC_CTYPE locale, *note PYTHONUTF8: ad8. and *note PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: ad5. environment variables. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0538/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0540/  File: python.info, Node: Python Path Configuration, Next: Py_GetArgcArgv, Prev: Python Configuration, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.10 Python Path Configuration --------------------------------- *note PyConfig: 3a2. contains multiple fields for the path configuration: * Path configuration inputs: * *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. * *note PyConfig.platlibdir: 193e. * *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. * *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. * *note PyConfig.pythonpath_env: 4e0d. * current working directory: to get absolute paths * ‘PATH’ environment variable to get the program full path (from *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0.) * ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable * (Windows only) Application paths in the registry under “SoftwarePythonPythonCoreX.YPythonPath” of HKEY_CURRENT_USER and HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (where X.Y is the Python version). * Path configuration output fields: * *note PyConfig.base_exec_prefix: 4dfe. * *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4e00. * *note PyConfig.base_prefix: 4e01. * *note PyConfig.exec_prefix: 4dff. * *note PyConfig.executable: 3a1. * *note PyConfig.module_search_paths_set: 5eb, *note PyConfig.module_search_paths: 39e. * *note PyConfig.prefix: 4e02. If at least one “output field” is not set, Python calculates the path configuration to fill unset fields. If *note module_search_paths_set: 5eb. is equal to ‘0’, *note module_search_paths: 39e. is overridden and *note module_search_paths_set: 5eb. is set to ‘1’. It is possible to completely ignore the function calculating the default path configuration by setting explicitly all path configuration output fields listed above. A string is considered as set even if it is non-empty. ‘module_search_paths’ is considered as set if ‘module_search_paths_set’ is set to ‘1’. In this case, ‘module_search_paths’ will be used without modification. Set *note pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. to ‘0’ to suppress warnings when calculating the path configuration (Unix only, Windows does not log any warning). If *note base_prefix: 4e01. or *note base_exec_prefix: 4dfe. fields are not set, they inherit their value from *note prefix: 4e02. and *note exec_prefix: 4dff. respectively. *note Py_RunMain(): 9c5. and *note Py_Main(): c25. modify *note sys.path: 3b0.: * If *note run_filename: 4dab. is set and is a directory which contains a ‘__main__.py’ script, prepend *note run_filename: 4dab. to *note sys.path: 3b0. * If *note isolated: 3e0. is zero: * If *note run_module: 4dac. is set, prepend the current directory to *note sys.path: 3b0. Do nothing if the current directory cannot be read. * If *note run_filename: 4dab. is set, prepend the directory of the filename to *note sys.path: 3b0. * Otherwise, prepend an empty string to *note sys.path: 3b0. If *note site_import: 3cf. is non-zero, *note sys.path: 3b0. can be modified by the *note site: c7. module. If *note user_site_directory: 3d9. is non-zero and the user’s site-package directory exists, the *note site: c7. module appends the user’s site-package directory to *note sys.path: 3b0. The following configuration files are used by the path configuration: * ‘pyvenv.cfg’ * ‘._pth’ file (ex: ‘python._pth’) * ‘pybuilddir.txt’ (Unix only) If a ‘._pth’ file is present: * Set *note isolated: 3e0. to ‘1’. * Set *note use_environment: 3d5. to ‘0’. * Set *note site_import: 3cf. to ‘0’. * Set *note safe_path: 76e. to ‘1’. The ‘__PYVENV_LAUNCHER__’ environment variable is used to set *note PyConfig.base_executable: 4e00.  File: python.info, Node: Py_GetArgcArgv, Next: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API, Prev: Python Path Configuration, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.11 Py_GetArgcArgv() ------------------------ -- C Function: void Py_GetArgcArgv (int *argc, wchar_t ***argv) Get the original command line arguments, before Python modified them. See also *note PyConfig.orig_argv: 892. member.  File: python.info, Node: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API, Prev: Py_GetArgcArgv, Up: Python Initialization Configuration 7.10.12 Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API ---------------------------------------------------------- This section is a private provisional API introducing multi-phase initialization, the core feature of PEP 432(1): * “Core” initialization phase, “bare minimum Python”: * Builtin types; * Builtin exceptions; * Builtin and frozen modules; * The *note sys: d9. module is only partially initialized (ex: *note sys.path: 3b0. doesn’t exist yet). * “Main” initialization phase, Python is fully initialized: * Install and configure *note importlib: 77.; * Apply the *note Path Configuration: 8ac.; * Install signal handlers; * Finish *note sys: d9. module initialization (ex: create *note sys.stdout: ad6. and *note sys.path: 3b0.); * Enable optional features like *note faulthandler: 58. and *note tracemalloc: ff.; * Import the *note site: c7. module; * etc. Private provisional API: * ‘PyConfig._init_main’: if set to ‘0’, *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. stops at the “Core” initialization phase. -- C Function: *note PyStatus: 9ad. _Py_InitializeMain (void) Move to the “Main” initialization phase, finish the Python initialization. No module is imported during the “Core” phase and the ‘importlib’ module is not configured: the *note Path Configuration: 8ac. is only applied during the “Main” phase. It may allow to customize Python in Python to override or tune the *note Path Configuration: 8ac, maybe install a custom *note sys.meta_path: d2b. importer or an import hook, etc. It may become possible to calculate the *note Path Configuration: 8ac. in Python, after the Core phase and before the Main phase, which is one of the PEP 432(2) motivation. The “Core” phase is not properly defined: what should be and what should not be available at this phase is not specified yet. The API is marked as private and provisional: the API can be modified or even be removed anytime until a proper public API is designed. Example running Python code between “Core” and “Main” initialization phases: void init_python(void) { PyStatus status; PyConfig config; PyConfig_InitPythonConfig(&config); config._init_main = 0; /* ... customize 'config' configuration ... */ status = Py_InitializeFromConfig(&config); PyConfig_Clear(&config); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { Py_ExitStatusException(status); } /* Use sys.stderr because sys.stdout is only created by _Py_InitializeMain() */ int res = PyRun_SimpleString( "import sys; " "print('Run Python code before _Py_InitializeMain', " "file=sys.stderr)"); if (res < 0) { exit(1); } /* ... put more configuration code here ... */ status = _Py_InitializeMain(); if (PyStatus_Exception(status)) { Py_ExitStatusException(status); } } ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0432/  File: python.info, Node: Memory Management, Next: Object Implementation Support, Prev: Python Initialization Configuration, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.11 Memory Management ====================== * Menu: * Overview: Overview<4>. * Allocator Domains:: * Raw Memory Interface:: * Memory Interface:: * Object allocators:: * Default Memory Allocators:: * Customize Memory Allocators:: * Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators:: * The pymalloc allocator:: * The mimalloc allocator:: * tracemalloc C API:: * Examples: Examples<37>.  File: python.info, Node: Overview<4>, Next: Allocator Domains, Up: Memory Management 7.11.1 Overview --------------- Memory management in Python involves a private heap containing all Python objects and data structures. The management of this private heap is ensured internally by the 'Python memory manager'. The Python memory manager has different components which deal with various dynamic storage management aspects, like sharing, segmentation, preallocation or caching. At the lowest level, a raw memory allocator ensures that there is enough room in the private heap for storing all Python-related data by interacting with the memory manager of the operating system. On top of the raw memory allocator, several object-specific allocators operate on the same heap and implement distinct memory management policies adapted to the peculiarities of every object type. For example, integer objects are managed differently within the heap than strings, tuples or dictionaries because integers imply different storage requirements and speed/space tradeoffs. The Python memory manager thus delegates some of the work to the object-specific allocators, but ensures that the latter operate within the bounds of the private heap. It is important to understand that the management of the Python heap is performed by the interpreter itself and that the user has no control over it, even if they regularly manipulate object pointers to memory blocks inside that heap. The allocation of heap space for Python objects and other internal buffers is performed on demand by the Python memory manager through the Python/C API functions listed in this document. To avoid memory corruption, extension writers should never try to operate on Python objects with the functions exported by the C library: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’. This will result in mixed calls between the C allocator and the Python memory manager with fatal consequences, because they implement different algorithms and operate on different heaps. However, one may safely allocate and release memory blocks with the C library allocator for individual purposes, as shown in the following example: PyObject *res; char *buf = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */ if (buf == NULL) return PyErr_NoMemory(); ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... res = PyBytes_FromString(buf); free(buf); /* malloc'ed */ return res; In this example, the memory request for the I/O buffer is handled by the C library allocator. The Python memory manager is involved only in the allocation of the bytes object returned as a result. In most situations, however, it is recommended to allocate memory from the Python heap specifically because the latter is under control of the Python memory manager. For example, this is required when the interpreter is extended with new object types written in C. Another reason for using the Python heap is the desire to 'inform' the Python memory manager about the memory needs of the extension module. Even when the requested memory is used exclusively for internal, highly specific purposes, delegating all memory requests to the Python memory manager causes the interpreter to have a more accurate image of its memory footprint as a whole. Consequently, under certain circumstances, the Python memory manager may or may not trigger appropriate actions, like garbage collection, memory compaction or other preventive procedures. Note that by using the C library allocator as shown in the previous example, the allocated memory for the I/O buffer escapes completely the Python memory manager. See also ........ The *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable can be used to configure the memory allocators used by Python. The *note PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: 1b55. environment variable can be used to print statistics of the *note pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. every time a new pymalloc object arena is created, and on shutdown.  File: python.info, Node: Allocator Domains, Next: Raw Memory Interface, Prev: Overview<4>, Up: Memory Management 7.11.2 Allocator Domains ------------------------ All allocating functions belong to one of three different “domains” (see also *note PyMemAllocatorDomain: 4e21.). These domains represent different allocation strategies and are optimized for different purposes. The specific details on how every domain allocates memory or what internal functions each domain calls is considered an implementation detail, but for debugging purposes a simplified table can be found at *note here: 1d50. The APIs used to allocate and free a block of memory must be from the same domain. For example, *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. must be used to free memory allocated using *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. The three allocation domains are: * Raw domain: intended for allocating memory for general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation 'must' go to the system allocator or where the allocator can operate without the *note GIL: 159. The memory is requested directly from the system. See *note Raw Memory Interface: 4e22. * “Mem” domain: intended for allocating memory for Python buffers and general-purpose memory buffers where the allocation must be performed with the *note GIL: 159. held. The memory is taken from the Python private heap. See *note Memory Interface: 4e23. * Object domain: intended for allocating memory for Python objects. The memory is taken from the Python private heap. See *note Object allocators: 4e24. Note: The *note free-threaded: 1522. build requires that only Python objects are allocated using the “object” domain and that all Python objects are allocated using that domain. This differs from the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard requirement. For example, buffers (non-Python objects) should be allocated using *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b, or ‘malloc()’, but not *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68. See *note Memory Allocation APIs: 4e25.  File: python.info, Node: Raw Memory Interface, Next: Memory Interface, Prev: Allocator Domains, Up: Memory Management 7.11.3 Raw Memory Interface --------------------------- The following function sets are wrappers to the system allocator. These functions are thread-safe, the *note GIL: 148. does not need to be held. The *note default raw memory allocator: 1d50. uses the following functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’; call ‘malloc(1)’ (or ‘calloc(1, 1)’) when requesting zero bytes. Added in version 3.4. -- C Function: void *PyMem_RawMalloc (size_t n) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails. Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(1)’ had been called instead. The memory will not have been initialized in any way. -- C Function: void *PyMem_RawCalloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros. Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_RawCalloc(1, 1)’ had been called instead. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: void *PyMem_RawRealloc (void *p, size_t n) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Resizes the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes. The contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes. If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_RawMalloc(n)’; else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’. Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. or *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c. If the request fails, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. returns ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area. -- C Function: void PyMem_RawFree (void *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Frees the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b, *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. or *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c. Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_RawFree(p)’ has been called before, undefined behavior occurs. If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.  File: python.info, Node: Memory Interface, Next: Object allocators, Prev: Raw Memory Interface, Up: Memory Management 7.11.4 Memory Interface ----------------------- The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap. The *note default memory allocator: 1d50. uses the *note pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. Warning: The *note GIL: 148. must be held when using these functions. Changed in version 3.6: The default allocator is now pymalloc instead of system ‘malloc()’. -- C Function: void *PyMem_Malloc (size_t n) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails. Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead. The memory will not have been initialized in any way. -- C Function: void *PyMem_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros. Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyMem_Calloc(1, 1)’ had been called instead. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: void *PyMem_Realloc (void *p, size_t n) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Resizes the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes. The contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes. If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyMem_Malloc(n)’; else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’. Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. or *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea6. If the request fails, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. returns ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area. -- C Function: void PyMem_Free (void *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Frees the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call to *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. or *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea6. Otherwise, or if ‘PyMem_Free(p)’ has been called before, undefined behavior occurs. If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed. The following type-oriented macros are provided for convenience. Note that 'TYPE' refers to any C type. -- C Macro: PyMem_New (TYPE, n) Same as *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, but allocates ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes of memory. Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’. The memory will not have been initialized in any way. -- C Macro: PyMem_Resize (p, TYPE, n) Same as *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b, but the memory block is resized to ‘(n * sizeof(TYPE))’ bytes. Returns a pointer cast to ‘TYPE*’. On return, 'p' will be a pointer to the new memory area, or ‘NULL’ in the event of failure. This is a C preprocessor macro; 'p' is always reassigned. Save the original value of 'p' to avoid losing memory when handling errors. -- C Function: void PyMem_Del (void *p) Same as *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. In addition, the following macro sets are provided for calling the Python memory allocator directly, without involving the C API functions listed above. However, note that their use does not preserve binary compatibility across Python versions and is therefore deprecated in extension modules. * ‘PyMem_MALLOC(size)’ * ‘PyMem_NEW(type, size)’ * ‘PyMem_REALLOC(ptr, size)’ * ‘PyMem_RESIZE(ptr, type, size)’ * ‘PyMem_FREE(ptr)’ * ‘PyMem_DEL(ptr)’  File: python.info, Node: Object allocators, Next: Default Memory Allocators, Prev: Memory Interface, Up: Memory Management 7.11.5 Object allocators ------------------------ The following function sets, modeled after the ANSI C standard, but specifying behavior when requesting zero bytes, are available for allocating and releasing memory from the Python heap. Note: There is no guarantee that the memory returned by these allocators can be successfully cast to a Python object when intercepting the allocating functions in this domain by the methods described in the *note Customize Memory Allocators: 4e2a. section. The *note default object allocator: 1d50. uses the *note pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. Warning: The *note GIL: 148. must be held when using these functions. -- C Function: void *PyObject_Malloc (size_t n) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Allocates 'n' bytes and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails. Requesting zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyObject_Malloc(1)’ had been called instead. The memory will not have been initialized in any way. -- C Function: void *PyObject_Calloc (size_t nelem, size_t elsize) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.7.' Allocates 'nelem' elements each whose size in bytes is 'elsize' and returns a pointer of type void* to the allocated memory, or ‘NULL’ if the request fails. The memory is initialized to zeros. Requesting zero elements or elements of size zero bytes returns a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer if possible, as if ‘PyObject_Calloc(1, 1)’ had been called instead. Added in version 3.5. -- C Function: void *PyObject_Realloc (void *p, size_t n) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Resizes the memory block pointed to by 'p' to 'n' bytes. The contents will be unchanged to the minimum of the old and the new sizes. If 'p' is ‘NULL’, the call is equivalent to ‘PyObject_Malloc(n)’; else if 'n' is equal to zero, the memory block is resized but is not freed, and the returned pointer is non-‘NULL’. Unless 'p' is ‘NULL’, it must have been returned by a previous call to *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f. or *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea7. If the request fails, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f. returns ‘NULL’ and 'p' remains a valid pointer to the previous memory area. -- C Function: void PyObject_Free (void *p) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Frees the memory block pointed to by 'p', which must have been returned by a previous call to *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68, *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f. or *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea7. Otherwise, or if ‘PyObject_Free(p)’ has been called before, undefined behavior occurs. If 'p' is ‘NULL’, no operation is performed.  File: python.info, Node: Default Memory Allocators, Next: Customize Memory Allocators, Prev: Object allocators, Up: Memory Management 7.11.6 Default Memory Allocators -------------------------------- Default memory allocators: Configuration Name PyMem_RawMalloc PyMem_Malloc PyObject_Malloc --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Release build ‘"pymalloc"’ ‘malloc’ ‘pymalloc’ ‘pymalloc’ Debug build ‘"pymalloc_debug"’ ‘malloc’ + debug ‘pymalloc’ + debug ‘pymalloc’ + debug Release build, without pymalloc ‘"malloc"’ ‘malloc’ ‘malloc’ ‘malloc’ Debug build, without pymalloc ‘"malloc_debug"’ ‘malloc’ + debug ‘malloc’ + debug ‘malloc’ + debug Legend: * Name: value for *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable. * ‘malloc’: system allocators from the standard C library, C functions: ‘malloc()’, ‘calloc()’, ‘realloc()’ and ‘free()’. * ‘pymalloc’: *note pymalloc memory allocator: d0f. * ‘mimalloc’: *note mimalloc memory allocator: 1d52. The pymalloc allocator will be used if mimalloc support isn’t available. * “+ debug”: with *note debug hooks on the Python memory allocators: 1d53. * “Debug build”: *note Python build in debug mode: 1fb.  File: python.info, Node: Customize Memory Allocators, Next: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators, Prev: Default Memory Allocators, Up: Memory Management 7.11.7 Customize Memory Allocators ---------------------------------- Added in version 3.4. -- C Type: type PyMemAllocatorEx Structure used to describe a memory block allocator. The structure has the following fields: Field Meaning ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘void *ctx’ user context passed as first argument ‘void* malloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’ allocate a memory block ‘void* calloc(void *ctx, size_t nelem, size_t elsize)’ allocate a memory block initialized with zeros ‘void* realloc(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t new_size)’ allocate or resize a memory block ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr)’ free a memory block Changed in version 3.5: The ‘PyMemAllocator’ structure was renamed to *note PyMemAllocatorEx: ec7. and a new ‘calloc’ field was added. -- C Type: type PyMemAllocatorDomain Enum used to identify an allocator domain. Domains: -- C Macro: PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW Functions: * *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. * *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. * *note PyMem_RawCalloc(): 38c. * *note PyMem_RawFree(): 38e. -- C Macro: PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM Functions: * *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66, * *note PyMem_Realloc(): 102b. * *note PyMem_Calloc(): ea6. * *note PyMem_Free(): 140e. -- C Macro: PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ Functions: * *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68. * *note PyObject_Realloc(): 140f. * *note PyObject_Calloc(): ea7. * *note PyObject_Free(): c65. -- C Function: void PyMem_GetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator) Get the memory block allocator of the specified domain. -- C Function: void PyMem_SetAllocator (PyMemAllocatorDomain domain, PyMemAllocatorEx *allocator) Set the memory block allocator of the specified domain. The new allocator must return a distinct non-‘NULL’ pointer when requesting zero bytes. For the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d51. domain, the allocator must be thread-safe: the *note GIL: 148. is not held when the allocator is called. For the remaining domains, the allocator must also be thread-safe: the allocator may be called in different interpreters that do not share a ‘GIL’. If the new allocator is not a hook (does not call the previous allocator), the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. function must be called to reinstall the debug hooks on top on the new allocator. See also *note PyPreConfig.allocator: 4df2. and *note Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig: 3d40. Warning: *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 588. does have the following contract: * It can be called after *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7. and before *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. to install a custom memory allocator. There are no restrictions over the installed allocator other than the ones imposed by the domain (for instance, the Raw Domain allows the allocator to be called without the GIL held). See *note the section on allocator domains: 4e20. for more information. * If called after Python has finish initializing (after *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. has been called) the allocator 'must' wrap the existing allocator. Substituting the current allocator for some other arbitrary one is 'not supported'. Changed in version 3.12: All allocators must be thread-safe. -- C Function: void PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (void) Setup *note debug hooks in the Python memory allocators: 1d53. to detect memory errors.  File: python.info, Node: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators, Next: The pymalloc allocator, Prev: Customize Memory Allocators, Up: Memory Management 7.11.8 Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators -------------------------------------------------- When *note Python is built in debug mode: 1fb, the *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. function is called at the *note Python preinitialization: 3d40. to setup debug hooks on Python memory allocators to detect memory errors. The *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable can be used to install debug hooks on a Python compiled in release mode (ex: ‘PYTHONMALLOC=debug’). The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. function can be used to set debug hooks after calling *note PyMem_SetAllocator(): 588. These debug hooks fill dynamically allocated memory blocks with special, recognizable bit patterns. Newly allocated memory is filled with the byte ‘0xCD’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), freed memory is filled with the byte ‘0xDD’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’). Memory blocks are surrounded by “forbidden bytes” filled with the byte ‘0xFD’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’). Strings of these bytes are unlikely to be valid addresses, floats, or ASCII strings. Runtime checks: - Detect API violations. For example, detect if *note PyObject_Free(): c65. is called on a memory block allocated by *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. - Detect write before the start of the buffer (buffer underflow). - Detect write after the end of the buffer (buffer overflow). - Check that the *note GIL: 148. is held when allocator functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c67. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68.) and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66.) domains are called. On error, the debug hooks use the *note tracemalloc: ff. module to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated. The traceback is only displayed if *note tracemalloc: ff. is tracing Python memory allocations and the memory block was traced. Let 'S' = ‘sizeof(size_t)’. ‘2*S’ bytes are added at each end of each block of 'N' bytes requested. The memory layout is like so, where p represents the address returned by a malloc-like or realloc-like function (‘p[i:j]’ means the slice of bytes from ‘*(p+i)’ inclusive up to ‘*(p+j)’ exclusive; note that the treatment of negative indices differs from a Python slice): ‘p[-2*S:-S]’ Number of bytes originally asked for. This is a size_t, big-endian (easier to read in a memory dump). ‘p[-S]’ API identifier (ASCII character): * ‘'r'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW: 1d51. * ‘'m'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69. * ‘'o'’ for *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c67. ‘p[-S+1:0]’ Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch under- writes and reads. ‘p[0:N]’ The requested memory, filled with copies of PYMEM_CLEANBYTE, used to catch reference to uninitialized memory. When a realloc-like function is called requesting a larger memory block, the new excess bytes are also filled with PYMEM_CLEANBYTE. When a free-like function is called, these are overwritten with PYMEM_DEADBYTE, to catch reference to freed memory. When a realloc- like function is called requesting a smaller memory block, the excess old bytes are also filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE. ‘p[N:N+S]’ Copies of PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE. Used to catch over- writes and reads. ‘p[N+S:N+2*S]’ Only used if the ‘PYMEM_DEBUG_SERIALNO’ macro is defined (not defined by default). A serial number, incremented by 1 on each call to a malloc-like or realloc-like function. Big-endian ‘size_t’. If “bad memory” is detected later, the serial number gives an excellent way to set a breakpoint on the next run, to capture the instant at which this block was passed out. The static function bumpserialno() in obmalloc.c is the only place the serial number is incremented, and exists so you can set such a breakpoint easily. A realloc-like or free-like function first checks that the PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE bytes at each end are intact. If they’ve been altered, diagnostic output is written to stderr, and the program is aborted via Py_FatalError(). The other main failure mode is provoking a memory error when a program reads up one of the special bit patterns and tries to use it as an address. If you get in a debugger then and look at the object, you’re likely to see that it’s entirely filled with PYMEM_DEADBYTE (meaning freed memory is getting used) or PYMEM_CLEANBYTE (meaning uninitialized memory is getting used). Changed in version 3.6: The *note PyMem_SetupDebugHooks(): c6a. function now also works on Python compiled in release mode. On error, the debug hooks now use *note tracemalloc: ff. to get the traceback where a memory block was allocated. The debug hooks now also check if the GIL is held when functions of *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c67. and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69. domains are called. Changed in version 3.8: Byte patterns ‘0xCB’ (‘PYMEM_CLEANBYTE’), ‘0xDB’ (‘PYMEM_DEADBYTE’) and ‘0xFB’ (‘PYMEM_FORBIDDENBYTE’) have been replaced with ‘0xCD’, ‘0xDD’ and ‘0xFD’ to use the same values than Windows CRT debug ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’.  File: python.info, Node: The pymalloc allocator, Next: The mimalloc allocator, Prev: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators, Up: Memory Management 7.11.9 The pymalloc allocator ----------------------------- Python has a 'pymalloc' allocator optimized for small objects (smaller or equal to 512 bytes) with a short lifetime. It uses memory mappings called “arenas” with a fixed size of either 256 KiB on 32-bit platforms or 1 MiB on 64-bit platforms. It falls back to *note PyMem_RawMalloc(): 38b. and *note PyMem_RawRealloc(): 38d. for allocations larger than 512 bytes. 'pymalloc' is the *note default allocator: 1d50. of the *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM: c69. (ex: *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66.) and *note PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ: c67. (ex: *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68.) domains. The arena allocator uses the following functions: * ‘VirtualAlloc()’ and ‘VirtualFree()’ on Windows, * ‘mmap()’ and ‘munmap()’ if available, * ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ otherwise. This allocator is disabled if Python is configured with the *note -without-pymalloc: 1db0. option. It can also be disabled at runtime using the *note PYTHONMALLOC: c64. environment variable (ex: ‘PYTHONMALLOC=malloc’). Typically, it makes sense to disable the pymalloc allocator when building Python with AddressSanitizer (*note -with-address-sanitizer: 1db8.) which helps uncover low level bugs within the C code. * Menu: * Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator::  File: python.info, Node: Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator, Up: The pymalloc allocator 7.11.9.1 Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator ........................................... Added in version 3.4. -- C Type: type PyObjectArenaAllocator Structure used to describe an arena allocator. The structure has three fields: Field Meaning --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘void *ctx’ user context passed as first argument ‘void* alloc(void *ctx, size_t size)’ allocate an arena of size bytes ‘void free(void *ctx, void *ptr, size_t size)’ free an arena -- C Function: void PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator) Get the arena allocator. -- C Function: void PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (PyObjectArenaAllocator *allocator) Set the arena allocator.  File: python.info, Node: The mimalloc allocator, Next: tracemalloc C API, Prev: The pymalloc allocator, Up: Memory Management 7.11.10 The mimalloc allocator ------------------------------ Added in version 3.13. Python supports the mimalloc allocator when the underlying platform support is available. mimalloc “is a general purpose allocator with excellent performance characteristics. Initially developed by Daan Leijen for the runtime systems of the Koka and Lean languages.”  File: python.info, Node: tracemalloc C API, Next: Examples<37>, Prev: The mimalloc allocator, Up: Memory Management 7.11.11 tracemalloc C API ------------------------- Added in version 3.7. -- C Function: int PyTraceMalloc_Track (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr, size_t size) Track an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: ff. module. Return ‘0’ on success, return ‘-1’ on error (failed to allocate memory to store the trace). Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is disabled. If memory block is already tracked, update the existing trace. -- C Function: int PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (unsigned int domain, uintptr_t ptr) Untrack an allocated memory block in the *note tracemalloc: ff. module. Do nothing if the block was not tracked. Return ‘-2’ if tracemalloc is disabled, otherwise return ‘0’.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<37>, Prev: tracemalloc C API, Up: Memory Management 7.11.12 Examples ---------------- Here is the example from section *note Overview: 4e1d, rewritten so that the I/O buffer is allocated from the Python heap by using the first function set: PyObject *res; char *buf = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */ if (buf == NULL) return PyErr_NoMemory(); /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */ res = PyBytes_FromString(buf); PyMem_Free(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_Malloc */ return res; The same code using the type-oriented function set: PyObject *res; char *buf = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); /* for I/O */ if (buf == NULL) return PyErr_NoMemory(); /* ...Do some I/O operation involving buf... */ res = PyBytes_FromString(buf); PyMem_Del(buf); /* allocated with PyMem_New */ return res; Note that in the two examples above, the buffer is always manipulated via functions belonging to the same set. Indeed, it is required to use the same memory API family for a given memory block, so that the risk of mixing different allocators is reduced to a minimum. The following code sequence contains two errors, one of which is labeled as 'fatal' because it mixes two different allocators operating on different heaps. char *buf1 = PyMem_New(char, BUFSIZ); char *buf2 = (char *) malloc(BUFSIZ); char *buf3 = (char *) PyMem_Malloc(BUFSIZ); ... PyMem_Del(buf3); /* Wrong -- should be PyMem_Free() */ free(buf2); /* Right -- allocated via malloc() */ free(buf1); /* Fatal -- should be PyMem_Del() */ In addition to the functions aimed at handling raw memory blocks from the Python heap, objects in Python are allocated and released with *note PyObject_New: 985, *note PyObject_NewVar: 986. and *note PyObject_Del(): 149c. These will be explained in the next chapter on defining and implementing new object types in C.  File: python.info, Node: Object Implementation Support, Next: API and ABI Versioning, Prev: Memory Management, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.12 Object Implementation Support ================================== This chapter describes the functions, types, and macros used when defining new object types. * Menu: * Allocating Objects on the Heap:: * Common Object Structures:: * Type Object Structures:: * Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection::  File: python.info, Node: Allocating Objects on the Heap, Next: Common Object Structures, Up: Object Implementation Support 7.12.1 Allocating Objects on the Heap ------------------------------------- -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *_PyObject_New (PyTypeObject *type) 'Return value: New reference.' -- C Function: *note PyVarObject: 416a. *_PyObject_NewVar (PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size) 'Return value: New reference.' -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyObject_Init (PyObject *op, PyTypeObject *type) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Initialize a newly allocated object 'op' with its type and initial reference. Returns the initialized object. Other fields of the object are not affected. -- C Function: *note PyVarObject: 416a. *PyObject_InitVar (PyVarObject *op, PyTypeObject *type, Py_ssize_t size) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This does everything *note PyObject_Init(): a6a. does, and also initializes the length information for a variable-size object. -- C Macro: PyObject_New (TYPE, typeobj) Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’). Fields not defined by the Python object header are not initialized. The caller will own the only reference to the object (i.e. its reference count will be one). The size of the memory allocation is determined from the *note tp_basicsize: 987. field of the type object. Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. set. For such objects, use *note PyObject_GC_New(): aa2. instead. -- C Macro: PyObject_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size) Allocate a new Python object using the C structure type 'TYPE' and the Python type object 'typeobj' (‘PyTypeObject*’). Fields not defined by the Python object header are not initialized. The allocated memory allows for the 'TYPE' structure plus 'size' (‘Py_ssize_t’) fields of the size given by the *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. field of 'typeobj'. This is useful for implementing objects like tuples, which are able to determine their size at construction time. Embedding the array of fields into the same allocation decreases the number of allocations, improving the memory management efficiency. Note that this function is unsuitable if 'typeobj' has *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. set. For such objects, use *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa3. instead. -- C Function: void PyObject_Del (void *op) Releases memory allocated to an object using *note PyObject_New: 985. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 986. This is normally called from the *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. handler specified in the object’s type. The fields of the object should not be accessed after this call as the memory is no longer a valid Python object. -- C Variable: *note PyObject: 334. _Py_NoneStruct Object which is visible in Python as ‘None’. This should only be accessed using the *note Py_None: 48b9. macro, which evaluates to a pointer to this object. See also ........ *note Module Objects: 4d09. To allocate and create extension modules.  File: python.info, Node: Common Object Structures, Next: Type Object Structures, Prev: Allocating Objects on the Heap, Up: Object Implementation Support 7.12.2 Common Object Structures ------------------------------- There are a large number of structures which are used in the definition of object types for Python. This section describes these structures and how they are used. * Menu: * Base object types and macros:: * Implementing functions and methods:: * Accessing attributes of extension types::  File: python.info, Node: Base object types and macros, Next: Implementing functions and methods, Up: Common Object Structures 7.12.2.1 Base object types and macros ..................................... All Python objects ultimately share a small number of fields at the beginning of the object’s representation in memory. These are represented by the *note PyObject: 334. and *note PyVarObject: 416a. types, which are defined, in turn, by the expansions of some macros also used, whether directly or indirectly, in the definition of all other Python objects. Additional macros can be found under *note reference counting: 4b2c. -- C Type: type PyObject ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (Only some members are part of the stable ABI.)' All object types are extensions of this type. This is a type which contains the information Python needs to treat a pointer to an object as an object. In a normal “release” build, it contains only the object’s reference count and a pointer to the corresponding type object. Nothing is actually declared to be a *note PyObject: 334, but every pointer to a Python object can be cast to a *note PyObject: 334.*. Access to the members must be done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 8a8. and *note Py_TYPE: 77b. -- C Type: type PyVarObject ' Part of the *note Limited API: 550. (Only some members are part of the stable ABI.)' This is an extension of *note PyObject: 334. that adds the *note ob_size: 4ada. field. This is only used for objects that have some notion of 'length'. This type does not often appear in the Python/C API. Access to the members must be done by using the macros *note Py_REFCNT: 8a8, *note Py_TYPE: 77b, and *note Py_SIZE: 77d. -- C Macro: PyObject_HEAD This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects without a varying length. The PyObject_HEAD macro expands to: PyObject ob_base; See documentation of *note PyObject: 334. above. -- C Macro: PyObject_VAR_HEAD This is a macro used when declaring new types which represent objects with a length that varies from instance to instance. The PyObject_VAR_HEAD macro expands to: PyVarObject ob_base; See documentation of *note PyVarObject: 416a. above. -- C Variable: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. PyBaseObject_Type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The base class of all other objects, the same as *note object: a8c. in Python. -- C Function: int Py_Is (PyObject *x, PyObject *y) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Test if the 'x' object is the 'y' object, the same as ‘x is y’ in Python. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int Py_IsNone (PyObject *x) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Test if an object is the ‘None’ singleton, the same as ‘x is None’ in Python. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int Py_IsTrue (PyObject *x) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Test if an object is the ‘True’ singleton, the same as ‘x is True’ in Python. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int Py_IsFalse (PyObject *x) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Test if an object is the ‘False’ singleton, the same as ‘x is False’ in Python. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. *Py_TYPE (PyObject *o) 'Return value: Borrowed reference.' Get the type of the Python object 'o'. Return a *note borrowed reference: 339. Use the *note Py_SET_TYPE(): 77c. function to set an object type. Changed in version 3.11: *note Py_TYPE(): 77b. is changed to an inline static function. The parameter type is no longer const *note PyObject: 334.*. -- C Function: int Py_IS_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type) Return non-zero if the object 'o' type is 'type'. Return zero otherwise. Equivalent to: ‘Py_TYPE(o) == type’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: void Py_SET_TYPE (PyObject *o, PyTypeObject *type) Set the object 'o' type to 'type'. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. Py_SIZE (PyVarObject *o) Get the size of the Python object 'o'. Use the *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77e. function to set an object size. Changed in version 3.11: *note Py_SIZE(): 77d. is changed to an inline static function. The parameter type is no longer const *note PyVarObject: 416a.*. -- C Function: void Py_SET_SIZE (PyVarObject *o, Py_ssize_t size) Set the object 'o' size to 'size'. Added in version 3.9. -- C Macro: PyObject_HEAD_INIT (type) This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new *note PyObject: 334. type. This macro expands to: _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT 1, type, -- C Macro: PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (type, size) This is a macro which expands to initialization values for a new *note PyVarObject: 416a. type, including the *note ob_size: 4ada. field. This macro expands to: _PyObject_EXTRA_INIT 1, type, size,  File: python.info, Node: Implementing functions and methods, Next: Accessing attributes of extension types, Prev: Base object types and macros, Up: Common Object Structures 7.12.2.2 Implementing functions and methods ........................................... -- C Type: type PyCFunction ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Type of the functions used to implement most Python callables in C. Functions of this type take two *note PyObject: 334.* parameters and return one such value. If the return value is ‘NULL’, an exception shall have been set. If not ‘NULL’, the return value is interpreted as the return value of the function as exposed in Python. The function must return a new reference. The function signature is: PyObject *PyCFunction(PyObject *self, PyObject *args); -- C Type: type PyCFunctionWithKeywords ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature *note METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e46. The function signature is: PyObject *PyCFunctionWithKeywords(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs); -- C Type: type PyCFunctionFast ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature *note METH_FASTCALL: 1627. The function signature is: PyObject *PyCFunctionFast(PyObject *self, PyObject *const *args, Py_ssize_t nargs); -- C Type: type PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.13.' Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e47. The function signature is: PyObject *PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords(PyObject *self, PyObject *const *args, Py_ssize_t nargs, PyObject *kwnames); -- C Type: type PyCMethod Type of the functions used to implement Python callables in C with signature *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 168e. The function signature is: PyObject *PyCMethod(PyObject *self, PyTypeObject *defining_class, PyObject *const *args, Py_ssize_t nargs, PyObject *kwnames) Added in version 3.9. -- C Type: type PyMethodDef ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Structure used to describe a method of an extension type. This structure has four fields: -- C Member: const char *ml_name Name of the method. -- C Member: *note PyCFunction: 1440. ml_meth Pointer to the C implementation. -- C Member: int ml_flags Flags bits indicating how the call should be constructed. -- C Member: const char *ml_doc Points to the contents of the docstring. The *note ml_meth: 4e48. is a C function pointer. The functions may be of different types, but they always return *note PyObject: 334.*. If the function is not of the *note PyCFunction: 1440, the compiler will require a cast in the method table. Even though *note PyCFunction: 1440. defines the first parameter as *note PyObject: 334.*, it is common that the method implementation uses the specific C type of the 'self' object. The *note ml_flags: 4e49. field is a bitfield which can include the following flags. The individual flags indicate either a calling convention or a binding convention. There are these calling conventions: -- C Macro: METH_VARARGS This is the typical calling convention, where the methods have the type *note PyCFunction: 1440. The function expects two *note PyObject: 334.* values. The first one is the 'self' object for methods; for module functions, it is the module object. The second parameter (often called 'args') is a tuple object representing all arguments. This parameter is typically processed using *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. or *note PyArg_UnpackTuple(): 14d2. -- C Macro: METH_KEYWORDS Can only be used in certain combinations with other flags: *note METH_VARARGS | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e46, *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e47. and *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 168e. *note METH_VARARGS: 14d4. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bc. Methods with these flags must be of type *note PyCFunctionWithKeywords: 4976. The function expects three parameters: 'self', 'args', 'kwargs' where 'kwargs' is a dictionary of all the keyword arguments or possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no keyword arguments. The parameters are typically processed using *note PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords(): 37e. -- C Macro: METH_FASTCALL Fast calling convention supporting only positional arguments. The methods have the type *note PyCFunctionFast: 4974. The first parameter is 'self', the second parameter is a C array of *note PyObject: 334.* values indicating the arguments and the third parameter is the number of arguments (the length of the array). Added in version 3.7. Changed in version 3.10: ‘METH_FASTCALL’ is now part of the *note stable ABI: 495b. *note METH_FASTCALL: 1627. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bc. Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL: 1627. supporting also keyword arguments, with methods of type *note PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords: 4975. Keyword arguments are passed the same way as in the *note vectorcall protocol: 54f.: there is an additional fourth *note PyObject: 334.* parameter which is a tuple representing the names of the keyword arguments (which are guaranteed to be strings) or possibly ‘NULL’ if there are no keywords. The values of the keyword arguments are stored in the 'args' array, after the positional arguments. Added in version 3.7. -- C Macro: METH_METHOD Can only be used in the combination with other flags: *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 168e. *note METH_METHOD: 970. | *note METH_FASTCALL: 1627. | *note METH_KEYWORDS: 48bc. Extension of *note METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 4e47. supporting the 'defining class', that is, the class that contains the method in question. The defining class might be a superclass of ‘Py_TYPE(self)’. The method needs to be of type *note PyCMethod: 75f, the same as for ‘METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS’ with ‘defining_class’ argument added after ‘self’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Macro: METH_NOARGS Methods without parameters don’t need to check whether arguments are given if they are listed with the *note METH_NOARGS: 149f. flag. They need to be of type *note PyCFunction: 1440. The first parameter is typically named 'self' and will hold a reference to the module or object instance. In all cases the second parameter will be ‘NULL’. The function must have 2 parameters. Since the second parameter is unused, *note Py_UNUSED: 171c. can be used to prevent a compiler warning. -- C Macro: METH_O Methods with a single object argument can be listed with the *note METH_O: 14d3. flag, instead of invoking *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e. with a ‘"O"’ argument. They have the type *note PyCFunction: 1440, with the 'self' parameter, and a *note PyObject: 334.* parameter representing the single argument. These two constants are not used to indicate the calling convention but the binding when use with methods of classes. These may not be used for functions defined for modules. At most one of these flags may be set for any given method. -- C Macro: METH_CLASS The method will be passed the type object as the first parameter rather than an instance of the type. This is used to create 'class methods', similar to what is created when using the *note classmethod(): 166. built-in function. -- C Macro: METH_STATIC The method will be passed ‘NULL’ as the first parameter rather than an instance of the type. This is used to create 'static methods', similar to what is created when using the *note staticmethod(): 412. built-in function. One other constant controls whether a method is loaded in place of another definition with the same method name. -- C Macro: METH_COEXIST The method will be loaded in place of existing definitions. Without 'METH_COEXIST', the default is to skip repeated definitions. Since slot wrappers are loaded before the method table, the existence of a 'sq_contains' slot, for example, would generate a wrapped method named *note __contains__(): 1f5e. and preclude the loading of a corresponding PyCFunction with the same name. With the flag defined, the PyCFunction will be loaded in place of the wrapper object and will co-exist with the slot. This is helpful because calls to PyCFunctions are optimized more than wrapper object calls. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCMethod_New (PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module, PyTypeObject *cls) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Turn 'ml' into a Python *note callable: 28f7. object. The caller must ensure that 'ml' outlives the *note callable: 28f7. Typically, 'ml' is defined as a static variable. The 'self' parameter will be passed as the 'self' argument to the C function in ‘ml->ml_meth’ when invoked. 'self' can be ‘NULL’. The *note callable: 28f7. object’s ‘__module__’ attribute can be set from the given 'module' argument. 'module' should be a Python string, which will be used as name of the module the function is defined in. If unavailable, it can be set to *note None: 671. or ‘NULL’. See also ........ *note function.__module__: 1efe. The 'cls' parameter will be passed as the 'defining_class' argument to the C function. Must be set if *note METH_METHOD: 970. is set on ‘ml->ml_flags’. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCFunction_NewEx (PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self, PyObject *module) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, module, NULL)’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyCFunction_New (PyMethodDef *ml, PyObject *self) 'Return value: New reference.'' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.4.' Equivalent to ‘PyCMethod_New(ml, self, NULL, NULL)’.  File: python.info, Node: Accessing attributes of extension types, Prev: Implementing functions and methods, Up: Common Object Structures 7.12.2.3 Accessing attributes of extension types ................................................ -- C Type: type PyMemberDef ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Structure which describes an attribute of a type which corresponds to a C struct member. When defining a class, put a NULL-terminated array of these structures in the *note tp_members: 48eb. slot. Its fields are, in order: -- C Member: const char *name Name of the member. A NULL value marks the end of a ‘PyMemberDef[]’ array. The string should be static, no copy is made of it. -- C Member: int type The type of the member in the C struct. See *note Member types: 1673. for the possible values. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. offset The offset in bytes that the member is located on the type’s object struct. -- C Member: int flags Zero or more of the *note Member flags: 4e4e, combined using bitwise OR. -- C Member: const char *doc The docstring, or NULL. The string should be static, no copy is made of it. Typically, it is defined using *note PyDoc_STR: 180a. By default (when *note flags: 4904. is ‘0’), members allow both read and write access. Use the *note Py_READONLY: 58e. flag for read-only access. Certain types, like *note Py_T_STRING: 4e50, imply *note Py_READONLY: 58e. Only *note Py_T_OBJECT_EX: 591. (and legacy *note T_OBJECT: 590.) members can be deleted. For heap-allocated types (created using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. or similar), ‘PyMemberDef’ may contain a definition for the special member ‘"__vectorcalloffset__"’, corresponding to *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4baa. in type objects. These must be defined with ‘Py_T_PYSSIZET’ and ‘Py_READONLY’, for example: static PyMemberDef spam_type_members[] = { {"__vectorcalloffset__", Py_T_PYSSIZET, offsetof(Spam_object, vectorcall), Py_READONLY}, {NULL} /* Sentinel */ }; (You may need to ‘#include <stddef.h>’ for ‘offsetof()’.) The legacy offsets *note tp_dictoffset: 4c08. and *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988. can be defined similarly using ‘"__dictoffset__"’ and ‘"__weaklistoffset__"’ members, but extensions are strongly encouraged to use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. instead. Changed in version 3.12: ‘PyMemberDef’ is always available. Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyMember_GetOne (const char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Get an attribute belonging to the object at address 'obj_addr'. The attribute is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'. Returns ‘NULL’ on error. Changed in version 3.12: ‘PyMember_GetOne’ is always available. Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’. -- C Function: int PyMember_SetOne (char *obj_addr, struct PyMemberDef *m, PyObject *o) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set an attribute belonging to the object at address 'obj_addr' to object 'o'. The attribute to set is described by ‘PyMemberDef’ 'm'. Returns ‘0’ if successful and a negative value on failure. Changed in version 3.12: ‘PyMember_SetOne’ is always available. Previously, it required including ‘"structmember.h"’. * Menu: * Member flags:: * Member types:: * Defining Getters and Setters::  File: python.info, Node: Member flags, Next: Member types, Up: Accessing attributes of extension types 7.12.2.4 Member flags ..................... The following flags can be used with *note PyMemberDef.flags: 4904.: -- C Macro: Py_READONLY Not writable. -- C Macro: Py_AUDIT_READ Emit an ‘object.__getattr__’ *note audit event: 1870. before reading. -- C Macro: Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET Indicates that the *note offset: 4e4d. of this ‘PyMemberDef’ entry indicates an offset from the subclass-specific data, rather than from ‘PyObject’. Can only be used as part of *note Py_tp_members: 48eb. *note slot: 4a9b. when creating a class using negative *note basicsize: 545. It is mandatory in that case. This flag is only used in *note PyType_Slot: 4a9b. When setting *note tp_members: 48eb. during class creation, Python clears it and sets *note PyMemberDef.offset: 4e4d. to the offset from the ‘PyObject’ struct. Changed in version 3.10: The ‘RESTRICTED’, ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ macros available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ are deprecated. ‘READ_RESTRICTED’ and ‘RESTRICTED’ are equivalent to *note Py_AUDIT_READ: 58f.; ‘WRITE_RESTRICTED’ does nothing. Changed in version 3.12: The ‘READONLY’ macro was renamed to *note Py_READONLY: 58e. The ‘PY_AUDIT_READ’ macro was renamed with the ‘Py_’ prefix. The new names are now always available. Previously, these required ‘#include "structmember.h"’. The header is still available and it provides the old names.  File: python.info, Node: Member types, Next: Defining Getters and Setters, Prev: Member flags, Up: Accessing attributes of extension types 7.12.2.5 Member types ..................... *note PyMemberDef.type: 4903. can be one of the following macros corresponding to various C types. When the member is accessed in Python, it will be converted to the equivalent Python type. When it is set from Python, it will be converted back to the C type. If that is not possible, an exception such as *note TypeError: 534. or *note ValueError: 204. is raised. Unless marked (D), attributes defined this way cannot be deleted using e.g. *note del: 17a6. or *note delattr(): 2154. Macro name C type Python type -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Macro: Py_T_BYTE char *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_SHORT short *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_INT int *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_LONG long *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_LONGLONG long long *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_UBYTE unsigned char *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_UINT unsigned int *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_USHORT unsigned short *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_ULONG unsigned long *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_ULONGLONG unsigned long long *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_PYSSIZET *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note int: 259. -- C Macro: Py_T_FLOAT float *note float: 2f1. -- C Macro: Py_T_DOUBLE double *note float: 2f1. -- C Macro: Py_T_BOOL char (written as 0 or 1) *note bool: 463. -- C Macro: Py_T_STRING const char* (*) *note str: 447. (RO) -- C Macro: Py_T_STRING_INPLACE const char[] (*) *note str: 447. (RO) -- C Macro: Py_T_CHAR char (0-127) *note str: 447. (**) -- C Macro: Py_T_OBJECT_EX *note PyObject: 334.* *note object: a8c. (D) (*): Zero-terminated, UTF8-encoded C string. With ‘Py_T_STRING’ the C representation is a pointer; with ‘Py_T_STRING_INPLACE’ the string is stored directly in the structure. (**): String of length 1. Only ASCII is accepted. (RO): Implies *note Py_READONLY: 58e. (D): Can be deleted, in which case the pointer is set to ‘NULL’. Reading a ‘NULL’ pointer raises *note AttributeError: 348. Added in version 3.12: In previous versions, the macros were only available with ‘#include "structmember.h"’ and were named without the ‘Py_’ prefix (e.g. as ‘T_INT’). The header is still available and contains the old names, along with the following deprecated types: -- C Macro: T_OBJECT Like ‘Py_T_OBJECT_EX’, but ‘NULL’ is converted to ‘None’. This results in surprising behavior in Python: deleting the attribute effectively sets it to ‘None’. -- C Macro: T_NONE Always ‘None’. Must be used with *note Py_READONLY: 58e.  File: python.info, Node: Defining Getters and Setters, Prev: Member types, Up: Accessing attributes of extension types 7.12.2.6 Defining Getters and Setters ..................................... -- C Type: type PyGetSetDef ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. (including all members).' Structure to define property-like access for a type. See also description of the *note PyTypeObject.tp_getset: 48f0. slot. -- C Member: const char *name attribute name -- C Member: *note getter: 4af5. get C function to get the attribute. -- C Member: *note setter: 4b03. set Optional C function to set or delete the attribute. If ‘NULL’, the attribute is read-only. -- C Member: const char *doc optional docstring -- C Member: void *closure Optional user data pointer, providing additional data for getter and setter. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*getter)(*note PyObject: 334.*, void*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The ‘get’ function takes one *note PyObject: 334.* parameter (the instance) and a user data pointer (the associated ‘closure’): It should return a new reference on success or ‘NULL’ with a set exception on failure. -- C Type: typedef int (*setter)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, void*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' ‘set’ functions take two *note PyObject: 334.* parameters (the instance and the value to be set) and a user data pointer (the associated ‘closure’): In case the attribute should be deleted the second parameter is ‘NULL’. Should return ‘0’ on success or ‘-1’ with a set exception on failure.  File: python.info, Node: Type Object Structures, Next: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection, Prev: Common Object Structures, Up: Object Implementation Support 7.12.3 Type Object Structures ----------------------------- Perhaps one of the most important structures of the Python object system is the structure that defines a new type: the *note PyTypeObject: aa5. structure. Type objects can be handled using any of the ‘PyObject_*’ or ‘PyType_*’ functions, but do not offer much that’s interesting to most Python applications. These objects are fundamental to how objects behave, so they are very important to the interpreter itself and to any extension module that implements new types. Type objects are fairly large compared to most of the standard types. The reason for the size is that each type object stores a large number of values, mostly C function pointers, each of which implements a small part of the type’s functionality. The fields of the type object are examined in detail in this section. The fields will be described in the order in which they occur in the structure. In addition to the following quick reference, the *note Examples: 4e69. section provides at-a-glance insight into the meaning and use of *note PyTypeObject: aa5. * Menu: * Quick Reference:: * PyTypeObject Definition:: * PyObject Slots:: * PyVarObject Slots:: * PyTypeObject Slots:: * Static Types:: * Heap Types:: * Number Object Structures:: * Mapping Object Structures:: * Sequence Object Structures:: * Buffer Object Structures:: * Async Object Structures:: * Slot Type typedefs:: * Examples: Examples<38>.  File: python.info, Node: Quick Reference, Next: PyTypeObject Definition, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.1 Quick Reference ........................ * Menu: * “tp slots”:: * sub-slots:: * slot typedefs::  File: python.info, Node: “tp slots”, Next: sub-slots, Up: Quick Reference 7.12.3.2 “tp slots” ................... PyTypeObject Slot *note Type: 4e6d. special Info (1) methods/attrs (2) --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- O T D I <R> const char * __name__ X X *note tp_name: 18f2. *note tp_basicsize: 987.*note Py_ssize_t: a5f. X X X *note tp_itemsize: 1f70.*note Py_ssize_t: a5f. X X *note tp_dealloc: 48e8.*note destructor: 4af0. X X X *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4baa.*note Py_ssize_t: a5f. X X (*note tp_getattr: 4906.)*note getattrfunc: 4af1.__getattribute__, G __getattr__ (*note tp_setattr: 4907.)*note setattrfunc: 4b01.__setattr__, G __delattr__ *note tp_as_async: ec8.*note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06.*note sub-slots: 4e6e. % * *note tp_repr: 48fd. *note reprfunc: 4aff. __repr__ X X X *note tp_as_number: 98b.*note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.*note sub-slots: 4e6e. % * *note tp_as_sequence: 4e6f.*note PySequenceMethods: 490d.*note sub-slots: 4e6e. % * *note tp_as_mapping: 4e70.*note PyMappingMethods: 490e.*note sub-slots: 4e6e. % * *note tp_hash: 490f. *note hashfunc: 4af6. __hash__ X G *note tp_call: 556. *note ternaryfunc: 4b06.__call__ X X *note tp_str: 48fe. *note reprfunc: 4aff. __str__ X X *note tp_getattro: 16f2.*note getattrofunc: 4af2.__getattribute__, X X G __getattr__ *note tp_setattro: 4901.*note setattrofunc: 4b02.__setattr__, X X G __delattr__ *note tp_as_buffer: 989.*note PyBufferProcs: 4c0e.*note sub-slots: 4e6e. % * *note tp_flags: 18bd. unsigned long X X ? *note tp_doc: 48e4. const char * __doc__ X X *note tp_traverse: 779.*note traverseproc: 4b07. X G *note tp_clear: 48fb. *note inquiry: 4af8. X G *note tp_richcompare: 4909.*note richcmpfunc: 4b00.__lt__, __le__, X G __eq__, __ne__, __gt__, __ge__ (*note tp_weaklistoffset: 988.)*note Py_ssize_t: a5f. X ? *note tp_iter: 14b9. *note getiterfunc: 4af4.__iter__ X *note tp_iternext: 14ba.*note iternextfunc: 4af9.__next__ X *note tp_methods: 48ed.*note PyMethodDef: 14a2. X X [] *note tp_members: 48eb.*note PyMemberDef: 54c. X [] *note tp_getset: 48f0. *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. X X [] *note tp_base: 48f4. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.__base__ X * *note tp_dict: 171e. *note PyObject: 334. __dict__ ? * *note tp_descr_get: 4e71.*note descrgetfunc: 4aee.__get__ X *note tp_descr_set: 18f6.*note descrsetfunc: 4aef.__set__, __delete__ X (*note tp_dictoffset: 4c08.)*note Py_ssize_t: a5f. X ? *note tp_init: 57e. *note initproc: 4af7. __init__ X X X *note tp_alloc: 48ea. *note allocfunc: 4aec. X ? ? *note tp_new: 57c. *note newfunc: 4afb. __new__ X X ? ? *note tp_free: 48e9. *note freefunc: 4d15. X X ? ? *note tp_is_gc: 4e72. *note inquiry: 4af8. X X <*note tp_bases: 4e73.>*note PyObject: 334. __bases__ ~ * <*note tp_mro: 4c0b.> *note PyObject: 334. __mro__ ~ * [*note tp_cache: 4c0c.]*note PyObject: 334. * [*note tp_subclasses: 56f.]void * __subclasses__ [*note tp_weaklist: 4c0d.]*note PyObject: 334. * (*note tp_del: 4e74.) *note destructor: 4af0. [*note tp_version_tag: 4e75.]unsigned int *note tp_finalize: aa6.*note destructor: 4af0.__del__ X *note tp_vectorcall: 4c0a.*note vectorcallfunc: 554. [*note tp_watched: 4e76.]unsigned char ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) '()': A slot name in parentheses indicates it is (effectively) deprecated. '<>': Names in angle brackets should be initially set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only. '[]': Names in square brackets are for internal use only. '<R>' (as a prefix) means the field is required (must be non-‘NULL’). (2) Columns: '“O”': set on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. '“T”': set on *note PyType_Type: 54a. '“D”': default (if slot is set to ‘NULL’) X - PyType_Ready sets this value if it is NULL ~ - PyType_Ready always sets this value (it should be NULL) ? - PyType_Ready may set this value depending on other slots Also see the inheritance column ("I"). '“I”': inheritance X - type slot is inherited via *PyType_Ready* if defined with a *NULL* value % - the slots of the sub-struct are inherited individually G - inherited, but only in combination with other slots; see the slot's description ? - it's complicated; see the slot's description Note that some slots are effectively inherited through the normal attribute lookup chain.  File: python.info, Node: sub-slots, Next: slot typedefs, Prev: “tp slots”, Up: Quick Reference 7.12.3.3 sub-slots .................. Slot *note Type: 4e6d. special methods ---------------------------------------------------------------------- *note am_await: 4e78. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__await__ *note am_aiter: 4e79. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__aiter__ *note am_anext: 4e7a. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__anext__ *note am_send: 4e7b. *note sendfunc: 4e7c. *note nb_add: 4bff. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__add__ __radd__ *note nb_inplace_add: 4e7d. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__iadd__ *note nb_subtract: 4e7e. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__sub__ __rsub__ *note nb_inplace_subtract: 4e7f.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__isub__ *note nb_multiply: 4e80. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__mul__ __rmul__ *note nb_inplace_multiply: 4e81.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__imul__ *note nb_remainder: 4e82. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__mod__ __rmod__ *note nb_inplace_remainder: 4e83.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__imod__ *note nb_divmod: 4e84. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__divmod__ __rdivmod__ *note nb_power: 4e85. *note ternaryfunc: 4b06.__pow__ __rpow__ *note nb_inplace_power: 4e86. *note ternaryfunc: 4b06.__ipow__ *note nb_negative: 4e87. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__neg__ *note nb_positive: 4e88. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__pos__ *note nb_absolute: 4e89. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__abs__ *note nb_bool: 4e8a. *note inquiry: 4af8. __bool__ *note nb_invert: 4e8b. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__invert__ *note nb_lshift: 4e8c. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__lshift__ __rlshift__ *note nb_inplace_lshift: 4e8d. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__ilshift__ *note nb_rshift: 4e8e. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__rshift__ __rrshift__ *note nb_inplace_rshift: 4e8f. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__irshift__ *note nb_and: 4e90. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__and__ __rand__ *note nb_inplace_and: 4e91. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__iand__ *note nb_xor: 4e92. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__xor__ __rxor__ *note nb_inplace_xor: 4e93. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__ixor__ *note nb_or: 4e94. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__or__ __ror__ *note nb_inplace_or: 4e95. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__ior__ *note nb_int: 4e96. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__int__ *note nb_reserved: 4e97. void * *note nb_float: 4e98. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__float__ *note nb_floor_divide: 4e99. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__floordiv__ *note nb_inplace_floor_divide: 4e9a.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__ifloordiv__ *note nb_true_divide: 4e9b. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__truediv__ *note nb_inplace_true_divide: 4e9c.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__itruediv__ *note nb_index: 13e8. *note unaryfunc: 4b08.__index__ *note nb_matrix_multiply: 4e9d.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__matmul__ __rmatmul__ *note nb_inplace_matrix_multiply: 4e9e.*note binaryfunc: 4aed.__imatmul__ *note mp_length: 4e9f. *note lenfunc: 4afa. __len__ *note mp_subscript: 192d. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__getitem__ *note mp_ass_subscript: 4ea0. *note objobjargproc: 4afc.__setitem__, __delitem__ *note sq_length: 4c07. *note lenfunc: 4afa. __len__ *note sq_concat: 4ea1. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__add__ *note sq_repeat: 4ea2. *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04.__mul__ *note sq_item: 192c. *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04.__getitem__ *note sq_ass_item: 4ea3. *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b05.__setitem__ __delitem__ *note sq_contains: 4ea4. *note objobjproc: 4afd.__contains__ *note sq_inplace_concat: 4ea5. *note binaryfunc: 4aed.__iadd__ *note sq_inplace_repeat: 4ea6. *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04.__imul__ *note bf_getbuffer: 75d. *note getbufferproc(): 4af3.__buffer__ *note bf_releasebuffer: 75e. *note releasebufferproc(): 4afe.__release_buffer__  File: python.info, Node: slot typedefs, Prev: sub-slots, Up: Quick Reference 7.12.3.4 slot typedefs ...................... typedef Parameter Types Return Type ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note allocfunc: 4aec. *note PyTypeObject: aa5. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note destructor: 4af0. *note PyObject: 334. * void *note freefunc: 4d15. void * void *note traverseproc: 4b07. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note visitproc: 4b09. void * *note newfunc: 4afb. *note PyTypeObject: aa5. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note initproc: 4af7. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note reprfunc: 4aff. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note getattrfunc: 4af1. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * const char * *note setattrfunc: 4b01. *note PyObject: 334. * int const char * *note PyObject: 334. * *note getattrofunc: 4af2. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note setattrofunc: 4b02. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note descrgetfunc: 4aee. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note descrsetfunc: 4aef. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note hashfunc: 4af6. *note PyObject: 334. * Py_hash_t *note richcmpfunc: 4b00. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * int *note getiterfunc: 4af4. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note iternextfunc: 4af9. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note lenfunc: 4afa. *note PyObject: 334. * *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note getbufferproc: 4af3. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note Py_buffer: 753. * int *note releasebufferproc: 4afe. *note PyObject: 334. * void *note Py_buffer: 753. * *note inquiry: 4af8. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note ternaryfunc: 4b06. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04. *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b05. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyObject: 334. * *note objobjproc: 4afd. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note PyObject: 334. * *note objobjargproc: 4afc. *note PyObject: 334. * int *note PyObject: 334. * *note PyObject: 334. * See *note Slot Type typedefs: 4ea8. below for more detail.  File: python.info, Node: PyTypeObject Definition, Next: PyObject Slots, Prev: Quick Reference, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.5 PyTypeObject Definition ................................ The structure definition for *note PyTypeObject: aa5. can be found in ‘Include/cpython/object.h’. For convenience of reference, this repeats the definition found there: typedef struct _typeobject { PyObject_VAR_HEAD const char *tp_name; /* For printing, in format "<module>.<name>" */ Py_ssize_t tp_basicsize, tp_itemsize; /* For allocation */ /* Methods to implement standard operations */ destructor tp_dealloc; Py_ssize_t tp_vectorcall_offset; getattrfunc tp_getattr; setattrfunc tp_setattr; PyAsyncMethods *tp_as_async; /* formerly known as tp_compare (Python 2) or tp_reserved (Python 3) */ reprfunc tp_repr; /* Method suites for standard classes */ PyNumberMethods *tp_as_number; PySequenceMethods *tp_as_sequence; PyMappingMethods *tp_as_mapping; /* More standard operations (here for binary compatibility) */ hashfunc tp_hash; ternaryfunc tp_call; reprfunc tp_str; getattrofunc tp_getattro; setattrofunc tp_setattro; /* Functions to access object as input/output buffer */ PyBufferProcs *tp_as_buffer; /* Flags to define presence of optional/expanded features */ unsigned long tp_flags; const char *tp_doc; /* Documentation string */ /* Assigned meaning in release 2.0 */ /* call function for all accessible objects */ traverseproc tp_traverse; /* delete references to contained objects */ inquiry tp_clear; /* Assigned meaning in release 2.1 */ /* rich comparisons */ richcmpfunc tp_richcompare; /* weak reference enabler */ Py_ssize_t tp_weaklistoffset; /* Iterators */ getiterfunc tp_iter; iternextfunc tp_iternext; /* Attribute descriptor and subclassing stuff */ struct PyMethodDef *tp_methods; struct PyMemberDef *tp_members; struct PyGetSetDef *tp_getset; // Strong reference on a heap type, borrowed reference on a static type struct _typeobject *tp_base; PyObject *tp_dict; descrgetfunc tp_descr_get; descrsetfunc tp_descr_set; Py_ssize_t tp_dictoffset; initproc tp_init; allocfunc tp_alloc; newfunc tp_new; freefunc tp_free; /* Low-level free-memory routine */ inquiry tp_is_gc; /* For PyObject_IS_GC */ PyObject *tp_bases; PyObject *tp_mro; /* method resolution order */ PyObject *tp_cache; PyObject *tp_subclasses; PyObject *tp_weaklist; destructor tp_del; /* Type attribute cache version tag. Added in version 2.6 */ unsigned int tp_version_tag; destructor tp_finalize; vectorcallfunc tp_vectorcall; /* bitset of which type-watchers care about this type */ unsigned char tp_watched; } PyTypeObject;  File: python.info, Node: PyObject Slots, Next: PyVarObject Slots, Prev: PyTypeObject Definition, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.6 PyObject Slots ....................... The type object structure extends the *note PyVarObject: 416a. structure. The *note ob_size: 4ada. field is used for dynamic types (created by ‘type_new()’, usually called from a class statement). Note that *note PyType_Type: 54a. (the metatype) initializes *note tp_itemsize: 1f70, which means that its instances (i.e. type objects) 'must' have the *note ob_size: 4ada. field. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyObject: 334.ob_refcnt ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the type object’s reference count, initialized to ‘1’ by the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro. Note that for *note statically allocated type objects: 77a, the type’s instances (objects whose *note ob_type: 48e6. points back to the type) do 'not' count as references. But for *note dynamically allocated type objects: 965, the instances 'do' count as references. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. **note PyObject: 334.ob_type ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' This is the type’s type, in other words its metatype. It is initialized by the argument to the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro, and its value should normally be ‘&PyType_Type’. However, for dynamically loadable extension modules that must be usable on Windows (at least), the compiler complains that this is not a valid initializer. Therefore, the convention is to pass ‘NULL’ to the ‘PyObject_HEAD_INIT’ macro and to initialize this field explicitly at the start of the module’s initialization function, before doing anything else. This is typically done like this: Foo_Type.ob_type = &PyType_Type; This should be done before any instances of the type are created. *note PyType_Ready(): 777. checks if *note ob_type: 48e6. is ‘NULL’, and if so, initializes it to the *note ob_type: 48e6. field of the base class. *note PyType_Ready(): 777. will not change this field if it is non-zero. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes.  File: python.info, Node: PyVarObject Slots, Next: PyTypeObject Slots, Prev: PyObject Slots, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.7 PyVarObject Slots .......................... -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyVarObject: 416a.ob_size ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' For *note statically allocated type objects: 77a, this should be initialized to zero. For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 965, this field has a special internal meaning. This field should be accessed using the *note Py_SIZE(): 77d. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77e. macros. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes.  File: python.info, Node: PyTypeObject Slots, Next: Static Types, Prev: PyVarObject Slots, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.8 PyTypeObject Slots ........................... Each slot has a section describing inheritance. If *note PyType_Ready(): 777. may set a value when the field is set to ‘NULL’ then there will also be a “Default” section. (Note that many fields set on *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. and *note PyType_Type: 54a. effectively act as defaults.) -- C Member: const char **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_name Pointer to a NUL-terminated string containing the name of the type. For types that are accessible as module globals, the string should be the full module name, followed by a dot, followed by the type name; for built-in types, it should be just the type name. If the module is a submodule of a package, the full package name is part of the full module name. For example, a type named ‘T’ defined in module ‘M’ in subpackage ‘Q’ in package ‘P’ should have the *note tp_name: 18f2. initializer ‘"P.Q.M.T"’. For *note dynamically allocated type objects: 965, this should just be the type name, and the module name explicitly stored in the type dict as the value for key ‘'__module__'’. For *note statically allocated type objects: 77a, the 'tp_name' field should contain a dot. Everything before the last dot is made accessible as the *note __module__: 36f. attribute, and everything after the last dot is made accessible as the *note __name__: 1474. attribute. If no dot is present, the entire *note tp_name: 18f2. field is made accessible as the *note __name__: 1474. attribute, and the *note __module__: 36f. attribute is undefined (unless explicitly set in the dictionary, as explained above). This means your type will be impossible to pickle. Additionally, it will not be listed in module documentations created with pydoc. This field must not be ‘NULL’. It is the only required field in *note PyTypeObject(): aa5. (other than potentially *note tp_itemsize: 1f70.). 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_basicsize -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_itemsize These fields allow calculating the size in bytes of instances of the type. There are two kinds of types: types with fixed-length instances have a zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field, types with variable-length instances have a non-zero ‘tp_itemsize’ field. For a type with fixed-length instances, all instances have the same size, given in ‘tp_basicsize’. (Exceptions to this rule can be made using *note PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData(): 1738.) For a type with variable-length instances, the instances must have an *note ob_size: 4ada. field, and the instance size is ‘tp_basicsize’ plus N times ‘tp_itemsize’, where N is the “length” of the object. Functions like *note PyObject_NewVar(): 986. will take the value of N as an argument, and store in the instance’s *note ob_size: 4ada. field. Note that the *note ob_size: 4ada. field may later be used for other purposes. For example, *note int: 259. instances use the bits of *note ob_size: 4ada. in an implementation-defined way; the underlying storage and its size should be accessed using ‘PyLong_Export()’. Note: The *note ob_size: 4ada. field should be accessed using the *note Py_SIZE(): 77d. and *note Py_SET_SIZE(): 77e. macros. Also, the presence of an *note ob_size: 4ada. field in the instance layout doesn’t mean that the instance structure is variable-length. For example, the *note list: 60d. type has fixed-length instances, yet those instances have a *note ob_size: 4ada. field. (As with *note int: 259, avoid reading lists’ ‘ob_size’ directly. Call *note PyList_Size(): 13e5. instead.) The ‘tp_basicsize’ includes size needed for data of the type’s *note tp_base: 48f4, plus any extra data needed by each instance. The correct way to set ‘tp_basicsize’ is to use the ‘sizeof’ operator on the struct used to declare the instance layout. This struct must include the struct used to declare the base type. In other words, ‘tp_basicsize’ must be greater than or equal to the base’s ‘tp_basicsize’. Since every type is a subtype of *note object: a8c, this struct must include *note PyObject: 334. or *note PyVarObject: 416a. (depending on whether *note ob_size: 4ada. should be included). These are usually defined by the macro *note PyObject_HEAD: 12d1. or *note PyObject_VAR_HEAD: 4e42, respectively. The basic size does not include the GC header size, as that header is not part of *note PyObject_HEAD: 12d1. For cases where struct used to declare the base type is unknown, see *note PyType_Spec.basicsize: 545. and *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54d. Notes about alignment: - ‘tp_basicsize’ must be a multiple of ‘_Alignof(PyObject)’. When using ‘sizeof’ on a ‘struct’ that includes *note PyObject_HEAD: 12d1, as recommended, the compiler ensures this. When not using a C ‘struct’, or when using compiler extensions like ‘__attribute__((packed))’, it is up to you. - If the variable items require a particular alignment, ‘tp_basicsize’ and ‘tp_itemsize’ must each be a multiple of that alignment. For example, if a type’s variable part stores a ‘double’, it is your responsibility that both fields are a multiple of ‘_Alignof(double)’. 'Inheritance:' These fields are inherited separately by subtypes. (That is, if the field is set to zero, *note PyType_Ready(): 777. will copy the value from the base type, indicating that the instances do not need additional storage.) If the base type has a non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1f70, it is generally not safe to set *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. to a different non-zero value in a subtype (though this depends on the implementation of the base type). -- C Member: *note destructor: 4af0. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_dealloc A pointer to the instance destructor function. This function must be defined unless the type guarantees that its instances will never be deallocated (as is the case for the singletons ‘None’ and ‘Ellipsis’). The function signature is: void tp_dealloc(PyObject *self); The destructor function is called by the *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. and *note Py_XDECREF(): 78a. macros when the new reference count is zero. At this point, the instance is still in existence, but there are no references to it. The destructor function should free all references which the instance owns, free all memory buffers owned by the instance (using the freeing function corresponding to the allocation function used to allocate the buffer), and call the type’s *note tp_free: 48e9. function. If the type is not subtypable (doesn’t have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE: 48ee. flag bit set), it is permissible to call the object deallocator directly instead of via *note tp_free: 48e9. The object deallocator should be the one used to allocate the instance; this is normally *note PyObject_Del(): 149c. if the instance was allocated using *note PyObject_New: 985. or *note PyObject_NewVar: 986, or *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cf. if the instance was allocated using *note PyObject_GC_New: aa2. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: aa3. If the type supports garbage collection (has the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit set), the destructor should call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. before clearing any member fields. static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self); Py_CLEAR(self->ref); Py_TYPE(self)->tp_free((PyObject *)self); } Finally, if the type is heap allocated (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ae.), the deallocator should release the owned reference to its type object (via *note Py_DECREF(): 56c.) after calling the type deallocator. In order to avoid dangling pointers, the recommended way to achieve this is: static void foo_dealloc(foo_object *self) { PyTypeObject *tp = Py_TYPE(self); // free references and buffers here tp->tp_free(self); Py_DECREF(tp); } Warning: In a garbage collected Python, ‘tp_dealloc’ may be called from any Python thread, not just the thread which created the object (if the object becomes part of a refcount cycle, that cycle might be collected by a garbage collection on any thread). This is not a problem for Python API calls, since the thread on which ‘tp_dealloc’ is called will own the Global Interpreter Lock (GIL). However, if the object being destroyed in turn destroys objects from some other C or C++ library, care should be taken to ensure that destroying those objects on the thread which called ‘tp_dealloc’ will not violate any assumptions of the library. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_vectorcall_offset An optional offset to a per-instance function that implements calling the object using the *note vectorcall protocol: 54f, a more efficient alternative of the simpler *note tp_call: 556. This field is only used if the flag *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. is set. If so, this must be a positive integer containing the offset in the instance of a *note vectorcallfunc: 554. pointer. The 'vectorcallfunc' pointer may be ‘NULL’, in which case the instance behaves as if *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. was not set: calling the instance falls back to *note tp_call: 556. Any class that sets ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL’ must also set *note tp_call: 556. and make sure its behaviour is consistent with the 'vectorcallfunc' function. This can be done by setting 'tp_call' to *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 553. Changed in version 3.8: Before version 3.8, this slot was named ‘tp_print’. In Python 2.x, it was used for printing to a file. In Python 3.0 to 3.7, it was unused. Changed in version 3.12: Before version 3.12, it was not recommended for *note mutable heap types: 965. to implement the vectorcall protocol. When a user sets *note __call__: 555. in Python code, only 'tp_call' is updated, likely making it inconsistent with the vectorcall function. Since 3.12, setting ‘__call__’ will disable vectorcall optimization by clearing the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. flag. 'Inheritance:' This field is always inherited. However, the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL: 551. flag is not always inherited. If it’s not set, then the subclass won’t use *note vectorcall: 54f, except when *note PyVectorcall_Call(): 553. is explicitly called. -- C Member: *note getattrfunc: 4af1. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_getattr An optional pointer to the get-attribute-string function. This field is deprecated. When it is defined, it should point to a function that acts the same as the *note tp_getattro: 16f2. function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note tp_getattr: 4906, *note tp_getattro: 16f2. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_getattro: 16f2.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 4906. and *note tp_getattro: 16f2. from its base type when the subtype’s *note tp_getattr: 4906. and *note tp_getattro: 16f2. are both ‘NULL’. -- C Member: *note setattrfunc: 4b01. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_setattr An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes. This field is deprecated. When it is defined, it should point to a function that acts the same as the *note tp_setattro: 4901. function, but taking a C string instead of a Python string object to give the attribute name. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note tp_setattr: 4907, *note tp_setattro: 4901. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_setattro: 4901.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 4907. and *note tp_setattro: 4901. from its base type when the subtype’s *note tp_setattr: 4907. and *note tp_setattro: 4901. are both ‘NULL’. -- C Member: *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_as_async Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement *note awaitable: 1ad. and *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. protocols at the C-level. See *note Async Object Structures: 4ead. for details. Added in version 3.5: Formerly known as ‘tp_compare’ and ‘tp_reserved’. 'Inheritance:' The *note tp_as_async: ec8. field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually. -- C Member: *note reprfunc: 4aff. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_repr An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function *note repr(): 7f9. The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028.: PyObject *tp_repr(PyObject *self); The function must return a string or a Unicode object. Ideally, this function should return a string that, when passed to *note eval(): 180, given a suitable environment, returns an object with the same value. If this is not feasible, it should return a string starting with ‘'<'’ and ending with ‘'>'’ from which both the type and the value of the object can be deduced. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. 'Default:' When this field is not set, a string of the form ‘<%s object at %p>’ is returned, where ‘%s’ is replaced by the type name, and ‘%p’ by the object’s memory address. -- C Member: *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_as_number Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the number protocol. These fields are documented in *note Number Object Structures: 4eae. 'Inheritance:' The *note tp_as_number: 98b. field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually. -- C Member: *note PySequenceMethods: 490d. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_as_sequence Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the sequence protocol. These fields are documented in *note Sequence Object Structures: 4eaf. 'Inheritance:' The *note tp_as_sequence: 4e6f. field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually. -- C Member: *note PyMappingMethods: 490e. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_as_mapping Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the mapping protocol. These fields are documented in *note Mapping Object Structures: 4eb0. 'Inheritance:' The *note tp_as_mapping: 4e70. field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually. -- C Member: *note hashfunc: 4af6. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_hash An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in function *note hash(): 5e7. The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff.: Py_hash_t tp_hash(PyObject *); The value ‘-1’ should not be returned as a normal return value; when an error occurs during the computation of the hash value, the function should set an exception and return ‘-1’. When this field is not set ('and' *note tp_richcompare: 4909. is not set), an attempt to take the hash of the object raises *note TypeError: 534. This is the same as setting it to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1392. This field can be set explicitly to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1392. to block inheritance of the hash method from a parent type. This is interpreted as the equivalent of ‘__hash__ = None’ at the Python level, causing ‘isinstance(o, collections.Hashable)’ to correctly return ‘False’. Note that the converse is also true - setting ‘__hash__ = None’ on a class at the Python level will result in the ‘tp_hash’ slot being set to *note PyObject_HashNotImplemented(): 1392. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note tp_hash: 490f, *note tp_richcompare: 4909. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_richcompare: 4909.: a subtype inherits both of *note tp_richcompare: 4909. and *note tp_hash: 490f, when the subtype’s *note tp_richcompare: 4909. and *note tp_hash: 490f. are both ‘NULL’. 'Default:' *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. uses *note PyObject_GenericHash(): 362. -- C Member: *note ternaryfunc: 4b06. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_call An optional pointer to a function that implements calling the object. This should be ‘NULL’ if the object is not callable. The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Call(): 398.: PyObject *tp_call(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwargs); 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note reprfunc: 4aff. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_str An optional pointer to a function that implements the built-in operation *note str(): 447. (Note that *note str: 447. is a type now, and *note str(): 447. calls the constructor for that type. This constructor calls *note PyObject_Str(): 1029. to do the actual work, and *note PyObject_Str(): 1029. will call this handler.) The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_Str(): 1029.: PyObject *tp_str(PyObject *self); The function must return a string or a Unicode object. It should be a “friendly” string representation of the object, as this is the representation that will be used, among other things, by the *note print(): f70. function. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. 'Default:' When this field is not set, *note PyObject_Repr(): 1028. is called to return a string representation. -- C Member: *note getattrofunc: 4af2. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_getattro An optional pointer to the get-attribute function. The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346.: PyObject *tp_getattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr); It is usually convenient to set this field to *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a5f, which implements the normal way of looking for object attributes. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note tp_getattr: 4906, *note tp_getattro: 16f2. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_getattr: 4906.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_getattr: 4906. and *note tp_getattro: 16f2. from its base type when the subtype’s *note tp_getattr: 4906. and *note tp_getattro: 16f2. are both ‘NULL’. 'Default:' *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. uses *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a5f. -- C Member: *note setattrofunc: 4b02. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_setattro An optional pointer to the function for setting and deleting attributes. The signature is the same as for *note PyObject_SetAttr(): 4a68.: int tp_setattro(PyObject *self, PyObject *attr, PyObject *value); In addition, setting 'value' to ‘NULL’ to delete an attribute must be supported. It is usually convenient to set this field to *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4a60, which implements the normal way of setting object attributes. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note tp_setattr: 4907, *note tp_setattro: 4901. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_setattr: 4907.: a subtype inherits both *note tp_setattr: 4907. and *note tp_setattro: 4901. from its base type when the subtype’s *note tp_setattr: 4907. and *note tp_setattro: 4901. are both ‘NULL’. 'Default:' *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. uses *note PyObject_GenericSetAttr(): 4a60. -- C Member: *note PyBufferProcs: 4c0e. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_as_buffer Pointer to an additional structure that contains fields relevant only to objects which implement the buffer interface. These fields are documented in *note Buffer Object Structures: 4bca. 'Inheritance:' The *note tp_as_buffer: 989. field is not inherited, but the contained fields are inherited individually. -- C Member: unsigned long *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_flags This field is a bit mask of various flags. Some flags indicate variant semantics for certain situations; others are used to indicate that certain fields in the type object (or in the extension structures referenced via *note tp_as_number: 98b, *note tp_as_sequence: 4e6f, *note tp_as_mapping: 4e70, and *note tp_as_buffer: 989.) that were historically not always present are valid; if such a flag bit is clear, the type fields it guards must not be accessed and must be considered to have a zero or ‘NULL’ value instead. 'Inheritance:' Inheritance of this field is complicated. Most flag bits are inherited individually, i.e. if the base type has a flag bit set, the subtype inherits this flag bit. The flag bits that pertain to extension structures are strictly inherited if the extension structure is inherited, i.e. the base type’s value of the flag bit is copied into the subtype together with a pointer to the extension structure. The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit is inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 779. and *note tp_clear: 48fb. fields, i.e. if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 779. and *note tp_clear: 48fb. fields in the subtype exist and have ‘NULL’ values. .. XXX are most flag bits 'really' inherited individually? 'Default:' *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. uses ‘Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE’. 'Bit Masks:' The following bit masks are currently defined; these can be ORed together using the ‘|’ operator to form the value of the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field. The macro *note PyType_HasFeature(): 1953. takes a type and a flags value, 'tp' and 'f', and checks whether ‘tp->tp_flags & f’ is non-zero. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE This bit is set when the type object itself is allocated on the heap, for example, types created dynamically using *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. In this case, the *note ob_type: 48e6. field of its instances is considered a reference to the type, and the type object is INCREF’ed when a new instance is created, and DECREF’ed when an instance is destroyed (this does not apply to instances of subtypes; only the type referenced by the instance’s ob_type gets INCREF’ed or DECREF’ed). Heap types should also *note support garbage collection: 4eb1. as they can form a reference cycle with their own module object. 'Inheritance:' ??? -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE This bit is set when the type can be used as the base type of another type. If this bit is clear, the type cannot be subtyped (similar to a “final” class in Java). 'Inheritance:' ??? -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_READY This bit is set when the type object has been fully initialized by *note PyType_Ready(): 777. 'Inheritance:' ??? -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_READYING This bit is set while *note PyType_Ready(): 777. is in the process of initializing the type object. 'Inheritance:' ??? -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC This bit is set when the object supports garbage collection. If this bit is set, instances must be created using *note PyObject_GC_New: aa2. and destroyed using *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cf. More information in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4eb1. This bit also implies that the GC-related fields *note tp_traverse: 779. and *note tp_clear: 48fb. are present in the type object. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778, *note tp_traverse: 779, *note tp_clear: 48fb. The *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit is inherited together with the *note tp_traverse: 779. and *note tp_clear: 48fb. fields, i.e. if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit is clear in the subtype and the *note tp_traverse: 779. and *note tp_clear: 48fb. fields in the subtype exist and have ‘NULL’ values. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT This is a bitmask of all the bits that pertain to the existence of certain fields in the type object and its extension structures. Currently, it includes the following bits: ‘Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_STACKLESS_EXTENSION’. 'Inheritance:' ??? -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR This bit indicates that objects behave like unbound methods. If this flag is set for ‘type(meth)’, then: - ‘meth.__get__(obj, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ (with ‘obj’ not None) must be equivalent to ‘meth(obj, *args, **kwds)’. - ‘meth.__get__(None, cls)(*args, **kwds)’ must be equivalent to ‘meth(*args, **kwds)’. This flag enables an optimization for typical method calls like ‘obj.meth()’: it avoids creating a temporary “bound method” object for ‘obj.meth’. Added in version 3.8. 'Inheritance:' This flag is never inherited by types without the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be. flag set. For extension types, it is inherited whenever *note tp_descr_get: 4e71. is inherited. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT This bit indicates that instances of the class have a *note __dict__: 558. attribute, and that the space for the dictionary is managed by the VM. If this flag is set, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. should also be set. The type traverse function must call *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 364. and its clear function must call *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 365. Added in version 3.12. 'Inheritance:' This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_dictoffset: 4c08. field is set in a superclass. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF This bit indicates that instances of the class should be weakly referenceable. Added in version 3.12. 'Inheritance:' This flag is inherited unless the *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988. field is set in a superclass. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END Only usable with variable-size types, i.e. ones with non-zero *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. Indicates that the variable-sized portion of an instance of this type is at the end of the instance’s memory area, at an offset of ‘Py_TYPE(obj)->tp_basicsize’ (which may be different in each subclass). When setting this flag, be sure that all superclasses either use this memory layout, or are not variable-sized. Python does not check this. Added in version 3.12. 'Inheritance:' This flag is inherited. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS These flags are used by functions such as *note PyLong_Check(): 4c18. to quickly determine if a type is a subclass of a built-in type; such specific checks are faster than a generic check, like *note PyObject_IsInstance(): e9f. Custom types that inherit from built-ins should have their *note tp_flags: 18bd. set appropriately, or the code that interacts with such types will behave differently depending on what kind of check is used. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE This bit is set when the *note tp_finalize: aa6. slot is present in the type structure. Added in version 3.4. Deprecated since version 3.8: This flag isn’t necessary anymore, as the interpreter assumes the *note tp_finalize: aa6. slot is always present in the type structure. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL This bit is set when the class implements the *note vectorcall protocol: 54f. See *note tp_vectorcall_offset: 4baa. for details. 'Inheritance:' This bit is inherited if *note tp_call: 556. is also inherited. Added in version 3.9. Changed in version 3.12: This flag is now removed from a class when the class’s *note __call__(): 555. method is reassigned. This flag can now be inherited by mutable classes. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE This bit is set for type objects that are immutable: type attributes cannot be set nor deleted. *note PyType_Ready(): 777. automatically applies this flag to *note static types: 77a. 'Inheritance:' This flag is not inherited. Added in version 3.10. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION Disallow creating instances of the type: set *note tp_new: 57c. to NULL and don’t create the ‘__new__’ key in the type dictionary. The flag must be set before creating the type, not after. For example, it must be set before *note PyType_Ready(): 777. is called on the type. The flag is set automatically on *note static types: 77a. if *note tp_base: 48f4. is NULL or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ and *note tp_new: 57c. is NULL. 'Inheritance:' This flag is not inherited. However, subclasses will not be instantiable unless they provide a non-NULL *note tp_new: 57c. (which is only possible via the C API). Note: To disallow instantiating a class directly but allow instantiating its subclasses (e.g. for an *note abstract base class: 11a8.), do not use this flag. Instead, make *note tp_new: 57c. only succeed for subclasses. Added in version 3.10. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING This bit indicates that instances of the class may match mapping patterns when used as the subject of a *note match: 809. block. It is automatically set when registering or subclassing *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9, and unset when registering *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b6. Note: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18a3. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18a4. are mutually exclusive; it is an error to enable both flags simultaneously. 'Inheritance:' This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18a4. See also ........ PEP 634(1) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification Added in version 3.10. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE This bit indicates that instances of the class may match sequence patterns when used as the subject of a *note match: 809. block. It is automatically set when registering or subclassing *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b6, and unset when registering *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9. Note: *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18a3. and *note Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE: 18a4. are mutually exclusive; it is an error to enable both flags simultaneously. 'Inheritance:' This flag is inherited by types that do not already set *note Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING: 18a3. See also ........ PEP 634(2) – Structural Pattern Matching: Specification Added in version 3.10. -- C Macro: Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG Internal. Do not set or unset this flag. To indicate that a class has changed call *note PyType_Modified(): 17f1. Warning: This flag is present in header files, but is not be used. It will be removed in a future version of CPython -- C Member: const char **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_doc An optional pointer to a NUL-terminated C string giving the docstring for this type object. This is exposed as the *note __doc__: 1cac. attribute on the type and instances of the type. 'Inheritance:' This field is 'not' inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note traverseproc: 4b07. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_traverse An optional pointer to a traversal function for the garbage collector. This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit is set. The signature is: int tp_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg); More information about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4eb1. The *note tp_traverse: 779. pointer is used by the garbage collector to detect reference cycles. A typical implementation of a *note tp_traverse: 779. function simply calls *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2. on each of the instance’s members that are Python objects that the instance owns. For example, this is function ‘local_traverse()’ from the ‘_thread’ extension module: static int local_traverse(localobject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { Py_VISIT(self->args); Py_VISIT(self->kw); Py_VISIT(self->dict); return 0; } Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2. is called only on those members that can participate in reference cycles. Although there is also a ‘self->key’ member, it can only be ‘NULL’ or a Python string and therefore cannot be part of a reference cycle. On the other hand, even if you know a member can never be part of a cycle, as a debugging aid you may want to visit it anyway just so the *note gc: 60. module’s *note get_referents(): 801. function will include it. Heap types (*note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ae.) must visit their type with: Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self)); It is only needed since Python 3.9. To support Python 3.8 and older, this line must be conditional: #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x03090000 Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self)); #endif If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. bit is set in the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field, the traverse function must call *note PyObject_VisitManagedDict(): 364. like this: PyObject_VisitManagedDict((PyObject*)self, visit, arg); Warning: When implementing *note tp_traverse: 779, only the members that the instance 'owns' (by having *note strong references: 338. to them) must be visited. For instance, if an object supports weak references via the *note tp_weaklist: 4c0d. slot, the pointer supporting the linked list (what 'tp_weaklist' points to) must 'not' be visited as the instance does not directly own the weak references to itself (the weakreference list is there to support the weak reference machinery, but the instance has no strong reference to the elements inside it, as they are allowed to be removed even if the instance is still alive). Note that *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2. requires the 'visit' and 'arg' parameters to ‘local_traverse()’ to have these specific names; don’t name them just anything. Instances of *note heap-allocated types: 965. hold a reference to their type. Their traversal function must therefore either visit *note Py_TYPE(self): 77b, or delegate this responsibility by calling ‘tp_traverse’ of another heap-allocated type (such as a heap-allocated superclass). If they do not, the type object may not be garbage-collected. Changed in version 3.9: Heap-allocated types are expected to visit ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ in ‘tp_traverse’. In earlier versions of Python, due to bug 40217(3), doing this may lead to crashes in subclasses. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778, *note tp_traverse: 779, *note tp_clear: 48fb. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_clear: 48fb. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit: the flag bit, *note tp_traverse: 779, and *note tp_clear: 48fb. are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype. -- C Member: *note inquiry: 4af8. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_clear An optional pointer to a clear function for the garbage collector. This is only used if the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit is set. The signature is: int tp_clear(PyObject *); The *note tp_clear: 48fb. member function is used to break reference cycles in cyclic garbage detected by the garbage collector. Taken together, all *note tp_clear: 48fb. functions in the system must combine to break all reference cycles. This is subtle, and if in any doubt supply a *note tp_clear: 48fb. function. For example, the tuple type does not implement a *note tp_clear: 48fb. function, because it’s possible to prove that no reference cycle can be composed entirely of tuples. Therefore the *note tp_clear: 48fb. functions of other types must be sufficient to break any cycle containing a tuple. This isn’t immediately obvious, and there’s rarely a good reason to avoid implementing *note tp_clear: 48fb. Implementations of *note tp_clear: 48fb. should drop the instance’s references to those of its members that may be Python objects, and set its pointers to those members to ‘NULL’, as in the following example: static int local_clear(localobject *self) { Py_CLEAR(self->key); Py_CLEAR(self->args); Py_CLEAR(self->kw); Py_CLEAR(self->dict); return 0; } The *note Py_CLEAR(): 575. macro should be used, because clearing references is delicate: the reference to the contained object must not be released (via *note Py_DECREF(): 56c.) until after the pointer to the contained object is set to ‘NULL’. This is because releasing the reference may cause the contained object to become trash, triggering a chain of reclamation activity that may include invoking arbitrary Python code (due to finalizers, or weakref callbacks, associated with the contained object). If it’s possible for such code to reference 'self' again, it’s important that the pointer to the contained object be ‘NULL’ at that time, so that 'self' knows the contained object can no longer be used. The *note Py_CLEAR(): 575. macro performs the operations in a safe order. If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. bit is set in the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field, the traverse function must call *note PyObject_ClearManagedDict(): 365. like this: PyObject_ClearManagedDict((PyObject*)self); Note that *note tp_clear: 48fb. is not 'always' called before an instance is deallocated. For example, when reference counting is enough to determine that an object is no longer used, the cyclic garbage collector is not involved and *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. is called directly. Because the goal of *note tp_clear: 48fb. functions is to break reference cycles, it’s not necessary to clear contained objects like Python strings or Python integers, which can’t participate in reference cycles. On the other hand, it may be convenient to clear all contained Python objects, and write the type’s *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. function to invoke *note tp_clear: 48fb. More information about Python’s garbage collection scheme can be found in section *note Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection: 4eb1. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778, *note tp_traverse: 779, *note tp_clear: 48fb. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_traverse: 779. and the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit: the flag bit, *note tp_traverse: 779, and *note tp_clear: 48fb. are all inherited from the base type if they are all zero in the subtype. -- C Member: *note richcmpfunc: 4b00. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_richcompare An optional pointer to the rich comparison function, whose signature is: PyObject *tp_richcompare(PyObject *self, PyObject *other, int op); The first parameter is guaranteed to be an instance of the type that is defined by *note PyTypeObject: aa5. The function should return the result of the comparison (usually ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’). If the comparison is undefined, it must return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred it must return ‘NULL’ and set an exception condition. The following constants are defined to be used as the third argument for *note tp_richcompare: 4909. and for *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490a.: Constant Comparison ------------------------------------------ -- C Macro: Py_LT ‘<’ -- C Macro: Py_LE ‘<=’ -- C Macro: Py_EQ ‘==’ -- C Macro: Py_NE ‘!=’ -- C Macro: Py_GT ‘>’ -- C Macro: Py_GE ‘>=’ The following macro is defined to ease writing rich comparison functions: -- C Macro: Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (VAL_A, VAL_B, op) Return ‘Py_True’ or ‘Py_False’ from the function, depending on the result of a comparison. VAL_A and VAL_B must be orderable by C comparison operators (for example, they may be C ints or floats). The third argument specifies the requested operation, as for *note PyObject_RichCompare(): 490a. The returned value is a new *note strong reference: 338. On error, sets an exception and returns ‘NULL’ from the function. Added in version 3.7. 'Inheritance:' Group: *note tp_hash: 490f, *note tp_richcompare: 4909. This field is inherited by subtypes together with *note tp_hash: 490f.: a subtype inherits *note tp_richcompare: 4909. and *note tp_hash: 490f. when the subtype’s *note tp_richcompare: 4909. and *note tp_hash: 490f. are both ‘NULL’. 'Default:' *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. provides a *note tp_richcompare: 4909. implementation, which may be inherited. However, if only *note tp_hash: 490f. is defined, not even the inherited function is used and instances of the type will not be able to participate in any comparisons. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_weaklistoffset While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. should be used instead, if at all possible. If the instances of this type are weakly referenceable, this field is greater than zero and contains the offset in the instance structure of the weak reference list head (ignoring the GC header, if present); this offset is used by *note PyObject_ClearWeakRefs(): 573. and the ‘PyWeakref_*’ functions. The instance structure needs to include a field of type *note PyObject: 334.* which is initialized to ‘NULL’. Do not confuse this field with *note tp_weaklist: 4c0d.; that is the list head for weak references to the type object itself. It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. bit and *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes, but see the rules listed below. A subtype may override this offset; this means that the subtype uses a different weak reference list head than the base type. Since the list head is always found via *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988, this should not be a problem. 'Default:' If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF: 557. bit is set in the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field, then *note tp_weaklistoffset: 988. will be set to a negative value, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field. -- C Member: *note getiterfunc: 4af4. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_iter An optional pointer to a function that returns an *note iterator: 1ac. for the object. Its presence normally signals that the instances of this type are *note iterable: 121a. (although sequences may be iterable without this function). This function has the same signature as *note PyObject_GetIter(): 4a63.: PyObject *tp_iter(PyObject *self); 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note iternextfunc: 4af9. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_iternext An optional pointer to a function that returns the next item in an *note iterator: 1ac. The signature is: PyObject *tp_iternext(PyObject *self); When the iterator is exhausted, it must return ‘NULL’; a *note StopIteration: bfa. exception may or may not be set. When another error occurs, it must return ‘NULL’ too. Its presence signals that the instances of this type are iterators. Iterator types should also define the *note tp_iter: 14b9. function, and that function should return the iterator instance itself (not a new iterator instance). This function has the same signature as *note PyIter_Next(): 4a13. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: struct *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_methods An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note PyMethodDef: 14a2. structures, declaring regular methods of this type. For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 171e. below) containing a method descriptor. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes (methods are inherited through a different mechanism). -- C Member: struct *note PyMemberDef: 54c. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_members An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note PyMemberDef: 54c. structures, declaring regular data members (fields or slots) of instances of this type. For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 171e. below) containing a member descriptor. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes (members are inherited through a different mechanism). -- C Member: struct *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_getset An optional pointer to a static ‘NULL’-terminated array of *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. structures, declaring computed attributes of instances of this type. For each entry in the array, an entry is added to the type’s dictionary (see *note tp_dict: 171e. below) containing a getset descriptor. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes (computed attributes are inherited through a different mechanism). -- C Member: *note PyTypeObject: aa5. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_base An optional pointer to a base type from which type properties are inherited. At this level, only single inheritance is supported; multiple inheritance require dynamically creating a type object by calling the metatype. Note: Slot initialization is subject to the rules of initializing globals. C99 requires the initializers to be “address constants”. Function designators like *note PyType_GenericNew(): 48e5, with implicit conversion to a pointer, are valid C99 address constants. However, the unary ‘&’ operator applied to a non-static variable like *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. is not required to produce an address constant. Compilers may support this (gcc does), MSVC does not. Both compilers are strictly standard conforming in this particular behavior. Consequently, *note tp_base: 48f4. should be set in the extension module’s init function. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes (obviously). 'Default:' This field defaults to ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’ (which to Python programmers is known as the type *note object: a8c.). -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_dict The type’s dictionary is stored here by *note PyType_Ready(): 777. This field should normally be initialized to ‘NULL’ before PyType_Ready is called; it may also be initialized to a dictionary containing initial attributes for the type. Once *note PyType_Ready(): 777. has initialized the type, extra attributes for the type may be added to this dictionary only if they don’t correspond to overloaded operations (like *note __add__(): 1f8c.). Once initialization for the type has finished, this field should be treated as read-only. Some types may not store their dictionary in this slot. Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 171d. to retrieve the dictionary for an arbitrary type. Changed in version 3.12: Internals detail: For static builtin types, this is always ‘NULL’. Instead, the dict for such types is stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’. Use *note PyType_GetDict(): 171d. to get the dict for an arbitrary type. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited by subtypes (though the attributes defined in here are inherited through a different mechanism). 'Default:' If this field is ‘NULL’, *note PyType_Ready(): 777. will assign a new dictionary to it. Warning: It is not safe to use *note PyDict_SetItem(): 48d4. on or otherwise modify *note tp_dict: 171e. with the dictionary C-API. -- C Member: *note descrgetfunc: 4aee. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_descr_get An optional pointer to a “descriptor get” function. The function signature is: PyObject * tp_descr_get(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *type); 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note descrsetfunc: 4aef. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_descr_set An optional pointer to a function for setting and deleting a descriptor’s value. The function signature is: int tp_descr_set(PyObject *self, PyObject *obj, PyObject *value); The 'value' argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the value. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. -- C Member: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_dictoffset While this field is still supported, *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. should be used instead, if at all possible. If the instances of this type have a dictionary containing instance variables, this field is non-zero and contains the offset in the instances of the type of the instance variable dictionary; this offset is used by *note PyObject_GenericGetAttr(): 4a5f. Do not confuse this field with *note tp_dict: 171e.; that is the dictionary for attributes of the type object itself. The value specifies the offset of the dictionary from the start of the instance structure. The *note tp_dictoffset: 4c08. should be regarded as write-only. To get the pointer to the dictionary call *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 193a. Calling *note PyObject_GenericGetDict(): 193a. may need to allocate memory for the dictionary, so it is may be more efficient to call *note PyObject_GetAttr(): 346. when accessing an attribute on the object. It is an error to set both the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. bit and *note tp_dictoffset: 4c08. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. A subtype should not override this offset; doing so could be unsafe, if C code tries to access the dictionary at the previous offset. To properly support inheritance, use *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. 'Default:' This slot has no default. For *note static types: 77a, if the field is ‘NULL’ then no *note __dict__: 558. gets created for instances. If the *note Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT: 366. bit is set in the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field, then *note tp_dictoffset: 4c08. will be set to ‘-1’, to indicate that it is unsafe to use this field. -- C Member: *note initproc: 4af7. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_init An optional pointer to an instance initialization function. This function corresponds to the *note __init__(): 6ac. method of classes. Like ‘__init__()’, it is possible to create an instance without calling ‘__init__()’, and it is possible to reinitialize an instance by calling its ‘__init__()’ method again. The function signature is: int tp_init(PyObject *self, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds); The self argument is the instance to be initialized; the 'args' and 'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to *note __init__(): 6ac. The *note tp_init: 57e. function, if not ‘NULL’, is called when an instance is created normally by calling its type, after the type’s *note tp_new: 57c. function has returned an instance of the type. If the *note tp_new: 57c. function returns an instance of some other type that is not a subtype of the original type, no *note tp_init: 57e. function is called; if *note tp_new: 57c. returns an instance of a subtype of the original type, the subtype’s *note tp_init: 57e. is called. Returns ‘0’ on success, ‘-1’ and sets an exception on error. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. 'Default:' For *note static types: 77a. this field does not have a default. -- C Member: *note allocfunc: 4aec. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_alloc An optional pointer to an instance allocation function. The function signature is: PyObject *tp_alloc(PyTypeObject *self, Py_ssize_t nitems); 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement). 'Default:' For dynamic subtypes, this field is always set to *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a6b, to force a standard heap allocation strategy. For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. uses *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a6b. That is the recommended value for all statically defined types. -- C Member: *note newfunc: 4afb. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_new An optional pointer to an instance creation function. The function signature is: PyObject *tp_new(PyTypeObject *subtype, PyObject *args, PyObject *kwds); The 'subtype' argument is the type of the object being created; the 'args' and 'kwds' arguments represent positional and keyword arguments of the call to the type. Note that 'subtype' doesn’t have to equal the type whose *note tp_new: 57c. function is called; it may be a subtype of that type (but not an unrelated type). The *note tp_new: 57c. function should call ‘subtype->tp_alloc(subtype, nitems)’ to allocate space for the object, and then do only as much further initialization as is absolutely necessary. Initialization that can safely be ignored or repeated should be placed in the *note tp_init: 57e. handler. A good rule of thumb is that for immutable types, all initialization should take place in *note tp_new: 57c, while for mutable types, most initialization should be deferred to *note tp_init: 57e. Set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57f. flag to disallow creating instances of the type in Python. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes, except it is not inherited by *note static types: 77a. whose *note tp_base: 48f4. is ‘NULL’ or ‘&PyBaseObject_Type’. 'Default:' For *note static types: 77a. this field has no default. This means if the slot is defined as ‘NULL’, the type cannot be called to create new instances; presumably there is some other way to create instances, like a factory function. -- C Member: *note freefunc: 4d15. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_free An optional pointer to an instance deallocation function. Its signature is: void tp_free(void *self); An initializer that is compatible with this signature is *note PyObject_Free(): c65. 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by static subtypes, but not by dynamic subtypes (subtypes created by a class statement) 'Default:' In dynamic subtypes, this field is set to a deallocator suitable to match *note PyType_GenericAlloc(): a6b. and the value of the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit. For static subtypes, *note PyBaseObject_Type: 4964. uses *note PyObject_Del(): 149c. -- C Member: *note inquiry: 4af8. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_is_gc An optional pointer to a function called by the garbage collector. The garbage collector needs to know whether a particular object is collectible or not. Normally, it is sufficient to look at the object’s type’s *note tp_flags: 18bd. field, and check the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag bit. But some types have a mixture of statically and dynamically allocated instances, and the statically allocated instances are not collectible. Such types should define this function; it should return ‘1’ for a collectible instance, and ‘0’ for a non-collectible instance. The signature is: int tp_is_gc(PyObject *self); (The only example of this are types themselves. The metatype, *note PyType_Type: 54a, defines this function to distinguish between statically and *note dynamically allocated types: 965.) 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. 'Default:' This slot has no default. If this field is ‘NULL’, *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. is used as the functional equivalent. -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_bases Tuple of base types. This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only. Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 777. For dynamically created classes, the ‘Py_tp_bases’ *note slot: 4a9b. can be used instead of the 'bases' argument of *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. The argument form is preferred. Warning: Multiple inheritance does not work well for statically defined types. If you set ‘tp_bases’ to a tuple, Python will not raise an error, but some slots will only be inherited from the first base. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited. -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_mro Tuple containing the expanded set of base types, starting with the type itself and ending with *note object: a8c, in Method Resolution Order. This field should be set to ‘NULL’ and treated as read-only. Python will fill it in when the type is *note initialized: 777. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited; it is calculated fresh by *note PyType_Ready(): 777. -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_cache Unused. Internal use only. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited. -- C Member: void **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_subclasses A collection of subclasses. Internal use only. May be an invalid pointer. To get a list of subclasses, call the Python method *note __subclasses__(): 570. Changed in version 3.12: For some types, this field does not hold a valid *note PyObject: 334.*. The type was changed to void* to indicate this. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited. -- C Member: *note PyObject: 334. **note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_weaklist Weak reference list head, for weak references to this type object. Not inherited. Internal use only. Changed in version 3.12: Internals detail: For the static builtin types this is always ‘NULL’, even if weakrefs are added. Instead, the weakrefs for each are stored on ‘PyInterpreterState’. Use the public C-API or the internal ‘_PyObject_GET_WEAKREFS_LISTPTR()’ macro to avoid the distinction. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited. -- C Member: *note destructor: 4af0. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_del This field is deprecated. Use *note tp_finalize: aa6. instead. -- C Member: unsigned int *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_version_tag Used to index into the method cache. Internal use only. 'Inheritance:' This field is not inherited. -- C Member: *note destructor: 4af0. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_finalize An optional pointer to an instance finalization function. Its signature is: void tp_finalize(PyObject *self); If *note tp_finalize: aa6. is set, the interpreter calls it once when finalizing an instance. It is called either from the garbage collector (if the instance is part of an isolated reference cycle) or just before the object is deallocated. Either way, it is guaranteed to be called before attempting to break reference cycles, ensuring that it finds the object in a sane state. *note tp_finalize: aa6. should not mutate the current exception status; therefore, a recommended way to write a non-trivial finalizer is: static void local_finalize(PyObject *self) { /* Save the current exception, if any. */ PyObject *exc = PyErr_GetRaisedException(); /* ... */ /* Restore the saved exception. */ PyErr_SetRaisedException(exc); } 'Inheritance:' This field is inherited by subtypes. Added in version 3.4. Changed in version 3.8: Before version 3.8 it was necessary to set the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ee. flags bit in order for this field to be used. This is no longer required. See also ........ “Safe object finalization” ( PEP 442(4)) -- C Member: *note vectorcallfunc: 554. *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_vectorcall Vectorcall function to use for calls of this type object. In other words, it is used to implement *note vectorcall: 54f. for ‘type.__call__’. If ‘tp_vectorcall’ is ‘NULL’, the default call implementation using *note __new__(): 57d. and *note __init__(): 6ac. is used. 'Inheritance:' This field is never inherited. Added in version 3.9: (the field exists since 3.8 but it’s only used since 3.9) -- C Member: unsigned char *note PyTypeObject: aa5.tp_watched Internal. Do not use. Added in version 3.12. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0634/ (3) https://bugs.python.org/issue40217 (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0442/  File: python.info, Node: Static Types, Next: Heap Types, Prev: PyTypeObject Slots, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.9 Static Types ..................... Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static', that is, a static *note PyTypeObject: aa5. structure is defined directly in code and initialized using *note PyType_Ready(): 777. This results in types that are limited relative to types defined in Python: * Static types are limited to one base, i.e. they cannot use multiple inheritance. * Static type objects (but not necessarily their instances) are immutable. It is not possible to add or modify the type object’s attributes from Python. * Static type objects are shared across *note sub-interpreters: 584, so they should not include any subinterpreter-specific state. Also, since *note PyTypeObject: aa5. is only part of the *note Limited API: 391. as an opaque struct, any extension modules using static types must be compiled for a specific Python minor version.  File: python.info, Node: Heap Types, Next: Number Object Structures, Prev: Static Types, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.10 Heap Types .................... An alternative to *note static types: 77a. is 'heap-allocated types', or 'heap types' for short, which correspond closely to classes created by Python’s ‘class’ statement. Heap types have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE: 8ae. flag set. This is done by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 171b. structure and calling *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a, *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b, *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e, or *note PyType_FromMetaclass(): 54d.  File: python.info, Node: Number Object Structures, Next: Mapping Object Structures, Prev: Heap Types, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.11 Number Object Structures .................................. -- C Type: type PyNumberMethods This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to implement the number protocol. Each function is used by the function of similar name documented in the *note Number Protocol: 4bb5. section. Here is the structure definition: typedef struct { binaryfunc nb_add; binaryfunc nb_subtract; binaryfunc nb_multiply; binaryfunc nb_remainder; binaryfunc nb_divmod; ternaryfunc nb_power; unaryfunc nb_negative; unaryfunc nb_positive; unaryfunc nb_absolute; inquiry nb_bool; unaryfunc nb_invert; binaryfunc nb_lshift; binaryfunc nb_rshift; binaryfunc nb_and; binaryfunc nb_xor; binaryfunc nb_or; unaryfunc nb_int; void *nb_reserved; unaryfunc nb_float; binaryfunc nb_inplace_add; binaryfunc nb_inplace_subtract; binaryfunc nb_inplace_multiply; binaryfunc nb_inplace_remainder; ternaryfunc nb_inplace_power; binaryfunc nb_inplace_lshift; binaryfunc nb_inplace_rshift; binaryfunc nb_inplace_and; binaryfunc nb_inplace_xor; binaryfunc nb_inplace_or; binaryfunc nb_floor_divide; binaryfunc nb_true_divide; binaryfunc nb_inplace_floor_divide; binaryfunc nb_inplace_true_divide; unaryfunc nb_index; binaryfunc nb_matrix_multiply; binaryfunc nb_inplace_matrix_multiply; } PyNumberMethods; Note: Binary and ternary functions must check the type of all their operands, and implement the necessary conversions (at least one of the operands is an instance of the defined type). If the operation is not defined for the given operands, binary and ternary functions must return ‘Py_NotImplemented’, if another error occurred they must return ‘NULL’ and set an exception. Note: The *note nb_reserved: 4e97. field should always be ‘NULL’. It was previously called ‘nb_long’, and was renamed in Python 3.0.1. -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_add -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_subtract -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_multiply -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_remainder -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_divmod -- C Member: *note ternaryfunc: 4b06. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_power -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_negative -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_positive -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_absolute -- C Member: *note inquiry: 4af8. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_bool -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_invert -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_lshift -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_rshift -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_and -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_xor -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_or -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_int -- C Member: void **note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_reserved -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_float -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_add -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_subtract -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_multiply -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_remainder -- C Member: *note ternaryfunc: 4b06. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_power -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_lshift -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_rshift -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_and -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_xor -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_or -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_floor_divide -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_true_divide -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_floor_divide -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_true_divide -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_index -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_matrix_multiply -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyNumberMethods: 13e9.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply  File: python.info, Node: Mapping Object Structures, Next: Sequence Object Structures, Prev: Number Object Structures, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.12 Mapping Object Structures ................................... -- C Type: type PyMappingMethods This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to implement the mapping protocol. It has three members: -- C Member: *note lenfunc: 4afa. *note PyMappingMethods: 490e.mp_length This function is used by *note PyMapping_Size(): 1a55. and *note PyObject_Size(): 4a69, and has the same signature. This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if the object has no defined length. -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PyMappingMethods: 490e.mp_subscript This function is used by *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342. and *note PySequence_GetSlice(): 4a74, and has the same signature as ‘PyObject_GetItem()’. This slot must be filled for the *note PyMapping_Check(): 4a26. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’ otherwise. -- C Member: *note objobjargproc: 4afc. *note PyMappingMethods: 490e.mp_ass_subscript This function is used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947, *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b, *note PySequence_SetSlice(): 4a7b. and *note PySequence_DelSlice(): 4a72. It has the same signature as ‘PyObject_SetItem()’, but 'v' can also be set to ‘NULL’ to delete an item. If this slot is ‘NULL’, the object does not support item assignment and deletion.  File: python.info, Node: Sequence Object Structures, Next: Buffer Object Structures, Prev: Mapping Object Structures, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.13 Sequence Object Structures .................................... -- C Type: type PySequenceMethods This structure holds pointers to the functions which an object uses to implement the sequence protocol. -- C Member: *note lenfunc: 4afa. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_length This function is used by *note PySequence_Size(): 1a51. and *note PyObject_Size(): 4a69, and has the same signature. It is also used for handling negative indices via the *note sq_item: 192c. and the *note sq_ass_item: 4ea3. slots. -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_concat This function is used by *note PySequence_Concat(): 4a6f. and has the same signature. It is also used by the ‘+’ operator, after trying the numeric addition via the *note nb_add: 4bff. slot. -- C Member: *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_repeat This function is used by *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4a7a. and has the same signature. It is also used by the ‘*’ operator, after trying numeric multiplication via the *note nb_multiply: 4e80. slot. -- C Member: *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_item This function is used by *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52. and has the same signature. It is also used by *note PyObject_GetItem(): 342, after trying the subscription via the *note mp_subscript: 192d. slot. This slot must be filled for the *note PySequence_Check(): 4a6e. function to return ‘1’, it can be ‘NULL’ otherwise. Negative indexes are handled as follows: if the *note sq_length: 4c07. slot is filled, it is called and the sequence length is used to compute a positive index which is passed to *note sq_item: 192c. If ‘sq_length’ is ‘NULL’, the index is passed as is to the function. -- C Member: *note ssizeobjargproc: 4b05. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_ass_item This function is used by *note PySequence_SetItem(): 1a53. and has the same signature. It is also used by *note PyObject_SetItem(): 4947. and *note PyObject_DelItem(): 4a5b, after trying the item assignment and deletion via the *note mp_ass_subscript: 4ea0. slot. This slot may be left to ‘NULL’ if the object does not support item assignment and deletion. -- C Member: *note objobjproc: 4afd. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_contains This function may be used by *note PySequence_Contains(): 4a70. and has the same signature. This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case ‘PySequence_Contains()’ simply traverses the sequence until it finds a match. -- C Member: *note binaryfunc: 4aed. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_inplace_concat This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceConcat(): 4a75. and has the same signature. It should modify its first operand, and return it. This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case ‘PySequence_InPlaceConcat()’ will fall back to *note PySequence_Concat(): 4a6f. It is also used by the augmented assignment ‘+=’, after trying numeric in-place addition via the *note nb_inplace_add: 4e7d. slot. -- C Member: *note ssizeargfunc: 4b04. *note PySequenceMethods: 490d.sq_inplace_repeat This function is used by *note PySequence_InPlaceRepeat(): 4a76. and has the same signature. It should modify its first operand, and return it. This slot may be left to ‘NULL’, in this case ‘PySequence_InPlaceRepeat()’ will fall back to *note PySequence_Repeat(): 4a7a. It is also used by the augmented assignment ‘*=’, after trying numeric in-place multiplication via the *note nb_inplace_multiply: 4e81. slot.  File: python.info, Node: Buffer Object Structures, Next: Async Object Structures, Prev: Sequence Object Structures, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.14 Buffer Object Structures .................................. -- C Type: type PyBufferProcs This structure holds pointers to the functions required by the *note Buffer protocol: 393. The protocol defines how an exporter object can expose its internal data to consumer objects. -- C Member: *note getbufferproc: 4af3. *note PyBufferProcs: 4c0e.bf_getbuffer The signature of this function is: int (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view, int flags); Handle a request to 'exporter' to fill in 'view' as specified by 'flags'. Except for point (3), an implementation of this function MUST take these steps: 1. Check if the request can be met. If not, raise *note BufferError: 1824, set view->obj to ‘NULL’ and return ‘-1’. 2. Fill in the requested fields. 3. Increment an internal counter for the number of exports. 4. Set view->obj to 'exporter' and increment view->obj. 5. Return ‘0’. If 'exporter' is part of a chain or tree of buffer providers, two main schemes can be used: * Re-export: Each member of the tree acts as the exporting object and sets view->obj to a new reference to itself. * Redirect: The buffer request is redirected to the root object of the tree. Here, view->obj will be a new reference to the root object. The individual fields of 'view' are described in section *note Buffer structure: 4bcb, the rules how an exporter must react to specific requests are in section *note Buffer request types: 44d1. All memory pointed to in the *note Py_buffer: 753. structure belongs to the exporter and must remain valid until there are no consumers left. *note format: 4bd5, *note shape: 4bd7, *note strides: 4bcf, *note suboffsets: 4bd9. and *note internal: 4bdc. are read-only for the consumer. *note PyBuffer_FillInfo(): 75b. provides an easy way of exposing a simple bytes buffer while dealing correctly with all request types. *note PyObject_GetBuffer(): 395. is the interface for the consumer that wraps this function. -- C Member: *note releasebufferproc: 4afe. *note PyBufferProcs: 4c0e.bf_releasebuffer The signature of this function is: void (PyObject *exporter, Py_buffer *view); Handle a request to release the resources of the buffer. If no resources need to be released, *note PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer: 75e. may be ‘NULL’. Otherwise, a standard implementation of this function will take these optional steps: 1. Decrement an internal counter for the number of exports. 2. If the counter is ‘0’, free all memory associated with 'view'. The exporter MUST use the *note internal: 4bdc. field to keep track of buffer-specific resources. This field is guaranteed to remain constant, while a consumer MAY pass a copy of the original buffer as the 'view' argument. This function MUST NOT decrement view->obj, since that is done automatically in *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. (this scheme is useful for breaking reference cycles). *note PyBuffer_Release(): 396. is the interface for the consumer that wraps this function.  File: python.info, Node: Async Object Structures, Next: Slot Type typedefs, Prev: Buffer Object Structures, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.15 Async Object Structures ................................. Added in version 3.5. -- C Type: type PyAsyncMethods This structure holds pointers to the functions required to implement *note awaitable: 1ad. and *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. objects. Here is the structure definition: typedef struct { unaryfunc am_await; unaryfunc am_aiter; unaryfunc am_anext; sendfunc am_send; } PyAsyncMethods; -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06.am_await The signature of this function is: PyObject *am_await(PyObject *self); The returned object must be an *note iterator: 1ac, i.e. *note PyIter_Check(): 18f4. must return ‘1’ for it. This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object is not an *note awaitable: 1ad. -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06.am_aiter The signature of this function is: PyObject *am_aiter(PyObject *self); Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. object. See *note __anext__(): 1573. for details. This slot may be set to ‘NULL’ if an object does not implement asynchronous iteration protocol. -- C Member: *note unaryfunc: 4b08. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06.am_anext The signature of this function is: PyObject *am_anext(PyObject *self); Must return an *note awaitable: 1ad. object. See *note __anext__(): 1573. for details. This slot may be set to ‘NULL’. -- C Member: *note sendfunc: 4e7c. *note PyAsyncMethods: 4c06.am_send The signature of this function is: PySendResult am_send(PyObject *self, PyObject *arg, PyObject **result); See *note PyIter_Send(): 896. for details. This slot may be set to ‘NULL’. Added in version 3.10.  File: python.info, Node: Slot Type typedefs, Next: Examples<38>, Prev: Async Object Structures, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.16 Slot Type typedefs ............................ -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*allocfunc)(*note PyTypeObject: aa5. *cls, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. nitems) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' The purpose of this function is to separate memory allocation from memory initialization. It should return a pointer to a block of memory of adequate length for the instance, suitably aligned, and initialized to zeros, but with *note ob_refcnt: 89d. set to ‘1’ and *note ob_type: 48e6. set to the type argument. If the type’s *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. is non-zero, the object’s *note ob_size: 4ada. field should be initialized to 'nitems' and the length of the allocated memory block should be ‘tp_basicsize + nitems*tp_itemsize’, rounded up to a multiple of ‘sizeof(void*)’; otherwise, 'nitems' is not used and the length of the block should be *note tp_basicsize: 987. This function should not do any other instance initialization, not even to allocate additional memory; that should be done by *note tp_new: 57c. -- C Type: typedef void (*destructor)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef void (*freefunc)(void*) See *note tp_free: 48e9. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*newfunc)(*note PyTypeObject: aa5.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_new: 57c. -- C Type: typedef int (*initproc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_init: 57e. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*reprfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_repr: 48fd. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*getattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 334. *self, char *attr) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the value of the named attribute for the object. -- C Type: typedef int (*setattrfunc)(*note PyObject: 334. *self, char *attr, *note PyObject: 334. *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the value of the named attribute for the object. The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the attribute. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*getattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 334. *self, *note PyObject: 334. *attr) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Return the value of the named attribute for the object. See *note tp_getattro: 16f2. -- C Type: typedef int (*setattrofunc)(*note PyObject: 334. *self, *note PyObject: 334. *attr, *note PyObject: 334. *value) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Set the value of the named attribute for the object. The value argument is set to ‘NULL’ to delete the attribute. See *note tp_setattro: 4901. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*descrgetfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_descr_get: 4e71. -- C Type: typedef int (*descrsetfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_descr_set: 18f6. -- C Type: typedef *note Py_hash_t: 1257. (*hashfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_hash: 490f. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*richcmpfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, int) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_richcompare: 4909. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*getiterfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_iter: 14b9. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*iternextfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' See *note tp_iternext: 14ba. -- C Type: typedef *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. (*lenfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef int (*getbufferproc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note Py_buffer: 753.*, int) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' -- C Type: typedef void (*releasebufferproc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note Py_buffer: 753.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.12.' -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*unaryfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*binaryfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef *note PySendResult: 4bc7. (*sendfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.**) See *note am_send: 4e7b. -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*ternaryfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef *note PyObject: 334. *(*ssizeargfunc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f.) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef int (*ssizeobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note Py_ssize_t: a5f, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef int (*objobjproc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' -- C Type: typedef int (*objobjargproc)(*note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*, *note PyObject: 334.*) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.'  File: python.info, Node: Examples<38>, Prev: Slot Type typedefs, Up: Type Object Structures 7.12.3.17 Examples .................. The following are simple examples of Python type definitions. They include common usage you may encounter. Some demonstrate tricky corner cases. For more examples, practical info, and a tutorial, see *note Defining Extension Types; Tutorial: 48df. and *note Defining Extension Types; Assorted Topics: 48f8. A basic *note static type: 77a.: typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD const char *data; } MyObject; static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject", .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject), .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"), .tp_new = myobj_new, .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc, .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr, }; You may also find older code (especially in the CPython code base) with a more verbose initializer: static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) "mymod.MyObject", /* tp_name */ sizeof(MyObject), /* tp_basicsize */ 0, /* tp_itemsize */ (destructor)myobj_dealloc, /* tp_dealloc */ 0, /* tp_vectorcall_offset */ 0, /* tp_getattr */ 0, /* tp_setattr */ 0, /* tp_as_async */ (reprfunc)myobj_repr, /* tp_repr */ 0, /* tp_as_number */ 0, /* tp_as_sequence */ 0, /* tp_as_mapping */ 0, /* tp_hash */ 0, /* tp_call */ 0, /* tp_str */ 0, /* tp_getattro */ 0, /* tp_setattro */ 0, /* tp_as_buffer */ 0, /* tp_flags */ PyDoc_STR("My objects"), /* tp_doc */ 0, /* tp_traverse */ 0, /* tp_clear */ 0, /* tp_richcompare */ 0, /* tp_weaklistoffset */ 0, /* tp_iter */ 0, /* tp_iternext */ 0, /* tp_methods */ 0, /* tp_members */ 0, /* tp_getset */ 0, /* tp_base */ 0, /* tp_dict */ 0, /* tp_descr_get */ 0, /* tp_descr_set */ 0, /* tp_dictoffset */ 0, /* tp_init */ 0, /* tp_alloc */ myobj_new, /* tp_new */ }; A type that supports weakrefs, instance dicts, and hashing: typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD const char *data; } MyObject; static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject", .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject), .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("My objects"), .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE | Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT | Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF, .tp_new = myobj_new, .tp_traverse = (traverseproc)myobj_traverse, .tp_clear = (inquiry)myobj_clear, .tp_alloc = PyType_GenericNew, .tp_dealloc = (destructor)myobj_dealloc, .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr, .tp_hash = (hashfunc)myobj_hash, .tp_richcompare = PyBaseObject_Type.tp_richcompare, }; A str subclass that cannot be subclassed and cannot be called to create instances (e.g. uses a separate factory func) using *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57f. flag: typedef struct { PyUnicodeObject raw; char *extra; } MyStr; static PyTypeObject MyStr_Type = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "mymod.MyStr", .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyStr), .tp_base = NULL, // set to &PyUnicode_Type in module init .tp_doc = PyDoc_STR("my custom str"), .tp_flags = Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT | Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION, .tp_repr = (reprfunc)myobj_repr, }; The simplest *note static type: 77a. with fixed-length instances: typedef struct { PyObject_HEAD } MyObject; static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject", }; The simplest *note static type: 77a. with variable-length instances: typedef struct { PyObject_VAR_HEAD const char *data[1]; } MyObject; static PyTypeObject MyObject_Type = { PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT(NULL, 0) .tp_name = "mymod.MyObject", .tp_basicsize = sizeof(MyObject) - sizeof(char *), .tp_itemsize = sizeof(char *), };  File: python.info, Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection, Prev: Type Object Structures, Up: Object Implementation Support 7.12.4 Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection ------------------------------------------- Python’s support for detecting and collecting garbage which involves circular references requires support from object types which are “containers” for other objects which may also be containers. Types which do not store references to other objects, or which only store references to atomic types (such as numbers or strings), do not need to provide any explicit support for garbage collection. To create a container type, the *note tp_flags: 18bd. field of the type object must include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. and provide an implementation of the *note tp_traverse: 779. handler. If instances of the type are mutable, a *note tp_clear: 48fb. implementation must also be provided. *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. Objects with a type with this flag set must conform with the rules documented here. For convenience these objects will be referred to as container objects. Constructors for container types must conform to two rules: 1. The memory for the object must be allocated using *note PyObject_GC_New: aa2. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: aa3. 2. Once all the fields which may contain references to other containers are initialized, it must call *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14d0. Similarly, the deallocator for the object must conform to a similar pair of rules: 1. Before fields which refer to other containers are invalidated, *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. must be called. 2. The object’s memory must be deallocated using *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cf. Warning: If a type adds the Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC, then it 'must' implement at least a *note tp_traverse: 779. handler or explicitly use one from its subclass or subclasses. When calling *note PyType_Ready(): 777. or some of the APIs that indirectly call it like *note PyType_FromSpecWithBases(): 57b. or *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a. the interpreter will automatically populate the *note tp_flags: 18bd, *note tp_traverse: 779. and *note tp_clear: 48fb. fields if the type inherits from a class that implements the garbage collector protocol and the child class does 'not' include the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag. -- C Macro: PyObject_GC_New (TYPE, typeobj) Analogous to *note PyObject_New: 985. but for container objects with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag set. -- C Macro: PyObject_GC_NewVar (TYPE, typeobj, size) Analogous to *note PyObject_NewVar: 986. but for container objects with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag set. -- C Function: *note PyObject: 334. *PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (PyTypeObject *type, size_t extra_size) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Analogous to *note PyObject_GC_New: aa2. but allocates 'extra_size' bytes at the end of the object (at offset *note tp_basicsize: 987.). The allocated memory is initialized to zeros, except for the *note Python object header: 334. The extra data will be deallocated with the object, but otherwise it is not managed by Python. Warning: The function is marked as unstable because the final mechanism for reserving extra data after an instance is not yet decided. For allocating a variable number of fields, prefer using *note PyVarObject: 416a. and *note tp_itemsize: 1f70. instead. Added in version 3.12. -- C Macro: PyObject_GC_Resize (TYPE, op, newsize) Resize an object allocated by *note PyObject_NewVar: 986. Returns the resized object of type ‘TYPE*’ (refers to any C type) or ‘NULL’ on failure. 'op' must be of type *note PyVarObject: 416a.* and must not be tracked by the collector yet. 'newsize' must be of type *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. -- C Function: void PyObject_GC_Track (PyObject *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Adds the object 'op' to the set of container objects tracked by the collector. The collector can run at unexpected times so objects must be valid while being tracked. This should be called once all the fields followed by the *note tp_traverse: 779. handler become valid, usually near the end of the constructor. -- C Function: int PyObject_IS_GC (PyObject *obj) Returns non-zero if the object implements the garbage collector protocol, otherwise returns 0. The object cannot be tracked by the garbage collector if this function returns 0. -- C Function: int PyObject_GC_IsTracked (PyObject *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Returns 1 if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and 'op' is being currently tracked by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise. This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_tracked(): 1301. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: int PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (PyObject *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.9.' Returns 1 if the object type of 'op' implements the GC protocol and 'op' has been already finalized by the garbage collector and 0 otherwise. This is analogous to the Python function *note gc.is_finalized(): 8fc. Added in version 3.9. -- C Function: void PyObject_GC_Del (void *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Releases memory allocated to an object using *note PyObject_GC_New: aa2. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar: aa3. -- C Function: void PyObject_GC_UnTrack (void *op) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Remove the object 'op' from the set of container objects tracked by the collector. Note that *note PyObject_GC_Track(): 14d0. can be called again on this object to add it back to the set of tracked objects. The deallocator (*note tp_dealloc: 48e8. handler) should call this for the object before any of the fields used by the *note tp_traverse: 779. handler become invalid. Changed in version 3.8: The ‘_PyObject_GC_TRACK()’ and ‘_PyObject_GC_UNTRACK()’ macros have been removed from the public C API. The *note tp_traverse: 779. handler accepts a function parameter of this type: -- C Type: typedef int (*visitproc)(*note PyObject: 334. *object, void *arg) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Type of the visitor function passed to the *note tp_traverse: 779. handler. The function should be called with an object to traverse as 'object' and the third parameter to the *note tp_traverse: 779. handler as 'arg'. The Python core uses several visitor functions to implement cyclic garbage detection; it’s not expected that users will need to write their own visitor functions. The *note tp_traverse: 779. handler must have the following type: -- C Type: typedef int (*traverseproc)(*note PyObject: 334. *self, *note visitproc: 4b09. visit, void *arg) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Traversal function for a container object. Implementations must call the 'visit' function for each object directly contained by 'self', with the parameters to 'visit' being the contained object and the 'arg' value passed to the handler. The 'visit' function must not be called with a ‘NULL’ object argument. If 'visit' returns a non-zero value that value should be returned immediately. To simplify writing *note tp_traverse: 779. handlers, a *note Py_VISIT(): 48f2. macro is provided. In order to use this macro, the *note tp_traverse: 779. implementation must name its arguments exactly 'visit' and 'arg': -- C Macro: Py_VISIT (o) If the *note PyObject: 334.* 'o' is not ‘NULL’, call the 'visit' callback, with arguments 'o' and 'arg'. If 'visit' returns a non-zero value, then return it. Using this macro, *note tp_traverse: 779. handlers look like: static int my_traverse(Noddy *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { Py_VISIT(self->foo); Py_VISIT(self->bar); return 0; } The *note tp_clear: 48fb. handler must be of the *note inquiry: 4af8. type, or ‘NULL’ if the object is immutable. -- C Type: typedef int (*inquiry)(*note PyObject: 334. *self) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Drop references that may have created reference cycles. Immutable objects do not have to define this method since they can never directly create reference cycles. Note that the object must still be valid after calling this method (don’t just call *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. on a reference). The collector will call this method if it detects that this object is involved in a reference cycle. * Menu: * Controlling the Garbage Collector State:: * Querying Garbage Collector State::  File: python.info, Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State, Next: Querying Garbage Collector State, Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection 7.12.4.1 Controlling the Garbage Collector State ................................................ The C-API provides the following functions for controlling garbage collection runs. -- C Function: *note Py_ssize_t: a5f. PyGC_Collect (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550.' Perform a full garbage collection, if the garbage collector is enabled. (Note that *note gc.collect(): a39. runs it unconditionally.) Returns the number of collected + unreachable objects which cannot be collected. If the garbage collector is disabled or already collecting, returns ‘0’ immediately. Errors during garbage collection are passed to *note sys.unraisablehook: 1f9. This function does not raise exceptions. -- C Function: int PyGC_Enable (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Enable the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.enable(): 447d. Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int PyGC_Disable (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Disable the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.disable(): 447e. Returns the previous state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled. Added in version 3.10. -- C Function: int PyGC_IsEnabled (void) ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.10.' Query the state of the garbage collector: similar to *note gc.isenabled(): 447f. Returns the current state, 0 for disabled and 1 for enabled. Added in version 3.10.  File: python.info, Node: Querying Garbage Collector State, Prev: Controlling the Garbage Collector State, Up: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection 7.12.4.2 Querying Garbage Collector State ......................................... The C-API provides the following interface for querying information about the garbage collector. -- C Function: void PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (gcvisitobjects_t callback, void *arg) This is Unstable API. It may change without warning in minor releases. 'This is *note Unstable API: 544. It may change without warning in minor releases.': Run supplied 'callback' on all live GC-capable objects. 'arg' is passed through to all invocations of 'callback'. Warning: If new objects are (de)allocated by the callback it is undefined if they will be visited. Garbage collection is disabled during operation. Explicitly running a collection in the callback may lead to undefined behaviour e.g. visiting the same objects multiple times or not at all. Added in version 3.12. -- C Type: typedef int (*gcvisitobjects_t)(*note PyObject: 334. *object, void *arg) Type of the visitor function to be passed to *note PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects(): 4eca. 'arg' is the same as the 'arg' passed to ‘PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects’. Return ‘1’ to continue iteration, return ‘0’ to stop iteration. Other return values are reserved for now so behavior on returning anything else is undefined. Added in version 3.12.  File: python.info, Node: API and ABI Versioning, Next: Monitoring C API, Prev: Object Implementation Support, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.13 API and ABI Versioning =========================== CPython exposes its version number in the following macros. Note that these correspond to the version code is 'built' with, not necessarily the version used at 'run time'. See *note C API Stability: 550. for a discussion of API and ABI stability across versions. -- C Macro: PY_MAJOR_VERSION The ‘3’ in ‘3.4.1a2’. -- C Macro: PY_MINOR_VERSION The ‘4’ in ‘3.4.1a2’. -- C Macro: PY_MICRO_VERSION The ‘1’ in ‘3.4.1a2’. -- C Macro: PY_RELEASE_LEVEL The ‘a’ in ‘3.4.1a2’. This can be ‘0xA’ for alpha, ‘0xB’ for beta, ‘0xC’ for release candidate or ‘0xF’ for final. -- C Macro: PY_RELEASE_SERIAL The ‘2’ in ‘3.4.1a2’. Zero for final releases. -- C Macro: PY_VERSION_HEX The Python version number encoded in a single integer. The underlying version information can be found by treating it as a 32 bit number in the following manner: Bytes Bits (big endian order) Meaning Value for ‘3.4.1a2’ ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 1-8 ‘PY_MAJOR_VERSION’ ‘0x03’ 2 9-16 ‘PY_MINOR_VERSION’ ‘0x04’ 3 17-24 ‘PY_MICRO_VERSION’ ‘0x01’ 4 25-28 ‘PY_RELEASE_LEVEL’ ‘0xA’ 29-32 ‘PY_RELEASE_SERIAL’ ‘0x2’ Thus ‘3.4.1a2’ is hexversion ‘0x030401a2’ and ‘3.10.0’ is hexversion ‘0x030a00f0’. Use this for numeric comparisons, e.g. ‘#if PY_VERSION_HEX >= ...’. This version is also available via the symbol *note Py_Version: 751. -- C Variable: const unsigned long Py_Version ' Part of the *note Stable ABI: 550. since version 3.11.' The Python runtime version number encoded in a single constant integer, with the same format as the *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 752. macro. This contains the Python version used at run time. Added in version 3.11. All the given macros are defined in Include/patchlevel.h(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Include/patchlevel.h  File: python.info, Node: Monitoring C API, Next: Generating Execution Events, Prev: API and ABI Versioning, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.14 Monitoring C API ===================== Added in version 3.13. An extension may need to interact with the event monitoring system. Subscribing to events and registering callbacks can be done via the Python API exposed in *note sys.monitoring: da.  File: python.info, Node: Generating Execution Events, Prev: Monitoring C API, Up: Python/C API Reference Manual 7.15 Generating Execution Events ================================ The functions below make it possible for an extension to fire monitoring events as it emulates the execution of Python code. Each of these functions accepts a ‘PyMonitoringState’ struct which contains concise information about the activation state of events, as well as the event arguments, which include a ‘PyObject*’ representing the code object, the instruction offset and sometimes additional, event-specific arguments (see *note sys.monitoring: da. for details about the signatures of the different event callbacks). The ‘codelike’ argument should be an instance of *note types.CodeType: 2e3. or of a type that emulates it. The VM disables tracing when firing an event, so there is no need for user code to do that. Monitoring functions should not be called with an exception set, except those listed below as working with the current exception. -- C Type: type PyMonitoringState Representation of the state of an event type. It is allocated by the user while its contents are maintained by the monitoring API functions described below. All of the functions below return 0 on success and -1 (with an exception set) on error. See *note sys.monitoring: da. for descriptions of the events. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘PY_START’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘PY_RESUME’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval) Fire a ‘PY_RETURN’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval) Fire a ‘PY_YIELD’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *callable, PyObject *arg0) Fire a ‘CALL’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, int lineno) Fire a ‘LINE’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset) Fire a ‘JUMP’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *target_offset) Fire a ‘BRANCH’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *retval) Fire a ‘C_RETURN’ event. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘PY_THROW’ event with the current exception (as returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0.). -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0.). -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘C_RAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0.). -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘RERAISE’ event with the current exception (as returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0.). -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire an ‘EXCEPTION_HANDLED’ event with the current exception (as returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0.). -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset) Fire a ‘PY_UNWIND’ event with the current exception (as returned by *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0.). -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent (PyMonitoringState *state, PyObject *codelike, int32_t offset, PyObject *value) Fire a ‘STOP_ITERATION’ event. If ‘value’ is an instance of *note StopIteration: bfa, it is used. Otherwise, a new *note StopIteration: bfa. instance is created with ‘value’ as its argument. * Menu: * Managing the Monitoring State::  File: python.info, Node: Managing the Monitoring State, Up: Generating Execution Events 7.15.1 Managing the Monitoring State ------------------------------------ Monitoring states can be managed with the help of monitoring scopes. A scope would typically correspond to a python function. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_EnterScope (PyMonitoringState *state_array, uint64_t *version, const uint8_t *event_types, Py_ssize_t length) Enter a monitored scope. ‘event_types’ is an array of the event IDs for events that may be fired from the scope. For example, the ID of a ‘PY_START’ event is the value ‘PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START’, which is numerically equal to the base-2 logarithm of ‘sys.monitoring.events.PY_START’. ‘state_array’ is an array with a monitoring state entry for each event in ‘event_types’, it is allocated by the user but populated by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ with information about the activation state of the event. The size of ‘event_types’ (and hence also of ‘state_array’) is given in ‘length’. The ‘version’ argument is a pointer to a value which should be allocated by the user together with ‘state_array’ and initialized to 0, and then set only by ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ itself. It allows this function to determine whether event states have changed since the previous call, and to return quickly if they have not. The scopes referred to here are lexical scopes: a function, class or method. ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’ should be called whenever the lexical scope is entered. Scopes can be reentered, reusing the same 'state_array' and 'version', in situations like when emulating a recursive Python function. When a code-like’s execution is paused, such as when emulating a generator, the scope needs to be exited and re-entered. The macros for 'event_types' are: Macro Event ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH *note BRANCH: 43b4. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL *note CALL: 1646. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE *note C_RAISE: 43b5. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN *note C_RETURN: 43b6. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED *note EXCEPTION_HANDLED: 43b7. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION *note INSTRUCTION: 43b8. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP *note JUMP: 43b9. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE *note LINE: 43ba. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME *note PY_RESUME: 43bb. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN *note PY_RETURN: 43bc. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START *note PY_START: 43bd. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW *note PY_THROW: 43be. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND *note PY_UNWIND: 43bf. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD *note PY_YIELD: 43c0. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE *note RAISE: 15f0. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE *note RERAISE: 43c2. -- C Macro: PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION *note STOP_ITERATION: 43c1. -- C Function: int PyMonitoring_ExitScope (void) Exit the last scope that was entered with ‘PyMonitoring_EnterScope()’. -- C Function: int PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (uint8_t ev) Return true if the event corresponding to the event ID 'ev' is a *note local event: 43c6. Added in version 3.13. Deprecated since version 3.13.3: This function is *note soft deprecated: 20b.  File: python.info, Node: Installing Python Modules, Next: Python HOWTOs, Prev: Python/C API Reference Manual, Up: Top 8 Installing Python Modules *************************** Email: <distutils-sig@python.org> As a popular open source development project, Python has an active supporting community of contributors and users that also make their software available for other Python developers to use under open source license terms. This allows Python users to share and collaborate effectively, benefiting from the solutions others have already created to common (and sometimes even rare!) problems, as well as potentially contributing their own solutions to the common pool. This guide covers the installation part of the process. For a guide to creating and sharing your own Python projects, refer to the Python packaging user guide(1). Note: For corporate and other institutional users, be aware that many organisations have their own policies around using and contributing to open source software. Please take such policies into account when making use of the distribution and installation tools provided with Python. * Menu: * Key terms:: * Basic usage:: * How do I …?:: * Common installation issues:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/packaging-projects/  File: python.info, Node: Key terms, Next: Basic usage, Up: Installing Python Modules 8.1 Key terms ============= * ‘pip’ is the preferred installer program. Starting with Python 3.4, it is included by default with the Python binary installers. * A 'virtual environment' is a semi-isolated Python environment that allows packages to be installed for use by a particular application, rather than being installed system wide. * ‘venv’ is the standard tool for creating virtual environments, and has been part of Python since Python 3.3. Starting with Python 3.4, it defaults to installing ‘pip’ into all created virtual environments. * ‘virtualenv’ is a third party alternative (and predecessor) to ‘venv’. It allows virtual environments to be used on versions of Python prior to 3.4, which either don’t provide ‘venv’ at all, or aren’t able to automatically install ‘pip’ into created environments. * The Python Package Index(1) is a public repository of open source licensed packages made available for use by other Python users. * the Python Packaging Authority(2) is the group of developers and documentation authors responsible for the maintenance and evolution of the standard packaging tools and the associated metadata and file format standards. They maintain a variety of tools, documentation, and issue trackers on GitHub(3). * ‘distutils’ is the original build and distribution system first added to the Python standard library in 1998. While direct use of ‘distutils’ is being phased out, it still laid the foundation for the current packaging and distribution infrastructure, and it not only remains part of the standard library, but its name lives on in other ways (such as the name of the mailing list used to coordinate Python packaging standards development). Changed in version 3.5: The use of ‘venv’ is now recommended for creating virtual environments. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Creating and using virtual environments(4) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org (2) https://www.pypa.io/ (3) https://github.com/pypa (4) https://packaging.python.org/installing/#creating-virtual-environments  File: python.info, Node: Basic usage, Next: How do I …?, Prev: Key terms, Up: Installing Python Modules 8.2 Basic usage =============== The standard packaging tools are all designed to be used from the command line. The following command will install the latest version of a module and its dependencies from the Python Package Index: python -m pip install SomePackage Note: For POSIX users (including macOS and Linux users), the examples in this guide assume the use of a *note virtual environment: 1d01. For Windows users, the examples in this guide assume that the option to adjust the system PATH environment variable was selected when installing Python. It’s also possible to specify an exact or minimum version directly on the command line. When using comparator operators such as ‘>’, ‘<’ or some other special character which get interpreted by shell, the package name and the version should be enclosed within double quotes: python -m pip install SomePackage==1.0.4 # specific version python -m pip install "SomePackage>=1.0.4" # minimum version Normally, if a suitable module is already installed, attempting to install it again will have no effect. Upgrading existing modules must be requested explicitly: python -m pip install --upgrade SomePackage More information and resources regarding ‘pip’ and its capabilities can be found in the Python Packaging User Guide(1). Creation of virtual environments is done through the *note venv: 111. module. Installing packages into an active virtual environment uses the commands shown above. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Python Distribution Packages(2) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org (2) https://packaging.python.org/installing/  File: python.info, Node: How do I …?, Next: Common installation issues, Prev: Basic usage, Up: Installing Python Modules 8.3 How do I …? =============== These are quick answers or links for some common tasks. * Menu: * … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4?: … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3 4?. * … install packages just for the current user?:: * … install scientific Python packages?:: * … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?::  File: python.info, Node: … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3 4?, Next: … install packages just for the current user?, Up: How do I …? 8.3.1 … install ‘pip’ in versions of Python prior to Python 3.4? ---------------------------------------------------------------- Python only started bundling ‘pip’ with Python 3.4. For earlier versions, ‘pip’ needs to be “bootstrapped” as described in the Python Packaging User Guide. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Requirements for Installing Packages(1) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/installing/#requirements-for-installing-packages  File: python.info, Node: … install packages just for the current user?, Next: … install scientific Python packages?, Prev: … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3 4?, Up: How do I …? 8.3.2 … install packages just for the current user? --------------------------------------------------- Passing the ‘--user’ option to ‘python -m pip install’ will install a package just for the current user, rather than for all users of the system.  File: python.info, Node: … install scientific Python packages?, Next: … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?, Prev: … install packages just for the current user?, Up: How do I …? 8.3.3 … install scientific Python packages? ------------------------------------------- A number of scientific Python packages have complex binary dependencies, and aren’t currently easy to install using ‘pip’ directly. At this point in time, it will often be easier for users to install these packages by other means(1) rather than attempting to install them with ‘pip’. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Installing Scientific Packages(2) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/ (2) https://packaging.python.org/science/  File: python.info, Node: … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?, Prev: … install scientific Python packages?, Up: How do I …? 8.3.4 … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel? -------------------------------------------------------------------- On Linux, macOS, and other POSIX systems, use the versioned Python commands in combination with the ‘-m’ switch to run the appropriate copy of ‘pip’: python2 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 2 python2.7 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 2.7 python3 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 3 python3.4 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 3.4 Appropriately versioned ‘pip’ commands may also be available. On Windows, use the ‘py’ Python launcher in combination with the ‘-m’ switch: py -2 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 2 py -2.7 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 2.7 py -3 -m pip install SomePackage # default Python 3 py -3.4 -m pip install SomePackage # specifically Python 3.4  File: python.info, Node: Common installation issues, Prev: How do I …?, Up: Installing Python Modules 8.4 Common installation issues ============================== * Menu: * Installing into the system Python on Linux:: * Pip not installed:: * Installing binary extensions::  File: python.info, Node: Installing into the system Python on Linux, Next: Pip not installed, Up: Common installation issues 8.4.1 Installing into the system Python on Linux ------------------------------------------------ On Linux systems, a Python installation will typically be included as part of the distribution. Installing into this Python installation requires root access to the system, and may interfere with the operation of the system package manager and other components of the system if a component is unexpectedly upgraded using ‘pip’. On such systems, it is often better to use a virtual environment or a per-user installation when installing packages with ‘pip’.  File: python.info, Node: Pip not installed, Next: Installing binary extensions, Prev: Installing into the system Python on Linux, Up: Common installation issues 8.4.2 Pip not installed ----------------------- It is possible that ‘pip’ does not get installed by default. One potential fix is: python -m ensurepip --default-pip There are also additional resources for installing pip.(1) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/en/latest/tutorials/installing-packages/#ensure-pip-setuptools-and-wheel-are-up-to-date  File: python.info, Node: Installing binary extensions, Prev: Pip not installed, Up: Common installation issues 8.4.3 Installing binary extensions ---------------------------------- Python has typically relied heavily on source based distribution, with end users being expected to compile extension modules from source as part of the installation process. With the introduction of support for the binary ‘wheel’ format, and the ability to publish wheels for at least Windows and macOS through the Python Package Index, this problem is expected to diminish over time, as users are more regularly able to install pre-built extensions rather than needing to build them themselves. Some of the solutions for installing scientific software(1) that are not yet available as pre-built ‘wheel’ files may also help with obtaining other binary extensions without needing to build them locally. See also ........ Python Packaging User Guide: Binary Extensions(2) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://packaging.python.org/science/ (2) https://packaging.python.org/extensions/  File: python.info, Node: Python HOWTOs, Next: Python Frequently Asked Questions, Prev: Installing Python Modules, Up: Top 9 Python HOWTOs *************** Python HOWTOs are documents that cover a specific topic in-depth. Modeled on the Linux Documentation Project’s HOWTO collection, this collection is an effort to foster documentation that’s more detailed than the Python Library Reference. * Menu: * A Conceptual Overview of asyncio:: * Porting Extension Modules to Python 3:: * Curses Programming with Python:: * Descriptor Guide:: * Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB:: * Enum HOWTO:: * Functional Programming HOWTO:: * Logging HOWTO:: * Logging Cookbook:: * Regular Expression HOWTO:: * Socket Programming HOWTO:: * Sorting Techniques:: * Unicode HOWTO:: * HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package:: * An introduction to the ipaddress module:: * Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap:: * Python support for the Linux perf profiler:: * Annotations Best Practices:: * Isolating Extension Modules:: * timer file descriptor HOWTO:: * The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order. * Python experimental support for free threading:: * C API Extension Support for Free Threading::  File: python.info, Node: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio, Next: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.1 A Conceptual Overview of ‘asyncio’ ====================================== This *note HOWTO: 4ef7. article seeks to help you build a sturdy mental model of how *note asyncio: a. fundamentally works, helping you understand the how and why behind the recommended patterns. You might be curious about some key ‘asyncio’ concepts. You’ll be comfortably able to answer these questions by the end of this article: - What’s happening behind the scenes when an object is awaited? - How does ‘asyncio’ differentiate between a task which doesn’t need CPU-time (such as a network request or file read) as opposed to a task that does (such as computing n-factorial)? - How to write an asynchronous variant of an operation, such as an async sleep or database request. See also ........ * The guide(1) that inspired this HOWTO article, by Alexander Nordin. * This in-depth YouTube tutorial series(2) on ‘asyncio’ created by Python core team member, Łukasz Langa. * 500 Lines or Less: A Web Crawler With asyncio Coroutines(3) by A. Jesse Jiryu Davis and Guido van Rossum. * Menu: * A conceptual overview part 1; the high-level: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level. * A conceptual overview part 2; the nuts and bolts: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/anordin95/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio/tree/main (2) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xbl7XjFYsN4&list=PLhNSoGM2ik6SIkVGXWBwerucXjgP1rHmB (3) https://aosabook.org/en/500L/a-web-crawler-with-asyncio-coroutines.html  File: python.info, Node: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level, Next: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts, Up: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio 9.1.1 A conceptual overview part 1: the high-level -------------------------------------------------- In part 1, we’ll cover the main, high-level building blocks of ‘asyncio’: the event loop, coroutine functions, coroutine objects, tasks and ‘await’. * Menu: * Event Loop: Event Loop<2>. * Asynchronous functions and coroutines:: * Tasks: Tasks<2>. * await::  File: python.info, Node: Event Loop<2>, Next: Asynchronous functions and coroutines, Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level 9.1.1.1 Event Loop .................. Everything in ‘asyncio’ happens relative to the event loop. It’s the star of the show. It’s like an orchestra conductor. It’s behind the scenes managing resources. Some power is explicitly granted to it, but a lot of its ability to get things done comes from the respect and cooperation of its worker bees. In more technical terms, the event loop contains a collection of jobs to be run. Some jobs are added directly by you, and some indirectly by ‘asyncio’. The event loop takes a job from its backlog of work and invokes it (or “gives it control”), similar to calling a function, and then that job runs. Once it pauses or completes, it returns control to the event loop. The event loop will then select another job from its pool and invoke it. You can 'roughly' think of the collection of jobs as a queue: jobs are added and then processed one at a time, generally (but not always) in order. This process repeats indefinitely with the event loop cycling endlessly onwards. If there are no more jobs pending execution, the event loop is smart enough to rest and avoid needlessly wasting CPU cycles, and will come back when there’s more work to be done. Effective execution relies on jobs sharing well and cooperating; a greedy job could hog control and leave the other jobs to starve, rendering the overall event loop approach rather useless. import asyncio # This creates an event loop and indefinitely cycles through # its collection of jobs. event_loop = asyncio.new_event_loop() event_loop.run_forever()  File: python.info, Node: Asynchronous functions and coroutines, Next: Tasks<2>, Prev: Event Loop<2>, Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level 9.1.1.2 Asynchronous functions and coroutines ............................................. This is a basic, boring Python function: def hello_printer(): print( "Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I " "need in life -- \nfresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus " "partner in crime." ) Calling a regular function invokes its logic or body: >>> hello_printer() Hi, I am a lowly, simple printer, though I have all I need in life -- fresh paper and my dearly beloved octopus partner in crime. The *note async def: 5cd, as opposed to just a plain ‘def’, makes this an asynchronous function (or “coroutine function”). Calling it creates and returns a *note coroutine: 327a. object. async def loudmouth_penguin(magic_number: int): print( "I am a super special talking penguin. Far cooler than that printer. " f"By the way, my lucky number is: {magic_number}." ) Calling the async function, ‘loudmouth_penguin’, does not execute the print statement; instead, it creates a coroutine object: >>> loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=3) <coroutine object loudmouth_penguin at 0x104ed2740> The terms “coroutine function” and “coroutine object” are often conflated as coroutine. That can be confusing! In this article, coroutine specifically refers to a coroutine object, or more precisely, an instance of *note types.CoroutineType: e84. (native coroutine). Note that coroutines can also exist as instances of *note collections.abc.Coroutine: ddc. – a distinction that matters for type checking. A coroutine represents the function’s body or logic. A coroutine has to be explicitly started; again, merely creating the coroutine does not start it. Notably, the coroutine can be paused and resumed at various points within the function’s body. That pausing and resuming ability is what allows for asynchronous behavior! Coroutines and coroutine functions were built by leveraging the functionality of *note generators: bde. and *note generator functions: 105a. Recall, a generator function is a function that *note yield: 9cd.s, like this one: def get_random_number(): # This would be a bad random number generator! print("Hi") yield 1 print("Hello") yield 7 print("Howdy") yield 4 ... Similar to a coroutine function, calling a generator function does not run it. Instead, it creates a generator object: >>> get_random_number() <generator object get_random_number at 0x1048671c0> You can proceed to the next ‘yield’ of a generator by using the built-in function *note next(): 7d3. In other words, the generator runs, then pauses. For example: >>> generator = get_random_number() >>> next(generator) Hi 1 >>> next(generator) Hello 7  File: python.info, Node: Tasks<2>, Next: await, Prev: Asynchronous functions and coroutines, Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level 9.1.1.3 Tasks ............. Roughly speaking, *note tasks: 32ab. are coroutines (not coroutine functions) tied to an event loop. A task also maintains a list of callback functions whose importance will become clear in a moment when we discuss *note await: 1b9. The recommended way to create tasks is via *note asyncio.create_task(): 1bf. Creating a task automatically schedules it for execution (by adding a callback to run it in the event loop’s to-do list, that is, collection of jobs). Since there’s only one event loop (in each thread), ‘asyncio’ takes care of associating the task with the event loop for you. As such, there’s no need to specify the event loop. coroutine = loudmouth_penguin(magic_number=5) # This creates a Task object and schedules its execution via the event loop. task = asyncio.create_task(coroutine) Earlier, we manually created the event loop and set it to run forever. In practice, it’s recommended to use (and common to see) *note asyncio.run(): 478, which takes care of managing the event loop and ensuring the provided coroutine finishes before advancing. For example, many async programs follow this setup: import asyncio async def main(): # Perform all sorts of wacky, wild asynchronous things... ... if __name__ == "__main__": asyncio.run(main()) # The program will not reach the following print statement until the # coroutine main() finishes. print("coroutine main() is done!") It’s important to be aware that the task itself is not added to the event loop, only a callback to the task is. This matters if the task object you created is garbage collected before it’s called by the event loop. For example, consider this program: async def hello(): print("hello!") async def main(): asyncio.create_task(hello()) # Other asynchronous instructions which run for a while # and cede control to the event loop... ... asyncio.run(main()) Because there’s no reference to the task object created on line 5, it 'might' be garbage collected before the event loop invokes it. Later instructions in the coroutine ‘main()’ hand control back to the event loop so it can invoke other jobs. When the event loop eventually tries to run the task, it might fail and discover the task object does not exist! This can also happen even if a coroutine keeps a reference to a task but completes before that task finishes. When the coroutine exits, local variables go out of scope and may be subject to garbage collection. In practice, ‘asyncio’ and Python’s garbage collector work pretty hard to ensure this sort of thing doesn’t happen. But that’s no reason to be reckless!  File: python.info, Node: await, Prev: Tasks<2>, Up: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level 9.1.1.4 await ............. *note await: 1b9. is a Python keyword that’s commonly used in one of two different ways: await task await coroutine In a crucial way, the behavior of ‘await’ depends on the type of object being awaited. Awaiting a task will cede control from the current task or coroutine to the event loop. In the process of relinquishing control, a few important things happen. We’ll use the following code example to illustrate: async def plant_a_tree(): dig_the_hole_task = asyncio.create_task(dig_the_hole()) await dig_the_hole_task # Other instructions associated with planting a tree. ... In this example, imagine the event loop has passed control to the start of the coroutine ‘plant_a_tree()’. As seen above, the coroutine creates a task and then awaits it. The ‘await dig_the_hole_task’ instruction adds a callback (which will resume ‘plant_a_tree()’) to the ‘dig_the_hole_task’ object’s list of callbacks. And then, the instruction cedes control to the event loop. Some time later, the event loop will pass control to ‘dig_the_hole_task’ and the task will finish whatever it needs to do. Once the task finishes, it will add its various callbacks to the event loop, in this case, a call to resume ‘plant_a_tree()’. Generally speaking, when the awaited task finishes (‘dig_the_hole_task’), the original task or coroutine (‘plant_a_tree()’) is added back to the event loops to-do list to be resumed. This is a basic, yet reliable mental model. In practice, the control handoffs are slightly more complex, but not by much. In part 2, we’ll walk through the details that make this possible. 'Unlike tasks, awaiting a coroutine does not hand control back to the event loop!' Wrapping a coroutine in a task first, then awaiting that would cede control. The behavior of ‘await coroutine’ is effectively the same as invoking a regular, synchronous Python function. Consider this program: import asyncio async def coro_a(): print("I am coro_a(). Hi!") async def coro_b(): print("I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop...") async def main(): task_b = asyncio.create_task(coro_b()) num_repeats = 3 for _ in range(num_repeats): await coro_a() await task_b asyncio.run(main()) The first statement in the coroutine ‘main()’ creates ‘task_b’ and schedules it for execution via the event loop. Then, ‘coro_a()’ is repeatedly awaited. Control never cedes to the event loop which is why we see the output of all three ‘coro_a()’ invocations before ‘coro_b()’’s output: I am coro_a(). Hi! I am coro_a(). Hi! I am coro_a(). Hi! I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop... If we change ‘await coro_a()’ to ‘await asyncio.create_task(coro_a())’, the behavior changes. The coroutine ‘main()’ cedes control to the event loop with that statement. The event loop then proceeds through its backlog of work, calling ‘task_b’ and then the task which wraps ‘coro_a()’ before resuming the coroutine ‘main()’. I am coro_b(). I sure hope no one hogs the event loop... I am coro_a(). Hi! I am coro_a(). Hi! I am coro_a(). Hi! This behavior of ‘await coroutine’ can trip a lot of people up! That example highlights how using only ‘await coroutine’ could unintentionally hog control from other tasks and effectively stall the event loop. *note asyncio.run(): 478. can help you detect such occurences via the ‘debug=True’ flag which accordingly enables *note debug mode: 1d4f. Among other things, it will log any coroutines that monopolize execution for 100ms or longer. The design intentionally trades off some conceptual clarity around usage of ‘await’ for improved performance. Each time a task is awaited, control needs to be passed all the way up the call stack to the event loop. That might sound minor, but in a large program with many ‘await’’s and a deep callstack that overhead can add up to a meaningful performance drag.  File: python.info, Node: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts, Prev: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level, Up: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio 9.1.2 A conceptual overview part 2: the nuts and bolts ------------------------------------------------------ Part 2 goes into detail on the mechanisms ‘asyncio’ uses to manage control flow. This is where the magic happens. You’ll come away from this section knowing what ‘await’ does behind the scenes and how to make your own asynchronous operators. * Menu: * The inner workings of coroutines:: * Futures: Futures<2>. * A homemade asyncio.sleep: A homemade asyncio sleep.  File: python.info, Node: The inner workings of coroutines, Next: Futures<2>, Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts 9.1.2.1 The inner workings of coroutines ........................................ ‘asyncio’ leverages four components to pass around control. *note coroutine.send(arg): 1fcc. is the method used to start or resume a coroutine. If the coroutine was paused and is now being resumed, the argument ‘arg’ will be sent in as the return value of the ‘yield’ statement which originally paused it. If the coroutine is being used for the first time (as opposed to being resumed) ‘arg’ must be ‘None’. class Rock: def __await__(self): value_sent_in = yield 7 print(f"Rock.__await__ resuming with value: {value_sent_in}.") return value_sent_in async def main(): print("Beginning coroutine main().") rock = Rock() print("Awaiting rock...") value_from_rock = await rock print(f"Coroutine received value: {value_from_rock} from rock.") return 23 coroutine = main() intermediate_result = coroutine.send(None) print(f"Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: {intermediate_result}.") print(f"Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42.") try: coroutine.send(42) except StopIteration as e: returned_value = e.value print(f"Coroutine main() finished and provided value: {returned_value}.") *note yield: 203b, like usual, pauses execution and returns control to the caller. In the example above, the ‘yield’, on line 3, is called by ‘... = await rock’ on line 11. More broadly speaking, ‘await’ calls the *note __await__(): 1fc7. method of the given object. ‘await’ also does one more very special thing: it propagates (or “passes along”) any ‘yield’s it receives up the call-chain. In this case, that’s back to ‘... = coroutine.send(None)’ on line 16. The coroutine is resumed via the ‘coroutine.send(42)’ call on line 21. The coroutine picks back up from where it ‘yield’ed (or paused) on line 3 and executes the remaining statements in its body. When a coroutine finishes, it raises a *note StopIteration: bfa. exception with the return value attached in the *note value: 1fc9. attribute. That snippet produces this output: Beginning coroutine main(). Awaiting rock... Coroutine paused and returned intermediate value: 7. Resuming coroutine and sending in value: 42. Rock.__await__ resuming with value: 42. Coroutine received value: 42 from rock. Coroutine main() finished and provided value: 23. It’s worth pausing for a moment here and making sure you followed the various ways that control flow and values were passed. A lot of important ideas were covered and it’s worth ensuring your understanding is firm. The only way to yield (or effectively cede control) from a coroutine is to ‘await’ an object that ‘yield’s in its ‘__await__’ method. That might sound odd to you. You might be thinking: 1. What about a ‘yield’ directly within the coroutine function? The coroutine function becomes an *note async generator function: 203f, a different beast entirely. 2. What about a *note yield from: 203b. within the coroutine function to a (plain) generator? That causes the error: ‘SyntaxError: yield from not allowed in a coroutine.’ This was intentionally designed for the sake of simplicity – mandating only one way of using coroutines. Initially ‘yield’ was barred as well, but was re-accepted to allow for async generators. Despite that, ‘yield from’ and ‘await’ effectively do the same thing.  File: python.info, Node: Futures<2>, Next: A homemade asyncio sleep, Prev: The inner workings of coroutines, Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts 9.1.2.2 Futures ............... A *note future: 337c. is an object meant to represent a computation’s status and result. The term is a nod to the idea of something still to come or not yet happened, and the object is a way to keep an eye on that something. A future has a few important attributes. One is its state which can be either “pending”, “cancelled” or “done”. Another is its result, which is set when the state transitions to done. Unlike a coroutine, a future does not represent the actual computation to be done; instead, it represents the status and result of that computation, kind of like a status light (red, yellow or green) or indicator. *note asyncio.Task: 1be. subclasses *note asyncio.Future: bcd. in order to gain these various capabilities. The prior section said tasks store a list of callbacks, which wasn’t entirely accurate. It’s actually the ‘Future’ class that implements this logic, which ‘Task’ inherits. Futures may also be used directly (not via tasks). Tasks mark themselves as done when their coroutine is complete. Futures are much more versatile and will be marked as done when you say so. In this way, they’re the flexible interface for you to make your own conditions for waiting and resuming.  File: python.info, Node: A homemade asyncio sleep, Prev: Futures<2>, Up: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts 9.1.2.3 A homemade asyncio.sleep ................................ We’ll go through an example of how you could leverage a future to create your own variant of asynchronous sleep (‘async_sleep’) which mimics *note asyncio.sleep(): a6f. This snippet registers a few tasks with the event loop and then awaits a coroutine wrapped in a task: ‘async_sleep(3)’. We want that task to finish only after three seconds have elapsed, but without preventing other tasks from running. async def other_work(): print("I like work. Work work.") async def main(): # Add a few other tasks to the event loop, so there's something # to do while asynchronously sleeping. work_tasks = [ asyncio.create_task(other_work()), asyncio.create_task(other_work()), asyncio.create_task(other_work()) ] print( "Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: " f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}." ) await asyncio.create_task(async_sleep(3)) print( "Done asynchronous sleep at time: " f"{datetime.datetime.now().strftime("%H:%M:%S")}." ) # asyncio.gather effectively awaits each task in the collection. await asyncio.gather(*work_tasks) Below, we use a future to enable custom control over when that task will be marked as done. If *note future.set_result(): 32ae. (the method responsible for marking that future as done) is never called, then this task will never finish. We’ve also enlisted the help of another task, which we’ll see in a moment, that will monitor how much time has elapsed and, accordingly, call ‘future.set_result()’. async def async_sleep(seconds: float): future = asyncio.Future() time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds # Add the watcher-task to the event loop. watcher_task = asyncio.create_task(_sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake)) # Block until the future is marked as done. await future Below, we’ll use a rather bare object, ‘YieldToEventLoop()’, to ‘yield’ from ‘__await__’ in order to cede control to the event loop. This is effectively the same as calling ‘asyncio.sleep(0)’, but this approach offers more clarity, not to mention it’s somewhat cheating to use ‘asyncio.sleep’ when showcasing how to implement it! As usual, the event loop cycles through its tasks, giving them control and receiving control back when they pause or finish. The ‘watcher_task’, which runs the coroutine ‘_sleep_watcher(...)’, will be invoked once per full cycle of the event loop. On each resumption, it’ll check the time and if not enough has elapsed, then it’ll pause once again and hand control back to the event loop. Eventually, enough time will have elapsed, and ‘_sleep_watcher(...)’ will mark the future as done, and then itself finish too by breaking out of the infinite ‘while’ loop. Given this helper task is only invoked once per cycle of the event loop, you’d be correct to note that this asynchronous sleep will sleep 'at least' three seconds, rather than exactly three seconds. Note this is also of true of ‘asyncio.sleep’. class YieldToEventLoop: def __await__(self): yield async def _sleep_watcher(future, time_to_wake): while True: if time.time() >= time_to_wake: # This marks the future as done. future.set_result(None) break else: await YieldToEventLoop() Here is the full program’s output: $ python custom-async-sleep.py Beginning asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:22. I like work. Work work. I like work. Work work. I like work. Work work. Done asynchronous sleep at time: 14:52:25. You might feel this implementation of asynchronous sleep was unnecessarily convoluted. And, well, it was. The example was meant to showcase the versatility of futures with a simple example that could be mimicked for more complex needs. For reference, you could implement it without futures, like so: async def simpler_async_sleep(seconds): time_to_wake = time.time() + seconds while True: if time.time() >= time_to_wake: return else: await YieldToEventLoop() But, that’s all for now. Hopefully you’re ready to more confidently dive into some async programming or check out advanced topics in the *note rest of the documentation: a.  File: python.info, Node: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3, Next: Curses Programming with Python, Prev: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.2 Porting Extension Modules to Python 3 ========================================= We recommend the following resources for porting extension modules to Python 3: * The Migrating C extensions(1) chapter from 'Supporting Python 3: An in-depth guide', a book on moving from Python 2 to Python 3 in general, guides the reader through porting an extension module. * The Porting guide(2) from the 'py3c' project provides opinionated suggestions with supporting code. * *note Recommended third party tools: 48a8. offer abstractions over the Python’s C API. Extensions generally need to be re-written to use one of them, but the library then handles differences between various Python versions and implementations. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) http://python3porting.com/cextensions.html (2) https://py3c.readthedocs.io/en/latest/guide.html  File: python.info, Node: Curses Programming with Python, Next: Descriptor Guide, Prev: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.3 Curses Programming with Python ================================== Author: A.M. Kuchling, Eric S. Raymond Release: 2.04 Abstract ........ This document describes how to use the *note curses: 2b. extension module to control text-mode displays. * Menu: * What is curses?:: * Starting and ending a curses application:: * Windows and Pads:: * Displaying Text:: * User Input:: * For More Information::  File: python.info, Node: What is curses?, Next: Starting and ending a curses application, Up: Curses Programming with Python 9.3.1 What is curses? --------------------- The curses library supplies a terminal-independent screen-painting and keyboard-handling facility for text-based terminals; such terminals include VT100s, the Linux console, and the simulated terminal provided by various programs. Display terminals support various control codes to perform common operations such as moving the cursor, scrolling the screen, and erasing areas. Different terminals use widely differing codes, and often have their own minor quirks. In a world of graphical displays, one might ask “why bother”? It’s true that character-cell display terminals are an obsolete technology, but there are niches in which being able to do fancy things with them are still valuable. One niche is on small-footprint or embedded Unixes that don’t run an X server. Another is tools such as OS installers and kernel configurators that may have to run before any graphical support is available. The curses library provides fairly basic functionality, providing the programmer with an abstraction of a display containing multiple non-overlapping windows of text. The contents of a window can be changed in various ways—adding text, erasing it, changing its appearance—and the curses library will figure out what control codes need to be sent to the terminal to produce the right output. curses doesn’t provide many user-interface concepts such as buttons, checkboxes, or dialogs; if you need such features, consider a user interface library such as Urwid(1). The curses library was originally written for BSD Unix; the later System V versions of Unix from AT&T added many enhancements and new functions. BSD curses is no longer maintained, having been replaced by ncurses, which is an open-source implementation of the AT&T interface. If you’re using an open-source Unix such as Linux or FreeBSD, your system almost certainly uses ncurses. Since most current commercial Unix versions are based on System V code, all the functions described here will probably be available. The older versions of curses carried by some proprietary Unixes may not support everything, though. The Windows version of Python doesn’t include the *note curses: 2b. module. A ported version called UniCurses(2) is available. * Menu: * The Python curses module:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/UniCurses/  File: python.info, Node: The Python curses module, Up: What is curses? 9.3.1.1 The Python curses module ................................ The Python module is a fairly simple wrapper over the C functions provided by curses; if you’re already familiar with curses programming in C, it’s really easy to transfer that knowledge to Python. The biggest difference is that the Python interface makes things simpler by merging different C functions such as ‘addstr()’, ‘mvaddstr()’, and ‘mvwaddstr()’ into a single *note addstr(): 2f77. method. You’ll see this covered in more detail later. This HOWTO is an introduction to writing text-mode programs with curses and Python. It doesn’t attempt to be a complete guide to the curses API; for that, see the Python library guide’s section on ncurses, and the C manual pages for ncurses. It will, however, give you the basic ideas.  File: python.info, Node: Starting and ending a curses application, Next: Windows and Pads, Prev: What is curses?, Up: Curses Programming with Python 9.3.2 Starting and ending a curses application ---------------------------------------------- Before doing anything, curses must be initialized. This is done by calling the *note initscr(): 15a2. function, which will determine the terminal type, send any required setup codes to the terminal, and create various internal data structures. If successful, ‘initscr()’ returns a window object representing the entire screen; this is usually called ‘stdscr’ after the name of the corresponding C variable. import curses stdscr = curses.initscr() Usually curses applications turn off automatic echoing of keys to the screen, in order to be able to read keys and only display them under certain circumstances. This requires calling the *note noecho(): 2fa0. function. curses.noecho() Applications will also commonly need to react to keys instantly, without requiring the Enter key to be pressed; this is called cbreak mode, as opposed to the usual buffered input mode. curses.cbreak() Terminals usually return special keys, such as the cursor keys or navigation keys such as Page Up and Home, as a multibyte escape sequence. While you could write your application to expect such sequences and process them accordingly, curses can do it for you, returning a special value such as *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 301a. To get curses to do the job, you’ll have to enable keypad mode. stdscr.keypad(True) Terminating a curses application is much easier than starting one. You’ll need to call: curses.nocbreak() stdscr.keypad(False) curses.echo() to reverse the curses-friendly terminal settings. Then call the *note endwin(): 2f7a. function to restore the terminal to its original operating mode. curses.endwin() A common problem when debugging a curses application is to get your terminal messed up when the application dies without restoring the terminal to its previous state. In Python this commonly happens when your code is buggy and raises an uncaught exception. Keys are no longer echoed to the screen when you type them, for example, which makes using the shell difficult. In Python you can avoid these complications and make debugging much easier by importing the *note curses.wrapper(): a80. function and using it like this: from curses import wrapper def main(stdscr): # Clear screen stdscr.clear() # This raises ZeroDivisionError when i == 10. for i in range(0, 11): v = i-10 stdscr.addstr(i, 0, '10 divided by {} is {}'.format(v, 10/v)) stdscr.refresh() stdscr.getkey() wrapper(main) The *note wrapper(): a80. function takes a callable object and does the initializations described above, also initializing colors if color support is present. ‘wrapper()’ then runs your provided callable. Once the callable returns, ‘wrapper()’ will restore the original state of the terminal. The callable is called inside a *note try: 6e4.…*note except: 18b. that catches exceptions, restores the state of the terminal, and then re-raises the exception. Therefore your terminal won’t be left in a funny state on exception and you’ll be able to read the exception’s message and traceback.  File: python.info, Node: Windows and Pads, Next: Displaying Text, Prev: Starting and ending a curses application, Up: Curses Programming with Python 9.3.3 Windows and Pads ---------------------- Windows are the basic abstraction in curses. A window object represents a rectangular area of the screen, and supports methods to display text, erase it, allow the user to input strings, and so forth. The ‘stdscr’ object returned by the *note initscr(): 15a2. function is a window object that covers the entire screen. Many programs may need only this single window, but you might wish to divide the screen into smaller windows, in order to redraw or clear them separately. The *note newwin(): 2f9e. function creates a new window of a given size, returning the new window object. begin_x = 20; begin_y = 7 height = 5; width = 40 win = curses.newwin(height, width, begin_y, begin_x) Note that the coordinate system used in curses is unusual. Coordinates are always passed in the order 'y,x', and the top-left corner of a window is coordinate (0,0). This breaks the normal convention for handling coordinates where the 'x' coordinate comes first. This is an unfortunate difference from most other computer applications, but it’s been part of curses since it was first written, and it’s too late to change things now. Your application can determine the size of the screen by using the *note curses.LINES: 170b. and *note curses.COLS: 170c. variables to obtain the 'y' and 'x' sizes. Legal coordinates will then extend from ‘(0,0)’ to ‘(curses.LINES - 1, curses.COLS - 1)’. When you call a method to display or erase text, the effect doesn’t immediately show up on the display. Instead you must call the *note refresh(): 2f78. method of window objects to update the screen. This is because curses was originally written with slow 300-baud terminal connections in mind; with these terminals, minimizing the time required to redraw the screen was very important. Instead curses accumulates changes to the screen and displays them in the most efficient manner when you call ‘refresh()’. For example, if your program displays some text in a window and then clears the window, there’s no need to send the original text because they’re never visible. In practice, explicitly telling curses to redraw a window doesn’t really complicate programming with curses much. Most programs go into a flurry of activity, and then pause waiting for a keypress or some other action on the part of the user. All you have to do is to be sure that the screen has been redrawn before pausing to wait for user input, by first calling ‘stdscr.refresh()’ or the ‘refresh()’ method of some other relevant window. A pad is a special case of a window; it can be larger than the actual display screen, and only a portion of the pad displayed at a time. Creating a pad requires the pad’s height and width, while refreshing a pad requires giving the coordinates of the on-screen area where a subsection of the pad will be displayed. pad = curses.newpad(100, 100) # These loops fill the pad with letters; addch() is # explained in the next section for y in range(0, 99): for x in range(0, 99): pad.addch(y,x, ord('a') + (x*x+y*y) % 26) # Displays a section of the pad in the middle of the screen. # (0,0) : coordinate of upper-left corner of pad area to display. # (5,5) : coordinate of upper-left corner of window area to be filled # with pad content. # (20, 75) : coordinate of lower-right corner of window area to be # : filled with pad content. pad.refresh( 0,0, 5,5, 20,75) The ‘refresh()’ call displays a section of the pad in the rectangle extending from coordinate (5,5) to coordinate (20,75) on the screen; the upper left corner of the displayed section is coordinate (0,0) on the pad. Beyond that difference, pads are exactly like ordinary windows and support the same methods. If you have multiple windows and pads on screen there is a more efficient way to update the screen and prevent annoying screen flicker as each part of the screen gets updated. ‘refresh()’ actually does two things: 1. Calls the *note noutrefresh(): 2f76. method of each window to update an underlying data structure representing the desired state of the screen. 2. Calls the function *note doupdate(): 2f75. function to change the physical screen to match the desired state recorded in the data structure. Instead you can call ‘noutrefresh()’ on a number of windows to update the data structure, and then call ‘doupdate()’ to update the screen.  File: python.info, Node: Displaying Text, Next: User Input, Prev: Windows and Pads, Up: Curses Programming with Python 9.3.4 Displaying Text --------------------- From a C programmer’s point of view, curses may sometimes look like a twisty maze of functions, all subtly different. For example, ‘addstr()’ displays a string at the current cursor location in the ‘stdscr’ window, while ‘mvaddstr()’ moves to a given y,x coordinate first before displaying the string. ‘waddstr()’ is just like ‘addstr()’, but allows specifying a window to use instead of using ‘stdscr’ by default. ‘mvwaddstr()’ allows specifying both a window and a coordinate. Fortunately the Python interface hides all these details. ‘stdscr’ is a window object like any other, and methods such as *note addstr(): 2f77. accept multiple argument forms. Usually there are four different forms. Form Description ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 'str' or 'ch' Display the string 'str' or character 'ch' at the current position 'str' or 'ch', 'attr' Display the string 'str' or character 'ch', using attribute 'attr' at the current position 'y', 'x', 'str' or 'ch' Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and display 'str' or 'ch' 'y', 'x', 'str' or 'ch', 'attr' Move to position 'y,x' within the window, and display 'str' or 'ch', using attribute 'attr' Attributes allow displaying text in highlighted forms such as boldface, underline, reverse code, or in color. They’ll be explained in more detail in the next subsection. The *note addstr(): 2f77. method takes a Python string or bytestring as the value to be displayed. The contents of bytestrings are sent to the terminal as-is. Strings are encoded to bytes using the value of the window’s *note encoding: 108f. attribute; this defaults to the default system encoding as returned by *note locale.getencoding(): 2e0. The *note addch(): 2fb9. methods take a character, which can be either a string of length 1, a bytestring of length 1, or an integer. Constants are provided for extension characters; these constants are integers greater than 255. For example, *note ACS_PLMINUS: 3087. is a +/- symbol, and *note ACS_ULCORNER: 2fc3. is the upper left corner of a box (handy for drawing borders). You can also use the appropriate Unicode character. Windows remember where the cursor was left after the last operation, so if you leave out the 'y,x' coordinates, the string or character will be displayed wherever the last operation left off. You can also move the cursor with the ‘move(y,x)’ method. Because some terminals always display a flashing cursor, you may want to ensure that the cursor is positioned in some location where it won’t be distracting; it can be confusing to have the cursor blinking at some apparently random location. If your application doesn’t need a blinking cursor at all, you can call ‘curs_set(False)’ to make it invisible. For compatibility with older curses versions, there’s a ‘leaveok(bool)’ function that’s a synonym for *note curs_set(): 2f6f. When 'bool' is true, the curses library will attempt to suppress the flashing cursor, and you won’t need to worry about leaving it in odd locations. * Menu: * Attributes and Color::  File: python.info, Node: Attributes and Color, Up: Displaying Text 9.3.4.1 Attributes and Color ............................ Characters can be displayed in different ways. Status lines in a text-based application are commonly shown in reverse video, or a text viewer may need to highlight certain words. curses supports this by allowing you to specify an attribute for each cell on the screen. An attribute is an integer, each bit representing a different attribute. You can try to display text with multiple attribute bits set, but curses doesn’t guarantee that all the possible combinations are available, or that they’re all visually distinct. That depends on the ability of the terminal being used, so it’s safest to stick to the most commonly available attributes, listed here. Attribute Description ---------------------------------------------------------------------- *note A_BLINK: 3006. Blinking text *note A_BOLD: 3007. Extra bright or bold text *note A_DIM: 3008. Half bright text *note A_REVERSE: 2f6d. Reverse-video text *note A_STANDOUT: 2f6c. The best highlighting mode available *note A_UNDERLINE: 300c. Underlined text So, to display a reverse-video status line on the top line of the screen, you could code: stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Current mode: Typing mode", curses.A_REVERSE) stdscr.refresh() The curses library also supports color on those terminals that provide it. The most common such terminal is probably the Linux console, followed by color xterms. To use color, you must call the *note start_color(): 2faa. function soon after calling *note initscr(): 15a2, to initialize the default color set (the *note curses.wrapper(): a80. function does this automatically). Once that’s done, the *note has_colors(): 2f8d. function returns TRUE if the terminal in use can actually display color. (Note: curses uses the American spelling ‘color’, instead of the Canadian/British spelling ‘colour’. If you’re used to the British spelling, you’ll have to resign yourself to misspelling it for the sake of these functions.) The curses library maintains a finite number of color pairs, containing a foreground (or text) color and a background color. You can get the attribute value corresponding to a color pair with the *note color_pair(): 2f6b. function; this can be bitwise-OR’ed with other attributes such as *note A_REVERSE: 2f6d, but again, such combinations are not guaranteed to work on all terminals. An example, which displays a line of text using color pair 1: stdscr.addstr("Pretty text", curses.color_pair(1)) stdscr.refresh() As I said before, a color pair consists of a foreground and background color. The ‘init_pair(n, f, b)’ function changes the definition of color pair 'n', to foreground color f and background color b. Color pair 0 is hard-wired to white on black, and cannot be changed. Colors are numbered, and *note start_color(): 2faa. initializes 8 basic colors when it activates color mode. They are: 0:black, 1:red, 2:green, 3:yellow, 4:blue, 5:magenta, 6:cyan, and 7:white. The *note curses: 2b. module defines named constants for each of these colors: *note curses.COLOR_BLACK: 3099, *note curses.COLOR_RED: 309e, and so forth. Let’s put all this together. To change color 1 to red text on a white background, you would call: curses.init_pair(1, curses.COLOR_RED, curses.COLOR_WHITE) When you change a color pair, any text already displayed using that color pair will change to the new colors. You can also display new text in this color with: stdscr.addstr(0,0, "RED ALERT!", curses.color_pair(1)) Very fancy terminals can change the definitions of the actual colors to a given RGB value. This lets you change color 1, which is usually red, to purple or blue or any other color you like. Unfortunately, the Linux console doesn’t support this, so I’m unable to try it out, and can’t provide any examples. You can check if your terminal can do this by calling *note can_change_color(): 2f68, which returns ‘True’ if the capability is there. If you’re lucky enough to have such a talented terminal, consult your system’s man pages for more information.  File: python.info, Node: User Input, Next: For More Information, Prev: Displaying Text, Up: Curses Programming with Python 9.3.5 User Input ---------------- The C curses library offers only very simple input mechanisms. Python’s *note curses: 2b. module adds a basic text-input widget. (Other libraries such as Urwid(1) have more extensive collections of widgets.) There are two methods for getting input from a window: * *note getch(): 1540. refreshes the screen and then waits for the user to hit a key, displaying the key if *note echo(): 2f79. has been called earlier. You can optionally specify a coordinate to which the cursor should be moved before pausing. * *note getkey(): 2fd7. does the same thing but converts the integer to a string. Individual characters are returned as 1-character strings, and special keys such as function keys return longer strings containing a key name such as ‘KEY_UP’ or ‘^G’. It’s possible to not wait for the user using the *note nodelay(): 2fed. window method. After ‘nodelay(True)’, ‘getch()’ and ‘getkey()’ for the window become non-blocking. To signal that no input is ready, ‘getch()’ returns ‘curses.ERR’ (a value of -1) and ‘getkey()’ raises an exception. There’s also a *note halfdelay(): 2f91. function, which can be used to (in effect) set a timer on each ‘getch()’; if no input becomes available within a specified delay (measured in tenths of a second), curses raises an exception. The ‘getch()’ method returns an integer; if it’s between 0 and 255, it represents the ASCII code of the key pressed. Values greater than 255 are special keys such as Page Up, Home, or the cursor keys. You can compare the value returned to constants such as *note curses.KEY_PPAGE: 302b, *note curses.KEY_HOME: 301c, or *note curses.KEY_LEFT: 301a. The main loop of your program may look something like this: while True: c = stdscr.getch() if c == ord('p'): PrintDocument() elif c == ord('q'): break # Exit the while loop elif c == curses.KEY_HOME: x = y = 0 The *note curses.ascii: 2c. module supplies ASCII class membership functions that take either integer or 1-character string arguments; these may be useful in writing more readable tests for such loops. It also supplies conversion functions that take either integer or 1-character-string arguments and return the same type. For example, *note curses.ascii.ctrl(): 30e0. returns the control character corresponding to its argument. There’s also a method to retrieve an entire string, *note getstr(): 2fda. It isn’t used very often, because its functionality is quite limited; the only editing keys available are the backspace key and the Enter key, which terminates the string. It can optionally be limited to a fixed number of characters. curses.echo() # Enable echoing of characters # Get a 15-character string, with the cursor on the top line s = stdscr.getstr(0,0, 15) The *note curses.textpad: 2e. module supplies a text box that supports an Emacs-like set of keybindings. Various methods of the *note Textbox: 30a2. class support editing with input validation and gathering the edit results either with or without trailing spaces. Here’s an example: import curses from curses.textpad import Textbox, rectangle def main(stdscr): stdscr.addstr(0, 0, "Enter IM message: (hit Ctrl-G to send)") editwin = curses.newwin(5,30, 2,1) rectangle(stdscr, 1,0, 1+5+1, 1+30+1) stdscr.refresh() box = Textbox(editwin) # Let the user edit until Ctrl-G is struck. box.edit() # Get resulting contents message = box.gather() See the library documentation on *note curses.textpad: 2e. for more details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/Urwid/  File: python.info, Node: For More Information, Prev: User Input, Up: Curses Programming with Python 9.3.6 For More Information -------------------------- This HOWTO doesn’t cover some advanced topics, such as reading the contents of the screen or capturing mouse events from an xterm instance, but the Python library page for the *note curses: 2b. module is now reasonably complete. You should browse it next. If you’re in doubt about the detailed behavior of the curses functions, consult the manual pages for your curses implementation, whether it’s ncurses or a proprietary Unix vendor’s. The manual pages will document any quirks, and provide complete lists of all the functions, attributes, and *note ACS_*: 3073. characters available to you. Because the curses API is so large, some functions aren’t supported in the Python interface. Often this isn’t because they’re difficult to implement, but because no one has needed them yet. Also, Python doesn’t yet support the menu library associated with ncurses. Patches adding support for these would be welcome; see the Python Developer's Guide(1) to learn more about submitting patches to Python. * Writing Programs with NCURSES(2): a lengthy tutorial for C programmers. * The ncurses man page(3) * The ncurses FAQ(4) * "Use curses... don't swear"(5): video of a PyCon 2013 talk on controlling terminals using curses or Urwid. * "Console Applications with Urwid"(6): video of a PyCon CA 2012 talk demonstrating some applications written using Urwid. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/ (2) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses-intro.html (3) https://linux.die.net/man/3/ncurses (4) https://invisible-island.net/ncurses/ncurses.faq.html (5) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eN1eZtjLEnU (6) https://pyvideo.org/video/1568/console-applications-with-urwid  File: python.info, Node: Descriptor Guide, Next: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB, Prev: Curses Programming with Python, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.4 Descriptor Guide ==================== Author: Raymond Hettinger Contact: <python at rcn dot com> *note Descriptors: 1572. let objects customize attribute lookup, storage, and deletion. This guide has four major sections: 1. The “primer” gives a basic overview, moving gently from simple examples, adding one feature at a time. Start here if you’re new to descriptors. 2. The second section shows a complete, practical descriptor example. If you already know the basics, start there. 3. The third section provides a more technical tutorial that goes into the detailed mechanics of how descriptors work. Most people don’t need this level of detail. 4. The last section has pure Python equivalents for built-in descriptors that are written in C. Read this if you’re curious about how functions turn into bound methods or about the implementation of common tools like *note classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 412, *note property(): 194, and *note __slots__: 5db. * Menu: * Primer:: * Complete Practical Example:: * Technical Tutorial:: * Pure Python Equivalents::  File: python.info, Node: Primer, Next: Complete Practical Example, Up: Descriptor Guide 9.4.1 Primer ------------ In this primer, we start with the most basic possible example and then we’ll add new capabilities one by one. * Menu: * Simple example; A descriptor that returns a constant: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant. * Dynamic lookups:: * Managed attributes:: * Customized names:: * Closing thoughts::  File: python.info, Node: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant, Next: Dynamic lookups, Up: Primer 9.4.1.1 Simple example: A descriptor that returns a constant ............................................................ The ‘Ten’ class is a descriptor whose *note __get__(): 14b2. method always returns the constant ‘10’: class Ten: def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): return 10 To use the descriptor, it must be stored as a class variable in another class: class A: x = 5 # Regular class attribute y = Ten() # Descriptor instance An interactive session shows the difference between normal attribute lookup and descriptor lookup: >>> a = A() # Make an instance of class A >>> a.x # Normal attribute lookup 5 >>> a.y # Descriptor lookup 10 In the ‘a.x’ attribute lookup, the dot operator finds ‘'x': 5’ in the class dictionary. In the ‘a.y’ lookup, the dot operator finds a descriptor instance, recognized by its ‘__get__’ method. Calling that method returns ‘10’. Note that the value ‘10’ is not stored in either the class dictionary or the instance dictionary. Instead, the value ‘10’ is computed on demand. This example shows how a simple descriptor works, but it isn’t very useful. For retrieving constants, normal attribute lookup would be better. In the next section, we’ll create something more useful, a dynamic lookup.  File: python.info, Node: Dynamic lookups, Next: Managed attributes, Prev: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant, Up: Primer 9.4.1.2 Dynamic lookups ....................... Interesting descriptors typically run computations instead of returning constants: import os class DirectorySize: def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): return len(os.listdir(obj.dirname)) class Directory: size = DirectorySize() # Descriptor instance def __init__(self, dirname): self.dirname = dirname # Regular instance attribute An interactive session shows that the lookup is dynamic — it computes different, updated answers each time: >>> s = Directory('songs') >>> g = Directory('games') >>> s.size # The songs directory has twenty files 20 >>> g.size # The games directory has three files 3 >>> os.remove('games/chess') # Delete a game >>> g.size # File count is automatically updated 2 Besides showing how descriptors can run computations, this example also reveals the purpose of the parameters to *note __get__(): 14b2. The 'self' parameter is 'size', an instance of 'DirectorySize'. The 'obj' parameter is either 'g' or 's', an instance of 'Directory'. It is the 'obj' parameter that lets the *note __get__(): 14b2. method learn the target directory. The 'objtype' parameter is the class 'Directory'.  File: python.info, Node: Managed attributes, Next: Customized names, Prev: Dynamic lookups, Up: Primer 9.4.1.3 Managed attributes .......................... A popular use for descriptors is managing access to instance data. The descriptor is assigned to a public attribute in the class dictionary while the actual data is stored as a private attribute in the instance dictionary. The descriptor’s *note __get__(): 14b2. and *note __set__(): 1f6a. methods are triggered when the public attribute is accessed. In the following example, 'age' is the public attribute and '_age' is the private attribute. When the public attribute is accessed, the descriptor logs the lookup or update: import logging logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO) class LoggedAgeAccess: def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): value = obj._age logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', 'age', value) return value def __set__(self, obj, value): logging.info('Updating %r to %r', 'age', value) obj._age = value class Person: age = LoggedAgeAccess() # Descriptor instance def __init__(self, name, age): self.name = name # Regular instance attribute self.age = age # Calls __set__() def birthday(self): self.age += 1 # Calls both __get__() and __set__() An interactive session shows that all access to the managed attribute 'age' is logged, but that the regular attribute 'name' is not logged: >>> mary = Person('Mary M', 30) # The initial age update is logged INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 30 >>> dave = Person('David D', 40) INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 40 >>> vars(mary) # The actual data is in a private attribute {'name': 'Mary M', '_age': 30} >>> vars(dave) {'name': 'David D', '_age': 40} >>> mary.age # Access the data and log the lookup INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30 30 >>> mary.birthday() # Updates are logged as well INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 30 INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 31 >>> dave.name # Regular attribute lookup isn't logged 'David D' >>> dave.age # Only the managed attribute is logged INFO:root:Accessing 'age' giving 40 40 One major issue with this example is that the private name '_age' is hardwired in the 'LoggedAgeAccess' class. That means that each instance can only have one logged attribute and that its name is unchangeable. In the next example, we’ll fix that problem.  File: python.info, Node: Customized names, Next: Closing thoughts, Prev: Managed attributes, Up: Primer 9.4.1.4 Customized names ........................ When a class uses descriptors, it can inform each descriptor about which variable name was used. In this example, the ‘Person’ class has two descriptor instances, 'name' and 'age'. When the ‘Person’ class is defined, it makes a callback to *note __set_name__(): c4e. in 'LoggedAccess' so that the field names can be recorded, giving each descriptor its own 'public_name' and 'private_name': import logging logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO) class LoggedAccess: def __set_name__(self, owner, name): self.public_name = name self.private_name = '_' + name def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): value = getattr(obj, self.private_name) logging.info('Accessing %r giving %r', self.public_name, value) return value def __set__(self, obj, value): logging.info('Updating %r to %r', self.public_name, value) setattr(obj, self.private_name, value) class Person: name = LoggedAccess() # First descriptor instance age = LoggedAccess() # Second descriptor instance def __init__(self, name, age): self.name = name # Calls the first descriptor self.age = age # Calls the second descriptor def birthday(self): self.age += 1 An interactive session shows that the ‘Person’ class has called *note __set_name__(): c4e. so that the field names would be recorded. Here we call *note vars(): 1a41. to look up the descriptor without triggering it: >>> vars(vars(Person)['name']) {'public_name': 'name', 'private_name': '_name'} >>> vars(vars(Person)['age']) {'public_name': 'age', 'private_name': '_age'} The new class now logs access to both 'name' and 'age': >>> pete = Person('Peter P', 10) INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Peter P' INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 10 >>> kate = Person('Catherine C', 20) INFO:root:Updating 'name' to 'Catherine C' INFO:root:Updating 'age' to 20 The two 'Person' instances contain only the private names: >>> vars(pete) {'_name': 'Peter P', '_age': 10} >>> vars(kate) {'_name': 'Catherine C', '_age': 20}  File: python.info, Node: Closing thoughts, Prev: Customized names, Up: Primer 9.4.1.5 Closing thoughts ........................ A *note descriptor: 1572. is what we call any object that defines *note __get__(): 14b2, *note __set__(): 1f6a, or *note __delete__(): 1609. Optionally, descriptors can have a *note __set_name__(): c4e. method. This is only used in cases where a descriptor needs to know either the class where it was created or the name of class variable it was assigned to. (This method, if present, is called even if the class is not a descriptor.) Descriptors get invoked by the dot operator during attribute lookup. If a descriptor is accessed indirectly with ‘vars(some_class)[descriptor_name]’, the descriptor instance is returned without invoking it. Descriptors only work when used as class variables. When put in instances, they have no effect. The main motivation for descriptors is to provide a hook allowing objects stored in class variables to control what happens during attribute lookup. Traditionally, the calling class controls what happens during lookup. Descriptors invert that relationship and allow the data being looked-up to have a say in the matter. Descriptors are used throughout the language. It is how functions turn into bound methods. Common tools like *note classmethod(): 166, *note staticmethod(): 412, *note property(): 194, and *note functools.cached_property(): 53e. are all implemented as descriptors.  File: python.info, Node: Complete Practical Example, Next: Technical Tutorial, Prev: Primer, Up: Descriptor Guide 9.4.2 Complete Practical Example -------------------------------- In this example, we create a practical and powerful tool for locating notoriously hard to find data corruption bugs. * Menu: * Validator class:: * Custom validators:: * Practical application::  File: python.info, Node: Validator class, Next: Custom validators, Up: Complete Practical Example 9.4.2.1 Validator class ....................... A validator is a descriptor for managed attribute access. Prior to storing any data, it verifies that the new value meets various type and range restrictions. If those restrictions aren’t met, it raises an exception to prevent data corruption at its source. This ‘Validator’ class is both an *note abstract base class: 11a8. and a managed attribute descriptor: from abc import ABC, abstractmethod class Validator(ABC): def __set_name__(self, owner, name): self.private_name = '_' + name def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): return getattr(obj, self.private_name) def __set__(self, obj, value): self.validate(value) setattr(obj, self.private_name, value) @abstractmethod def validate(self, value): pass Custom validators need to inherit from ‘Validator’ and must supply a ‘validate()’ method to test various restrictions as needed.  File: python.info, Node: Custom validators, Next: Practical application, Prev: Validator class, Up: Complete Practical Example 9.4.2.2 Custom validators ......................... Here are three practical data validation utilities: 1. ‘OneOf’ verifies that a value is one of a restricted set of options. 2. ‘Number’ verifies that a value is either an *note int: 259. or *note float: 2f1. Optionally, it verifies that a value is between a given minimum or maximum. 3. ‘String’ verifies that a value is a *note str: 447. Optionally, it validates a given minimum or maximum length. It can validate a user-defined predicate(1) as well. class OneOf(Validator): def __init__(self, *options): self.options = set(options) def validate(self, value): if value not in self.options: raise ValueError( f'Expected {value!r} to be one of {self.options!r}' ) class Number(Validator): def __init__(self, minvalue=None, maxvalue=None): self.minvalue = minvalue self.maxvalue = maxvalue def validate(self, value): if not isinstance(value, (int, float)): raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an int or float') if self.minvalue is not None and value < self.minvalue: raise ValueError( f'Expected {value!r} to be at least {self.minvalue!r}' ) if self.maxvalue is not None and value > self.maxvalue: raise ValueError( f'Expected {value!r} to be no more than {self.maxvalue!r}' ) class String(Validator): def __init__(self, minsize=None, maxsize=None, predicate=None): self.minsize = minsize self.maxsize = maxsize self.predicate = predicate def validate(self, value): if not isinstance(value, str): raise TypeError(f'Expected {value!r} to be an str') if self.minsize is not None and len(value) < self.minsize: raise ValueError( f'Expected {value!r} to be no smaller than {self.minsize!r}' ) if self.maxsize is not None and len(value) > self.maxsize: raise ValueError( f'Expected {value!r} to be no bigger than {self.maxsize!r}' ) if self.predicate is not None and not self.predicate(value): raise ValueError( f'Expected {self.predicate} to be true for {value!r}' ) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)  File: python.info, Node: Practical application, Prev: Custom validators, Up: Complete Practical Example 9.4.2.3 Practical application ............................. Here’s how the data validators can be used in a real class: class Component: name = String(minsize=3, maxsize=10, predicate=str.isupper) kind = OneOf('wood', 'metal', 'plastic') quantity = Number(minvalue=0) def __init__(self, name, kind, quantity): self.name = name self.kind = kind self.quantity = quantity The descriptors prevent invalid instances from being created: >>> Component('Widget', 'metal', 5) # Blocked: 'Widget' is not all uppercase Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: Expected <method 'isupper' of 'str' objects> to be true for 'Widget' >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metle', 5) # Blocked: 'metle' is misspelled Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: Expected 'metle' to be one of {'metal', 'plastic', 'wood'} >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', -5) # Blocked: -5 is negative Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: Expected -5 to be at least 0 >>> Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 'V') # Blocked: 'V' isn't a number Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: Expected 'V' to be an int or float >>> c = Component('WIDGET', 'metal', 5) # Allowed: The inputs are valid  File: python.info, Node: Technical Tutorial, Next: Pure Python Equivalents, Prev: Complete Practical Example, Up: Descriptor Guide 9.4.3 Technical Tutorial ------------------------ What follows is a more technical tutorial for the mechanics and details of how descriptors work. * Menu: * Abstract:: * Definition and introduction:: * Descriptor protocol:: * Overview of descriptor invocation:: * Invocation from an instance:: * Invocation from a class:: * Invocation from super:: * Summary of invocation logic:: * Automatic name notification:: * ORM example::  File: python.info, Node: Abstract, Next: Definition and introduction, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.1 Abstract ................ Defines descriptors, summarizes the protocol, and shows how descriptors are called. Provides an example showing how object relational mappings work. Learning about descriptors not only provides access to a larger toolset, it creates a deeper understanding of how Python works.  File: python.info, Node: Definition and introduction, Next: Descriptor protocol, Prev: Abstract, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.2 Definition and introduction ................................... In general, a descriptor is an attribute value that has one of the methods in the descriptor protocol. Those methods are *note __get__(): 14b2, *note __set__(): 1f6a, and *note __delete__(): 1609. If any of those methods are defined for an attribute, it is said to be a *note descriptor: 1572. The default behavior for attribute access is to get, set, or delete the attribute from an object’s dictionary. For instance, ‘a.x’ has a lookup chain starting with ‘a.__dict__['x']’, then ‘type(a).__dict__['x']’, and continuing through the method resolution order of ‘type(a)’. If the looked-up value is an object defining one of the descriptor methods, then Python may override the default behavior and invoke the descriptor method instead. Where this occurs in the precedence chain depends on which descriptor methods were defined. Descriptors are a powerful, general purpose protocol. They are the mechanism behind properties, methods, static methods, class methods, and *note super(): 4d7. They are used throughout Python itself. Descriptors simplify the underlying C code and offer a flexible set of new tools for everyday Python programs.  File: python.info, Node: Descriptor protocol, Next: Overview of descriptor invocation, Prev: Definition and introduction, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.3 Descriptor protocol ........................... ‘descr.__get__(self, obj, type=None)’ ‘descr.__set__(self, obj, value)’ ‘descr.__delete__(self, obj)’ That is all there is to it. Define any of these methods and an object is considered a descriptor and can override default behavior upon being looked up as an attribute. If an object defines *note __set__(): 1f6a. or *note __delete__(): 1609, it is considered a data descriptor. Descriptors that only define *note __get__(): 14b2. are called non-data descriptors (they are often used for methods but other uses are possible). Data and non-data descriptors differ in how overrides are calculated with respect to entries in an instance’s dictionary. If an instance’s dictionary has an entry with the same name as a data descriptor, the data descriptor takes precedence. If an instance’s dictionary has an entry with the same name as a non-data descriptor, the dictionary entry takes precedence. To make a read-only data descriptor, define both *note __get__(): 14b2. and *note __set__(): 1f6a. with the *note __set__(): 1f6a. raising an *note AttributeError: 348. when called. Defining the *note __set__(): 1f6a. method with an exception raising placeholder is enough to make it a data descriptor.  File: python.info, Node: Overview of descriptor invocation, Next: Invocation from an instance, Prev: Descriptor protocol, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.4 Overview of descriptor invocation ......................................... A descriptor can be called directly with ‘desc.__get__(obj)’ or ‘desc.__get__(None, cls)’. But it is more common for a descriptor to be invoked automatically from attribute access. The expression ‘obj.x’ looks up the attribute ‘x’ in the chain of namespaces for ‘obj’. If the search finds a descriptor outside of the instance *note __dict__: 558, its *note __get__(): 14b2. method is invoked according to the precedence rules listed below. The details of invocation depend on whether ‘obj’ is an object, class, or instance of super.  File: python.info, Node: Invocation from an instance, Next: Invocation from a class, Prev: Overview of descriptor invocation, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.5 Invocation from an instance ................................... Instance lookup scans through a chain of namespaces giving data descriptors the highest priority, followed by instance variables, then non-data descriptors, then class variables, and lastly *note __getattr__(): 4cf. if it is provided. If a descriptor is found for ‘a.x’, then it is invoked with: ‘desc.__get__(a, type(a))’. The logic for a dotted lookup is in *note object.__getattribute__(): bd2. Here is a pure Python equivalent: def find_name_in_mro(cls, name, default): "Emulate _PyType_Lookup() in Objects/typeobject.c" for base in cls.__mro__: if name in vars(base): return vars(base)[name] return default def object_getattribute(obj, name): "Emulate PyObject_GenericGetAttr() in Objects/object.c" null = object() objtype = type(obj) cls_var = find_name_in_mro(objtype, name, null) descr_get = getattr(type(cls_var), '__get__', null) if descr_get is not null: if (hasattr(type(cls_var), '__set__') or hasattr(type(cls_var), '__delete__')): return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype) # data descriptor if hasattr(obj, '__dict__') and name in vars(obj): return vars(obj)[name] # instance variable if descr_get is not null: return descr_get(cls_var, obj, objtype) # non-data descriptor if cls_var is not null: return cls_var # class variable raise AttributeError(name) Note, there is no *note __getattr__(): 4cf. hook in the *note __getattribute__(): bd2. code. That is why calling *note __getattribute__(): bd2. directly or with ‘super().__getattribute__’ will bypass *note __getattr__(): 4cf. entirely. Instead, it is the dot operator and the *note getattr(): bd1. function that are responsible for invoking *note __getattr__(): 4cf. whenever *note __getattribute__(): bd2. raises an *note AttributeError: 348. Their logic is encapsulated in a helper function: def getattr_hook(obj, name): "Emulate slot_tp_getattr_hook() in Objects/typeobject.c" try: return obj.__getattribute__(name) except AttributeError: if not hasattr(type(obj), '__getattr__'): raise return type(obj).__getattr__(obj, name) # __getattr__  File: python.info, Node: Invocation from a class, Next: Invocation from super, Prev: Invocation from an instance, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.6 Invocation from a class ............................... The logic for a dotted lookup such as ‘A.x’ is in ‘type.__getattribute__()’. The steps are similar to those for ‘object.__getattribute__()’ but the instance dictionary lookup is replaced by a search through the class’s *note method resolution order: 2180. If a descriptor is found, it is invoked with ‘desc.__get__(None, A)’. The full C implementation can be found in ‘type_getattro()’ and ‘_PyType_Lookup()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c  File: python.info, Node: Invocation from super, Next: Summary of invocation logic, Prev: Invocation from a class, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.7 Invocation from super ............................. The logic for super’s dotted lookup is in the *note __getattribute__(): bd2. method for object returned by *note super(): 4d7. A dotted lookup such as ‘super(A, obj).m’ searches ‘obj.__class__.__mro__’ for the base class ‘B’ immediately following ‘A’ and then returns ‘B.__dict__['m'].__get__(obj, A)’. If not a descriptor, ‘m’ is returned unchanged. The full C implementation can be found in ‘super_getattro()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1). A pure Python equivalent can be found in Guido's Tutorial(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c (2) https://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.3/descrintro/#cooperation  File: python.info, Node: Summary of invocation logic, Next: Automatic name notification, Prev: Invocation from super, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.8 Summary of invocation logic ................................... The mechanism for descriptors is embedded in the *note __getattribute__(): bd2. methods for *note object: a8c, *note type: d48, and *note super(): 4d7. The important points to remember are: * Descriptors are invoked by the *note __getattribute__(): bd2. method. * Classes inherit this machinery from *note object: a8c, *note type: d48, or *note super(): 4d7. * Overriding *note __getattribute__(): bd2. prevents automatic descriptor calls because all the descriptor logic is in that method. * ‘object.__getattribute__()’ and ‘type.__getattribute__()’ make different calls to *note __get__(): 14b2. The first includes the instance and may include the class. The second puts in ‘None’ for the instance and always includes the class. * Data descriptors always override instance dictionaries. * Non-data descriptors may be overridden by instance dictionaries.  File: python.info, Node: Automatic name notification, Next: ORM example, Prev: Summary of invocation logic, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.9 Automatic name notification ................................... Sometimes it is desirable for a descriptor to know what class variable name it was assigned to. When a new class is created, the *note type: d48. metaclass scans the dictionary of the new class. If any of the entries are descriptors and if they define *note __set_name__(): c4e, that method is called with two arguments. The 'owner' is the class where the descriptor is used, and the 'name' is the class variable the descriptor was assigned to. The implementation details are in ‘type_new()’ and ‘set_names()’ in Objects/typeobject.c(1). Since the update logic is in ‘type.__new__()’, notifications only take place at the time of class creation. If descriptors are added to the class afterwards, *note __set_name__(): c4e. will need to be called manually. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Objects/typeobject.c  File: python.info, Node: ORM example, Prev: Automatic name notification, Up: Technical Tutorial 9.4.3.10 ORM example .................... The following code is a simplified skeleton showing how data descriptors could be used to implement an object relational mapping(1). The essential idea is that the data is stored in an external database. The Python instances only hold keys to the database’s tables. Descriptors take care of lookups or updates: class Field: def __set_name__(self, owner, name): self.fetch = f'SELECT {name} FROM {owner.table} WHERE {owner.key}=?;' self.store = f'UPDATE {owner.table} SET {name}=? WHERE {owner.key}=?;' def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): return conn.execute(self.fetch, [obj.key]).fetchone()[0] def __set__(self, obj, value): conn.execute(self.store, [value, obj.key]) conn.commit() We can use the ‘Field’ class to define models(2) that describe the schema for each table in a database: class Movie: table = 'Movies' # Table name key = 'title' # Primary key director = Field() year = Field() def __init__(self, key): self.key = key class Song: table = 'Music' key = 'title' artist = Field() year = Field() genre = Field() def __init__(self, key): self.key = key To use the models, first connect to the database: >>> import sqlite3 >>> conn = sqlite3.connect('entertainment.db') An interactive session shows how data is retrieved from the database and how it can be updated: >>> Movie('Star Wars').director 'George Lucas' >>> jaws = Movie('Jaws') >>> f'Released in {jaws.year} by {jaws.director}' 'Released in 1975 by Steven Spielberg' >>> Song('Country Roads').artist 'John Denver' >>> Movie('Star Wars').director = 'J.J. Abrams' >>> Movie('Star Wars').director 'J.J. Abrams' ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object%E2%80%93relational_mapping (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database_model  File: python.info, Node: Pure Python Equivalents, Prev: Technical Tutorial, Up: Descriptor Guide 9.4.4 Pure Python Equivalents ----------------------------- The descriptor protocol is simple and offers exciting possibilities. Several use cases are so common that they have been prepackaged into built-in tools. Properties, bound methods, static methods, class methods, and __slots__ are all based on the descriptor protocol. * Menu: * Properties:: * Functions and methods:: * Kinds of methods:: * Static methods:: * Class methods:: * Member objects and __slots__::  File: python.info, Node: Properties, Next: Functions and methods, Up: Pure Python Equivalents 9.4.4.1 Properties .................. Calling *note property(): 194. is a succinct way of building a data descriptor that triggers a function call upon access to an attribute. Its signature is: property(fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None) -> property The documentation shows a typical use to define a managed attribute ‘x’: class C: def getx(self): return self.__x def setx(self, value): self.__x = value def delx(self): del self.__x x = property(getx, setx, delx, "I'm the 'x' property.") To see how *note property(): 194. is implemented in terms of the descriptor protocol, here is a pure Python equivalent that implements most of the core functionality: class Property: "Emulate PyProperty_Type() in Objects/descrobject.c" def __init__(self, fget=None, fset=None, fdel=None, doc=None): self.fget = fget self.fset = fset self.fdel = fdel if doc is None and fget is not None: doc = fget.__doc__ self.__doc__ = doc def __set_name__(self, owner, name): self.__name__ = name def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): if obj is None: return self if self.fget is None: raise AttributeError return self.fget(obj) def __set__(self, obj, value): if self.fset is None: raise AttributeError self.fset(obj, value) def __delete__(self, obj): if self.fdel is None: raise AttributeError self.fdel(obj) def getter(self, fget): return type(self)(fget, self.fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__) def setter(self, fset): return type(self)(self.fget, fset, self.fdel, self.__doc__) def deleter(self, fdel): return type(self)(self.fget, self.fset, fdel, self.__doc__) The *note property(): 194. builtin helps whenever a user interface has granted attribute access and then subsequent changes require the intervention of a method. For instance, a spreadsheet class may grant access to a cell value through ‘Cell('b10').value’. Subsequent improvements to the program require the cell to be recalculated on every access; however, the programmer does not want to affect existing client code accessing the attribute directly. The solution is to wrap access to the value attribute in a property data descriptor: class Cell: ... @property def value(self): "Recalculate the cell before returning value" self.recalc() return self._value Either the built-in *note property(): 194. or our ‘Property()’ equivalent would work in this example.  File: python.info, Node: Functions and methods, Next: Kinds of methods, Prev: Properties, Up: Pure Python Equivalents 9.4.4.2 Functions and methods ............................. Python’s object oriented features are built upon a function based environment. Using non-data descriptors, the two are merged seamlessly. Functions stored in class dictionaries get turned into methods when invoked. Methods only differ from regular functions in that the object instance is prepended to the other arguments. By convention, the instance is called 'self' but could be called 'this' or any other variable name. Methods can be created manually with *note types.MethodType: 17f8. which is roughly equivalent to: class MethodType: "Emulate PyMethod_Type in Objects/classobject.c" def __init__(self, func, obj): self.__func__ = func self.__self__ = obj def __call__(self, *args, **kwargs): func = self.__func__ obj = self.__self__ return func(obj, *args, **kwargs) def __getattribute__(self, name): "Emulate method_getset() in Objects/classobject.c" if name == '__doc__': return self.__func__.__doc__ return object.__getattribute__(self, name) def __getattr__(self, name): "Emulate method_getattro() in Objects/classobject.c" return getattr(self.__func__, name) def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): "Emulate method_descr_get() in Objects/classobject.c" return self To support automatic creation of methods, functions include the *note __get__(): 14b2. method for binding methods during attribute access. This means that functions are non-data descriptors that return bound methods during dotted lookup from an instance. Here’s how it works: class Function: ... def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): "Simulate func_descr_get() in Objects/funcobject.c" if obj is None: return self return MethodType(self, obj) Running the following class in the interpreter shows how the function descriptor works in practice: class D: def f(self): return self class D2: pass The function has a *note qualified name: 1941. attribute to support introspection: >>> D.f.__qualname__ 'D.f' Accessing the function through the class dictionary does not invoke *note __get__(): 14b2. Instead, it just returns the underlying function object: >>> D.__dict__['f'] <function D.f at 0x00C45070> Dotted access from a class calls *note __get__(): 14b2. which just returns the underlying function unchanged: >>> D.f <function D.f at 0x00C45070> The interesting behavior occurs during dotted access from an instance. The dotted lookup calls *note __get__(): 14b2. which returns a bound method object: >>> d = D() >>> d.f <bound method D.f of <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90>> Internally, the bound method stores the underlying function and the bound instance: >>> d.f.__func__ <function D.f at 0x00C45070> >>> d.f.__self__ <__main__.D object at 0x00B18C90> If you have ever wondered where 'self' comes from in regular methods or where 'cls' comes from in class methods, this is it!  File: python.info, Node: Kinds of methods, Next: Static methods, Prev: Functions and methods, Up: Pure Python Equivalents 9.4.4.3 Kinds of methods ........................ Non-data descriptors provide a simple mechanism for variations on the usual patterns of binding functions into methods. To recap, functions have a *note __get__(): 14b2. method so that they can be converted to a method when accessed as attributes. The non-data descriptor transforms an ‘obj.f(*args)’ call into ‘f(obj, *args)’. Calling ‘cls.f(*args)’ becomes ‘f(*args)’. This chart summarizes the binding and its two most useful variants: Transformation Called from an object Called from a class ------------------------------------------------------------------------ function f(obj, *args) f(*args) staticmethod f(*args) f(*args) classmethod f(type(obj), *args) f(cls, *args)  File: python.info, Node: Static methods, Next: Class methods, Prev: Kinds of methods, Up: Pure Python Equivalents 9.4.4.4 Static methods ...................... Static methods return the underlying function without changes. Calling either ‘c.f’ or ‘C.f’ is the equivalent of a direct lookup into ‘object.__getattribute__(c, "f")’ or ‘object.__getattribute__(C, "f")’. As a result, the function becomes identically accessible from either an object or a class. Good candidates for static methods are methods that do not reference the ‘self’ variable. For instance, a statistics package may include a container class for experimental data. The class provides normal methods for computing the average, mean, median, and other descriptive statistics that depend on the data. However, there may be useful functions which are conceptually related but do not depend on the data. For instance, ‘erf(x)’ is handy conversion routine that comes up in statistical work but does not directly depend on a particular dataset. It can be called either from an object or the class: ‘s.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332’ or ‘Sample.erf(1.5) --> 0.9332’. Since static methods return the underlying function with no changes, the example calls are unexciting: class E: @staticmethod def f(x): return x * 10 >>> E.f(3) 30 >>> E().f(3) 30 Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note staticmethod(): 412. would look like this: import functools class StaticMethod: "Emulate PyStaticMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c" def __init__(self, f): self.f = f functools.update_wrapper(self, f) def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): return self.f def __call__(self, *args, **kwds): return self.f(*args, **kwds) The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 101b. call adds a ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function. Also it carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the wrapped function: *note __name__: 12c7, *note __qualname__: 1efd, *note __doc__: 11cb, and *note __annotations__: 11ca.  File: python.info, Node: Class methods, Next: Member objects and __slots__, Prev: Static methods, Up: Pure Python Equivalents 9.4.4.5 Class methods ..................... Unlike static methods, class methods prepend the class reference to the argument list before calling the function. This format is the same for whether the caller is an object or a class: class F: @classmethod def f(cls, x): return cls.__name__, x >>> F.f(3) ('F', 3) >>> F().f(3) ('F', 3) This behavior is useful whenever the method only needs to have a class reference and does not rely on data stored in a specific instance. One use for class methods is to create alternate class constructors. For example, the classmethod *note dict.fromkeys(): 1551. creates a new dictionary from a list of keys. The pure Python equivalent is: class Dict(dict): @classmethod def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None): "Emulate dict_fromkeys() in Objects/dictobject.c" d = cls() for key in iterable: d[key] = value return d Now a new dictionary of unique keys can be constructed like this: >>> d = Dict.fromkeys('abracadabra') >>> type(d) is Dict True >>> d {'a': None, 'b': None, 'r': None, 'c': None, 'd': None} Using the non-data descriptor protocol, a pure Python version of *note classmethod(): 166. would look like this: import functools class ClassMethod: "Emulate PyClassMethod_Type() in Objects/funcobject.c" def __init__(self, f): self.f = f functools.update_wrapper(self, f) def __get__(self, obj, cls=None): if cls is None: cls = type(obj) return MethodType(self.f, cls) The *note functools.update_wrapper(): 101b. call in ‘ClassMethod’ adds a ‘__wrapped__’ attribute that refers to the underlying function. Also it carries forward the attributes necessary to make the wrapper look like the wrapped function: *note __name__: 12c7, *note __qualname__: 1efd, *note __doc__: 11cb, and *note __annotations__: 11ca.  File: python.info, Node: Member objects and __slots__, Prev: Class methods, Up: Pure Python Equivalents 9.4.4.6 Member objects and __slots__ .................................... When a class defines ‘__slots__’, it replaces instance dictionaries with a fixed-length array of slot values. From a user point of view that has several effects: 1. Provides immediate detection of bugs due to misspelled attribute assignments. Only attribute names specified in ‘__slots__’ are allowed: class Vehicle: __slots__ = ('id_number', 'make', 'model') >>> auto = Vehicle() >>> auto.id_nubmer = 'VYE483814LQEX' Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: 'Vehicle' object has no attribute 'id_nubmer' 2. Helps create immutable objects where descriptors manage access to private attributes stored in ‘__slots__’: class Immutable: __slots__ = ('_dept', '_name') # Replace the instance dictionary def __init__(self, dept, name): self._dept = dept # Store to private attribute self._name = name # Store to private attribute @property # Read-only descriptor def dept(self): return self._dept @property def name(self): # Read-only descriptor return self._name >>> mark = Immutable('Botany', 'Mark Watney') >>> mark.dept 'Botany' >>> mark.dept = 'Space Pirate' Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: property 'dept' of 'Immutable' object has no setter >>> mark.location = 'Mars' Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: 'Immutable' object has no attribute 'location' 3. Saves memory. On a 64-bit Linux build, an instance with two attributes takes 48 bytes with ‘__slots__’ and 152 bytes without. This flyweight design pattern(1) likely only matters when a large number of instances are going to be created. 4. Improves speed. Reading instance variables is 35% faster with ‘__slots__’ (as measured with Python 3.10 on an Apple M1 processor). 5. Blocks tools like *note functools.cached_property(): 53e. which require an instance dictionary to function correctly: from functools import cached_property class CP: __slots__ = () # Eliminates the instance dict @cached_property # Requires an instance dict def pi(self): return 4 * sum((-1.0)**n / (2.0*n + 1.0) for n in reversed(range(100_000))) >>> CP().pi Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: No '__dict__' attribute on 'CP' instance to cache 'pi' property. It is not possible to create an exact drop-in pure Python version of ‘__slots__’ because it requires direct access to C structures and control over object memory allocation. However, we can build a mostly faithful simulation where the actual C structure for slots is emulated by a private ‘_slotvalues’ list. Reads and writes to that private structure are managed by member descriptors: null = object() class Member: def __init__(self, name, clsname, offset): 'Emulate PyMemberDef in Include/structmember.h' # Also see descr_new() in Objects/descrobject.c self.name = name self.clsname = clsname self.offset = offset def __get__(self, obj, objtype=None): 'Emulate member_get() in Objects/descrobject.c' # Also see PyMember_GetOne() in Python/structmember.c if obj is None: return self value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset] if value is null: raise AttributeError(self.name) return value def __set__(self, obj, value): 'Emulate member_set() in Objects/descrobject.c' obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = value def __delete__(self, obj): 'Emulate member_delete() in Objects/descrobject.c' value = obj._slotvalues[self.offset] if value is null: raise AttributeError(self.name) obj._slotvalues[self.offset] = null def __repr__(self): 'Emulate member_repr() in Objects/descrobject.c' return f'<Member {self.name!r} of {self.clsname!r}>' The ‘type.__new__()’ method takes care of adding member objects to class variables: class Type(type): 'Simulate how the type metaclass adds member objects for slots' def __new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs): 'Emulate type_new() in Objects/typeobject.c' # type_new() calls PyTypeReady() which calls add_methods() slot_names = mapping.get('slot_names', []) for offset, name in enumerate(slot_names): mapping[name] = Member(name, clsname, offset) return type.__new__(mcls, clsname, bases, mapping, **kwargs) The *note object.__new__(): 57d. method takes care of creating instances that have slots instead of an instance dictionary. Here is a rough simulation in pure Python: class Object: 'Simulate how object.__new__() allocates memory for __slots__' def __new__(cls, *args, **kwargs): 'Emulate object_new() in Objects/typeobject.c' inst = super().__new__(cls) if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names'): empty_slots = [null] * len(cls.slot_names) object.__setattr__(inst, '_slotvalues', empty_slots) return inst def __setattr__(self, name, value): 'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c' cls = type(self) if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names: raise AttributeError( f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}' ) super().__setattr__(name, value) def __delattr__(self, name): 'Emulate _PyObject_GenericSetAttrWithDict() Objects/object.c' cls = type(self) if hasattr(cls, 'slot_names') and name not in cls.slot_names: raise AttributeError( f'{cls.__name__!r} object has no attribute {name!r}' ) super().__delattr__(name) To use the simulation in a real class, just inherit from ‘Object’ and set the *note metaclass: 1f86. to ‘Type’: class H(Object, metaclass=Type): 'Instance variables stored in slots' slot_names = ['x', 'y'] def __init__(self, x, y): self.x = x self.y = y At this point, the metaclass has loaded member objects for 'x' and 'y': >>> from pprint import pp >>> pp(dict(vars(H))) {'__module__': '__main__', '__doc__': 'Instance variables stored in slots', 'slot_names': ['x', 'y'], '__init__': <function H.__init__ at 0x7fb5d302f9d0>, 'x': <Member 'x' of 'H'>, 'y': <Member 'y' of 'H'>} When instances are created, they have a ‘slot_values’ list where the attributes are stored: >>> h = H(10, 20) >>> vars(h) {'_slotvalues': [10, 20]} >>> h.x = 55 >>> vars(h) {'_slotvalues': [55, 20]} Misspelled or unassigned attributes will raise an exception: >>> h.xz Traceback (most recent call last): ... AttributeError: 'H' object has no attribute 'xz' ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flyweight_pattern  File: python.info, Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB, Next: Enum HOWTO, Prev: Descriptor Guide, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.5 Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB ============================================================= This document explains how the Python GDB extension, ‘python-gdb.py’, can be used with the GDB debugger to debug CPython extensions and the CPython interpreter itself. When debugging low-level problems such as crashes or deadlocks, a low-level debugger, such as GDB, is useful to diagnose and correct the issue. By default, GDB (or any of its front-ends) doesn’t support high-level information specific to the CPython interpreter. The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension adds CPython interpreter information to GDB. The extension helps introspect the stack of currently executing Python functions. Given a Python object represented by a *note PyObject: 334.* pointer, the extension surfaces the type and value of the object. Developers who are working on CPython extensions or tinkering with parts of CPython that are written in C can use this document to learn how to use the ‘python-gdb.py’ extension with GDB. Note: This document assumes that you are familiar with the basics of GDB and the CPython C API. It consolidates guidance from the devguide(1) and the Python wiki(2). * Menu: * Prerequisites:: * Using the Debug build and Development mode:: * Using the python-gdb extension:: * Use with GDB commands:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DebuggingWithGdb  File: python.info, Node: Prerequisites, Next: Using the Debug build and Development mode, Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB 9.5.1 Prerequisites ------------------- You need to have: - GDB 7 or later. (For earlier versions of GDB, see ‘Misc/gdbinit’ in the sources of Python 3.11 or earlier.) - GDB-compatible debugging information for Python and any extension you are debugging. - The ‘python-gdb.py’ extension. The extension is built with Python, but might be distributed separately or not at all. Below, we include tips for a few common systems as examples. Note that even if the instructions match your system, they might be outdated. * Menu: * Setup with Python built from source:: * Setup for Python from a Linux distro::  File: python.info, Node: Setup with Python built from source, Next: Setup for Python from a Linux distro, Up: Prerequisites 9.5.1.1 Setup with Python built from source ........................................... When you build CPython from source, debugging information should be available, and the build should add a ‘python-gdb.py’ file to the root directory of your repository. To activate support, you must add the directory containing ‘python-gdb.py’ to GDB’s “auto-load-safe-path”. If you haven’t done this, recent versions of GDB will print out a warning with instructions on how to do this. Note: If you do not see instructions for your version of GDB, put this in your configuration file (‘~/.gdbinit’ or ‘~/.config/gdb/gdbinit’): add-auto-load-safe-path /path/to/cpython You can also add multiple paths, separated by ‘:’.  File: python.info, Node: Setup for Python from a Linux distro, Prev: Setup with Python built from source, Up: Prerequisites 9.5.1.2 Setup for Python from a Linux distro ............................................ Most Linux systems provide debug information for the system Python in a package called ‘python-debuginfo’, ‘python-dbg’ or similar. For example: - Fedora: sudo dnf install gdb sudo dnf debuginfo-install python3 - Ubuntu: sudo apt install gdb python3-dbg On several recent Linux systems, GDB can download debugging symbols automatically using 'debuginfod'. However, this will not install the ‘python-gdb.py’ extension; you generally do need to install the debug info package separately.  File: python.info, Node: Using the Debug build and Development mode, Next: Using the python-gdb extension, Prev: Prerequisites, Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB 9.5.2 Using the Debug build and Development mode ------------------------------------------------ For easier debugging, you might want to: - Use a *note debug build: 1fb. of Python. (When building from source, use ‘configure --with-pydebug’. On Linux distros, install and run a package like ‘python-debug’ or ‘python-dbg’, if available.) - Use the runtime *note development mode: 1fa. (‘-X dev’). Both enable extra assertions and disable some optimizations. Sometimes this hides the bug you are trying to find, but in most cases they make the process easier.  File: python.info, Node: Using the python-gdb extension, Next: Use with GDB commands, Prev: Using the Debug build and Development mode, Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB 9.5.3 Using the ‘python-gdb’ extension -------------------------------------- When the extension is loaded, it provides two main features: pretty printers for Python values, and additional commands. * Menu: * Pretty-printers:: * py-list:: * py-up and py-down:: * py-bt:: * py-print:: * py-locals::  File: python.info, Node: Pretty-printers, Next: py-list, Up: Using the python-gdb extension 9.5.3.1 Pretty-printers ....................... This is what a GDB backtrace looks like (truncated) when this extension is enabled: #0 0x000000000041a6b1 in PyObject_Malloc (nbytes=Cannot access memory at address 0x7fffff7fefe8 ) at Objects/obmalloc.c:748 #1 0x000000000041b7c0 in _PyObject_DebugMallocApi (id=111 'o', nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1445 #2 0x000000000041b717 in _PyObject_DebugMalloc (nbytes=24) at Objects/obmalloc.c:1412 #3 0x000000000044060a in _PyUnicode_New (length=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:346 #4 0x00000000004466aa in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8Stateful (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0, consumed= 0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2531 #5 0x0000000000446647 in PyUnicodeUCS2_DecodeUTF8 (s=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11, errors=0x0) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:2495 #6 0x0000000000440d1b in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromStringAndSize (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__", size=11) at Objects/unicodeobject.c:551 #7 0x0000000000440d94 in PyUnicodeUCS2_FromString (u=0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/unicodeobject.c:569 #8 0x0000000000584abd in PyDict_GetItemString (v= {'Yuck': <type at remote 0xad4730>, '__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fd5ee8>, '__file__': 'Lib/test/crashers/nasty_eq_vs_dict.py', '__package__': None, 'y': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaacd80>, 'dict': {0: 0, 1: 1, 2: 2, 3: 3}, '__cached__': None, '__name__': '__main__', 'z': <Yuck(i=0) at remote 0xaace60>, '__doc__': None}, key= 0x5c2b8d "__lltrace__") at Objects/dictobject.c:2171 Notice how the dictionary argument to ‘PyDict_GetItemString’ is displayed as its ‘repr()’, rather than an opaque ‘PyObject *’ pointer. The extension works by supplying a custom printing routine for values of type ‘PyObject *’. If you need to access lower-level details of an object, then cast the value to a pointer of the appropriate type. For example: (gdb) p globals $1 = {'__builtins__': <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>, '__name__': '__main__', 'ctypes': <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>, '__doc__': None, '__package__': None} (gdb) p *(PyDictObject*)globals $2 = {ob_refcnt = 3, ob_type = 0x3dbdf85820, ma_fill = 5, ma_used = 5, ma_mask = 7, ma_table = 0x63d0f8, ma_lookup = 0x3dbdc7ea70 <lookdict_string>, ma_smalltable = {{me_hash = 7065186196740147912, me_key = '__builtins__', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7fb1868>}, {me_hash = -368181376027291943, me_key = '__name__', me_value ='__main__'}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, {me_hash = -9177857982131165996, me_key = 'ctypes', me_value = <module at remote 0x7ffff7f14360>}, {me_hash = -8518757509529533123, me_key = '__doc__', me_value = None}, {me_hash = 0, me_key = 0x0, me_value = 0x0}, { me_hash = 6614918939584953775, me_key = '__package__', me_value = None}}} Note that the pretty-printers do not actually call ‘repr()’. For basic types, they try to match its result closely. An area that can be confusing is that the custom printer for some types look a lot like GDB’s built-in printer for standard types. For example, the pretty-printer for a Python ‘int’ (*note PyLongObject: 585.*) gives a representation that is not distinguishable from one of a regular machine-level integer: (gdb) p some_machine_integer $3 = 42 (gdb) p some_python_integer $4 = 42 The internal structure can be revealed with a cast to *note PyLongObject: 585.*: (gdb) p *(PyLongObject*)some_python_integer $5 = {ob_base = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 8, ob_type = 0x3dad39f5e0}, ob_size = 1}, ob_digit = {42}} A similar confusion can arise with the ‘str’ type, where the output looks a lot like gdb’s built-in printer for ‘char *’: (gdb) p ptr_to_python_str $6 = '__builtins__' The pretty-printer for ‘str’ instances defaults to using single-quotes (as does Python’s ‘repr’ for strings) whereas the standard printer for ‘char *’ values uses double-quotes and contains a hexadecimal address: (gdb) p ptr_to_char_star $7 = 0x6d72c0 "hello world" Again, the implementation details can be revealed with a cast to *note PyUnicodeObject: 78f.*: (gdb) p *(PyUnicodeObject*)$6 $8 = {ob_base = {ob_refcnt = 33, ob_type = 0x3dad3a95a0}, length = 12, str = 0x7ffff2128500, hash = 7065186196740147912, state = 1, defenc = 0x0}  File: python.info, Node: py-list, Next: py-up and py-down, Prev: Pretty-printers, Up: Using the python-gdb extension 9.5.3.2 ‘py-list’ ................. The extension adds a ‘py-list’ command, which lists the Python source code (if any) for the current frame in the selected thread. The current line is marked with a “>”: (gdb) py-list 901 if options.profile: 902 options.profile = False 903 profile_me() 904 return 905 >906 u = UI() 907 if not u.quit: 908 try: 909 gtk.main() 910 except KeyboardInterrupt: 911 # properly quit on a keyboard interrupt... Use ‘py-list START’ to list at a different line number within the Python source, and ‘py-list START,END’ to list a specific range of lines within the Python source.  File: python.info, Node: py-up and py-down, Next: py-bt, Prev: py-list, Up: Using the python-gdb extension 9.5.3.3 ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ ............................. The ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ commands are analogous to GDB’s regular ‘up’ and ‘down’ commands, but try to move at the level of CPython frames, rather than C frames. GDB is not always able to read the relevant frame information, depending on the optimization level with which CPython was compiled. Internally, the commands look for C frames that are executing the default frame evaluation function (that is, the core bytecode interpreter loop within CPython) and look up the value of the related ‘PyFrameObject *’. They emit the frame number (at the C level) within the thread. For example: (gdb) py-up #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/ gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game () u = UI() (gdb) py-up #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/ gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game(main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>) main.start_game() (gdb) py-up Unable to find an older python frame so we’re at the top of the Python stack. The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard ‘backtrace’ command. The command skips C frames which are not executing Python code. Going back down: (gdb) py-down #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game () u = UI() (gdb) py-down #34 (unable to read python frame information) (gdb) py-down #23 (unable to read python frame information) (gdb) py-down #19 (unable to read python frame information) (gdb) py-down #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated) swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog) (gdb) py-down #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>) gtk.main() (gdb) py-down #8 (unable to read python frame information) (gdb) py-down Unable to find a newer python frame and we’re at the bottom of the Python stack. Note that in Python 3.12 and newer, the same C stack frame can be used for multiple Python stack frames. This means that ‘py-up’ and ‘py-down’ may move multiple Python frames at once. For example: (gdb) py-up #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb62b0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 5, in recursive_function (n=0) time.sleep(5) #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6240, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=1) recursive_function(n-1) #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb61d0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=2) recursive_function(n-1) #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6160, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=3) recursive_function(n-1) #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb60f0, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=4) recursive_function(n-1) #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6080, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 7, in recursive_function (n=5) recursive_function(n-1) #6 Frame 0x7ffff7fb6020, for file /tmp/rec.py, line 9, in <module> () recursive_function(5) (gdb) py-up Unable to find an older python frame  File: python.info, Node: py-bt, Next: py-print, Prev: py-up and py-down, Up: Using the python-gdb extension 9.5.3.4 ‘py-bt’ ............... The ‘py-bt’ command attempts to display a Python-level backtrace of the current thread. For example: (gdb) py-bt #8 (unable to read python frame information) #11 Frame 0x9aead74, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/dialog_swallower.py, line 48, in run_dialog (self=<SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4>, d=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>) gtk.main() #14 Frame 0x99262ac, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/game_selector.py, line 201, in run_swallowed_dialog (self=<NewOrSavedGameSelector(new_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fab44>, puzzle=None, saved_games=[{'gsd.auto_fills': 0, 'tracking': {}, 'trackers': {}, 'notes': [], 'saved_at': 1270084485, 'game': '7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 0 0 0 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5\n7 8 0 0 0 0 0 5 6 0 0 9 0 8 0 1 0 0 0 4 6 0 0 0 0 7 0 6 5 1 8 3 4 7 9 2 0 0 0 9 0 1 0 0 0 3 9 7 6 0 0 0 1 8 0 6 0 0 0 0 2 8 0 0 0 5 0 4 0 6 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 4 5', 'gsd.impossible_hints': 0, 'timer.__absolute_start_time__': <float at remote 0x984b474>, 'gsd.hints': 0, 'timer.active_time': <float at remote 0x984b494>, 'timer.total_time': <float at remote 0x984b464>}], dialog=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, saved_game_model=<gtk.ListStore at remote 0x98fad24>, sudoku_maker=<SudokuMaker(terminated=False, played=[], batch_siz...(truncated) swallower.run_dialog(self.dialog) #19 (unable to read python frame information) #23 (unable to read python frame information) #34 (unable to read python frame information) #37 Frame 0x9420b04, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/main.py, line 906, in start_game () u = UI() #40 Frame 0x948e82c, for file /usr/lib/python2.6/site-packages/gnome_sudoku/gnome_sudoku.py, line 22, in start_game (main=<module at remote 0xb771b7f4>) main.start_game() The frame numbers correspond to those displayed by GDB’s standard ‘backtrace’ command.  File: python.info, Node: py-print, Next: py-locals, Prev: py-bt, Up: Using the python-gdb extension 9.5.3.5 ‘py-print’ .................. The ‘py-print’ command looks up a Python name and tries to print it. It looks in locals within the current thread, then globals, then finally builtins: (gdb) py-print self local 'self' = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4> (gdb) py-print __name__ global '__name__' = 'gnome_sudoku.dialog_swallower' (gdb) py-print len builtin 'len' = <built-in function len> (gdb) py-print scarlet_pimpernel 'scarlet_pimpernel' not found If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames, ‘py-print’ only considers the first one.  File: python.info, Node: py-locals, Prev: py-print, Up: Using the python-gdb extension 9.5.3.6 ‘py-locals’ ................... The ‘py-locals’ command looks up all Python locals within the current Python frame in the selected thread, and prints their representations: (gdb) py-locals self = <SwappableArea(running=<gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4>, main_page=0) at remote 0x98fa6e4> d = <gtk.Dialog at remote 0x98faaa4> If the current C frame corresponds to multiple Python frames, locals from all of them will be shown: (gdb) py-locals Locals for recursive_function n = 0 Locals for recursive_function n = 1 Locals for recursive_function n = 2 Locals for recursive_function n = 3 Locals for recursive_function n = 4 Locals for recursive_function n = 5 Locals for <module>  File: python.info, Node: Use with GDB commands, Prev: Using the python-gdb extension, Up: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB 9.5.4 Use with GDB commands --------------------------- The extension commands complement GDB’s built-in commands. For example, you can use a frame numbers shown by ‘py-bt’ with the ‘frame’ command to go a specific frame within the selected thread, like this: (gdb) py-bt (output snipped) #68 Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> () main() (gdb) frame 68 #68 0x00000000004cd1e6 in PyEval_EvalFrameEx (f=Frame 0xaa4560, for file Lib/test/regrtest.py, line 1548, in <module> (), throwflag=0) at Python/ceval.c:2665 2665 x = call_function(&sp, oparg); (gdb) py-list 1543 # Run the tests in a context manager that temporary changes the CWD to a 1544 # temporary and writable directory. If it's not possible to create or 1545 # change the CWD, the original CWD will be used. The original CWD is 1546 # available from test_support.SAVEDCWD. 1547 with test_support.temp_cwd(TESTCWD, quiet=True): >1548 main() The ‘info threads’ command will give you a list of the threads within the process, and you can use the ‘thread’ command to select a different one: (gdb) info threads 105 Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260) sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86 104 Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259) sem_wait () at ../nptl/sysdeps/unix/sysv/linux/x86_64/sem_wait.S:86 * 1 Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145) 0x00000038e46d73e3 in select () at ../sysdeps/unix/syscall-template.S:82 You can use ‘thread apply all COMMAND’ or (‘t a a COMMAND’ for short) to run a command on all threads. With ‘py-bt’, this lets you see what every thread is doing at the Python level: (gdb) t a a py-bt Thread 105 (Thread 0x7fffefa18710 (LWP 10260)): #5 Frame 0x7fffd00019d0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140737213728528), count=1, owner=140737213728528) self.__block.acquire() #8 Frame 0x7fffac001640, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858a90>, saved_state=(1, 140737213728528)) self._acquire_restore(saved_state) #12 Frame 0x7fffb8001a10, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f () cond.wait() #16 Frame 0x7fffb8001c40, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140737213728528) f() Thread 104 (Thread 0x7fffdf5fe710 (LWP 10259)): #5 Frame 0x7fffe4001580, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 155, in _acquire_restore (self=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, count_owner=(1, 140736940992272), count=1, owner=140736940992272) self.__block.acquire() #8 Frame 0x7fffc8002090, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/threading.py, line 269, in wait (self=<_Condition(_Condition__lock=<_RLock(_Verbose__verbose=False, _RLock__owner=140737354016512, _RLock__block=<thread.lock at remote 0x858770>, _RLock__count=1) at remote 0xd7ff40>, acquire=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80260>, _is_owned=<instancemethod at remote 0xd80160>, _release_save=<instancemethod at remote 0xd803e0>, release=<instancemethod at remote 0xd802e0>, _acquire_restore=<instancemethod at remote 0xd7ee60>, _Verbose__verbose=False, _Condition__waiters=[]) at remote 0xd7fd10>, timeout=None, waiter=<thread.lock at remote 0x858860>, saved_state=(1, 140736940992272)) self._acquire_restore(saved_state) #12 Frame 0x7fffac001c90, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 348, in f () cond.wait() #16 Frame 0x7fffac0011c0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 37, in task (tid=140736940992272) f() Thread 1 (Thread 0x7ffff7fe2700 (LWP 10145)): #5 Frame 0xcb5380, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 16, in _wait () time.sleep(0.01) #8 Frame 0x7fffd00024a0, for file /home/david/coding/python-svn/Lib/test/lock_tests.py, line 378, in _check_notify (self=<ConditionTests(_testMethodName='test_notify', _resultForDoCleanups=<TestResult(_original_stdout=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc191e0>, skipped=[], _mirrorOutput=False, testsRun=39, buffer=False, _original_stderr=<file at remote 0x7ffff7fc6340>, _stdout_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c7f8>, _stderr_buffer=<cStringIO.StringO at remote 0xc9c790>, _moduleSetUpFailed=False, expectedFailures=[], errors=[], _previousTestClass=<type at remote 0x928310>, unexpectedSuccesses=[], failures=[], shouldStop=False, failfast=False) at remote 0xc185a0>, _threads=(0,), _cleanups=[], _type_equality_funcs={<type at remote 0x7eba00>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd750e0>, <type at remote 0x7e7820>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75160>, <type at remote 0x7e30e0>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd75060>, <type at remote 0x7e7d20>: <instancemethod at remote 0xd751e0>, <type at remote 0x7f19e0...(truncated) _wait()  File: python.info, Node: Enum HOWTO, Next: Functional Programming HOWTO, Prev: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.6 Enum HOWTO ============== An *note Enum: 62c. is a set of symbolic names bound to unique values. They are similar to global variables, but they offer a more useful *note repr(): 7f9, grouping, type-safety, and a few other features. They are most useful when you have a variable that can take one of a limited selection of values. For example, the days of the week: >>> from enum import Enum >>> class Weekday(Enum): ... MONDAY = 1 ... TUESDAY = 2 ... WEDNESDAY = 3 ... THURSDAY = 4 ... FRIDAY = 5 ... SATURDAY = 6 ... SUNDAY = 7 Or perhaps the RGB primary colors: >>> from enum import Enum >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = 1 ... GREEN = 2 ... BLUE = 3 As you can see, creating an *note Enum: 62c. is as simple as writing a class that inherits from *note Enum: 62c. itself. Note: Case of Enum Members Because Enums are used to represent constants, and to help avoid issues with name clashes between mixin-class methods/attributes and enum names, we strongly recommend using UPPER_CASE names for members, and will be using that style in our examples. Depending on the nature of the enum a member’s value may or may not be important, but either way that value can be used to get the corresponding member: >>> Weekday(3) <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 3> As you can see, the ‘repr()’ of a member shows the enum name, the member name, and the value. The ‘str()’ of a member shows only the enum name and member name: >>> print(Weekday.THURSDAY) Weekday.THURSDAY The 'type' of an enumeration member is the enum it belongs to: >>> type(Weekday.MONDAY) <enum 'Weekday'> >>> isinstance(Weekday.FRIDAY, Weekday) True Enum members have an attribute that contains just their ‘name’: >>> print(Weekday.TUESDAY.name) TUESDAY Likewise, they have an attribute for their ‘value’: >>> Weekday.WEDNESDAY.value 3 Unlike many languages that treat enumerations solely as name/value pairs, Python Enums can have behavior added. For example, *note datetime.date: 1cd. has two methods for returning the weekday: *note weekday(): 2455. and *note isoweekday(): 2456. The difference is that one of them counts from 0-6 and the other from 1-7. Rather than keep track of that ourselves we can add a method to the ‘Weekday’ enum to extract the day from the *note date: 1cd. instance and return the matching enum member: @classmethod def from_date(cls, date): return cls(date.isoweekday()) The complete ‘Weekday’ enum now looks like this: >>> class Weekday(Enum): ... MONDAY = 1 ... TUESDAY = 2 ... WEDNESDAY = 3 ... THURSDAY = 4 ... FRIDAY = 5 ... SATURDAY = 6 ... SUNDAY = 7 ... # ... @classmethod ... def from_date(cls, date): ... return cls(date.isoweekday()) Now we can find out what today is! Observe: >>> from datetime import date >>> Weekday.from_date(date.today()) <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2> Of course, if you’re reading this on some other day, you’ll see that day instead. This ‘Weekday’ enum is great if our variable only needs one day, but what if we need several? Maybe we’re writing a function to plot chores during a week, and don’t want to use a *note list: 60d. – we could use a different type of *note Enum: 62c.: >>> from enum import Flag >>> class Weekday(Flag): ... MONDAY = 1 ... TUESDAY = 2 ... WEDNESDAY = 4 ... THURSDAY = 8 ... FRIDAY = 16 ... SATURDAY = 32 ... SUNDAY = 64 We’ve changed two things: we’re inherited from *note Flag: 61f, and the values are all powers of 2. Just like the original ‘Weekday’ enum above, we can have a single selection: >>> first_week_day = Weekday.MONDAY >>> first_week_day <Weekday.MONDAY: 1> But *note Flag: 61f. also allows us to combine several members into a single variable: >>> weekend = Weekday.SATURDAY | Weekday.SUNDAY >>> weekend <Weekday.SATURDAY|SUNDAY: 96> You can even iterate over a *note Flag: 61f. variable: >>> for day in weekend: ... print(day) Weekday.SATURDAY Weekday.SUNDAY Okay, let’s get some chores set up: >>> chores_for_ethan = { ... 'feed the cat': Weekday.MONDAY | Weekday.WEDNESDAY | Weekday.FRIDAY, ... 'do the dishes': Weekday.TUESDAY | Weekday.THURSDAY, ... 'answer SO questions': Weekday.SATURDAY, ... } And a function to display the chores for a given day: >>> def show_chores(chores, day): ... for chore, days in chores.items(): ... if day in days: ... print(chore) ... >>> show_chores(chores_for_ethan, Weekday.SATURDAY) answer SO questions In cases where the actual values of the members do not matter, you can save yourself some work and use *note auto(): c9c. for the values: >>> from enum import auto >>> class Weekday(Flag): ... MONDAY = auto() ... TUESDAY = auto() ... WEDNESDAY = auto() ... THURSDAY = auto() ... FRIDAY = auto() ... SATURDAY = auto() ... SUNDAY = auto() ... WEEKEND = SATURDAY | SUNDAY * Menu: * Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes:: * Duplicating enum members and values:: * Ensuring unique enumeration values:: * Using automatic values:: * Iteration: Iteration<2>. * Comparisons: Comparisons<3>. * Allowed members and attributes of enumerations:: * Restricted Enum subclassing:: * Dataclass support:: * Pickling:: * Functional API: Functional API<3>. * Derived Enumerations:: * When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): When to use __new__ vs __init__. * How are Enums and Flags different?:: * Enum Cookbook:: * Subclassing EnumType::  File: python.info, Node: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes, Next: Duplicating enum members and values, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.1 Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes --------------------------------------------------------------------- Sometimes it’s useful to access members in enumerations programmatically (i.e. situations where ‘Color.RED’ won’t do because the exact color is not known at program-writing time). ‘Enum’ allows such access: >>> Color(1) <Color.RED: 1> >>> Color(3) <Color.BLUE: 3> If you want to access enum members by 'name', use item access: >>> Color['RED'] <Color.RED: 1> >>> Color['GREEN'] <Color.GREEN: 2> If you have an enum member and need its ‘name’ or ‘value’: >>> member = Color.RED >>> member.name 'RED' >>> member.value 1  File: python.info, Node: Duplicating enum members and values, Next: Ensuring unique enumeration values, Prev: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.2 Duplicating enum members and values ----------------------------------------- Having two enum members with the same name is invalid: >>> class Shape(Enum): ... SQUARE = 2 ... SQUARE = 3 ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: 'SQUARE' already defined as 2 However, an enum member can have other names associated with it. Given two entries ‘A’ and ‘B’ with the same value (and ‘A’ defined first), ‘B’ is an alias for the member ‘A’. By-value lookup of the value of ‘A’ will return the member ‘A’. By-name lookup of ‘A’ will return the member ‘A’. By-name lookup of ‘B’ will also return the member ‘A’: >>> class Shape(Enum): ... SQUARE = 2 ... DIAMOND = 1 ... CIRCLE = 3 ... ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE = 2 ... >>> Shape.SQUARE <Shape.SQUARE: 2> >>> Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE <Shape.SQUARE: 2> >>> Shape(2) <Shape.SQUARE: 2> Note: Attempting to create a member with the same name as an already defined attribute (another member, a method, etc.) or attempting to create an attribute with the same name as a member is not allowed.  File: python.info, Node: Ensuring unique enumeration values, Next: Using automatic values, Prev: Duplicating enum members and values, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.3 Ensuring unique enumeration values ---------------------------------------- By default, enumerations allow multiple names as aliases for the same value. When this behavior isn’t desired, you can use the *note unique(): 25bb. decorator: >>> from enum import Enum, unique >>> @unique ... class Mistake(Enum): ... ONE = 1 ... TWO = 2 ... THREE = 3 ... FOUR = 3 ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: duplicate values found in <enum 'Mistake'>: FOUR -> THREE  File: python.info, Node: Using automatic values, Next: Iteration<2>, Prev: Ensuring unique enumeration values, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.4 Using automatic values ---------------------------- If the exact value is unimportant you can use *note auto: c9c.: >>> from enum import Enum, auto >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = auto() ... BLUE = auto() ... GREEN = auto() ... >>> [member.value for member in Color] [1, 2, 3] The values are chosen by *note _generate_next_value_(): 25cf, which can be overridden: >>> class AutoName(Enum): ... @staticmethod ... def _generate_next_value_(name, start, count, last_values): ... return name ... >>> class Ordinal(AutoName): ... NORTH = auto() ... SOUTH = auto() ... EAST = auto() ... WEST = auto() ... >>> [member.value for member in Ordinal] ['NORTH', 'SOUTH', 'EAST', 'WEST'] Note: The *note _generate_next_value_(): 25cf. method must be defined before any members.  File: python.info, Node: Iteration<2>, Next: Comparisons<3>, Prev: Using automatic values, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.5 Iteration --------------- Iterating over the members of an enum does not provide the aliases: >>> list(Shape) [<Shape.SQUARE: 2>, <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>, <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>] >>> list(Weekday) [<Weekday.MONDAY: 1>, <Weekday.TUESDAY: 2>, <Weekday.WEDNESDAY: 4>, <Weekday.THURSDAY: 8>, <Weekday.FRIDAY: 16>, <Weekday.SATURDAY: 32>, <Weekday.SUNDAY: 64>] Note that the aliases ‘Shape.ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE’ and ‘Weekday.WEEKEND’ aren’t shown. The special attribute ‘__members__’ is a read-only ordered mapping of names to members. It includes all names defined in the enumeration, including the aliases: >>> for name, member in Shape.__members__.items(): ... name, member ... ('SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>) ('DIAMOND', <Shape.DIAMOND: 1>) ('CIRCLE', <Shape.CIRCLE: 3>) ('ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE', <Shape.SQUARE: 2>) The ‘__members__’ attribute can be used for detailed programmatic access to the enumeration members. For example, finding all the aliases: >>> [name for name, member in Shape.__members__.items() if member.name != name] ['ALIAS_FOR_SQUARE'] Note: Aliases for flags include values with multiple flags set, such as ‘3’, and no flags set, i.e. ‘0’.  File: python.info, Node: Comparisons<3>, Next: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations, Prev: Iteration<2>, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.6 Comparisons ----------------- Enumeration members are compared by identity: >>> Color.RED is Color.RED True >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE False >>> Color.RED is not Color.BLUE True Ordered comparisons between enumeration values are 'not' supported. Enum members are not integers (but see *note IntEnum: 4f46. below): >>> Color.RED < Color.BLUE Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> TypeError: '<' not supported between instances of 'Color' and 'Color' Equality comparisons are defined though: >>> Color.BLUE == Color.RED False >>> Color.BLUE != Color.RED True >>> Color.BLUE == Color.BLUE True Comparisons against non-enumeration values will always compare not equal (again, *note IntEnum: cdf. was explicitly designed to behave differently, see below): >>> Color.BLUE == 2 False Warning: It is possible to reload modules – if a reloaded module contains enums, they will be recreated, and the new members may not compare identical/equal to the original members.  File: python.info, Node: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations, Next: Restricted Enum subclassing, Prev: Comparisons<3>, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.7 Allowed members and attributes of enumerations ---------------------------------------------------- Most of the examples above use integers for enumeration values. Using integers is short and handy (and provided by default by the *note Functional API: 4f48.), but not strictly enforced. In the vast majority of use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an enumeration is. But if the value 'is' important, enumerations can have arbitrary values. Enumerations are Python classes, and can have methods and special methods as usual. If we have this enumeration: >>> class Mood(Enum): ... FUNKY = 1 ... HAPPY = 3 ... ... def describe(self): ... # self is the member here ... return self.name, self.value ... ... def __str__(self): ... return 'my custom str! {0}'.format(self.value) ... ... @classmethod ... def favorite_mood(cls): ... # cls here is the enumeration ... return cls.HAPPY ... Then: >>> Mood.favorite_mood() <Mood.HAPPY: 3> >>> Mood.HAPPY.describe() ('HAPPY', 3) >>> str(Mood.FUNKY) 'my custom str! 1' The rules for what is allowed are as follows: names that start and end with a single underscore are reserved by enum and cannot be used; all other attributes defined within an enumeration will become members of this enumeration, with the exception of special methods (*note __str__(): 619, *note __add__(): 1f8c, etc.), descriptors (methods are also descriptors), and variable names listed in *note _ignore_: 25cd. Note: if your enumeration defines *note __new__(): 57d. and/or *note __init__(): 6ac, any value(s) given to the enum member will be passed into those methods. See *note Planet: 4f49. for an example. Note: The *note __new__(): 57d. method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s *note __new__(): 57d. which is used after class creation for lookup of existing members. See *note When to use __new__() vs. __init__(): 4f4a. for more details.  File: python.info, Node: Restricted Enum subclassing, Next: Dataclass support, Prev: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.8 Restricted Enum subclassing --------------------------------- A new *note Enum: 62c. class must have one base enum class, up to one concrete data type, and as many *note object: a8c.-based mixin classes as needed. The order of these base classes is: class EnumName([mix-in, ...,] [data-type,] base-enum): pass Also, subclassing an enumeration is allowed only if the enumeration does not define any members. So this is forbidden: >>> class MoreColor(Color): ... PINK = 17 ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: <enum 'MoreColor'> cannot extend <enum 'Color'> But this is allowed: >>> class Foo(Enum): ... def some_behavior(self): ... pass ... >>> class Bar(Foo): ... HAPPY = 1 ... SAD = 2 ... Allowing subclassing of enums that define members would lead to a violation of some important invariants of types and instances. On the other hand, it makes sense to allow sharing some common behavior between a group of enumerations. (See *note OrderedEnum: 4f4c. for an example.)  File: python.info, Node: Dataclass support, Next: Pickling, Prev: Restricted Enum subclassing, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.9 Dataclass support ----------------------- When inheriting from a *note dataclass: 1cb, the *note __repr__(): 1784. omits the inherited class’ name. For example: >>> from dataclasses import dataclass, field >>> @dataclass ... class CreatureDataMixin: ... size: str ... legs: int ... tail: bool = field(repr=False, default=True) ... >>> class Creature(CreatureDataMixin, Enum): ... BEETLE = 'small', 6 ... DOG = 'medium', 4 ... >>> Creature.DOG <Creature.DOG: size='medium', legs=4> Use the *note dataclass(): 1cb. argument ‘repr=False’ to use the standard *note repr(): 7f9. Changed in version 3.12: Only the dataclass fields are shown in the value area, not the dataclass’ name. Note: Adding *note dataclass(): 1cb. decorator to *note Enum: 62c. and its subclasses is not supported. It will not raise any errors, but it will produce very strange results at runtime, such as members being equal to each other: >>> @dataclass # don't do this: it does not make any sense ... class Color(Enum): ... RED = 1 ... BLUE = 2 ... >>> Color.RED is Color.BLUE False >>> Color.RED == Color.BLUE # problem is here: they should not be equal True  File: python.info, Node: Pickling, Next: Functional API<3>, Prev: Dataclass support, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.10 Pickling --------------- Enumerations can be pickled and unpickled: >>> from test.test_enum import Fruit >>> from pickle import dumps, loads >>> Fruit.TOMATO is loads(dumps(Fruit.TOMATO)) True The usual restrictions for pickling apply: picklable enums must be defined in the top level of a module, since unpickling requires them to be importable from that module. Note: With pickle protocol version 4 it is possible to easily pickle enums nested in other classes. It is possible to modify how enum members are pickled/unpickled by defining *note __reduce_ex__(): 15ba. in the enumeration class. The default method is by-value, but enums with complicated values may want to use by-name: >>> import enum >>> class MyEnum(enum.Enum): ... __reduce_ex__ = enum.pickle_by_enum_name Note: Using by-name for flags is not recommended, as unnamed aliases will not unpickle.  File: python.info, Node: Functional API<3>, Next: Derived Enumerations, Prev: Pickling, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.11 Functional API --------------------- The *note Enum: 62c. class is callable, providing the following functional API: >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG') >>> Animal <enum 'Animal'> >>> Animal.ANT <Animal.ANT: 1> >>> list(Animal) [<Animal.ANT: 1>, <Animal.BEE: 2>, <Animal.CAT: 3>, <Animal.DOG: 4>] The semantics of this API resemble *note namedtuple: 1ca. The first argument of the call to *note Enum: 62c. is the name of the enumeration. The second argument is the 'source' of enumeration member names. It can be a whitespace-separated string of names, a sequence of names, a sequence of 2-tuples with key/value pairs, or a mapping (e.g. dictionary) of names to values. The last two options enable assigning arbitrary values to enumerations; the others auto-assign increasing integers starting with 1 (use the ‘start’ parameter to specify a different starting value). A new class derived from *note Enum: 62c. is returned. In other words, the above assignment to ‘Animal’ is equivalent to: >>> class Animal(Enum): ... ANT = 1 ... BEE = 2 ... CAT = 3 ... DOG = 4 ... The reason for defaulting to ‘1’ as the starting number and not ‘0’ is that ‘0’ is ‘False’ in a boolean sense, but by default enum members all evaluate to ‘True’. Pickling enums created with the functional API can be tricky as frame stack implementation details are used to try and figure out which module the enumeration is being created in (e.g. it will fail if you use a utility function in a separate module, and also may not work on IronPython or Jython). The solution is to specify the module name explicitly as follows: >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', module=__name__) Warning: If ‘module’ is not supplied, and Enum cannot determine what it is, the new Enum members will not be unpicklable; to keep errors closer to the source, pickling will be disabled. The new pickle protocol 4 also, in some circumstances, relies on *note __qualname__: 1f26. being set to the location where pickle will be able to find the class. For example, if the class was made available in class SomeData in the global scope: >>> Animal = Enum('Animal', 'ANT BEE CAT DOG', qualname='SomeData.Animal') The complete signature is: Enum( value='NewEnumName', names=<...>, *, module='...', qualname='...', type=<mixed-in class>, start=1, ) * 'value': What the new enum class will record as its name. * 'names': The enum members. This can be a whitespace- or comma-separated string (values will start at 1 unless otherwise specified): 'RED GREEN BLUE' | 'RED,GREEN,BLUE' | 'RED, GREEN, BLUE' or an iterator of names: ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE'] or an iterator of (name, value) pairs: [('CYAN', 4), ('MAGENTA', 5), ('YELLOW', 6)] or a mapping: {'CHARTREUSE': 7, 'SEA_GREEN': 11, 'ROSEMARY': 42} * 'module': name of module where new enum class can be found. * 'qualname': where in module new enum class can be found. * 'type': type to mix in to new enum class. * 'start': number to start counting at if only names are passed in. Changed in version 3.5: The 'start' parameter was added.  File: python.info, Node: Derived Enumerations, Next: When to use __new__ vs __init__, Prev: Functional API<3>, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.12 Derived Enumerations --------------------------- * Menu: * IntEnum:: * StrEnum:: * IntFlag:: * Flag:: * Others: Others<2>.  File: python.info, Node: IntEnum, Next: StrEnum, Up: Derived Enumerations 9.6.12.1 IntEnum ................ The first variation of *note Enum: 62c. that is provided is also a subclass of *note int: 259. Members of an *note IntEnum: cdf. can be compared to integers; by extension, integer enumerations of different types can also be compared to each other: >>> from enum import IntEnum >>> class Shape(IntEnum): ... CIRCLE = 1 ... SQUARE = 2 ... >>> class Request(IntEnum): ... POST = 1 ... GET = 2 ... >>> Shape == 1 False >>> Shape.CIRCLE == 1 True >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Request.POST True However, they still can’t be compared to standard *note Enum: 62c. enumerations: >>> class Shape(IntEnum): ... CIRCLE = 1 ... SQUARE = 2 ... >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = 1 ... GREEN = 2 ... >>> Shape.CIRCLE == Color.RED False *note IntEnum: cdf. values behave like integers in other ways you’d expect: >>> int(Shape.CIRCLE) 1 >>> ['a', 'b', 'c'][Shape.CIRCLE] 'b' >>> [i for i in range(Shape.SQUARE)] [0, 1]  File: python.info, Node: StrEnum, Next: IntFlag, Prev: IntEnum, Up: Derived Enumerations 9.6.12.2 StrEnum ................ The second variation of *note Enum: 62c. that is provided is also a subclass of *note str: 447. Members of a *note StrEnum: 616. can be compared to strings; by extension, string enumerations of different types can also be compared to each other. Added in version 3.11.  File: python.info, Node: IntFlag, Next: Flag, Prev: StrEnum, Up: Derived Enumerations 9.6.12.3 IntFlag ................ The next variation of *note Enum: 62c. provided, *note IntFlag: 22fa, is also based on *note int: 259. The difference being *note IntFlag: 22fa. members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~) and the result is still an *note IntFlag: 22fa. member, if possible. Like *note IntEnum: cdf, *note IntFlag: 22fa. members are also integers and can be used wherever an *note int: 259. is used. Note: Any operation on an *note IntFlag: 22fa. member besides the bit-wise operations will lose the *note IntFlag: 22fa. membership. Bit-wise operations that result in invalid *note IntFlag: 22fa. values will lose the *note IntFlag: 22fa. membership. See *note FlagBoundary: 620. for details. Added in version 3.6. Changed in version 3.11. Sample *note IntFlag: 22fa. class: >>> from enum import IntFlag >>> class Perm(IntFlag): ... R = 4 ... W = 2 ... X = 1 ... >>> Perm.R | Perm.W <Perm.R|W: 6> >>> Perm.R + Perm.W 6 >>> RW = Perm.R | Perm.W >>> Perm.R in RW True It is also possible to name the combinations: >>> class Perm(IntFlag): ... R = 4 ... W = 2 ... X = 1 ... RWX = 7 ... >>> Perm.RWX <Perm.RWX: 7> >>> ~Perm.RWX <Perm: 0> >>> Perm(7) <Perm.RWX: 7> Note: Named combinations are considered aliases. Aliases do not show up during iteration, but can be returned from by-value lookups. Changed in version 3.11. Another important difference between *note IntFlag: 22fa. and *note Enum: 62c. is that if no flags are set (the value is 0), its boolean evaluation is *note False: b37.: >>> Perm.R & Perm.X <Perm: 0> >>> bool(Perm.R & Perm.X) False Because *note IntFlag: 22fa. members are also subclasses of *note int: 259. they can be combined with them (but may lose *note IntFlag: 22fa. membership: >>> Perm.X | 4 <Perm.R|X: 5> >>> Perm.X + 8 9 Note: The negation operator, ‘~’, always returns an *note IntFlag: 22fa. member with a positive value: >>> (~Perm.X).value == (Perm.R|Perm.W).value == 6 True *note IntFlag: 22fa. members can also be iterated over: >>> list(RW) [<Perm.R: 4>, <Perm.W: 2>] Added in version 3.11.  File: python.info, Node: Flag, Next: Others<2>, Prev: IntFlag, Up: Derived Enumerations 9.6.12.4 Flag ............. The last variation is *note Flag: 61f. Like *note IntFlag: 22fa, *note Flag: 61f. members can be combined using the bitwise operators (&, |, ^, ~). Unlike *note IntFlag: 22fa, they cannot be combined with, nor compared against, any other *note Flag: 61f. enumeration, nor *note int: 259. While it is possible to specify the values directly it is recommended to use *note auto: c9c. as the value and let *note Flag: 61f. select an appropriate value. Added in version 3.6. Like *note IntFlag: 22fa, if a combination of *note Flag: 61f. members results in no flags being set, the boolean evaluation is *note False: b37.: >>> from enum import Flag, auto >>> class Color(Flag): ... RED = auto() ... BLUE = auto() ... GREEN = auto() ... >>> Color.RED & Color.GREEN <Color: 0> >>> bool(Color.RED & Color.GREEN) False Individual flags should have values that are powers of two (1, 2, 4, 8, …), while combinations of flags will not: >>> class Color(Flag): ... RED = auto() ... BLUE = auto() ... GREEN = auto() ... WHITE = RED | BLUE | GREEN ... >>> Color.WHITE <Color.WHITE: 7> Giving a name to the “no flags set” condition does not change its boolean value: >>> class Color(Flag): ... BLACK = 0 ... RED = auto() ... BLUE = auto() ... GREEN = auto() ... >>> Color.BLACK <Color.BLACK: 0> >>> bool(Color.BLACK) False *note Flag: 61f. members can also be iterated over: >>> purple = Color.RED | Color.BLUE >>> list(purple) [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.BLUE: 2>] Added in version 3.11. Note: For the majority of new code, *note Enum: 62c. and *note Flag: 61f. are strongly recommended, since *note IntEnum: cdf. and *note IntFlag: 22fa. break some semantic promises of an enumeration (by being comparable to integers, and thus by transitivity to other unrelated enumerations). *note IntEnum: cdf. and *note IntFlag: 22fa. should be used only in cases where *note Enum: 62c. and *note Flag: 61f. will not do; for example, when integer constants are replaced with enumerations, or for interoperability with other systems.  File: python.info, Node: Others<2>, Prev: Flag, Up: Derived Enumerations 9.6.12.5 Others ............... While *note IntEnum: cdf. is part of the *note enum: 56. module, it would be very simple to implement independently: class IntEnum(int, ReprEnum): # or Enum instead of ReprEnum pass This demonstrates how similar derived enumerations can be defined; for example a ‘FloatEnum’ that mixes in *note float: 2f1. instead of *note int: 259. Some rules: 1. When subclassing *note Enum: 62c, mix-in types must appear before the *note Enum: 62c. class itself in the sequence of bases, as in the *note IntEnum: cdf. example above. 2. Mix-in types must be subclassable. For example, *note bool: 463. and *note range: 943. are not subclassable and will throw an error during Enum creation if used as the mix-in type. 3. While *note Enum: 62c. can have members of any type, once you mix in an additional type, all the members must have values of that type, e.g. *note int: 259. above. This restriction does not apply to mix-ins which only add methods and don’t specify another type. 4. When another data type is mixed in, the *note value: 25c8. attribute is 'not the same' as the enum member itself, although it is equivalent and will compare equal. 5. A ‘data type’ is a mixin that defines *note __new__(): 57d, or a *note dataclass: 1cb. 6. %-style formatting: ‘%s’ and ‘%r’ call the *note Enum: 62c. class’s *note __str__(): 619. and *note __repr__(): 618. respectively; other codes (such as ‘%i’ or ‘%h’ for IntEnum) treat the enum member as its mixed-in type. 7. *note Formatted string literals: 9a9, *note str.format(): 61d, and *note format(): 61b. will use the enum’s *note __str__(): 619. method. Note: Because *note IntEnum: cdf, *note IntFlag: 22fa, and *note StrEnum: 616. are designed to be drop-in replacements for existing constants, their *note __str__(): 619. method has been reset to their data types’ *note __str__(): 619. method.  File: python.info, Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__, Next: How are Enums and Flags different?, Prev: Derived Enumerations, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.13 When to use ‘__new__()’ vs. ‘__init__()’ ----------------------------------------------- *note __new__(): 57d. must be used whenever you want to customize the actual value of the *note Enum: 62c. member. Any other modifications may go in either *note __new__(): 57d. or *note __init__(): 6ac, with *note __init__(): 6ac. being preferred. For example, if you want to pass several items to the constructor, but only want one of them to be the value: >>> class Coordinate(bytes, Enum): ... """ ... Coordinate with binary codes that can be indexed by the int code. ... """ ... def __new__(cls, value, label, unit): ... obj = bytes.__new__(cls, [value]) ... obj._value_ = value ... obj.label = label ... obj.unit = unit ... return obj ... PX = (0, 'P.X', 'km') ... PY = (1, 'P.Y', 'km') ... VX = (2, 'V.X', 'km/s') ... VY = (3, 'V.Y', 'km/s') ... >>> print(Coordinate['PY']) Coordinate.PY >>> print(Coordinate(3)) Coordinate.VY Warning: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type directly. * Menu: * Finer Points::  File: python.info, Node: Finer Points, Up: When to use __new__ vs __init__ 9.6.13.1 Finer Points ..................... * Menu: * Supported __dunder__ names: Supported __dunder__ names<2>. * Supported _sunder_ names: Supported _sunder_ names<2>. * _Private__names:: * Enum member type:: * Creating members that are mixed with other data types:: * Boolean value of Enum classes and members:: * Enum classes with methods:: * Combining members of Flag:: * Flag and IntFlag minutia::  File: python.info, Node: Supported __dunder__ names<2>, Next: Supported _sunder_ names<2>, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.2 Supported ‘__dunder__’ names ..................................... *note __members__: 25c5. is a read-only ordered mapping of ‘member_name’:‘member’ items. It is only available on the class. *note __new__(): 57d, if specified, must create and return the enum members; it is also a very good idea to set the member’s *note _value_: 25cb. appropriately. Once all the members are created it is no longer used.  File: python.info, Node: Supported _sunder_ names<2>, Next: _Private__names, Prev: Supported __dunder__ names<2>, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.3 Supported ‘_sunder_’ names ................................... - *note _name_: 25ca. – name of the member - *note _value_: 25cb. – value of the member; can be set in ‘__new__’ - *note _missing_(): 25d2. – a lookup function used when a value is not found; may be overridden - *note _ignore_: 25cd. – a list of names, either as a *note list: 60d. or a *note str: 447, that will not be transformed into members, and will be removed from the final class - *note _generate_next_value_(): 25cf. – used to get an appropriate value for an enum member; may be overridden - *note _add_alias_(): 25d3. – adds a new name as an alias to an existing member. - *note _add_value_alias_(): 25d4. – adds a new value as an alias to an existing member. See *note MultiValueEnum: 4f58. for an example. Note: For standard *note Enum: 62c. classes the next value chosen is the highest value seen incremented by one. For *note Flag: 61f. classes the next value chosen will be the next highest power-of-two. Changed in version 3.13: Prior versions would use the last seen value instead of the highest value. Added in version 3.6: ‘_missing_’, ‘_order_’, ‘_generate_next_value_’ Added in version 3.7: ‘_ignore_’ Added in version 3.13: ‘_add_alias_’, ‘_add_value_alias_’ To help keep Python 2 / Python 3 code in sync an *note _order_: 25cc. attribute can be provided. It will be checked against the actual order of the enumeration and raise an error if the two do not match: >>> class Color(Enum): ... _order_ = 'RED GREEN BLUE' ... RED = 1 ... BLUE = 3 ... GREEN = 2 ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: member order does not match _order_: ['RED', 'BLUE', 'GREEN'] ['RED', 'GREEN', 'BLUE'] Note: In Python 2 code the *note _order_: 25cc. attribute is necessary as definition order is lost before it can be recorded.  File: python.info, Node: _Private__names, Next: Enum member type, Prev: Supported _sunder_ names<2>, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.4 _Private__names ........................ *note Private names: 1cba. are not converted to enum members, but remain normal attributes. Changed in version 3.11.  File: python.info, Node: Enum member type, Next: Creating members that are mixed with other data types, Prev: _Private__names, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.5 ‘Enum’ member type ........................... Enum members are instances of their enum class, and are normally accessed as ‘EnumClass.member’. In certain situations, such as writing custom enum behavior, being able to access one member directly from another is useful, and is supported; however, in order to avoid name clashes between member names and attributes/methods from mixed-in classes, upper-case names are strongly recommended. Changed in version 3.5.  File: python.info, Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types, Next: Boolean value of Enum classes and members, Prev: Enum member type, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.6 Creating members that are mixed with other data types .............................................................. When subclassing other data types, such as *note int: 259. or *note str: 447, with an *note Enum: 62c, all values after the ‘=’ are passed to that data type’s constructor. For example: >>> class MyEnum(IntEnum): # help(int) -> int(x, base=10) -> integer ... example = '11', 16 # so x='11' and base=16 ... >>> MyEnum.example.value # and hex(11) is... 17  File: python.info, Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members, Next: Enum classes with methods, Prev: Creating members that are mixed with other data types, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.7 Boolean value of ‘Enum’ classes and members .................................................... Enum classes that are mixed with non-*note Enum: 62c. types (such as *note int: 259, *note str: 447, etc.) are evaluated according to the mixed-in type’s rules; otherwise, all members evaluate as *note True: c0d. To make your own enum’s boolean evaluation depend on the member’s value add the following to your class: def __bool__(self): return bool(self.value) Plain *note Enum: 62c. classes always evaluate as *note True: c0d.  File: python.info, Node: Enum classes with methods, Next: Combining members of Flag, Prev: Boolean value of Enum classes and members, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.8 ‘Enum’ classes with methods .................................... If you give your enum subclass extra methods, like the *note Planet: 4f49. class below, those methods will show up in a *note dir(): 62e. of the member, but not of the class: >>> dir(Planet) ['EARTH', 'JUPITER', 'MARS', 'MERCURY', 'NEPTUNE', 'SATURN', 'URANUS', 'VENUS', '__class__', '__doc__', '__members__', '__module__'] >>> dir(Planet.EARTH) ['__class__', '__doc__', '__module__', 'mass', 'name', 'radius', 'surface_gravity', 'value']  File: python.info, Node: Combining members of Flag, Next: Flag and IntFlag minutia, Prev: Enum classes with methods, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.9 Combining members of ‘Flag’ .................................... Iterating over a combination of *note Flag: 61f. members will only return the members that are comprised of a single bit: >>> class Color(Flag): ... RED = auto() ... GREEN = auto() ... BLUE = auto() ... MAGENTA = RED | BLUE ... YELLOW = RED | GREEN ... CYAN = GREEN | BLUE ... >>> Color(3) # named combination <Color.YELLOW: 3> >>> Color(7) # not named combination <Color.RED|GREEN|BLUE: 7>  File: python.info, Node: Flag and IntFlag minutia, Prev: Combining members of Flag, Up: Finer Points 9.6.13.10 ‘Flag’ and ‘IntFlag’ minutia ...................................... Using the following snippet for our examples: >>> class Color(IntFlag): ... BLACK = 0 ... RED = 1 ... GREEN = 2 ... BLUE = 4 ... PURPLE = RED | BLUE ... WHITE = RED | GREEN | BLUE ... the following are true: - single-bit flags are canonical - multi-bit and zero-bit flags are aliases - only canonical flags are returned during iteration: >>> list(Color.WHITE) [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>] - negating a flag or flag set returns a new flag/flag set with the corresponding positive integer value: >>> Color.BLUE <Color.BLUE: 4> >>> ~Color.BLUE <Color.RED|GREEN: 3> - names of pseudo-flags are constructed from their members’ names: >>> (Color.RED | Color.GREEN).name 'RED|GREEN' >>> class Perm(IntFlag): ... R = 4 ... W = 2 ... X = 1 ... >>> (Perm.R & Perm.W).name is None # effectively Perm(0) True - multi-bit flags, aka aliases, can be returned from operations: >>> Color.RED | Color.BLUE <Color.PURPLE: 5> >>> Color(7) # or Color(-1) <Color.WHITE: 7> >>> Color(0) <Color.BLACK: 0> - membership / containment checking: zero-valued flags are always considered to be contained: >>> Color.BLACK in Color.WHITE True otherwise, only if all bits of one flag are in the other flag will True be returned: >>> Color.PURPLE in Color.WHITE True >>> Color.GREEN in Color.PURPLE False There is a new boundary mechanism that controls how out-of-range / invalid bits are handled: ‘STRICT’, ‘CONFORM’, ‘EJECT’, and ‘KEEP’: * STRICT –> raises an exception when presented with invalid values * CONFORM –> discards any invalid bits * EJECT –> lose Flag status and become a normal int with the given value * KEEP –> keep the extra bits - keeps Flag status and extra bits - extra bits do not show up in iteration - extra bits do show up in repr() and str() The default for Flag is ‘STRICT’, the default for ‘IntFlag’ is ‘EJECT’, and the default for ‘_convert_’ is ‘KEEP’ (see ‘ssl.Options’ for an example of when ‘KEEP’ is needed).  File: python.info, Node: How are Enums and Flags different?, Next: Enum Cookbook, Prev: When to use __new__ vs __init__, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.14 How are Enums and Flags different? ----------------------------------------- Enums have a custom metaclass that affects many aspects of both derived *note Enum: 62c. classes and their instances (members). * Menu: * Enum Classes:: * Flag Classes:: * Enum Members (aka instances): Enum Members aka instances. * Flag Members::  File: python.info, Node: Enum Classes, Next: Flag Classes, Up: How are Enums and Flags different? 9.6.14.1 Enum Classes ..................... The *note EnumType: 1e7. metaclass is responsible for providing the *note __contains__(): 1f5e, *note __dir__(): 1f67, *note __iter__(): 1f5c. and other methods that allow one to do things with an *note Enum: 62c. class that fail on a typical class, such as ‘list(Color)’ or ‘some_enum_var in Color’. *note EnumType: 1e7. is responsible for ensuring that various other methods on the final *note Enum: 62c. class are correct (such as *note __new__(): 57d, *note __getnewargs__(): 146e, *note __str__(): 619. and *note __repr__(): 618.).  File: python.info, Node: Flag Classes, Next: Enum Members aka instances, Prev: Enum Classes, Up: How are Enums and Flags different? 9.6.14.2 Flag Classes ..................... Flags have an expanded view of aliasing: to be canonical, the value of a flag needs to be a power-of-two value, and not a duplicate name. So, in addition to the *note Enum: 62c. definition of alias, a flag with no value (a.k.a. ‘0’) or with more than one power-of-two value (e.g. ‘3’) is considered an alias.  File: python.info, Node: Enum Members aka instances, Next: Flag Members, Prev: Flag Classes, Up: How are Enums and Flags different? 9.6.14.3 Enum Members (aka instances) ..................................... The most interesting thing about enum members is that they are singletons. *note EnumType: 1e7. creates them all while it is creating the enum class itself, and then puts a custom *note __new__(): 57d. in place to ensure that no new ones are ever instantiated by returning only the existing member instances.  File: python.info, Node: Flag Members, Prev: Enum Members aka instances, Up: How are Enums and Flags different? 9.6.14.4 Flag Members ..................... Flag members can be iterated over just like the *note Flag: 61f. class, and only the canonical members will be returned. For example: >>> list(Color) [<Color.RED: 1>, <Color.GREEN: 2>, <Color.BLUE: 4>] (Note that ‘BLACK’, ‘PURPLE’, and ‘WHITE’ do not show up.) Inverting a flag member returns the corresponding positive value, rather than a negative value — for example: >>> ~Color.RED <Color.GREEN|BLUE: 6> Flag members have a length corresponding to the number of power-of-two values they contain. For example: >>> len(Color.PURPLE) 2  File: python.info, Node: Enum Cookbook, Next: Subclassing EnumType, Prev: How are Enums and Flags different?, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.15 Enum Cookbook -------------------- While *note Enum: 62c, *note IntEnum: cdf, *note StrEnum: 616, *note Flag: 61f, and *note IntFlag: 22fa. are expected to cover the majority of use-cases, they cannot cover them all. Here are recipes for some different types of enumerations that can be used directly, or as examples for creating one’s own. * Menu: * Omitting values:: * OrderedEnum:: * DuplicateFreeEnum:: * MultiValueEnum:: * Planet:: * TimePeriod::  File: python.info, Node: Omitting values, Next: OrderedEnum, Up: Enum Cookbook 9.6.15.1 Omitting values ........................ In many use-cases, one doesn’t care what the actual value of an enumeration is. There are several ways to define this type of simple enumeration: - use instances of *note auto: c9c. for the value - use instances of *note object: a8c. as the value - use a descriptive string as the value - use a tuple as the value and a custom *note __new__(): 57d. to replace the tuple with an *note int: 259. value Using any of these methods signifies to the user that these values are not important, and also enables one to add, remove, or reorder members without having to renumber the remaining members. * Menu: * Using auto:: * Using object:: * Using a descriptive string:: * Using a custom __new__(): Using a custom __new__.  File: python.info, Node: Using auto, Next: Using object, Up: Omitting values 9.6.15.2 Using ‘auto’ ..................... Using *note auto: c9c. would look like: >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = auto() ... BLUE = auto() ... GREEN = auto() ... >>> Color.GREEN <Color.GREEN: 3>  File: python.info, Node: Using object, Next: Using a descriptive string, Prev: Using auto, Up: Omitting values 9.6.15.3 Using ‘object’ ....................... Using *note object: a8c. would look like: >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = object() ... GREEN = object() ... BLUE = object() ... >>> Color.GREEN <Color.GREEN: <object object at 0x...>> This is also a good example of why you might want to write your own *note __repr__(): 618.: >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = object() ... GREEN = object() ... BLUE = object() ... def __repr__(self): ... return "<%s.%s>" % (self.__class__.__name__, self._name_) ... >>> Color.GREEN <Color.GREEN>  File: python.info, Node: Using a descriptive string, Next: Using a custom __new__, Prev: Using object, Up: Omitting values 9.6.15.4 Using a descriptive string ................................... Using a string as the value would look like: >>> class Color(Enum): ... RED = 'stop' ... GREEN = 'go' ... BLUE = 'too fast!' ... >>> Color.GREEN <Color.GREEN: 'go'>  File: python.info, Node: Using a custom __new__, Prev: Using a descriptive string, Up: Omitting values 9.6.15.5 Using a custom ‘__new__()’ ................................... Using an auto-numbering *note __new__(): 57d. would look like: >>> class AutoNumber(Enum): ... def __new__(cls): ... value = len(cls.__members__) + 1 ... obj = object.__new__(cls) ... obj._value_ = value ... return obj ... >>> class Color(AutoNumber): ... RED = () ... GREEN = () ... BLUE = () ... >>> Color.GREEN <Color.GREEN: 2> To make a more general purpose ‘AutoNumber’, add ‘*args’ to the signature: >>> class AutoNumber(Enum): ... def __new__(cls, *args): # this is the only change from above ... value = len(cls.__members__) + 1 ... obj = object.__new__(cls) ... obj._value_ = value ... return obj ... Then when you inherit from ‘AutoNumber’ you can write your own ‘__init__’ to handle any extra arguments: >>> class Swatch(AutoNumber): ... def __init__(self, pantone='unknown'): ... self.pantone = pantone ... AUBURN = '3497' ... SEA_GREEN = '1246' ... BLEACHED_CORAL = () # New color, no Pantone code yet! ... >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN <Swatch.SEA_GREEN: 2> >>> Swatch.SEA_GREEN.pantone '1246' >>> Swatch.BLEACHED_CORAL.pantone 'unknown' Note: The *note __new__(): 57d. method, if defined, is used during creation of the Enum members; it is then replaced by Enum’s *note __new__(): 57d. which is used after class creation for lookup of existing members. Warning: 'Do not' call ‘super().__new__()’, as the lookup-only ‘__new__’ is the one that is found; instead, use the data type directly – e.g.: obj = int.__new__(cls, value)  File: python.info, Node: OrderedEnum, Next: DuplicateFreeEnum, Prev: Omitting values, Up: Enum Cookbook 9.6.15.6 OrderedEnum .................... An ordered enumeration that is not based on *note IntEnum: cdf. and so maintains the normal *note Enum: 62c. invariants (such as not being comparable to other enumerations): >>> class OrderedEnum(Enum): ... def __ge__(self, other): ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__: ... return self.value >= other.value ... return NotImplemented ... def __gt__(self, other): ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__: ... return self.value > other.value ... return NotImplemented ... def __le__(self, other): ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__: ... return self.value <= other.value ... return NotImplemented ... def __lt__(self, other): ... if self.__class__ is other.__class__: ... return self.value < other.value ... return NotImplemented ... >>> class Grade(OrderedEnum): ... A = 5 ... B = 4 ... C = 3 ... D = 2 ... F = 1 ... >>> Grade.C < Grade.A True  File: python.info, Node: DuplicateFreeEnum, Next: MultiValueEnum, Prev: OrderedEnum, Up: Enum Cookbook 9.6.15.7 DuplicateFreeEnum .......................... Raises an error if a duplicate member value is found instead of creating an alias: >>> class DuplicateFreeEnum(Enum): ... def __init__(self, *args): ... cls = self.__class__ ... if any(self.value == e.value for e in cls): ... a = self.name ... e = cls(self.value).name ... raise ValueError( ... "aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum: %r --> %r" ... % (a, e)) ... >>> class Color(DuplicateFreeEnum): ... RED = 1 ... GREEN = 2 ... BLUE = 3 ... GRENE = 2 ... Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: aliases not allowed in DuplicateFreeEnum: 'GRENE' --> 'GREEN' Note: This is a useful example for subclassing Enum to add or change other behaviors as well as disallowing aliases. If the only desired change is disallowing aliases, the *note unique(): 25bb. decorator can be used instead.  File: python.info, Node: MultiValueEnum, Next: Planet, Prev: DuplicateFreeEnum, Up: Enum Cookbook 9.6.15.8 MultiValueEnum ....................... Supports having more than one value per member: >>> class MultiValueEnum(Enum): ... def __new__(cls, value, *values): ... self = object.__new__(cls) ... self._value_ = value ... for v in values: ... self._add_value_alias_(v) ... return self ... >>> class DType(MultiValueEnum): ... float32 = 'f', 8 ... double64 = 'd', 9 ... >>> DType('f') <DType.float32: 'f'> >>> DType(9) <DType.double64: 'd'>  File: python.info, Node: Planet, Next: TimePeriod, Prev: MultiValueEnum, Up: Enum Cookbook 9.6.15.9 Planet ............... If *note __new__(): 57d. or *note __init__(): 6ac. is defined, the value of the enum member will be passed to those methods: >>> class Planet(Enum): ... MERCURY = (3.303e+23, 2.4397e6) ... VENUS = (4.869e+24, 6.0518e6) ... EARTH = (5.976e+24, 6.37814e6) ... MARS = (6.421e+23, 3.3972e6) ... JUPITER = (1.9e+27, 7.1492e7) ... SATURN = (5.688e+26, 6.0268e7) ... URANUS = (8.686e+25, 2.5559e7) ... NEPTUNE = (1.024e+26, 2.4746e7) ... def __init__(self, mass, radius): ... self.mass = mass # in kilograms ... self.radius = radius # in meters ... @property ... def surface_gravity(self): ... # universal gravitational constant (m3 kg-1 s-2) ... G = 6.67300E-11 ... return G * self.mass / (self.radius * self.radius) ... >>> Planet.EARTH.value (5.976e+24, 6378140.0) >>> Planet.EARTH.surface_gravity 9.802652743337129  File: python.info, Node: TimePeriod, Prev: Planet, Up: Enum Cookbook 9.6.15.10 TimePeriod .................... An example to show the *note _ignore_: 25cd. attribute in use: >>> from datetime import timedelta >>> class Period(timedelta, Enum): ... "different lengths of time" ... _ignore_ = 'Period i' ... Period = vars() ... for i in range(367): ... Period['day_%d' % i] = i ... >>> list(Period)[:2] [<Period.day_0: datetime.timedelta(0)>, <Period.day_1: datetime.timedelta(days=1)>] >>> list(Period)[-2:] [<Period.day_365: datetime.timedelta(days=365)>, <Period.day_366: datetime.timedelta(days=366)>]  File: python.info, Node: Subclassing EnumType, Prev: Enum Cookbook, Up: Enum HOWTO 9.6.16 Subclassing EnumType --------------------------- While most enum needs can be met by customizing *note Enum: 62c. subclasses, either with class decorators or custom functions, *note EnumType: 1e7. can be subclassed to provide a different Enum experience.  File: python.info, Node: Functional Programming HOWTO, Next: Logging HOWTO, Prev: Enum HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.7 Functional Programming HOWTO ================================ Author: A. M. Kuchling Release: 0.32 In this document, we’ll take a tour of Python’s features suitable for implementing programs in a functional style. After an introduction to the concepts of functional programming, we’ll look at language features such as *note iterator: 1ac.s and *note generator: 105a.s and relevant library modules such as *note itertools: 81. and *note functools: 5f. * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<14>. * Iterators: Iterators<2>. * Generator expressions and list comprehensions:: * Generators: Generators<2>. * Built-in functions: Built-in functions<2>. * The itertools module:: * The functools module:: * Small functions and the lambda expression:: * Revision History and Acknowledgements:: * References: References<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<14>, Next: Iterators<2>, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.1 Introduction ------------------ This section explains the basic concept of functional programming; if you’re just interested in learning about Python language features, skip to the next section on *note Iterators: 4f72. Programming languages support decomposing problems in several different ways: * Most programming languages are 'procedural': programs are lists of instructions that tell the computer what to do with the program’s input. C, Pascal, and even Unix shells are procedural languages. * In 'declarative' languages, you write a specification that describes the problem to be solved, and the language implementation figures out how to perform the computation efficiently. SQL is the declarative language you’re most likely to be familiar with; a SQL query describes the data set you want to retrieve, and the SQL engine decides whether to scan tables or use indexes, which subclauses should be performed first, etc. * 'Object-oriented' programs manipulate collections of objects. Objects have internal state and support methods that query or modify this internal state in some way. Smalltalk and Java are object-oriented languages. C++ and Python are languages that support object-oriented programming, but don’t force the use of object-oriented features. * 'Functional' programming decomposes a problem into a set of functions. Ideally, functions only take inputs and produce outputs, and don’t have any internal state that affects the output produced for a given input. Well-known functional languages include the ML family (Standard ML, OCaml, and other variants) and Haskell. The designers of some computer languages choose to emphasize one particular approach to programming. This often makes it difficult to write programs that use a different approach. Other languages are multi-paradigm languages that support several different approaches. Lisp, C++, and Python are multi-paradigm; you can write programs or libraries that are largely procedural, object-oriented, or functional in all of these languages. In a large program, different sections might be written using different approaches; the GUI might be object-oriented while the processing logic is procedural or functional, for example. In a functional program, input flows through a set of functions. Each function operates on its input and produces some output. Functional style discourages functions with side effects that modify internal state or make other changes that aren’t visible in the function’s return value. Functions that have no side effects at all are called 'purely functional'. Avoiding side effects means not using data structures that get updated as a program runs; every function’s output must only depend on its input. Some languages are very strict about purity and don’t even have assignment statements such as ‘a=3’ or ‘c = a + b’, but it’s difficult to avoid all side effects, such as printing to the screen or writing to a disk file. Another example is a call to the *note print(): f70. or *note time.sleep(): 699. function, neither of which returns a useful value. Both are called only for their side effects of sending some text to the screen or pausing execution for a second. Python programs written in functional style usually won’t go to the extreme of avoiding all I/O or all assignments; instead, they’ll provide a functional-appearing interface but will use non-functional features internally. For example, the implementation of a function will still use assignments to local variables, but won’t modify global variables or have other side effects. Functional programming can be considered the opposite of object-oriented programming. Objects are little capsules containing some internal state along with a collection of method calls that let you modify this state, and programs consist of making the right set of state changes. Functional programming wants to avoid state changes as much as possible and works with data flowing between functions. In Python you might combine the two approaches by writing functions that take and return instances representing objects in your application (e-mail messages, transactions, etc.). Functional design may seem like an odd constraint to work under. Why should you avoid objects and side effects? There are theoretical and practical advantages to the functional style: * Formal provability. * Modularity. * Composability. * Ease of debugging and testing. * Menu: * Formal provability:: * Modularity:: * Ease of debugging and testing:: * Composability::  File: python.info, Node: Formal provability, Next: Modularity, Up: Introduction<14> 9.7.1.1 Formal provability .......................... A theoretical benefit is that it’s easier to construct a mathematical proof that a functional program is correct. For a long time researchers have been interested in finding ways to mathematically prove programs correct. This is different from testing a program on numerous inputs and concluding that its output is usually correct, or reading a program’s source code and concluding that the code looks right; the goal is instead a rigorous proof that a program produces the right result for all possible inputs. The technique used to prove programs correct is to write down 'invariants', properties of the input data and of the program’s variables that are always true. For each line of code, you then show that if invariants X and Y are true 'before' the line is executed, the slightly different invariants X’ and Y’ are true 'after' the line is executed. This continues until you reach the end of the program, at which point the invariants should match the desired conditions on the program’s output. Functional programming’s avoidance of assignments arose because assignments are difficult to handle with this technique; assignments can break invariants that were true before the assignment without producing any new invariants that can be propagated onward. Unfortunately, proving programs correct is largely impractical and not relevant to Python software. Even trivial programs require proofs that are several pages long; the proof of correctness for a moderately complicated program would be enormous, and few or none of the programs you use daily (the Python interpreter, your XML parser, your web browser) could be proven correct. Even if you wrote down or generated a proof, there would then be the question of verifying the proof; maybe there’s an error in it, and you wrongly believe you’ve proved the program correct.  File: python.info, Node: Modularity, Next: Ease of debugging and testing, Prev: Formal provability, Up: Introduction<14> 9.7.1.2 Modularity .................. A more practical benefit of functional programming is that it forces you to break apart your problem into small pieces. Programs are more modular as a result. It’s easier to specify and write a small function that does one thing than a large function that performs a complicated transformation. Small functions are also easier to read and to check for errors.  File: python.info, Node: Ease of debugging and testing, Next: Composability, Prev: Modularity, Up: Introduction<14> 9.7.1.3 Ease of debugging and testing ..................................... Testing and debugging a functional-style program is easier. Debugging is simplified because functions are generally small and clearly specified. When a program doesn’t work, each function is an interface point where you can check that the data are correct. You can look at the intermediate inputs and outputs to quickly isolate the function that’s responsible for a bug. Testing is easier because each function is a potential subject for a unit test. Functions don’t depend on system state that needs to be replicated before running a test; instead you only have to synthesize the right input and then check that the output matches expectations.  File: python.info, Node: Composability, Prev: Ease of debugging and testing, Up: Introduction<14> 9.7.1.4 Composability ..................... As you work on a functional-style program, you’ll write a number of functions with varying inputs and outputs. Some of these functions will be unavoidably specialized to a particular application, but others will be useful in a wide variety of programs. For example, a function that takes a directory path and returns all the XML files in the directory, or a function that takes a filename and returns its contents, can be applied to many different situations. Over time you’ll form a personal library of utilities. Often you’ll assemble new programs by arranging existing functions in a new configuration and writing a few functions specialized for the current task.  File: python.info, Node: Iterators<2>, Next: Generator expressions and list comprehensions, Prev: Introduction<14>, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.2 Iterators --------------- I’ll start by looking at a Python language feature that’s an important foundation for writing functional-style programs: iterators. An iterator is an object representing a stream of data; this object returns the data one element at a time. A Python iterator must support a method called *note __next__(): 12c0. that takes no arguments and always returns the next element of the stream. If there are no more elements in the stream, *note __next__(): 12c0. must raise the *note StopIteration: bfa. exception. Iterators don’t have to be finite, though; it’s perfectly reasonable to write an iterator that produces an infinite stream of data. The built-in *note iter(): 7d2. function takes an arbitrary object and tries to return an iterator that will return the object’s contents or elements, raising *note TypeError: 534. if the object doesn’t support iteration. Several of Python’s built-in data types support iteration, the most common being lists and dictionaries. An object is called *note iterable: 121a. if you can get an iterator for it. You can experiment with the iteration interface manually: >>> L = [1, 2, 3] >>> it = iter(L) >>> it <...iterator object at ...> >>> it.__next__() # same as next(it) 1 >>> next(it) 2 >>> next(it) 3 >>> next(it) Traceback (most recent call last): File "<stdin>", line 1, in <module> StopIteration >>> Python expects iterable objects in several different contexts, the most important being the *note for: 2ec. statement. In the statement ‘for X in Y’, Y must be an iterator or some object for which *note iter(): 7d2. can create an iterator. These two statements are equivalent: for i in iter(obj): print(i) for i in obj: print(i) Iterators can be materialized as lists or tuples by using the *note list(): 60d. or *note tuple(): 36b. constructor functions: >>> L = [1, 2, 3] >>> iterator = iter(L) >>> t = tuple(iterator) >>> t (1, 2, 3) Sequence unpacking also supports iterators: if you know an iterator will return N elements, you can unpack them into an N-tuple: >>> L = [1, 2, 3] >>> iterator = iter(L) >>> a, b, c = iterator >>> a, b, c (1, 2, 3) Built-in functions such as *note max(): f04. and *note min(): f03. can take a single iterator argument and will return the largest or smallest element. The ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’ operators also support iterators: ‘X in iterator’ is true if X is found in the stream returned by the iterator. You’ll run into obvious problems if the iterator is infinite; *note max(): f04, *note min(): f03. will never return, and if the element X never appears in the stream, the ‘"in"’ and ‘"not in"’ operators won’t return either. Note that you can only go forward in an iterator; there’s no way to get the previous element, reset the iterator, or make a copy of it. Iterator objects can optionally provide these additional capabilities, but the iterator protocol only specifies the *note __next__(): 12c0. method. Functions may therefore consume all of the iterator’s output, and if you need to do something different with the same stream, you’ll have to create a new iterator. * Menu: * Data Types That Support Iterators::  File: python.info, Node: Data Types That Support Iterators, Up: Iterators<2> 9.7.2.1 Data Types That Support Iterators ......................................... We’ve already seen how lists and tuples support iterators. In fact, any Python sequence type, such as strings, will automatically support creation of an iterator. Calling *note iter(): 7d2. on a dictionary returns an iterator that will loop over the dictionary’s keys: >>> m = {'Jan': 1, 'Feb': 2, 'Mar': 3, 'Apr': 4, 'May': 5, 'Jun': 6, ... 'Jul': 7, 'Aug': 8, 'Sep': 9, 'Oct': 10, 'Nov': 11, 'Dec': 12} >>> for key in m: ... print(key, m[key]) Jan 1 Feb 2 Mar 3 Apr 4 May 5 Jun 6 Jul 7 Aug 8 Sep 9 Oct 10 Nov 11 Dec 12 Note that starting with Python 3.7, dictionary iteration order is guaranteed to be the same as the insertion order. In earlier versions, the behaviour was unspecified and could vary between implementations. Applying *note iter(): 7d2. to a dictionary always loops over the keys, but dictionaries have methods that return other iterators. If you want to iterate over values or key/value pairs, you can explicitly call the *note values(): 7c9. or *note items(): 7ca. methods to get an appropriate iterator. The *note dict(): 258. constructor can accept an iterator that returns a finite stream of ‘(key, value)’ tuples: >>> L = [('Italy', 'Rome'), ('France', 'Paris'), ('US', 'Washington DC')] >>> dict(iter(L)) {'Italy': 'Rome', 'France': 'Paris', 'US': 'Washington DC'} Files also support iteration by calling the *note readline(): 1cbd. method until there are no more lines in the file. This means you can read each line of a file like this: for line in file: # do something for each line ... Sets can take their contents from an iterable and let you iterate over the set’s elements: >>> S = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13} >>> for i in S: ... print(i) 2 3 5 7 11 13  File: python.info, Node: Generator expressions and list comprehensions, Next: Generators<2>, Prev: Iterators<2>, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.3 Generator expressions and list comprehensions --------------------------------------------------- Two common operations on an iterator’s output are 1) performing some operation for every element, 2) selecting a subset of elements that meet some condition. For example, given a list of strings, you might want to strip off trailing whitespace from each line or extract all the strings containing a given substring. List comprehensions and generator expressions (short form: “listcomps” and “genexps”) are a concise notation for such operations, borrowed from the functional programming language Haskell (‘https://www.haskell.org/’). You can strip all the whitespace from a stream of strings with the following code: >>> line_list = [' line 1\n', 'line 2 \n', ' \n', ''] >>> # Generator expression -- returns iterator >>> stripped_iter = (line.strip() for line in line_list) >>> # List comprehension -- returns list >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list] You can select only certain elements by adding an ‘"if"’ condition: >>> stripped_list = [line.strip() for line in line_list ... if line != ""] With a list comprehension, you get back a Python list; ‘stripped_list’ is a list containing the resulting lines, not an iterator. Generator expressions return an iterator that computes the values as necessary, not needing to materialize all the values at once. This means that list comprehensions aren’t useful if you’re working with iterators that return an infinite stream or a very large amount of data. Generator expressions are preferable in these situations. Generator expressions are surrounded by parentheses (“()”) and list comprehensions are surrounded by square brackets (“[]”). Generator expressions have the form: ( expression for expr in sequence1 if condition1 for expr2 in sequence2 if condition2 for expr3 in sequence3 ... if condition3 for exprN in sequenceN if conditionN ) Again, for a list comprehension only the outside brackets are different (square brackets instead of parentheses). The elements of the generated output will be the successive values of ‘expression’. The ‘if’ clauses are all optional; if present, ‘expression’ is only evaluated and added to the result when ‘condition’ is true. Generator expressions always have to be written inside parentheses, but the parentheses signalling a function call also count. If you want to create an iterator that will be immediately passed to a function you can write: obj_total = sum(obj.count for obj in list_all_objects()) The ‘for...in’ clauses contain the sequences to be iterated over. The sequences do not have to be the same length, because they are iterated over from left to right, 'not' in parallel. For each element in ‘sequence1’, ‘sequence2’ is looped over from the beginning. ‘sequence3’ is then looped over for each resulting pair of elements from ‘sequence1’ and ‘sequence2’. To put it another way, a list comprehension or generator expression is equivalent to the following Python code: for expr1 in sequence1: if not (condition1): continue # Skip this element for expr2 in sequence2: if not (condition2): continue # Skip this element ... for exprN in sequenceN: if not (conditionN): continue # Skip this element # Output the value of # the expression. This means that when there are multiple ‘for...in’ clauses but no ‘if’ clauses, the length of the resulting output will be equal to the product of the lengths of all the sequences. If you have two lists of length 3, the output list is 9 elements long: >>> seq1 = 'abc' >>> seq2 = (1, 2, 3) >>> [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2] [('a', 1), ('a', 2), ('a', 3), ('b', 1), ('b', 2), ('b', 3), ('c', 1), ('c', 2), ('c', 3)] To avoid introducing an ambiguity into Python’s grammar, if ‘expression’ is creating a tuple, it must be surrounded with parentheses. The first list comprehension below is a syntax error, while the second one is correct: # Syntax error [x, y for x in seq1 for y in seq2] # Correct [(x, y) for x in seq1 for y in seq2]  File: python.info, Node: Generators<2>, Next: Built-in functions<2>, Prev: Generator expressions and list comprehensions, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.4 Generators ---------------- Generators are a special class of functions that simplify the task of writing iterators. Regular functions compute a value and return it, but generators return an iterator that returns a stream of values. You’re doubtless familiar with how regular function calls work in Python or C. When you call a function, it gets a private namespace where its local variables are created. When the function reaches a ‘return’ statement, the local variables are destroyed and the value is returned to the caller. A later call to the same function creates a new private namespace and a fresh set of local variables. But, what if the local variables weren’t thrown away on exiting a function? What if you could later resume the function where it left off? This is what generators provide; they can be thought of as resumable functions. Here’s the simplest example of a generator function: >>> def generate_ints(N): ... for i in range(N): ... yield i Any function containing a *note yield: 9cd. keyword is a generator function; this is detected by Python’s *note bytecode: 187. compiler which compiles the function specially as a result. When you call a generator function, it doesn’t return a single value; instead it returns a generator object that supports the iterator protocol. On executing the ‘yield’ expression, the generator outputs the value of ‘i’, similar to a ‘return’ statement. The big difference between ‘yield’ and a ‘return’ statement is that on reaching a ‘yield’ the generator’s state of execution is suspended and local variables are preserved. On the next call to the generator’s *note __next__(): 1cc5. method, the function will resume executing. Here’s a sample usage of the ‘generate_ints()’ generator: >>> gen = generate_ints(3) >>> gen <generator object generate_ints at ...> >>> next(gen) 0 >>> next(gen) 1 >>> next(gen) 2 >>> next(gen) Traceback (most recent call last): File "stdin", line 1, in <module> File "stdin", line 2, in generate_ints StopIteration You could equally write ‘for i in generate_ints(5)’, or ‘a, b, c = generate_ints(3)’. Inside a generator function, ‘return value’ causes ‘StopIteration(value)’ to be raised from the *note __next__(): 1cc5. method. Once this happens, or the bottom of the function is reached, the procession of values ends and the generator cannot yield any further values. You could achieve the effect of generators manually by writing your own class and storing all the local variables of the generator as instance variables. For example, returning a list of integers could be done by setting ‘self.count’ to 0, and having the *note __next__(): 12c0. method increment ‘self.count’ and return it. However, for a moderately complicated generator, writing a corresponding class can be much messier. The test suite included with Python’s library, Lib/test/test_generators.py(1), contains a number of more interesting examples. Here’s one generator that implements an in-order traversal of a tree using generators recursively. # A recursive generator that generates Tree leaves in in-order. def inorder(t): if t: for x in inorder(t.left): yield x yield t.label for x in inorder(t.right): yield x Two other examples in ‘test_generators.py’ produce solutions for the N-Queens problem (placing N queens on an NxN chess board so that no queen threatens another) and the Knight’s Tour (finding a route that takes a knight to every square of an NxN chessboard without visiting any square twice). * Menu: * Passing values into a generator:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Lib/test/test_generators.py  File: python.info, Node: Passing values into a generator, Up: Generators<2> 9.7.4.1 Passing values into a generator ....................................... In Python 2.4 and earlier, generators only produced output. Once a generator’s code was invoked to create an iterator, there was no way to pass any new information into the function when its execution is resumed. You could hack together this ability by making the generator look at a global variable or by passing in some mutable object that callers then modify, but these approaches are messy. In Python 2.5 there’s a simple way to pass values into a generator. *note yield: 9cd. became an expression, returning a value that can be assigned to a variable or otherwise operated on: val = (yield i) I recommend that you 'always' put parentheses around a ‘yield’ expression when you’re doing something with the returned value, as in the above example. The parentheses aren’t always necessary, but it’s easier to always add them instead of having to remember when they’re needed. ( PEP 342(1) explains the exact rules, which are that a ‘yield’-expression must always be parenthesized except when it occurs at the top-level expression on the right-hand side of an assignment. This means you can write ‘val = yield i’ but have to use parentheses when there’s an operation, as in ‘val = (yield i) + 12’.) Values are sent into a generator by calling its *note send(value): 1fcc. method. This method resumes the generator’s code and the ‘yield’ expression returns the specified value. If the regular *note __next__(): 1cc5. method is called, the ‘yield’ returns ‘None’. Here’s a simple counter that increments by 1 and allows changing the value of the internal counter. def counter(maximum): i = 0 while i < maximum: val = (yield i) # If value provided, change counter if val is not None: i = val else: i += 1 And here’s an example of changing the counter: >>> it = counter(10) >>> next(it) 0 >>> next(it) 1 >>> it.send(8) 8 >>> next(it) 9 >>> next(it) Traceback (most recent call last): File "t.py", line 15, in <module> it.next() StopIteration Because ‘yield’ will often be returning ‘None’, you should always check for this case. Don’t just use its value in expressions unless you’re sure that the *note send(): 1fcc. method will be the only method used to resume your generator function. In addition to *note send(): 1fcc, there are two other methods on generators: * *note throw(value): 4f4. is used to raise an exception inside the generator; the exception is raised by the ‘yield’ expression where the generator’s execution is paused. * *note close(): 16f4. sends a *note GeneratorExit: 1393. exception to the generator to terminate the iteration. On receiving this exception, the generator’s code must either raise *note GeneratorExit: 1393. or *note StopIteration: bfa.; catching the exception and doing anything else is illegal and will trigger a *note RuntimeError: 195. *note close(): 16f4. will also be called by Python’s garbage collector when the generator is garbage-collected. If you need to run cleanup code when a *note GeneratorExit: 1393. occurs, I suggest using a ‘try: ... finally:’ suite instead of catching *note GeneratorExit: 1393. The cumulative effect of these changes is to turn generators from one-way producers of information into both producers and consumers. Generators also become 'coroutines', a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point (the top of the function, and a ‘return’ statement), but coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points (the ‘yield’ statements). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/  File: python.info, Node: Built-in functions<2>, Next: The itertools module, Prev: Generators<2>, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.5 Built-in functions ------------------------ Let’s look in more detail at built-in functions often used with iterators. Two of Python’s built-in functions, *note map(): 860. and *note filter(): 861. duplicate the features of generator expressions: *note map(f, iterA, iterB, ...): 860. returns an iterator over the sequence ‘f(iterA[0], iterB[0]), f(iterA[1], iterB[1]), f(iterA[2], iterB[2]), ...’. >>> def upper(s): ... return s.upper() >>> list(map(upper, ['sentence', 'fragment'])) ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT'] >>> [upper(s) for s in ['sentence', 'fragment']] ['SENTENCE', 'FRAGMENT'] You can of course achieve the same effect with a list comprehension. *note filter(predicate, iter): 861. returns an iterator over all the sequence elements that meet a certain condition, and is similarly duplicated by list comprehensions. A 'predicate' is a function that returns the truth value of some condition; for use with *note filter(): 861, the predicate must take a single value. >>> def is_even(x): ... return (x % 2) == 0 >>> list(filter(is_even, range(10))) [0, 2, 4, 6, 8] This can also be written as a list comprehension: >>> list(x for x in range(10) if is_even(x)) [0, 2, 4, 6, 8] *note enumerate(iter, start=0): 1448. counts off the elements in the iterable returning 2-tuples containing the count (from 'start') and each element. >>> for item in enumerate(['subject', 'verb', 'object']): ... print(item) (0, 'subject') (1, 'verb') (2, 'object') *note enumerate(): 1448. is often used when looping through a list and recording the indexes at which certain conditions are met: f = open('data.txt', 'r') for i, line in enumerate(f): if line.strip() == '': print('Blank line at line #%i' % i) *note sorted(iterable, key=None, reverse=False): bce. collects all the elements of the iterable into a list, sorts the list, and returns the sorted result. The 'key' and 'reverse' arguments are passed through to the constructed list’s *note sort(): bcf. method. >>> import random >>> # Generate 8 random numbers between [0, 10000) >>> rand_list = random.sample(range(10000), 8) >>> rand_list [769, 7953, 9828, 6431, 8442, 9878, 6213, 2207] >>> sorted(rand_list) [769, 2207, 6213, 6431, 7953, 8442, 9828, 9878] >>> sorted(rand_list, reverse=True) [9878, 9828, 8442, 7953, 6431, 6213, 2207, 769] (For a more detailed discussion of sorting, see the *note Sorting Techniques: 217e.) The *note any(iter): 13ec. and *note all(iter): 13ed. built-ins look at the truth values of an iterable’s contents. *note any(): 13ec. returns ‘True’ if any element in the iterable is a true value, and *note all(): 13ed. returns ‘True’ if all of the elements are true values: >>> any([0, 1, 0]) True >>> any([0, 0, 0]) False >>> any([1, 1, 1]) True >>> all([0, 1, 0]) False >>> all([0, 0, 0]) False >>> all([1, 1, 1]) True *note zip(iterA, iterB, ...): 7cb. takes one element from each iterable and returns them in a tuple: zip(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) => ('a', 1), ('b', 2), ('c', 3) It doesn’t construct an in-memory list and exhaust all the input iterators before returning; instead tuples are constructed and returned only if they’re requested. (The technical term for this behaviour is lazy evaluation(1).) This iterator is intended to be used with iterables that are all of the same length. If the iterables are of different lengths, the resulting stream will be the same length as the shortest iterable. zip(['a', 'b'], (1, 2, 3)) => ('a', 1), ('b', 2) You should avoid doing this, though, because an element may be taken from the longer iterators and discarded. This means you can’t go on to use the iterators further because you risk skipping a discarded element. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazy_evaluation  File: python.info, Node: The itertools module, Next: The functools module, Prev: Built-in functions<2>, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.6 The itertools module -------------------------- The *note itertools: 81. module contains a number of commonly used iterators as well as functions for combining several iterators. This section will introduce the module’s contents by showing small examples. The module’s functions fall into a few broad classes: * Functions that create a new iterator based on an existing iterator. * Functions for treating an iterator’s elements as function arguments. * Functions for selecting portions of an iterator’s output. * A function for grouping an iterator’s output. * Menu: * Creating new iterators:: * Calling functions on elements:: * Selecting elements:: * Combinatoric functions:: * Grouping elements::  File: python.info, Node: Creating new iterators, Next: Calling functions on elements, Up: The itertools module 9.7.6.1 Creating new iterators .............................. *note itertools.count(start, step): 1276. returns an infinite stream of evenly spaced values. You can optionally supply the starting number, which defaults to 0, and the interval between numbers, which defaults to 1: itertools.count() => 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ... itertools.count(10) => 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ... itertools.count(10, 5) => 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, ... *note itertools.cycle(iter): 2731. saves a copy of the contents of a provided iterable and returns a new iterator that returns its elements from first to last. The new iterator will repeat these elements infinitely. itertools.cycle([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) => 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, ... *note itertools.repeat(elem, [n]): 2732. returns the provided element 'n' times, or returns the element endlessly if 'n' is not provided. itertools.repeat('abc') => abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, abc, ... itertools.repeat('abc', 5) => abc, abc, abc, abc, abc *note itertools.chain(iterA, iterB, ...): 217f. takes an arbitrary number of iterables as input, and returns all the elements of the first iterator, then all the elements of the second, and so on, until all of the iterables have been exhausted. itertools.chain(['a', 'b', 'c'], (1, 2, 3)) => a, b, c, 1, 2, 3 *note itertools.islice(iter, [start], stop, [step]): b4c. returns a stream that’s a slice of the iterator. With a single 'stop' argument, it will return the first 'stop' elements. If you supply a starting index, you’ll get 'stop-start' elements, and if you supply a value for 'step', elements will be skipped accordingly. Unlike Python’s string and list slicing, you can’t use negative values for 'start', 'stop', or 'step'. itertools.islice(range(10), 8) => 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8) => 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 itertools.islice(range(10), 2, 8, 2) => 2, 4, 6 *note itertools.tee(iter, [n]): 2737. replicates an iterator; it returns 'n' independent iterators that will all return the contents of the source iterator. If you don’t supply a value for 'n', the default is 2. Replicating iterators requires saving some of the contents of the source iterator, so this can consume significant memory if the iterator is large and one of the new iterators is consumed more than the others. itertools.tee( itertools.count() ) => iterA, iterB where iterA -> 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ... and iterB -> 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, ...  File: python.info, Node: Calling functions on elements, Next: Selecting elements, Prev: Creating new iterators, Up: The itertools module 9.7.6.2 Calling functions on elements ..................................... The *note operator: 9f. module contains a set of functions corresponding to Python’s operators. Some examples are *note operator.add(a, b): 275d. (adds two values), *note operator.ne(a, b): 274d. (same as ‘a != b’), and *note operator.attrgetter('id'): e32. (returns a callable that fetches the ‘.id’ attribute). *note itertools.starmap(func, iter): 10d9. assumes that the iterable will return a stream of tuples, and calls 'func' using these tuples as the arguments: itertools.starmap(os.path.join, [('/bin', 'python'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'java'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'perl'), ('/usr', 'bin', 'ruby')]) => /bin/python, /usr/bin/java, /usr/bin/perl, /usr/bin/ruby  File: python.info, Node: Selecting elements, Next: Combinatoric functions, Prev: Calling functions on elements, Up: The itertools module 9.7.6.3 Selecting elements .......................... Another group of functions chooses a subset of an iterator’s elements based on a predicate. *note itertools.filterfalse(predicate, iter): 216b. is the opposite of *note filter(): 861, returning all elements for which the predicate returns false: itertools.filterfalse(is_even, itertools.count()) => 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, ... *note itertools.takewhile(predicate, iter): 2736. returns elements for as long as the predicate returns true. Once the predicate returns false, the iterator will signal the end of its results. def less_than_10(x): return x < 10 itertools.takewhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) => 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 itertools.takewhile(is_even, itertools.count()) => 0 *note itertools.dropwhile(predicate, iter): 2734. discards elements while the predicate returns true, and then returns the rest of the iterable’s results. itertools.dropwhile(less_than_10, itertools.count()) => 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, ... itertools.dropwhile(is_even, itertools.count()) => 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, ... *note itertools.compress(data, selectors): 1275. takes two iterators and returns only those elements of 'data' for which the corresponding element of 'selectors' is true, stopping whenever either one is exhausted: itertools.compress([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], [True, True, False, False, True]) => 1, 2, 5  File: python.info, Node: Combinatoric functions, Next: Grouping elements, Prev: Selecting elements, Up: The itertools module 9.7.6.4 Combinatoric functions .............................. The *note itertools.combinations(iterable, r): 1305. returns an iterator giving all possible 'r'-tuple combinations of the elements contained in 'iterable'. itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) => (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 5) itertools.combinations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 3) => (1, 2, 3), (1, 2, 4), (1, 2, 5), (1, 3, 4), (1, 3, 5), (1, 4, 5), (2, 3, 4), (2, 3, 5), (2, 4, 5), (3, 4, 5) The elements within each tuple remain in the same order as 'iterable' returned them. For example, the number 1 is always before 2, 3, 4, or 5 in the examples above. A similar function, *note itertools.permutations(iterable, r=None): 191a, removes this constraint on the order, returning all possible arrangements of length 'r': itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) => (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 1), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 1), (4, 2), (4, 3), (4, 5), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4) itertools.permutations([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) => (1, 2, 3, 4, 5), (1, 2, 3, 5, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3, 5), ... (5, 4, 3, 2, 1) If you don’t supply a value for 'r' the length of the iterable is used, meaning that all the elements are permuted. Note that these functions produce all of the possible combinations by position and don’t require that the contents of 'iterable' are unique: itertools.permutations('aba', 3) => ('a', 'b', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('b', 'a', 'a'), ('a', 'a', 'b'), ('a', 'b', 'a') The identical tuple ‘('a', 'a', 'b')’ occurs twice, but the two ‘a’ strings came from different positions. The *note itertools.combinations_with_replacement(iterable, r): 1274. function relaxes a different constraint: elements can be repeated within a single tuple. Conceptually an element is selected for the first position of each tuple and then is replaced before the second element is selected. itertools.combinations_with_replacement([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], 2) => (1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), (1, 5), (2, 2), (2, 3), (2, 4), (2, 5), (3, 3), (3, 4), (3, 5), (4, 4), (4, 5), (5, 5)  File: python.info, Node: Grouping elements, Prev: Combinatoric functions, Up: The itertools module 9.7.6.5 Grouping elements ......................... The last function I’ll discuss, *note itertools.groupby(iter, key_func=None): 2735, is the most complicated. ‘key_func(elem)’ is a function that can compute a key value for each element returned by the iterable. If you don’t supply a key function, the key is simply each element itself. *note groupby(): 2735. collects all the consecutive elements from the underlying iterable that have the same key value, and returns a stream of 2-tuples containing a key value and an iterator for the elements with that key. city_list = [('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL'), ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK'), ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ'), ... ] def get_state(city_state): return city_state[1] itertools.groupby(city_list, get_state) => ('AL', iterator-1), ('AK', iterator-2), ('AZ', iterator-3), ... where iterator-1 => ('Decatur', 'AL'), ('Huntsville', 'AL'), ('Selma', 'AL') iterator-2 => ('Anchorage', 'AK'), ('Nome', 'AK') iterator-3 => ('Flagstaff', 'AZ'), ('Phoenix', 'AZ'), ('Tucson', 'AZ') *note groupby(): 2735. assumes that the underlying iterable’s contents will already be sorted based on the key. Note that the returned iterators also use the underlying iterable, so you have to consume the results of iterator-1 before requesting iterator-2 and its corresponding key.  File: python.info, Node: The functools module, Next: Small functions and the lambda expression, Prev: The itertools module, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.7 The functools module -------------------------- The *note functools: 5f. module contains some higher-order functions. A 'higher-order function' takes one or more functions as input and returns a new function. The most useful tool in this module is the *note functools.partial(): 410. function. For programs written in a functional style, you’ll sometimes want to construct variants of existing functions that have some of the parameters filled in. Consider a Python function ‘f(a, b, c)’; you may wish to create a new function ‘g(b, c)’ that’s equivalent to ‘f(1, b, c)’; you’re filling in a value for one of ‘f()’’s parameters. This is called “partial function application”. The constructor for *note partial(): 410. takes the arguments ‘(function, arg1, arg2, ..., kwarg1=value1, kwarg2=value2)’. The resulting object is callable, so you can just call it to invoke ‘function’ with the filled-in arguments. Here’s a small but realistic example: import functools def log(message, subsystem): """Write the contents of 'message' to the specified subsystem.""" print('%s: %s' % (subsystem, message)) ... server_log = functools.partial(log, subsystem='server') server_log('Unable to open socket') *note functools.reduce(func, iter, [initial_value]): 12cf. cumulatively performs an operation on all the iterable’s elements and, therefore, can’t be applied to infinite iterables. 'func' must be a function that takes two elements and returns a single value. *note functools.reduce(): 12cf. takes the first two elements A and B returned by the iterator and calculates ‘func(A, B)’. It then requests the third element, C, calculates ‘func(func(A, B), C)’, combines this result with the fourth element returned, and continues until the iterable is exhausted. If the iterable returns no values at all, a *note TypeError: 534. exception is raised. If the initial value is supplied, it’s used as a starting point and ‘func(initial_value, A)’ is the first calculation. >>> import operator, functools >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, ['A', 'BB', 'C']) 'ABBC' >>> functools.reduce(operator.concat, []) Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: reduce() of empty sequence with no initial value >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1) 6 >>> functools.reduce(operator.mul, [], 1) 1 If you use *note operator.add(): 275d. with *note functools.reduce(): 12cf, you’ll add up all the elements of the iterable. This case is so common that there’s a special built-in called *note sum(): 466. to compute it: >>> import functools, operator >>> functools.reduce(operator.add, [1, 2, 3, 4], 0) 10 >>> sum([1, 2, 3, 4]) 10 >>> sum([]) 0 For many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 12cf, though, it can be clearer to just write the obvious *note for: 2ec. loop: import functools # Instead of: product = functools.reduce(operator.mul, [1, 2, 3], 1) # You can write: product = 1 for i in [1, 2, 3]: product *= i A related function is *note itertools.accumulate(iterable, func=operator.add): 9fc. It performs the same calculation, but instead of returning only the final result, *note accumulate(): 9fc. returns an iterator that also yields each partial result: itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5]) => 1, 3, 6, 10, 15 itertools.accumulate([1, 2, 3, 4, 5], operator.mul) => 1, 2, 6, 24, 120 * Menu: * The operator module::  File: python.info, Node: The operator module, Up: The functools module 9.7.7.1 The operator module ........................... The *note operator: 9f. module was mentioned earlier. It contains a set of functions corresponding to Python’s operators. These functions are often useful in functional-style code because they save you from writing trivial functions that perform a single operation. Some of the functions in this module are: * Math operations: ‘add()’, ‘sub()’, ‘mul()’, ‘floordiv()’, ‘abs()’, … * Logical operations: ‘not_()’, ‘truth()’. * Bitwise operations: ‘and_()’, ‘or_()’, ‘invert()’. * Comparisons: ‘eq()’, ‘ne()’, ‘lt()’, ‘le()’, ‘gt()’, and ‘ge()’. * Object identity: ‘is_()’, ‘is_not()’. Consult the operator module’s documentation for a complete list.  File: python.info, Node: Small functions and the lambda expression, Next: Revision History and Acknowledgements, Prev: The functools module, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.8 Small functions and the lambda expression ----------------------------------------------- When writing functional-style programs, you’ll often need little functions that act as predicates or that combine elements in some way. If there’s a Python built-in or a module function that’s suitable, you don’t need to define a new function at all: stripped_lines = [line.strip() for line in lines] existing_files = filter(os.path.exists, file_list) If the function you need doesn’t exist, you need to write it. One way to write small functions is to use the *note lambda: 128f. expression. ‘lambda’ takes a number of parameters and an expression combining these parameters, and creates an anonymous function that returns the value of the expression: adder = lambda x, y: x+y print_assign = lambda name, value: name + '=' + str(value) An alternative is to just use the ‘def’ statement and define a function in the usual way: def adder(x, y): return x + y def print_assign(name, value): return name + '=' + str(value) Which alternative is preferable? That’s a style question; my usual course is to avoid using ‘lambda’. One reason for my preference is that ‘lambda’ is quite limited in the functions it can define. The result has to be computable as a single expression, which means you can’t have multiway ‘if... elif... else’ comparisons or ‘try... except’ statements. If you try to do too much in a ‘lambda’ statement, you’ll end up with an overly complicated expression that’s hard to read. Quick, what’s the following code doing? import functools total = functools.reduce(lambda a, b: (0, a[1] + b[1]), items)[1] You can figure it out, but it takes time to disentangle the expression to figure out what’s going on. Using a short nested ‘def’ statements makes things a little bit better: import functools def combine(a, b): return 0, a[1] + b[1] total = functools.reduce(combine, items)[1] But it would be best of all if I had simply used a ‘for’ loop: total = 0 for a, b in items: total += b Or the *note sum(): 466. built-in and a generator expression: total = sum(b for a, b in items) Many uses of *note functools.reduce(): 12cf. are clearer when written as ‘for’ loops. Fredrik Lundh once suggested the following set of rules for refactoring uses of ‘lambda’: 1. Write a lambda function. 2. Write a comment explaining what the heck that lambda does. 3. Study the comment for a while, and think of a name that captures the essence of the comment. 4. Convert the lambda to a def statement, using that name. 5. Remove the comment. I really like these rules, but you’re free to disagree about whether this lambda-free style is better.  File: python.info, Node: Revision History and Acknowledgements, Next: References<2>, Prev: Small functions and the lambda expression, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.9 Revision History and Acknowledgements ------------------------------------------- The author would like to thank the following people for offering suggestions, corrections and assistance with various drafts of this article: Ian Bicking, Nick Coghlan, Nick Efford, Raymond Hettinger, Jim Jewett, Mike Krell, Leandro Lameiro, Jussi Salmela, Collin Winter, Blake Winton. Version 0.1: posted June 30 2006. Version 0.11: posted July 1 2006. Typo fixes. Version 0.2: posted July 10 2006. Merged genexp and listcomp sections into one. Typo fixes. Version 0.21: Added more references suggested on the tutor mailing list. Version 0.30: Adds a section on the ‘functional’ module written by Collin Winter; adds short section on the operator module; a few other edits.  File: python.info, Node: References<2>, Prev: Revision History and Acknowledgements, Up: Functional Programming HOWTO 9.7.10 References ----------------- * Menu: * General:: * Python-specific:: * Python documentation::  File: python.info, Node: General, Next: Python-specific, Up: References<2> 9.7.10.1 General ................ 'Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs', by Harold Abelson and Gerald Jay Sussman with Julie Sussman. The book can be found at ‘https://mitpress.mit.edu/sicp’. In this classic textbook of computer science, chapters 2 and 3 discuss the use of sequences and streams to organize the data flow inside a program. The book uses Scheme for its examples, but many of the design approaches described in these chapters are applicable to functional-style Python code. ‘https://defmacro.org/2006/06/19/fp.html’: A general introduction to functional programming that uses Java examples and has a lengthy historical introduction. ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming’: General Wikipedia entry describing functional programming. ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coroutine’: Entry for coroutines. ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_application’: Entry for the concept of partial function application. ‘https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying’: Entry for the concept of currying.  File: python.info, Node: Python-specific, Next: Python documentation, Prev: General, Up: References<2> 9.7.10.2 Python-specific ........................ ‘https://gnosis.cx/TPiP/’: The first chapter of David Mertz’s book ‘Text Processing in Python’ discusses functional programming for text processing, in the section titled “Utilizing Higher-Order Functions in Text Processing”. Mertz also wrote a 3-part series of articles on functional programming for IBM’s DeveloperWorks site; see part 1(1), part 2(2), and part 3(3), ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://developer.ibm.com/articles/l-prog/ (2) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog2/ (3) https://developer.ibm.com/tutorials/l-prog3/  File: python.info, Node: Python documentation, Prev: Python-specific, Up: References<2> 9.7.10.3 Python documentation ............................. Documentation for the *note itertools: 81. module. Documentation for the *note functools: 5f. module. Documentation for the *note operator: 9f. module. PEP 289(1): “Generator Expressions” PEP 342(2): “Coroutines via Enhanced Generators” describes the new generator features in Python 2.5. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0289/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0342/  File: python.info, Node: Logging HOWTO, Next: Logging Cookbook, Prev: Functional Programming HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.8 Logging HOWTO ================= Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com> This page contains tutorial information. For links to reference information and a logging cookbook, please see *note Other resources: 4f8e. * Menu: * Basic Logging Tutorial:: * Advanced Logging Tutorial:: * Logging Levels: Logging Levels<2>. * Useful Handlers:: * Exceptions raised during logging:: * Using arbitrary objects as messages:: * Optimization:: * Other resources::  File: python.info, Node: Basic Logging Tutorial, Next: Advanced Logging Tutorial, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.1 Basic Logging Tutorial ---------------------------- Logging is a means of tracking events that happen when some software runs. The software’s developer adds logging calls to their code to indicate that certain events have occurred. An event is described by a descriptive message which can optionally contain variable data (i.e. data that is potentially different for each occurrence of the event). Events also have an importance which the developer ascribes to the event; the importance can also be called the 'level' or 'severity'. * Menu: * When to use logging:: * A simple example:: * Logging to a file:: * Logging variable data:: * Changing the format of displayed messages:: * Displaying the date/time in messages:: * Next Steps::  File: python.info, Node: When to use logging, Next: A simple example, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.1 When to use logging ........................... You can access logging functionality by creating a logger via ‘logger = getLogger(__name__)’, and then calling the logger’s *note debug(): e29, *note info(): 2c6e, *note warning(): 1703, *note error(): 2c70. and *note critical(): e28. methods. To determine when to use logging, and to see which logger methods to use when, see the table below. It states, for each of a set of common tasks, the best tool to use for that task. Task you want to perform The best tool for the task ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Display console output for ordinary *note print(): f70. usage of a command line script or program Report events that occur during normal A logger’s *note info(): 2c6e. (or operation of a program (e.g. for *note debug(): e29. method for very status monitoring or fault detailed output for diagnostic purposes) investigation) Issue a warning regarding a particular *note warnings.warn(): 14e4. in library runtime event code if the issue is avoidable and the client application should be modified to eliminate the warning A logger’s *note warning(): 1703. method if there is nothing the client application can do about the situation, but the event should still be noted Report an error regarding a particular Raise an exception runtime event Report suppression of an error without A logger’s *note error(): 2c70, raising an exception (e.g. error *note exception(): e27. or handler in a long-running server *note critical(): e28. method as process) appropriate for the specific error and application domain The logger methods are named after the level or severity of the events they are used to track. The standard levels and their applicability are described below (in increasing order of severity): Level When it’s used --------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘DEBUG’ Detailed information, typically of interest only when diagnosing problems. ‘INFO’ Confirmation that things are working as expected. ‘WARNING’ An indication that something unexpected happened, or indicative of some problem in the near future (e.g. ‘disk space low’). The software is still working as expected. ‘ERROR’ Due to a more serious problem, the software has not been able to perform some function. ‘CRITICAL’ A serious error, indicating that the program itself may be unable to continue running. The default level is ‘WARNING’, which means that only events of this severity and higher will be tracked, unless the logging package is configured to do otherwise. Events that are tracked can be handled in different ways. The simplest way of handling tracked events is to print them to the console. Another common way is to write them to a disk file.  File: python.info, Node: A simple example, Next: Logging to a file, Prev: When to use logging, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.2 A simple example ........................ A very simple example is: import logging logging.warning('Watch out!') # will print a message to the console logging.info('I told you so') # will not print anything If you type these lines into a script and run it, you’ll see: WARNING:root:Watch out! printed out on the console. The ‘INFO’ message doesn’t appear because the default level is ‘WARNING’. The printed message includes the indication of the level and the description of the event provided in the logging call, i.e. ‘Watch out!’. The actual output can be formatted quite flexibly if you need that; formatting options will also be explained later. Notice that in this example, we use functions directly on the ‘logging’ module, like ‘logging.debug’, rather than creating a logger and calling functions on it. These functions operation on the root logger, but can be useful as they will call *note basicConfig(): 9ff. for you if it has not been called yet, like in this example. In larger programs you’ll usually want to control the logging configuration explicitly however - so for that reason as well as others, it’s better to create loggers and call their methods.  File: python.info, Node: Logging to a file, Next: Logging variable data, Prev: A simple example, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.3 Logging to a file ......................... A very common situation is that of recording logging events in a file, so let’s look at that next. Be sure to try the following in a newly started Python interpreter, and don’t just continue from the session described above: import logging logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', encoding='utf-8', level=logging.DEBUG) logger.debug('This message should go to the log file') logger.info('So should this') logger.warning('And this, too') logger.error('And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö') Changed in version 3.9: The 'encoding' argument was added. In earlier Python versions, or if not specified, the encoding used is the default value used by *note open(): 517. While not shown in the above example, an 'errors' argument can also now be passed, which determines how encoding errors are handled. For available values and the default, see the documentation for *note open(): 517. And now if we open the file and look at what we have, we should find the log messages: DEBUG:__main__:This message should go to the log file INFO:__main__:So should this WARNING:__main__:And this, too ERROR:__main__:And non-ASCII stuff, too, like Øresund and Malmö This example also shows how you can set the logging level which acts as the threshold for tracking. In this case, because we set the threshold to ‘DEBUG’, all of the messages were printed. If you want to set the logging level from a command-line option such as: --log=INFO and you have the value of the parameter passed for ‘--log’ in some variable 'loglevel', you can use: getattr(logging, loglevel.upper()) to get the value which you’ll pass to *note basicConfig(): 9ff. via the 'level' argument. You may want to error check any user input value, perhaps as in the following example: # assuming loglevel is bound to the string value obtained from the # command line argument. Convert to upper case to allow the user to # specify --log=DEBUG or --log=debug numeric_level = getattr(logging, loglevel.upper(), None) if not isinstance(numeric_level, int): raise ValueError('Invalid log level: %s' % loglevel) logging.basicConfig(level=numeric_level, ...) The call to *note basicConfig(): 9ff. should come 'before' any calls to a logger’s methods such as *note debug(): e29, *note info(): 2c6e, etc. Otherwise, that logging event may not be handled in the desired manner. If you run the above script several times, the messages from successive runs are appended to the file 'example.log'. If you want each run to start afresh, not remembering the messages from earlier runs, you can specify the 'filemode' argument, by changing the call in the above example to: logging.basicConfig(filename='example.log', filemode='w', level=logging.DEBUG) The output will be the same as before, but the log file is no longer appended to, so the messages from earlier runs are lost.  File: python.info, Node: Logging variable data, Next: Changing the format of displayed messages, Prev: Logging to a file, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.4 Logging variable data ............................. To log variable data, use a format string for the event description message and append the variable data as arguments. For example: import logging logging.warning('%s before you %s', 'Look', 'leap!') will display: WARNING:root:Look before you leap! As you can see, merging of variable data into the event description message uses the old, %-style of string formatting. This is for backwards compatibility: the logging package pre-dates newer formatting options such as *note str.format(): 61d. and *note string.Template: 683. These newer formatting options 'are' supported, but exploring them is outside the scope of this tutorial: see *note Using particular formatting styles throughout your application: 2c8d. for more information.  File: python.info, Node: Changing the format of displayed messages, Next: Displaying the date/time in messages, Prev: Logging variable data, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.5 Changing the format of displayed messages ................................................. To change the format which is used to display messages, you need to specify the format you want to use: import logging logging.basicConfig(format='%(levelname)s:%(message)s', level=logging.DEBUG) logging.debug('This message should appear on the console') logging.info('So should this') logging.warning('And this, too') which would print: DEBUG:This message should appear on the console INFO:So should this WARNING:And this, too Notice that the ‘root’ which appeared in earlier examples has disappeared. For a full set of things that can appear in format strings, you can refer to the documentation for *note LogRecord attributes: 2c6d, but for simple usage, you just need the 'levelname' (severity), 'message' (event description, including variable data) and perhaps to display when the event occurred. This is described in the next section.  File: python.info, Node: Displaying the date/time in messages, Next: Next Steps, Prev: Changing the format of displayed messages, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.6 Displaying the date/time in messages ............................................ To display the date and time of an event, you would place ‘%(asctime)s’ in your format string: import logging logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s') logging.warning('is when this event was logged.') which should print something like this: 2010-12-12 11:41:42,612 is when this event was logged. The default format for date/time display (shown above) is like ISO8601 or RFC 3339(1). If you need more control over the formatting of the date/time, provide a 'datefmt' argument to ‘basicConfig’, as in this example: import logging logging.basicConfig(format='%(asctime)s %(message)s', datefmt='%m/%d/%Y %I:%M:%S %p') logging.warning('is when this event was logged.') which would display something like this: 12/12/2010 11:46:36 AM is when this event was logged. The format of the 'datefmt' argument is the same as supported by *note time.strftime(): 11db. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3339.html  File: python.info, Node: Next Steps, Prev: Displaying the date/time in messages, Up: Basic Logging Tutorial 9.8.1.7 Next Steps .................. That concludes the basic tutorial. It should be enough to get you up and running with logging. There’s a lot more that the logging package offers, but to get the best out of it, you’ll need to invest a little more of your time in reading the following sections. If you’re ready for that, grab some of your favourite beverage and carry on. If your logging needs are simple, then use the above examples to incorporate logging into your own scripts, and if you run into problems or don’t understand something, please post a question in the Help category of the Python discussion forum(1) and you should receive help before too long. Still here? You can carry on reading the next few sections, which provide a slightly more advanced/in-depth tutorial than the basic one above. After that, you can take a look at the *note Logging Cookbook: 11e9. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/help/7  File: python.info, Node: Advanced Logging Tutorial, Next: Logging Levels<2>, Prev: Basic Logging Tutorial, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.2 Advanced Logging Tutorial ------------------------------- The logging library takes a modular approach and offers several categories of components: loggers, handlers, filters, and formatters. * Loggers expose the interface that application code directly uses. * Handlers send the log records (created by loggers) to the appropriate destination. * Filters provide a finer grained facility for determining which log records to output. * Formatters specify the layout of log records in the final output. Log event information is passed between loggers, handlers, filters and formatters in a *note LogRecord: fe1. instance. Logging is performed by calling methods on instances of the *note Logger: b4f. class (hereafter called 'loggers'). Each instance has a name, and they are conceptually arranged in a namespace hierarchy using dots (periods) as separators. For example, a logger named ‘scan’ is the parent of loggers ‘scan.text’, ‘scan.html’ and ‘scan.pdf’. Logger names can be anything you want, and indicate the area of an application in which a logged message originates. A good convention to use when naming loggers is to use a module-level logger, in each module which uses logging, named as follows: logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) This means that logger names track the package/module hierarchy, and it’s intuitively obvious where events are logged just from the logger name. The root of the hierarchy of loggers is called the root logger. That’s the logger used by the functions *note debug(): 2c6f, *note info(): 2c98, *note warning(): 2f9, *note error(): 2cac. and *note critical(): 2cad, which just call the same-named method of the root logger. The functions and the methods have the same signatures. The root logger’s name is printed as ‘root’ in the logged output. It is, of course, possible to log messages to different destinations. Support is included in the package for writing log messages to files, HTTP GET/POST locations, email via SMTP, generic sockets, queues, or OS-specific logging mechanisms such as syslog or the Windows NT event log. Destinations are served by 'handler' classes. You can create your own log destination class if you have special requirements not met by any of the built-in handler classes. By default, no destination is set for any logging messages. You can specify a destination (such as console or file) by using *note basicConfig(): 9ff. as in the tutorial examples. If you call the functions *note debug(): 2c6f, *note info(): 2c98, *note warning(): 2f9, *note error(): 2cac. and *note critical(): 2cad, they will check to see if no destination is set; and if one is not set, they will set a destination of the console (‘sys.stderr’) and a default format for the displayed message before delegating to the root logger to do the actual message output. The default format set by *note basicConfig(): 9ff. for messages is: severity:logger name:message You can change this by passing a format string to *note basicConfig(): 9ff. with the 'format' keyword argument. For all options regarding how a format string is constructed, see *note Formatter Objects: 2c8a. * Menu: * Logging Flow:: * Loggers:: * Handlers:: * Formatters:: * Configuring Logging:: * What happens if no configuration is provided:: * Configuring Logging for a Library::  File: python.info, Node: Logging Flow, Next: Loggers, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.1 Logging Flow .................... The flow of log event information in loggers and handlers is illustrated in the following diagram. �[image src="python-figures/logging_flow.png"�]  File: python.info, Node: Loggers, Next: Handlers, Prev: Logging Flow, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.2 Loggers ............... *note Logger: b4f. objects have a threefold job. First, they expose several methods to application code so that applications can log messages at runtime. Second, logger objects determine which log messages to act upon based upon severity (the default filtering facility) or filter objects. Third, logger objects pass along relevant log messages to all interested log handlers. The most widely used methods on logger objects fall into two categories: configuration and message sending. These are the most common configuration methods: * *note Logger.setLevel(): 145a. specifies the lowest-severity log message a logger will handle, where debug is the lowest built-in severity level and critical is the highest built-in severity. For example, if the severity level is INFO, the logger will handle only INFO, WARNING, ERROR, and CRITICAL messages and will ignore DEBUG messages. * *note Logger.addHandler(): 2c68. and *note Logger.removeHandler(): 2c69. add and remove handler objects from the logger object. Handlers are covered in more detail in *note Handlers: 4f9b. * *note Logger.addFilter(): 2c71. and *note Logger.removeFilter(): 2c72. add and remove filter objects from the logger object. Filters are covered in more detail in *note Filter Objects: 2c95. You don’t need to always call these methods on every logger you create. See the last two paragraphs in this section. With the logger object configured, the following methods create log messages: * *note Logger.debug(): e29, *note Logger.info(): 2c6e, *note Logger.warning(): 1703, *note Logger.error(): 2c70, and *note Logger.critical(): e28. all create log records with a message and a level that corresponds to their respective method names. The message is actually a format string, which may contain the standard string substitution syntax of ‘%s’, ‘%d’, ‘%f’, and so on. The rest of their arguments is a list of objects that correspond with the substitution fields in the message. With regard to ‘**kwargs’, the logging methods care only about a keyword of ‘exc_info’ and use it to determine whether to log exception information. * *note Logger.exception(): e27. creates a log message similar to *note Logger.error(): 2c70. The difference is that *note Logger.exception(): e27. dumps a stack trace along with it. Call this method only from an exception handler. * *note Logger.log(): e26. takes a log level as an explicit argument. This is a little more verbose for logging messages than using the log level convenience methods listed above, but this is how to log at custom log levels. *note getLogger(): 960. returns a reference to a logger instance with the specified name if it is provided, or ‘root’ if not. The names are period-separated hierarchical structures. Multiple calls to *note getLogger(): 960. with the same name will return a reference to the same logger object. Loggers that are further down in the hierarchical list are children of loggers higher up in the list. For example, given a logger with a name of ‘foo’, loggers with names of ‘foo.bar’, ‘foo.bar.baz’, and ‘foo.bam’ are all descendants of ‘foo’. Loggers have a concept of 'effective level'. If a level is not explicitly set on a logger, the level of its parent is used instead as its effective level. If the parent has no explicit level set, 'its' parent is examined, and so on - all ancestors are searched until an explicitly set level is found. The root logger always has an explicit level set (‘WARNING’ by default). When deciding whether to process an event, the effective level of the logger is used to determine whether the event is passed to the logger’s handlers. Child loggers propagate messages up to the handlers associated with their ancestor loggers. Because of this, it is unnecessary to define and configure handlers for all the loggers an application uses. It is sufficient to configure handlers for a top-level logger and create child loggers as needed. (You can, however, turn off propagation by setting the 'propagate' attribute of a logger to ‘False’.)  File: python.info, Node: Handlers, Next: Formatters, Prev: Loggers, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.3 Handlers ................ *note Handler: 145d. objects are responsible for dispatching the appropriate log messages (based on the log messages’ severity) to the handler’s specified destination. *note Logger: b4f. objects can add zero or more handler objects to themselves with an *note addHandler(): 2c68. method. As an example scenario, an application may want to send all log messages to a log file, all log messages of error or higher to stdout, and all messages of critical to an email address. This scenario requires three individual handlers where each handler is responsible for sending messages of a specific severity to a specific location. The standard library includes quite a few handler types (see *note Useful Handlers: 4f9d.); the tutorials use mainly *note StreamHandler: 11ea. and *note FileHandler: 189e. in its examples. There are very few methods in a handler for application developers to concern themselves with. The only handler methods that seem relevant for application developers who are using the built-in handler objects (that is, not creating custom handlers) are the following configuration methods: * The *note setLevel(): 2c7f. method, just as in logger objects, specifies the lowest severity that will be dispatched to the appropriate destination. Why are there two *note setLevel(): 2c7f. methods? The level set in the logger determines which severity of messages it will pass to its handlers. The level set in each handler determines which messages that handler will send on. * *note setFormatter(): 2c80. selects a Formatter object for this handler to use. * *note addFilter(): 2c81. and *note removeFilter(): 2c82. respectively configure and deconfigure filter objects on handlers. Application code should not directly instantiate and use instances of *note Handler: 145d. Instead, the *note Handler: 145d. class is a base class that defines the interface that all handlers should have and establishes some default behavior that child classes can use (or override).  File: python.info, Node: Formatters, Next: Configuring Logging, Prev: Handlers, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.4 Formatters .................. Formatter objects configure the final order, structure, and contents of the log message. Unlike the base *note logging.Handler: 145d. class, application code may instantiate formatter classes, although you could likely subclass the formatter if your application needs special behavior. The constructor takes three optional arguments – a message format string, a date format string and a style indicator. -- Method: logging.Formatter.__init__ (fmt=None, datefmt=None, style='%') If there is no message format string, the default is to use the raw message. If there is no date format string, the default date format is: %Y-%m-%d %H:%M:%S with the milliseconds tacked on at the end. The ‘style’ is one of ‘'%'’, ‘'{'’, or ‘'$'’. If one of these is not specified, then ‘'%'’ will be used. If the ‘style’ is ‘'%'’, the message format string uses ‘%(<dictionary key>)s’ styled string substitution; the possible keys are documented in *note LogRecord attributes: 2c6d. If the style is ‘'{'’, the message format string is assumed to be compatible with *note str.format(): 61d. (using keyword arguments), while if the style is ‘'$'’ then the message format string should conform to what is expected by *note string.Template.substitute(): 1cea. Changed in version 3.2: Added the ‘style’ parameter. The following message format string will log the time in a human-readable format, the severity of the message, and the contents of the message, in that order: '%(asctime)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s' Formatters use a user-configurable function to convert the creation time of a record to a tuple. By default, *note time.localtime(): 14c4. is used; to change this for a particular formatter instance, set the ‘converter’ attribute of the instance to a function with the same signature as *note time.localtime(): 14c4. or *note time.gmtime(): 11b2. To change it for all formatters, for example if you want all logging times to be shown in GMT, set the ‘converter’ attribute in the Formatter class (to ‘time.gmtime’ for GMT display).  File: python.info, Node: Configuring Logging, Next: What happens if no configuration is provided, Prev: Formatters, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.5 Configuring Logging ........................... Programmers can configure logging in three ways: 1. Creating loggers, handlers, and formatters explicitly using Python code that calls the configuration methods listed above. 2. Creating a logging config file and reading it using the *note fileConfig(): b51. function. 3. Creating a dictionary of configuration information and passing it to the *note dictConfig(): 11a2. function. For the reference documentation on the last two options, see *note Configuration functions: 12e4. The following example configures a very simple logger, a console handler, and a simple formatter using Python code: import logging # create logger logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example') logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # create console handler and set level to debug ch = logging.StreamHandler() ch.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # create formatter formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s') # add formatter to ch ch.setFormatter(formatter) # add ch to logger logger.addHandler(ch) # 'application' code logger.debug('debug message') logger.info('info message') logger.warning('warn message') logger.error('error message') logger.critical('critical message') Running this module from the command line produces the following output: $ python simple_logging_module.py 2005-03-19 15:10:26,618 - simple_example - DEBUG - debug message 2005-03-19 15:10:26,620 - simple_example - INFO - info message 2005-03-19 15:10:26,695 - simple_example - WARNING - warn message 2005-03-19 15:10:26,697 - simple_example - ERROR - error message 2005-03-19 15:10:26,773 - simple_example - CRITICAL - critical message The following Python module creates a logger, handler, and formatter nearly identical to those in the example listed above, with the only difference being the names of the objects: import logging import logging.config logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf') # create logger logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample') # 'application' code logger.debug('debug message') logger.info('info message') logger.warning('warn message') logger.error('error message') logger.critical('critical message') Here is the logging.conf file: [loggers] keys=root,simpleExample [handlers] keys=consoleHandler [formatters] keys=simpleFormatter [logger_root] level=DEBUG handlers=consoleHandler [logger_simpleExample] level=DEBUG handlers=consoleHandler qualname=simpleExample propagate=0 [handler_consoleHandler] class=StreamHandler level=DEBUG formatter=simpleFormatter args=(sys.stdout,) [formatter_simpleFormatter] format=%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s The output is nearly identical to that of the non-config-file-based example: $ python simple_logging_config.py 2005-03-19 15:38:55,977 - simpleExample - DEBUG - debug message 2005-03-19 15:38:55,979 - simpleExample - INFO - info message 2005-03-19 15:38:56,054 - simpleExample - WARNING - warn message 2005-03-19 15:38:56,055 - simpleExample - ERROR - error message 2005-03-19 15:38:56,130 - simpleExample - CRITICAL - critical message You can see that the config file approach has a few advantages over the Python code approach, mainly separation of configuration and code and the ability of noncoders to easily modify the logging properties. Warning: The *note fileConfig(): b51. function takes a default parameter, ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which defaults to ‘True’ for reasons of backward compatibility. This may or may not be what you want, since it will cause any non-root loggers existing before the *note fileConfig(): b51. call to be disabled unless they (or an ancestor) are explicitly named in the configuration. Please refer to the reference documentation for more information, and specify ‘False’ for this parameter if you wish. The dictionary passed to *note dictConfig(): 11a2. can also specify a Boolean value with key ‘disable_existing_loggers’, which if not specified explicitly in the dictionary also defaults to being interpreted as ‘True’. This leads to the logger-disabling behaviour described above, which may not be what you want - in which case, provide the key explicitly with a value of ‘False’. Note that the class names referenced in config files need to be either relative to the logging module, or absolute values which can be resolved using normal import mechanisms. Thus, you could use either *note WatchedFileHandler: 2ceb. (relative to the logging module) or ‘mypackage.mymodule.MyHandler’ (for a class defined in package ‘mypackage’ and module ‘mymodule’, where ‘mypackage’ is available on the Python import path). In Python 3.2, a new means of configuring logging has been introduced, using dictionaries to hold configuration information. This provides a superset of the functionality of the config-file-based approach outlined above, and is the recommended configuration method for new applications and deployments. Because a Python dictionary is used to hold configuration information, and since you can populate that dictionary using different means, you have more options for configuration. For example, you can use a configuration file in JSON format, or, if you have access to YAML processing functionality, a file in YAML format, to populate the configuration dictionary. Or, of course, you can construct the dictionary in Python code, receive it in pickled form over a socket, or use whatever approach makes sense for your application. Here’s an example of the same configuration as above, in YAML format for the new dictionary-based approach: version: 1 formatters: simple: format: '%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s' handlers: console: class: logging.StreamHandler level: DEBUG formatter: simple stream: ext://sys.stdout loggers: simpleExample: level: DEBUG handlers: [console] propagate: no root: level: DEBUG handlers: [console] For more information about logging using a dictionary, see *note Configuration functions: 12e4.  File: python.info, Node: What happens if no configuration is provided, Next: Configuring Logging for a Library, Prev: Configuring Logging, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.6 What happens if no configuration is provided .................................................... If no logging configuration is provided, it is possible to have a situation where a logging event needs to be output, but no handlers can be found to output the event. The event is output using a ‘handler of last resort’, stored in *note lastResort: 11ec. This internal handler is not associated with any logger, and acts like a *note StreamHandler: 11ea. which writes the event description message to the current value of ‘sys.stderr’ (therefore respecting any redirections which may be in effect). No formatting is done on the message - just the bare event description message is printed. The handler’s level is set to ‘WARNING’, so all events at this and greater severities will be output. Changed in version 3.2: For versions of Python prior to 3.2, the behaviour is as follows: * If *note raiseExceptions: 11eb. is ‘False’ (production mode), the event is silently dropped. * If *note raiseExceptions: 11eb. is ‘True’ (development mode), a message ‘No handlers could be found for logger X.Y.Z’ is printed once. To obtain the pre-3.2 behaviour, *note lastResort: 11ec. can be set to ‘None’.  File: python.info, Node: Configuring Logging for a Library, Prev: What happens if no configuration is provided, Up: Advanced Logging Tutorial 9.8.2.7 Configuring Logging for a Library ......................................... When developing a library which uses logging, you should take care to document how the library uses logging - for example, the names of loggers used. Some consideration also needs to be given to its logging configuration. If the using application does not use logging, and library code makes logging calls, then (as described in the previous section) events of severity ‘WARNING’ and greater will be printed to ‘sys.stderr’. This is regarded as the best default behaviour. If for some reason you 'don’t' want these messages printed in the absence of any logging configuration, you can attach a do-nothing handler to the top-level logger for your library. This avoids the message being printed, since a handler will always be found for the library’s events: it just doesn’t produce any output. If the library user configures logging for application use, presumably that configuration will add some handlers, and if levels are suitably configured then logging calls made in library code will send output to those handlers, as normal. A do-nothing handler is included in the logging package: *note NullHandler: 1277. (since Python 3.1). An instance of this handler could be added to the top-level logger of the logging namespace used by the library ('if' you want to prevent your library’s logged events being output to ‘sys.stderr’ in the absence of logging configuration). If all logging by a library 'foo' is done using loggers with names matching ‘foo.x’, ‘foo.x.y’, etc. then the code: import logging logging.getLogger('foo').addHandler(logging.NullHandler()) should have the desired effect. If an organisation produces a number of libraries, then the logger name specified can be ‘orgname.foo’ rather than just ‘foo’. Note: It is strongly advised that you 'do not log to the root logger' in your library. Instead, use a logger with a unique and easily identifiable name, such as the ‘__name__’ for your library’s top-level package or module. Logging to the root logger will make it difficult or impossible for the application developer to configure the logging verbosity or handlers of your library as they wish. Note: It is strongly advised that you 'do not add any handlers other than' *note NullHandler: 1277. 'to your library’s loggers'. This is because the configuration of handlers is the prerogative of the application developer who uses your library. The application developer knows their target audience and what handlers are most appropriate for their application: if you add handlers ‘under the hood’, you might well interfere with their ability to carry out unit tests and deliver logs which suit their requirements.  File: python.info, Node: Logging Levels<2>, Next: Useful Handlers, Prev: Advanced Logging Tutorial, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.3 Logging Levels -------------------- The numeric values of logging levels are given in the following table. These are primarily of interest if you want to define your own levels, and need them to have specific values relative to the predefined levels. If you define a level with the same numeric value, it overwrites the predefined value; the predefined name is lost. Level Numeric value --------------------------------------- ‘CRITICAL’ 50 ‘ERROR’ 40 ‘WARNING’ 30 ‘INFO’ 20 ‘DEBUG’ 10 ‘NOTSET’ 0 Levels can also be associated with loggers, being set either by the developer or through loading a saved logging configuration. When a logging method is called on a logger, the logger compares its own level with the level associated with the method call. If the logger’s level is higher than the method call’s, no logging message is actually generated. This is the basic mechanism controlling the verbosity of logging output. Logging messages are encoded as instances of the *note LogRecord: fe1. class. When a logger decides to actually log an event, a *note LogRecord: fe1. instance is created from the logging message. Logging messages are subjected to a dispatch mechanism through the use of 'handlers', which are instances of subclasses of the *note Handler: 145d. class. Handlers are responsible for ensuring that a logged message (in the form of a *note LogRecord: fe1.) ends up in a particular location (or set of locations) which is useful for the target audience for that message (such as end users, support desk staff, system administrators, developers). Handlers are passed *note LogRecord: fe1. instances intended for particular destinations. Each logger can have zero, one or more handlers associated with it (via the *note addHandler(): 2c68. method of *note Logger: b4f.). In addition to any handlers directly associated with a logger, 'all handlers associated with all ancestors of the logger' are called to dispatch the message (unless the 'propagate' flag for a logger is set to a false value, at which point the passing to ancestor handlers stops). Just as for loggers, handlers can have levels associated with them. A handler’s level acts as a filter in the same way as a logger’s level does. If a handler decides to actually dispatch an event, the *note emit(): 2c88. method is used to send the message to its destination. Most user-defined subclasses of *note Handler: 145d. will need to override this *note emit(): 2c88. * Menu: * Custom Levels::  File: python.info, Node: Custom Levels, Up: Logging Levels<2> 9.8.3.1 Custom Levels ..................... Defining your own levels is possible, but should not be necessary, as the existing levels have been chosen on the basis of practical experience. However, if you are convinced that you need custom levels, great care should be exercised when doing this, and it is possibly 'a very bad idea to define custom levels if you are developing a library'. That’s because if multiple library authors all define their own custom levels, there is a chance that the logging output from such multiple libraries used together will be difficult for the using developer to control and/or interpret, because a given numeric value might mean different things for different libraries.  File: python.info, Node: Useful Handlers, Next: Exceptions raised during logging, Prev: Logging Levels<2>, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.4 Useful Handlers --------------------- In addition to the base *note Handler: 145d. class, many useful subclasses are provided: 1. *note StreamHandler: 11ea. instances send messages to streams (file-like objects). 2. *note FileHandler: 189e. instances send messages to disk files. 3. *note BaseRotatingHandler: 2cef. is the base class for handlers that rotate log files at a certain point. It is not meant to be instantiated directly. Instead, use *note RotatingFileHandler: 15d9. or *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f5c. 4. *note RotatingFileHandler: 15d9. instances send messages to disk files, with support for maximum log file sizes and log file rotation. 5. *note TimedRotatingFileHandler: f5c. instances send messages to disk files, rotating the log file at certain timed intervals. 6. *note SocketHandler: f5d. instances send messages to TCP/IP sockets. Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported. 7. *note DatagramHandler: f5e. instances send messages to UDP sockets. Since 3.4, Unix domain sockets are also supported. 8. *note SMTPHandler: 1568. instances send messages to a designated email address. 9. *note SysLogHandler: 658. instances send messages to a Unix syslog daemon, possibly on a remote machine. 10. *note NTEventLogHandler: 2d15. instances send messages to a Windows NT/2000/XP event log. 11. *note MemoryHandler: 2ccf. instances send messages to a buffer in memory, which is flushed whenever specific criteria are met. 12. *note HTTPHandler: e2a. instances send messages to an HTTP server using either ‘GET’ or ‘POST’ semantics. 13. *note WatchedFileHandler: 2ceb. instances watch the file they are logging to. If the file changes, it is closed and reopened using the file name. This handler is only useful on Unix-like systems; Windows does not support the underlying mechanism used. 14. *note QueueHandler: 17d7. instances send messages to a queue, such as those implemented in the *note queue: b6. or *note multiprocessing: 94. modules. 15. *note NullHandler: 1277. instances do nothing with error messages. They are used by library developers who want to use logging, but want to avoid the ‘No handlers could be found for logger 'XXX'’ message which can be displayed if the library user has not configured logging. See *note Configuring Logging for a Library: 2ce8. for more information. Added in version 3.1: The *note NullHandler: 1277. class. Added in version 3.2: The *note QueueHandler: 17d7. class. The *note NullHandler: 1277, *note StreamHandler: 11ea. and *note FileHandler: 189e. classes are defined in the core logging package. The other handlers are defined in a sub-module, *note logging.handlers: 89. (There is also another sub-module, *note logging.config: 88, for configuration functionality.) Logged messages are formatted for presentation through instances of the *note Formatter: 145e. class. They are initialized with a format string suitable for use with the % operator and a dictionary. For formatting multiple messages in a batch, instances of *note BufferingFormatter: 2c91. can be used. In addition to the format string (which is applied to each message in the batch), there is provision for header and trailer format strings. When filtering based on logger level and/or handler level is not enough, instances of *note Filter: 11ed. can be added to both *note Logger: b4f. and *note Handler: 145d. instances (through their *note addFilter(): 2c81. method). Before deciding to process a message further, both loggers and handlers consult all their filters for permission. If any filter returns a false value, the message is not processed further. The basic *note Filter: 11ed. functionality allows filtering by specific logger name. If this feature is used, messages sent to the named logger and its children are allowed through the filter, and all others dropped.  File: python.info, Node: Exceptions raised during logging, Next: Using arbitrary objects as messages, Prev: Useful Handlers, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.5 Exceptions raised during logging -------------------------------------- The logging package is designed to swallow exceptions which occur while logging in production. This is so that errors which occur while handling logging events - such as logging misconfiguration, network or other similar errors - do not cause the application using logging to terminate prematurely. *note SystemExit: d40. and *note KeyboardInterrupt: 9d1. exceptions are never swallowed. Other exceptions which occur during the *note emit(): 2c88. method of a *note Handler: 145d. subclass are passed to its *note handleError(): 2c87. method. The default implementation of *note handleError(): 2c87. in *note Handler: 145d. checks to see if a module-level variable, *note raiseExceptions: 11eb, is set. If set, a traceback is printed to *note sys.stderr: 939. If not set, the exception is swallowed. Note: The default value of *note raiseExceptions: 11eb. is ‘True’. This is because during development, you typically want to be notified of any exceptions that occur. It’s advised that you set *note raiseExceptions: 11eb. to ‘False’ for production usage.  File: python.info, Node: Using arbitrary objects as messages, Next: Optimization, Prev: Exceptions raised during logging, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.6 Using arbitrary objects as messages ----------------------------------------- In the preceding sections and examples, it has been assumed that the message passed when logging the event is a string. However, this is not the only possibility. You can pass an arbitrary object as a message, and its *note __str__(): 619. method will be called when the logging system needs to convert it to a string representation. In fact, if you want to, you can avoid computing a string representation altogether - for example, the *note SocketHandler: f5d. emits an event by pickling it and sending it over the wire.  File: python.info, Node: Optimization, Next: Other resources, Prev: Using arbitrary objects as messages, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.7 Optimization ------------------ Formatting of message arguments is deferred until it cannot be avoided. However, computing the arguments passed to the logging method can also be expensive, and you may want to avoid doing it if the logger will just throw away your event. To decide what to do, you can call the *note isEnabledFor(): 12e9. method which takes a level argument and returns true if the event would be created by the Logger for that level of call. You can write code like this: if logger.isEnabledFor(logging.DEBUG): logger.debug('Message with %s, %s', expensive_func1(), expensive_func2()) so that if the logger’s threshold is set above ‘DEBUG’, the calls to ‘expensive_func1’ and ‘expensive_func2’ are never made. Note: In some cases, *note isEnabledFor(): 12e9. can itself be more expensive than you’d like (e.g. for deeply nested loggers where an explicit level is only set high up in the logger hierarchy). In such cases (or if you want to avoid calling a method in tight loops), you can cache the result of a call to *note isEnabledFor(): 12e9. in a local or instance variable, and use that instead of calling the method each time. Such a cached value would only need to be recomputed when the logging configuration changes dynamically while the application is running (which is not all that common). There are other optimizations which can be made for specific applications which need more precise control over what logging information is collected. Here’s a list of things you can do to avoid processing during logging which you don’t need: What you don’t want to collect How to avoid collecting it ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Information about where calls were made from. Set ‘logging._srcfile’ to ‘None’. This avoids calling *note sys._getframe(): 6dc, which may help to speed up your code in environments like PyPy (which can’t speed up code that uses *note sys._getframe(): 6dc.). Threading information. Set ‘logging.logThreads’ to ‘False’. Current process ID (*note os.getpid(): 2b0c.) Set ‘logging.logProcesses’ to ‘False’. Current process name when using ‘multiprocessing’ to Set ‘logging.logMultiprocessing’ to ‘False’. manage multiple processes. Current *note asyncio.Task: 1be. name when using Set ‘logging.logAsyncioTasks’ to ‘False’. ‘asyncio’. Also note that the core logging module only includes the basic handlers. If you don’t import *note logging.handlers: 89. and *note logging.config: 88, they won’t take up any memory.  File: python.info, Node: Other resources, Prev: Optimization, Up: Logging HOWTO 9.8.8 Other resources --------------------- See also ........ Module *note logging: 87. API reference for the logging module. Module *note logging.config: 88. Configuration API for the logging module. Module *note logging.handlers: 89. Useful handlers included with the logging module. *note A logging cookbook: 11e9.  File: python.info, Node: Logging Cookbook, Next: Regular Expression HOWTO, Prev: Logging HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.9 Logging Cookbook ==================== Author: Vinay Sajip <vinay_sajip at red-dove dot com> This page contains a number of recipes related to logging, which have been found useful in the past. For links to tutorial and reference information, please see *note Other resources: 4fad. * Menu: * Using logging in multiple modules:: * Logging from multiple threads:: * Multiple handlers and formatters:: * Logging to multiple destinations:: * Custom handling of levels:: * Configuration server example:: * Dealing with handlers that block:: * Sending and receiving logging events across a network:: * Adding contextual information to your logging output:: * Use of contextvars:: * Imparting contextual information in handlers:: * Logging to a single file from multiple processes:: * Using file rotation:: * Use of alternative formatting styles:: * Customizing LogRecord:: * Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example:: * Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example:: * An example dictionary-based configuration:: * Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing:: * A more elaborate multiprocessing example:: * Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler:: * Implementing structured logging:: * Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): Customizing handlers with dictConfig. * Using particular formatting styles throughout your application:: * Configuring filters with dictConfig(): Configuring filters with dictConfig. * Customized exception formatting:: * Speaking logging messages:: * Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally:: * Sending logging messages to email, with buffering: Sending logging messages to email with buffering. * Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration. * Using a context manager for selective logging:: * A CLI application starter template:: * A Qt GUI for logging:: * Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support:: * How to treat a logger like an output stream:: * How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output:: * Patterns to avoid:: * Other resources: Other resources<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Using logging in multiple modules, Next: Logging from multiple threads, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.1 Using logging in multiple modules --------------------------------------- Multiple calls to ‘logging.getLogger('someLogger')’ return a reference to the same logger object. This is true not only within the same module, but also across modules as long as it is in the same Python interpreter process. It is true for references to the same object; additionally, application code can define and configure a parent logger in one module and create (but not configure) a child logger in a separate module, and all logger calls to the child will pass up to the parent. Here is a main module: import logging import auxiliary_module # create logger with 'spam_application' logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application') logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # create file handler which logs even debug messages fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log') fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # create console handler with a higher log level ch = logging.StreamHandler() ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR) # create formatter and add it to the handlers formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s') fh.setFormatter(formatter) ch.setFormatter(formatter) # add the handlers to the logger logger.addHandler(fh) logger.addHandler(ch) logger.info('creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary') a = auxiliary_module.Auxiliary() logger.info('created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary') logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something') a.do_something() logger.info('finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something') logger.info('calling auxiliary_module.some_function()') auxiliary_module.some_function() logger.info('done with auxiliary_module.some_function()') Here is the auxiliary module: import logging # create logger module_logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary') class Auxiliary: def __init__(self): self.logger = logging.getLogger('spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary') self.logger.info('creating an instance of Auxiliary') def do_something(self): self.logger.info('doing something') a = 1 + 1 self.logger.info('done doing something') def some_function(): module_logger.info('received a call to "some_function"') The output looks like this: 2005-03-23 23:47:11,663 - spam_application - INFO - creating an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary 2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO - creating an instance of Auxiliary 2005-03-23 23:47:11,665 - spam_application - INFO - created an instance of auxiliary_module.Auxiliary 2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application - INFO - calling auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something 2005-03-23 23:47:11,668 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO - doing something 2005-03-23 23:47:11,669 - spam_application.auxiliary.Auxiliary - INFO - done doing something 2005-03-23 23:47:11,670 - spam_application - INFO - finished auxiliary_module.Auxiliary.do_something 2005-03-23 23:47:11,671 - spam_application - INFO - calling auxiliary_module.some_function() 2005-03-23 23:47:11,672 - spam_application.auxiliary - INFO - received a call to 'some_function' 2005-03-23 23:47:11,673 - spam_application - INFO - done with auxiliary_module.some_function()  File: python.info, Node: Logging from multiple threads, Next: Multiple handlers and formatters, Prev: Using logging in multiple modules, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.2 Logging from multiple threads ----------------------------------- Logging from multiple threads requires no special effort. The following example shows logging from the main (initial) thread and another thread: import logging import threading import time def worker(arg): while not arg['stop']: logging.debug('Hi from myfunc') time.sleep(0.5) def main(): logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(relativeCreated)6d %(threadName)s %(message)s') info = {'stop': False} thread = threading.Thread(target=worker, args=(info,)) thread.start() while True: try: logging.debug('Hello from main') time.sleep(0.75) except KeyboardInterrupt: info['stop'] = True break thread.join() if __name__ == '__main__': main() When run, the script should print something like the following: 0 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 3 MainThread Hello from main 505 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 755 MainThread Hello from main 1007 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 1507 MainThread Hello from main 1508 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 2010 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 2258 MainThread Hello from main 2512 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 3009 MainThread Hello from main 3013 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 3515 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 3761 MainThread Hello from main 4017 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc 4513 MainThread Hello from main 4518 Thread-1 Hi from myfunc This shows the logging output interspersed as one might expect. This approach works for more threads than shown here, of course.  File: python.info, Node: Multiple handlers and formatters, Next: Logging to multiple destinations, Prev: Logging from multiple threads, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.3 Multiple handlers and formatters -------------------------------------- Loggers are plain Python objects. The *note addHandler(): 2c68. method has no minimum or maximum quota for the number of handlers you may add. Sometimes it will be beneficial for an application to log all messages of all severities to a text file while simultaneously logging errors or above to the console. To set this up, simply configure the appropriate handlers. The logging calls in the application code will remain unchanged. Here is a slight modification to the previous simple module-based configuration example: import logging logger = logging.getLogger('simple_example') logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # create file handler which logs even debug messages fh = logging.FileHandler('spam.log') fh.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # create console handler with a higher log level ch = logging.StreamHandler() ch.setLevel(logging.ERROR) # create formatter and add it to the handlers formatter = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s - %(name)s - %(levelname)s - %(message)s') ch.setFormatter(formatter) fh.setFormatter(formatter) # add the handlers to logger logger.addHandler(ch) logger.addHandler(fh) # 'application' code logger.debug('debug message') logger.info('info message') logger.warning('warn message') logger.error('error message') logger.critical('critical message') Notice that the ‘application’ code does not care about multiple handlers. All that changed was the addition and configuration of a new handler named 'fh'. The ability to create new handlers with higher- or lower-severity filters can be very helpful when writing and testing an application. Instead of using many ‘print’ statements for debugging, use ‘logger.debug’: Unlike the print statements, which you will have to delete or comment out later, the logger.debug statements can remain intact in the source code and remain dormant until you need them again. At that time, the only change that needs to happen is to modify the severity level of the logger and/or handler to debug.  File: python.info, Node: Logging to multiple destinations, Next: Custom handling of levels, Prev: Multiple handlers and formatters, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.4 Logging to multiple destinations -------------------------------------- Let’s say you want to log to console and file with different message formats and in differing circumstances. Say you want to log messages with levels of DEBUG and higher to file, and those messages at level INFO and higher to the console. Let’s also assume that the file should contain timestamps, but the console messages should not. Here’s how you can achieve this: import logging # set up logging to file - see previous section for more details logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)s %(name)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s', datefmt='%m-%d %H:%M', filename='/tmp/myapp.log', filemode='w') # define a Handler which writes INFO messages or higher to the sys.stderr console = logging.StreamHandler() console.setLevel(logging.INFO) # set a format which is simpler for console use formatter = logging.Formatter('%(name)-12s: %(levelname)-8s %(message)s') # tell the handler to use this format console.setFormatter(formatter) # add the handler to the root logger logging.getLogger('').addHandler(console) # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root... logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.') # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your # application: logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1') logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2') logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.') logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.') logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.') logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.') When you run this, on the console you will see root : INFO Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz. myapp.area1 : INFO How quickly daft jumping zebras vex. myapp.area2 : WARNING Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack. myapp.area2 : ERROR The five boxing wizards jump quickly. and in the file you will see something like 10-22 22:19 root INFO Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz. 10-22 22:19 myapp.area1 DEBUG Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim. 10-22 22:19 myapp.area1 INFO How quickly daft jumping zebras vex. 10-22 22:19 myapp.area2 WARNING Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack. 10-22 22:19 myapp.area2 ERROR The five boxing wizards jump quickly. As you can see, the DEBUG message only shows up in the file. The other messages are sent to both destinations. This example uses console and file handlers, but you can use any number and combination of handlers you choose. Note that the above choice of log filename ‘/tmp/myapp.log’ implies use of a standard location for temporary files on POSIX systems. On Windows, you may need to choose a different directory name for the log - just ensure that the directory exists and that you have the permissions to create and update files in it.  File: python.info, Node: Custom handling of levels, Next: Configuration server example, Prev: Logging to multiple destinations, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.5 Custom handling of levels ------------------------------- Sometimes, you might want to do something slightly different from the standard handling of levels in handlers, where all levels above a threshold get processed by a handler. To do this, you need to use filters. Let’s look at a scenario where you want to arrange things as follows: * Send messages of severity ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ to ‘sys.stdout’ * Send messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and above to ‘sys.stderr’ * Send messages of severity ‘DEBUG’ and above to file ‘app.log’ Suppose you configure logging with the following JSON: { "version": 1, "disable_existing_loggers": false, "formatters": { "simple": { "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s" } }, "handlers": { "stdout": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "level": "INFO", "formatter": "simple", "stream": "ext://sys.stdout" }, "stderr": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "level": "ERROR", "formatter": "simple", "stream": "ext://sys.stderr" }, "file": { "class": "logging.FileHandler", "formatter": "simple", "filename": "app.log", "mode": "w" } }, "root": { "level": "DEBUG", "handlers": [ "stderr", "stdout", "file" ] } } This configuration does 'almost' what we want, except that ‘sys.stdout’ would show messages of severity ‘ERROR’ and only events of this severity and higher will be tracked as well as ‘INFO’ and ‘WARNING’ messages. To prevent this, we can set up a filter which excludes those messages and add it to the relevant handler. This can be configured by adding a ‘filters’ section parallel to ‘formatters’ and ‘handlers’: { "filters": { "warnings_and_below": { "()" : "__main__.filter_maker", "level": "WARNING" } } } and changing the section on the ‘stdout’ handler to add it: { "stdout": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "level": "INFO", "formatter": "simple", "stream": "ext://sys.stdout", "filters": ["warnings_and_below"] } } A filter is just a function, so we can define the ‘filter_maker’ (a factory function) as follows: def filter_maker(level): level = getattr(logging, level) def filter(record): return record.levelno <= level return filter This converts the string argument passed in to a numeric level, and returns a function which only returns ‘True’ if the level of the passed in record is at or below the specified level. Note that in this example I have defined the ‘filter_maker’ in a test script ‘main.py’ that I run from the command line, so its module will be ‘__main__’ - hence the ‘__main__.filter_maker’ in the filter configuration. You will need to change that if you define it in a different module. With the filter added, we can run ‘main.py’, which in full is: import json import logging import logging.config CONFIG = ''' { "version": 1, "disable_existing_loggers": false, "formatters": { "simple": { "format": "%(levelname)-8s - %(message)s" } }, "filters": { "warnings_and_below": { "()" : "__main__.filter_maker", "level": "WARNING" } }, "handlers": { "stdout": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "level": "INFO", "formatter": "simple", "stream": "ext://sys.stdout", "filters": ["warnings_and_below"] }, "stderr": { "class": "logging.StreamHandler", "level": "ERROR", "formatter": "simple", "stream": "ext://sys.stderr" }, "file": { "class": "logging.FileHandler", "formatter": "simple", "filename": "app.log", "mode": "w" } }, "root": { "level": "DEBUG", "handlers": [ "stderr", "stdout", "file" ] } } ''' def filter_maker(level): level = getattr(logging, level) def filter(record): return record.levelno <= level return filter logging.config.dictConfig(json.loads(CONFIG)) logging.debug('A DEBUG message') logging.info('An INFO message') logging.warning('A WARNING message') logging.error('An ERROR message') logging.critical('A CRITICAL message') And after running it like this: python main.py 2>stderr.log >stdout.log We can see the results are as expected: $ more *.log :::::::::::::: app.log :::::::::::::: DEBUG - A DEBUG message INFO - An INFO message WARNING - A WARNING message ERROR - An ERROR message CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message :::::::::::::: stderr.log :::::::::::::: ERROR - An ERROR message CRITICAL - A CRITICAL message :::::::::::::: stdout.log :::::::::::::: INFO - An INFO message WARNING - A WARNING message  File: python.info, Node: Configuration server example, Next: Dealing with handlers that block, Prev: Custom handling of levels, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.6 Configuration server example ---------------------------------- Here is an example of a module using the logging configuration server: import logging import logging.config import time import os # read initial config file logging.config.fileConfig('logging.conf') # create and start listener on port 9999 t = logging.config.listen(9999) t.start() logger = logging.getLogger('simpleExample') try: # loop through logging calls to see the difference # new configurations make, until Ctrl+C is pressed while True: logger.debug('debug message') logger.info('info message') logger.warning('warn message') logger.error('error message') logger.critical('critical message') time.sleep(5) except KeyboardInterrupt: # cleanup logging.config.stopListening() t.join() And here is a script that takes a filename and sends that file to the server, properly preceded with the binary-encoded length, as the new logging configuration: #!/usr/bin/env python import socket, sys, struct with open(sys.argv[1], 'rb') as f: data_to_send = f.read() HOST = 'localhost' PORT = 9999 s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) print('connecting...') s.connect((HOST, PORT)) print('sending config...') s.send(struct.pack('>L', len(data_to_send))) s.send(data_to_send) s.close() print('complete')  File: python.info, Node: Dealing with handlers that block, Next: Sending and receiving logging events across a network, Prev: Configuration server example, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.7 Dealing with handlers that block -------------------------------------- Sometimes you have to get your logging handlers to do their work without blocking the thread you’re logging from. This is common in web applications, though of course it also occurs in other scenarios. A common culprit which demonstrates sluggish behaviour is the *note SMTPHandler: 1568.: sending emails can take a long time, for a number of reasons outside the developer’s control (for example, a poorly performing mail or network infrastructure). But almost any network-based handler can block: Even a *note SocketHandler: f5d. operation may do a DNS query under the hood which is too slow (and this query can be deep in the socket library code, below the Python layer, and outside your control). One solution is to use a two-part approach. For the first part, attach only a *note QueueHandler: 17d7. to those loggers which are accessed from performance-critical threads. They simply write to their queue, which can be sized to a large enough capacity or initialized with no upper bound to their size. The write to the queue will typically be accepted quickly, though you will probably need to catch the *note queue.Full: 3158. exception as a precaution in your code. If you are a library developer who has performance-critical threads in their code, be sure to document this (together with a suggestion to attach only ‘QueueHandlers’ to your loggers) for the benefit of other developers who will use your code. The second part of the solution is *note QueueListener: e2b, which has been designed as the counterpart to *note QueueHandler: 17d7. A *note QueueListener: e2b. is very simple: it’s passed a queue and some handlers, and it fires up an internal thread which listens to its queue for LogRecords sent from ‘QueueHandlers’ (or any other source of ‘LogRecords’, for that matter). The ‘LogRecords’ are removed from the queue and passed to the handlers for processing. The advantage of having a separate *note QueueListener: e2b. class is that you can use the same instance to service multiple ‘QueueHandlers’. This is more resource-friendly than, say, having threaded versions of the existing handler classes, which would eat up one thread per handler for no particular benefit. An example of using these two classes follows (imports omitted): que = queue.Queue(-1) # no limit on size queue_handler = QueueHandler(que) handler = logging.StreamHandler() listener = QueueListener(que, handler) root = logging.getLogger() root.addHandler(queue_handler) formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)s: %(message)s') handler.setFormatter(formatter) listener.start() # The log output will display the thread which generated # the event (the main thread) rather than the internal # thread which monitors the internal queue. This is what # you want to happen. root.warning('Look out!') listener.stop() which, when run, will produce: MainThread: Look out! Note: Although the earlier discussion wasn’t specifically talking about async code, but rather about slow logging handlers, it should be noted that when logging from async code, network and even file handlers could lead to problems (blocking the event loop) because some logging is done from *note asyncio: a. internals. It might be best, if any async code is used in an application, to use the above approach for logging, so that any blocking code runs only in the ‘QueueListener’ thread. Changed in version 3.5: Prior to Python 3.5, the *note QueueListener: e2b. always passed every message received from the queue to every handler it was initialized with. (This was because it was assumed that level filtering was all done on the other side, where the queue is filled.) From 3.5 onwards, this behaviour can be changed by passing a keyword argument ‘respect_handler_level=True’ to the listener’s constructor. When this is done, the listener compares the level of each message with the handler’s level, and only passes a message to a handler if it’s appropriate to do so.  File: python.info, Node: Sending and receiving logging events across a network, Next: Adding contextual information to your logging output, Prev: Dealing with handlers that block, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.8 Sending and receiving logging events across a network ----------------------------------------------------------- Let’s say you want to send logging events across a network, and handle them at the receiving end. A simple way of doing this is attaching a *note SocketHandler: f5d. instance to the root logger at the sending end: import logging, logging.handlers rootLogger = logging.getLogger('') rootLogger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) socketHandler = logging.handlers.SocketHandler('localhost', logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT) # don't bother with a formatter, since a socket handler sends the event as # an unformatted pickle rootLogger.addHandler(socketHandler) # Now, we can log to the root logger, or any other logger. First the root... logging.info('Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz.') # Now, define a couple of other loggers which might represent areas in your # application: logger1 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area1') logger2 = logging.getLogger('myapp.area2') logger1.debug('Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim.') logger1.info('How quickly daft jumping zebras vex.') logger2.warning('Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack.') logger2.error('The five boxing wizards jump quickly.') At the receiving end, you can set up a receiver using the *note socketserver: cd. module. Here is a basic working example: import pickle import logging import logging.handlers import socketserver import struct class LogRecordStreamHandler(socketserver.StreamRequestHandler): """Handler for a streaming logging request. This basically logs the record using whatever logging policy is configured locally. """ def handle(self): """ Handle multiple requests - each expected to be a 4-byte length, followed by the LogRecord in pickle format. Logs the record according to whatever policy is configured locally. """ while True: chunk = self.connection.recv(4) if len(chunk) < 4: break slen = struct.unpack('>L', chunk)[0] chunk = self.connection.recv(slen) while len(chunk) < slen: chunk = chunk + self.connection.recv(slen - len(chunk)) obj = self.unPickle(chunk) record = logging.makeLogRecord(obj) self.handleLogRecord(record) def unPickle(self, data): return pickle.loads(data) def handleLogRecord(self, record): # if a name is specified, we use the named logger rather than the one # implied by the record. if self.server.logname is not None: name = self.server.logname else: name = record.name logger = logging.getLogger(name) # N.B. EVERY record gets logged. This is because Logger.handle # is normally called AFTER logger-level filtering. If you want # to do filtering, do it at the client end to save wasting # cycles and network bandwidth! logger.handle(record) class LogRecordSocketReceiver(socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer): """ Simple TCP socket-based logging receiver suitable for testing. """ allow_reuse_address = True def __init__(self, host='localhost', port=logging.handlers.DEFAULT_TCP_LOGGING_PORT, handler=LogRecordStreamHandler): socketserver.ThreadingTCPServer.__init__(self, (host, port), handler) self.abort = 0 self.timeout = 1 self.logname = None def serve_until_stopped(self): import select abort = 0 while not abort: rd, wr, ex = select.select([self.socket.fileno()], [], [], self.timeout) if rd: self.handle_request() abort = self.abort def main(): logging.basicConfig( format='%(relativeCreated)5d %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s') tcpserver = LogRecordSocketReceiver() print('About to start TCP server...') tcpserver.serve_until_stopped() if __name__ == '__main__': main() First run the server, and then the client. On the client side, nothing is printed on the console; on the server side, you should see something like: About to start TCP server... 59 root INFO Jackdaws love my big sphinx of quartz. 59 myapp.area1 DEBUG Quick zephyrs blow, vexing daft Jim. 69 myapp.area1 INFO How quickly daft jumping zebras vex. 69 myapp.area2 WARNING Jail zesty vixen who grabbed pay from quack. 69 myapp.area2 ERROR The five boxing wizards jump quickly. Note that there are some security issues with pickle in some scenarios. If these affect you, you can use an alternative serialization scheme by overriding the *note makePickle(): 2d06. method and implementing your alternative there, as well as adapting the above script to use your alternative serialization. * Menu: * Running a logging socket listener in production::  File: python.info, Node: Running a logging socket listener in production, Up: Sending and receiving logging events across a network 9.9.8.1 Running a logging socket listener in production ....................................................... To run a logging listener in production, you may need to use a process-management tool such as Supervisor(1). Here is a Gist(2) which provides the bare-bones files to run the above functionality using Supervisor. It consists of the following files: File Purpose --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘prepare.sh’ A Bash script to prepare the environment for testing ‘supervisor.conf’ The Supervisor configuration file, which has entries for the listener and a multi-process web application ‘ensure_app.sh’ A Bash script to ensure that Supervisor is running with the above configuration ‘log_listener.py’ The socket listener program which receives log events and records them to a file ‘main.py’ A simple web application which performs logging via a socket connected to the listener ‘webapp.json’ A JSON configuration file for the web application ‘client.py’ A Python script to exercise the web application The web application uses Gunicorn(3), which is a popular web application server that starts multiple worker processes to handle requests. This example setup shows how the workers can write to the same log file without conflicting with one another — they all go through the socket listener. To test these files, do the following in a POSIX environment: 1. Download the Gist(4) as a ZIP archive using the Download ZIP button. 2. Unzip the above files from the archive into a scratch directory. 3. In the scratch directory, run ‘bash prepare.sh’ to get things ready. This creates a ‘run’ subdirectory to contain Supervisor-related and log files, and a ‘venv’ subdirectory to contain a virtual environment into which ‘bottle’, ‘gunicorn’ and ‘supervisor’ are installed. 4. Run ‘bash ensure_app.sh’ to ensure that Supervisor is running with the above configuration. 5. Run ‘venv/bin/python client.py’ to exercise the web application, which will lead to records being written to the log. 6. Inspect the log files in the ‘run’ subdirectory. You should see the most recent log lines in files matching the pattern ‘app.log*’. They won’t be in any particular order, since they have been handled concurrently by different worker processes in a non-deterministic way. 7. You can shut down the listener and the web application by running ‘venv/bin/supervisorctl -c supervisor.conf shutdown’. You may need to tweak the configuration files in the unlikely event that the configured ports clash with something else in your test environment. The default configuration uses a TCP socket on port 9020. You can use a Unix Domain socket instead of a TCP socket by doing the following: 1. In ‘listener.json’, add a ‘socket’ key with the path to the domain socket you want to use. If this key is present, the listener listens on the corresponding domain socket and not on a TCP socket (the ‘port’ key is ignored). 2. In ‘webapp.json’, change the socket handler configuration dictionary so that the ‘host’ value is the path to the domain socket, and set the ‘port’ value to ‘null’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) http://supervisord.org/ (2) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b (3) https://gunicorn.org/ (4) https://gist.github.com/vsajip/4b227eeec43817465ca835ca66f75e2b  File: python.info, Node: Adding contextual information to your logging output, Next: Use of contextvars, Prev: Sending and receiving logging events across a network, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.9 Adding contextual information to your logging output ---------------------------------------------------------- Sometimes you want logging output to contain contextual information in addition to the parameters passed to the logging call. For example, in a networked application, it may be desirable to log client-specific information in the log (e.g. remote client’s username, or IP address). Although you could use the 'extra' parameter to achieve this, it’s not always convenient to pass the information in this way. While it might be tempting to create *note Logger: b4f. instances on a per-connection basis, this is not a good idea because these instances are not garbage collected. While this is not a problem in practice, when the number of *note Logger: b4f. instances is dependent on the level of granularity you want to use in logging an application, it could be hard to manage if the number of *note Logger: b4f. instances becomes effectively unbounded. * Menu: * Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information:: * Using Filters to impart contextual information::  File: python.info, Node: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information, Next: Using Filters to impart contextual information, Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output 9.9.9.1 Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information ............................................................. An easy way in which you can pass contextual information to be output along with logging event information is to use the *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8. class. This class is designed to look like a *note Logger: b4f, so that you can call *note debug(): 2c6f, *note info(): 2c98, *note warning(): 2f9, *note error(): 2cac, *note exception(): 145b, *note critical(): 2cad. and *note log(): 2cae. These methods have the same signatures as their counterparts in *note Logger: b4f, so you can use the two types of instances interchangeably. When you create an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8, you pass it a *note Logger: b4f. instance and a dict-like object which contains your contextual information. When you call one of the logging methods on an instance of *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8, it delegates the call to the underlying instance of *note Logger: b4f. passed to its constructor, and arranges to pass the contextual information in the delegated call. Here’s a snippet from the code of *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8.: def debug(self, msg, /, *args, **kwargs): """ Delegate a debug call to the underlying logger, after adding contextual information from this adapter instance. """ msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs) self.logger.debug(msg, *args, **kwargs) The *note process(): 2ca5. method of *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8. is where the contextual information is added to the logging output. It’s passed the message and keyword arguments of the logging call, and it passes back (potentially) modified versions of these to use in the call to the underlying logger. The default implementation of this method leaves the message alone, but inserts an ‘extra’ key in the keyword argument whose value is the dict-like object passed to the constructor. Of course, if you had passed an ‘extra’ keyword argument in the call to the adapter, it will be silently overwritten. The advantage of using ‘extra’ is that the values in the dict-like object are merged into the *note LogRecord: fe1. instance’s __dict__, allowing you to use customized strings with your *note Formatter: 145e. instances which know about the keys of the dict-like object. If you need a different method, e.g. if you want to prepend or append the contextual information to the message string, you just need to subclass *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8. and override *note process(): 2ca5. to do what you need. Here is a simple example: class CustomAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter): """ This example adapter expects the passed in dict-like object to have a 'connid' key, whose value in brackets is prepended to the log message. """ def process(self, msg, kwargs): return '[%s] %s' % (self.extra['connid'], msg), kwargs which you can use like this: logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) adapter = CustomAdapter(logger, {'connid': some_conn_id}) Then any events that you log to the adapter will have the value of ‘some_conn_id’ prepended to the log messages. * Menu: * Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information::  File: python.info, Node: Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information, Up: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information 9.9.9.2 Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information ..................................................................... You don’t need to pass an actual dict to a *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8. - you could pass an instance of a class which implements ‘__getitem__’ and ‘__iter__’ so that it looks like a dict to logging. This would be useful if you want to generate values dynamically (whereas the values in a dict would be constant).  File: python.info, Node: Using Filters to impart contextual information, Prev: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information, Up: Adding contextual information to your logging output 9.9.9.3 Using Filters to impart contextual information ...................................................... You can also add contextual information to log output using a user-defined *note Filter: 11ed. ‘Filter’ instances are allowed to modify the ‘LogRecords’ passed to them, including adding additional attributes which can then be output using a suitable format string, or if needed a custom *note Formatter: 145e. For example in a web application, the request being processed (or at least, the interesting parts of it) can be stored in a threadlocal (*note threading.local: 154e.) variable, and then accessed from a ‘Filter’ to add, say, information from the request - say, the remote IP address and remote user’s username - to the ‘LogRecord’, using the attribute names ‘ip’ and ‘user’ as in the ‘LoggerAdapter’ example above. In that case, the same format string can be used to get similar output to that shown above. Here’s an example script: import logging from random import choice class ContextFilter(logging.Filter): """ This is a filter which injects contextual information into the log. Rather than use actual contextual information, we just use random data in this demo. """ USERS = ['jim', 'fred', 'sheila'] IPS = ['123.231.231.123', '127.0.0.1', '192.168.0.1'] def filter(self, record): record.ip = choice(ContextFilter.IPS) record.user = choice(ContextFilter.USERS) return True if __name__ == '__main__': levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL) logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)-15s %(name)-5s %(levelname)-8s IP: %(ip)-15s User: %(user)-8s %(message)s') a1 = logging.getLogger('a.b.c') a2 = logging.getLogger('d.e.f') f = ContextFilter() a1.addFilter(f) a2.addFilter(f) a1.debug('A debug message') a1.info('An info message with %s', 'some parameters') for x in range(10): lvl = choice(levels) lvlname = logging.getLevelName(lvl) a2.log(lvl, 'A message at %s level with %d %s', lvlname, 2, 'parameters') which, when run, produces something like: 2010-09-06 22:38:15,292 a.b.c DEBUG IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred A debug message 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 a.b.c INFO IP: 192.168.0.1 User: sheila An info message with some parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1 User: sheila A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR IP: 127.0.0.1 User: jim A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG IP: 127.0.0.1 User: sheila A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f ERROR IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 192.168.0.1 User: jim A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f CRITICAL IP: 127.0.0.1 User: sheila A message at CRITICAL level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,300 d.e.f DEBUG IP: 192.168.0.1 User: jim A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f ERROR IP: 127.0.0.1 User: sheila A message at ERROR level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f DEBUG IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred A message at DEBUG level with 2 parameters 2010-09-06 22:38:15,301 d.e.f INFO IP: 123.231.231.123 User: fred A message at INFO level with 2 parameters  File: python.info, Node: Use of contextvars, Next: Imparting contextual information in handlers, Prev: Adding contextual information to your logging output, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.10 Use of ‘contextvars’ --------------------------- Since Python 3.7, the *note contextvars: 24. module has provided context-local storage which works for both *note threading: ed. and *note asyncio: a. processing needs. This type of storage may thus be generally preferable to thread-locals. The following example shows how, in a multi-threaded environment, logs can populated with contextual information such as, for example, request attributes handled by web applications. For the purposes of illustration, say that you have different web applications, each independent of the other but running in the same Python process and using a library common to them. How can each of these applications have their own log, where all logging messages from the library (and other request processing code) are directed to the appropriate application’s log file, while including in the log additional contextual information such as client IP, HTTP request method and client username? Let’s assume that the library can be simulated by the following code: # webapplib.py import logging import time logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) def useful(): # Just a representative event logged from the library logger.debug('Hello from webapplib!') # Just sleep for a bit so other threads get to run time.sleep(0.01) We can simulate the multiple web applications by means of two simple classes, ‘Request’ and ‘WebApp’. These simulate how real threaded web applications work - each request is handled by a thread: # main.py import argparse from contextvars import ContextVar import logging import os from random import choice import threading import webapplib logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) root = logging.getLogger() root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) class Request: """ A simple dummy request class which just holds dummy HTTP request method, client IP address and client username """ def __init__(self, method, ip, user): self.method = method self.ip = ip self.user = user # A dummy set of requests which will be used in the simulation - we'll just pick # from this list randomly. Note that all GET requests are from 192.168.2.XXX # addresses, whereas POST requests are from 192.16.3.XXX addresses. Three users # are represented in the sample requests. REQUESTS = [ Request('GET', '192.168.2.20', 'jim'), Request('POST', '192.168.3.20', 'fred'), Request('GET', '192.168.2.21', 'sheila'), Request('POST', '192.168.3.21', 'jim'), Request('GET', '192.168.2.22', 'fred'), Request('POST', '192.168.3.22', 'sheila'), ] # Note that the format string includes references to request context information # such as HTTP method, client IP and username formatter = logging.Formatter('%(threadName)-11s %(appName)s %(name)-9s %(user)-6s %(ip)s %(method)-4s %(message)s') # Create our context variables. These will be filled at the start of request # processing, and used in the logging that happens during that processing ctx_request = ContextVar('request') ctx_appname = ContextVar('appname') class InjectingFilter(logging.Filter): """ A filter which injects context-specific information into logs and ensures that only information for a specific webapp is included in its log """ def __init__(self, app): self.app = app def filter(self, record): request = ctx_request.get() record.method = request.method record.ip = request.ip record.user = request.user record.appName = appName = ctx_appname.get() return appName == self.app.name class WebApp: """ A dummy web application class which has its own handler and filter for a webapp-specific log. """ def __init__(self, name): self.name = name handler = logging.FileHandler(name + '.log', 'w') f = InjectingFilter(self) handler.setFormatter(formatter) handler.addFilter(f) root.addHandler(handler) self.num_requests = 0 def process_request(self, request): """ This is the dummy method for processing a request. It's called on a different thread for every request. We store the context information into the context vars before doing anything else. """ ctx_request.set(request) ctx_appname.set(self.name) self.num_requests += 1 logger.debug('Request processing started') webapplib.useful() logger.debug('Request processing finished') def main(): fn = os.path.splitext(os.path.basename(__file__))[0] adhf = argparse.ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter ap = argparse.ArgumentParser(formatter_class=adhf, prog=fn, description='Simulate a couple of web ' 'applications handling some ' 'requests, showing how request ' 'context can be used to ' 'populate logs') aa = ap.add_argument aa('--count', '-c', type=int, default=100, help='How many requests to simulate') options = ap.parse_args() # Create the dummy webapps and put them in a list which we can use to select # from randomly app1 = WebApp('app1') app2 = WebApp('app2') apps = [app1, app2] threads = [] # Add a common handler which will capture all events handler = logging.FileHandler('app.log', 'w') handler.setFormatter(formatter) root.addHandler(handler) # Generate calls to process requests for i in range(options.count): try: # Pick an app at random and a request for it to process app = choice(apps) request = choice(REQUESTS) # Process the request in its own thread t = threading.Thread(target=app.process_request, args=(request,)) threads.append(t) t.start() except KeyboardInterrupt: break # Wait for the threads to terminate for t in threads: t.join() for app in apps: print('%s processed %s requests' % (app.name, app.num_requests)) if __name__ == '__main__': main() If you run the above, you should find that roughly half the requests go into ‘app1.log’ and the rest into ‘app2.log’, and the all the requests are logged to ‘app.log’. Each webapp-specific log will contain only log entries for only that webapp, and the request information will be displayed consistently in the log (i.e. the information in each dummy request will always appear together in a log line). This is illustrated by the following shell output: ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ python main.py app1 processed 51 requests app2 processed 49 requests ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ wc -l *.log 153 app1.log 147 app2.log 300 app.log 600 total ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app1.log Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__ jim 192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim 192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib! Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__ jim 192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head -3 app2.log Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__ sheila 192.168.2.21 GET Request processing started Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET Hello from webapplib! Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__ jim 192.168.2.20 GET Request processing started ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ head app.log Thread-1 (process_request) app2 __main__ sheila 192.168.2.21 GET Request processing started Thread-1 (process_request) app2 webapplib sheila 192.168.2.21 GET Hello from webapplib! Thread-2 (process_request) app2 __main__ jim 192.168.2.20 GET Request processing started Thread-3 (process_request) app1 __main__ jim 192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started Thread-2 (process_request) app2 webapplib jim 192.168.2.20 GET Hello from webapplib! Thread-3 (process_request) app1 webapplib jim 192.168.3.21 POST Hello from webapplib! Thread-4 (process_request) app2 __main__ fred 192.168.2.22 GET Request processing started Thread-5 (process_request) app1 __main__ jim 192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started Thread-4 (process_request) app2 webapplib fred 192.168.2.22 GET Hello from webapplib! Thread-6 (process_request) app1 __main__ jim 192.168.3.21 POST Request processing started ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app1.log | wc -l 153 ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app2.log | wc -l 147 ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app1 app.log | wc -l 153 ~/logging-contextual-webapp$ grep app2 app.log | wc -l 147  File: python.info, Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers, Next: Logging to a single file from multiple processes, Prev: Use of contextvars, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.11 Imparting contextual information in handlers --------------------------------------------------- Each *note Handler: 145d. has its own chain of filters. If you want to add contextual information to a *note LogRecord: fe1. without leaking it to other handlers, you can use a filter that returns a new *note LogRecord: fe1. instead of modifying it in-place, as shown in the following script: import copy import logging def filter(record: logging.LogRecord): record = copy.copy(record) record.user = 'jim' return record if __name__ == '__main__': logger = logging.getLogger() logger.setLevel(logging.INFO) handler = logging.StreamHandler() formatter = logging.Formatter('%(message)s from %(user)-8s') handler.setFormatter(formatter) handler.addFilter(filter) logger.addHandler(handler) logger.info('A log message')  File: python.info, Node: Logging to a single file from multiple processes, Next: Using file rotation, Prev: Imparting contextual information in handlers, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.12 Logging to a single file from multiple processes ------------------------------------------------------- Although logging is thread-safe, and logging to a single file from multiple threads in a single process 'is' supported, logging to a single file from 'multiple processes' is 'not' supported, because there is no standard way to serialize access to a single file across multiple processes in Python. If you need to log to a single file from multiple processes, one way of doing this is to have all the processes log to a *note SocketHandler: f5d, and have a separate process which implements a socket server which reads from the socket and logs to file. (If you prefer, you can dedicate one thread in one of the existing processes to perform this function.) *note This section: 4fb7. documents this approach in more detail and includes a working socket receiver which can be used as a starting point for you to adapt in your own applications. You could also write your own handler which uses the *note Lock: 159c. class from the *note multiprocessing: 94. module to serialize access to the file from your processes. The stdlib *note FileHandler: 189e. and subclasses do not make use of *note multiprocessing: 94. Alternatively, you can use a ‘Queue’ and a *note QueueHandler: 17d7. to send all logging events to one of the processes in your multi-process application. The following example script demonstrates how you can do this; in the example a separate listener process listens for events sent by other processes and logs them according to its own logging configuration. Although the example only demonstrates one way of doing it (for example, you may want to use a listener thread rather than a separate listener process – the implementation would be analogous) it does allow for completely different logging configurations for the listener and the other processes in your application, and can be used as the basis for code meeting your own specific requirements: # You'll need these imports in your own code import logging import logging.handlers import multiprocessing # Next two import lines for this demo only from random import choice, random import time # # Because you'll want to define the logging configurations for listener and workers, the # listener and worker process functions take a configurer parameter which is a callable # for configuring logging for that process. These functions are also passed the queue, # which they use for communication. # # In practice, you can configure the listener however you want, but note that in this # simple example, the listener does not apply level or filter logic to received records. # In practice, you would probably want to do this logic in the worker processes, to avoid # sending events which would be filtered out between processes. # # The size of the rotated files is made small so you can see the results easily. def listener_configurer(): root = logging.getLogger() h = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('mptest.log', 'a', 300, 10) f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(processName)-10s %(name)s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s') h.setFormatter(f) root.addHandler(h) # This is the listener process top-level loop: wait for logging events # (LogRecords)on the queue and handle them, quit when you get a None for a # LogRecord. def listener_process(queue, configurer): configurer() while True: try: record = queue.get() if record is None: # We send this as a sentinel to tell the listener to quit. break logger = logging.getLogger(record.name) logger.handle(record) # No level or filter logic applied - just do it! except Exception: import sys, traceback print('Whoops! Problem:', file=sys.stderr) traceback.print_exc(file=sys.stderr) # Arrays used for random selections in this demo LEVELS = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL] LOGGERS = ['a.b.c', 'd.e.f'] MESSAGES = [ 'Random message #1', 'Random message #2', 'Random message #3', ] # The worker configuration is done at the start of the worker process run. # Note that on Windows you can't rely on fork semantics, so each process # will run the logging configuration code when it starts. def worker_configurer(queue): h = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(queue) # Just the one handler needed root = logging.getLogger() root.addHandler(h) # send all messages, for demo; no other level or filter logic applied. root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # This is the worker process top-level loop, which just logs ten events with # random intervening delays before terminating. # The print messages are just so you know it's doing something! def worker_process(queue, configurer): configurer(queue) name = multiprocessing.current_process().name print('Worker started: %s' % name) for i in range(10): time.sleep(random()) logger = logging.getLogger(choice(LOGGERS)) level = choice(LEVELS) message = choice(MESSAGES) logger.log(level, message) print('Worker finished: %s' % name) # Here's where the demo gets orchestrated. Create the queue, create and start # the listener, create ten workers and start them, wait for them to finish, # then send a None to the queue to tell the listener to finish. def main(): queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1) listener = multiprocessing.Process(target=listener_process, args=(queue, listener_configurer)) listener.start() workers = [] for i in range(10): worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process, args=(queue, worker_configurer)) workers.append(worker) worker.start() for w in workers: w.join() queue.put_nowait(None) listener.join() if __name__ == '__main__': main() A variant of the above script keeps the logging in the main process, in a separate thread: import logging import logging.config import logging.handlers from multiprocessing import Process, Queue import random import threading import time def logger_thread(q): while True: record = q.get() if record is None: break logger = logging.getLogger(record.name) logger.handle(record) def worker_process(q): qh = logging.handlers.QueueHandler(q) root = logging.getLogger() root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) root.addHandler(qh) levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL] loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz', 'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs'] for i in range(100): lvl = random.choice(levels) logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers)) logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i) if __name__ == '__main__': q = Queue() d = { 'version': 1, 'formatters': { 'detailed': { 'class': 'logging.Formatter', 'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s' } }, 'handlers': { 'console': { 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'level': 'INFO', }, 'file': { 'class': 'logging.FileHandler', 'filename': 'mplog.log', 'mode': 'w', 'formatter': 'detailed', }, 'foofile': { 'class': 'logging.FileHandler', 'filename': 'mplog-foo.log', 'mode': 'w', 'formatter': 'detailed', }, 'errors': { 'class': 'logging.FileHandler', 'filename': 'mplog-errors.log', 'mode': 'w', 'level': 'ERROR', 'formatter': 'detailed', }, }, 'loggers': { 'foo': { 'handlers': ['foofile'] } }, 'root': { 'level': 'DEBUG', 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'] }, } workers = [] for i in range(5): wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(q,)) workers.append(wp) wp.start() logging.config.dictConfig(d) lp = threading.Thread(target=logger_thread, args=(q,)) lp.start() # At this point, the main process could do some useful work of its own # Once it's done that, it can wait for the workers to terminate... for wp in workers: wp.join() # And now tell the logging thread to finish up, too q.put(None) lp.join() This variant shows how you can e.g. apply configuration for particular loggers - e.g. the ‘foo’ logger has a special handler which stores all events in the ‘foo’ subsystem in a file ‘mplog-foo.log’. This will be used by the logging machinery in the main process (even though the logging events are generated in the worker processes) to direct the messages to the appropriate destinations. * Menu: * Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor. * Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI::  File: python.info, Node: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor, Next: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI, Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes 9.9.12.1 Using concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor ..................................................... If you want to use *note concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. to start your worker processes, you need to create the queue slightly differently. Instead of queue = multiprocessing.Queue(-1) you should use queue = multiprocessing.Manager().Queue(-1) # also works with the examples above and you can then replace the worker creation from this: workers = [] for i in range(10): worker = multiprocessing.Process(target=worker_process, args=(queue, worker_configurer)) workers.append(worker) worker.start() for w in workers: w.join() to this (remembering to first import *note concurrent.futures: 21.): with concurrent.futures.ProcessPoolExecutor(max_workers=10) as executor: for i in range(10): executor.submit(worker_process, queue, worker_configurer)  File: python.info, Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI, Prev: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor, Up: Logging to a single file from multiple processes 9.9.12.2 Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI ............................................................ When deploying Web applications using Gunicorn(1) or uWSGI(2) (or similar), multiple worker processes are created to handle client requests. In such environments, avoid creating file-based handlers directly in your web application. Instead, use a *note SocketHandler: f5d. to log from the web application to a listener in a separate process. This can be set up using a process management tool such as Supervisor - see *note Running a logging socket listener in production: 4fb9. for more details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://gunicorn.org/ (2) https://uwsgi-docs.readthedocs.io/en/latest/  File: python.info, Node: Using file rotation, Next: Use of alternative formatting styles, Prev: Logging to a single file from multiple processes, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.13 Using file rotation -------------------------- Sometimes you want to let a log file grow to a certain size, then open a new file and log to that. You may want to keep a certain number of these files, and when that many files have been created, rotate the files so that the number of files and the size of the files both remain bounded. For this usage pattern, the logging package provides a *note RotatingFileHandler: 15d9.: import glob import logging import logging.handlers LOG_FILENAME = 'logging_rotatingfile_example.out' # Set up a specific logger with our desired output level my_logger = logging.getLogger('MyLogger') my_logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) # Add the log message handler to the logger handler = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler( LOG_FILENAME, maxBytes=20, backupCount=5) my_logger.addHandler(handler) # Log some messages for i in range(20): my_logger.debug('i = %d' % i) # See what files are created logfiles = glob.glob('%s*' % LOG_FILENAME) for filename in logfiles: print(filename) The result should be 6 separate files, each with part of the log history for the application: logging_rotatingfile_example.out logging_rotatingfile_example.out.1 logging_rotatingfile_example.out.2 logging_rotatingfile_example.out.3 logging_rotatingfile_example.out.4 logging_rotatingfile_example.out.5 The most current file is always ‘logging_rotatingfile_example.out’, and each time it reaches the size limit it is renamed with the suffix ‘.1’. Each of the existing backup files is renamed to increment the suffix (‘.1’ becomes ‘.2’, etc.) and the ‘.6’ file is erased. Obviously this example sets the log length much too small as an extreme example. You would want to set 'maxBytes' to an appropriate value.  File: python.info, Node: Use of alternative formatting styles, Next: Customizing LogRecord, Prev: Using file rotation, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.14 Use of alternative formatting styles ------------------------------------------- When logging was added to the Python standard library, the only way of formatting messages with variable content was to use the %-formatting method. Since then, Python has gained two new formatting approaches: *note string.Template: 683. (added in Python 2.4) and *note str.format(): 61d. (added in Python 2.6). Logging (as of 3.2) provides improved support for these two additional formatting styles. The *note Formatter: 145e. class been enhanced to take an additional, optional keyword parameter named ‘style’. This defaults to ‘'%'’, but other possible values are ‘'{'’ and ‘'$'’, which correspond to the other two formatting styles. Backwards compatibility is maintained by default (as you would expect), but by explicitly specifying a style parameter, you get the ability to specify format strings which work with *note str.format(): 61d. or *note string.Template: 683. Here’s an example console session to show the possibilities: >>> import logging >>> root = logging.getLogger() >>> root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) >>> handler = logging.StreamHandler() >>> bf = logging.Formatter('{asctime} {name} {levelname:8s} {message}', ... style='{') >>> handler.setFormatter(bf) >>> root.addHandler(handler) >>> logger = logging.getLogger('foo.bar') >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message') 2010-10-28 15:11:55,341 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message') 2010-10-28 15:12:11,526 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message >>> df = logging.Formatter('$asctime $name ${levelname} $message', ... style='$') >>> handler.setFormatter(df) >>> logger.debug('This is a DEBUG message') 2010-10-28 15:13:06,924 foo.bar DEBUG This is a DEBUG message >>> logger.critical('This is a CRITICAL message') 2010-10-28 15:13:11,494 foo.bar CRITICAL This is a CRITICAL message >>> Note that the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs is completely independent of how an individual logging message is constructed. That can still use %-formatting, as shown here: >>> logger.error('This is an%s %s %s', 'other,', 'ERROR,', 'message') 2010-10-28 15:19:29,833 foo.bar ERROR This is another, ERROR, message >>> Logging calls (‘logger.debug()’, ‘logger.info()’ etc.) only take positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the actual logging call (e.g. the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to the log). So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note str.format(): 61d. or *note string.Template: 683. syntax, because internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format string and the variable arguments. There would be no changing this while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings. There is, however, a way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to construct your individual log messages. Recall that for a message you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the logging package will call ‘str()’ on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the following two classes: class BraceMessage: def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs): self.fmt = fmt self.args = args self.kwargs = kwargs def __str__(self): return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs) class DollarMessage: def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs): self.fmt = fmt self.kwargs = kwargs def __str__(self): from string import Template return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs) Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or $-formatting to be used to build the actual “message” part which appears in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or “$message”. It’s a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log something, but it’s quite palatable if you use an alias such as __ (double underscore — not to be confused with _, the single underscore used as a synonym/alias for *note gettext.gettext(): 1432. or its brethren). The above classes are not included in Python, though they’re easy enough to copy and paste into your own code. They can be used as follows (assuming that they’re declared in a module called ‘wherever’): >>> from wherever import BraceMessage as __ >>> print(__('Message with {0} {name}', 2, name='placeholders')) Message with 2 placeholders >>> class Point: pass ... >>> p = Point() >>> p.x = 0.5 >>> p.y = 0.5 >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', ... point=p)) Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50) >>> from wherever import DollarMessage as __ >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders')) Message with 2 placeholders >>> While the above examples use ‘print()’ to show how the formatting works, you would of course use ‘logger.debug()’ or similar to actually log using this approach. One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format string. That’s because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of the ‘XXXMessage’ classes. If you prefer, you can use a *note LoggerAdapter: 12e8. to achieve a similar effect to the above, as in the following example: import logging class Message: def __init__(self, fmt, args): self.fmt = fmt self.args = args def __str__(self): return self.fmt.format(*self.args) class StyleAdapter(logging.LoggerAdapter): def log(self, level, msg, /, *args, stacklevel=1, **kwargs): if self.isEnabledFor(level): msg, kwargs = self.process(msg, kwargs) self.logger.log(level, Message(msg, args), **kwargs, stacklevel=stacklevel+1) logger = StyleAdapter(logging.getLogger(__name__)) def main(): logger.debug('Hello, {}', 'world!') if __name__ == '__main__': logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG) main() The above script should log the message ‘Hello, world!’ when run with Python 3.8 or later.  File: python.info, Node: Customizing LogRecord, Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example, Prev: Use of alternative formatting styles, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.15 Customizing ‘LogRecord’ ------------------------------ Every logging event is represented by a *note LogRecord: fe1. instance. When an event is logged and not filtered out by a logger’s level, a *note LogRecord: fe1. is created, populated with information about the event and then passed to the handlers for that logger (and its ancestors, up to and including the logger where further propagation up the hierarchy is disabled). Before Python 3.2, there were only two places where this creation was done: * *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2c76, which is called in the normal process of logging an event. This invoked *note LogRecord: fe1. directly to create an instance. * *note makeLogRecord(): 2c9c, which is called with a dictionary containing attributes to be added to the LogRecord. This is typically invoked when a suitable dictionary has been received over the network (e.g. in pickle form via a *note SocketHandler: f5d, or in JSON form via an *note HTTPHandler: e2a.). This has usually meant that if you need to do anything special with a *note LogRecord: fe1, you’ve had to do one of the following. * Create your own *note Logger: b4f. subclass, which overrides *note Logger.makeRecord(): 2c76, and set it using *note setLoggerClass(): 2cab. before any loggers that you care about are instantiated. * Add a *note Filter: 11ed. to a logger or handler, which does the necessary special manipulation you need when its *note filter(): 2c97. method is called. The first approach would be a little unwieldy in the scenario where (say) several different libraries wanted to do different things. Each would attempt to set its own *note Logger: b4f. subclass, and the one which did this last would win. The second approach works reasonably well for many cases, but does not allow you to e.g. use a specialized subclass of *note LogRecord: fe1. Library developers can set a suitable filter on their loggers, but they would have to remember to do this every time they introduced a new logger (which they would do simply by adding new packages or modules and doing logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) at module level). It’s probably one too many things to think about. Developers could also add the filter to a *note NullHandler: 1277. attached to their top-level logger, but this would not be invoked if an application developer attached a handler to a lower-level library logger — so output from that handler would not reflect the intentions of the library developer. In Python 3.2 and later, *note LogRecord: fe1. creation is done through a factory, which you can specify. The factory is just a callable you can set with *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca0, and interrogate with *note getLogRecordFactory(): 2c9f. The factory is invoked with the same signature as the *note LogRecord: fe1. constructor, as *note LogRecord: fe1. is the default setting for the factory. This approach allows a custom factory to control all aspects of LogRecord creation. For example, you could return a subclass, or just add some additional attributes to the record once created, using a pattern similar to this: old_factory = logging.getLogRecordFactory() def record_factory(*args, **kwargs): record = old_factory(*args, **kwargs) record.custom_attribute = 0xdecafbad return record logging.setLogRecordFactory(record_factory) This pattern allows different libraries to chain factories together, and as long as they don’t overwrite each other’s attributes or unintentionally overwrite the attributes provided as standard, there should be no surprises. However, it should be borne in mind that each link in the chain adds run-time overhead to all logging operations, and the technique should only be used when the use of a *note Filter: 11ed. does not provide the desired result.  File: python.info, Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example, Next: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example, Prev: Customizing LogRecord, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.16 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example ------------------------------------------------------------------- * Menu: * Subclass QueueHandler:: * Subclass QueueListener::  File: python.info, Node: Subclass QueueHandler, Next: Subclass QueueListener, Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example 9.9.16.1 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’ ................................ You can use a *note QueueHandler: 17d7. subclass to send messages to other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ ‘publish’ socket. In the example below,the socket is created separately and passed to the handler (as its ‘queue’): import zmq # using pyzmq, the Python binding for ZeroMQ import json # for serializing records portably ctx = zmq.Context() sock = zmq.Socket(ctx, zmq.PUB) # or zmq.PUSH, or other suitable value sock.bind('tcp://*:5556') # or wherever class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler): def enqueue(self, record): self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__) handler = ZeroMQSocketHandler(sock) Of course there are other ways of organizing this, for example passing in the data needed by the handler to create the socket: class ZeroMQSocketHandler(QueueHandler): def __init__(self, uri, socktype=zmq.PUB, ctx=None): self.ctx = ctx or zmq.Context() socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, socktype) socket.bind(uri) super().__init__(socket) def enqueue(self, record): self.queue.send_json(record.__dict__) def close(self): self.queue.close()  File: python.info, Node: Subclass QueueListener, Prev: Subclass QueueHandler, Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example 9.9.16.2 Subclass ‘QueueListener’ ................................. You can also subclass *note QueueListener: e2b. to get messages from other kinds of queues, for example a ZeroMQ ‘subscribe’ socket. Here’s an example: class ZeroMQSocketListener(QueueListener): def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs): self.ctx = kwargs.get('ctx') or zmq.Context() socket = zmq.Socket(self.ctx, zmq.SUB) socket.setsockopt_string(zmq.SUBSCRIBE, '') # subscribe to everything socket.connect(uri) super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs) def dequeue(self): msg = self.queue.recv_json() return logging.makeLogRecord(msg)  File: python.info, Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example, Next: An example dictionary-based configuration, Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.17 Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ‘pynng’ example -------------------------------------------------------------------- In a similar way to the above section, we can implement a listener and handler using pynng(1), which is a Python binding to NNG(2), billed as a spiritual successor to ZeroMQ. The following snippets illustrate – you can test them in an environment which has ‘pynng’ installed. Just for variety, we present the listener first. * Menu: * Subclass QueueListener: Subclass QueueListener<2>. * Subclass QueueHandler: Subclass QueueHandler<2>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/pynng/ (2) https://nng.nanomsg.org/  File: python.info, Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>, Next: Subclass QueueHandler<2>, Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example 9.9.17.1 Subclass ‘QueueListener’ ................................. # listener.py import json import logging import logging.handlers import pynng DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232" interrupted = False class NNGSocketListener(logging.handlers.QueueListener): def __init__(self, uri, /, *handlers, **kwargs): # Have a timeout for interruptability, and open a # subscriber socket socket = pynng.Sub0(listen=uri, recv_timeout=500) # The b'' subscription matches all topics topics = kwargs.pop('topics', None) or b'' socket.subscribe(topics) # We treat the socket as a queue super().__init__(socket, *handlers, **kwargs) def dequeue(self, block): data = None # Keep looping while not interrupted and no data received over the # socket while not interrupted: try: data = self.queue.recv(block=block) break except pynng.Timeout: pass except pynng.Closed: # sometimes happens when you hit Ctrl-C break if data is None: return None # Get the logging event sent from a publisher event = json.loads(data.decode('utf-8')) return logging.makeLogRecord(event) def enqueue_sentinel(self): # Not used in this implementation, as the socket isn't really a # queue pass logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False listener = NNGSocketListener(DEFAULT_ADDR, logging.StreamHandler(), topics=b'') listener.start() print('Press Ctrl-C to stop.') try: while True: pass except KeyboardInterrupt: interrupted = True finally: listener.stop()  File: python.info, Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>, Prev: Subclass QueueListener<2>, Up: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example 9.9.17.2 Subclass ‘QueueHandler’ ................................ # sender.py import json import logging import logging.handlers import time import random import pynng DEFAULT_ADDR = "tcp://localhost:13232" class NNGSocketHandler(logging.handlers.QueueHandler): def __init__(self, uri): socket = pynng.Pub0(dial=uri, send_timeout=500) super().__init__(socket) def enqueue(self, record): # Send the record as UTF-8 encoded JSON d = dict(record.__dict__) data = json.dumps(d) self.queue.send(data.encode('utf-8')) def close(self): self.queue.close() logging.getLogger('pynng').propagate = False handler = NNGSocketHandler(DEFAULT_ADDR) # Make sure the process ID is in the output logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, handlers=[logging.StreamHandler(), handler], format='%(levelname)-8s %(name)10s %(process)6s %(message)s') levels = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL) logger_names = ('myapp', 'myapp.lib1', 'myapp.lib2') msgno = 1 while True: # Just randomly select some loggers and levels and log away level = random.choice(levels) logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(logger_names)) logger.log(level, 'Message no. %5d' % msgno) msgno += 1 delay = random.random() * 2 + 0.5 time.sleep(delay) You can run the above two snippets in separate command shells. If we run the listener in one shell and run the sender in two separate shells, we should see something like the following. In the first sender shell: $ python sender.py DEBUG myapp 613 Message no. 1 WARNING myapp.lib2 613 Message no. 2 CRITICAL myapp.lib2 613 Message no. 3 WARNING myapp.lib2 613 Message no. 4 CRITICAL myapp.lib1 613 Message no. 5 DEBUG myapp 613 Message no. 6 CRITICAL myapp.lib1 613 Message no. 7 INFO myapp.lib1 613 Message no. 8 (and so on) In the second sender shell: $ python sender.py INFO myapp.lib2 657 Message no. 1 CRITICAL myapp.lib2 657 Message no. 2 CRITICAL myapp 657 Message no. 3 CRITICAL myapp.lib1 657 Message no. 4 INFO myapp.lib1 657 Message no. 5 WARNING myapp.lib2 657 Message no. 6 CRITICAL myapp 657 Message no. 7 DEBUG myapp.lib1 657 Message no. 8 (and so on) In the listener shell: $ python listener.py Press Ctrl-C to stop. DEBUG myapp 613 Message no. 1 WARNING myapp.lib2 613 Message no. 2 INFO myapp.lib2 657 Message no. 1 CRITICAL myapp.lib2 613 Message no. 3 CRITICAL myapp.lib2 657 Message no. 2 CRITICAL myapp 657 Message no. 3 WARNING myapp.lib2 613 Message no. 4 CRITICAL myapp.lib1 613 Message no. 5 CRITICAL myapp.lib1 657 Message no. 4 INFO myapp.lib1 657 Message no. 5 DEBUG myapp 613 Message no. 6 WARNING myapp.lib2 657 Message no. 6 CRITICAL myapp 657 Message no. 7 CRITICAL myapp.lib1 613 Message no. 7 INFO myapp.lib1 613 Message no. 8 DEBUG myapp.lib1 657 Message no. 8 (and so on) As you can see, the logging from the two sender processes is interleaved in the listener’s output.  File: python.info, Node: An example dictionary-based configuration, Next: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing, Prev: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.18 An example dictionary-based configuration ------------------------------------------------ Below is an example of a logging configuration dictionary - it’s taken from the documentation on the Django project(1). This dictionary is passed to *note dictConfig(): 11a2. to put the configuration into effect: LOGGING = { 'version': 1, 'disable_existing_loggers': False, 'formatters': { 'verbose': { 'format': '{levelname} {asctime} {module} {process:d} {thread:d} {message}', 'style': '{', }, 'simple': { 'format': '{levelname} {message}', 'style': '{', }, }, 'filters': { 'special': { '()': 'project.logging.SpecialFilter', 'foo': 'bar', }, }, 'handlers': { 'console': { 'level': 'INFO', 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'formatter': 'simple', }, 'mail_admins': { 'level': 'ERROR', 'class': 'django.utils.log.AdminEmailHandler', 'filters': ['special'] } }, 'loggers': { 'django': { 'handlers': ['console'], 'propagate': True, }, 'django.request': { 'handlers': ['mail_admins'], 'level': 'ERROR', 'propagate': False, }, 'myproject.custom': { 'handlers': ['console', 'mail_admins'], 'level': 'INFO', 'filters': ['special'] } } } For more information about this configuration, you can see the relevant section(2) of the Django documentation. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging (2) https://docs.djangoproject.com/en/stable/topics/logging/#configuring-logging  File: python.info, Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing, Next: A more elaborate multiprocessing example, Prev: An example dictionary-based configuration, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.19 Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing --------------------------------------------------------------------- An example of how you can define a namer and rotator is given in the following runnable script, which shows gzip compression of the log file: import gzip import logging import logging.handlers import os import shutil def namer(name): return name + ".gz" def rotator(source, dest): with open(source, 'rb') as f_in: with gzip.open(dest, 'wb') as f_out: shutil.copyfileobj(f_in, f_out) os.remove(source) rh = logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler('rotated.log', maxBytes=128, backupCount=5) rh.rotator = rotator rh.namer = namer root = logging.getLogger() root.setLevel(logging.INFO) root.addHandler(rh) f = logging.Formatter('%(asctime)s %(message)s') rh.setFormatter(f) for i in range(1000): root.info(f'Message no. {i + 1}') After running this, you will see six new files, five of which are compressed: $ ls rotated.log* rotated.log rotated.log.2.gz rotated.log.4.gz rotated.log.1.gz rotated.log.3.gz rotated.log.5.gz $ zcat rotated.log.1.gz 2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 996 2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 997 2023-01-20 02:28:17,767 Message no. 998  File: python.info, Node: A more elaborate multiprocessing example, Next: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler, Prev: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.20 A more elaborate multiprocessing example ----------------------------------------------- The following working example shows how logging can be used with multiprocessing using configuration files. The configurations are fairly simple, but serve to illustrate how more complex ones could be implemented in a real multiprocessing scenario. In the example, the main process spawns a listener process and some worker processes. Each of the main process, the listener and the workers have three separate configurations (the workers all share the same configuration). We can see logging in the main process, how the workers log to a QueueHandler and how the listener implements a QueueListener and a more complex logging configuration, and arranges to dispatch events received via the queue to the handlers specified in the configuration. Note that these configurations are purely illustrative, but you should be able to adapt this example to your own scenario. Here’s the script - the docstrings and the comments hopefully explain how it works: import logging import logging.config import logging.handlers from multiprocessing import Process, Queue, Event, current_process import os import random import time class MyHandler: """ A simple handler for logging events. It runs in the listener process and dispatches events to loggers based on the name in the received record, which then get dispatched, by the logging system, to the handlers configured for those loggers. """ def handle(self, record): if record.name == "root": logger = logging.getLogger() else: logger = logging.getLogger(record.name) if logger.isEnabledFor(record.levelno): # The process name is transformed just to show that it's the listener # doing the logging to files and console record.processName = '%s (for %s)' % (current_process().name, record.processName) logger.handle(record) def listener_process(q, stop_event, config): """ This could be done in the main process, but is just done in a separate process for illustrative purposes. This initialises logging according to the specified configuration, starts the listener and waits for the main process to signal completion via the event. The listener is then stopped, and the process exits. """ logging.config.dictConfig(config) listener = logging.handlers.QueueListener(q, MyHandler()) listener.start() if os.name == 'posix': # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the # parent process, but should have been disabled following the # dictConfig call. # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause. logger = logging.getLogger('setup') logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...') stop_event.wait() listener.stop() def worker_process(config): """ A number of these are spawned for the purpose of illustration. In practice, they could be a heterogeneous bunch of processes rather than ones which are identical to each other. This initialises logging according to the specified configuration, and logs a hundred messages with random levels to randomly selected loggers. A small sleep is added to allow other processes a chance to run. This is not strictly needed, but it mixes the output from the different processes a bit more than if it's left out. """ logging.config.dictConfig(config) levels = [logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL] loggers = ['foo', 'foo.bar', 'foo.bar.baz', 'spam', 'spam.ham', 'spam.ham.eggs'] if os.name == 'posix': # On POSIX, the setup logger will have been configured in the # parent process, but should have been disabled following the # dictConfig call. # On Windows, since fork isn't used, the setup logger won't # exist in the child, so it would be created and the message # would appear - hence the "if posix" clause. logger = logging.getLogger('setup') logger.critical('Should not appear, because of disabled logger ...') for i in range(100): lvl = random.choice(levels) logger = logging.getLogger(random.choice(loggers)) logger.log(lvl, 'Message no. %d', i) time.sleep(0.01) def main(): q = Queue() # The main process gets a simple configuration which prints to the console. config_initial = { 'version': 1, 'handlers': { 'console': { 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'level': 'INFO' } }, 'root': { 'handlers': ['console'], 'level': 'DEBUG' } } # The worker process configuration is just a QueueHandler attached to the # root logger, which allows all messages to be sent to the queue. # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will # be there in the child following a fork(). config_worker = { 'version': 1, 'disable_existing_loggers': True, 'handlers': { 'queue': { 'class': 'logging.handlers.QueueHandler', 'queue': q } }, 'root': { 'handlers': ['queue'], 'level': 'DEBUG' } } # The listener process configuration shows that the full flexibility of # logging configuration is available to dispatch events to handlers however # you want. # We disable existing loggers to disable the "setup" logger used in the # parent process. This is needed on POSIX because the logger will # be there in the child following a fork(). config_listener = { 'version': 1, 'disable_existing_loggers': True, 'formatters': { 'detailed': { 'class': 'logging.Formatter', 'format': '%(asctime)s %(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s' }, 'simple': { 'class': 'logging.Formatter', 'format': '%(name)-15s %(levelname)-8s %(processName)-10s %(message)s' } }, 'handlers': { 'console': { 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'formatter': 'simple', 'level': 'INFO' }, 'file': { 'class': 'logging.FileHandler', 'filename': 'mplog.log', 'mode': 'w', 'formatter': 'detailed' }, 'foofile': { 'class': 'logging.FileHandler', 'filename': 'mplog-foo.log', 'mode': 'w', 'formatter': 'detailed' }, 'errors': { 'class': 'logging.FileHandler', 'filename': 'mplog-errors.log', 'mode': 'w', 'formatter': 'detailed', 'level': 'ERROR' } }, 'loggers': { 'foo': { 'handlers': ['foofile'] } }, 'root': { 'handlers': ['console', 'file', 'errors'], 'level': 'DEBUG' } } # Log some initial events, just to show that logging in the parent works # normally. logging.config.dictConfig(config_initial) logger = logging.getLogger('setup') logger.info('About to create workers ...') workers = [] for i in range(5): wp = Process(target=worker_process, name='worker %d' % (i + 1), args=(config_worker,)) workers.append(wp) wp.start() logger.info('Started worker: %s', wp.name) logger.info('About to create listener ...') stop_event = Event() lp = Process(target=listener_process, name='listener', args=(q, stop_event, config_listener)) lp.start() logger.info('Started listener') # We now hang around for the workers to finish their work. for wp in workers: wp.join() # Workers all done, listening can now stop. # Logging in the parent still works normally. logger.info('Telling listener to stop ...') stop_event.set() lp.join() logger.info('All done.') if __name__ == '__main__': main()  File: python.info, Node: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler, Next: Implementing structured logging, Prev: A more elaborate multiprocessing example, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.21 Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler ------------------------------------------------------------ RFC 5424(1) requires that a Unicode message be sent to a syslog daemon as a set of bytes which have the following structure: an optional pure-ASCII component, followed by a UTF-8 Byte Order Mark (BOM), followed by Unicode encoded using UTF-8. (See the relevant section of the specification(2).) In Python 3.1, code was added to *note SysLogHandler: 658. to insert a BOM into the message, but unfortunately, it was implemented incorrectly, with the BOM appearing at the beginning of the message and hence not allowing any pure-ASCII component to appear before it. As this behaviour is broken, the incorrect BOM insertion code is being removed from Python 3.2.4 and later. However, it is not being replaced, and if you want to produce RFC 5424(3)-compliant messages which include a BOM, an optional pure-ASCII sequence before it and arbitrary Unicode after it, encoded using UTF-8, then you need to do the following: 1. Attach a *note Formatter: 145e. instance to your *note SysLogHandler: 658. instance, with a format string such as: 'ASCII section\ufeffUnicode section' The Unicode code point U+FEFF, when encoded using UTF-8, will be encoded as a UTF-8 BOM – the byte-string ‘b'\xef\xbb\xbf'’. 2. Replace the ASCII section with whatever placeholders you like, but make sure that the data that appears in there after substitution is always ASCII (that way, it will remain unchanged after UTF-8 encoding). 3. Replace the Unicode section with whatever placeholders you like; if the data which appears there after substitution contains characters outside the ASCII range, that’s fine – it will be encoded using UTF-8. The formatted message 'will' be encoded using UTF-8 encoding by ‘SysLogHandler’. If you follow the above rules, you should be able to produce RFC 5424(4)-compliant messages. If you don’t, logging may not complain, but your messages will not be RFC 5424-compliant, and your syslog daemon may complain. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html#section-6 (3) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html (4) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html  File: python.info, Node: Implementing structured logging, Next: Customizing handlers with dictConfig, Prev: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.22 Implementing structured logging -------------------------------------- Although most logging messages are intended for reading by humans, and thus not readily machine-parseable, there might be circumstances where you want to output messages in a structured format which 'is' capable of being parsed by a program (without needing complex regular expressions to parse the log message). This is straightforward to achieve using the logging package. There are a number of ways in which this could be achieved, but the following is a simple approach which uses JSON to serialise the event in a machine-parseable manner: import json import logging class StructuredMessage: def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs): self.message = message self.kwargs = kwargs def __str__(self): return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, json.dumps(self.kwargs)) _ = StructuredMessage # optional, to improve readability logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s') logging.info(_('message 1', foo='bar', bar='baz', num=123, fnum=123.456)) If the above script is run, it prints: message 1 >>> {"fnum": 123.456, "num": 123, "bar": "baz", "foo": "bar"} Note that the order of items might be different according to the version of Python used. If you need more specialised processing, you can use a custom JSON encoder, as in the following complete example: import json import logging class Encoder(json.JSONEncoder): def default(self, o): if isinstance(o, set): return tuple(o) elif isinstance(o, str): return o.encode('unicode_escape').decode('ascii') return super().default(o) class StructuredMessage: def __init__(self, message, /, **kwargs): self.message = message self.kwargs = kwargs def __str__(self): s = Encoder().encode(self.kwargs) return '%s >>> %s' % (self.message, s) _ = StructuredMessage # optional, to improve readability def main(): logging.basicConfig(level=logging.INFO, format='%(message)s') logging.info(_('message 1', set_value={1, 2, 3}, snowman='\u2603')) if __name__ == '__main__': main() When the above script is run, it prints: message 1 >>> {"snowman": "\u2603", "set_value": [1, 2, 3]} Note that the order of items might be different according to the version of Python used.  File: python.info, Node: Customizing handlers with dictConfig, Next: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application, Prev: Implementing structured logging, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.23 Customizing handlers with ‘dictConfig()’ ----------------------------------------------- There are times when you want to customize logging handlers in particular ways, and if you use *note dictConfig(): 11a2. you may be able to do this without subclassing. As an example, consider that you may want to set the ownership of a log file. On POSIX, this is easily done using *note shutil.chown(): 242, but the file handlers in the stdlib don’t offer built-in support. You can customize handler creation using a plain function such as: def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None): if owner: if not os.path.exists(filename): open(filename, 'a').close() shutil.chown(filename, *owner) return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding) You can then specify, in a logging configuration passed to *note dictConfig(): 11a2, that a logging handler be created by calling this function: LOGGING = { 'version': 1, 'disable_existing_loggers': False, 'formatters': { 'default': { 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s' }, }, 'handlers': { 'file':{ # The values below are popped from this dictionary and # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and # its formatter. '()': owned_file_handler, 'level':'DEBUG', 'formatter': 'default', # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable # as keyword arguments. 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'], 'filename': 'chowntest.log', 'mode': 'w', 'encoding': 'utf-8', }, }, 'root': { 'handlers': ['file'], 'level': 'DEBUG', }, } In this example I am setting the ownership using the ‘pulse’ user and group, just for the purposes of illustration. Putting it together into a working script, ‘chowntest.py’: import logging, logging.config, os, shutil def owned_file_handler(filename, mode='a', encoding=None, owner=None): if owner: if not os.path.exists(filename): open(filename, 'a').close() shutil.chown(filename, *owner) return logging.FileHandler(filename, mode, encoding) LOGGING = { 'version': 1, 'disable_existing_loggers': False, 'formatters': { 'default': { 'format': '%(asctime)s %(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s' }, }, 'handlers': { 'file':{ # The values below are popped from this dictionary and # used to create the handler, set the handler's level and # its formatter. '()': owned_file_handler, 'level':'DEBUG', 'formatter': 'default', # The values below are passed to the handler creator callable # as keyword arguments. 'owner': ['pulse', 'pulse'], 'filename': 'chowntest.log', 'mode': 'w', 'encoding': 'utf-8', }, }, 'root': { 'handlers': ['file'], 'level': 'DEBUG', }, } logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING) logger = logging.getLogger('mylogger') logger.debug('A debug message') To run this, you will probably need to run as ‘root’: $ sudo python3.3 chowntest.py $ cat chowntest.log 2013-11-05 09:34:51,128 DEBUG mylogger A debug message $ ls -l chowntest.log -rw-r--r-- 1 pulse pulse 55 2013-11-05 09:34 chowntest.log Note that this example uses Python 3.3 because that’s where *note shutil.chown(): 242. makes an appearance. This approach should work with any Python version that supports *note dictConfig(): 11a2. - namely, Python 2.7, 3.2 or later. With pre-3.3 versions, you would need to implement the actual ownership change using e.g. *note os.chown(): 10e3. In practice, the handler-creating function may be in a utility module somewhere in your project. Instead of the line in the configuration: '()': owned_file_handler, you could use e.g.: '()': 'ext://project.util.owned_file_handler', where ‘project.util’ can be replaced with the actual name of the package where the function resides. In the above working script, using ‘'ext://__main__.owned_file_handler'’ should work. Here, the actual callable is resolved by *note dictConfig(): 11a2. from the ‘ext://’ specification. This example hopefully also points the way to how you could implement other types of file change - e.g. setting specific POSIX permission bits - in the same way, using *note os.chmod(): 21d. Of course, the approach could also be extended to types of handler other than a *note FileHandler: 189e. - for example, one of the rotating file handlers, or a different type of handler altogether.  File: python.info, Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application, Next: Configuring filters with dictConfig, Prev: Customizing handlers with dictConfig, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.24 Using particular formatting styles throughout your application --------------------------------------------------------------------- In Python 3.2, the *note Formatter: 145e. gained a ‘style’ keyword parameter which, while defaulting to ‘%’ for backward compatibility, allowed the specification of ‘{’ or ‘$’ to support the formatting approaches supported by *note str.format(): 61d. and *note string.Template: 683. Note that this governs the formatting of logging messages for final output to logs, and is completely orthogonal to how an individual logging message is constructed. Logging calls (*note debug(): e29, *note info(): 2c6e. etc.) only take positional parameters for the actual logging message itself, with keyword parameters used only for determining options for how to handle the logging call (e.g. the ‘exc_info’ keyword parameter to indicate that traceback information should be logged, or the ‘extra’ keyword parameter to indicate additional contextual information to be added to the log). So you cannot directly make logging calls using *note str.format(): 61d. or *note string.Template: 683. syntax, because internally the logging package uses %-formatting to merge the format string and the variable arguments. There would be no changing this while preserving backward compatibility, since all logging calls which are out there in existing code will be using %-format strings. There have been suggestions to associate format styles with specific loggers, but that approach also runs into backward compatibility problems because any existing code could be using a given logger name and using %-formatting. For logging to work interoperably between any third-party libraries and your code, decisions about formatting need to be made at the level of the individual logging call. This opens up a couple of ways in which alternative formatting styles can be accommodated. * Menu: * Using LogRecord factories:: * Using custom message objects::  File: python.info, Node: Using LogRecord factories, Next: Using custom message objects, Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application 9.9.24.1 Using LogRecord factories .................................. In Python 3.2, along with the *note Formatter: 145e. changes mentioned above, the logging package gained the ability to allow users to set their own *note LogRecord: fe1. subclasses, using the *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca0. function. You can use this to set your own subclass of *note LogRecord: fe1, which does the Right Thing by overriding the *note getMessage(): 2c9e. method. The base class implementation of this method is where the ‘msg % args’ formatting happens, and where you can substitute your alternate formatting; however, you should be careful to support all formatting styles and allow %-formatting as the default, to ensure interoperability with other code. Care should also be taken to call ‘str(self.msg)’, just as the base implementation does. Refer to the reference documentation on *note setLogRecordFactory(): 2ca0. and *note LogRecord: fe1. for more information.  File: python.info, Node: Using custom message objects, Prev: Using LogRecord factories, Up: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application 9.9.24.2 Using custom message objects ..................................... There is another, perhaps simpler way that you can use {}- and $- formatting to construct your individual log messages. You may recall (from *note Using arbitrary objects as messages: 2c9d.) that when logging you can use an arbitrary object as a message format string, and that the logging package will call *note str(): 447. on that object to get the actual format string. Consider the following two classes: class BraceMessage: def __init__(self, fmt, /, *args, **kwargs): self.fmt = fmt self.args = args self.kwargs = kwargs def __str__(self): return self.fmt.format(*self.args, **self.kwargs) class DollarMessage: def __init__(self, fmt, /, **kwargs): self.fmt = fmt self.kwargs = kwargs def __str__(self): from string import Template return Template(self.fmt).substitute(**self.kwargs) Either of these can be used in place of a format string, to allow {}- or $-formatting to be used to build the actual “message” part which appears in the formatted log output in place of “%(message)s” or “{message}” or “$message”. If you find it a little unwieldy to use the class names whenever you want to log something, you can make it more palatable if you use an alias such as ‘M’ or ‘_’ for the message (or perhaps ‘__’, if you are using ‘_’ for localization). Examples of this approach are given below. Firstly, formatting with *note str.format(): 61d.: >>> __ = BraceMessage >>> print(__('Message with {0} {1}', 2, 'placeholders')) Message with 2 placeholders >>> class Point: pass ... >>> p = Point() >>> p.x = 0.5 >>> p.y = 0.5 >>> print(__('Message with coordinates: ({point.x:.2f}, {point.y:.2f})', point=p)) Message with coordinates: (0.50, 0.50) Secondly, formatting with *note string.Template: 683.: >>> __ = DollarMessage >>> print(__('Message with $num $what', num=2, what='placeholders')) Message with 2 placeholders >>> One thing to note is that you pay no significant performance penalty with this approach: the actual formatting happens not when you make the logging call, but when (and if) the logged message is actually about to be output to a log by a handler. So the only slightly unusual thing which might trip you up is that the parentheses go around the format string and the arguments, not just the format string. That’s because the __ notation is just syntax sugar for a constructor call to one of the ‘XXXMessage’ classes shown above.  File: python.info, Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig, Next: Customized exception formatting, Prev: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.25 Configuring filters with ‘dictConfig()’ ---------------------------------------------- You 'can' configure filters using *note dictConfig(): 11a2, though it might not be obvious at first glance how to do it (hence this recipe). Since *note Filter: 11ed. is the only filter class included in the standard library, and it is unlikely to cater to many requirements (it’s only there as a base class), you will typically need to define your own *note Filter: 11ed. subclass with an overridden *note filter(): 2c97. method. To do this, specify the ‘()’ key in the configuration dictionary for the filter, specifying a callable which will be used to create the filter (a class is the most obvious, but you can provide any callable which returns a *note Filter: 11ed. instance). Here is a complete example: import logging import logging.config import sys class MyFilter(logging.Filter): def __init__(self, param=None): self.param = param def filter(self, record): if self.param is None: allow = True else: allow = self.param not in record.msg if allow: record.msg = 'changed: ' + record.msg return allow LOGGING = { 'version': 1, 'filters': { 'myfilter': { '()': MyFilter, 'param': 'noshow', } }, 'handlers': { 'console': { 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'filters': ['myfilter'] } }, 'root': { 'level': 'DEBUG', 'handlers': ['console'] }, } if __name__ == '__main__': logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING) logging.debug('hello') logging.debug('hello - noshow') This example shows how you can pass configuration data to the callable which constructs the instance, in the form of keyword parameters. When run, the above script will print: changed: hello which shows that the filter is working as configured. A couple of extra points to note: * If you can’t refer to the callable directly in the configuration (e.g. if it lives in a different module, and you can’t import it directly where the configuration dictionary is), you can use the form ‘ext://...’ as described in *note Access to external objects: 2ccc. For example, you could have used the text ‘'ext://__main__.MyFilter'’ instead of ‘MyFilter’ in the above example. * As well as for filters, this technique can also be used to configure custom handlers and formatters. See *note User-defined objects: 2cc0. for more information on how logging supports using user-defined objects in its configuration, and see the other cookbook recipe *note Customizing handlers with dictConfig(): 4fd6. above.  File: python.info, Node: Customized exception formatting, Next: Speaking logging messages, Prev: Configuring filters with dictConfig, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.26 Customized exception formatting -------------------------------------- There might be times when you want to do customized exception formatting - for argument’s sake, let’s say you want exactly one line per logged event, even when exception information is present. You can do this with a custom formatter class, as shown in the following example: import logging class OneLineExceptionFormatter(logging.Formatter): def formatException(self, exc_info): """ Format an exception so that it prints on a single line. """ result = super().formatException(exc_info) return repr(result) # or format into one line however you want to def format(self, record): s = super().format(record) if record.exc_text: s = s.replace('\n', '') + '|' return s def configure_logging(): fh = logging.FileHandler('output.txt', 'w') f = OneLineExceptionFormatter('%(asctime)s|%(levelname)s|%(message)s|', '%d/%m/%Y %H:%M:%S') fh.setFormatter(f) root = logging.getLogger() root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) root.addHandler(fh) def main(): configure_logging() logging.info('Sample message') try: x = 1 / 0 except ZeroDivisionError as e: logging.exception('ZeroDivisionError: %s', e) if __name__ == '__main__': main() When run, this produces a file with exactly two lines: 28/01/2015 07:21:23|INFO|Sample message| 28/01/2015 07:21:23|ERROR|ZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero|'Traceback (most recent call last):\n File "logtest7.py", line 30, in main\n x = 1 / 0\nZeroDivisionError: integer division or modulo by zero'| While the above treatment is simplistic, it points the way to how exception information can be formatted to your liking. The *note traceback: fe. module may be helpful for more specialized needs.  File: python.info, Node: Speaking logging messages, Next: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally, Prev: Customized exception formatting, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.27 Speaking logging messages -------------------------------- There might be situations when it is desirable to have logging messages rendered in an audible rather than a visible format. This is easy to do if you have text-to-speech (TTS) functionality available in your system, even if it doesn’t have a Python binding. Most TTS systems have a command line program you can run, and this can be invoked from a handler using *note subprocess: d6. It’s assumed here that TTS command line programs won’t expect to interact with users or take a long time to complete, and that the frequency of logged messages will be not so high as to swamp the user with messages, and that it’s acceptable to have the messages spoken one at a time rather than concurrently, The example implementation below waits for one message to be spoken before the next is processed, and this might cause other handlers to be kept waiting. Here is a short example showing the approach, which assumes that the ‘espeak’ TTS package is available: import logging import subprocess import sys class TTSHandler(logging.Handler): def emit(self, record): msg = self.format(record) # Speak slowly in a female English voice cmd = ['espeak', '-s150', '-ven+f3', msg] p = subprocess.Popen(cmd, stdout=subprocess.PIPE, stderr=subprocess.STDOUT) # wait for the program to finish p.communicate() def configure_logging(): h = TTSHandler() root = logging.getLogger() root.addHandler(h) # the default formatter just returns the message root.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) def main(): logging.info('Hello') logging.debug('Goodbye') if __name__ == '__main__': configure_logging() sys.exit(main()) When run, this script should say “Hello” and then “Goodbye” in a female voice. The above approach can, of course, be adapted to other TTS systems and even other systems altogether which can process messages via external programs run from a command line.  File: python.info, Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally, Next: Sending logging messages to email with buffering, Prev: Speaking logging messages, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.28 Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally ------------------------------------------------------------------- There might be situations where you want to log messages in a temporary area and only output them if a certain condition occurs. For example, you may want to start logging debug events in a function, and if the function completes without errors, you don’t want to clutter the log with the collected debug information, but if there is an error, you want all the debug information to be output as well as the error. Here is an example which shows how you could do this using a decorator for your functions where you want logging to behave this way. It makes use of the *note logging.handlers.MemoryHandler: 2ccf, which allows buffering of logged events until some condition occurs, at which point the buffered events are ‘flushed’ - passed to another handler (the ‘target’ handler) for processing. By default, the ‘MemoryHandler’ flushed when its buffer gets filled up or an event whose level is greater than or equal to a specified threshold is seen. You can use this recipe with a more specialised subclass of ‘MemoryHandler’ if you want custom flushing behavior. The example script has a simple function, ‘foo’, which just cycles through all the logging levels, writing to ‘sys.stderr’ to say what level it’s about to log at, and then actually logging a message at that level. You can pass a parameter to ‘foo’ which, if true, will log at ERROR and CRITICAL levels - otherwise, it only logs at DEBUG, INFO and WARNING levels. The script just arranges to decorate ‘foo’ with a decorator which will do the conditional logging that’s required. The decorator takes a logger as a parameter and attaches a memory handler for the duration of the call to the decorated function. The decorator can be additionally parameterised using a target handler, a level at which flushing should occur, and a capacity for the buffer (number of records buffered). These default to a *note StreamHandler: 11ea. which writes to ‘sys.stderr’, ‘logging.ERROR’ and ‘100’ respectively. Here’s the script: import logging from logging.handlers import MemoryHandler import sys logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) logger.addHandler(logging.NullHandler()) def log_if_errors(logger, target_handler=None, flush_level=None, capacity=None): if target_handler is None: target_handler = logging.StreamHandler() if flush_level is None: flush_level = logging.ERROR if capacity is None: capacity = 100 handler = MemoryHandler(capacity, flushLevel=flush_level, target=target_handler) def decorator(fn): def wrapper(*args, **kwargs): logger.addHandler(handler) try: return fn(*args, **kwargs) except Exception: logger.exception('call failed') raise finally: super(MemoryHandler, handler).flush() logger.removeHandler(handler) return wrapper return decorator def write_line(s): sys.stderr.write('%s\n' % s) def foo(fail=False): write_line('about to log at DEBUG ...') logger.debug('Actually logged at DEBUG') write_line('about to log at INFO ...') logger.info('Actually logged at INFO') write_line('about to log at WARNING ...') logger.warning('Actually logged at WARNING') if fail: write_line('about to log at ERROR ...') logger.error('Actually logged at ERROR') write_line('about to log at CRITICAL ...') logger.critical('Actually logged at CRITICAL') return fail decorated_foo = log_if_errors(logger)(foo) if __name__ == '__main__': logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) write_line('Calling undecorated foo with False') assert not foo(False) write_line('Calling undecorated foo with True') assert foo(True) write_line('Calling decorated foo with False') assert not decorated_foo(False) write_line('Calling decorated foo with True') assert decorated_foo(True) When this script is run, the following output should be observed: Calling undecorated foo with False about to log at DEBUG ... about to log at INFO ... about to log at WARNING ... Calling undecorated foo with True about to log at DEBUG ... about to log at INFO ... about to log at WARNING ... about to log at ERROR ... about to log at CRITICAL ... Calling decorated foo with False about to log at DEBUG ... about to log at INFO ... about to log at WARNING ... Calling decorated foo with True about to log at DEBUG ... about to log at INFO ... about to log at WARNING ... about to log at ERROR ... Actually logged at DEBUG Actually logged at INFO Actually logged at WARNING Actually logged at ERROR about to log at CRITICAL ... Actually logged at CRITICAL As you can see, actual logging output only occurs when an event is logged whose severity is ERROR or greater, but in that case, any previous events at lower severities are also logged. You can of course use the conventional means of decoration: @log_if_errors(logger) def foo(fail=False): ...  File: python.info, Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering, Next: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration, Prev: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.29 Sending logging messages to email, with buffering -------------------------------------------------------- To illustrate how you can send log messages via email, so that a set number of messages are sent per email, you can subclass *note BufferingHandler: 2d21. In the following example, which you can adapt to suit your specific needs, a simple test harness is provided which allows you to run the script with command line arguments specifying what you typically need to send things via SMTP. (Run the downloaded script with the ‘-h’ argument to see the required and optional arguments.) import logging import logging.handlers import smtplib class BufferingSMTPHandler(logging.handlers.BufferingHandler): def __init__(self, mailhost, port, username, password, fromaddr, toaddrs, subject, capacity): logging.handlers.BufferingHandler.__init__(self, capacity) self.mailhost = mailhost self.mailport = port self.username = username self.password = password self.fromaddr = fromaddr if isinstance(toaddrs, str): toaddrs = [toaddrs] self.toaddrs = toaddrs self.subject = subject self.setFormatter(logging.Formatter("%(asctime)s %(levelname)-5s %(message)s")) def flush(self): if len(self.buffer) > 0: try: smtp = smtplib.SMTP(self.mailhost, self.mailport) smtp.starttls() smtp.login(self.username, self.password) msg = "From: %s\r\nTo: %s\r\nSubject: %s\r\n\r\n" % (self.fromaddr, ','.join(self.toaddrs), self.subject) for record in self.buffer: s = self.format(record) msg = msg + s + "\r\n" smtp.sendmail(self.fromaddr, self.toaddrs, msg) smtp.quit() except Exception: if logging.raiseExceptions: raise self.buffer = [] if __name__ == '__main__': import argparse ap = argparse.ArgumentParser() aa = ap.add_argument aa('host', metavar='HOST', help='SMTP server') aa('--port', '-p', type=int, default=587, help='SMTP port') aa('user', metavar='USER', help='SMTP username') aa('password', metavar='PASSWORD', help='SMTP password') aa('to', metavar='TO', help='Addressee for emails') aa('sender', metavar='SENDER', help='Sender email address') aa('--subject', '-s', default='Test Logging email from Python logging module (buffering)', help='Subject of email') options = ap.parse_args() logger = logging.getLogger() logger.setLevel(logging.DEBUG) h = BufferingSMTPHandler(options.host, options.port, options.user, options.password, options.sender, options.to, options.subject, 10) logger.addHandler(h) for i in range(102): logger.info("Info index = %d", i) h.flush() h.close() If you run this script and your SMTP server is correctly set up, you should find that it sends eleven emails to the addressee you specify. The first ten emails will each have ten log messages, and the eleventh will have two messages. That makes up 102 messages as specified in the script.  File: python.info, Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration, Next: Using a context manager for selective logging, Prev: Sending logging messages to email with buffering, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.30 Formatting times using UTC (GMT) via configuration --------------------------------------------------------- Sometimes you want to format times using UTC, which can be done using a class such as ‘UTCFormatter’, shown below: import logging import time class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter): converter = time.gmtime and you can then use the ‘UTCFormatter’ in your code instead of *note Formatter: 145e. If you want to do that via configuration, you can use the *note dictConfig(): 11a2. API with an approach illustrated by the following complete example: import logging import logging.config import time class UTCFormatter(logging.Formatter): converter = time.gmtime LOGGING = { 'version': 1, 'disable_existing_loggers': False, 'formatters': { 'utc': { '()': UTCFormatter, 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s', }, 'local': { 'format': '%(asctime)s %(message)s', } }, 'handlers': { 'console1': { 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'formatter': 'utc', }, 'console2': { 'class': 'logging.StreamHandler', 'formatter': 'local', }, }, 'root': { 'handlers': ['console1', 'console2'], } } if __name__ == '__main__': logging.config.dictConfig(LOGGING) logging.warning('The local time is %s', time.asctime()) When this script is run, it should print something like: 2015-10-17 12:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015 2015-10-17 13:53:29,501 The local time is Sat Oct 17 13:53:29 2015 showing how the time is formatted both as local time and UTC, one for each handler.  File: python.info, Node: Using a context manager for selective logging, Next: A CLI application starter template, Prev: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.31 Using a context manager for selective logging ---------------------------------------------------- There are times when it would be useful to temporarily change the logging configuration and revert it back after doing something. For this, a context manager is the most obvious way of saving and restoring the logging context. Here is a simple example of such a context manager, which allows you to optionally change the logging level and add a logging handler purely in the scope of the context manager: import logging import sys class LoggingContext: def __init__(self, logger, level=None, handler=None, close=True): self.logger = logger self.level = level self.handler = handler self.close = close def __enter__(self): if self.level is not None: self.old_level = self.logger.level self.logger.setLevel(self.level) if self.handler: self.logger.addHandler(self.handler) def __exit__(self, et, ev, tb): if self.level is not None: self.logger.setLevel(self.old_level) if self.handler: self.logger.removeHandler(self.handler) if self.handler and self.close: self.handler.close() # implicit return of None => don't swallow exceptions If you specify a level value, the logger’s level is set to that value in the scope of the with block covered by the context manager. If you specify a handler, it is added to the logger on entry to the block and removed on exit from the block. You can also ask the manager to close the handler for you on block exit - you could do this if you don’t need the handler any more. To illustrate how it works, we can add the following block of code to the above: if __name__ == '__main__': logger = logging.getLogger('foo') logger.addHandler(logging.StreamHandler()) logger.setLevel(logging.INFO) logger.info('1. This should appear just once on stderr.') logger.debug('2. This should not appear.') with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG): logger.debug('3. This should appear once on stderr.') logger.debug('4. This should not appear.') h = logging.StreamHandler(sys.stdout) with LoggingContext(logger, level=logging.DEBUG, handler=h, close=True): logger.debug('5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout.') logger.info('6. This should appear just once on stderr.') logger.debug('7. This should not appear.') We initially set the logger’s level to ‘INFO’, so message #1 appears and message #2 doesn’t. We then change the level to ‘DEBUG’ temporarily in the following ‘with’ block, and so message #3 appears. After the block exits, the logger’s level is restored to ‘INFO’ and so message #4 doesn’t appear. In the next ‘with’ block, we set the level to ‘DEBUG’ again but also add a handler writing to ‘sys.stdout’. Thus, message #5 appears twice on the console (once via ‘stderr’ and once via ‘stdout’). After the ‘with’ statement’s completion, the status is as it was before so message #6 appears (like message #1) whereas message #7 doesn’t (just like message #2). If we run the resulting script, the result is as follows: $ python logctx.py 1. This should appear just once on stderr. 3. This should appear once on stderr. 5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout. 5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout. 6. This should appear just once on stderr. If we run it again, but pipe ‘stderr’ to ‘/dev/null’, we see the following, which is the only message written to ‘stdout’: $ python logctx.py 2>/dev/null 5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout. Once again, but piping ‘stdout’ to ‘/dev/null’, we get: $ python logctx.py >/dev/null 1. This should appear just once on stderr. 3. This should appear once on stderr. 5. This should appear twice - once on stderr and once on stdout. 6. This should appear just once on stderr. In this case, the message #5 printed to ‘stdout’ doesn’t appear, as expected. Of course, the approach described here can be generalised, for example to attach logging filters temporarily. Note that the above code works in Python 2 as well as Python 3.  File: python.info, Node: A CLI application starter template, Next: A Qt GUI for logging, Prev: Using a context manager for selective logging, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.32 A CLI application starter template ----------------------------------------- Here’s an example which shows how you can: * Use a logging level based on command-line arguments * Dispatch to multiple subcommands in separate files, all logging at the same level in a consistent way * Make use of simple, minimal configuration Suppose we have a command-line application whose job is to stop, start or restart some services. This could be organised for the purposes of illustration as a file ‘app.py’ that is the main script for the application, with individual commands implemented in ‘start.py’, ‘stop.py’ and ‘restart.py’. Suppose further that we want to control the verbosity of the application via a command-line argument, defaulting to ‘logging.INFO’. Here’s one way that ‘app.py’ could be written: import argparse import importlib import logging import os import sys def main(args=None): scriptname = os.path.basename(__file__) parser = argparse.ArgumentParser(scriptname) levels = ('DEBUG', 'INFO', 'WARNING', 'ERROR', 'CRITICAL') parser.add_argument('--log-level', default='INFO', choices=levels) subparsers = parser.add_subparsers(dest='command', help='Available commands:') start_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('start', help='Start a service') start_cmd.add_argument('name', metavar='NAME', help='Name of service to start') stop_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('stop', help='Stop one or more services') stop_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+', help='Name of service to stop') restart_cmd = subparsers.add_parser('restart', help='Restart one or more services') restart_cmd.add_argument('names', metavar='NAME', nargs='+', help='Name of service to restart') options = parser.parse_args() # the code to dispatch commands could all be in this file. For the purposes # of illustration only, we implement each command in a separate module. try: mod = importlib.import_module(options.command) cmd = getattr(mod, 'command') except (ImportError, AttributeError): print('Unable to find the code for command \'%s\'' % options.command) return 1 # Could get fancy here and load configuration from file or dictionary logging.basicConfig(level=options.log_level, format='%(levelname)s %(name)s %(message)s') cmd(options) if __name__ == '__main__': sys.exit(main()) And the ‘start’, ‘stop’ and ‘restart’ commands can be implemented in separate modules, like so for starting: # start.py import logging logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) def command(options): logger.debug('About to start %s', options.name) # actually do the command processing here ... logger.info('Started the \'%s\' service.', options.name) and thus for stopping: # stop.py import logging logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) def command(options): n = len(options.names) if n == 1: plural = '' services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0] else: plural = 's' services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names) i = services.rfind(', ') services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:] logger.debug('About to stop %s', services) # actually do the command processing here ... logger.info('Stopped the %s service%s.', services, plural) and similarly for restarting: # restart.py import logging logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) def command(options): n = len(options.names) if n == 1: plural = '' services = '\'%s\'' % options.names[0] else: plural = 's' services = ', '.join('\'%s\'' % name for name in options.names) i = services.rfind(', ') services = services[:i] + ' and ' + services[i + 2:] logger.debug('About to restart %s', services) # actually do the command processing here ... logger.info('Restarted the %s service%s.', services, plural) If we run this application with the default log level, we get output like this: $ python app.py start foo INFO start Started the 'foo' service. $ python app.py stop foo bar INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services. $ python app.py restart foo bar baz INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services. The first word is the logging level, and the second word is the module or package name of the place where the event was logged. If we change the logging level, then we can change the information sent to the log. For example, if we want more information: $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG start foo DEBUG start About to start foo INFO start Started the 'foo' service. $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG stop foo bar DEBUG stop About to stop 'foo' and 'bar' INFO stop Stopped the 'foo' and 'bar' services. $ python app.py --log-level DEBUG restart foo bar baz DEBUG restart About to restart 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' INFO restart Restarted the 'foo', 'bar' and 'baz' services. And if we want less: $ python app.py --log-level WARNING start foo $ python app.py --log-level WARNING stop foo bar $ python app.py --log-level WARNING restart foo bar baz In this case, the commands don’t print anything to the console, since nothing at ‘WARNING’ level or above is logged by them.  File: python.info, Node: A Qt GUI for logging, Next: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support, Prev: A CLI application starter template, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.33 A Qt GUI for logging --------------------------- A question that comes up from time to time is about how to log to a GUI application. The Qt(1) framework is a popular cross-platform UI framework with Python bindings using PySide2(2) or PyQt5(3) libraries. The following example shows how to log to a Qt GUI. This introduces a simple ‘QtHandler’ class which takes a callable, which should be a slot in the main thread that does GUI updates. A worker thread is also created to show how you can log to the GUI from both the UI itself (via a button for manual logging) as well as a worker thread doing work in the background (here, just logging messages at random levels with random short delays in between). The worker thread is implemented using Qt’s ‘QThread’ class rather than the *note threading: ed. module, as there are circumstances where one has to use ‘QThread’, which offers better integration with other ‘Qt’ components. The code should work with recent releases of any of ‘PySide6’, ‘PyQt6’, ‘PySide2’ or ‘PyQt5’. You should be able to adapt the approach to earlier versions of Qt. Please refer to the comments in the code snippet for more detailed information. import datetime import logging import random import sys import time # Deal with minor differences between different Qt packages try: from PySide6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets Signal = QtCore.Signal Slot = QtCore.Slot except ImportError: try: from PyQt6 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot except ImportError: try: from PySide2 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets Signal = QtCore.Signal Slot = QtCore.Slot except ImportError: from PyQt5 import QtCore, QtGui, QtWidgets Signal = QtCore.pyqtSignal Slot = QtCore.pyqtSlot logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) # # Signals need to be contained in a QObject or subclass in order to be correctly # initialized. # class Signaller(QtCore.QObject): signal = Signal(str, logging.LogRecord) # # Output to a Qt GUI is only supposed to happen on the main thread. So, this # handler is designed to take a slot function which is set up to run in the main # thread. In this example, the function takes a string argument which is a # formatted log message, and the log record which generated it. The formatted # string is just a convenience - you could format a string for output any way # you like in the slot function itself. # # You specify the slot function to do whatever GUI updates you want. The handler # doesn't know or care about specific UI elements. # class QtHandler(logging.Handler): def __init__(self, slotfunc, *args, **kwargs): super().__init__(*args, **kwargs) self.signaller = Signaller() self.signaller.signal.connect(slotfunc) def emit(self, record): s = self.format(record) self.signaller.signal.emit(s, record) # # This example uses QThreads, which means that the threads at the Python level # are named something like "Dummy-1". The function below gets the Qt name of the # current thread. # def ctname(): return QtCore.QThread.currentThread().objectName() # # Used to generate random levels for logging. # LEVELS = (logging.DEBUG, logging.INFO, logging.WARNING, logging.ERROR, logging.CRITICAL) # # This worker class represents work that is done in a thread separate to the # main thread. The way the thread is kicked off to do work is via a button press # that connects to a slot in the worker. # # Because the default threadName value in the LogRecord isn't much use, we add # a qThreadName which contains the QThread name as computed above, and pass that # value in an "extra" dictionary which is used to update the LogRecord with the # QThread name. # # This example worker just outputs messages sequentially, interspersed with # random delays of the order of a few seconds. # class Worker(QtCore.QObject): @Slot() def start(self): extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() } logger.debug('Started work', extra=extra) i = 1 # Let the thread run until interrupted. This allows reasonably clean # thread termination. while not QtCore.QThread.currentThread().isInterruptionRequested(): delay = 0.5 + random.random() * 2 time.sleep(delay) try: if random.random() < 0.1: raise ValueError('Exception raised: %d' % i) else: level = random.choice(LEVELS) logger.log(level, 'Message after delay of %3.1f: %d', delay, i, extra=extra) except ValueError as e: logger.exception('Failed: %s', e, extra=extra) i += 1 # # Implement a simple UI for this cookbook example. This contains: # # * A read-only text edit window which holds formatted log messages # * A button to start work and log stuff in a separate thread # * A button to log something from the main thread # * A button to clear the log window # class Window(QtWidgets.QWidget): COLORS = { logging.DEBUG: 'black', logging.INFO: 'blue', logging.WARNING: 'orange', logging.ERROR: 'red', logging.CRITICAL: 'purple', } def __init__(self, app): super().__init__() self.app = app self.textedit = te = QtWidgets.QPlainTextEdit(self) # Set whatever the default monospace font is for the platform f = QtGui.QFont('nosuchfont') if hasattr(f, 'Monospace'): f.setStyleHint(f.Monospace) else: f.setStyleHint(f.StyleHint.Monospace) # for Qt6 te.setFont(f) te.setReadOnly(True) PB = QtWidgets.QPushButton self.work_button = PB('Start background work', self) self.log_button = PB('Log a message at a random level', self) self.clear_button = PB('Clear log window', self) self.handler = h = QtHandler(self.update_status) # Remember to use qThreadName rather than threadName in the format string. fs = '%(asctime)s %(qThreadName)-12s %(levelname)-8s %(message)s' formatter = logging.Formatter(fs) h.setFormatter(formatter) logger.addHandler(h) # Set up to terminate the QThread when we exit app.aboutToQuit.connect(self.force_quit) # Lay out all the widgets layout = QtWidgets.QVBoxLayout(self) layout.addWidget(te) layout.addWidget(self.work_button) layout.addWidget(self.log_button) layout.addWidget(self.clear_button) self.setFixedSize(900, 400) # Connect the non-worker slots and signals self.log_button.clicked.connect(self.manual_update) self.clear_button.clicked.connect(self.clear_display) # Start a new worker thread and connect the slots for the worker self.start_thread() self.work_button.clicked.connect(self.worker.start) # Once started, the button should be disabled self.work_button.clicked.connect(lambda : self.work_button.setEnabled(False)) def start_thread(self): self.worker = Worker() self.worker_thread = QtCore.QThread() self.worker.setObjectName('Worker') self.worker_thread.setObjectName('WorkerThread') # for qThreadName self.worker.moveToThread(self.worker_thread) # This will start an event loop in the worker thread self.worker_thread.start() def kill_thread(self): # Just tell the worker to stop, then tell it to quit and wait for that # to happen self.worker_thread.requestInterruption() if self.worker_thread.isRunning(): self.worker_thread.quit() self.worker_thread.wait() else: print('worker has already exited.') def force_quit(self): # For use when the window is closed if self.worker_thread.isRunning(): self.kill_thread() # The functions below update the UI and run in the main thread because # that's where the slots are set up @Slot(str, logging.LogRecord) def update_status(self, status, record): color = self.COLORS.get(record.levelno, 'black') s = '<pre><font color="%s">%s</font></pre>' % (color, status) self.textedit.appendHtml(s) @Slot() def manual_update(self): # This function uses the formatted message passed in, but also uses # information from the record to format the message in an appropriate # color according to its severity (level). level = random.choice(LEVELS) extra = {'qThreadName': ctname() } logger.log(level, 'Manually logged!', extra=extra) @Slot() def clear_display(self): self.textedit.clear() def main(): QtCore.QThread.currentThread().setObjectName('MainThread') logging.getLogger().setLevel(logging.DEBUG) app = QtWidgets.QApplication(sys.argv) example = Window(app) example.show() if hasattr(app, 'exec'): rc = app.exec() else: rc = app.exec_() sys.exit(rc) if __name__=='__main__': main() ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.qt.io/ (2) https://pypi.org/project/PySide2/ (3) https://pypi.org/project/PyQt5/  File: python.info, Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support, Next: How to treat a logger like an output stream, Prev: A Qt GUI for logging, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.34 Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support --------------------------------------------- Although RFC 5424(1) dates from 2009, most syslog servers are configured by default to use the older RFC 3164(2), which hails from 2001. When ‘logging’ was added to Python in 2003, it supported the earlier (and only existing) protocol at the time. Since RFC5424 came out, as there has not been widespread deployment of it in syslog servers, the *note SysLogHandler: 658. functionality has not been updated. RFC 5424 contains some useful features such as support for structured data, and if you need to be able to log to a syslog server with support for it, you can do so with a subclassed handler which looks something like this: import datetime import logging.handlers import re import socket import time class SysLogHandler5424(logging.handlers.SysLogHandler): tz_offset = re.compile(r'([+-]\d{2})(\d{2})$') escaped = re.compile(r'([\]"\\])') def __init__(self, *args, **kwargs): self.msgid = kwargs.pop('msgid', None) self.appname = kwargs.pop('appname', None) super().__init__(*args, **kwargs) def format(self, record): version = 1 asctime = datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(record.created).isoformat() m = self.tz_offset.match(time.strftime('%z')) has_offset = False if m and time.timezone: hrs, mins = m.groups() if int(hrs) or int(mins): has_offset = True if not has_offset: asctime += 'Z' else: asctime += f'{hrs}:{mins}' try: hostname = socket.gethostname() except Exception: hostname = '-' appname = self.appname or '-' procid = record.process msgid = '-' msg = super().format(record) sdata = '-' if hasattr(record, 'structured_data'): sd = record.structured_data # This should be a dict where the keys are SD-ID and the value is a # dict mapping PARAM-NAME to PARAM-VALUE (refer to the RFC for what these # mean) # There's no error checking here - it's purely for illustration, and you # can adapt this code for use in production environments parts = [] def replacer(m): g = m.groups() return '\\' + g[0] for sdid, dv in sd.items(): part = f'[{sdid}' for k, v in dv.items(): s = str(v) s = self.escaped.sub(replacer, s) part += f' {k}="{s}"' part += ']' parts.append(part) sdata = ''.join(parts) return f'{version} {asctime} {hostname} {appname} {procid} {msgid} {sdata} {msg}' You’ll need to be familiar with RFC 5424 to fully understand the above code, and it may be that you have slightly different needs (e.g. for how you pass structural data to the log). Nevertheless, the above should be adaptable to your speciric needs. With the above handler, you’d pass structured data using something like this: sd = { 'foo@12345': {'bar': 'baz', 'baz': 'bozz', 'fizz': r'buzz'}, 'foo@54321': {'rab': 'baz', 'zab': 'bozz', 'zzif': r'buzz'} } extra = {'structured_data': sd} i = 1 logger.debug('Message %d', i, extra=extra) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc5424.html (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc3164.html  File: python.info, Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream, Next: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output, Prev: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.35 How to treat a logger like an output stream -------------------------------------------------- Sometimes, you need to interface to a third-party API which expects a file-like object to write to, but you want to direct the API’s output to a logger. You can do this using a class which wraps a logger with a file-like API. Here’s a short script illustrating such a class: import logging class LoggerWriter: def __init__(self, logger, level): self.logger = logger self.level = level def write(self, message): if message != '\n': # avoid printing bare newlines, if you like self.logger.log(self.level, message) def flush(self): # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like # object - so optional depending on your situation pass def close(self): # doesn't actually do anything, but might be expected of a file-like # object - so optional depending on your situation. You might want # to set a flag so that later calls to write raise an exception pass def main(): logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG) logger = logging.getLogger('demo') info_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO) debug_fp = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.DEBUG) print('An INFO message', file=info_fp) print('A DEBUG message', file=debug_fp) if __name__ == "__main__": main() When this script is run, it prints INFO:demo:An INFO message DEBUG:demo:A DEBUG message You could also use ‘LoggerWriter’ to redirect ‘sys.stdout’ and ‘sys.stderr’ by doing something like this: import sys sys.stdout = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.INFO) sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING) You should do this 'after' configuring logging for your needs. In the above example, the *note basicConfig(): 9ff. call does this (using the ‘sys.stderr’ value 'before' it is overwritten by a ‘LoggerWriter’ instance). Then, you’d get this kind of result: >>> print('Foo') INFO:demo:Foo >>> print('Bar', file=sys.stderr) WARNING:demo:Bar >>> Of course, the examples above show output according to the format used by *note basicConfig(): 9ff, but you can use a different formatter when you configure logging. Note that with the above scheme, you are somewhat at the mercy of buffering and the sequence of write calls which you are intercepting. For example, with the definition of ‘LoggerWriter’ above, if you have the snippet sys.stderr = LoggerWriter(logger, logging.WARNING) 1 / 0 then running the script results in WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last): WARNING:demo: File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 53, in <module> WARNING:demo: WARNING:demo:main() WARNING:demo: File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/test.py", line 49, in main WARNING:demo: WARNING:demo:1 / 0 WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError WARNING:demo:: WARNING:demo:division by zero As you can see, this output isn’t ideal. That’s because the underlying code which writes to ‘sys.stderr’ makes multiple writes, each of which results in a separate logged line (for example, the last three lines above). To get around this problem, you need to buffer things and only output log lines when newlines are seen. Let’s use a slightly better implementation of ‘LoggerWriter’: class BufferingLoggerWriter(LoggerWriter): def __init__(self, logger, level): super().__init__(logger, level) self.buffer = '' def write(self, message): if '\n' not in message: self.buffer += message else: parts = message.split('\n') if self.buffer: s = self.buffer + parts.pop(0) self.logger.log(self.level, s) self.buffer = parts.pop() for part in parts: self.logger.log(self.level, part) This just buffers up stuff until a newline is seen, and then logs complete lines. With this approach, you get better output: WARNING:demo:Traceback (most recent call last): WARNING:demo: File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 55, in <module> WARNING:demo: main() WARNING:demo: File "/home/runner/cookbook-loggerwriter/main.py", line 52, in main WARNING:demo: 1/0 WARNING:demo:ZeroDivisionError: division by zero  File: python.info, Node: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output, Next: Patterns to avoid, Prev: How to treat a logger like an output stream, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.36 How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output --------------------------------------------------------- Usually, messages that are logged (say to console or file) consist of a single line of text. However, sometimes there is a need to handle messages with multiple lines - whether because a logging format string contains newlines, or logged data contains newlines. If you want to handle such messages uniformly, so that each line in the logged message appears uniformly formatted as if it was logged separately, you can do this using a handler mixin, as in the following snippet: # Assume this is in a module mymixins.py import copy class MultilineMixin: def emit(self, record): s = record.getMessage() if '\n' not in s: super().emit(record) else: lines = s.splitlines() rec = copy.copy(record) rec.args = None for line in lines: rec.msg = line super().emit(rec) You can use the mixin as in the following script: import logging from mymixins import MultilineMixin logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) class StreamHandler(MultilineMixin, logging.StreamHandler): pass if __name__ == '__main__': logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, format='%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s', handlers = [StreamHandler()]) logger.debug('Single line') logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...') logger.debug('Another single line') logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again') The script, when run, prints something like: 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Single line 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Multiple lines: 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG fool me once ... 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Another single line 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG Multiple lines: 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG fool me ... 2025-07-02 13:54:47,234 DEBUG can't get fooled again If, on the other hand, you are concerned about log injection(1), you can use a formatter which escapes newlines, as per the following example: import logging logger = logging.getLogger(__name__) class EscapingFormatter(logging.Formatter): def format(self, record): s = super().format(record) return s.replace('\n', r'\n') if __name__ == '__main__': h = logging.StreamHandler() h.setFormatter(EscapingFormatter('%(asctime)s %(levelname)-9s %(message)s')) logging.basicConfig(level=logging.DEBUG, handlers = [h]) logger.debug('Single line') logger.debug('Multiple lines:\nfool me once ...') logger.debug('Another single line') logger.debug('Multiple lines:\n%s', 'fool me ...\ncan\'t get fooled again') You can, of course, use whatever escaping scheme makes the most sense for you. The script, when run, should produce output like this: 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Single line 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Multiple lines:\nfool me once ... 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Another single line 2025-07-09 06:47:33,783 DEBUG Multiple lines:\nfool me ...\ncan't get fooled again Escaping behaviour can’t be the stdlib default , as it would break backwards compatibility. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://owasp.org/www-community/attacks/Log_Injection  File: python.info, Node: Patterns to avoid, Next: Other resources<2>, Prev: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.37 Patterns to avoid ------------------------ Although the preceding sections have described ways of doing things you might need to do or deal with, it is worth mentioning some usage patterns which are 'unhelpful', and which should therefore be avoided in most cases. The following sections are in no particular order. * Menu: * Opening the same log file multiple times:: * Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters:: * Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library:: * Creating a lot of loggers::  File: python.info, Node: Opening the same log file multiple times, Next: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters, Up: Patterns to avoid 9.9.37.1 Opening the same log file multiple times ................................................. On Windows, you will generally not be able to open the same file multiple times as this will lead to a “file is in use by another process” error. However, on POSIX platforms you’ll not get any errors if you open the same file multiple times. This could be done accidentally, for example by: * Adding a file handler more than once which references the same file (e.g. by a copy/paste/forget-to-change error). * Opening two files that look different, as they have different names, but are the same because one is a symbolic link to the other. * Forking a process, following which both parent and child have a reference to the same file. This might be through use of the *note multiprocessing: 94. module, for example. Opening a file multiple times might 'appear' to work most of the time, but can lead to a number of problems in practice: * Logging output can be garbled because multiple threads or processes try to write to the same file. Although logging guards against concurrent use of the same handler instance by multiple threads, there is no such protection if concurrent writes are attempted by two different threads using two different handler instances which happen to point to the same file. * An attempt to delete a file (e.g. during file rotation) silently fails, because there is another reference pointing to it. This can lead to confusion and wasted debugging time - log entries end up in unexpected places, or are lost altogether. Or a file that was supposed to be moved remains in place, and grows in size unexpectedly despite size-based rotation being supposedly in place. Use the techniques outlined in *note Logging to a single file from multiple processes: 4fc1. to circumvent such issues.  File: python.info, Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters, Next: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library, Prev: Opening the same log file multiple times, Up: Patterns to avoid 9.9.37.2 Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters ............................................................................. While there might be unusual cases where you’ll need to do this, in general there is no point because loggers are singletons. Code can always access a given logger instance by name using ‘logging.getLogger(name)’, so passing instances around and holding them as instance attributes is pointless. Note that in other languages such as Java and C#, loggers are often static class attributes. However, this pattern doesn’t make sense in Python, where the module (and not the class) is the unit of software decomposition.  File: python.info, Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library, Next: Creating a lot of loggers, Prev: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters, Up: Patterns to avoid 9.9.37.3 Adding handlers other than ‘NullHandler’ to a logger in a library .......................................................................... Configuring logging by adding handlers, formatters and filters is the responsibility of the application developer, not the library developer. If you are maintaining a library, ensure that you don’t add handlers to any of your loggers other than a *note NullHandler: 1277. instance.  File: python.info, Node: Creating a lot of loggers, Prev: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library, Up: Patterns to avoid 9.9.37.4 Creating a lot of loggers .................................. Loggers are singletons that are never freed during a script execution, and so creating lots of loggers will use up memory which can’t then be freed. Rather than create a logger per e.g. file processed or network connection made, use the *note existing mechanisms: 2ca4. for passing contextual information into your logs and restrict the loggers created to those describing areas within your application (generally modules, but occasionally slightly more fine-grained than that).  File: python.info, Node: Other resources<2>, Prev: Patterns to avoid, Up: Logging Cookbook 9.9.38 Other resources ---------------------- See also ........ Module *note logging: 87. API reference for the logging module. Module *note logging.config: 88. Configuration API for the logging module. Module *note logging.handlers: 89. Useful handlers included with the logging module. *note Basic Tutorial: 11e7. *note Advanced Tutorial: 11e8.  File: python.info, Node: Regular Expression HOWTO, Next: Socket Programming HOWTO, Prev: Logging Cookbook, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.10 Regular Expression HOWTO ============================= Author: A.M. Kuchling <<amk@amk.ca>> Abstract ........ This document is an introductory tutorial to using regular expressions in Python with the *note re: b9. module. It provides a gentler introduction than the corresponding section in the Library Reference. * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<15>. * Simple Patterns:: * Using Regular Expressions:: * More Pattern Power:: * Modifying Strings:: * Common Problems:: * Feedback::  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<15>, Next: Simple Patterns, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.1 Introduction ------------------- Regular expressions (called REs, or regexes, or regex patterns) are essentially a tiny, highly specialized programming language embedded inside Python and made available through the *note re: b9. module. Using this little language, you specify the rules for the set of possible strings that you want to match; this set might contain English sentences, or e-mail addresses, or TeX commands, or anything you like. You can then ask questions such as “Does this string match the pattern?”, or “Is there a match for the pattern anywhere in this string?”. You can also use REs to modify a string or to split it apart in various ways. Regular expression patterns are compiled into a series of bytecodes which are then executed by a matching engine written in C. For advanced use, it may be necessary to pay careful attention to how the engine will execute a given RE, and write the RE in a certain way in order to produce bytecode that runs faster. Optimization isn’t covered in this document, because it requires that you have a good understanding of the matching engine’s internals. The regular expression language is relatively small and restricted, so not all possible string processing tasks can be done using regular expressions. There are also tasks that 'can' be done with regular expressions, but the expressions turn out to be very complicated. In these cases, you may be better off writing Python code to do the processing; while Python code will be slower than an elaborate regular expression, it will also probably be more understandable.  File: python.info, Node: Simple Patterns, Next: Using Regular Expressions, Prev: Introduction<15>, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.2 Simple Patterns ---------------------- We’ll start by learning about the simplest possible regular expressions. Since regular expressions are used to operate on strings, we’ll begin with the most common task: matching characters. For a detailed explanation of the computer science underlying regular expressions (deterministic and non-deterministic finite automata), you can refer to almost any textbook on writing compilers. * Menu: * Matching Characters:: * Repeating Things::  File: python.info, Node: Matching Characters, Next: Repeating Things, Up: Simple Patterns 9.10.2.1 Matching Characters ............................ Most letters and characters will simply match themselves. For example, the regular expression ‘test’ will match the string ‘test’ exactly. (You can enable a case-insensitive mode that would let this RE match ‘Test’ or ‘TEST’ as well; more about this later.) There are exceptions to this rule; some characters are special 'metacharacters', and don’t match themselves. Instead, they signal that some out-of-the-ordinary thing should be matched, or they affect other portions of the RE by repeating them or changing their meaning. Much of this document is devoted to discussing various metacharacters and what they do. Here’s a complete list of the metacharacters; their meanings will be discussed in the rest of this HOWTO. . ^ $ * + ? { } [ ] \ | ( ) The first metacharacters we’ll look at are ‘[’ and ‘]’. They’re used for specifying a character class, which is a set of characters that you wish to match. Characters can be listed individually, or a range of characters can be indicated by giving two characters and separating them by a ‘'-'’. For example, ‘[abc]’ will match any of the characters ‘a’, ‘b’, or ‘c’; this is the same as ‘[a-c]’, which uses a range to express the same set of characters. If you wanted to match only lowercase letters, your RE would be ‘[a-z]’. Metacharacters (except ‘\’) are not active inside classes. For example, ‘[akm$]’ will match any of the characters ‘'a'’, ‘'k'’, ‘'m'’, or ‘'$'’; ‘'$'’ is usually a metacharacter, but inside a character class it’s stripped of its special nature. You can match the characters not listed within the class by 'complementing' the set. This is indicated by including a ‘'^'’ as the first character of the class. For example, ‘[^5]’ will match any character except ‘'5'’. If the caret appears elsewhere in a character class, it does not have special meaning. For example: ‘[5^]’ will match either a ‘'5'’ or a ‘'^'’. Perhaps the most important metacharacter is the backslash, ‘\’. As in Python string literals, the backslash can be followed by various characters to signal various special sequences. It’s also used to escape all the metacharacters so you can still match them in patterns; for example, if you need to match a ‘[’ or ‘\’, you can precede them with a backslash to remove their special meaning: ‘\[’ or ‘\\’. Some of the special sequences beginning with ‘'\'’ represent predefined sets of characters that are often useful, such as the set of digits, the set of letters, or the set of anything that isn’t whitespace. Let’s take an example: ‘\w’ matches any alphanumeric character. If the regex pattern is expressed in bytes, this is equivalent to the class ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’. If the regex pattern is a string, ‘\w’ will match all the characters marked as letters in the Unicode database provided by the *note unicodedata: 105. module. You can use the more restricted definition of ‘\w’ in a string pattern by supplying the *note re.ASCII: 628. flag when compiling the regular expression. The following list of special sequences isn’t complete. For a complete list of sequences and expanded class definitions for Unicode string patterns, see the last part of *note Regular Expression Syntax: 71f. in the Standard Library reference. In general, the Unicode versions match any character that’s in the appropriate category in the Unicode database. ‘\d’ Matches any decimal digit; this is equivalent to the class ‘[0-9]’. ‘\D’ Matches any non-digit character; this is equivalent to the class ‘[^0-9]’. ‘\s’ Matches any whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’. ‘\S’ Matches any non-whitespace character; this is equivalent to the class ‘[^ \t\n\r\f\v]’. ‘\w’ Matches any alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’. ‘\W’ Matches any non-alphanumeric character; this is equivalent to the class ‘[^a-zA-Z0-9_]’. These sequences can be included inside a character class. For example, ‘[\s,.]’ is a character class that will match any whitespace character, or ‘','’ or ‘'.'’. The final metacharacter in this section is ‘.’. It matches anything except a newline character, and there’s an alternate mode (*note re.DOTALL: 22ed.) where it will match even a newline. ‘.’ is often used where you want to match “any character”.  File: python.info, Node: Repeating Things, Prev: Matching Characters, Up: Simple Patterns 9.10.2.2 Repeating Things ......................... Being able to match varying sets of characters is the first thing regular expressions can do that isn’t already possible with the methods available on strings. However, if that was the only additional capability of regexes, they wouldn’t be much of an advance. Another capability is that you can specify that portions of the RE must be repeated a certain number of times. The first metacharacter for repeating things that we’ll look at is ‘*’. ‘*’ doesn’t match the literal character ‘'*'’; instead, it specifies that the previous character can be matched zero or more times, instead of exactly once. For example, ‘ca*t’ will match ‘'ct'’ (0 ‘'a'’ characters), ‘'cat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’ characters), and so forth. Repetitions such as ‘*’ are 'greedy'; when repeating a RE, the matching engine will try to repeat it as many times as possible. If later portions of the pattern don’t match, the matching engine will then back up and try again with fewer repetitions. A step-by-step example will make this more obvious. Let’s consider the expression ‘a[bcd]*b’. This matches the letter ‘'a'’, zero or more letters from the class ‘[bcd]’, and finally ends with a ‘'b'’. Now imagine matching this RE against the string ‘'abcbd'’. Step Matched Explanation ----------------------------------------------------------------- 1 ‘a’ The ‘a’ in the RE matches. 2 ‘abcbd’ The engine matches ‘[bcd]*’, going as far as it can, which is to the end of the string. 3 'Failure' The engine tries to match ‘b’, but the current position is at the end of the string, so it fails. 4 ‘abcb’ Back up, so that ‘[bcd]*’ matches one less character. 5 'Failure' Try ‘b’ again, but the current position is at the last character, which is a ‘'d'’. 6 ‘abc’ Back up again, so that ‘[bcd]*’ is only matching ‘bc’. 6 ‘abcb’ Try ‘b’ again. This time the character at the current position is ‘'b'’, so it succeeds. The end of the RE has now been reached, and it has matched ‘'abcb'’. This demonstrates how the matching engine goes as far as it can at first, and if no match is found it will then progressively back up and retry the rest of the RE again and again. It will back up until it has tried zero matches for ‘[bcd]*’, and if that subsequently fails, the engine will conclude that the string doesn’t match the RE at all. Another repeating metacharacter is ‘+’, which matches one or more times. Pay careful attention to the difference between ‘*’ and ‘+’; ‘*’ matches 'zero' or more times, so whatever’s being repeated may not be present at all, while ‘+’ requires at least 'one' occurrence. To use a similar example, ‘ca+t’ will match ‘'cat'’ (1 ‘'a'’), ‘'caaat'’ (3 ‘'a'’s), but won’t match ‘'ct'’. There are two more repeating operators or quantifiers. The question mark character, ‘?’, matches either once or zero times; you can think of it as marking something as being optional. For example, ‘home-?brew’ matches either ‘'homebrew'’ or ‘'home-brew'’. The most complicated quantifier is ‘{m,n}’, where 'm' and 'n' are decimal integers. This quantifier means there must be at least 'm' repetitions, and at most 'n'. For example, ‘a/{1,3}b’ will match ‘'a/b'’, ‘'a//b'’, and ‘'a///b'’. It won’t match ‘'ab'’, which has no slashes, or ‘'a////b'’, which has four. You can omit either 'm' or 'n'; in that case, a reasonable value is assumed for the missing value. Omitting 'm' is interpreted as a lower limit of 0, while omitting 'n' results in an upper bound of infinity. The simplest case ‘{m}’ matches the preceding item exactly 'm' times. For example, ‘a/{2}b’ will only match ‘'a//b'’. Readers of a reductionist bent may notice that the three other quantifiers can all be expressed using this notation. ‘{0,}’ is the same as ‘*’, ‘{1,}’ is equivalent to ‘+’, and ‘{0,1}’ is the same as ‘?’. It’s better to use ‘*’, ‘+’, or ‘?’ when you can, simply because they’re shorter and easier to read.  File: python.info, Node: Using Regular Expressions, Next: More Pattern Power, Prev: Simple Patterns, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.3 Using Regular Expressions -------------------------------- Now that we’ve looked at some simple regular expressions, how do we actually use them in Python? The *note re: b9. module provides an interface to the regular expression engine, allowing you to compile REs into objects and then perform matches with them. * Menu: * Compiling Regular Expressions:: * The Backslash Plague:: * Performing Matches:: * Module-Level Functions: Module-Level Functions<3>. * Compilation Flags::  File: python.info, Node: Compiling Regular Expressions, Next: The Backslash Plague, Up: Using Regular Expressions 9.10.3.1 Compiling Regular Expressions ...................................... Regular expressions are compiled into pattern objects, which have methods for various operations such as searching for pattern matches or performing string substitutions. >>> import re >>> p = re.compile('ab*') >>> p re.compile('ab*') *note re.compile(): bd3. also accepts an optional 'flags' argument, used to enable various special features and syntax variations. We’ll go over the available settings later, but for now a single example will do: >>> p = re.compile('ab*', re.IGNORECASE) The RE is passed to *note re.compile(): bd3. as a string. REs are handled as strings because regular expressions aren’t part of the core Python language, and no special syntax was created for expressing them. (There are applications that don’t need REs at all, so there’s no need to bloat the language specification by including them.) Instead, the *note re: b9. module is simply a C extension module included with Python, just like the *note socket: cc. or *note zlib: 133. modules. Putting REs in strings keeps the Python language simpler, but has one disadvantage which is the topic of the next section.  File: python.info, Node: The Backslash Plague, Next: Performing Matches, Prev: Compiling Regular Expressions, Up: Using Regular Expressions 9.10.3.2 The Backslash Plague ............................. As stated earlier, regular expressions use the backslash character (‘'\'’) to indicate special forms or to allow special characters to be used without invoking their special meaning. This conflicts with Python’s usage of the same character for the same purpose in string literals. Let’s say you want to write a RE that matches the string ‘\section’, which might be found in a LaTeX file. To figure out what to write in the program code, start with the desired string to be matched. Next, you must escape any backslashes and other metacharacters by preceding them with a backslash, resulting in the string ‘\\section’. The resulting string that must be passed to *note re.compile(): bd3. must be ‘\\section’. However, to express this as a Python string literal, both backslashes must be escaped 'again'. Characters Stage ----------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘\section’ Text string to be matched ‘\\section’ Escaped backslash for *note re.compile(): bd3. ‘"\\\\section"’ Escaped backslashes for a string literal In short, to match a literal backslash, one has to write ‘'\\\\'’ as the RE string, because the regular expression must be ‘\\’, and each backslash must be expressed as ‘\\’ inside a regular Python string literal. In REs that feature backslashes repeatedly, this leads to lots of repeated backslashes and makes the resulting strings difficult to understand. The solution is to use Python’s raw string notation for regular expressions; backslashes are not handled in any special way in a string literal prefixed with ‘'r'’, so ‘r"\n"’ is a two-character string containing ‘'\'’ and ‘'n'’, while ‘"\n"’ is a one-character string containing a newline. Regular expressions will often be written in Python code using this raw string notation. In addition, special escape sequences that are valid in regular expressions, but not valid as Python string literals, now result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and will eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 18d, which means the sequences will be invalid if raw string notation or escaping the backslashes isn’t used. Regular String Raw string ----------------------------------------------- ‘"ab*"’ ‘r"ab*"’ ‘"\\\\section"’ ‘r"\\section"’ ‘"\\w+\\s+\\1"’ ‘r"\w+\s+\1"’  File: python.info, Node: Performing Matches, Next: Module-Level Functions<3>, Prev: The Backslash Plague, Up: Using Regular Expressions 9.10.3.3 Performing Matches ........................... Once you have an object representing a compiled regular expression, what do you do with it? Pattern objects have several methods and attributes. Only the most significant ones will be covered here; consult the *note re: b9. docs for a complete listing. Method/Attribute Purpose --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘match()’ Determine if the RE matches at the beginning of the string. ‘search()’ Scan through a string, looking for any location where this RE matches. ‘findall()’ Find all substrings where the RE matches, and returns them as a list. ‘finditer()’ Find all substrings where the RE matches, and returns them as an *note iterator: 1ac. *note match(): 22ff. and *note search(): 2300. return ‘None’ if no match can be found. If they’re successful, a *note match object: f82. instance is returned, containing information about the match: where it starts and ends, the substring it matched, and more. You can learn about this by interactively experimenting with the *note re: b9. module. This HOWTO uses the standard Python interpreter for its examples. First, run the Python interpreter, import the *note re: b9. module, and compile a RE: >>> import re >>> p = re.compile('[a-z]+') >>> p re.compile('[a-z]+') Now, you can try matching various strings against the RE ‘[a-z]+’. An empty string shouldn’t match at all, since ‘+’ means ‘one or more repetitions’. *note match(): 22ff. should return ‘None’ in this case, which will cause the interpreter to print no output. You can explicitly print the result of ‘match()’ to make this clear. >>> p.match("") >>> print(p.match("")) None Now, let’s try it on a string that it should match, such as ‘tempo’. In this case, *note match(): 22ff. will return a *note match object: f82, so you should store the result in a variable for later use. >>> m = p.match('tempo') >>> m <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='tempo'> Now you can query the *note match object: f82. for information about the matching string. Match object instances also have several methods and attributes; the most important ones are: Method/Attribute Purpose ------------------------------------------------------------------------ ‘group()’ Return the string matched by the RE ‘start()’ Return the starting position of the match ‘end()’ Return the ending position of the match ‘span()’ Return a tuple containing the (start, end) positions of the match Trying these methods will soon clarify their meaning: >>> m.group() 'tempo' >>> m.start(), m.end() (0, 5) >>> m.span() (0, 5) *note group(): 2315. returns the substring that was matched by the RE. *note start(): 2319. and *note end(): 231a. return the starting and ending index of the match. *note span(): 231b. returns both start and end indexes in a single tuple. Since the *note match(): 22ff. method only checks if the RE matches at the start of a string, ‘start()’ will always be zero. However, the *note search(): 2300. method of patterns scans through the string, so the match may not start at zero in that case. >>> print(p.match('::: message')) None >>> m = p.search('::: message'); print(m) <re.Match object; span=(4, 11), match='message'> >>> m.group() 'message' >>> m.span() (4, 11) In actual programs, the most common style is to store the *note match object: f82. in a variable, and then check if it was ‘None’. This usually looks like: p = re.compile( ... ) m = p.match( 'string goes here' ) if m: print('Match found: ', m.group()) else: print('No match') Two pattern methods return all of the matches for a pattern. *note findall(): 230b. returns a list of matching strings: >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+') >>> p.findall('12 drummers drumming, 11 pipers piping, 10 lords a-leaping') ['12', '11', '10'] The ‘r’ prefix, making the literal a raw string literal, is needed in this example because escape sequences in a normal “cooked” string literal that are not recognized by Python, as opposed to regular expressions, now result in a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. and will eventually become a *note SyntaxError: 18d. See *note The Backslash Plague: 4fff. *note findall(): 230b. has to create the entire list before it can be returned as the result. The *note finditer(): 230c. method returns a sequence of *note match object: f82. instances as an *note iterator: 1ac.: >>> iterator = p.finditer('12 drummers drumming, 11 ... 10 ...') >>> iterator <callable_iterator object at 0x...> >>> for match in iterator: ... print(match.span()) ... (0, 2) (22, 24) (29, 31)  File: python.info, Node: Module-Level Functions<3>, Next: Compilation Flags, Prev: Performing Matches, Up: Using Regular Expressions 9.10.3.4 Module-Level Functions ............................... You don’t have to create a pattern object and call its methods; the *note re: b9. module also provides top-level functions called *note match(): 1220, *note search(): 121f, *note findall(): 1023, *note sub(): 2a5, and so forth. These functions take the same arguments as the corresponding pattern method with the RE string added as the first argument, and still return either ‘None’ or a *note match object: f82. instance. >>> print(re.match(r'From\s+', 'Fromage amk')) None >>> re.match(r'From\s+', 'From amk Thu May 14 19:12:10 1998') <re.Match object; span=(0, 5), match='From '> Under the hood, these functions simply create a pattern object for you and call the appropriate method on it. They also store the compiled object in a cache, so future calls using the same RE won’t need to parse the pattern again and again. Should you use these module-level functions, or should you get the pattern and call its methods yourself? If you’re accessing a regex within a loop, pre-compiling it will save a few function calls. Outside of loops, there’s not much difference thanks to the internal cache.  File: python.info, Node: Compilation Flags, Prev: Module-Level Functions<3>, Up: Using Regular Expressions 9.10.3.5 Compilation Flags .......................... Compilation flags let you modify some aspects of how regular expressions work. Flags are available in the *note re: b9. module under two names, a long name such as *note IGNORECASE: 1725. and a short, one-letter form such as *note I: 22f0. (If you’re familiar with Perl’s pattern modifiers, the one-letter forms use the same letters; the short form of *note re.VERBOSE: 22fd. is *note re.X: 22f5, for example.) Multiple flags can be specified by bitwise OR-ing them; ‘re.I | re.M’ sets both the *note I: 22f0. and *note M: 22f2. flags, for example. Here’s a table of the available flags, followed by a more detailed explanation of each one. Flag Meaning --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note ASCII: 628, *note A: 22ef. Makes several escapes like ‘\w’, ‘\b’, ‘\s’ and ‘\d’ match only on ASCII characters with the respective property. *note DOTALL: 22ed, *note S: 22f3. Make ‘.’ match any character, including newlines. *note IGNORECASE: 1725, Do case-insensitive matches. *note I: 22f0. *note LOCALE: b6c, *note L: 22f1. Do a locale-aware match. *note MULTILINE: 22ee, Multi-line matching, affecting ‘^’ and ‘$’. *note M: 22f2. *note VERBOSE: 22fd, *note X: 22f5. Enable verbose REs, which can be organized (for ‘extended’) more cleanly and understandably. -- Data: re.I -- Data: re.IGNORECASE Perform case-insensitive matching; character class and literal strings will match letters by ignoring case. For example, ‘[A-Z]’ will match lowercase letters, too. Full Unicode matching also works unless the *note ASCII: 628. flag is used to disable non-ASCII matches. When the Unicode patterns ‘[a-z]’ or ‘[A-Z]’ are used in combination with the *note IGNORECASE: 1725. flag, they will match the 52 ASCII letters and 4 additional non-ASCII letters: ‘İ’ (U+0130, Latin capital letter I with dot above), ‘ı’ (U+0131, Latin small letter dotless i), ‘ſ’ (U+017F, Latin small letter long s) and ‘K’ (U+212A, Kelvin sign). ‘Spam’ will match ‘'Spam'’, ‘'spam'’, ‘'spAM'’, or ‘'ſpam'’ (the latter is matched only in Unicode mode). This lowercasing doesn’t take the current locale into account; it will if you also set the *note LOCALE: b6c. flag. -- Data: re.L -- Data: re.LOCALE Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’ and case-insensitive matching dependent on the current locale instead of the Unicode database. Locales are a feature of the C library intended to help in writing programs that take account of language differences. For example, if you’re processing encoded French text, you’d want to be able to write ‘\w+’ to match words, but ‘\w’ only matches the character class ‘[A-Za-z]’ in bytes patterns; it won’t match bytes corresponding to ‘é’ or ‘ç’. If your system is configured properly and a French locale is selected, certain C functions will tell the program that the byte corresponding to ‘é’ should also be considered a letter. Setting the *note LOCALE: b6c. flag when compiling a regular expression will cause the resulting compiled object to use these C functions for ‘\w’; this is slower, but also enables ‘\w+’ to match French words as you’d expect. The use of this flag is discouraged in Python 3 as the locale mechanism is very unreliable, it only handles one “culture” at a time, and it only works with 8-bit locales. Unicode matching is already enabled by default in Python 3 for Unicode (str) patterns, and it is able to handle different locales/languages. -- Data: re.M -- Data: re.MULTILINE (‘^’ and ‘$’ haven’t been explained yet; they’ll be introduced in section *note More Metacharacters: 5003.) Usually ‘^’ matches only at the beginning of the string, and ‘$’ matches only at the end of the string and immediately before the newline (if any) at the end of the string. When this flag is specified, ‘^’ matches at the beginning of the string and at the beginning of each line within the string, immediately following each newline. Similarly, the ‘$’ metacharacter matches either at the end of the string and at the end of each line (immediately preceding each newline). -- Data: re.S -- Data: re.DOTALL Makes the ‘'.'’ special character match any character at all, including a newline; without this flag, ‘'.'’ will match anything 'except' a newline. -- Data: re.A -- Data: re.ASCII Make ‘\w’, ‘\W’, ‘\b’, ‘\B’, ‘\s’ and ‘\S’ perform ASCII-only matching instead of full Unicode matching. This is only meaningful for Unicode patterns, and is ignored for byte patterns. -- Data: re.X -- Data: re.VERBOSE This flag allows you to write regular expressions that are more readable by granting you more flexibility in how you can format them. When this flag has been specified, whitespace within the RE string is ignored, except when the whitespace is in a character class or preceded by an unescaped backslash; this lets you organize and indent the RE more clearly. This flag also lets you put comments within a RE that will be ignored by the engine; comments are marked by a ‘'#'’ that’s neither in a character class or preceded by an unescaped backslash. For example, here’s a RE that uses *note re.VERBOSE: 22fd.; see how much easier it is to read? charref = re.compile(r""" &[#] # Start of a numeric entity reference ( 0[0-7]+ # Octal form | [0-9]+ # Decimal form | x[0-9a-fA-F]+ # Hexadecimal form ) ; # Trailing semicolon """, re.VERBOSE) Without the verbose setting, the RE would look like this: charref = re.compile("&#(0[0-7]+" "|[0-9]+" "|x[0-9a-fA-F]+);") In the above example, Python’s automatic concatenation of string literals has been used to break up the RE into smaller pieces, but it’s still more difficult to understand than the version using *note re.VERBOSE: 22fd.  File: python.info, Node: More Pattern Power, Next: Modifying Strings, Prev: Using Regular Expressions, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.4 More Pattern Power ------------------------- So far we’ve only covered a part of the features of regular expressions. In this section, we’ll cover some new metacharacters, and how to use groups to retrieve portions of the text that was matched. * Menu: * More Metacharacters:: * Grouping:: * Non-capturing and Named Groups:: * Lookahead Assertions::  File: python.info, Node: More Metacharacters, Next: Grouping, Up: More Pattern Power 9.10.4.1 More Metacharacters ............................ There are some metacharacters that we haven’t covered yet. Most of them will be covered in this section. Some of the remaining metacharacters to be discussed are 'zero-width assertions'. They don’t cause the engine to advance through the string; instead, they consume no characters at all, and simply succeed or fail. For example, ‘\b’ is an assertion that the current position is located at a word boundary; the position isn’t changed by the ‘\b’ at all. This means that zero-width assertions should never be repeated, because if they match once at a given location, they can obviously be matched an infinite number of times. ‘|’ Alternation, or the “or” operator. If 'A' and 'B' are regular expressions, ‘A|B’ will match any string that matches either 'A' or 'B'. ‘|’ has very low precedence in order to make it work reasonably when you’re alternating multi-character strings. ‘Crow|Servo’ will match either ‘'Crow'’ or ‘'Servo'’, not ‘'Cro'’, a ‘'w'’ or an ‘'S'’, and ‘'ervo'’. To match a literal ‘'|'’, use ‘\|’, or enclose it inside a character class, as in ‘[|]’. ‘^’ Matches at the beginning of lines. Unless the *note MULTILINE: 22ee. flag has been set, this will only match at the beginning of the string. In *note MULTILINE: 22ee. mode, this also matches immediately after each newline within the string. For example, if you wish to match the word ‘From’ only at the beginning of a line, the RE to use is ‘^From’. >>> print(re.search('^From', 'From Here to Eternity')) <re.Match object; span=(0, 4), match='From'> >>> print(re.search('^From', 'Reciting From Memory')) None To match a literal ‘'^'’, use ‘\^’. ‘$’ Matches at the end of a line, which is defined as either the end of the string, or any location followed by a newline character. >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}')) <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'> >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block} ')) None >>> print(re.search('}$', '{block}\n')) <re.Match object; span=(6, 7), match='}'> To match a literal ‘'$'’, use ‘\$’ or enclose it inside a character class, as in ‘[$]’. ‘\A’ Matches only at the start of the string. When not in *note MULTILINE: 22ee. mode, ‘\A’ and ‘^’ are effectively the same. In *note MULTILINE: 22ee. mode, they’re different: ‘\A’ still matches only at the beginning of the string, but ‘^’ may match at any location inside the string that follows a newline character. ‘\Z’ Matches only at the end of the string. ‘\b’ Word boundary. This is a zero-width assertion that matches only at the beginning or end of a word. A word is defined as a sequence of alphanumeric characters, so the end of a word is indicated by whitespace or a non-alphanumeric character. The following example matches ‘class’ only when it’s a complete word; it won’t match when it’s contained inside another word. >>> p = re.compile(r'\bclass\b') >>> print(p.search('no class at all')) <re.Match object; span=(3, 8), match='class'> >>> print(p.search('the declassified algorithm')) None >>> print(p.search('one subclass is')) None There are two subtleties you should remember when using this special sequence. First, this is the worst collision between Python’s string literals and regular expression sequences. In Python’s string literals, ‘\b’ is the backspace character, ASCII value 8. If you’re not using raw strings, then Python will convert the ‘\b’ to a backspace, and your RE won’t match as you expect it to. The following example looks the same as our previous RE, but omits the ‘'r'’ in front of the RE string. >>> p = re.compile('\bclass\b') >>> print(p.search('no class at all')) None >>> print(p.search('\b' + 'class' + '\b')) <re.Match object; span=(0, 7), match='\x08class\x08'> Second, inside a character class, where there’s no use for this assertion, ‘\b’ represents the backspace character, for compatibility with Python’s string literals. ‘\B’ Another zero-width assertion, this is the opposite of ‘\b’, only matching when the current position is not at a word boundary.  File: python.info, Node: Grouping, Next: Non-capturing and Named Groups, Prev: More Metacharacters, Up: More Pattern Power 9.10.4.2 Grouping ................. Frequently you need to obtain more information than just whether the RE matched or not. Regular expressions are often used to dissect strings by writing a RE divided into several subgroups which match different components of interest. For example, an RFC-822 header line is divided into a header name and a value, separated by a ‘':'’, like this: From: author@example.com User-Agent: Thunderbird 1.5.0.9 (X11/20061227) MIME-Version: 1.0 To: editor@example.com This can be handled by writing a regular expression which matches an entire header line, and has one group which matches the header name, and another group which matches the header’s value. Groups are marked by the ‘'('’, ‘')'’ metacharacters. ‘'('’ and ‘')'’ have much the same meaning as they do in mathematical expressions; they group together the expressions contained inside them, and you can repeat the contents of a group with a quantifier, such as ‘*’, ‘+’, ‘?’, or ‘{m,n}’. For example, ‘(ab)*’ will match zero or more repetitions of ‘ab’. >>> p = re.compile('(ab)*') >>> print(p.match('ababababab').span()) (0, 10) Groups indicated with ‘'('’, ‘')'’ also capture the starting and ending index of the text that they match; this can be retrieved by passing an argument to *note group(): 2315, *note start(): 2319, *note end(): 231a, and *note span(): 231b. Groups are numbered starting with 0. Group 0 is always present; it’s the whole RE, so *note match object: f82. methods all have group 0 as their default argument. Later we’ll see how to express groups that don’t capture the span of text that they match. >>> p = re.compile('(a)b') >>> m = p.match('ab') >>> m.group() 'ab' >>> m.group(0) 'ab' Subgroups are numbered from left to right, from 1 upward. Groups can be nested; to determine the number, just count the opening parenthesis characters, going from left to right. >>> p = re.compile('(a(b)c)d') >>> m = p.match('abcd') >>> m.group(0) 'abcd' >>> m.group(1) 'abc' >>> m.group(2) 'b' *note group(): 2315. can be passed multiple group numbers at a time, in which case it will return a tuple containing the corresponding values for those groups. >>> m.group(2,1,2) ('b', 'abc', 'b') The *note groups(): 2317. method returns a tuple containing the strings for all the subgroups, from 1 up to however many there are. >>> m.groups() ('abc', 'b') Backreferences in a pattern allow you to specify that the contents of an earlier capturing group must also be found at the current location in the string. For example, ‘\1’ will succeed if the exact contents of group 1 can be found at the current position, and fails otherwise. Remember that Python’s string literals also use a backslash followed by numbers to allow including arbitrary characters in a string, so be sure to use a raw string when incorporating backreferences in a RE. For example, the following RE detects doubled words in a string. >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(\w+)\s+\1\b') >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group() 'the the' Backreferences like this aren’t often useful for just searching through a string — there are few text formats which repeat data in this way — but you’ll soon find out that they’re 'very' useful when performing string substitutions.  File: python.info, Node: Non-capturing and Named Groups, Next: Lookahead Assertions, Prev: Grouping, Up: More Pattern Power 9.10.4.3 Non-capturing and Named Groups ....................................... Elaborate REs may use many groups, both to capture substrings of interest, and to group and structure the RE itself. In complex REs, it becomes difficult to keep track of the group numbers. There are two features which help with this problem. Both of them use a common syntax for regular expression extensions, so we’ll look at that first. Perl 5 is well known for its powerful additions to standard regular expressions. For these new features the Perl developers couldn’t choose new single-keystroke metacharacters or new special sequences beginning with ‘\’ without making Perl’s regular expressions confusingly different from standard REs. If they chose ‘&’ as a new metacharacter, for example, old expressions would be assuming that ‘&’ was a regular character and wouldn’t have escaped it by writing ‘\&’ or ‘[&]’. The solution chosen by the Perl developers was to use ‘(?...)’ as the extension syntax. ‘?’ immediately after a parenthesis was a syntax error because the ‘?’ would have nothing to repeat, so this didn’t introduce any compatibility problems. The characters immediately after the ‘?’ indicate what extension is being used, so ‘(?=foo)’ is one thing (a positive lookahead assertion) and ‘(?:foo)’ is something else (a non-capturing group containing the subexpression ‘foo’). Python supports several of Perl’s extensions and adds an extension syntax to Perl’s extension syntax. If the first character after the question mark is a ‘P’, you know that it’s an extension that’s specific to Python. Now that we’ve looked at the general extension syntax, we can return to the features that simplify working with groups in complex REs. Sometimes you’ll want to use a group to denote a part of a regular expression, but aren’t interested in retrieving the group’s contents. You can make this fact explicit by using a non-capturing group: ‘(?:...)’, where you can replace the ‘...’ with any other regular expression. >>> m = re.match("([abc])+", "abc") >>> m.groups() ('c',) >>> m = re.match("(?:[abc])+", "abc") >>> m.groups() () Except for the fact that you can’t retrieve the contents of what the group matched, a non-capturing group behaves exactly the same as a capturing group; you can put anything inside it, repeat it with a repetition metacharacter such as ‘*’, and nest it within other groups (capturing or non-capturing). ‘(?:...)’ is particularly useful when modifying an existing pattern, since you can add new groups without changing how all the other groups are numbered. It should be mentioned that there’s no performance difference in searching between capturing and non-capturing groups; neither form is any faster than the other. A more significant feature is named groups: instead of referring to them by numbers, groups can be referenced by a name. The syntax for a named group is one of the Python-specific extensions: ‘(?P<name>...)’. 'name' is, obviously, the name of the group. Named groups behave exactly like capturing groups, and additionally associate a name with a group. The *note match object: f82. methods that deal with capturing groups all accept either integers that refer to the group by number or strings that contain the desired group’s name. Named groups are still given numbers, so you can retrieve information about a group in two ways: >>> p = re.compile(r'(?P<word>\b\w+\b)') >>> m = p.search( '(((( Lots of punctuation )))' ) >>> m.group('word') 'Lots' >>> m.group(1) 'Lots' Additionally, you can retrieve named groups as a dictionary with *note groupdict(): 2318.: >>> m = re.match(r'(?P<first>\w+) (?P<last>\w+)', 'Jane Doe') >>> m.groupdict() {'first': 'Jane', 'last': 'Doe'} Named groups are handy because they let you use easily remembered names, instead of having to remember numbers. Here’s an example RE from the *note imaplib: 74. module: InternalDate = re.compile(r'INTERNALDATE "' r'(?P<day>[ 123][0-9])-(?P<mon>[A-Z][a-z][a-z])-' r'(?P<year>[0-9][0-9][0-9][0-9])' r' (?P<hour>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<min>[0-9][0-9]):(?P<sec>[0-9][0-9])' r' (?P<zonen>[-+])(?P<zoneh>[0-9][0-9])(?P<zonem>[0-9][0-9])' r'"') It’s obviously much easier to retrieve ‘m.group('zonem')’, instead of having to remember to retrieve group 9. The syntax for backreferences in an expression such as ‘(...)\1’ refers to the number of the group. There’s naturally a variant that uses the group name instead of the number. This is another Python extension: ‘(?P=name)’ indicates that the contents of the group called 'name' should again be matched at the current point. The regular expression for finding doubled words, ‘\b(\w+)\s+\1\b’ can also be written as ‘\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b’: >>> p = re.compile(r'\b(?P<word>\w+)\s+(?P=word)\b') >>> p.search('Paris in the the spring').group() 'the the'  File: python.info, Node: Lookahead Assertions, Prev: Non-capturing and Named Groups, Up: More Pattern Power 9.10.4.4 Lookahead Assertions ............................. Another zero-width assertion is the lookahead assertion. Lookahead assertions are available in both positive and negative form, and look like this: ‘(?=...)’ Positive lookahead assertion. This succeeds if the contained regular expression, represented here by ‘...’, successfully matches at the current location, and fails otherwise. But, once the contained expression has been tried, the matching engine doesn’t advance at all; the rest of the pattern is tried right where the assertion started. ‘(?!...)’ Negative lookahead assertion. This is the opposite of the positive assertion; it succeeds if the contained expression 'doesn’t' match at the current position in the string. To make this concrete, let’s look at a case where a lookahead is useful. Consider a simple pattern to match a filename and split it apart into a base name and an extension, separated by a ‘.’. For example, in ‘news.rc’, ‘news’ is the base name, and ‘rc’ is the filename’s extension. The pattern to match this is quite simple: ‘.*[.].*$’ Notice that the ‘.’ needs to be treated specially because it’s a metacharacter, so it’s inside a character class to only match that specific character. Also notice the trailing ‘$’; this is added to ensure that all the rest of the string must be included in the extension. This regular expression matches ‘foo.bar’ and ‘autoexec.bat’ and ‘sendmail.cf’ and ‘printers.conf’. Now, consider complicating the problem a bit; what if you want to match filenames where the extension is not ‘bat’? Some incorrect attempts: ‘.*[.][^b].*$’ The first attempt above tries to exclude ‘bat’ by requiring that the first character of the extension is not a ‘b’. This is wrong, because the pattern also doesn’t match ‘foo.bar’. ‘.*[.]([^b]..|.[^a].|..[^t])$’ The expression gets messier when you try to patch up the first solution by requiring one of the following cases to match: the first character of the extension isn’t ‘b’; the second character isn’t ‘a’; or the third character isn’t ‘t’. This accepts ‘foo.bar’ and rejects ‘autoexec.bat’, but it requires a three-letter extension and won’t accept a filename with a two-letter extension such as ‘sendmail.cf’. We’ll complicate the pattern again in an effort to fix it. ‘.*[.]([^b].?.?|.[^a]?.?|..?[^t]?)$’ In the third attempt, the second and third letters are all made optional in order to allow matching extensions shorter than three characters, such as ‘sendmail.cf’. The pattern’s getting really complicated now, which makes it hard to read and understand. Worse, if the problem changes and you want to exclude both ‘bat’ and ‘exe’ as extensions, the pattern would get even more complicated and confusing. A negative lookahead cuts through all this confusion: ‘.*[.](?!bat$)[^.]*$’ The negative lookahead means: if the expression ‘bat’ doesn’t match at this point, try the rest of the pattern; if ‘bat$’ does match, the whole pattern will fail. The trailing ‘$’ is required to ensure that something like ‘sample.batch’, where the extension only starts with ‘bat’, will be allowed. The ‘[^.]*’ makes sure that the pattern works when there are multiple dots in the filename. Excluding another filename extension is now easy; simply add it as an alternative inside the assertion. The following pattern excludes filenames that end in either ‘bat’ or ‘exe’: ‘.*[.](?!bat$|exe$)[^.]*$’  File: python.info, Node: Modifying Strings, Next: Common Problems, Prev: More Pattern Power, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.5 Modifying Strings ------------------------ Up to this point, we’ve simply performed searches against a static string. Regular expressions are also commonly used to modify strings in various ways, using the following pattern methods: Method/Attribute Purpose --------------------------------------------------------------------------- ‘split()’ Split the string into a list, splitting it wherever the RE matches ‘sub()’ Find all substrings where the RE matches, and replace them with a different string ‘subn()’ Does the same thing as ‘sub()’, but returns the new string and the number of replacements * Menu: * Splitting Strings:: * Search and Replace: Search and Replace<2>.  File: python.info, Node: Splitting Strings, Next: Search and Replace<2>, Up: Modifying Strings 9.10.5.1 Splitting Strings .......................... The *note split(): 230a. method of a pattern splits a string apart wherever the RE matches, returning a list of the pieces. It’s similar to the *note split(): ea3. method of strings but provides much more generality in the delimiters that you can split by; string ‘split()’ only supports splitting by whitespace or by a fixed string. As you’d expect, there’s a module-level *note re.split(): 2a4. function, too. -- Method: .split (string[, maxsplit=0]) Split 'string' by the matches of the regular expression. If capturing parentheses are used in the RE, then their contents will also be returned as part of the resulting list. If 'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits are performed. You can limit the number of splits made, by passing a value for 'maxsplit'. When 'maxsplit' is nonzero, at most 'maxsplit' splits will be made, and the remainder of the string is returned as the final element of the list. In the following example, the delimiter is any sequence of non-alphanumeric characters. >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+') >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().') ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', 'short', 'and', 'sweet', 'of', 'split', ''] >>> p.split('This is a test, short and sweet, of split().', 3) ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test, short and sweet, of split().'] Sometimes you’re not only interested in what the text between delimiters is, but also need to know what the delimiter was. If capturing parentheses are used in the RE, then their values are also returned as part of the list. Compare the following calls: >>> p = re.compile(r'\W+') >>> p2 = re.compile(r'(\W+)') >>> p.split('This... is a test.') ['This', 'is', 'a', 'test', ''] >>> p2.split('This... is a test.') ['This', '... ', 'is', ' ', 'a', ' ', 'test', '.', ''] The module-level function *note re.split(): 2a4. adds the RE to be used as the first argument, but is otherwise the same. >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.') ['Words', 'words', 'words', ''] >>> re.split(r'([\W]+)', 'Words, words, words.') ['Words', ', ', 'words', ', ', 'words', '.', ''] >>> re.split(r'[\W]+', 'Words, words, words.', 1) ['Words', 'words, words.']  File: python.info, Node: Search and Replace<2>, Prev: Splitting Strings, Up: Modifying Strings 9.10.5.2 Search and Replace ........................... Another common task is to find all the matches for a pattern, and replace them with a different string. The *note sub(): 230d. method takes a replacement value, which can be either a string or a function, and the string to be processed. -- Method: .sub (replacement, string[, count=0]) Returns the string obtained by replacing the leftmost non-overlapping occurrences of the RE in 'string' by the replacement 'replacement'. If the pattern isn’t found, 'string' is returned unchanged. The optional argument 'count' is the maximum number of pattern occurrences to be replaced; 'count' must be a non-negative integer. The default value of 0 means to replace all occurrences. Here’s a simple example of using the *note sub(): 230d. method. It replaces colour names with the word ‘colour’: >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)') >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes') 'colour socks and colour shoes' >>> p.sub('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes', count=1) 'colour socks and red shoes' The *note subn(): 230e. method does the same work, but returns a 2-tuple containing the new string value and the number of replacements that were performed: >>> p = re.compile('(blue|white|red)') >>> p.subn('colour', 'blue socks and red shoes') ('colour socks and colour shoes', 2) >>> p.subn('colour', 'no colours at all') ('no colours at all', 0) Empty matches are replaced only when they’re not adjacent to a previous empty match. >>> p = re.compile('x*') >>> p.sub('-', 'abxd') '-a-b--d-' If 'replacement' is a string, any backslash escapes in it are processed. That is, ‘\n’ is converted to a single newline character, ‘\r’ is converted to a carriage return, and so forth. Unknown escapes such as ‘\&’ are left alone. Backreferences, such as ‘\6’, are replaced with the substring matched by the corresponding group in the RE. This lets you incorporate portions of the original text in the resulting replacement string. This example matches the word ‘section’ followed by a string enclosed in ‘{’, ‘}’, and changes ‘section’ to ‘subsection’: >>> p = re.compile('section{ ( [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE) >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First} section{second}') 'subsection{First} subsection{second}' There’s also a syntax for referring to named groups as defined by the ‘(?P<name>...)’ syntax. ‘\g<name>’ will use the substring matched by the group named ‘name’, and ‘\g<number>’ uses the corresponding group number. ‘\g<2>’ is therefore equivalent to ‘\2’, but isn’t ambiguous in a replacement string such as ‘\g<2>0’. (‘\20’ would be interpreted as a reference to group 20, not a reference to group 2 followed by the literal character ‘'0'’.) The following substitutions are all equivalent, but use all three variations of the replacement string. >>> p = re.compile('section{ (?P<name> [^}]* ) }', re.VERBOSE) >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\1}','section{First}') 'subsection{First}' >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<1>}','section{First}') 'subsection{First}' >>> p.sub(r'subsection{\g<name>}','section{First}') 'subsection{First}' 'replacement' can also be a function, which gives you even more control. If 'replacement' is a function, the function is called for every non-overlapping occurrence of 'pattern'. On each call, the function is passed a *note match object: f82. argument for the match and can use this information to compute the desired replacement string and return it. In the following example, the replacement function translates decimals into hexadecimal: >>> def hexrepl(match): ... "Return the hex string for a decimal number" ... value = int(match.group()) ... return hex(value) ... >>> p = re.compile(r'\d+') >>> p.sub(hexrepl, 'Call 65490 for printing, 49152 for user code.') 'Call 0xffd2 for printing, 0xc000 for user code.' When using the module-level *note re.sub(): 2a5. function, the pattern is passed as the first argument. The pattern may be provided as an object or as a string; if you need to specify regular expression flags, you must either use a pattern object as the first parameter, or use embedded modifiers in the pattern string, e.g. ‘sub("(?i)b+", "x", "bbbb BBBB")’ returns ‘'x x'’.  File: python.info, Node: Common Problems, Next: Feedback, Prev: Modifying Strings, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.6 Common Problems ---------------------- Regular expressions are a powerful tool for some applications, but in some ways their behaviour isn’t intuitive and at times they don’t behave the way you may expect them to. This section will point out some of the most common pitfalls. * Menu: * Use String Methods:: * match() versus search(): match versus search. * Greedy versus Non-Greedy:: * Using re.VERBOSE: Using re VERBOSE.  File: python.info, Node: Use String Methods, Next: match versus search, Up: Common Problems 9.10.6.1 Use String Methods ........................... Sometimes using the *note re: b9. module is a mistake. If you’re matching a fixed string, or a single character class, and you’re not using any *note re: b9. features such as the *note IGNORECASE: 1725. flag, then the full power of regular expressions may not be required. Strings have several methods for performing operations with fixed strings and they’re usually much faster, because the implementation is a single small C loop that’s been optimized for the purpose, instead of the large, more generalized regular expression engine. One example might be replacing a single fixed string with another one; for example, you might replace ‘word’ with ‘deed’. *note re.sub(): 2a5. seems like the function to use for this, but consider the *note replace(): 19a. method. Note that ‘replace()’ will also replace ‘word’ inside words, turning ‘swordfish’ into ‘sdeedfish’, but the naive RE ‘word’ would have done that, too. (To avoid performing the substitution on parts of words, the pattern would have to be ‘\bword\b’, in order to require that ‘word’ have a word boundary on either side. This takes the job beyond ‘replace()’’s abilities.) Another common task is deleting every occurrence of a single character from a string or replacing it with another single character. You might do this with something like ‘re.sub('\n', ' ', S)’, but *note translate(): 21c8. is capable of doing both tasks and will be faster than any regular expression operation can be. In short, before turning to the *note re: b9. module, consider whether your problem can be solved with a faster and simpler string method.  File: python.info, Node: match versus search, Next: Greedy versus Non-Greedy, Prev: Use String Methods, Up: Common Problems 9.10.6.2 match() versus search() ................................ The *note match(): 1220. function only checks if the RE matches at the beginning of the string while *note search(): 121f. will scan forward through the string for a match. It’s important to keep this distinction in mind. Remember, ‘match()’ will only report a successful match which will start at 0; if the match wouldn’t start at zero, ‘match()’ will 'not' report it. >>> print(re.match('super', 'superstition').span()) (0, 5) >>> print(re.match('super', 'insuperable')) None On the other hand, *note search(): 121f. will scan forward through the string, reporting the first match it finds. >>> print(re.search('super', 'superstition').span()) (0, 5) >>> print(re.search('super', 'insuperable').span()) (2, 7) Sometimes you’ll be tempted to keep using *note re.match(): 1220, and just add ‘.*’ to the front of your RE. Resist this temptation and use *note re.search(): 121f. instead. The regular expression compiler does some analysis of REs in order to speed up the process of looking for a match. One such analysis figures out what the first character of a match must be; for example, a pattern starting with ‘Crow’ must match starting with a ‘'C'’. The analysis lets the engine quickly scan through the string looking for the starting character, only trying the full match if a ‘'C'’ is found. Adding ‘.*’ defeats this optimization, requiring scanning to the end of the string and then backtracking to find a match for the rest of the RE. Use *note re.search(): 121f. instead.  File: python.info, Node: Greedy versus Non-Greedy, Next: Using re VERBOSE, Prev: match versus search, Up: Common Problems 9.10.6.3 Greedy versus Non-Greedy ................................. When repeating a regular expression, as in ‘a*’, the resulting action is to consume as much of the pattern as possible. This fact often bites you when you’re trying to match a pair of balanced delimiters, such as the angle brackets surrounding an HTML tag. The naive pattern for matching a single HTML tag doesn’t work because of the greedy nature of ‘.*’. >>> s = '<html><head><title>Title' >>> len(s) 32 >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).span()) (0, 32) >>> print(re.match('<.*>', s).group()) Title The RE matches the ‘'<'’ in ‘''’, and the ‘.*’ consumes the rest of the string. There’s still more left in the RE, though, and the ‘>’ can’t match at the end of the string, so the regular expression engine has to backtrack character by character until it finds a match for the ‘>’. The final match extends from the ‘'<'’ in ‘''’ to the ‘'>'’ in ‘''’, which isn’t what you want. In this case, the solution is to use the non-greedy quantifiers ‘*?’, ‘+?’, ‘??’, or ‘{m,n}?’, which match as 'little' text as possible. In the above example, the ‘'>'’ is tried immediately after the first ‘'<'’ matches, and when it fails, the engine advances a character at a time, retrying the ‘'>'’ at every step. This produces just the right result: >>> print(re.match('<.*?>', s).group()) (Note that parsing HTML or XML with regular expressions is painful. Quick-and-dirty patterns will handle common cases, but HTML and XML have special cases that will break the obvious regular expression; by the time you’ve written a regular expression that handles all of the possible cases, the patterns will be 'very' complicated. Use an HTML or XML parser module for such tasks.)  File: python.info, Node: Using re VERBOSE, Prev: Greedy versus Non-Greedy, Up: Common Problems 9.10.6.4 Using re.VERBOSE ......................... By now you’ve probably noticed that regular expressions are a very compact notation, but they’re not terribly readable. REs of moderate complexity can become lengthy collections of backslashes, parentheses, and metacharacters, making them difficult to read and understand. For such REs, specifying the *note re.VERBOSE: 22fd. flag when compiling the regular expression can be helpful, because it allows you to format the regular expression more clearly. The ‘re.VERBOSE’ flag has several effects. Whitespace in the regular expression that 'isn’t' inside a character class is ignored. This means that an expression such as ‘dog | cat’ is equivalent to the less readable ‘dog|cat’, but ‘[a b]’ will still match the characters ‘'a'’, ‘'b'’, or a space. In addition, you can also put comments inside a RE; comments extend from a ‘#’ character to the next newline. When used with triple-quoted strings, this enables REs to be formatted more neatly: pat = re.compile(r""" \s* # Skip leading whitespace (?P
    [^:]+) # Header name \s* : # Whitespace, and a colon (?P.*?) # The header's value -- *? used to # lose the following trailing whitespace \s*$ # Trailing whitespace to end-of-line """, re.VERBOSE) This is far more readable than: pat = re.compile(r"\s*(?P
    [^:]+)\s*:(?P.*?)\s*$")  File: python.info, Node: Feedback, Prev: Common Problems, Up: Regular Expression HOWTO 9.10.7 Feedback --------------- Regular expressions are a complicated topic. Did this document help you understand them? Were there parts that were unclear, or Problems you encountered that weren’t covered here? If so, please send suggestions for improvements to the author. The most complete book on regular expressions is almost certainly Jeffrey Friedl’s Mastering Regular Expressions, published by O’Reilly. Unfortunately, it exclusively concentrates on Perl and Java’s flavours of regular expressions, and doesn’t contain any Python material at all, so it won’t be useful as a reference for programming in Python. (The first edition covered Python’s now-removed ‘regex’ module, which won’t help you much.) Consider checking it out from your library.  File: python.info, Node: Socket Programming HOWTO, Next: Sorting Techniques, Prev: Regular Expression HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.11 Socket Programming HOWTO ============================= Author: Gordon McMillan Abstract ........ Sockets are used nearly everywhere, but are one of the most severely misunderstood technologies around. This is a 10,000 foot overview of sockets. It’s not really a tutorial - you’ll still have work to do in getting things operational. It doesn’t cover the fine points (and there are a lot of them), but I hope it will give you enough background to begin using them decently. * Menu: * Sockets:: * Creating a Socket:: * Using a Socket:: * Disconnecting:: * Non-blocking Sockets::  File: python.info, Node: Sockets, Next: Creating a Socket, Up: Socket Programming HOWTO 9.11.1 Sockets -------------- I’m only going to talk about INET (i.e. IPv4) sockets, but they account for at least 99% of the sockets in use. And I’ll only talk about STREAM (i.e. TCP) sockets - unless you really know what you’re doing (in which case this HOWTO isn’t for you!), you’ll get better behavior and performance from a STREAM socket than anything else. I will try to clear up the mystery of what a socket is, as well as some hints on how to work with blocking and non-blocking sockets. But I’ll start by talking about blocking sockets. You’ll need to know how they work before dealing with non-blocking sockets. Part of the trouble with understanding these things is that “socket” can mean a number of subtly different things, depending on context. So first, let’s make a distinction between a “client” socket - an endpoint of a conversation, and a “server” socket, which is more like a switchboard operator. The client application (your browser, for example) uses “client” sockets exclusively; the web server it’s talking to uses both “server” sockets and “client” sockets. * Menu: * History::  File: python.info, Node: History, Up: Sockets 9.11.1.1 History ................ Of the various forms of IPC (Inter Process Communication), sockets are by far the most popular. On any given platform, there are likely to be other forms of IPC that are faster, but for cross-platform communication, sockets are about the only game in town. They were invented in Berkeley as part of the BSD flavor of Unix. They spread like wildfire with the internet. With good reason — the combination of sockets with INET makes talking to arbitrary machines around the world unbelievably easy (at least compared to other schemes).  File: python.info, Node: Creating a Socket, Next: Using a Socket, Prev: Sockets, Up: Socket Programming HOWTO 9.11.2 Creating a Socket ------------------------ Roughly speaking, when you clicked on the link that brought you to this page, your browser did something like the following: # create an INET, STREAMing socket s = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) # now connect to the web server on port 80 - the normal http port s.connect(("www.python.org", 80)) When the ‘connect’ completes, the socket ‘s’ can be used to send in a request for the text of the page. The same socket will read the reply, and then be destroyed. That’s right, destroyed. Client sockets are normally only used for one exchange (or a small set of sequential exchanges). What happens in the web server is a bit more complex. First, the web server creates a “server socket”: # create an INET, STREAMing socket serversocket = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) # bind the socket to a public host, and a well-known port serversocket.bind((socket.gethostname(), 80)) # become a server socket serversocket.listen(5) A couple things to notice: we used ‘socket.gethostname()’ so that the socket would be visible to the outside world. If we had used ‘s.bind(('localhost', 80))’ or ‘s.bind(('127.0.0.1', 80))’ we would still have a “server” socket, but one that was only visible within the same machine. ‘s.bind(('', 80))’ specifies that the socket is reachable by any address the machine happens to have. A second thing to note: low number ports are usually reserved for “well known” services (HTTP, SNMP etc). If you’re playing around, use a nice high number (4 digits). Finally, the argument to ‘listen’ tells the socket library that we want it to queue up as many as 5 connect requests (the normal max) before refusing outside connections. If the rest of the code is written properly, that should be plenty. Now that we have a “server” socket, listening on port 80, we can enter the mainloop of the web server: while True: # accept connections from outside (clientsocket, address) = serversocket.accept() # now do something with the clientsocket # in this case, we'll pretend this is a threaded server ct = client_thread(clientsocket) ct.run() There’s actually 3 general ways in which this loop could work - dispatching a thread to handle ‘clientsocket’, create a new process to handle ‘clientsocket’, or restructure this app to use non-blocking sockets, and multiplex between our “server” socket and any active ‘clientsocket’s using ‘select’. More about that later. The important thing to understand now is this: this is 'all' a “server” socket does. It doesn’t send any data. It doesn’t receive any data. It just produces “client” sockets. Each ‘clientsocket’ is created in response to some 'other' “client” socket doing a ‘connect()’ to the host and port we’re bound to. As soon as we’ve created that ‘clientsocket’, we go back to listening for more connections. The two “clients” are free to chat it up - they are using some dynamically allocated port which will be recycled when the conversation ends. * Menu: * IPC::  File: python.info, Node: IPC, Up: Creating a Socket 9.11.2.1 IPC ............ If you need fast IPC between two processes on one machine, you should look into pipes or shared memory. If you do decide to use AF_INET sockets, bind the “server” socket to ‘'localhost'’. On most platforms, this will take a shortcut around a couple of layers of network code and be quite a bit faster. See also ........ The *note multiprocessing: 94. integrates cross-platform IPC into a higher-level API.  File: python.info, Node: Using a Socket, Next: Disconnecting, Prev: Creating a Socket, Up: Socket Programming HOWTO 9.11.3 Using a Socket --------------------- The first thing to note, is that the web browser’s “client” socket and the web server’s “client” socket are identical beasts. That is, this is a “peer to peer” conversation. Or to put it another way, 'as the designer, you will have to decide what the rules of etiquette are for a conversation'. Normally, the ‘connect’ing socket starts the conversation, by sending in a request, or perhaps a signon. But that’s a design decision - it’s not a rule of sockets. Now there are two sets of verbs to use for communication. You can use ‘send’ and ‘recv’, or you can transform your client socket into a file-like beast and use ‘read’ and ‘write’. The latter is the way Java presents its sockets. I’m not going to talk about it here, except to warn you that you need to use ‘flush’ on sockets. These are buffered “files”, and a common mistake is to ‘write’ something, and then ‘read’ for a reply. Without a ‘flush’ in there, you may wait forever for the reply, because the request may still be in your output buffer. Now we come to the major stumbling block of sockets - ‘send’ and ‘recv’ operate on the network buffers. They do not necessarily handle all the bytes you hand them (or expect from them), because their major focus is handling the network buffers. In general, they return when the associated network buffers have been filled (‘send’) or emptied (‘recv’). They then tell you how many bytes they handled. It is 'your' responsibility to call them again until your message has been completely dealt with. When a ‘recv’ returns 0 bytes, it means the other side has closed (or is in the process of closing) the connection. You will not receive any more data on this connection. Ever. You may be able to send data successfully; I’ll talk more about this later. A protocol like HTTP uses a socket for only one transfer. The client sends a request, then reads a reply. That’s it. The socket is discarded. This means that a client can detect the end of the reply by receiving 0 bytes. But if you plan to reuse your socket for further transfers, you need to realize that 'there is no' EOT (End of Transfer) 'on a socket.' I repeat: if a socket ‘send’ or ‘recv’ returns after handling 0 bytes, the connection has been broken. If the connection has 'not' been broken, you may wait on a ‘recv’ forever, because the socket will 'not' tell you that there’s nothing more to read (for now). Now if you think about that a bit, you’ll come to realize a fundamental truth of sockets: 'messages must either be fixed length' (yuck), 'or be delimited' (shrug), 'or indicate how long they are' (much better), 'or end by shutting down the connection'. The choice is entirely yours, (but some ways are righter than others). Assuming you don’t want to end the connection, the simplest solution is a fixed length message: class MySocket: """demonstration class only - coded for clarity, not efficiency """ def __init__(self, sock=None): if sock is None: self.sock = socket.socket( socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) else: self.sock = sock def connect(self, host, port): self.sock.connect((host, port)) def mysend(self, msg): totalsent = 0 while totalsent < MSGLEN: sent = self.sock.send(msg[totalsent:]) if sent == 0: raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken") totalsent = totalsent + sent def myreceive(self): chunks = [] bytes_recd = 0 while bytes_recd < MSGLEN: chunk = self.sock.recv(min(MSGLEN - bytes_recd, 2048)) if chunk == b'': raise RuntimeError("socket connection broken") chunks.append(chunk) bytes_recd = bytes_recd + len(chunk) return b''.join(chunks) The sending code here is usable for almost any messaging scheme - in Python you send strings, and you can use ‘len()’ to determine its length (even if it has embedded ‘\0’ characters). It’s mostly the receiving code that gets more complex. (And in C, it’s not much worse, except you can’t use ‘strlen’ if the message has embedded ‘\0’s.) The easiest enhancement is to make the first character of the message an indicator of message type, and have the type determine the length. Now you have two ‘recv’s - the first to get (at least) that first character so you can look up the length, and the second in a loop to get the rest. If you decide to go the delimited route, you’ll be receiving in some arbitrary chunk size, (4096 or 8192 is frequently a good match for network buffer sizes), and scanning what you’ve received for a delimiter. One complication to be aware of: if your conversational protocol allows multiple messages to be sent back to back (without some kind of reply), and you pass ‘recv’ an arbitrary chunk size, you may end up reading the start of a following message. You’ll need to put that aside and hold onto it, until it’s needed. Prefixing the message with its length (say, as 5 numeric characters) gets more complex, because (believe it or not), you may not get all 5 characters in one ‘recv’. In playing around, you’ll get away with it; but in high network loads, your code will very quickly break unless you use two ‘recv’ loops - the first to determine the length, the second to get the data part of the message. Nasty. This is also when you’ll discover that ‘send’ does not always manage to get rid of everything in one pass. And despite having read this, you will eventually get bit by it! In the interests of space, building your character, (and preserving my competitive position), these enhancements are left as an exercise for the reader. Lets move on to cleaning up. * Menu: * Binary Data::  File: python.info, Node: Binary Data, Up: Using a Socket 9.11.3.1 Binary Data .................... It is perfectly possible to send binary data over a socket. The major problem is that not all machines use the same formats for binary data. For example, network byte order(1) is big-endian, with the most significant byte first, so a 16 bit integer with the value ‘1’ would be the two hex bytes ‘00 01’. However, most common processors (x86/AMD64, ARM, RISC-V), are little-endian, with the least significant byte first - that same ‘1’ would be ‘01 00’. Socket libraries have calls for converting 16 and 32 bit integers - ‘ntohl, htonl, ntohs, htons’ where “n” means 'network' and “h” means 'host', “s” means 'short' and “l” means 'long'. Where network order is host order, these do nothing, but where the machine is byte-reversed, these swap the bytes around appropriately. In these days of 64-bit machines, the ASCII representation of binary data is frequently smaller than the binary representation. That’s because a surprising amount of the time, most integers have the value 0, or maybe 1. The string ‘"0"’ would be two bytes, while a full 64-bit integer would be 8. Of course, this doesn’t fit well with fixed-length messages. Decisions, decisions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endianness#Networking  File: python.info, Node: Disconnecting, Next: Non-blocking Sockets, Prev: Using a Socket, Up: Socket Programming HOWTO 9.11.4 Disconnecting -------------------- Strictly speaking, you’re supposed to use ‘shutdown’ on a socket before you ‘close’ it. The ‘shutdown’ is an advisory to the socket at the other end. Depending on the argument you pass it, it can mean “I’m not going to send anymore, but I’ll still listen”, or “I’m not listening, good riddance!”. Most socket libraries, however, are so used to programmers neglecting to use this piece of etiquette that normally a ‘close’ is the same as ‘shutdown(); close()’. So in most situations, an explicit ‘shutdown’ is not needed. One way to use ‘shutdown’ effectively is in an HTTP-like exchange. The client sends a request and then does a ‘shutdown(1)’. This tells the server “This client is done sending, but can still receive.” The server can detect “EOF” by a receive of 0 bytes. It can assume it has the complete request. The server sends a reply. If the ‘send’ completes successfully then, indeed, the client was still receiving. Python takes the automatic shutdown a step further, and says that when a socket is garbage collected, it will automatically do a ‘close’ if it’s needed. But relying on this is a very bad habit. If your socket just disappears without doing a ‘close’, the socket at the other end may hang indefinitely, thinking you’re just being slow. 'Please' ‘close’ your sockets when you’re done. * Menu: * When Sockets Die::  File: python.info, Node: When Sockets Die, Up: Disconnecting 9.11.4.1 When Sockets Die ......................... Probably the worst thing about using blocking sockets is what happens when the other side comes down hard (without doing a ‘close’). Your socket is likely to hang. TCP is a reliable protocol, and it will wait a long, long time before giving up on a connection. If you’re using threads, the entire thread is essentially dead. There’s not much you can do about it. As long as you aren’t doing something dumb, like holding a lock while doing a blocking read, the thread isn’t really consuming much in the way of resources. Do 'not' try to kill the thread - part of the reason that threads are more efficient than processes is that they avoid the overhead associated with the automatic recycling of resources. In other words, if you do manage to kill the thread, your whole process is likely to be screwed up.  File: python.info, Node: Non-blocking Sockets, Prev: Disconnecting, Up: Socket Programming HOWTO 9.11.5 Non-blocking Sockets --------------------------- If you’ve understood the preceding, you already know most of what you need to know about the mechanics of using sockets. You’ll still use the same calls, in much the same ways. It’s just that, if you do it right, your app will be almost inside-out. In Python, you use ‘socket.setblocking(False)’ to make it non-blocking. In C, it’s more complex, (for one thing, you’ll need to choose between the BSD flavor ‘O_NONBLOCK’ and the almost indistinguishable POSIX flavor ‘O_NDELAY’, which is completely different from ‘TCP_NODELAY’), but it’s the exact same idea. You do this after creating the socket, but before using it. (Actually, if you’re nuts, you can switch back and forth.) The major mechanical difference is that ‘send’, ‘recv’, ‘connect’ and ‘accept’ can return without having done anything. You have (of course) a number of choices. You can check return code and error codes and generally drive yourself crazy. If you don’t believe me, try it sometime. Your app will grow large, buggy and suck CPU. So let’s skip the brain-dead solutions and do it right. Use ‘select’. In C, coding ‘select’ is fairly complex. In Python, it’s a piece of cake, but it’s close enough to the C version that if you understand ‘select’ in Python, you’ll have little trouble with it in C: ready_to_read, ready_to_write, in_error = \ select.select( potential_readers, potential_writers, potential_errs, timeout) You pass ‘select’ three lists: the first contains all sockets that you might want to try reading; the second all the sockets you might want to try writing to, and the last (normally left empty) those that you want to check for errors. You should note that a socket can go into more than one list. The ‘select’ call is blocking, but you can give it a timeout. This is generally a sensible thing to do - give it a nice long timeout (say a minute) unless you have good reason to do otherwise. In return, you will get three lists. They contain the sockets that are actually readable, writable and in error. Each of these lists is a subset (possibly empty) of the corresponding list you passed in. If a socket is in the output readable list, you can be as-close-to-certain-as-we-ever-get-in-this-business that a ‘recv’ on that socket will return 'something'. Same idea for the writable list. You’ll be able to send 'something'. Maybe not all you want to, but 'something' is better than nothing. (Actually, any reasonably healthy socket will return as writable - it just means outbound network buffer space is available.) If you have a “server” socket, put it in the potential_readers list. If it comes out in the readable list, your ‘accept’ will (almost certainly) work. If you have created a new socket to ‘connect’ to someone else, put it in the potential_writers list. If it shows up in the writable list, you have a decent chance that it has connected. Actually, ‘select’ can be handy even with blocking sockets. It’s one way of determining whether you will block - the socket returns as readable when there’s something in the buffers. However, this still doesn’t help with the problem of determining whether the other end is done, or just busy with something else. 'Portability alert': On Unix, ‘select’ works both with the sockets and files. Don’t try this on Windows. On Windows, ‘select’ works with sockets only. Also note that in C, many of the more advanced socket options are done differently on Windows. In fact, on Windows I usually use threads (which work very, very well) with my sockets.  File: python.info, Node: Sorting Techniques, Next: Unicode HOWTO, Prev: Socket Programming HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.12 Sorting Techniques ======================= Author: Andrew Dalke and Raymond Hettinger Python lists have a built-in *note list.sort(): bcf. method that modifies the list in-place. There is also a *note sorted(): bce. built-in function that builds a new sorted list from an iterable. In this document, we explore the various techniques for sorting data using Python. * Menu: * Sorting Basics:: * Key Functions:: * Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation:: * Ascending and Descending:: * Sort Stability and Complex Sorts:: * Decorate-Sort-Undecorate:: * Comparison Functions:: * Odds and Ends: Odds and Ends<2>. * Partial Sorts::  File: python.info, Node: Sorting Basics, Next: Key Functions, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.1 Sorting Basics --------------------- A simple ascending sort is very easy: just call the *note sorted(): bce. function. It returns a new sorted list: >>> sorted([5, 2, 3, 1, 4]) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] You can also use the *note list.sort(): bcf. method. It modifies the list in-place (and returns ‘None’ to avoid confusion). Usually it’s less convenient than *note sorted(): bce. - but if you don’t need the original list, it’s slightly more efficient. >>> a = [5, 2, 3, 1, 4] >>> a.sort() >>> a [1, 2, 3, 4, 5] Another difference is that the *note list.sort(): bcf. method is only defined for lists. In contrast, the *note sorted(): bce. function accepts any iterable. >>> sorted({1: 'D', 2: 'B', 3: 'B', 4: 'E', 5: 'A'}) [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]  File: python.info, Node: Key Functions, Next: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation, Prev: Sorting Basics, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.2 Key Functions -------------------- Both *note list.sort(): bcf. and *note sorted(): bce. have a 'key' parameter to specify a function (or other callable) to be called on each list element prior to making comparisons. For example, here’s a case-insensitive string comparison: >>> sorted("This is a test string from Andrew".split(), key=str.casefold) ['a', 'Andrew', 'from', 'is', 'string', 'test', 'This'] The value of the 'key' parameter should be a function (or other callable) that takes a single argument and returns a key to use for sorting purposes. This technique is fast because the key function is called exactly once for each input record. A common pattern is to sort complex objects using some of the object’s indices as keys. For example: >>> student_tuples = [ ... ('john', 'A', 15), ... ('jane', 'B', 12), ... ('dave', 'B', 10), ... ] >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=lambda student: student[2]) # sort by age [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] The same technique works for objects with named attributes. For example: >>> class Student: ... def __init__(self, name, grade, age): ... self.name = name ... self.grade = grade ... self.age = age ... def __repr__(self): ... return repr((self.name, self.grade, self.age)) >>> student_objects = [ ... Student('john', 'A', 15), ... Student('jane', 'B', 12), ... Student('dave', 'B', 10), ... ] >>> sorted(student_objects, key=lambda student: student.age) # sort by age [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] Objects with named attributes can be made by a regular class as shown above, or they can be instances of *note dataclass: 1cb. or a *note named tuple: 64a.  File: python.info, Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation, Next: Ascending and Descending, Prev: Key Functions, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.3 Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation ---------------------------------------------------------------- The *note key function: e04. patterns shown above are very common, so Python provides convenience functions to make accessor functions easier and faster. The *note operator: 9f. module has *note itemgetter(): a61, *note attrgetter(): e32, and a *note methodcaller(): e33. function. Using those functions, the above examples become simpler and faster: >>> from operator import itemgetter, attrgetter >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2)) [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age')) [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] The operator module functions allow multiple levels of sorting. For example, to sort by 'grade' then by 'age': >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(1,2)) [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)] >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('grade', 'age')) [('john', 'A', 15), ('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12)] The *note functools: 5f. module provides another helpful tool for making key-functions. The *note partial(): 410. function can reduce the arity(1) of a multi-argument function making it suitable for use as a key-function. >>> from functools import partial >>> from unicodedata import normalize >>> names = 'Zoë Åbjørn Núñez Élana Zeke Abe Nubia Eloise'.split() >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFD')) ['Abe', 'Åbjørn', 'Eloise', 'Élana', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë'] >>> sorted(names, key=partial(normalize, 'NFC')) ['Abe', 'Eloise', 'Nubia', 'Núñez', 'Zeke', 'Zoë', 'Åbjørn', 'Élana'] ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity  File: python.info, Node: Ascending and Descending, Next: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts, Prev: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.4 Ascending and Descending ------------------------------- Both *note list.sort(): bcf. and *note sorted(): bce. accept a 'reverse' parameter with a boolean value. This is used to flag descending sorts. For example, to get the student data in reverse 'age' order: >>> sorted(student_tuples, key=itemgetter(2), reverse=True) [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)] >>> sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age'), reverse=True) [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)]  File: python.info, Node: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts, Next: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate, Prev: Ascending and Descending, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.5 Sort Stability and Complex Sorts --------------------------------------- Sorts are guaranteed to be stable(1). That means that when multiple records have the same key, their original order is preserved. >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)] >>> sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0)) [('blue', 1), ('blue', 2), ('red', 1), ('red', 2)] Notice how the two records for 'blue' retain their original order so that ‘('blue', 1)’ is guaranteed to precede ‘('blue', 2)’. This wonderful property lets you build complex sorts in a series of sorting steps. For example, to sort the student data by descending 'grade' and then ascending 'age', do the 'age' sort first and then sort again using 'grade': >>> s = sorted(student_objects, key=attrgetter('age')) # sort on secondary key >>> sorted(s, key=attrgetter('grade'), reverse=True) # now sort on primary key, descending [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] This can be abstracted out into a wrapper function that can take a list and tuples of field and order to sort them on multiple passes. >>> def multisort(xs, specs): ... for key, reverse in reversed(specs): ... xs.sort(key=attrgetter(key), reverse=reverse) ... return xs >>> multisort(list(student_objects), (('grade', True), ('age', False))) [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] The Timsort(2) algorithm used in Python does multiple sorts efficiently because it can take advantage of any ordering already present in a dataset. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorting_algorithm#Stability (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timsort  File: python.info, Node: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate, Next: Comparison Functions, Prev: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.6 Decorate-Sort-Undecorate ------------------------------- This idiom is called Decorate-Sort-Undecorate after its three steps: * First, the initial list is decorated with new values that control the sort order. * Second, the decorated list is sorted. * Finally, the decorations are removed, creating a list that contains only the initial values in the new order. For example, to sort the student data by 'grade' using the DSU approach: >>> decorated = [(student.grade, i, student) for i, student in enumerate(student_objects)] >>> decorated.sort() >>> [student for grade, i, student in decorated] # undecorate [('john', 'A', 15), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('dave', 'B', 10)] This idiom works because tuples are compared lexicographically; the first items are compared; if they are the same then the second items are compared, and so on. It is not strictly necessary in all cases to include the index 'i' in the decorated list, but including it gives two benefits: * The sort is stable – if two items have the same key, their order will be preserved in the sorted list. * The original items do not have to be comparable because the ordering of the decorated tuples will be determined by at most the first two items. So for example the original list could contain complex numbers which cannot be sorted directly. Another name for this idiom is Schwartzian transform(1), after Randal L. Schwartz, who popularized it among Perl programmers. Now that Python sorting provides key-functions, this technique is not often needed. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schwartzian_transform  File: python.info, Node: Comparison Functions, Next: Odds and Ends<2>, Prev: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.7 Comparison Functions --------------------------- Unlike key functions that return an absolute value for sorting, a comparison function computes the relative ordering for two inputs. For example, a balance scale(1) compares two samples giving a relative ordering: lighter, equal, or heavier. Likewise, a comparison function such as ‘cmp(a, b)’ will return a negative value for less-than, zero if the inputs are equal, or a positive value for greater-than. It is common to encounter comparison functions when translating algorithms from other languages. Also, some libraries provide comparison functions as part of their API. For example, *note locale.strcoll(): 3d42. is a comparison function. To accommodate those situations, Python provides *note functools.cmp_to_key: 11cc. to wrap the comparison function to make it usable as a key function: sorted(words, key=cmp_to_key(strcoll)) # locale-aware sort order ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Balance_à_tabac_1850.JPG  File: python.info, Node: Odds and Ends<2>, Next: Partial Sorts, Prev: Comparison Functions, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.8 Odds and Ends -------------------- * For locale aware sorting, use *note locale.strxfrm(): 3d44. for a key function or *note locale.strcoll(): 3d42. for a comparison function. This is necessary because “alphabetical” sort orderings can vary across cultures even if the underlying alphabet is the same. * The 'reverse' parameter still maintains sort stability (so that records with equal keys retain the original order). Interestingly, that effect can be simulated without the parameter by using the builtin *note reversed(): 862. function twice: >>> data = [('red', 1), ('blue', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 2)] >>> standard_way = sorted(data, key=itemgetter(0), reverse=True) >>> double_reversed = list(reversed(sorted(reversed(data), key=itemgetter(0)))) >>> assert standard_way == double_reversed >>> standard_way [('red', 1), ('red', 2), ('blue', 1), ('blue', 2)] * The sort routines use ‘<’ when making comparisons between two objects. So, it is easy to add a standard sort order to a class by defining an *note __lt__(): 1292. method: >>> Student.__lt__ = lambda self, other: self.age < other.age >>> sorted(student_objects) [('dave', 'B', 10), ('jane', 'B', 12), ('john', 'A', 15)] However, note that ‘<’ can fall back to using *note __gt__(): 12ff. if *note __lt__(): 1292. is not implemented (see *note object.__lt__(): 1292. for details on the mechanics). To avoid surprises, PEP 8(1) recommends that all six comparison methods be implemented. The *note total_ordering(): f3d. decorator is provided to make that task easier. * Key functions need not depend directly on the objects being sorted. A key function can also access external resources. For instance, if the student grades are stored in a dictionary, they can be used to sort a separate list of student names: >>> students = ['dave', 'john', 'jane'] >>> newgrades = {'john': 'F', 'jane':'A', 'dave': 'C'} >>> sorted(students, key=newgrades.__getitem__) ['jane', 'dave', 'john'] ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/  File: python.info, Node: Partial Sorts, Prev: Odds and Ends<2>, Up: Sorting Techniques 9.12.9 Partial Sorts -------------------- Some applications require only some of the data to be ordered. The standard library provides several tools that do less work than a full sort: * *note min(): f03. and *note max(): f04. return the smallest and largest values, respectively. These functions make a single pass over the input data and require almost no auxiliary memory. * *note heapq.nsmallest(): 253c. and *note heapq.nlargest(): 253b. return the 'n' smallest and largest values, respectively. These functions make a single pass over the data keeping only 'n' elements in memory at a time. For values of 'n' that are small relative to the number of inputs, these functions make far fewer comparisons than a full sort. * *note heapq.heappush(): 1485. and *note heapq.heappop(): 1486. create and maintain a partially sorted arrangement of data that keeps the smallest element at position ‘0’. These functions are suitable for implementing priority queues which are commonly used for task scheduling.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode HOWTO, Next: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package, Prev: Sorting Techniques, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.13 Unicode HOWTO ================== Release: 1.12 This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the Unicode specification for representing textual data, and explains various problems that people commonly encounter when trying to work with Unicode. * Menu: * Introduction to Unicode:: * Python’s Unicode Support:: * Reading and Writing Unicode Data:: * Acknowledgements: Acknowledgements<10>.  File: python.info, Node: Introduction to Unicode, Next: Python’s Unicode Support, Up: Unicode HOWTO 9.13.1 Introduction to Unicode ------------------------------ * Menu: * Definitions:: * Encodings:: * References: References<3>.  File: python.info, Node: Definitions, Next: Encodings, Up: Introduction to Unicode 9.13.1.1 Definitions .................... Today’s programs need to be able to handle a wide variety of characters. Applications are often internationalized to display messages and output in a variety of user-selectable languages; the same program might need to output an error message in English, French, Japanese, Hebrew, or Russian. Web content can be written in any of these languages and can also include a variety of emoji symbols. Python’s string type uses the Unicode Standard for representing characters, which lets Python programs work with all these different possible characters. Unicode (‘https://www.unicode.org/’) is a specification that aims to list every character used by human languages and give each character its own unique code. The Unicode specifications are continually revised and updated to add new languages and symbols. A 'character' is the smallest possible component of a text. ‘A’, ‘B’, ‘C’, etc., are all different characters. So are ‘È’ and ‘Í’. Characters vary depending on the language or context you’re talking about. For example, there’s a character for “Roman Numeral One”, ‘Ⅰ’, that’s separate from the uppercase letter ‘I’. They’ll usually look the same, but these are two different characters that have different meanings. The Unicode standard describes how characters are represented by 'code points'. A code point value is an integer in the range 0 to 0x10FFFF (about 1.1 million values, the actual number assigned(1) is less than that). In the standard and in this document, a code point is written using the notation ‘U+265E’ to mean the character with value ‘0x265e’ (9,822 in decimal). The Unicode standard contains a lot of tables listing characters and their corresponding code points: 0061 'a'; LATIN SMALL LETTER A 0062 'b'; LATIN SMALL LETTER B 0063 'c'; LATIN SMALL LETTER C ... 007B '{'; LEFT CURLY BRACKET ... 2167 'Ⅷ'; ROMAN NUMERAL EIGHT 2168 'Ⅸ'; ROMAN NUMERAL NINE ... 265E '♞'; BLACK CHESS KNIGHT 265F '♟'; BLACK CHESS PAWN ... 1F600 '😀'; GRINNING FACE 1F609 '😉'; WINKING FACE ... Strictly, these definitions imply that it’s meaningless to say ‘this is character ‘U+265E’’. ‘U+265E’ is a code point, which represents some particular character; in this case, it represents the character ‘BLACK CHESS KNIGHT’, ‘♞’. In informal contexts, this distinction between code points and characters will sometimes be forgotten. A character is represented on a screen or on paper by a set of graphical elements that’s called a 'glyph'. The glyph for an uppercase A, for example, is two diagonal strokes and a horizontal stroke, though the exact details will depend on the font being used. Most Python code doesn’t need to worry about glyphs; figuring out the correct glyph to display is generally the job of a GUI toolkit or a terminal’s font renderer. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.unicode.org/versions/latest/#Summary  File: python.info, Node: Encodings, Next: References<3>, Prev: Definitions, Up: Introduction to Unicode 9.13.1.2 Encodings .................. To summarize the previous section: a Unicode string is a sequence of code points, which are numbers from 0 through ‘0x10FFFF’ (1,114,111 decimal). This sequence of code points needs to be represented in memory as a set of 'code units', and 'code units' are then mapped to 8-bit bytes. The rules for translating a Unicode string into a sequence of bytes are called a 'character encoding', or just an 'encoding'. The first encoding you might think of is using 32-bit integers as the code unit, and then using the CPU’s representation of 32-bit integers. In this representation, the string “Python” might look like this: P y t h o n 0x50 00 00 00 79 00 00 00 74 00 00 00 68 00 00 00 6f 00 00 00 6e 00 00 00 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 This representation is straightforward but using it presents a number of problems. 1. It’s not portable; different processors order the bytes differently. 2. It’s very wasteful of space. In most texts, the majority of the code points are less than 127, or less than 255, so a lot of space is occupied by ‘0x00’ bytes. The above string takes 24 bytes compared to the 6 bytes needed for an ASCII representation. Increased RAM usage doesn’t matter too much (desktop computers have gigabytes of RAM, and strings aren’t usually that large), but expanding our usage of disk and network bandwidth by a factor of 4 is intolerable. 3. It’s not compatible with existing C functions such as ‘strlen()’, so a new family of wide string functions would need to be used. Therefore this encoding isn’t used very much, and people instead choose other encodings that are more efficient and convenient, such as UTF-8. UTF-8 is one of the most commonly used encodings, and Python often defaults to using it. UTF stands for “Unicode Transformation Format”, and the ‘8’ means that 8-bit values are used in the encoding. (There are also UTF-16 and UTF-32 encodings, but they are less frequently used than UTF-8.) UTF-8 uses the following rules: 1. If the code point is < 128, it’s represented by the corresponding byte value. 2. If the code point is >= 128, it’s turned into a sequence of two, three, or four bytes, where each byte of the sequence is between 128 and 255. UTF-8 has several convenient properties: 1. It can handle any Unicode code point. 2. A Unicode string is turned into a sequence of bytes that contains embedded zero bytes only where they represent the null character (U+0000). This means that UTF-8 strings can be processed by C functions such as ‘strcpy()’ and sent through protocols that can’t handle zero bytes for anything other than end-of-string markers. 3. A string of ASCII text is also valid UTF-8 text. 4. UTF-8 is fairly compact; the majority of commonly used characters can be represented with one or two bytes. 5. If bytes are corrupted or lost, it’s possible to determine the start of the next UTF-8-encoded code point and resynchronize. It’s also unlikely that random 8-bit data will look like valid UTF-8. 6. UTF-8 is a byte oriented encoding. The encoding specifies that each character is represented by a specific sequence of one or more bytes. This avoids the byte-ordering issues that can occur with integer and word oriented encodings, like UTF-16 and UTF-32, where the sequence of bytes varies depending on the hardware on which the string was encoded.  File: python.info, Node: References<3>, Prev: Encodings, Up: Introduction to Unicode 9.13.1.3 References ................... The Unicode Consortium site(1) has character charts, a glossary, and PDF versions of the Unicode specification. Be prepared for some difficult reading. A chronology(2) of the origin and development of Unicode is also available on the site. On the Computerphile Youtube channel, Tom Scott briefly discusses the history of Unicode and UTF-8(3) (9 minutes 36 seconds). To help understand the standard, Jukka Korpela has written an introductory guide(4) to reading the Unicode character tables. Another good introductory article(5) was written by Joel Spolsky. If this introduction didn’t make things clear to you, you should try reading this alternate article before continuing. Wikipedia entries are often helpful; see the entries for “character encoding(6)” and UTF-8(7), for example. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.unicode.org (2) https://www.unicode.org/history/ (3) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MijmeoH9LT4 (4) https://jkorpela.fi/unicode/guide.html (5) https://www.joelonsoftware.com/2003/10/08/the-absolute-minimum-every-software-developer-absolutely-positively-must-know-about-unicode-and-character-sets-no-excuses/ (6) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding (7) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8  File: python.info, Node: Python’s Unicode Support, Next: Reading and Writing Unicode Data, Prev: Introduction to Unicode, Up: Unicode HOWTO 9.13.2 Python’s Unicode Support ------------------------------- Now that you’ve learned the rudiments of Unicode, we can look at Python’s Unicode features. * Menu: * The String Type:: * Converting to Bytes:: * Unicode Literals in Python Source Code:: * Unicode Properties:: * Comparing Strings:: * Unicode Regular Expressions:: * References: References<4>.  File: python.info, Node: The String Type, Next: Converting to Bytes, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.1 The String Type ........................ Since Python 3.0, the language’s *note str: 447. type contains Unicode characters, meaning any string created using ‘"unicode rocks!"’, ‘'unicode rocks!'’, or the triple-quoted string syntax is stored as Unicode. The default encoding for Python source code is UTF-8, so you can simply include a Unicode character in a string literal: try: with open('/tmp/input.txt', 'r') as f: ... except OSError: # 'File not found' error message. print("Fichier non trouvé") Side note: Python 3 also supports using Unicode characters in identifiers: répertoire = "/tmp/records.log" with open(répertoire, "w") as f: f.write("test\n") If you can’t enter a particular character in your editor or want to keep the source code ASCII-only for some reason, you can also use escape sequences in string literals. (Depending on your system, you may see the actual capital-delta glyph instead of a u escape.) >>> "\N{GREEK CAPITAL LETTER DELTA}" # Using the character name '\u0394' >>> "\u0394" # Using a 16-bit hex value '\u0394' >>> "\U00000394" # Using a 32-bit hex value '\u0394' In addition, one can create a string using the *note decode(): 8d5. method of *note bytes: 1c2. This method takes an 'encoding' argument, such as ‘UTF-8’, and optionally an 'errors' argument. The 'errors' argument specifies the response when the input string can’t be converted according to the encoding’s rules. Legal values for this argument are ‘'strict'’ (raise a *note UnicodeDecodeError: a12. exception), ‘'replace'’ (use ‘U+FFFD’, ‘REPLACEMENT CHARACTER’), ‘'ignore'’ (just leave the character out of the Unicode result), or ‘'backslashreplace'’ (inserts a ‘\xNN’ escape sequence). The following examples show the differences: >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "strict") Traceback (most recent call last): ... UnicodeDecodeError: 'utf-8' codec can't decode byte 0x80 in position 0: invalid start byte >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "replace") '\ufffdabc' >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "backslashreplace") '\\x80abc' >>> b'\x80abc'.decode("utf-8", "ignore") 'abc' Encodings are specified as strings containing the encoding’s name. Python comes with roughly 100 different encodings; see the Python Library Reference at *note Standard Encodings: db8. for a list. Some encodings have multiple names; for example, ‘'latin-1'’, ‘'iso_8859_1'’ and ‘'8859’’ are all synonyms for the same encoding. One-character Unicode strings can also be created with the *note chr(): 1672. built-in function, which takes integers and returns a Unicode string of length 1 that contains the corresponding code point. The reverse operation is the built-in *note ord(): 1ef2. function that takes a one-character Unicode string and returns the code point value: >>> chr(57344) '\ue000' >>> ord('\ue000') 57344  File: python.info, Node: Converting to Bytes, Next: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code, Prev: The String Type, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.2 Converting to Bytes ............................ The opposite method of *note bytes.decode(): 8d5. is *note str.encode(): 8d4, which returns a *note bytes: 1c2. representation of the Unicode string, encoded in the requested 'encoding'. The 'errors' parameter is the same as the parameter of the *note decode(): 8d5. method but supports a few more possible handlers. As well as ‘'strict'’, ‘'ignore'’, and ‘'replace'’ (which in this case inserts a question mark instead of the unencodable character), there is also ‘'xmlcharrefreplace'’ (inserts an XML character reference), ‘backslashreplace’ (inserts a ‘\uNNNN’ escape sequence) and ‘namereplace’ (inserts a ‘\N{...}’ escape sequence). The following example shows the different results: >>> u = chr(40960) + 'abcd' + chr(1972) >>> u.encode('utf-8') b'\xea\x80\x80abcd\xde\xb4' >>> u.encode('ascii') Traceback (most recent call last): ... UnicodeEncodeError: 'ascii' codec can't encode character '\ua000' in position 0: ordinal not in range(128) >>> u.encode('ascii', 'ignore') b'abcd' >>> u.encode('ascii', 'replace') b'?abcd?' >>> u.encode('ascii', 'xmlcharrefreplace') b'ꀀabcd޴' >>> u.encode('ascii', 'backslashreplace') b'\\ua000abcd\\u07b4' >>> u.encode('ascii', 'namereplace') b'\\N{YI SYLLABLE IT}abcd\\u07b4' The low-level routines for registering and accessing the available encodings are found in the *note codecs: 1b. module. Implementing new encodings also requires understanding the *note codecs: 1b. module. However, the encoding and decoding functions returned by this module are usually more low-level than is comfortable, and writing new encodings is a specialized task, so the module won’t be covered in this HOWTO.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code, Next: Unicode Properties, Prev: Converting to Bytes, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.3 Unicode Literals in Python Source Code ............................................... In Python source code, specific Unicode code points can be written using the ‘\u’ escape sequence, which is followed by four hex digits giving the code point. The ‘\U’ escape sequence is similar, but expects eight hex digits, not four: >>> s = "a\xac\u1234\u20ac\U00008000" ... # ^^^^ two-digit hex escape ... # ^^^^^^ four-digit Unicode escape ... # ^^^^^^^^^^ eight-digit Unicode escape >>> [ord(c) for c in s] [97, 172, 4660, 8364, 32768] Using escape sequences for code points greater than 127 is fine in small doses, but becomes an annoyance if you’re using many accented characters, as you would in a program with messages in French or some other accent-using language. You can also assemble strings using the *note chr(): 1672. built-in function, but this is even more tedious. Ideally, you’d want to be able to write literals in your language’s natural encoding. You could then edit Python source code with your favorite editor which would display the accented characters naturally, and have the right characters used at runtime. Python supports writing source code in UTF-8 by default, but you can use almost any encoding if you declare the encoding being used. This is done by including a special comment as either the first or second line of the source file: #!/usr/bin/env python # -*- coding: latin-1 -*- u = 'abcdé' print(ord(u[-1])) The syntax is inspired by Emacs’s notation for specifying variables local to a file. Emacs supports many different variables, but Python only supports ‘coding’. The ‘-*-’ symbols indicate to Emacs that the comment is special; they have no significance to Python but are a convention. Python looks for ‘coding: name’ or ‘coding=name’ in the comment. If you don’t include such a comment, the default encoding used will be UTF-8 as already mentioned. See also PEP 263(1) for more information. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0263/  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Properties, Next: Comparing Strings, Prev: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.4 Unicode Properties ........................... The Unicode specification includes a database of information about code points. For each defined code point, the information includes the character’s name, its category, the numeric value if applicable (for characters representing numeric concepts such as the Roman numerals, fractions such as one-third and four-fifths, etc.). There are also display-related properties, such as how to use the code point in bidirectional text. The following program displays some information about several characters, and prints the numeric value of one particular character: import unicodedata u = chr(233) + chr(0x0bf2) + chr(3972) + chr(6000) + chr(13231) for i, c in enumerate(u): print(i, '%04x' % ord(c), unicodedata.category(c), end=" ") print(unicodedata.name(c)) # Get numeric value of second character print(unicodedata.numeric(u[1])) When run, this prints: 0 00e9 Ll LATIN SMALL LETTER E WITH ACUTE 1 0bf2 No TAMIL NUMBER ONE THOUSAND 2 0f84 Mn TIBETAN MARK HALANTA 3 1770 Lo TAGBANWA LETTER SA 4 33af So SQUARE RAD OVER S SQUARED 1000.0 The category codes are abbreviations describing the nature of the character. These are grouped into categories such as “Letter”, “Number”, “Punctuation”, or “Symbol”, which in turn are broken up into subcategories. To take the codes from the above output, ‘'Ll'’ means ‘Letter, lowercase’, ‘'No'’ means “Number, other”, ‘'Mn'’ is “Mark, nonspacing”, and ‘'So'’ is “Symbol, other”. See the General Category Values section of the Unicode Character Database documentation(1) for a list of category codes. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.unicode.org/reports/tr44/#General_Category_Values  File: python.info, Node: Comparing Strings, Next: Unicode Regular Expressions, Prev: Unicode Properties, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.5 Comparing Strings .......................... Unicode adds some complication to comparing strings, because the same set of characters can be represented by different sequences of code points. For example, a letter like ‘ê’ can be represented as a single code point U+00EA, or as U+0065 U+0302, which is the code point for ‘e’ followed by a code point for ‘COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT’. These will produce the same output when printed, but one is a string of length 1 and the other is of length 2. One tool for a case-insensitive comparison is the *note casefold(): dd5. string method that converts a string to a case-insensitive form following an algorithm described by the Unicode Standard. This algorithm has special handling for characters such as the German letter ‘ß’ (code point U+00DF), which becomes the pair of lowercase letters ‘ss’. >>> street = 'Gürzenichstraße' >>> street.casefold() 'gürzenichstrasse' A second tool is the *note unicodedata: 105. module’s *note normalize(): 6d0. function that converts strings to one of several normal forms, where letters followed by a combining character are replaced with single characters. *note normalize(): 6d0. can be used to perform string comparisons that won’t falsely report inequality if two strings use combining characters differently: import unicodedata def compare_strs(s1, s2): def NFD(s): return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s) return NFD(s1) == NFD(s2) single_char = 'ê' multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN SMALL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}' print('length of first string=', len(single_char)) print('length of second string=', len(multiple_chars)) print(compare_strs(single_char, multiple_chars)) When run, this outputs: $ python compare-strs.py length of first string= 1 length of second string= 2 True The first argument to the *note normalize(): 6d0. function is a string giving the desired normalization form, which can be one of ‘NFC’, ‘NFKC’, ‘NFD’, and ‘NFKD’. The Unicode Standard also specifies how to do caseless comparisons: import unicodedata def compare_caseless(s1, s2): def NFD(s): return unicodedata.normalize('NFD', s) return NFD(NFD(s1).casefold()) == NFD(NFD(s2).casefold()) # Example usage single_char = 'ê' multiple_chars = '\N{LATIN CAPITAL LETTER E}\N{COMBINING CIRCUMFLEX ACCENT}' print(compare_caseless(single_char, multiple_chars)) This will print ‘True’. (Why is ‘NFD()’ invoked twice? Because there are a few characters that make *note casefold(): dd5. return a non-normalized string, so the result needs to be normalized again. See section 3.13 of the Unicode Standard for a discussion and an example.)  File: python.info, Node: Unicode Regular Expressions, Next: References<4>, Prev: Comparing Strings, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.6 Unicode Regular Expressions .................................... The regular expressions supported by the *note re: b9. module can be provided either as bytes or strings. Some of the special character sequences such as ‘\d’ and ‘\w’ have different meanings depending on whether the pattern is supplied as bytes or a string. For example, ‘\d’ will match the characters ‘[0-9]’ in bytes but in strings will match any character that’s in the ‘'Nd'’ category. The string in this example has the number 57 written in both Thai and Arabic numerals: import re p = re.compile(r'\d+') s = "Over \u0e55\u0e57 57 flavours" m = p.search(s) print(repr(m.group())) When executed, ‘\d+’ will match the Thai numerals and print them out. If you supply the *note re.ASCII: 628. flag to *note compile(): bd3, ‘\d+’ will match the substring “57” instead. Similarly, ‘\w’ matches a wide variety of Unicode characters but only ‘[a-zA-Z0-9_]’ in bytes or if *note re.ASCII: 628. is supplied, and ‘\s’ will match either Unicode whitespace characters or ‘[ \t\n\r\f\v]’.  File: python.info, Node: References<4>, Prev: Unicode Regular Expressions, Up: Python’s Unicode Support 9.13.2.7 References ................... Some good alternative discussions of Python’s Unicode support are: * Processing Text Files in Python 3(1), by Nick Coghlan. * Pragmatic Unicode(2), a PyCon 2012 presentation by Ned Batchelder. The *note str: 447. type is described in the Python library reference at *note Text Sequence Type — str: 1bfc. The documentation for the *note unicodedata: 105. module. The documentation for the *note codecs: 1b. module. Marc-André Lemburg gave a presentation titled "Python and Unicode" (PDF slides)(3) at EuroPython 2002. The slides are an excellent overview of the design of Python 2’s Unicode features (where the Unicode string type is called ‘unicode’ and literals start with ‘u’). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://python-notes.curiousefficiency.org/en/latest/python3/text_file_processing.html (2) https://nedbatchelder.com/text/unipain.html (3) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/Unicode-EPC2002-Talk.pdf  File: python.info, Node: Reading and Writing Unicode Data, Next: Acknowledgements<10>, Prev: Python’s Unicode Support, Up: Unicode HOWTO 9.13.3 Reading and Writing Unicode Data --------------------------------------- Once you’ve written some code that works with Unicode data, the next problem is input/output. How do you get Unicode strings into your program, and how do you convert Unicode into a form suitable for storage or transmission? It’s possible that you may not need to do anything depending on your input sources and output destinations; you should check whether the libraries used in your application support Unicode natively. XML parsers often return Unicode data, for example. Many relational databases also support Unicode-valued columns and can return Unicode values from an SQL query. Unicode data is usually converted to a particular encoding before it gets written to disk or sent over a socket. It’s possible to do all the work yourself: open a file, read an 8-bit bytes object from it, and convert the bytes with ‘bytes.decode(encoding)’. However, the manual approach is not recommended. One problem is the multi-byte nature of encodings; one Unicode character can be represented by several bytes. If you want to read the file in arbitrary-sized chunks (say, 1024 or 4096 bytes), you need to write error-handling code to catch the case where only part of the bytes encoding a single Unicode character are read at the end of a chunk. One solution would be to read the entire file into memory and then perform the decoding, but that prevents you from working with files that are extremely large; if you need to read a 2 GiB file, you need 2 GiB of RAM. (More, really, since for at least a moment you’d need to have both the encoded string and its Unicode version in memory.) The solution would be to use the low-level decoding interface to catch the case of partial coding sequences. The work of implementing this has already been done for you: the built-in *note open(): 517. function can return a file-like object that assumes the file’s contents are in a specified encoding and accepts Unicode parameters for methods such as *note read(): 1c85. and *note write(): 1c74. This works through *note open(): 517.'s 'encoding' and 'errors' parameters which are interpreted just like those in *note str.encode(): 8d4. and *note bytes.decode(): 8d5. Reading Unicode from a file is therefore simple: with open('unicode.txt', encoding='utf-8') as f: for line in f: print(repr(line)) It’s also possible to open files in update mode, allowing both reading and writing: with open('test', encoding='utf-8', mode='w+') as f: f.write('\u4500 blah blah blah\n') f.seek(0) print(repr(f.readline()[:1])) The Unicode character ‘U+FEFF’ is used as a byte-order mark (BOM), and is often written as the first character of a file in order to assist with autodetection of the file’s byte ordering. Some encodings, such as UTF-16, expect a BOM to be present at the start of a file; when such an encoding is used, the BOM will be automatically written as the first character and will be silently dropped when the file is read. There are variants of these encodings, such as ‘utf-16-le’ and ‘utf-16-be’ for little-endian and big-endian encodings, that specify one particular byte ordering and don’t skip the BOM. In some areas, it is also convention to use a “BOM” at the start of UTF-8 encoded files; the name is misleading since UTF-8 is not byte-order dependent. The mark simply announces that the file is encoded in UTF-8. For reading such files, use the ‘utf-8-sig’ codec to automatically skip the mark if present. * Menu: * Unicode filenames:: * Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs:: * References: References<5>.  File: python.info, Node: Unicode filenames, Next: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs, Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data 9.13.3.1 Unicode filenames .......................... Most of the operating systems in common use today support filenames that contain arbitrary Unicode characters. Usually this is implemented by converting the Unicode string into some encoding that varies depending on the system. Today Python is converging on using UTF-8: Python on MacOS has used UTF-8 for several versions, and Python 3.6 switched to using UTF-8 on Windows as well. On Unix systems, there will only be a *note filesystem encoding: 537. if you’ve set the ‘LANG’ or ‘LC_CTYPE’ environment variables; if you haven’t, the default encoding is again UTF-8. The *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59. function returns the encoding to use on your current system, in case you want to do the encoding manually, but there’s not much reason to bother. When opening a file for reading or writing, you can usually just provide the Unicode string as the filename, and it will be automatically converted to the right encoding for you: filename = 'filename\u4500abc' with open(filename, 'w') as f: f.write('blah\n') Functions in the *note os: a1. module such as *note os.stat(): 49c. will also accept Unicode filenames. The *note os.listdir(): 10ee. function returns filenames, which raises an issue: should it return the Unicode version of filenames, or should it return bytes containing the encoded versions? *note os.listdir(): 10ee. can do both, depending on whether you provided the directory path as bytes or a Unicode string. If you pass a Unicode string as the path, filenames will be decoded using the filesystem’s encoding and a list of Unicode strings will be returned, while passing a byte path will return the filenames as bytes. For example, assuming the default *note filesystem encoding: 537. is UTF-8, running the following program: fn = 'filename\u4500abc' f = open(fn, 'w') f.close() import os print(os.listdir(b'.')) print(os.listdir('.')) will produce the following output: $ python listdir-test.py [b'filename\xe4\x94\x80abc', ...] ['filename\u4500abc', ...] The first list contains UTF-8-encoded filenames, and the second list contains the Unicode versions. Note that on most occasions, you should can just stick with using Unicode with these APIs. The bytes APIs should only be used on systems where undecodable file names can be present; that’s pretty much only Unix systems now.  File: python.info, Node: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs, Next: References<5>, Prev: Unicode filenames, Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data 9.13.3.2 Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs ................................................ This section provides some suggestions on writing software that deals with Unicode. The most important tip is: Software should only work with Unicode strings internally, decoding the input data as soon as possible and encoding the output only at the end. If you attempt to write processing functions that accept both Unicode and byte strings, you will find your program vulnerable to bugs wherever you combine the two different kinds of strings. There is no automatic encoding or decoding: if you do e.g. ‘str + bytes’, a *note TypeError: 534. will be raised. When using data coming from a web browser or some other untrusted source, a common technique is to check for illegal characters in a string before using the string in a generated command line or storing it in a database. If you’re doing this, be careful to check the decoded string, not the encoded bytes data; some encodings may have interesting properties, such as not being bijective or not being fully ASCII-compatible. This is especially true if the input data also specifies the encoding, since the attacker can then choose a clever way to hide malicious text in the encoded bytestream. * Menu: * Converting Between File Encodings:: * Files in an Unknown Encoding::  File: python.info, Node: Converting Between File Encodings, Next: Files in an Unknown Encoding, Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs 9.13.3.3 Converting Between File Encodings .......................................... The *note StreamRecoder: 19f0. class can transparently convert between encodings, taking a stream that returns data in encoding #1 and behaving like a stream returning data in encoding #2. For example, if you have an input file 'f' that’s in Latin-1, you can wrap it with a *note StreamRecoder: 19f0. to return bytes encoded in UTF-8: new_f = codecs.StreamRecoder(f, # en/decoder: used by read() to encode its results and # by write() to decode its input. codecs.getencoder('utf-8'), codecs.getdecoder('utf-8'), # reader/writer: used to read and write to the stream. codecs.getreader('latin-1'), codecs.getwriter('latin-1') )  File: python.info, Node: Files in an Unknown Encoding, Prev: Converting Between File Encodings, Up: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs 9.13.3.4 Files in an Unknown Encoding ..................................... What can you do if you need to make a change to a file, but don’t know the file’s encoding? If you know the encoding is ASCII-compatible and only want to examine or modify the ASCII parts, you can open the file with the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler: with open(fname, 'r', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f: data = f.read() # make changes to the string 'data' with open(fname + '.new', 'w', encoding="ascii", errors="surrogateescape") as f: f.write(data) The ‘surrogateescape’ error handler will decode any non-ASCII bytes as code points in a special range running from U+DC80 to U+DCFF. These code points will then turn back into the same bytes when the ‘surrogateescape’ error handler is used to encode the data and write it back out.  File: python.info, Node: References<5>, Prev: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs, Up: Reading and Writing Unicode Data 9.13.3.5 References ................... One section of Mastering Python 3 Input/Output(1), a PyCon 2010 talk by David Beazley, discusses text processing and binary data handling. The PDF slides for Marc-André Lemburg's presentation "Writing Unicode-aware Applications in Python"(2) discuss questions of character encodings as well as how to internationalize and localize an application. These slides cover Python 2.x only. The Guts of Unicode in Python(3) is a PyCon 2013 talk by Benjamin Peterson that discusses the internal Unicode representation in Python 3.3. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pyvideo.org/video/289/pycon-2010-mastering-python-3-i-o (2) https://downloads.egenix.com/python/LSM2005-Developing-Unicode-aware-applications-in-Python.pdf (3) https://pyvideo.org/video/1768/the-guts-of-unicode-in-python  File: python.info, Node: Acknowledgements<10>, Prev: Reading and Writing Unicode Data, Up: Unicode HOWTO 9.13.4 Acknowledgements ----------------------- The initial draft of this document was written by Andrew Kuchling. It has since been revised further by Alexander Belopolsky, Georg Brandl, Andrew Kuchling, and Ezio Melotti. Thanks to the following people who have noted errors or offered suggestions on this article: Éric Araujo, Nicholas Bastin, Nick Coghlan, Marius Gedminas, Kent Johnson, Ken Krugler, Marc-André Lemburg, Martin von Löwis, Terry J. Reedy, Serhiy Storchaka, Eryk Sun, Chad Whitacre, Graham Wideman.  File: python.info, Node: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package, Next: An introduction to the ipaddress module, Prev: Unicode HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.14 HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package ============================================================ Author: Michael Foord(1) * Menu: * Introduction: Introduction<16>. * Fetching URLs:: * Handling Exceptions: Handling Exceptions<2>. * info and geturl:: * Openers and Handlers:: * Basic Authentication:: * Proxies:: * Sockets and Layers:: * Footnotes:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://agileabstractions.com/  File: python.info, Node: Introduction<16>, Next: Fetching URLs, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.1 Introduction ------------------- Related Articles ................ You may also find useful the following article on fetching web resources with Python: * Basic Authentication(1) A tutorial on 'Basic Authentication', with examples in Python. 'urllib.request' is a Python module for fetching URLs (Uniform Resource Locators). It offers a very simple interface, in the form of the 'urlopen' function. This is capable of fetching URLs using a variety of different protocols. It also offers a slightly more complex interface for handling common situations - like basic authentication, cookies, proxies and so on. These are provided by objects called handlers and openers. urllib.request supports fetching URLs for many “URL schemes” (identified by the string before the ‘":"’ in URL - for example ‘"ftp"’ is the URL scheme of ‘"ftp://python.org/"’) using their associated network protocols (e.g. FTP, HTTP). This tutorial focuses on the most common case, HTTP. For straightforward situations 'urlopen' is very easy to use. But as soon as you encounter errors or non-trivial cases when opening HTTP URLs, you will need some understanding of the HyperText Transfer Protocol. The most comprehensive and authoritative reference to HTTP is RFC 2616(2). This is a technical document and not intended to be easy to read. This HOWTO aims to illustrate using 'urllib', with enough detail about HTTP to help you through. It is not intended to replace the *note urllib.request: 10b. docs, but is supplementary to them. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml (2) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html  File: python.info, Node: Fetching URLs, Next: Handling Exceptions<2>, Prev: Introduction<16>, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.2 Fetching URLs -------------------- The simplest way to use urllib.request is as follows: import urllib.request with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response: html = response.read() If you wish to retrieve a resource via URL and store it in a temporary location, you can do so via the *note shutil.copyfileobj(): a5c. and *note tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(): 4c2. functions: import shutil import tempfile import urllib.request with urllib.request.urlopen('http://python.org/') as response: with tempfile.NamedTemporaryFile(delete=False) as tmp_file: shutil.copyfileobj(response, tmp_file) with open(tmp_file.name) as html: pass Many uses of urllib will be that simple (note that instead of an ‘http:’ URL we could have used a URL starting with ‘ftp:’, ‘file:’, etc.). However, it’s the purpose of this tutorial to explain the more complicated cases, concentrating on HTTP. HTTP is based on requests and responses - the client makes requests and servers send responses. urllib.request mirrors this with a ‘Request’ object which represents the HTTP request you are making. In its simplest form you create a Request object that specifies the URL you want to fetch. Calling ‘urlopen’ with this Request object returns a response object for the URL requested. This response is a file-like object, which means you can for example call ‘.read()’ on the response: import urllib.request req = urllib.request.Request('http://python.org/') with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response: the_page = response.read() Note that urllib.request makes use of the same Request interface to handle all URL schemes. For example, you can make an FTP request like so: req = urllib.request.Request('ftp://example.com/') In the case of HTTP, there are two extra things that Request objects allow you to do: First, you can pass data to be sent to the server. Second, you can pass extra information (“metadata”) 'about' the data or about the request itself, to the server - this information is sent as HTTP “headers”. Let’s look at each of these in turn. * Menu: * Data:: * Headers::  File: python.info, Node: Data, Next: Headers, Up: Fetching URLs 9.14.2.1 Data ............. Sometimes you want to send data to a URL (often the URL will refer to a CGI (Common Gateway Interface) script or other web application). With HTTP, this is often done using what’s known as a 'POST' request. This is often what your browser does when you submit a HTML form that you filled in on the web. Not all POSTs have to come from forms: you can use a POST to transmit arbitrary data to your own application. In the common case of HTML forms, the data needs to be encoded in a standard way, and then passed to the Request object as the ‘data’ argument. The encoding is done using a function from the *note urllib.parse: 10a. library. import urllib.parse import urllib.request url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi' values = {'name' : 'Michael Foord', 'location' : 'Northampton', 'language' : 'Python' } data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values) data = data.encode('ascii') # data should be bytes req = urllib.request.Request(url, data) with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response: the_page = response.read() Note that other encodings are sometimes required (e.g. for file upload from HTML forms - see HTML Specification, Form Submission(1) for more details). If you do not pass the ‘data’ argument, urllib uses a 'GET' request. One way in which GET and POST requests differ is that POST requests often have “side-effects”: they change the state of the system in some way (for example by placing an order with the website for a hundredweight of tinned spam to be delivered to your door). Though the HTTP standard makes it clear that POSTs are intended to 'always' cause side-effects, and GET requests 'never' to cause side-effects, nothing prevents a GET request from having side-effects, nor a POST requests from having no side-effects. Data can also be passed in an HTTP GET request by encoding it in the URL itself. This is done as follows: >>> import urllib.request >>> import urllib.parse >>> data = {} >>> data['name'] = 'Somebody Here' >>> data['location'] = 'Northampton' >>> data['language'] = 'Python' >>> url_values = urllib.parse.urlencode(data) >>> print(url_values) # The order may differ from below. name=Somebody+Here&language=Python&location=Northampton >>> url = 'http://www.example.com/example.cgi' >>> full_url = url + '?' + url_values >>> data = urllib.request.urlopen(full_url) Notice that the full URL is created by adding a ‘?’ to the URL, followed by the encoded values. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.w3.org/TR/REC-html40/interact/forms.html#h-17.13  File: python.info, Node: Headers, Prev: Data, Up: Fetching URLs 9.14.2.2 Headers ................ We’ll discuss here one particular HTTP header, to illustrate how to add headers to your HTTP request. Some websites (1) dislike being browsed by programs, or send different versions to different browsers (2). By default urllib identifies itself as ‘Python-urllib/x.y’ (where ‘x’ and ‘y’ are the major and minor version numbers of the Python release, e.g. ‘Python-urllib/2.5’), which may confuse the site, or just plain not work. The way a browser identifies itself is through the ‘User-Agent’ header (3). When you create a Request object you can pass a dictionary of headers in. The following example makes the same request as above, but identifies itself as a version of Internet Explorer (4). import urllib.parse import urllib.request url = 'http://www.someserver.com/cgi-bin/register.cgi' user_agent = 'Mozilla/5.0 (Windows NT 6.1; Win64; x64)' values = {'name': 'Michael Foord', 'location': 'Northampton', 'language': 'Python' } headers = {'User-Agent': user_agent} data = urllib.parse.urlencode(values) data = data.encode('ascii') req = urllib.request.Request(url, data, headers) with urllib.request.urlopen(req) as response: the_page = response.read() The response also has two useful methods. See the section on *note info and geturl: 5043. which comes after we have a look at what happens when things go wrong. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Google for example. (2) Browser sniffing is a very bad practice for website design - building sites using web standards is much more sensible. Unfortunately a lot of sites still send different versions to different browsers. (3) The user agent for MSIE 6 is '‘Mozilla/4.0 (compatible; MSIE 6.0; Windows NT 5.1; SV1; .NET CLR 1.1.4322)’' (4) For details of more HTTP request headers, see Quick Reference to HTTP Headers (https://jkorpela.fi/http.html).  File: python.info, Node: Handling Exceptions<2>, Next: info and geturl, Prev: Fetching URLs, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.3 Handling Exceptions -------------------------- 'urlopen' raises *note URLError: 399c. when it cannot handle a response (though as usual with Python APIs, built-in exceptions such as *note ValueError: 204, *note TypeError: 534. etc. may also be raised). *note HTTPError: fd9. is the subclass of *note URLError: 399c. raised in the specific case of HTTP URLs. The exception classes are exported from the *note urllib.error: 109. module. * Menu: * URLError:: * HTTPError:: * Wrapping it Up::  File: python.info, Node: URLError, Next: HTTPError, Up: Handling Exceptions<2> 9.14.3.1 URLError ................. Often, URLError is raised because there is no network connection (no route to the specified server), or the specified server doesn’t exist. In this case, the exception raised will have a ‘reason’ attribute, which is a tuple containing an error code and a text error message. e.g. >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.pretend_server.org') >>> try: urllib.request.urlopen(req) ... except urllib.error.URLError as e: ... print(e.reason) ... (4, 'getaddrinfo failed')  File: python.info, Node: HTTPError, Next: Wrapping it Up, Prev: URLError, Up: Handling Exceptions<2> 9.14.3.2 HTTPError .................. Every HTTP response from the server contains a numeric “status code”. Sometimes the status code indicates that the server is unable to fulfil the request. The default handlers will handle some of these responses for you (for example, if the response is a “redirection” that requests the client fetch the document from a different URL, urllib will handle that for you). For those it can’t handle, urlopen will raise an *note HTTPError: fd9. Typical errors include ‘404’ (page not found), ‘403’ (request forbidden), and ‘401’ (authentication required). See section 10 of RFC 2616(1) for a reference on all the HTTP error codes. The *note HTTPError: fd9. instance raised will have an integer ‘code’ attribute, which corresponds to the error sent by the server. * Menu: * Error Codes:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html  File: python.info, Node: Error Codes, Up: HTTPError 9.14.3.3 Error Codes .................... Because the default handlers handle redirects (codes in the 300 range), and codes in the 100–299 range indicate success, you will usually only see error codes in the 400–599 range. *note http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler.responses: 3a3a. is a useful dictionary of response codes that shows all the response codes used by RFC 2616(1). An excerpt from the dictionary is shown below responses = { ... : ('OK', 'Request fulfilled, document follows'), ... : ('Forbidden', 'Request forbidden -- authorization will ' 'not help'), : ('Not Found', 'Nothing matches the given URI'), ... : ("I'm a Teapot", 'Server refuses to brew coffee because ' 'it is a teapot'), ... : ('Service Unavailable', 'The server cannot process the ' 'request due to a high load'), ... } When an error is raised the server responds by returning an HTTP error code 'and' an error page. You can use the *note HTTPError: fd9. instance as a response on the page returned. This means that as well as the code attribute, it also has read, geturl, and info, methods as returned by the ‘urllib.response’ module: >>> req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.python.org/fish.html') >>> try: ... urllib.request.urlopen(req) ... except urllib.error.HTTPError as e: ... print(e.code) ... print(e.read()) ... 404 b'\n\n\nPage Not Found\n ... ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2616.html  File: python.info, Node: Wrapping it Up, Prev: HTTPError, Up: Handling Exceptions<2> 9.14.3.4 Wrapping it Up ....................... So if you want to be prepared for *note HTTPError: fd9. 'or' *note URLError: 399c. there are two basic approaches. I prefer the second approach. * Menu: * Number 1:: * Number 2::  File: python.info, Node: Number 1, Next: Number 2, Up: Wrapping it Up 9.14.3.5 Number 1 ................. from urllib.request import Request, urlopen from urllib.error import URLError, HTTPError req = Request(someurl) try: response = urlopen(req) except HTTPError as e: print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.') print('Error code: ', e.code) except URLError as e: print('We failed to reach a server.') print('Reason: ', e.reason) else: # everything is fine Note: The ‘except HTTPError’ 'must' come first, otherwise ‘except URLError’ will 'also' catch an *note HTTPError: fd9.  File: python.info, Node: Number 2, Prev: Number 1, Up: Wrapping it Up 9.14.3.6 Number 2 ................. from urllib.request import Request, urlopen from urllib.error import URLError req = Request(someurl) try: response = urlopen(req) except URLError as e: if hasattr(e, 'reason'): print('We failed to reach a server.') print('Reason: ', e.reason) elif hasattr(e, 'code'): print('The server couldn\'t fulfill the request.') print('Error code: ', e.code) else: # everything is fine  File: python.info, Node: info and geturl, Next: Openers and Handlers, Prev: Handling Exceptions<2>, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.4 info and geturl ---------------------- The response returned by urlopen (or the *note HTTPError: fd9. instance) has two useful methods ‘info()’ and ‘geturl()’ and is defined in the module *note urllib.response: 10c. * 'geturl' - this returns the real URL of the page fetched. This is useful because ‘urlopen’ (or the opener object used) may have followed a redirect. The URL of the page fetched may not be the same as the URL requested. * 'info' - this returns a dictionary-like object that describes the page fetched, particularly the headers sent by the server. It is currently an *note http.client.HTTPMessage: 3a51. instance. Typical headers include ‘Content-length’, ‘Content-type’, and so on. See the Quick Reference to HTTP Headers(1) for a useful listing of HTTP headers with brief explanations of their meaning and use. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://jkorpela.fi/http.html  File: python.info, Node: Openers and Handlers, Next: Basic Authentication, Prev: info and geturl, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.5 Openers and Handlers --------------------------- When you fetch a URL you use an opener (an instance of the perhaps confusingly named *note urllib.request.OpenerDirector: 399d.). Normally we have been using the default opener - via ‘urlopen’ - but you can create custom openers. Openers use handlers. All the “heavy lifting” is done by the handlers. Each handler knows how to open URLs for a particular URL scheme (http, ftp, etc.), or how to handle an aspect of URL opening, for example HTTP redirections or HTTP cookies. You will want to create openers if you want to fetch URLs with specific handlers installed, for example to get an opener that handles cookies, or to get an opener that does not handle redirections. To create an opener, instantiate an ‘OpenerDirector’, and then call ‘.add_handler(some_handler_instance)’ repeatedly. Alternatively, you can use ‘build_opener’, which is a convenience function for creating opener objects with a single function call. ‘build_opener’ adds several handlers by default, but provides a quick way to add more and/or override the default handlers. Other sorts of handlers you might want to can handle proxies, authentication, and other common but slightly specialised situations. ‘install_opener’ can be used to make an ‘opener’ object the (global) default opener. This means that calls to ‘urlopen’ will use the opener you have installed. Opener objects have an ‘open’ method, which can be called directly to fetch urls in the same way as the ‘urlopen’ function: there’s no need to call ‘install_opener’, except as a convenience.  File: python.info, Node: Basic Authentication, Next: Proxies, Prev: Openers and Handlers, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.6 Basic Authentication --------------------------- To illustrate creating and installing a handler we will use the ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’. For a more detailed discussion of this subject – including an explanation of how Basic Authentication works - see the Basic Authentication Tutorial(1). When authentication is required, the server sends a header (as well as the 401 error code) requesting authentication. This specifies the authentication scheme and a ‘realm’. The header looks like: ‘WWW-Authenticate: SCHEME realm="REALM"’. e.g. WWW-Authenticate: Basic realm="cPanel Users" The client should then retry the request with the appropriate name and password for the realm included as a header in the request. This is ‘basic authentication’. In order to simplify this process we can create an instance of ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ and an opener to use this handler. The ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ uses an object called a password manager to handle the mapping of URLs and realms to passwords and usernames. If you know what the realm is (from the authentication header sent by the server), then you can use a ‘HTTPPasswordMgr’. Frequently one doesn’t care what the realm is. In that case, it is convenient to use ‘HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm’. This allows you to specify a default username and password for a URL. This will be supplied in the absence of you providing an alternative combination for a specific realm. We indicate this by providing ‘None’ as the realm argument to the ‘add_password’ method. The top-level URL is the first URL that requires authentication. URLs “deeper” than the URL you pass to .add_password() will also match. # create a password manager password_mgr = urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm() # Add the username and password. # If we knew the realm, we could use it instead of None. top_level_url = "http://example.com/foo/" password_mgr.add_password(None, top_level_url, username, password) handler = urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler(password_mgr) # create "opener" (OpenerDirector instance) opener = urllib.request.build_opener(handler) # use the opener to fetch a URL opener.open(a_url) # Install the opener. # Now all calls to urllib.request.urlopen use our opener. urllib.request.install_opener(opener) Note: In the above example we only supplied our ‘HTTPBasicAuthHandler’ to ‘build_opener’. By default openers have the handlers for normal situations – ‘ProxyHandler’ (if a proxy setting such as an ‘http_proxy’ environment variable is set), ‘UnknownHandler’, ‘HTTPHandler’, ‘HTTPDefaultErrorHandler’, ‘HTTPRedirectHandler’, ‘FTPHandler’, ‘FileHandler’, ‘DataHandler’, ‘HTTPErrorProcessor’. ‘top_level_url’ is in fact 'either' a full URL (including the ‘http:’ scheme component and the hostname and optionally the port number) e.g. ‘"http://example.com/"’ 'or' an “authority” (i.e. the hostname, optionally including the port number) e.g. ‘"example.com"’ or ‘"example.com:8080"’ (the latter example includes a port number). The authority, if present, must NOT contain the “userinfo” component - for example ‘"joe:password@example.com"’ is not correct. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml  File: python.info, Node: Proxies, Next: Sockets and Layers, Prev: Basic Authentication, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.7 Proxies -------------- 'urllib' will auto-detect your proxy settings and use those. This is through the ‘ProxyHandler’, which is part of the normal handler chain when a proxy setting is detected. Normally that’s a good thing, but there are occasions when it may not be helpful (1). One way to do this is to setup our own ‘ProxyHandler’, with no proxies defined. This is done using similar steps to setting up a Basic Authentication(2) handler: >>> proxy_support = urllib.request.ProxyHandler({}) >>> opener = urllib.request.build_opener(proxy_support) >>> urllib.request.install_opener(opener) Note: Currently ‘urllib.request’ 'does not' support fetching of ‘https’ locations through a proxy. However, this can be enabled by extending urllib.request as shown in the recipe (3). Note: ‘HTTP_PROXY’ will be ignored if a variable ‘REQUEST_METHOD’ is set; see the documentation on *note getproxies(): 3999. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) In my case I have to use a proxy to access the internet at work. If you attempt to fetch 'localhost' URLs through this proxy it blocks them. IE is set to use the proxy, which urllib picks up on. In order to test scripts with a localhost server, I have to prevent urllib from using the proxy. (2) https://web.archive.org/web/20201215133350/http://www.voidspace.org.uk/python/articles/authentication.shtml (3) urllib opener for SSL proxy (CONNECT method): ASPN Cookbook Recipe (https://code.activestate.com/recipes/456195-urrlib2-opener-for-ssl-proxy-connect-method/).  File: python.info, Node: Sockets and Layers, Next: Footnotes, Prev: Proxies, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.8 Sockets and Layers ------------------------- The Python support for fetching resources from the web is layered. urllib uses the *note http.client: 6f. library, which in turn uses the socket library. As of Python 2.3 you can specify how long a socket should wait for a response before timing out. This can be useful in applications which have to fetch web pages. By default the socket module has 'no timeout' and can hang. Currently, the socket timeout is not exposed at the http.client or urllib.request levels. However, you can set the default timeout globally for all sockets using import socket import urllib.request # timeout in seconds timeout = 10 socket.setdefaulttimeout(timeout) # this call to urllib.request.urlopen now uses the default timeout # we have set in the socket module req = urllib.request.Request('http://www.voidspace.org.uk') response = urllib.request.urlopen(req) __________________________________________________________________  File: python.info, Node: Footnotes, Prev: Sockets and Layers, Up: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package 9.14.9 Footnotes ---------------- This document was reviewed and revised by John Lee.  File: python.info, Node: An introduction to the ipaddress module, Next: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap, Prev: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.15 An introduction to the ipaddress module ============================================ author: Peter Moody author: Nick Coghlan Overview ........ This document aims to provide a gentle introduction to the *note ipaddress: 80. module. It is aimed primarily at users that aren’t already familiar with IP networking terminology, but may also be useful to network engineers wanting an overview of how *note ipaddress: 80. represents IP network addressing concepts. * Menu: * Creating Address/Network/Interface objects:: * Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects:: * Networks as lists of Addresses:: * Comparisons: Comparisons<4>. * Using IP Addresses with other modules:: * Getting more detail when instance creation fails::  File: python.info, Node: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects, Next: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects, Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module 9.15.1 Creating Address/Network/Interface objects ------------------------------------------------- Since *note ipaddress: 80. is a module for inspecting and manipulating IP addresses, the first thing you’ll want to do is create some objects. You can use *note ipaddress: 80. to create objects from strings and integers. * Menu: * A Note on IP Versions:: * IP Host Addresses:: * Defining Networks:: * Host Interfaces::  File: python.info, Node: A Note on IP Versions, Next: IP Host Addresses, Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects 9.15.1.1 A Note on IP Versions .............................. For readers that aren’t particularly familiar with IP addressing, it’s important to know that the Internet Protocol (IP) is currently in the process of moving from version 4 of the protocol to version 6. This transition is occurring largely because version 4 of the protocol doesn’t provide enough addresses to handle the needs of the whole world, especially given the increasing number of devices with direct connections to the internet. Explaining the details of the differences between the two versions of the protocol is beyond the scope of this introduction, but readers need to at least be aware that these two versions exist, and it will sometimes be necessary to force the use of one version or the other.  File: python.info, Node: IP Host Addresses, Next: Defining Networks, Prev: A Note on IP Versions, Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects 9.15.1.2 IP Host Addresses .......................... Addresses, often referred to as “host addresses” are the most basic unit when working with IP addressing. The simplest way to create addresses is to use the *note ipaddress.ip_address(): 3c41. factory function, which automatically determines whether to create an IPv4 or IPv6 address based on the passed in value: >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') >>> ipaddress.ip_address('2001:DB8::1') IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') Addresses can also be created directly from integers. Values that will fit within 32 bits are assumed to be IPv4 addresses: >>> ipaddress.ip_address(3221225985) IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') >>> ipaddress.ip_address(42540766411282592856903984951653826561) IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') To force the use of IPv4 or IPv6 addresses, the relevant classes can be invoked directly. This is particularly useful to force creation of IPv6 addresses for small integers: >>> ipaddress.ip_address(1) IPv4Address('0.0.0.1') >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address(1) IPv4Address('0.0.0.1') >>> ipaddress.IPv6Address(1) IPv6Address('::1')  File: python.info, Node: Defining Networks, Next: Host Interfaces, Prev: IP Host Addresses, Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects 9.15.1.3 Defining Networks .......................... Host addresses are usually grouped together into IP networks, so *note ipaddress: 80. provides a way to create, inspect and manipulate network definitions. IP network objects are constructed from strings that define the range of host addresses that are part of that network. The simplest form for that information is a “network address/network prefix” pair, where the prefix defines the number of leading bits that are compared to determine whether or not an address is part of the network and the network address defines the expected value of those bits. As for addresses, a factory function is provided that determines the correct IP version automatically: >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') >>> ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') Network objects cannot have any host bits set. The practical effect of this is that ‘192.0.2.1/24’ does not describe a network. Such definitions are referred to as interface objects since the ip-on-a-network notation is commonly used to describe network interfaces of a computer on a given network and are described further in the next section. By default, attempting to create a network object with host bits set will result in *note ValueError: 204. being raised. To request that the additional bits instead be coerced to zero, the flag ‘strict=False’ can be passed to the constructor: >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24') Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: 192.0.2.1/24 has host bits set >>> ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.1/24', strict=False) IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') While the string form offers significantly more flexibility, networks can also be defined with integers, just like host addresses. In this case, the network is considered to contain only the single address identified by the integer, so the network prefix includes the entire network address: >>> ipaddress.ip_network(3221225984) IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/32') >>> ipaddress.ip_network(42540766411282592856903984951653826560) IPv6Network('2001:db8::/128') As with addresses, creation of a particular kind of network can be forced by calling the class constructor directly instead of using the factory function.  File: python.info, Node: Host Interfaces, Prev: Defining Networks, Up: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects 9.15.1.4 Host Interfaces ........................ As mentioned just above, if you need to describe an address on a particular network, neither the address nor the network classes are sufficient. Notation like ‘192.0.2.1/24’ is commonly used by network engineers and the people who write tools for firewalls and routers as shorthand for “the host ‘192.0.2.1’ on the network ‘192.0.2.0/24’”, Accordingly, *note ipaddress: 80. provides a set of hybrid classes that associate an address with a particular network. The interface for creation is identical to that for defining network objects, except that the address portion isn’t constrained to being a network address. >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24') IPv4Interface('192.0.2.1/24') >>> ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96') IPv6Interface('2001:db8::1/96') Integer inputs are accepted (as with networks), and use of a particular IP version can be forced by calling the relevant constructor directly.  File: python.info, Node: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects, Next: Networks as lists of Addresses, Prev: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects, Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module 9.15.2 Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects --------------------------------------------------- You’ve gone to the trouble of creating an IPv(4|6)(Address|Network|Interface) object, so you probably want to get information about it. *note ipaddress: 80. tries to make doing this easy and intuitive. Extracting the IP version: >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') >>> addr6 = ipaddress.ip_address('2001:db8::1') >>> addr6.version 6 >>> addr4.version 4 Obtaining the network from an interface: >>> host4 = ipaddress.ip_interface('192.0.2.1/24') >>> host4.network IPv4Network('192.0.2.0/24') >>> host6 = ipaddress.ip_interface('2001:db8::1/96') >>> host6.network IPv6Network('2001:db8::/96') Finding out how many individual addresses are in a network: >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') >>> net4.num_addresses 256 >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') >>> net6.num_addresses 4294967296 Iterating through the “usable” addresses on a network: >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') >>> for x in net4.hosts(): ... print(x) 192.0.2.1 192.0.2.2 192.0.2.3 192.0.2.4 ... 192.0.2.252 192.0.2.253 192.0.2.254 Obtaining the netmask (i.e. set bits corresponding to the network prefix) or the hostmask (any bits that are not part of the netmask): >>> net4 = ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') >>> net4.netmask IPv4Address('255.255.255.0') >>> net4.hostmask IPv4Address('0.0.0.255') >>> net6 = ipaddress.ip_network('2001:db8::0/96') >>> net6.netmask IPv6Address('ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff:ffff::') >>> net6.hostmask IPv6Address('::ffff:ffff') Exploding or compressing the address: >>> addr6.exploded '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0001' >>> addr6.compressed '2001:db8::1' >>> net6.exploded '2001:0db8:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000/96' >>> net6.compressed '2001:db8::/96' While IPv4 doesn’t support explosion or compression, the associated objects still provide the relevant properties so that version neutral code can easily ensure the most concise or most verbose form is used for IPv6 addresses while still correctly handling IPv4 addresses.  File: python.info, Node: Networks as lists of Addresses, Next: Comparisons<4>, Prev: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects, Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module 9.15.3 Networks as lists of Addresses ------------------------------------- It’s sometimes useful to treat networks as lists. This means it is possible to index them like this: >>> net4[1] IPv4Address('192.0.2.1') >>> net4[-1] IPv4Address('192.0.2.255') >>> net6[1] IPv6Address('2001:db8::1') >>> net6[-1] IPv6Address('2001:db8::ffff:ffff') It also means that network objects lend themselves to using the list membership test syntax like this: if address in network: # do something Containment testing is done efficiently based on the network prefix: >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.2.0/24') True >>> addr4 in ipaddress.ip_network('192.0.3.0/24') False  File: python.info, Node: Comparisons<4>, Next: Using IP Addresses with other modules, Prev: Networks as lists of Addresses, Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module 9.15.4 Comparisons ------------------ *note ipaddress: 80. provides some simple, hopefully intuitive ways to compare objects, where it makes sense: >>> ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') < ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.2') True A *note TypeError: 534. exception is raised if you try to compare objects of different versions or different types.  File: python.info, Node: Using IP Addresses with other modules, Next: Getting more detail when instance creation fails, Prev: Comparisons<4>, Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module 9.15.5 Using IP Addresses with other modules -------------------------------------------- Other modules that use IP addresses (such as *note socket: cc.) usually won’t accept objects from this module directly. Instead, they must be coerced to an integer or string that the other module will accept: >>> addr4 = ipaddress.ip_address('192.0.2.1') >>> str(addr4) '192.0.2.1' >>> int(addr4) 3221225985  File: python.info, Node: Getting more detail when instance creation fails, Prev: Using IP Addresses with other modules, Up: An introduction to the ipaddress module 9.15.6 Getting more detail when instance creation fails ------------------------------------------------------- When creating address/network/interface objects using the version-agnostic factory functions, any errors will be reported as *note ValueError: 204. with a generic error message that simply says the passed in value was not recognized as an object of that type. The lack of a specific error is because it’s necessary to know whether the value is 'supposed' to be IPv4 or IPv6 in order to provide more detail on why it has been rejected. To support use cases where it is useful to have access to this additional detail, the individual class constructors actually raise the *note ValueError: 204. subclasses *note ipaddress.AddressValueError: 3c46. and *note ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: 3c68. to indicate exactly which part of the definition failed to parse correctly. The error messages are significantly more detailed when using the class constructors directly. For example: >>> ipaddress.ip_address("192.168.0.256") Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: '192.168.0.256' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 address >>> ipaddress.IPv4Address("192.168.0.256") Traceback (most recent call last): ... ipaddress.AddressValueError: Octet 256 (> 255) not permitted in '192.168.0.256' >>> ipaddress.ip_network("192.168.0.1/64") Traceback (most recent call last): ... ValueError: '192.168.0.1/64' does not appear to be an IPv4 or IPv6 network >>> ipaddress.IPv4Network("192.168.0.1/64") Traceback (most recent call last): ... ipaddress.NetmaskValueError: '64' is not a valid netmask However, both of the module specific exceptions have *note ValueError: 204. as their parent class, so if you’re not concerned with the particular type of error, you can still write code like the following: try: network = ipaddress.IPv4Network(address) except ValueError: print('address/netmask is invalid for IPv4:', address)  File: python.info, Node: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap, Next: Python support for the Linux perf profiler, Prev: An introduction to the ipaddress module, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.16 Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap ==================================================== author: David Malcolm author: Łukasz Langa DTrace and SystemTap are monitoring tools, each providing a way to inspect what the processes on a computer system are doing. They both use domain-specific languages allowing a user to write scripts which: - filter which processes are to be observed - gather data from the processes of interest - generate reports on the data As of Python 3.6, CPython can be built with embedded “markers”, also known as “probes”, that can be observed by a DTrace or SystemTap script, making it easier to monitor what the CPython processes on a system are doing. 'CPython implementation detail:' DTrace markers are implementation details of the CPython interpreter. No guarantees are made about probe compatibility between versions of CPython. DTrace scripts can stop working or work incorrectly without warning when changing CPython versions. * Menu: * Enabling the static markers:: * Static DTrace probes:: * Static SystemTap markers:: * Available static markers:: * SystemTap Tapsets:: * Examples: Examples<39>.  File: python.info, Node: Enabling the static markers, Next: Static DTrace probes, Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap 9.16.1 Enabling the static markers ---------------------------------- macOS comes with built-in support for DTrace. On Linux, in order to build CPython with the embedded markers for SystemTap, the SystemTap development tools must be installed. On a Linux machine, this can be done via: $ yum install systemtap-sdt-devel or: $ sudo apt-get install systemtap-sdt-dev CPython must then be *note configured with the -with-dtrace option: 1db7.: checking for --with-dtrace... yes On macOS, you can list available DTrace probes by running a Python process in the background and listing all probes made available by the Python provider: $ python3.6 -q & $ sudo dtrace -l -P python$! # or: dtrace -l -m python3.6 ID PROVIDER MODULE FUNCTION NAME 29564 python18035 python3.6 _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-entry 29565 python18035 python3.6 dtrace_function_entry function-entry 29566 python18035 python3.6 _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault function-return 29567 python18035 python3.6 dtrace_function_return function-return 29568 python18035 python3.6 collect gc-done 29569 python18035 python3.6 collect gc-start 29570 python18035 python3.6 _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault line 29571 python18035 python3.6 maybe_dtrace_line line On Linux, you can verify if the SystemTap static markers are present in the built binary by seeing if it contains a “.note.stapsdt” section. $ readelf -S ./python | grep .note.stapsdt [30] .note.stapsdt NOTE 0000000000000000 00308d78 If you’ve built Python as a shared library (with the *note -enable-shared: 85f. configure option), you need to look instead within the shared library. For example: $ readelf -S libpython3.3dm.so.1.0 | grep .note.stapsdt [29] .note.stapsdt NOTE 0000000000000000 00365b68 Sufficiently modern readelf can print the metadata: $ readelf -n ./python Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000254 with length 0x00000020: Owner Data size Description GNU 0x00000010 NT_GNU_ABI_TAG (ABI version tag) OS: Linux, ABI: 2.6.32 Displaying notes found at file offset 0x00000274 with length 0x00000024: Owner Data size Description GNU 0x00000014 NT_GNU_BUILD_ID (unique build ID bitstring) Build ID: df924a2b08a7e89f6e11251d4602022977af2670 Displaying notes found at file offset 0x002d6c30 with length 0x00000144: Owner Data size Description stapsdt 0x00000031 NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors) Provider: python Name: gc__start Location: 0x00000000004371c3, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf6 Arguments: -4@%ebx stapsdt 0x00000030 NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors) Provider: python Name: gc__done Location: 0x00000000004374e1, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bf8 Arguments: -8@%rax stapsdt 0x00000045 NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors) Provider: python Name: function__entry Location: 0x000000000053db6c, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6be8 Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax stapsdt 0x00000046 NT_STAPSDT (SystemTap probe descriptors) Provider: python Name: function__return Location: 0x000000000053dba8, Base: 0x0000000000630ce2, Semaphore: 0x00000000008d6bea Arguments: 8@%rbp 8@%r12 -4@%eax The above metadata contains information for SystemTap describing how it can patch strategically placed machine code instructions to enable the tracing hooks used by a SystemTap script.  File: python.info, Node: Static DTrace probes, Next: Static SystemTap markers, Prev: Enabling the static markers, Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap 9.16.2 Static DTrace probes --------------------------- The following example DTrace script can be used to show the call/return hierarchy of a Python script, only tracing within the invocation of a function called “start”. In other words, import-time function invocations are not going to be listed: self int indent; python$target:::function-entry /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/ { self->trace = 1; } python$target:::function-entry /self->trace/ { printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename); printf("%*s", self->indent, ""); printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2); self->indent++; } python$target:::function-return /self->trace/ { self->indent--; printf("%d\t%*s:", timestamp, 15, probename); printf("%*s", self->indent, ""); printf("%s:%s:%d\n", basename(copyinstr(arg0)), copyinstr(arg1), arg2); } python$target:::function-return /copyinstr(arg1) == "start"/ { self->trace = 0; } It can be invoked like this: $ sudo dtrace -q -s call_stack.d -c "python3.6 script.py" The output looks like this: 156641360502280 function-entry:call_stack.py:start:23 156641360518804 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1 156641360532797 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9 156641360546807 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10 156641360563367 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2 156641360578365 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_2:5 156641360591757 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_1:1 156641360605556 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9 156641360617482 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10 156641360629814 function-return: call_stack.py:function_1:2 156641360642285 function-return: call_stack.py:function_2:6 156641360656770 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_3:9 156641360669707 function-return: call_stack.py:function_3:10 156641360687853 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_4:13 156641360700719 function-return: call_stack.py:function_4:14 156641360719640 function-entry: call_stack.py:function_5:18 156641360732567 function-return: call_stack.py:function_5:21 156641360747370 function-return:call_stack.py:start:28  File: python.info, Node: Static SystemTap markers, Next: Available static markers, Prev: Static DTrace probes, Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap 9.16.3 Static SystemTap markers ------------------------------- The low-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use the static markers directly. This requires you to explicitly state the binary file containing them. For example, this SystemTap script can be used to show the call/return hierarchy of a Python script: probe process("python").mark("function__entry") { filename = user_string($arg1); funcname = user_string($arg2); lineno = $arg3; printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\\n", thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno); } probe process("python").mark("function__return") { filename = user_string($arg1); funcname = user_string($arg2); lineno = $arg3; printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\\n", thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno); } It can be invoked like this: $ stap \ show-call-hierarchy.stp \ -c "./python test.py" The output looks like this: 11408 python(8274): => __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:362 11414 python(8274): => __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:425 11418 python(8274): => encode in Lib/os.py:490 11424 python(8274): <= encode in Lib/os.py:493 11428 python(8274): <= __getitem__ in Lib/os.py:426 11433 python(8274): <= __contains__ in Lib/_abcoll.py:366 where the columns are: - time in microseconds since start of script - name of executable - PID of process and the remainder indicates the call/return hierarchy as the script executes. For a *note -enable-shared: 85f. build of CPython, the markers are contained within the libpython shared library, and the probe’s dotted path needs to reflect this. For example, this line from the above example: probe process("python").mark("function__entry") { should instead read: probe process("python").library("libpython3.6dm.so.1.0").mark("function__entry") { (assuming a *note debug build: 1fb. of CPython 3.6)  File: python.info, Node: Available static markers, Next: SystemTap Tapsets, Prev: Static SystemTap markers, Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap 9.16.4 Available static markers ------------------------------- -- Object: function__entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno) This marker indicates that execution of a Python function has begun. It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions. The filename, function name, and line number are provided back to the tracing script as positional arguments, which must be accessed using ‘$arg1’, ‘$arg2’, ‘$arg3’: * ‘$arg1’ : ‘(const char *)’ filename, accessible using ‘user_string($arg1)’ * ‘$arg2’ : ‘(const char *)’ function name, accessible using ‘user_string($arg2)’ * ‘$arg3’ : ‘int’ line number -- Object: function__return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno) This marker is the converse of ‘function__entry()’, and indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via ‘return’, or via an exception). It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions. The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’ -- Object: line(str filename, str funcname, int lineno) This marker indicates a Python line is about to be executed. It is the equivalent of line-by-line tracing with a Python profiler. It is not triggered within C functions. The arguments are the same as for ‘function__entry()’. -- Object: gc__start(int generation) Fires when the Python interpreter starts a garbage collection cycle. ‘arg0’ is the generation to scan, like *note gc.collect(): a39. -- Object: gc__done(long collected) Fires when the Python interpreter finishes a garbage collection cycle. ‘arg0’ is the number of collected objects. -- Object: import__find__load__start(str modulename) Fires before *note importlib: 77. attempts to find and load the module. ‘arg0’ is the module name. Added in version 3.7. -- Object: import__find__load__done(str modulename, int found) Fires after *note importlib: 77.’s find_and_load function is called. ‘arg0’ is the module name, ‘arg1’ indicates if module was successfully loaded. Added in version 3.7. -- Object: audit(str event, void *tuple) Fires when *note sys.audit(): 15b9. or *note PySys_Audit(): 36a. is called. ‘arg0’ is the event name as C string, ‘arg1’ is a *note PyObject: 334. pointer to a tuple object. Added in version 3.8.  File: python.info, Node: SystemTap Tapsets, Next: Examples<39>, Prev: Available static markers, Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap 9.16.5 SystemTap Tapsets ------------------------ The higher-level way to use the SystemTap integration is to use a “tapset”: SystemTap’s equivalent of a library, which hides some of the lower-level details of the static markers. Here is a tapset file, based on a non-shared build of CPython: /* Provide a higher-level wrapping around the function__entry and function__return markers: \*/ probe python.function.entry = process("python").mark("function__entry") { filename = user_string($arg1); funcname = user_string($arg2); lineno = $arg3; frameptr = $arg4 } probe python.function.return = process("python").mark("function__return") { filename = user_string($arg1); funcname = user_string($arg2); lineno = $arg3; frameptr = $arg4 } If this file is installed in SystemTap’s tapset directory (e.g. ‘/usr/share/systemtap/tapset’), then these additional probepoints become available: -- Object: python.function.entry(str filename, str funcname, int lineno, frameptr) This probe point indicates that execution of a Python function has begun. It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions. -- Object: python.function.return(str filename, str funcname, int lineno, frameptr) This probe point is the converse of ‘python.function.return’, and indicates that execution of a Python function has ended (either via ‘return’, or via an exception). It is only triggered for pure-Python (bytecode) functions.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<39>, Prev: SystemTap Tapsets, Up: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap 9.16.6 Examples --------------- This SystemTap script uses the tapset above to more cleanly implement the example given above of tracing the Python function-call hierarchy, without needing to directly name the static markers: probe python.function.entry { printf("%s => %s in %s:%d\n", thread_indent(1), funcname, filename, lineno); } probe python.function.return { printf("%s <= %s in %s:%d\n", thread_indent(-1), funcname, filename, lineno); } The following script uses the tapset above to provide a top-like view of all running CPython code, showing the top 20 most frequently entered bytecode frames, each second, across the whole system: global fn_calls; probe python.function.entry { fn_calls[pid(), filename, funcname, lineno] += 1; } probe timer.ms(1000) { printf("\033[2J\033[1;1H") /* clear screen \*/ printf("%6s %80s %6s %30s %6s\n", "PID", "FILENAME", "LINE", "FUNCTION", "CALLS") foreach ([pid, filename, funcname, lineno] in fn_calls- limit 20) { printf("%6d %80s %6d %30s %6d\n", pid, filename, lineno, funcname, fn_calls[pid, filename, funcname, lineno]); } delete fn_calls; }  File: python.info, Node: Python support for the Linux perf profiler, Next: Annotations Best Practices, Prev: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.17 Python support for the Linux ‘perf’ profiler ================================================= author: Pablo Galindo The Linux perf profiler(1) is a very powerful tool that allows you to profile and obtain information about the performance of your application. ‘perf’ also has a very vibrant ecosystem of tools that aid with the analysis of the data that it produces. The main problem with using the ‘perf’ profiler with Python applications is that ‘perf’ only gets information about native symbols, that is, the names of functions and procedures written in C. This means that the names and file names of Python functions in your code will not appear in the output of ‘perf’. Since Python 3.12, the interpreter can run in a special mode that allows Python functions to appear in the output of the ‘perf’ profiler. When this mode is enabled, the interpreter will interpose a small piece of code compiled on the fly before the execution of every Python function and it will teach ‘perf’ the relationship between this piece of code and the associated Python function using *note perf map files: 4b89. Note: Support for the ‘perf’ profiler is currently only available for Linux on select architectures. Check the output of the ‘configure’ build step or check the output of ‘python -m sysconfig | grep HAVE_PERF_TRAMPOLINE’ to see if your system is supported. For example, consider the following script: def foo(n): result = 0 for _ in range(n): result += 1 return result def bar(n): foo(n) def baz(n): bar(n) if __name__ == "__main__": baz(1000000) We can run ‘perf’ to sample CPU stack traces at 9999 hertz: $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py Then we can use ‘perf report’ to analyze the data: $ perf report --stdio -n -g # Children Self Samples Command Shared Object Symbol # ........ ........ ............ .......... .................. .......................................... # 91.08% 0.00% 0 python.exe python.exe [.] _start | ---_start | --90.71%--__libc_start_main Py_BytesMain | |--56.88%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0 | | | |--56.13%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject | | _PyRun_SimpleFileObject | | | | | |--55.02%--run_mod | | | | | | | --54.65%--PyEval_EvalCode | | | _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | PyObject_Vectorcall | | | _PyEval_Vector | | | _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | PyObject_Vectorcall | | | _PyEval_Vector | | | _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | PyObject_Vectorcall | | | _PyEval_Vector | | | | | | | |--51.67%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | | | | | | | |--11.52%--_PyLong_Add | | | | | | | | | | | |--2.97%--_PyObject_Malloc ... As you can see, the Python functions are not shown in the output, only ‘_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault’ (the function that evaluates the Python bytecode) shows up. Unfortunately that’s not very useful because all Python functions use the same C function to evaluate bytecode so we cannot know which Python function corresponds to which bytecode-evaluating function. Instead, if we run the same experiment with ‘perf’ support enabled we get: $ perf report --stdio -n -g # Children Self Samples Command Shared Object Symbol # ........ ........ ............ .......... .................. ..................................................................... # 90.58% 0.36% 1 python.exe python.exe [.] _start | ---_start | --89.86%--__libc_start_main Py_BytesMain | |--55.43%--pymain_run_python.constprop.0 | | | |--54.71%--_PyRun_AnyFileObject | | _PyRun_SimpleFileObject | | | | | |--53.62%--run_mod | | | | | | | --53.26%--PyEval_EvalCode | | | py:::/src/script.py | | | _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | PyObject_Vectorcall | | | _PyEval_Vector | | | py::baz:/src/script.py | | | _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | PyObject_Vectorcall | | | _PyEval_Vector | | | py::bar:/src/script.py | | | _PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | PyObject_Vectorcall | | | _PyEval_Vector | | | py::foo:/src/script.py | | | | | | | |--51.81%--_PyEval_EvalFrameDefault | | | | | | | | | |--13.77%--_PyLong_Add | | | | | | | | | | | |--3.26%--_PyObject_Malloc * Menu: * How to enable perf profiling support:: * How to obtain the best results:: * How to work without frame pointers:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://perf.wiki.kernel.org  File: python.info, Node: How to enable perf profiling support, Next: How to obtain the best results, Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler 9.17.1 How to enable ‘perf’ profiling support --------------------------------------------- ‘perf’ profiling support can be enabled either from the start using the environment variable *note PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: 46a. or the *note -X perf: 176. option, or dynamically using *note sys.activate_stack_trampoline(): 46b. and *note sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline(): 46c. The ‘sys’ functions take precedence over the ‘-X’ option, the ‘-X’ option takes precedence over the environment variable. Example, using the environment variable: $ PYTHONPERFSUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python my_script.py $ perf report -g -i perf.data Example, using the ‘-X’ option: $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python -X perf my_script.py $ perf report -g -i perf.data Example, using the *note sys: d9. APIs in file ‘example.py’: import sys sys.activate_stack_trampoline("perf") do_profiled_stuff() sys.deactivate_stack_trampoline() non_profiled_stuff() …then: $ perf record -F 9999 -g -o perf.data python ./example.py $ perf report -g -i perf.data  File: python.info, Node: How to obtain the best results, Next: How to work without frame pointers, Prev: How to enable perf profiling support, Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler 9.17.2 How to obtain the best results ------------------------------------- For best results, Python should be compiled with ‘CFLAGS="-fno-omit-frame-pointer -mno-omit-leaf-frame-pointer"’ as this allows profilers to unwind using only the frame pointer and not on DWARF debug information. This is because as the code that is interposed to allow ‘perf’ support is dynamically generated it doesn’t have any DWARF debugging information available. You can check if your system has been compiled with this flag by running: $ python -m sysconfig | grep 'no-omit-frame-pointer' If you don’t see any output it means that your interpreter has not been compiled with frame pointers and therefore it may not be able to show Python functions in the output of ‘perf’.  File: python.info, Node: How to work without frame pointers, Prev: How to obtain the best results, Up: Python support for the Linux perf profiler 9.17.3 How to work without frame pointers ----------------------------------------- If you are working with a Python interpreter that has been compiled without frame pointers, you can still use the ‘perf’ profiler, but the overhead will be a bit higher because Python needs to generate unwinding information for every Python function call on the fly. Additionally, ‘perf’ will take more time to process the data because it will need to use the DWARF debugging information to unwind the stack and this is a slow process. To enable this mode, you can use the environment variable *note PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: 190. or the *note -X perf_jit: 176. option, which will enable the JIT mode for the ‘perf’ profiler. Note: Due to a bug in the ‘perf’ tool, only ‘perf’ versions higher than v6.8 will work with the JIT mode. The fix was also backported to the v6.7.2 version of the tool. Note that when checking the version of the ‘perf’ tool (which can be done by running ‘perf version’) you must take into account that some distros add some custom version numbers including a ‘-’ character. This means that ‘perf 6.7-3’ is not necessarily ‘perf 6.7.3’. When using the perf JIT mode, you need an extra step before you can run ‘perf report’. You need to call the ‘perf inject’ command to inject the JIT information into the ‘perf.data’ file.: $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data or using the environment variable: $ PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT=1 perf record -F 9999 -g --call-graph dwarf -o perf.data python my_script.py $ perf inject -i perf.data --jit --output perf.jit.data $ perf report -g -i perf.jit.data ‘perf inject --jit’ command will read ‘perf.data’, automatically pick up the perf dump file that Python creates (in ‘/tmp/perf-$PID.dump’), and then create ‘perf.jit.data’ which merges all the JIT information together. It should also create a lot of ‘jitted-XXXX-N.so’ files in the current directory which are ELF images for all the JIT trampolines that were created by Python. Warning: When using ‘--call-graph dwarf’, the ‘perf’ tool will take snapshots of the stack of the process being profiled and save the information in the ‘perf.data’ file. By default, the size of the stack dump is 8192 bytes, but you can change the size by passing it after a comma like ‘--call-graph dwarf,16384’. The size of the stack dump is important because if the size is too small ‘perf’ will not be able to unwind the stack and the output will be incomplete. On the other hand, if the size is too big, then ‘perf’ won’t be able to sample the process as frequently as it would like as the overhead will be higher. The stack size is particularly important when profiling Python code compiled with low optimization levels (like ‘-O0’), as these builds tend to have larger stack frames. If you are compiling Python with ‘-O0’ and not seeing Python functions in your profiling output, try increasing the stack dump size to 65528 bytes (the maximum): $ perf record -F 9999 -g -k 1 --call-graph dwarf,65528 -o perf.data python -Xperf_jit my_script.py Different compilation flags can significantly impact stack sizes: - Builds with ‘-O0’ typically have much larger stack frames than those with ‘-O1’ or higher - Adding optimizations (‘-O1’, ‘-O2’, etc.) typically reduces stack size - Frame pointers (‘-fno-omit-frame-pointer’) generally provide more reliable stack unwinding  File: python.info, Node: Annotations Best Practices, Next: Isolating Extension Modules, Prev: Python support for the Linux perf profiler, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.18 Annotations Best Practices =============================== author: Larry Hastings Abstract ........ This document is designed to encapsulate the best practices for working with annotations dicts. If you write Python code that examines ‘__annotations__’ on Python objects, we encourage you to follow the guidelines described below. The document is organized into four sections: best practices for accessing the annotations of an object in Python versions 3.10 and newer, best practices for accessing the annotations of an object in Python versions 3.9 and older, other best practices for ‘__annotations__’ that apply to any Python version, and quirks of ‘__annotations__’. Note that this document is specifically about working with ‘__annotations__’, not uses 'for' annotations. If you’re looking for information on how to use “type hints” in your code, please see the *note typing: 104. module. * Menu: * Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer. * Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older. * Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations:: * Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version:: * __annotations__ Quirks::  File: python.info, Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer, Next: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older, Up: Annotations Best Practices 9.18.1 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.10 And Newer --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Python 3.10 adds a new function to the standard library: *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. In Python versions 3.10 and newer, calling this function is the best practice for accessing the annotations dict of any object that supports annotations. This function can also “un-stringize” stringized annotations for you. If for some reason *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. isn’t viable for your use case, you may access the ‘__annotations__’ data member manually. Best practice for this changed in Python 3.10 as well: as of Python 3.10, ‘o.__annotations__’ is guaranteed to 'always' work on Python functions, classes, and modules. If you’re certain the object you’re examining is one of these three 'specific' objects, you may simply use ‘o.__annotations__’ to get at the object’s annotations dict. However, other types of callables–for example, callables created by *note functools.partial(): 410.–may not have an ‘__annotations__’ attribute defined. When accessing the ‘__annotations__’ of a possibly unknown object, best practice in Python versions 3.10 and newer is to call *note getattr(): bd1. with three arguments, for example ‘getattr(o, '__annotations__', None)’. Before Python 3.10, accessing ‘__annotations__’ on a class that defines no annotations but that has a parent class with annotations would return the parent’s ‘__annotations__’. In Python 3.10 and newer, the child class’s annotations will be an empty dict instead.  File: python.info, Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older, Next: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations, Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer, Up: Annotations Best Practices 9.18.2 Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3.9 And Older -------------------------------------------------------------------------- In Python 3.9 and older, accessing the annotations dict of an object is much more complicated than in newer versions. The problem is a design flaw in these older versions of Python, specifically to do with class annotations. Best practice for accessing the annotations dict of other objects–functions, other callables, and modules–is the same as best practice for 3.10, assuming you aren’t calling *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f.: you should use three-argument *note getattr(): bd1. to access the object’s ‘__annotations__’ attribute. Unfortunately, this isn’t best practice for classes. The problem is that, since ‘__annotations__’ is optional on classes, and because classes can inherit attributes from their base classes, accessing the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of a class may inadvertently return the annotations dict of a 'base class.' As an example: class Base: a: int = 3 b: str = 'abc' class Derived(Base): pass print(Derived.__annotations__) This will print the annotations dict from ‘Base’, not ‘Derived’. Your code will have to have a separate code path if the object you’re examining is a class (‘isinstance(o, type)’). In that case, best practice relies on an implementation detail of Python 3.9 and before: if a class has annotations defined, they are stored in the class’s *note __dict__: c5d. dictionary. Since the class may or may not have annotations defined, best practice is to call the *note get(): 2242. method on the class dict. To put it all together, here is some sample code that safely accesses the ‘__annotations__’ attribute on an arbitrary object in Python 3.9 and before: if isinstance(o, type): ann = o.__dict__.get('__annotations__', None) else: ann = getattr(o, '__annotations__', None) After running this code, ‘ann’ should be either a dictionary or ‘None’. You’re encouraged to double-check the type of ‘ann’ using *note isinstance(): 43d. before further examination. Note that some exotic or malformed type objects may not have a *note __dict__: c5d. attribute, so for extra safety you may also wish to use *note getattr(): bd1. to access ‘__dict__’.  File: python.info, Node: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations, Next: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version, Prev: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older, Up: Annotations Best Practices 9.18.3 Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations ----------------------------------------------------- In situations where some annotations may be “stringized”, and you wish to evaluate those strings to produce the Python values they represent, it really is best to call *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. to do this work for you. If you’re using Python 3.9 or older, or if for some reason you can’t use *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f, you’ll need to duplicate its logic. You’re encouraged to examine the implementation of *note inspect.get_annotations(): 80f. in the current Python version and follow a similar approach. In a nutshell, if you wish to evaluate a stringized annotation on an arbitrary object ‘o’: * If ‘o’ is a module, use ‘o.__dict__’ as the ‘globals’ when calling *note eval(): 180. * If ‘o’ is a class, use ‘sys.modules[o.__module__].__dict__’ as the ‘globals’, and ‘dict(vars(o))’ as the ‘locals’, when calling *note eval(): 180. * If ‘o’ is a wrapped callable using *note functools.update_wrapper(): 101b, *note functools.wraps(): f58, or *note functools.partial(): 410, iteratively unwrap it by accessing either ‘o.__wrapped__’ or ‘o.func’ as appropriate, until you have found the root unwrapped function. * If ‘o’ is a callable (but not a class), use *note o.__globals__: 12c6. as the globals when calling *note eval(): 180. However, not all string values used as annotations can be successfully turned into Python values by *note eval(): 180. String values could theoretically contain any valid string, and in practice there are valid use cases for type hints that require annotating with string values that specifically 'can’t' be evaluated. For example: * PEP 604(1) union types using ‘|’, before support for this was added to Python 3.10. * Definitions that aren’t needed at runtime, only imported when *note typing.TYPE_CHECKING: cf4. is true. If *note eval(): 180. attempts to evaluate such values, it will fail and raise an exception. So, when designing a library API that works with annotations, it’s recommended to only attempt to evaluate string values when explicitly requested to by the caller. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0604/  File: python.info, Node: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version, Next: __annotations__ Quirks, Prev: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations, Up: Annotations Best Practices 9.18.4 Best Practices For ‘__annotations__’ In Any Python Version ----------------------------------------------------------------- * You should avoid assigning to the ‘__annotations__’ member of objects directly. Let Python manage setting ‘__annotations__’. * If you do assign directly to the ‘__annotations__’ member of an object, you should always set it to a ‘dict’ object. * If you directly access the ‘__annotations__’ member of an object, you should ensure that it’s a dictionary before attempting to examine its contents. * You should avoid modifying ‘__annotations__’ dicts. * You should avoid deleting the ‘__annotations__’ attribute of an object.  File: python.info, Node: __annotations__ Quirks, Prev: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version, Up: Annotations Best Practices 9.18.5 ‘__annotations__’ Quirks ------------------------------- In all versions of Python 3, function objects lazy-create an annotations dict if no annotations are defined on that object. You can delete the ‘__annotations__’ attribute using ‘del fn.__annotations__’, but if you then access ‘fn.__annotations__’ the object will create a new empty dict that it will store and return as its annotations. Deleting the annotations on a function before it has lazily created its annotations dict will throw an ‘AttributeError’; using ‘del fn.__annotations__’ twice in a row is guaranteed to always throw an ‘AttributeError’. Everything in the above paragraph also applies to class and module objects in Python 3.10 and newer. In all versions of Python 3, you can set ‘__annotations__’ on a function object to ‘None’. However, subsequently accessing the annotations on that object using ‘fn.__annotations__’ will lazy-create an empty dictionary as per the first paragraph of this section. This is 'not' true of modules and classes, in any Python version; those objects permit setting ‘__annotations__’ to any Python value, and will retain whatever value is set. If Python stringizes your annotations for you (using ‘from __future__ import annotations’), and you specify a string as an annotation, the string will itself be quoted. In effect the annotation is quoted 'twice.' For example: from __future__ import annotations def foo(a: "str"): pass print(foo.__annotations__) This prints ‘{'a': "'str'"}’. This shouldn’t really be considered a “quirk”; it’s mentioned here simply because it might be surprising.  File: python.info, Node: Isolating Extension Modules, Next: timer file descriptor HOWTO, Prev: Annotations Best Practices, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.19 Isolating Extension Modules ================================ Abstract ........ Traditionally, state belonging to Python extension modules was kept in C ‘static’ variables, which have process-wide scope. This document describes problems of such per-process state and shows a safer way: per-module state. The document also describes how to switch to per-module state where possible. This transition involves allocating space for that state, potentially switching from static types to heap types, and—perhaps most importantly—accessing per-module state from code. * Menu: * Who should read this:: * Background: Background<2>. * Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters:: * Heap Types: Heap Types<2>. * Open Issues::  File: python.info, Node: Who should read this, Next: Background<2>, Up: Isolating Extension Modules 9.19.1 Who should read this --------------------------- This guide is written for maintainers of *note C-API: 1bdb. extensions who would like to make that extension safer to use in applications where Python itself is used as a library.  File: python.info, Node: Background<2>, Next: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters, Prev: Who should read this, Up: Isolating Extension Modules 9.19.2 Background ----------------- An 'interpreter' is the context in which Python code runs. It contains configuration (e.g. the import path) and runtime state (e.g. the set of imported modules). Python supports running multiple interpreters in one process. There are two cases to think about—users may run interpreters: - in sequence, with several *note Py_InitializeEx(): 4ae7./*note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15. cycles, and - in parallel, managing “sub-interpreters” using *note Py_NewInterpreter(): 17b6./*note Py_EndInterpreter(): 185f. Both cases (and combinations of them) would be most useful when embedding Python within a library. Libraries generally shouldn’t make assumptions about the application that uses them, which include assuming a process-wide “main Python interpreter”. Historically, Python extension modules don’t handle this use case well. Many extension modules (and even some stdlib modules) use 'per-process' global state, because C ‘static’ variables are extremely easy to use. Thus, data that should be specific to an interpreter ends up being shared between interpreters. Unless the extension developer is careful, it is very easy to introduce edge cases that lead to crashes when a module is loaded in more than one interpreter in the same process. Unfortunately, 'per-interpreter' state is not easy to achieve. Extension authors tend to not keep multiple interpreters in mind when developing, and it is currently cumbersome to test the behavior. * Menu: * Enter Per-Module State:: * Isolated Module Objects:: * Surprising Edge Cases::  File: python.info, Node: Enter Per-Module State, Next: Isolated Module Objects, Up: Background<2> 9.19.2.1 Enter Per-Module State ............................... Instead of focusing on per-interpreter state, Python’s C API is evolving to better support the more granular 'per-module' state. This means that C-level data should be attached to a 'module object'. Each interpreter creates its own module object, keeping the data separate. For testing the isolation, multiple module objects corresponding to a single extension can even be loaded in a single interpreter. Per-module state provides an easy way to think about lifetime and resource ownership: the extension module will initialize when a module object is created, and clean up when it’s freed. In this regard, a module is just like any other *note PyObject: 334.*; there are no “on interpreter shutdown” hooks to think—or forget—about. Note that there are use cases for different kinds of “globals”: per-process, per-interpreter, per-thread or per-task state. With per-module state as the default, these are still possible, but you should treat them as exceptional cases: if you need them, you should give them additional care and testing. (Note that this guide does not cover them.)  File: python.info, Node: Isolated Module Objects, Next: Surprising Edge Cases, Prev: Enter Per-Module State, Up: Background<2> 9.19.2.2 Isolated Module Objects ................................ The key point to keep in mind when developing an extension module is that several module objects can be created from a single shared library. For example: >>> import sys >>> import binascii >>> old_binascii = binascii >>> del sys.modules['binascii'] >>> import binascii # create a new module object >>> old_binascii == binascii False As a rule of thumb, the two modules should be completely independent. All objects and state specific to the module should be encapsulated within the module object, not shared with other module objects, and cleaned up when the module object is deallocated. Since this just is a rule of thumb, exceptions are possible (see *note Managing Global State: 5075.), but they will need more thought and attention to edge cases. While some modules could do with less stringent restrictions, isolated modules make it easier to set clear expectations and guidelines that work across a variety of use cases.  File: python.info, Node: Surprising Edge Cases, Prev: Isolated Module Objects, Up: Background<2> 9.19.2.3 Surprising Edge Cases .............................. Note that isolated modules do create some surprising edge cases. Most notably, each module object will typically not share its classes and exceptions with other similar modules. Continuing from the *note example above: 5074, note that ‘old_binascii.Error’ and ‘binascii.Error’ are separate objects. In the following code, the exception is 'not' caught: >>> old_binascii.Error == binascii.Error False >>> try: ... old_binascii.unhexlify(b'qwertyuiop') ... except binascii.Error: ... print('boo') ... Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 2, in binascii.Error: Non-hexadecimal digit found This is expected. Notice that pure-Python modules behave the same way: it is a part of how Python works. The goal is to make extension modules safe at the C level, not to make hacks behave intuitively. Mutating ‘sys.modules’ “manually” counts as a hack.  File: python.info, Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters, Next: Heap Types<2>, Prev: Background<2>, Up: Isolating Extension Modules 9.19.3 Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters ----------------------------------------------------- * Menu: * Managing Global State:: * Managing Per-Module State:: * Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process. * Module State Access from Functions::  File: python.info, Node: Managing Global State, Next: Managing Per-Module State, Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters 9.19.3.1 Managing Global State .............................. Sometimes, the state associated with a Python module is not specific to that module, but to the entire process (or something else “more global” than a module). For example: - The ‘readline’ module manages 'the' terminal. - A module running on a circuit board wants to control 'the' on-board LED. In these cases, the Python module should provide 'access' to the global state, rather than 'own' it. If possible, write the module so that multiple copies of it can access the state independently (along with other libraries, whether for Python or other languages). If that is not possible, consider explicit locking. If it is necessary to use process-global state, the simplest way to avoid issues with multiple interpreters is to explicitly prevent a module from being loaded more than once per process—see *note Opt-Out; Limiting to One Module Object per Process: 4d18.  File: python.info, Node: Managing Per-Module State, Next: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process, Prev: Managing Global State, Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters 9.19.3.2 Managing Per-Module State .................................. To use per-module state, use *note multi-phase extension module initialization: 4916. This signals that your module supports multiple interpreters correctly. Set ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ to a positive number to request that many bytes of storage local to the module. Usually, this will be set to the size of some module-specific ‘struct’, which can store all of the module’s C-level state. In particular, it is where you should put pointers to classes (including exceptions, but excluding static types) and settings (e.g. ‘csv’’s *note field_size_limit: 1805.) which the C code needs to function. Note: Another option is to store state in the module’s ‘__dict__’, but you must avoid crashing when users modify ‘__dict__’ from Python code. This usually means error- and type-checking at the C level, which is easy to get wrong and hard to test sufficiently. However, if module state is not needed in C code, storing it in ‘__dict__’ only is a good idea. If the module state includes ‘PyObject’ pointers, the module object must hold references to those objects and implement the module-level hooks ‘m_traverse’, ‘m_clear’ and ‘m_free’. These work like ‘tp_traverse’, ‘tp_clear’ and ‘tp_free’ of a class. Adding them will require some work and make the code longer; this is the price for modules which can be unloaded cleanly. An example of a module with per-module state is currently available as xxlimited(1); example module initialization shown at the bottom of the file. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/master/Modules/xxlimited.c  File: python.info, Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process, Next: Module State Access from Functions, Prev: Managing Per-Module State, Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters 9.19.3.3 Opt-Out: Limiting to One Module Object per Process ........................................................... A non-negative ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ signals that a module supports multiple interpreters correctly. If this is not yet the case for your module, you can explicitly make your module loadable only once per process. For example: // A process-wide flag static int loaded = 0; // Mutex to provide thread safety (only needed for free-threaded Python) static PyMutex modinit_mutex = {0}; static int exec_module(PyObject* module) { PyMutex_Lock(&modinit_mutex); if (loaded) { PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex); PyErr_SetString(PyExc_ImportError, "cannot load module more than once per process"); return -1; } loaded = 1; PyMutex_Unlock(&modinit_mutex); // ... rest of initialization } If your module’s *note PyModuleDef.m_clear: 97b. function is able to prepare for future re-initialization, it should clear the ‘loaded’ flag. In this case, your module won’t support multiple instances existing 'concurrently', but it will, for example, support being loaded after Python runtime shutdown (*note Py_FinalizeEx(): d15.) and re-initialization (*note Py_Initialize(): 8ab.).  File: python.info, Node: Module State Access from Functions, Prev: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process, Up: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters 9.19.3.4 Module State Access from Functions ........................................... Accessing the state from module-level functions is straightforward. Functions get the module object as their first argument; for extracting the state, you can use ‘PyModule_GetState’: static PyObject * func(PyObject *module, PyObject *args) { my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module); if (state == NULL) { return NULL; } // ... rest of logic } Note: ‘PyModule_GetState’ may return ‘NULL’ without setting an exception if there is no module state, i.e. ‘PyModuleDef.m_size’ was zero. In your own module, you’re in control of ‘m_size’, so this is easy to prevent.  File: python.info, Node: Heap Types<2>, Next: Open Issues, Prev: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters, Up: Isolating Extension Modules 9.19.4 Heap Types ----------------- Traditionally, types defined in C code are 'static'; that is, ‘static PyTypeObject’ structures defined directly in code and initialized using ‘PyType_Ready()’. Such types are necessarily shared across the process. Sharing them between module objects requires paying attention to any state they own or access. To limit the possible issues, static types are immutable at the Python level: for example, you can’t set ‘str.myattribute = 123’. 'CPython implementation detail:' Sharing truly immutable objects between interpreters is fine, as long as they don’t provide access to mutable objects. However, in CPython, every Python object has a mutable implementation detail: the reference count. Changes to the refcount are guarded by the GIL. Thus, code that shares any Python objects across interpreters implicitly depends on CPython’s current, process-wide GIL. Because they are immutable and process-global, static types cannot access “their” module state. If any method of such a type requires access to module state, the type must be converted to a 'heap-allocated type', or 'heap type' for short. These correspond more closely to classes created by Python’s ‘class’ statement. For new modules, using heap types by default is a good rule of thumb. * Menu: * Changing Static Types to Heap Types:: * Defining Heap Types:: * Garbage-Collection Protocol:: * Module State Access from Classes:: * Module State Access from Regular Methods:: * Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters. * Lifetime of the Module State::  File: python.info, Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types, Next: Defining Heap Types, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.1 Changing Static Types to Heap Types ............................................ Static types can be converted to heap types, but note that the heap type API was not designed for “lossless” conversion from static types—that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type. So, when rewriting the class definition in a new API, you are likely to unintentionally change a few details (e.g. pickleability or inherited slots). Always test the details that are important to you. Watch out for the following two points in particular (but note that this is not a comprehensive list): * Unlike static types, heap type objects are mutable by default. Use the *note Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE: 3be. flag to prevent mutability. * Heap types inherit *note tp_new: 57c. by default, so it may become possible to instantiate them from Python code. You can prevent this with the *note Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION: 57f. flag.  File: python.info, Node: Defining Heap Types, Next: Garbage-Collection Protocol, Prev: Changing Static Types to Heap Types, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.2 Defining Heap Types ............................ Heap types can be created by filling a *note PyType_Spec: 171b. structure, a description or “blueprint” of a class, and calling *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. to construct a new class object. Note: Other functions, like *note PyType_FromSpec(): 57a, can also create heap types, but *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e. associates the module with the class, allowing access to the module state from methods. The class should generally be stored in 'both' the module state (for safe access from C) and the module’s ‘__dict__’ (for access from Python code).  File: python.info, Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol, Next: Module State Access from Classes, Prev: Defining Heap Types, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.3 Garbage-Collection Protocol .................................... Instances of heap types hold a reference to their type. This ensures that the type isn’t destroyed before all its instances are, but may result in reference cycles that need to be broken by the garbage collector. To avoid memory leaks, instances of heap types must implement the garbage collection protocol. That is, heap types should: - Have the *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. flag. - Define a traverse function using ‘Py_tp_traverse’, which visits the type (e.g. using ‘Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self))’). Please refer to the documentation of *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC: 778. and *note tp_traverse: 779. for additional considerations. The API for defining heap types grew organically, leaving it somewhat awkward to use in its current state. The following sections will guide you through common issues. * Menu: * tp_traverse in Python 3.8 and lower: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower. * Delegating tp_traverse:: * Defining tp_dealloc:: * Not overriding tp_free:: * Avoiding PyObject_New::  File: python.info, Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower, Next: Delegating tp_traverse, Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol 9.19.4.4 ‘tp_traverse’ in Python 3.8 and lower .............................................. The requirement to visit the type from ‘tp_traverse’ was added in Python 3.9. If you support Python 3.8 and lower, the traverse function must 'not' visit the type, so it must be more complicated: static int my_traverse(PyObject *self, visitproc visit, void *arg) { if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) { Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self)); } return 0; } Unfortunately, *note Py_Version: 751. was only added in Python 3.11. As a replacement, use: * *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 752, if not using the stable ABI, or * *note sys.version_info: 69c. (via *note PySys_GetObject(): 384. and *note PyArg_ParseTuple(): 56e.).  File: python.info, Node: Delegating tp_traverse, Next: Defining tp_dealloc, Prev: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower, Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol 9.19.4.5 Delegating ‘tp_traverse’ ................................. If your traverse function delegates to the *note tp_traverse: 779. of its base class (or another type), ensure that ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ is visited only once. Note that only heap type are expected to visit the type in ‘tp_traverse’. For example, if your traverse function includes: base->tp_traverse(self, visit, arg) …and ‘base’ may be a static type, then it should also include: if (base->tp_flags & Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE) { // a heap type's tp_traverse already visited Py_TYPE(self) } else { if (Py_Version >= 0x03090000) { Py_VISIT(Py_TYPE(self)); } } It is not necessary to handle the type’s reference count in *note tp_new: 57c. and *note tp_clear: 48fb.  File: python.info, Node: Defining tp_dealloc, Next: Not overriding tp_free, Prev: Delegating tp_traverse, Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol 9.19.4.6 Defining ‘tp_dealloc’ .............................. If your type has a custom *note tp_dealloc: 48e8. function, it needs to: - call *note PyObject_GC_UnTrack(): 14d1. before any fields are invalidated, and - decrement the reference count of the type. To keep the type valid while ‘tp_free’ is called, the type’s refcount needs to be decremented 'after' the instance is deallocated. For example: static void my_dealloc(PyObject *self) { PyObject_GC_UnTrack(self); ... PyTypeObject *type = Py_TYPE(self); type->tp_free(self); Py_DECREF(type); } The default ‘tp_dealloc’ function does this, so if your type does 'not' override ‘tp_dealloc’ you don’t need to add it.  File: python.info, Node: Not overriding tp_free, Next: Avoiding PyObject_New, Prev: Defining tp_dealloc, Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol 9.19.4.7 Not overriding ‘tp_free’ ................................. The *note tp_free: 48e9. slot of a heap type must be set to *note PyObject_GC_Del(): 14cf. This is the default; do not override it.  File: python.info, Node: Avoiding PyObject_New, Prev: Not overriding tp_free, Up: Garbage-Collection Protocol 9.19.4.8 Avoiding ‘PyObject_New’ ................................ GC-tracked objects need to be allocated using GC-aware functions. If you use *note PyObject_New(): 985. or *note PyObject_NewVar(): 986.: - Get and call type’s *note tp_alloc: 48ea. slot, if possible. That is, replace ‘TYPE *o = PyObject_New(TYPE, typeobj)’ with: TYPE *o = typeobj->tp_alloc(typeobj, 0); Replace ‘o = PyObject_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size)’ with the same, but use size instead of the 0. - If the above is not possible (e.g. inside a custom ‘tp_alloc’), call *note PyObject_GC_New(): aa2. or *note PyObject_GC_NewVar(): aa3.: TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_New(TYPE, typeobj); TYPE *o = PyObject_GC_NewVar(TYPE, typeobj, size);  File: python.info, Node: Module State Access from Classes, Next: Module State Access from Regular Methods, Prev: Garbage-Collection Protocol, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.9 Module State Access from Classes ......................................... If you have a type object defined with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e, you can call *note PyType_GetModule(): 96e. to get the associated module, and then *note PyModule_GetState(): 980. to get the module’s state. To save a some tedious error-handling boilerplate code, you can combine these two steps with *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96f, resulting in: my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(type); if (state == NULL) { return NULL; }  File: python.info, Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods, Next: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters, Prev: Module State Access from Classes, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.10 Module State Access from Regular Methods .................................................. Accessing the module-level state from methods of a class is somewhat more complicated, but is possible thanks to API introduced in Python 3.9. To get the state, you need to first get the 'defining class', and then get the module state from it. The largest roadblock is getting 'the class a method was defined in', or that method’s “defining class” for short. The defining class can have a reference to the module it is part of. Do not confuse the defining class with ‘Py_TYPE(self)’. If the method is called on a 'subclass' of your type, ‘Py_TYPE(self)’ will refer to that subclass, which may be defined in different module than yours. Note: The following Python code can illustrate the concept. ‘Base.get_defining_class’ returns ‘Base’ even if ‘type(self) == Sub’: class Base: def get_type_of_self(self): return type(self) def get_defining_class(self): return __class__ class Sub(Base): pass For a method to get its “defining class”, it must use the *note METH_METHOD | METH_FASTCALL | METH_KEYWORDS: 168e. *note calling convention: 14a2. and the corresponding *note PyCMethod: 75f. signature: PyObject *PyCMethod( PyObject *self, // object the method was called on PyTypeObject *defining_class, // defining class PyObject *const *args, // C array of arguments Py_ssize_t nargs, // length of "args" PyObject *kwnames) // NULL, or dict of keyword arguments Once you have the defining class, call *note PyType_GetModuleState(): 96f. to get the state of its associated module. For example: static PyObject * example_method(PyObject *self, PyTypeObject *defining_class, PyObject *const *args, Py_ssize_t nargs, PyObject *kwnames) { my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyType_GetModuleState(defining_class); if (state == NULL) { return NULL; } ... // rest of logic } PyDoc_STRVAR(example_method_doc, "..."); static PyMethodDef my_methods[] = { {"example_method", (PyCFunction)(void(*)(void))example_method, METH_METHOD|METH_FASTCALL|METH_KEYWORDS, example_method_doc} {NULL}, }  File: python.info, Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters, Next: Lifetime of the Module State, Prev: Module State Access from Regular Methods, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.11 Module State Access from Slot Methods, Getters and Setters .................................................................... Note: This is new in Python 3.11. Slot methods—the fast C equivalents for special methods, such as *note nb_add: 4bff. for *note __add__: 1f8c. or *note tp_new: 57c. for initialization—have a very simple API that doesn’t allow passing in the defining class, unlike with *note PyCMethod: 75f. The same goes for getters and setters defined with *note PyGetSetDef: bb8. To access the module state in these cases, use the *note PyType_GetModuleByDef(): 38f. function, and pass in the module definition. Once you have the module, call *note PyModule_GetState(): 980. to get the state: PyObject *module = PyType_GetModuleByDef(Py_TYPE(self), &module_def); my_struct *state = (my_struct*)PyModule_GetState(module); if (state == NULL) { return NULL; } ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ works by searching the *note method resolution order: 2180. (i.e. all superclasses) for the first superclass that has a corresponding module. Note: In very exotic cases (inheritance chains spanning multiple modules created from the same definition), ‘PyType_GetModuleByDef()’ might not return the module of the true defining class. However, it will always return a module with the same definition, ensuring a compatible C memory layout.  File: python.info, Node: Lifetime of the Module State, Prev: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters, Up: Heap Types<2> 9.19.4.12 Lifetime of the Module State ...................................... When a module object is garbage-collected, its module state is freed. For each pointer to (a part of) the module state, you must hold a reference to the module object. Usually this is not an issue, because types created with *note PyType_FromModuleAndSpec(): 54e, and their instances, hold a reference to the module. However, you must be careful in reference counting when you reference module state from other places, such as callbacks for external libraries.  File: python.info, Node: Open Issues, Prev: Heap Types<2>, Up: Isolating Extension Modules 9.19.5 Open Issues ------------------ Several issues around per-module state and heap types are still open. Discussions about improving the situation are best held on the discuss forum under c-api tag(1). * Menu: * Per-Class Scope:: * Lossless Conversion to Heap Types:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/core-dev/c-api/30  File: python.info, Node: Per-Class Scope, Next: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types, Up: Open Issues 9.19.5.1 Per-Class Scope ........................ It is currently (as of Python 3.11) not possible to attach state to individual 'types' without relying on CPython implementation details (which may change in the future—perhaps, ironically, to allow a proper solution for per-class scope).  File: python.info, Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types, Prev: Per-Class Scope, Up: Open Issues 9.19.5.2 Lossless Conversion to Heap Types .......................................... The heap type API was not designed for “lossless” conversion from static types; that is, creating a type that works exactly like a given static type.  File: python.info, Node: timer file descriptor HOWTO, Next: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order, Prev: Isolating Extension Modules, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.20 timer file descriptor HOWTO ================================ Release: 1.13 This HOWTO discusses Python’s support for the linux timer file descriptor. * Menu: * Examples: Examples<40>.  File: python.info, Node: Examples<40>, Up: timer file descriptor HOWTO 9.20.1 Examples --------------- The following example shows how to use a timer file descriptor to execute a function twice a second: # Practical scripts should use really use a non-blocking timer, # we use a blocking timer here for simplicity. import os, time # Create the timer file descriptor fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME) # Start the timer in 1 second, with an interval of half a second os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=1, interval=0.5) try: # Process timer events four times. for _ in range(4): # read() will block until the timer expires _ = os.read(fd, 8) print("Timer expired") finally: # Remember to close the timer file descriptor! os.close(fd) To avoid the precision loss caused by the *note float: 2f1. type, timer file descriptors allow specifying initial expiration and interval in integer nanoseconds with ‘_ns’ variants of the functions. This example shows how *note epoll(): f8e. can be used with timer file descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading: import os, time, select, socket, sys # Create an epoll object ep = select.epoll() # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server. # # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234 # Trying 127.0.0.1... # Connected to 127.0.0.1. # Escape character is '^]'. # stop # Connection closed by foreign host. # sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234)) sock.setblocking(False) sock.listen(1) ep.register(sock, select.EPOLLIN) # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode. num = 3 fds = [] for _ in range(num): fd = os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK) fds.append(fd) # Register the timer file descriptor for read events ep.register(fd, select.EPOLLIN) # Start the timer with os.timerfd_settime_ns() in nanoseconds. # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1): one_sec_in_nsec = 10**9 i = i * one_sec_in_nsec os.timerfd_settime_ns(fd, initial=i//4, interval=i//4) timeout = 3 try: conn = None is_active = True while is_active: # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds. # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs. # fd is a file descriptor. # sock and conn[=returned value of socket.accept()] are socket objects, not file descriptors. # So use sock.fileno() and conn.fileno() to get the file descriptors. events = ep.poll(timeout) # If more than one timer file descriptors are ready for reading at once, # epoll.poll() returns a list of (fd, event) pairs. # # In this example settings, # 1st timer fires every 0.25 seconds in 0.25 seconds. (0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1.0, ...) # 2nd timer every 0.5 seconds in 0.5 seconds. (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, ...) # 3rd timer every 0.75 seconds in 0.75 seconds. (0.75, 1.5, 2.25, 3.0, ...) # # In 0.25 seconds, only 1st timer fires. # In 0.5 seconds, 1st timer and 2nd timer fires at once. # In 0.75 seconds, 1st timer and 3rd timer fires at once. # In 1.5 seconds, 1st timer, 2nd timer and 3rd timer fires at once. # # If a timer file descriptor is signaled more than once since # the last os.read() call, os.read() returns the number of signaled # as host order of class bytes. print(f"Signaled events={events}") for fd, event in events: if event & select.EPOLLIN: if fd == sock.fileno(): # Check if there is a connection request. print(f"Accepting connection {fd}") conn, addr = sock.accept() conn.setblocking(False) print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}") ep.register(conn, select.EPOLLIN) elif conn and fd == conn.fileno(): # Check if there is data to read. print(f"Reading data {fd}") data = conn.recv(1024) if data: # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety. cmd = data.decode() if cmd.startswith("stop"): print(f"Stopping server") is_active = False else: print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}") else: # No more data, close connection print(f"Closing connection {fd}") ep.unregister(conn) conn.close() conn = None elif fd in fds: print(f"Reading timer {fd}") count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder) print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times") else: print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}") finally: for fd in fds: ep.unregister(fd) os.close(fd) ep.close() This example shows how *note select(): d9f. can be used with timer file descriptors to wait until the file descriptor is ready for reading: import os, time, select, socket, sys # In this example, use loopback address to send "stop" command to the server. # # $ telnet 127.0.0.1 1234 # Trying 127.0.0.1... # Connected to 127.0.0.1. # Escape character is '^]'. # stop # Connection closed by foreign host. # sock = socket.socket(socket.AF_INET, socket.SOCK_STREAM) sock.bind(("127.0.0.1", 1234)) sock.setblocking(False) sock.listen(1) # Create timer file descriptors in non-blocking mode. num = 3 fds = [os.timerfd_create(time.CLOCK_REALTIME, flags=os.TFD_NONBLOCK) for _ in range(num)] select_fds = fds + [sock] # Start the timers with os.timerfd_settime() in seconds. # Timer 1 fires every 0.25 seconds; timer 2 every 0.5 seconds; etc for i, fd in enumerate(fds, start=1): os.timerfd_settime(fd, initial=i/4, interval=i/4) timeout = 3 try: conn = None is_active = True while is_active: # Wait for the timer to expire for 3 seconds. # select.select() returns a list of file descriptors or objects. rfd, wfd, xfd = select.select(select_fds, select_fds, select_fds, timeout) for fd in rfd: if fd == sock: # Check if there is a connection request. print(f"Accepting connection {fd}") conn, addr = sock.accept() conn.setblocking(False) print(f"Accepted connection {conn} from {addr}") select_fds.append(conn) elif conn and fd == conn: # Check if there is data to read. print(f"Reading data {fd}") data = conn.recv(1024) if data: # You should catch UnicodeDecodeError exception for safety. cmd = data.decode() if cmd.startswith("stop"): print(f"Stopping server") is_active = False else: print(f"Unknown command: {cmd}") else: # No more data, close connection print(f"Closing connection {fd}") select_fds.remove(conn) conn.close() conn = None elif fd in fds: print(f"Reading timer {fd}") count = int.from_bytes(os.read(fd, 8), byteorder=sys.byteorder) print(f"Timer {fds.index(fd) + 1} expired {count} times") else: print(f"Unknown file descriptor {fd}") finally: for fd in fds: os.close(fd) sock.close() sock = None  File: python.info, Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order, Next: Python experimental support for free threading, Prev: timer file descriptor HOWTO, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.21 The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order =========================================== Note: This is a historical document, provided as an appendix to the official documentation. The Method Resolution Order discussed here was 'introduced' in Python 2.3, but it is still used in later versions – including Python 3. By Michele Simionato(1). Abstract: 'This document is intended for Python programmers who want to understand the C3 Method Resolution Order used in Python 2.3. Although it is not intended for newbies, it is quite pedagogical with many worked out examples. I am not aware of other publicly available documents with the same scope, therefore it should be useful.' Disclaimer: 'I donate this document to the Python Software Foundation, under the Python 2.3 license. As usual in these circumstances, I warn the reader that what follows' should 'be correct, but I don’t give any warranty. Use it at your own risk and peril!' Acknowledgments: 'All the people of the Python mailing list who sent me their support. Paul Foley who pointed out various imprecisions and made me to add the part on local precedence ordering. David Goodger for help with the formatting in reStructuredText. David Mertz for help with the editing. Finally, Guido van Rossum who enthusiastically added this document to the official Python 2.3 home-page.' * Menu: * The beginning:: * The C3 Method Resolution Order:: * Examples: Examples<41>. * Bad Method Resolution Orders:: * The end:: * Resources:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.phyast.pitt.edu/~micheles/  File: python.info, Node: The beginning, Next: The C3 Method Resolution Order, Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order 9.21.1 The beginning -------------------- 'Felix qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas' – Virgilius Everything started with a post by Samuele Pedroni to the Python development mailing list (1). In his post, Samuele showed that the Python 2.2 method resolution order is not monotonic and he proposed to replace it with the C3 method resolution order. Guido agreed with his arguments and therefore now Python 2.3 uses C3. The C3 method itself has nothing to do with Python, since it was invented by people working on Dylan and it is described in a paper intended for lispers (2). The present paper gives a (hopefully) readable discussion of the C3 algorithm for Pythonistas who want to understand the reasons for the change. First of all, let me point out that what I am going to say only applies to the 'new style classes' introduced in Python 2.2: 'classic classes' maintain their old method resolution order, depth first and then left to right. Therefore, there is no breaking of old code for classic classes; and even if in principle there could be breaking of code for Python 2.2 new style classes, in practice the cases in which the C3 resolution order differs from the Python 2.2 method resolution order are so rare that no real breaking of code is expected. Therefore: 'Don’t be scared!' Moreover, unless you make strong use of multiple inheritance and you have non-trivial hierarchies, you don’t need to understand the C3 algorithm, and you can easily skip this paper. On the other hand, if you really want to know how multiple inheritance works, then this paper is for you. The good news is that things are not as complicated as you might expect. Let me begin with some basic definitions. 1. Given a class C in a complicated multiple inheritance hierarchy, it is a non-trivial task to specify the order in which methods are overridden, i.e. to specify the order of the ancestors of C. 2. The list of the ancestors of a class C, including the class itself, ordered from the nearest ancestor to the furthest, is called the class precedence list or the 'linearization' of C. 3. The 'Method Resolution Order' (MRO) is the set of rules that construct the linearization. In the Python literature, the idiom “the MRO of C” is also used as a synonymous for the linearization of the class C. 4. For instance, in the case of single inheritance hierarchy, if C is a subclass of C1, and C1 is a subclass of C2, then the linearization of C is simply the list [C, C1 , C2]. However, with multiple inheritance hierarchies, the construction of the linearization is more cumbersome, since it is more difficult to construct a linearization that respects 'local precedence ordering' and 'monotonicity'. 5. I will discuss the local precedence ordering later, but I can give the definition of monotonicity here. A MRO is monotonic when the following is true: 'if C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of C, then C1 precedes C2 in the linearization of any subclass of C'. Otherwise, the innocuous operation of deriving a new class could change the resolution order of methods, potentially introducing very subtle bugs. Examples where this happens will be shown later. 6. Not all classes admit a linearization. There are cases, in complicated hierarchies, where it is not possible to derive a class such that its linearization respects all the desired properties. Here I give an example of this situation. Consider the hierarchy >>> O = object >>> class X(O): pass >>> class Y(O): pass >>> class A(X,Y): pass >>> class B(Y,X): pass which can be represented with the following inheritance graph, where I have denoted with O the ‘object’ class, which is the beginning of any hierarchy for new style classes: ----------- | | | O | | / \ | - X Y / | / | / | / |/ A B \ / ? In this case, it is not possible to derive a new class C from A and B, since X precedes Y in A, but Y precedes X in B, therefore the method resolution order would be ambiguous in C. Python 2.3 raises an exception in this situation (TypeError: MRO conflict among bases Y, X) forbidding the naive programmer from creating ambiguous hierarchies. Python 2.2 instead does not raise an exception, but chooses an 'ad hoc' ordering (CABXYO in this case). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) The thread on python-dev started by Samuele Pedroni: ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-dev/2002-October/029035.html’ (2) The paper 'A Monotonic Superclass Linearization for Dylan': ‘https://doi.org/10.1145/236337.236343’  File: python.info, Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order, Next: Examples<41>, Prev: The beginning, Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order 9.21.2 The C3 Method Resolution Order ------------------------------------- Let me introduce a few simple notations which will be useful for the following discussion. I will use the shortcut notation: C1 C2 ... CN to indicate the list of classes [C1, C2, … , CN]. The 'head' of the list is its first element: head = C1 whereas the 'tail' is the rest of the list: tail = C2 ... CN. I shall also use the notation: C + (C1 C2 ... CN) = C C1 C2 ... CN to denote the sum of the lists [C] + [C1, C2, … ,CN]. Now I can explain how the MRO works in Python 2.3. Consider a class C in a multiple inheritance hierarchy, with C inheriting from the base classes B1, B2, … , BN. We want to compute the linearization L[C] of the class C. The rule is the following: 'the linearization of C is the sum of C plus the merge of the linearizations of the parents and the list of the parents.' In symbolic notation: L[C(B1 ... BN)] = C + merge(L[B1] ... L[BN], B1 ... BN) In particular, if C is the ‘object’ class, which has no parents, the linearization is trivial: L[object] = object. However, in general one has to compute the merge according to the following prescription: 'take the head of the first list, i.e L[B1][0]; if this head is not in the tail of any of the other lists, then add it to the linearization of C and remove it from the lists in the merge, otherwise look at the head of the next list and take it, if it is a good head. Then repeat the operation until all the class are removed or it is impossible to find good heads. In this case, it is impossible to construct the merge, Python 2.3 will refuse to create the class C and will raise an exception.' This prescription ensures that the merge operation 'preserves' the ordering, if the ordering can be preserved. On the other hand, if the order cannot be preserved (as in the example of serious order disagreement discussed above) then the merge cannot be computed. The computation of the merge is trivial if C has only one parent (single inheritance); in this case: L[C(B)] = C + merge(L[B],B) = C + L[B] However, in the case of multiple inheritance things are more cumbersome and I don’t expect you can understand the rule without a couple of examples ;-)  File: python.info, Node: Examples<41>, Next: Bad Method Resolution Orders, Prev: The C3 Method Resolution Order, Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order 9.21.3 Examples --------------- First example. Consider the following hierarchy: >>> O = object >>> class F(O): pass >>> class E(O): pass >>> class D(O): pass >>> class C(D,F): pass >>> class B(D,E): pass >>> class A(B,C): pass In this case the inheritance graph can be drawn as: 6 --- Level 3 | O | (more general) / --- \ / | \ | / | \ | / | \ | --- --- --- | Level 2 3 | D | 4| E | | F | 5 | --- --- --- | \ \ _ / | | \ / \ _ | | \ / \ | | --- --- | Level 1 1 | B | | C | 2 | --- --- | \ / | \ / \ / --- Level 0 0 | A | (more specialized) --- The linearizations of O,D,E and F are trivial: L[O] = O L[D] = D O L[E] = E O L[F] = F O The linearization of B can be computed as: L[B] = B + merge(DO, EO, DE) We see that D is a good head, therefore we take it and we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,EO,E)’. Now O is not a good head, since it is in the tail of the sequence EO. In this case the rule says that we have to skip to the next sequence. Then we see that E is a good head; we take it and we are reduced to compute ‘merge(O,O)’ which gives O. Therefore: L[B] = B D E O Using the same procedure one finds: L[C] = C + merge(DO,FO,DF) = C + D + merge(O,FO,F) = C + D + F + merge(O,O) = C D F O Now we can compute: L[A] = A + merge(BDEO,CDFO,BC) = A + B + merge(DEO,CDFO,C) = A + B + C + merge(DEO,DFO) = A + B + C + D + merge(EO,FO) = A + B + C + D + E + merge(O,FO) = A + B + C + D + E + F + merge(O,O) = A B C D E F O In this example, the linearization is ordered in a pretty nice way according to the inheritance level, in the sense that lower levels (i.e. more specialized classes) have higher precedence (see the inheritance graph). However, this is not the general case. I leave as an exercise for the reader to compute the linearization for my second example: >>> O = object >>> class F(O): pass >>> class E(O): pass >>> class D(O): pass >>> class C(D,F): pass >>> class B(E,D): pass >>> class A(B,C): pass The only difference with the previous example is the change B(D,E) –> B(E,D); however even such a little modification completely changes the ordering of the hierarchy: 6 --- Level 3 | O | / --- \ / | \ / | \ / | \ --- --- --- Level 2 2 | E | 4 | D | | F | 5 --- --- --- \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / --- --- Level 1 1 | B | | C | 3 --- --- \ / \ / --- Level 0 0 | A | --- Notice that the class E, which is in the second level of the hierarchy, precedes the class C, which is in the first level of the hierarchy, i.e. E is more specialized than C, even if it is in a higher level. A lazy programmer can obtain the MRO directly from Python 2.2, since in this case it coincides with the Python 2.3 linearization. It is enough to invoke the *note mro(): 1f2b. method of class A: >>> A.mro() [, , , , , , ] Finally, let me consider the example discussed in the first section, involving a serious order disagreement. In this case, it is straightforward to compute the linearizations of O, X, Y, A and B: L[O] = 0 L[X] = X O L[Y] = Y O L[A] = A X Y O L[B] = B Y X O However, it is impossible to compute the linearization for a class C that inherits from A and B: L[C] = C + merge(AXYO, BYXO, AB) = C + A + merge(XYO, BYXO, B) = C + A + B + merge(XYO, YXO) At this point we cannot merge the lists XYO and YXO, since X is in the tail of YXO whereas Y is in the tail of XYO: therefore there are no good heads and the C3 algorithm stops. Python 2.3 raises an error and refuses to create the class C.  File: python.info, Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders, Next: The end, Prev: Examples<41>, Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order 9.21.4 Bad Method Resolution Orders ----------------------------------- A MRO is 'bad' when it breaks such fundamental properties as local precedence ordering and monotonicity. In this section, I will show that both the MRO for classic classes and the MRO for new style classes in Python 2.2 are bad. It is easier to start with the local precedence ordering. Consider the following example: >>> F=type('Food',(),{'remember2buy':'spam'}) >>> E=type('Eggs',(F,),{'remember2buy':'eggs'}) >>> G=type('GoodFood',(F,E),{}) # under Python 2.3 this is an error! with inheritance diagram O | (buy spam) F | \ | E (buy eggs) | / G (buy eggs or spam ?) We see that class G inherits from F and E, with F 'before' E: therefore we would expect the attribute 'G.remember2buy' to be inherited by 'F.remember2buy' and not by 'E.remember2buy': nevertheless Python 2.2 gives >>> G.remember2buy 'eggs' This is a breaking of local precedence ordering since the order in the local precedence list, i.e. the list of the parents of G, is not preserved in the Python 2.2 linearization of G: L[G,P22]= G E F object # F *follows* E One could argue that the reason why F follows E in the Python 2.2 linearization is that F is less specialized than E, since F is the superclass of E; nevertheless the breaking of local precedence ordering is quite non-intuitive and error prone. This is particularly true since it is a different from old style classes: >>> class F: remember2buy='spam' >>> class E(F): remember2buy='eggs' >>> class G(F,E): pass >>> G.remember2buy 'spam' In this case the MRO is GFEF and the local precedence ordering is preserved. As a general rule, hierarchies such as the previous one should be avoided, since it is unclear if F should override E or vice-versa. Python 2.3 solves the ambiguity by raising an exception in the creation of class G, effectively stopping the programmer from generating ambiguous hierarchies. The reason for that is that the C3 algorithm fails when the merge: merge(FO,EFO,FE) cannot be computed, because F is in the tail of EFO and E is in the tail of FE. The real solution is to design a non-ambiguous hierarchy, i.e. to derive G from E and F (the more specific first) and not from F and E; in this case the MRO is GEF without any doubt. O | F (spam) / | (eggs) E | \ | G (eggs, no doubt) Python 2.3 forces the programmer to write good hierarchies (or, at least, less error-prone ones). On a related note, let me point out that the Python 2.3 algorithm is smart enough to recognize obvious mistakes, as the duplication of classes in the list of parents: >>> class A(object): pass >>> class C(A,A): pass # error Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in ? TypeError: duplicate base class A Python 2.2 (both for classic classes and new style classes) in this situation, would not raise any exception. Finally, I would like to point out two lessons we have learned from this example: 1. despite the name, the MRO determines the resolution order of attributes, not only of methods; 2. the default food for Pythonistas is spam ! (but you already knew that ;-) Having discussed the issue of local precedence ordering, let me now consider the issue of monotonicity. My goal is to show that neither the MRO for classic classes nor that for Python 2.2 new style classes is monotonic. To prove that the MRO for classic classes is non-monotonic is rather trivial, it is enough to look at the diamond diagram: C / \ / \ A B \ / \ / D One easily discerns the inconsistency: L[B,P21] = B C # B precedes C : B's methods win L[D,P21] = D A C B C # B follows C : C's methods win! On the other hand, there are no problems with the Python 2.2 and 2.3 MROs, they give both: L[D] = D A B C Guido points out in his essay (1) that the classic MRO is not so bad in practice, since one can typically avoids diamonds for classic classes. But all new style classes inherit from ‘object’, therefore diamonds are unavoidable and inconsistencies shows up in every multiple inheritance graph. The MRO of Python 2.2 makes breaking monotonicity difficult, but not impossible. The following example, originally provided by Samuele Pedroni, shows that the MRO of Python 2.2 is non-monotonic: >>> class A(object): pass >>> class B(object): pass >>> class C(object): pass >>> class D(object): pass >>> class E(object): pass >>> class K1(A,B,C): pass >>> class K2(D,B,E): pass >>> class K3(D,A): pass >>> class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass Here are the linearizations according to the C3 MRO (the reader should verify these linearizations as an exercise and draw the inheritance diagram ;-) L[A] = A O L[B] = B O L[C] = C O L[D] = D O L[E] = E O L[K1]= K1 A B C O L[K2]= K2 D B E O L[K3]= K3 D A O L[Z] = Z K1 K2 K3 D A B C E O Python 2.2 gives exactly the same linearizations for A, B, C, D, E, K1, K2 and K3, but a different linearization for Z: L[Z,P22] = Z K1 K3 A K2 D B C E O It is clear that this linearization is 'wrong', since A comes before D whereas in the linearization of K3 A comes 'after' D. In other words, in K3 methods derived by D override methods derived by A, but in Z, which still is a subclass of K3, methods derived by A override methods derived by D! This is a violation of monotonicity. Moreover, the Python 2.2 linearization of Z is also inconsistent with local precedence ordering, since the local precedence list of the class Z is [K1, K2, K3] (K2 precedes K3), whereas in the linearization of Z K2 'follows' K3. These problems explain why the 2.2 rule has been dismissed in favor of the C3 rule. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) Guido van Rossum’s essay, 'Unifying types and classes in Python 2.2': ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20140210194412/http://www.python.org/download/releases/2.2.2/descrintro’  File: python.info, Node: The end, Next: Resources, Prev: Bad Method Resolution Orders, Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order 9.21.5 The end -------------- This section is for the impatient reader, who skipped all the previous sections and jumped immediately to the end. This section is for the lazy programmer too, who didn’t want to exercise her/his brain. Finally, it is for the programmer with some hubris, otherwise s/he would not be reading a paper on the C3 method resolution order in multiple inheritance hierarchies ;-) These three virtues taken all together (and 'not' separately) deserve a prize: the prize is a short Python 2.2 script that allows you to compute the 2.3 MRO without risk to your brain. Simply change the last line to play with the various examples I have discussed in this paper.: # """C3 algorithm by Samuele Pedroni (with readability enhanced by me).""" class __metaclass__(type): "All classes are metamagically modified to be nicely printed" __repr__ = lambda cls: cls.__name__ class ex_2: "Serious order disagreement" #From Guido class O: pass class X(O): pass class Y(O): pass class A(X,Y): pass class B(Y,X): pass try: class Z(A,B): pass #creates Z(A,B) in Python 2.2 except TypeError: pass # Z(A,B) cannot be created in Python 2.3 class ex_5: "My first example" class O: pass class F(O): pass class E(O): pass class D(O): pass class C(D,F): pass class B(D,E): pass class A(B,C): pass class ex_6: "My second example" class O: pass class F(O): pass class E(O): pass class D(O): pass class C(D,F): pass class B(E,D): pass class A(B,C): pass class ex_9: "Difference between Python 2.2 MRO and C3" #From Samuele class O: pass class A(O): pass class B(O): pass class C(O): pass class D(O): pass class E(O): pass class K1(A,B,C): pass class K2(D,B,E): pass class K3(D,A): pass class Z(K1,K2,K3): pass def merge(seqs): print '\n\nCPL[%s]=%s' % (seqs[0][0],seqs), res = []; i=0 while 1: nonemptyseqs=[seq for seq in seqs if seq] if not nonemptyseqs: return res i+=1; print '\n',i,'round: candidates...', for seq in nonemptyseqs: # find merge candidates among seq heads cand = seq[0]; print ' ',cand, nothead=[s for s in nonemptyseqs if cand in s[1:]] if nothead: cand=None #reject candidate else: break if not cand: raise "Inconsistent hierarchy" res.append(cand) for seq in nonemptyseqs: # remove cand if seq[0] == cand: del seq[0] def mro(C): "Compute the class precedence list (mro) according to C3" return merge([[C]]+map(mro,C.__bases__)+[list(C.__bases__)]) def print_mro(C): print '\nMRO[%s]=%s' % (C,mro(C)) print '\nP22 MRO[%s]=%s' % (C,C.mro()) print_mro(ex_9.Z) # That’s all folks, enjoy !  File: python.info, Node: Resources, Prev: The end, Up: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order 9.21.6 Resources ----------------  File: python.info, Node: Python experimental support for free threading, Next: C API Extension Support for Free Threading, Prev: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.22 Python experimental support for free threading =================================================== Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for a build of Python called *note free threading: 1522. where the *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) is disabled. Free-threaded execution allows for full utilization of the available processing power by running threads in parallel on available CPU cores. While not all software will benefit from this automatically, programs designed with threading in mind will run faster on multi-core hardware. 'The free-threaded mode is experimental' and work is ongoing to improve it: expect some bugs and a substantial single-threaded performance hit. This document describes the implications of free threading for Python code. See *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 509a. for information on how to write C extensions that support the free-threaded build. See also ........ PEP 703(1) – Making the Global Interpreter Lock Optional in CPython for an overall description of free-threaded Python. * Menu: * Installation:: * Identifying free-threaded Python:: * The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python:: * Thread safety:: * Known limitations:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/  File: python.info, Node: Installation, Next: Identifying free-threaded Python, Up: Python experimental support for free threading 9.22.1 Installation ------------------- Starting with Python 3.13, the official macOS and Windows installers optionally support installing free-threaded Python binaries. The installers are available at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’. For information on other platforms, see the Installing a Free-Threaded Python(1), a community-maintained installation guide for installing free-threaded Python. When building CPython from source, the *note -disable-gil: 174. configure option should be used to build a free-threaded Python interpreter. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/installing-cpython/  File: python.info, Node: Identifying free-threaded Python, Next: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python, Prev: Installation, Up: Python experimental support for free threading 9.22.2 Identifying free-threaded Python --------------------------------------- To check if the current interpreter supports free-threading, *note python -VV: 177. and *note sys.version: 178. contain “experimental free-threading build”. The new *note sys._is_gil_enabled(): 43a3. function can be used to check whether the GIL is actually disabled in the running process. The ‘sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ configuration variable can be used to determine whether the build supports free threading. If the variable is set to ‘1’, then the build supports free threading. This is the recommended mechanism for decisions related to the build configuration.  File: python.info, Node: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python, Next: Thread safety, Prev: Identifying free-threaded Python, Up: Python experimental support for free threading 9.22.3 The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python ---------------------------------------------------------- Free-threaded builds of CPython support optionally running with the GIL enabled at runtime using the environment variable *note PYTHON_GIL: 175. or the command-line option *note -X gil: 176. The GIL may also automatically be enabled when importing a C-API extension module that is not explicitly marked as supporting free threading. A warning will be printed in this case. In addition to individual package documentation, the following websites track the status of popular packages support for free threading: * ‘https://py-free-threading.github.io/tracking/’ * ‘https://hugovk.github.io/free-threaded-wheels/’  File: python.info, Node: Thread safety, Next: Known limitations, Prev: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python, Up: Python experimental support for free threading 9.22.4 Thread safety -------------------- The free-threaded build of CPython aims to provide similar thread-safety behavior at the Python level to the default GIL-enabled build. Built-in types like *note dict: 258, *note list: 60d, and *note set: 5d5. use internal locks to protect against concurrent modifications in ways that behave similarly to the GIL. However, Python has not historically guaranteed specific behavior for concurrent modifications to these built-in types, so this should be treated as a description of the current implementation, not a guarantee of current or future behavior. Note: It’s recommended to use the *note threading.Lock: 1677. or other synchronization primitives instead of relying on the internal locks of built-in types, when possible.  File: python.info, Node: Known limitations, Prev: Thread safety, Up: Python experimental support for free threading 9.22.5 Known limitations ------------------------ This section describes known limitations of the free-threaded CPython build. * Menu: * Immortalization:: * Frame objects: Frame objects<2>. * Iterators: Iterators<3>. * Single-threaded performance::  File: python.info, Node: Immortalization, Next: Frame objects<2>, Up: Known limitations 9.22.5.1 Immortalization ........................ The free-threaded build of the 3.13 release makes some objects *note immortal: 4394. Immortal objects are not deallocated and have reference counts that are never modified. This is done to avoid reference count contention that would prevent efficient multi-threaded scaling. An object will be made immortal when a new thread is started for the first time after the main thread is running. The following objects are immortalized: * *note function: 29b. objects declared at the module level * *note method: 1cbe. descriptors * *note code: 1d2. objects * *note module: 165f. objects and their dictionaries * *note classes: 1f0e. (type objects) Because immortal objects are never deallocated, applications that create many objects of these types may see increased memory usage. This is expected to be addressed in the 3.14 release. Additionally, numeric and string literals in the code as well as strings returned by *note sys.intern(): 12ce. are also immortalized. This behavior is expected to remain in the 3.14 free-threaded build.  File: python.info, Node: Frame objects<2>, Next: Iterators<3>, Prev: Immortalization, Up: Known limitations 9.22.5.2 Frame objects ...................... It is not safe to access *note frame: 6db. objects from other threads and doing so may cause your program to crash . This means that *note sys._current_frames(): 13fe. is generally not safe to use in a free-threaded build. Functions like *note inspect.currentframe(): 6dd. and *note sys._getframe(): 6dc. are generally safe as long as the resulting frame object is not passed to another thread.  File: python.info, Node: Iterators<3>, Next: Single-threaded performance, Prev: Frame objects<2>, Up: Known limitations 9.22.5.3 Iterators .................. Sharing the same iterator object between multiple threads is generally not safe and threads may see duplicate or missing elements when iterating or crash the interpreter.  File: python.info, Node: Single-threaded performance, Prev: Iterators<3>, Up: Known limitations 9.22.5.4 Single-threaded performance .................................... The free-threaded build has additional overhead when executing Python code compared to the default GIL-enabled build. In 3.13, this overhead is about 40% on the pyperformance(1) suite. Programs that spend most of their time in C extensions or I/O will see less of an impact. The largest impact is because the specializing adaptive interpreter ( PEP 659(2)) is disabled in the free-threaded build. We expect to re-enable it in a thread-safe way in the 3.14 release. This overhead is expected to be reduced in upcoming Python release. We are aiming for an overhead of 10% or less on the pyperformance suite compared to the default GIL-enabled build. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pyperformance.readthedocs.io/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0659/  File: python.info, Node: C API Extension Support for Free Threading, Prev: Python experimental support for free threading, Up: Python HOWTOs 9.23 C API Extension Support for Free Threading =============================================== Starting with the 3.13 release, CPython has experimental support for running with the *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) disabled in a configuration called *note free threading: 1522. This document describes how to adapt C API extensions to support free threading. * Menu: * Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C:: * Module Initialization:: * General API Guidelines:: * Borrowed References:: * Memory Allocation APIs:: * Thread State and GIL APIs:: * Protecting Internal Extension State:: * Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build::  File: python.info, Node: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C, Next: Module Initialization, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.1 Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C ----------------------------------------------- The CPython C API exposes the ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED’ macro: in the free-threaded build it’s defined to ‘1’, and in the regular build it’s not defined. You can use it to enable code that only runs under the free-threaded build: #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED /* code that only runs in the free-threaded build */ #endif Note: On Windows, this macro is not defined automatically, but must be specified to the compiler when building. The *note sysconfig.get_config_var(): 1024. function can be used to determine whether the current running interpreter had the macro defined.  File: python.info, Node: Module Initialization, Next: General API Guidelines, Prev: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.2 Module Initialization ---------------------------- Extension modules need to explicitly indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled; otherwise importing the extension will raise a warning and enable the GIL at runtime. There are two ways to indicate that an extension module supports running with the GIL disabled depending on whether the extension uses multi-phase or single-phase initialization. * Menu: * Multi-Phase Initialization:: * Single-Phase Initialization::  File: python.info, Node: Multi-Phase Initialization, Next: Single-Phase Initialization, Up: Module Initialization 9.23.2.1 Multi-Phase Initialization ................................... Extensions that use multi-phase initialization (i.e., *note PyModuleDef_Init(): 48bd.) should add a *note Py_mod_gil: 158. slot in the module definition. If your extension supports older versions of CPython, you should guard the slot with a *note PY_VERSION_HEX: 752. check. static struct PyModuleDef_Slot module_slots[] = { ... #if PY_VERSION_HEX >= 0x030D0000 {Py_mod_gil, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED}, #endif {0, NULL} }; static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = { PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, .m_slots = module_slots, ... };  File: python.info, Node: Single-Phase Initialization, Prev: Multi-Phase Initialization, Up: Module Initialization 9.23.2.2 Single-Phase Initialization .................................... Extensions that use single-phase initialization (i.e., *note PyModule_Create(): 4d0d.) should call *note PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(): 179. to indicate that they support running with the GIL disabled. The function is only defined in the free-threaded build, so you should guard the call with ‘#ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED’ to avoid compilation errors in the regular build. static struct PyModuleDef moduledef = { PyModuleDef_HEAD_INIT, ... }; PyMODINIT_FUNC PyInit_mymodule(void) { PyObject *m = PyModule_Create(&moduledef); if (m == NULL) { return NULL; } #ifdef Py_GIL_DISABLED PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL(m, Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED); #endif return m; }  File: python.info, Node: General API Guidelines, Next: Borrowed References, Prev: Module Initialization, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.3 General API Guidelines ----------------------------- Most of the C API is thread-safe, but there are some exceptions. * 'Struct Fields': Accessing fields in Python C API objects or structs directly is not thread-safe if the field may be concurrently modified. * 'Macros': Accessor macros like *note PyList_GET_ITEM: 495d. and *note PyList_SET_ITEM: 389. do not perform any error checking or locking. These macros are not thread-safe if the container object may be modified concurrently. * 'Borrowed References': C API functions that return *note borrowed references: 339. may not be thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently. See the section on *note borrowed references: 50ab. for more information. * Menu: * Container Thread Safety::  File: python.info, Node: Container Thread Safety, Up: General API Guidelines 9.23.3.1 Container Thread Safety ................................ Containers like *note PyListObject: 4bba, *note PyDictObject: 3bd, and *note PySetObject: 4ca7. perform internal locking in the free-threaded build. For example, the *note PyList_Append(): 4a14. will lock the list before appending an item. * Menu: * PyDict_Next::  File: python.info, Node: PyDict_Next, Up: Container Thread Safety 9.23.3.2 ‘PyDict_Next’ ...................... A notable exception is *note PyDict_Next(): 1612, which does not lock the dictionary. You should use *note Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION: 4c9f. to protect the dictionary while iterating over it if the dictionary may be concurrently modified: Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION(dict); PyObject *key, *value; Py_ssize_t pos = 0; while (PyDict_Next(dict, &pos, &key, &value)) { ... } Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION();  File: python.info, Node: Borrowed References, Next: Memory Allocation APIs, Prev: General API Guidelines, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.4 Borrowed References -------------------------- Some C API functions return *note borrowed references: 339. These APIs are not thread-safe if the containing object is modified concurrently. For example, it’s not safe to use *note PyList_GetItem(): 357. if the list may be modified concurrently. The following table lists some borrowed reference APIs and their replacements that return *note strong references: 338. Borrowed reference API Strong reference API -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- *note PyList_GetItem(): 357. *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 356. *note PyList_GET_ITEM(): 495d. *note PyList_GetItemRef(): 356. *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382. *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 335. *note PyDict_GetItemWithError(): 337. *note PyDict_GetItemRef(): 335. *note PyDict_GetItemString(): 383. *note PyDict_GetItemStringRef(): 336. *note PyDict_SetDefault(): 33b. *note PyDict_SetDefaultRef(): 33a. *note PyDict_Next(): 1612. none (see *note PyDict_Next: 50ae.) *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3bb. *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. *note PyImport_AddModule(): 354. *note PyImport_AddModuleRef(): 353. Not all APIs that return borrowed references are problematic. For example, *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d2. is safe because tuples are immutable. Similarly, not all uses of the above APIs are problematic. For example, *note PyDict_GetItem(): 382. is often used for parsing keyword argument dictionaries in function calls; those keyword argument dictionaries are effectively private (not accessible by other threads), so using borrowed references in that context is safe. Some of these functions were added in Python 3.13. You can use the pythoncapi-compat(1) package to provide implementations of these functions for older Python versions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/pythoncapi-compat  File: python.info, Node: Memory Allocation APIs, Next: Thread State and GIL APIs, Prev: Borrowed References, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.5 Memory Allocation APIs ----------------------------- Python’s memory management C API provides functions in three different *note allocation domains: 4e20.: “raw”, “mem”, and “object”. For thread-safety, the free-threaded build requires that only Python objects are allocated using the object domain, and that all Python object are allocated using that domain. This differs from the prior Python versions, where this was only a best practice and not a hard requirement. Note: Search for uses of *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68. in your extension and check that the allocated memory is used for Python objects. Use *note PyMem_Malloc(): c66. to allocate buffers instead of *note PyObject_Malloc(): c68.  File: python.info, Node: Thread State and GIL APIs, Next: Protecting Internal Extension State, Prev: Memory Allocation APIs, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.6 Thread State and GIL APIs -------------------------------- Python provides a set of functions and macros to manage thread state and the GIL, such as: * *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. and *note PyGILState_Release(): 3a8. * *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. and *note PyEval_RestoreThread(): 3a5. * *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. and *note Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS: a8e. These functions should still be used in the free-threaded build to manage thread state even when the *note GIL: 159. is disabled. For example, if you create a thread outside of Python, you must call *note PyGILState_Ensure(): 3a7. before calling into the Python API to ensure that the thread has a valid Python thread state. You should continue to call *note PyEval_SaveThread(): 3a4. or *note Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS: 48d7. around blocking operations, such as I/O or lock acquisitions, to allow other threads to run the *note cyclic garbage collector: 1919.  File: python.info, Node: Protecting Internal Extension State, Next: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build, Prev: Thread State and GIL APIs, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.7 Protecting Internal Extension State ------------------------------------------ Your extension may have internal state that was previously protected by the GIL. You may need to add locking to protect this state. The approach will depend on your extension, but some common patterns include: * 'Caches': global caches are a common source of shared state. Consider using a lock to protect the cache or disabling it in the free-threaded build if the cache is not critical for performance. * 'Global State': global state may need to be protected by a lock or moved to thread local storage. C11 and C++11 provide the ‘thread_local’ or ‘_Thread_local’ for thread-local storage(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.cppreference.com/w/c/language/storage_duration  File: python.info, Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build, Prev: Protecting Internal Extension State, Up: C API Extension Support for Free Threading 9.23.8 Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build ------------------------------------------------------ C API extensions need to be built specifically for the free-threaded build. The wheels, shared libraries, and binaries are indicated by a ‘t’ suffix. * pypa/manylinux(1) supports the free-threaded build, with the ‘t’ suffix, such as ‘python3.13t’. * pypa/cibuildwheel(2) supports the free-threaded build if you set CIBW_ENABLE to cpython-freethreading(3). * Menu: * Limited C API and Stable ABI:: * Windows: Windows<80>. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/pypa/manylinux (2) https://github.com/pypa/cibuildwheel (3) https://cibuildwheel.pypa.io/en/stable/options/#enable  File: python.info, Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI, Next: Windows<80>, Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build 9.23.8.1 Limited C API and Stable ABI ..................................... The free-threaded build does not currently support the *note Limited C API: 391. or the stable ABI. If you use setuptools(1) to build your extension and currently set ‘py_limited_api=True’ you can use ‘py_limited_api=not sysconfig.get_config_var("Py_GIL_DISABLED")’ to opt out of the limited API when building with the free-threaded build. Note: You will need to build separate wheels specifically for the free-threaded build. If you currently use the stable ABI, you can continue to build a single wheel for multiple non-free-threaded Python versions. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://setuptools.pypa.io/en/latest/setuptools.html  File: python.info, Node: Windows<80>, Prev: Limited C API and Stable ABI, Up: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build 9.23.8.2 Windows ................ Due to a limitation of the official Windows installer, you will need to manually define ‘Py_GIL_DISABLED=1’ when building extensions from source. See also ........ Porting Extension Modules to Support Free-Threading(1): A community-maintained porting guide for extension authors. General: * *note A Conceptual Overview of asyncio: 3279. * *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. * *note Argparse Tutorial: 2e6e. * *note Descriptor Guide: 14b7. * *note Enum HOWTO: 4f3e. * *note Functional Programming HOWTO: 4f6f. * *note An introduction to the ipaddress module: 3c3f. * *note Logging HOWTO: 4f8d. * *note Logging Cookbook: 11e9. * *note Regular Expression HOWTO: 22ec. * *note Sorting Techniques: 217e. * *note Unicode HOWTO: 1297. * *note HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package: 3a11. Advanced development: * *note Curses Programming with Python: 2f61. * *note Python experimental support for free threading: 5098. * *note C API Extension Support for Free Threading: 509a. * *note Isolating Extension Modules: 48be. * *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1473. * *note Socket Programming HOWTO: 344c. * *note timer file descriptor HOWTO: 508d. * *note Porting Extension Modules to Python 3: 12d4. Debugging and profiling: * *note Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB: 4f30. * *note Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap: c6c. * *note Python support for the Linux perf profiler: 18f. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://py-free-threading.github.io/porting/  File: python.info, Node: Python Frequently Asked Questions, Next: Deprecations, Prev: Python HOWTOs, Up: Top 10 Python Frequently Asked Questions ************************************ * Menu: * General Python FAQ:: * Programming FAQ:: * Design and History FAQ:: * Library and Extension FAQ:: * Extending/Embedding FAQ:: * Python on Windows FAQ:: * Graphic User Interface FAQ:: * “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ::  File: python.info, Node: General Python FAQ, Next: Programming FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.1 General Python FAQ ======================= * Menu: * General Information:: * Python in the real world::  File: python.info, Node: General Information, Next: Python in the real world, Up: General Python FAQ 10.1.1 General Information -------------------------- * Menu: * What is Python?:: * What is the Python Software Foundation?:: * Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?:: * Why was Python created in the first place?:: * What is Python good for?:: * How does the Python version numbering scheme work?:: * How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?:: * How do I get documentation on Python?:: * I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial?: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?. * Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?:: * How do I get a beta test version of Python?:: * How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?:: * Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?:: * Are there any books on Python?:: * Where in the world is www.python.org located?: Where in the world is www python org located?. * Why is it called Python?:: * Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?::  File: python.info, Node: What is Python?, Next: What is the Python Software Foundation?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.1 What is Python? ........................ Python is an interpreted, interactive, object-oriented programming language. It incorporates modules, exceptions, dynamic typing, very high level dynamic data types, and classes. It supports multiple programming paradigms beyond object-oriented programming, such as procedural and functional programming. Python combines remarkable power with very clear syntax. It has interfaces to many system calls and libraries, as well as to various window systems, and is extensible in C or C++. It is also usable as an extension language for applications that need a programmable interface. Finally, Python is portable: it runs on many Unix variants including Linux and macOS, and on Windows. To find out more, start with *note The Python Tutorial: 1bd9. The Beginner's Guide to Python(1) links to other introductory tutorials and resources for learning Python. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide  File: python.info, Node: What is the Python Software Foundation?, Next: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?, Prev: What is Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.2 What is the Python Software Foundation? ................................................ The Python Software Foundation is an independent non-profit organization that holds the copyright on Python versions 2.1 and newer. The PSF’s mission is to advance open source technology related to the Python programming language and to publicize the use of Python. The PSF’s home page is at ‘https://www.python.org/psf/’. Donations to the PSF are tax-exempt in the US. If you use Python and find it helpful, please contribute via the PSF donation page(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.python.org/psf/donations/  File: python.info, Node: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?, Next: Why was Python created in the first place?, Prev: What is the Python Software Foundation?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.3 Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python? ............................................................... You can do anything you want with the source, as long as you leave the copyrights in and display those copyrights in any documentation about Python that you produce. If you honor the copyright rules, it’s OK to use Python for commercial use, to sell copies of Python in source or binary form (modified or unmodified), or to sell products that incorporate Python in some form. We would still like to know about all commercial use of Python, of course. See the license page(1) to find further explanations and the full text of the PSF License. The Python logo is trademarked, and in certain cases permission is required to use it. Consult the Trademark Usage Policy(2) for more information. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docs.python.org/3/license.html (2) https://www.python.org/psf/trademarks/  File: python.info, Node: Why was Python created in the first place?, Next: What is Python good for?, Prev: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.4 Why was Python created in the first place? ................................................... Here’s a 'very' brief summary of what started it all, written by Guido van Rossum: I had extensive experience with implementing an interpreted language in the ABC group at CWI, and from working with this group I had learned a lot about language design. This is the origin of many Python features, including the use of indentation for statement grouping and the inclusion of very-high-level data types (although the details are all different in Python). I had a number of gripes about the ABC language, but also liked many of its features. It was impossible to extend the ABC language (or its implementation) to remedy my complaints – in fact its lack of extensibility was one of its biggest problems. I had some experience with using Modula-2+ and talked with the designers of Modula-3 and read the Modula-3 report. Modula-3 is the origin of the syntax and semantics used for exceptions, and some other Python features. I was working in the Amoeba distributed operating system group at CWI. We needed a better way to do system administration than by writing either C programs or Bourne shell scripts, since Amoeba had its own system call interface which wasn’t easily accessible from the Bourne shell. My experience with error handling in Amoeba made me acutely aware of the importance of exceptions as a programming language feature. It occurred to me that a scripting language with a syntax like ABC but with access to the Amoeba system calls would fill the need. I realized that it would be foolish to write an Amoeba-specific language, so I decided that I needed a language that was generally extensible. During the 1989 Christmas holidays, I had a lot of time on my hand, so I decided to give it a try. During the next year, while still mostly working on it in my own time, Python was used in the Amoeba project with increasing success, and the feedback from colleagues made me add many early improvements. In February 1991, after just over a year of development, I decided to post to USENET. The rest is in the ‘Misc/HISTORY’ file.  File: python.info, Node: What is Python good for?, Next: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?, Prev: Why was Python created in the first place?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.5 What is Python good for? ................................. Python is a high-level general-purpose programming language that can be applied to many different classes of problems. The language comes with a large standard library that covers areas such as string processing (regular expressions, Unicode, calculating differences between files), internet protocols (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, XML-RPC, POP, IMAP), software engineering (unit testing, logging, profiling, parsing Python code), and operating system interfaces (system calls, filesystems, TCP/IP sockets). Look at the table of contents for *note The Python Standard Library: 144. to get an idea of what’s available. A wide variety of third-party extensions are also available. Consult the Python Package Index(1) to find packages of interest to you. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org  File: python.info, Node: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?, Next: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?, Prev: What is Python good for?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.6 How does the Python version numbering scheme work? ........................................................... Python versions are numbered “A.B.C” or “A.B”: * 'A' is the major version number – it is only incremented for really major changes in the language. * 'B' is the minor version number – it is incremented for less earth-shattering changes. * 'C' is the micro version number – it is incremented for each bugfix release. Not all releases are bugfix releases. In the run-up to a new feature release, a series of development releases are made, denoted as alpha, beta, or release candidate. Alphas are early releases in which interfaces aren’t yet finalized; it’s not unexpected to see an interface change between two alpha releases. Betas are more stable, preserving existing interfaces but possibly adding new modules, and release candidates are frozen, making no changes except as needed to fix critical bugs. Alpha, beta and release candidate versions have an additional suffix: * The suffix for an alpha version is “aN” for some small number 'N'. * The suffix for a beta version is “bN” for some small number 'N'. * The suffix for a release candidate version is “rcN” for some small number 'N'. In other words, all versions labeled '2.0aN' precede the versions labeled '2.0bN', which precede versions labeled '2.0rcN', and 'those' precede 2.0. You may also find version numbers with a “+” suffix, e.g. “2.2+”. These are unreleased versions, built directly from the CPython development repository. In practice, after a final minor release is made, the version is incremented to the next minor version, which becomes the “a0” version, e.g. “2.4a0”. See the Developer's Guide(1) for more information about the development cycle, and PEP 387(2) to learn more about Python’s backward compatibility policy. See also the documentation for *note sys.version: 178, *note sys.hexversion: 439e, and *note sys.version_info: 69c. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/developer-workflow/development-cycle/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/  File: python.info, Node: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?, Next: How do I get documentation on Python?, Prev: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.7 How do I obtain a copy of the Python source? ..................................................... The latest Python source distribution is always available from python.org, at ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’. The latest development sources can be obtained at ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/’. The source distribution is a gzipped tar file containing the complete C source, Sphinx-formatted documentation, Python library modules, example programs, and several useful pieces of freely distributable software. The source will compile and run out of the box on most UNIX platforms. Consult the Getting Started section of the Python Developer's Guide(1) for more information on getting the source code and compiling it. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/setup/  File: python.info, Node: How do I get documentation on Python?, Next: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?, Prev: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.8 How do I get documentation on Python? .............................................. The standard documentation for the current stable version of Python is available at ‘https://docs.python.org/3/’. PDF, plain text, and downloadable HTML versions are also available at ‘https://docs.python.org/3/download.html’. The documentation is written in reStructuredText and processed by the Sphinx documentation tool(1). The reStructuredText source for the documentation is part of the Python source distribution. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/  File: python.info, Node: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?, Next: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?, Prev: How do I get documentation on Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.9 I’ve never programmed before. Is there a Python tutorial? .................................................................. There are numerous tutorials and books available. The standard documentation includes *note The Python Tutorial: 1bd9. Consult the Beginner's Guide(1) to find information for beginning Python programmers, including lists of tutorials. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide  File: python.info, Node: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?, Next: How do I get a beta test version of Python?, Prev: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.10 Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python? ................................................................. There is a newsgroup, ‘comp.lang.python’, and a mailing list, python-list(1). The newsgroup and mailing list are gatewayed into each other – if you can read news it’s unnecessary to subscribe to the mailing list. ‘comp.lang.python’ is high-traffic, receiving hundreds of postings every day, and Usenet readers are often more able to cope with this volume. Announcements of new software releases and events can be found in comp.lang.python.announce, a low-traffic moderated list that receives about five postings per day. It’s available as the python-announce mailing list(2). More info about other mailing lists and newsgroups can be found at ‘https://www.python.org/community/lists/’. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/python-list (2) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-announce-list.python.org/  File: python.info, Node: How do I get a beta test version of Python?, Next: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?, Prev: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.11 How do I get a beta test version of Python? ..................................................... Alpha and beta releases are available from ‘https://www.python.org/downloads/’. All releases are announced on the comp.lang.python and comp.lang.python.announce newsgroups and on the Python home page at ‘https://www.python.org/’; an RSS feed of news is available. You can also access the development version of Python through Git. See The Python Developer's Guide(1) for details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/  File: python.info, Node: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?, Next: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?, Prev: How do I get a beta test version of Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.12 How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python? ............................................................. To report a bug or submit a patch, use the issue tracker at ‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’. For more information on how Python is developed, consult the Python Developer's Guide(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/  File: python.info, Node: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?, Next: Are there any books on Python?, Prev: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.13 Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference? ............................................................................. It’s probably best to cite your favorite book about Python. The very first article(1) about Python was written in 1991 and is now quite outdated. Guido van Rossum and Jelke de Boer, “Interactively Testing Remote Servers Using the Python Programming Language”, CWI Quarterly, Volume 4, Issue 4 (December 1991), Amsterdam, pp 283–303. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://ir.cwi.nl/pub/18204  File: python.info, Node: Are there any books on Python?, Next: Where in the world is www python org located?, Prev: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.14 Are there any books on Python? ........................................ Yes, there are many, and more are being published. See the python.org wiki at ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonBooks’ for a list. You can also search online bookstores for “Python” and filter out the Monty Python references; or perhaps search for “Python” and “language”.  File: python.info, Node: Where in the world is www python org located?, Next: Why is it called Python?, Prev: Are there any books on Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.15 Where in the world is www.python.org located? ....................................................... The Python project’s infrastructure is located all over the world and is managed by the Python Infrastructure Team. Details here(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://infra.psf.io  File: python.info, Node: Why is it called Python?, Next: Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?, Prev: Where in the world is www python org located?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.16 Why is it called Python? .................................. When he began implementing Python, Guido van Rossum was also reading the published scripts from "Monty Python's Flying Circus"(1), a BBC comedy series from the 1970s. Van Rossum thought he needed a name that was short, unique, and slightly mysterious, so he decided to call the language Python. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monty_Python  File: python.info, Node: Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?, Prev: Why is it called Python?, Up: General Information 10.1.1.17 Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”? ........................................................... No, but it helps. :)  File: python.info, Node: Python in the real world, Prev: General Information, Up: General Python FAQ 10.1.2 Python in the real world ------------------------------- * Menu: * How stable is Python?:: * How many people are using Python?:: * Have any significant projects been done in Python?:: * What new developments are expected for Python in the future?:: * Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?:: * Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?::  File: python.info, Node: How stable is Python?, Next: How many people are using Python?, Up: Python in the real world 10.1.2.1 How stable is Python? .............................. Very stable. New, stable releases have been coming out roughly every 6 to 18 months since 1991, and this seems likely to continue. As of version 3.9, Python will have a new feature release every 12 months ( PEP 602(1)). The developers issue bugfix releases of older versions, so the stability of existing releases gradually improves. Bugfix releases, indicated by a third component of the version number (e.g. 3.5.3, 3.6.2), are managed for stability; only fixes for known problems are included in a bugfix release, and it’s guaranteed that interfaces will remain the same throughout a series of bugfix releases. The latest stable releases can always be found on the Python download page(2). Python 3.x is the recommended version and supported by most widely used libraries. Python 2.x is not maintained anymore(3). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0602/ (2) https://www.python.org/downloads/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0373/  File: python.info, Node: How many people are using Python?, Next: Have any significant projects been done in Python?, Prev: How stable is Python?, Up: Python in the real world 10.1.2.2 How many people are using Python? .......................................... There are probably millions of users, though it’s difficult to obtain an exact count. Python is available for free download, so there are no sales figures, and it’s available from many different sites and packaged with many Linux distributions, so download statistics don’t tell the whole story either. The comp.lang.python newsgroup is very active, but not all Python users post to the group or even read it.  File: python.info, Node: Have any significant projects been done in Python?, Next: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?, Prev: How many people are using Python?, Up: Python in the real world 10.1.2.3 Have any significant projects been done in Python? ........................................................... See ‘https://www.python.org/about/success’ for a list of projects that use Python. Consulting the proceedings for past Python conferences(1) will reveal contributions from many different companies and organizations. High-profile Python projects include the Mailman mailing list manager(2) and the Zope application server(3). Several Linux distributions, most notably Red Hat(4), have written part or all of their installer and system administration software in Python. Companies that use Python internally include Google, Yahoo, and Lucasfilm Ltd. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.python.org/community/workshops/ (2) https://www.list.org (3) https://www.zope.dev (4) https://www.redhat.com  File: python.info, Node: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?, Next: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?, Prev: Have any significant projects been done in Python?, Up: Python in the real world 10.1.2.4 What new developments are expected for Python in the future? ..................................................................... See ‘https://peps.python.org/’ for the Python Enhancement Proposals (PEPs). PEPs are design documents describing a suggested new feature for Python, providing a concise technical specification and a rationale. Look for a PEP titled “Python X.Y Release Schedule”, where X.Y is a version that hasn’t been publicly released yet. New development is discussed on the python-dev mailing list(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/python-dev.python.org/  File: python.info, Node: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?, Next: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?, Prev: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?, Up: Python in the real world 10.1.2.5 Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python? .................................................................... In general, no. There are already millions of lines of Python code around the world, so any change in the language that invalidates more than a very small fraction of existing programs has to be frowned upon. Even if you can provide a conversion program, there’s still the problem of updating all documentation; many books have been written about Python, and we don’t want to invalidate them all at a single stroke. Providing a gradual upgrade path is necessary if a feature has to be changed. PEP 5(1) describes the procedure followed for introducing backward-incompatible changes while minimizing disruption for users. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0005/  File: python.info, Node: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?, Prev: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?, Up: Python in the real world 10.1.2.6 Is Python a good language for beginning programmers? ............................................................. Yes. It is still common to start students with a procedural and statically typed language such as Pascal, C, or a subset of C++ or Java. Students may be better served by learning Python as their first language. Python has a very simple and consistent syntax and a large standard library and, most importantly, using Python in a beginning programming course lets students concentrate on important programming skills such as problem decomposition and data type design. With Python, students can be quickly introduced to basic concepts such as loops and procedures. They can probably even work with user-defined objects in their very first course. For a student who has never programmed before, using a statically typed language seems unnatural. It presents additional complexity that the student must master and slows the pace of the course. The students are trying to learn to think like a computer, decompose problems, design consistent interfaces, and encapsulate data. While learning to use a statically typed language is important in the long term, it is not necessarily the best topic to address in the students’ first programming course. Many other aspects of Python make it a good first language. Like Java, Python has a large standard library so that students can be assigned programming projects very early in the course that 'do' something. Assignments aren’t restricted to the standard four-function calculator and check balancing programs. By using the standard library, students can gain the satisfaction of working on realistic applications as they learn the fundamentals of programming. Using the standard library also teaches students about code reuse. Third-party modules such as PyGame are also helpful in extending the students’ reach. Python’s interactive interpreter enables students to test language features while they’re programming. They can keep a window with the interpreter running while they enter their program’s source in another window. If they can’t remember the methods for a list, they can do something like this: >>> L = [] >>> dir(L) ['__add__', '__class__', '__contains__', '__delattr__', '__delitem__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__', '__getattribute__', '__getitem__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__iadd__', '__imul__', '__init__', '__iter__', '__le__', '__len__', '__lt__', '__mul__', '__ne__', '__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__reversed__', '__rmul__', '__setattr__', '__setitem__', '__sizeof__', '__str__', '__subclasshook__', 'append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort'] >>> [d for d in dir(L) if '__' not in d] ['append', 'clear', 'copy', 'count', 'extend', 'index', 'insert', 'pop', 'remove', 'reverse', 'sort'] >>> help(L.append) Help on built-in function append: append(...) L.append(object) -> None -- append object to end >>> L.append(1) >>> L [1] With the interpreter, documentation is never far from the student as they are programming. There are also good IDEs for Python. IDLE is a cross-platform IDE for Python that is written in Python using Tkinter. Emacs users will be happy to know that there is a very good Python mode for Emacs. All of these programming environments provide syntax highlighting, auto-indenting, and access to the interactive interpreter while coding. Consult the Python wiki(1) for a full list of Python editing environments. If you want to discuss Python’s use in education, you may be interested in joining the edu-sig mailing list(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonEditors (2) https://www.python.org/community/sigs/current/edu-sig  File: python.info, Node: Programming FAQ, Next: Design and History FAQ, Prev: General Python FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.2 Programming FAQ ==================== * Menu: * General Questions:: * Core Language:: * Numbers and strings:: * Performance: Performance<4>. * Sequences (Tuples/Lists): Sequences Tuples/Lists. * Objects:: * Modules: Modules<5>.  File: python.info, Node: General Questions, Next: Core Language, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.1 General Questions ------------------------ * Menu: * Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.?: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?. * Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?:: * How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?:: * Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?::  File: python.info, Node: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?, Next: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?, Up: General Questions 10.2.1.1 Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints, single-stepping, etc.? ....................................................................................... Yes. Several debuggers for Python are described below, and the built-in function *note breakpoint(): 236. allows you to drop into any of them. The pdb module is a simple but adequate console-mode debugger for Python. It is part of the standard Python library, and is *note documented in the Library Reference Manual: a5. You can also write your own debugger by using the code for pdb as an example. The IDLE interactive development environment, which is part of the standard Python distribution (normally available as Tools/scripts/idle3(1)), includes a graphical debugger. PythonWin is a Python IDE that includes a GUI debugger based on pdb. The PythonWin debugger colors breakpoints and has quite a few cool features such as debugging non-PythonWin programs. PythonWin is available as part of pywin32(2) project and as a part of the ActivePython(3) distribution. Eric(4) is an IDE built on PyQt and the Scintilla editing component. trepan3k(5) is a gdb-like debugger. Visual Studio Code(6) is an IDE with debugging tools that integrates with version-control software. There are a number of commercial Python IDEs that include graphical debuggers. They include: * Wing IDE(7) * Komodo IDE(8) * PyCharm(9) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/blob/main/Tools/scripts/idle3 (2) https://github.com/mhammond/pywin32 (3) https://www.activestate.com/products/python/ (4) https://eric-ide.python-projects.org/ (5) https://github.com/rocky/python3-trepan/ (6) https://code.visualstudio.com/ (7) https://wingware.com/ (8) https://www.activestate.com/products/komodo-ide/ (9) https://www.jetbrains.com/pycharm/  File: python.info, Node: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?, Next: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?, Prev: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?, Up: General Questions 10.2.1.2 Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis? ...................................................................... Yes. Pylint(1) and Pyflakes(2) do basic checking that will help you catch bugs sooner. Static type checkers such as Mypy(3), Pyre(4), and Pytype(5) can check type hints in Python source code. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pylint.pycqa.org/en/latest/index.html (2) https://github.com/PyCQA/pyflakes (3) https://mypy-lang.org/ (4) https://pyre-check.org/ (5) https://github.com/google/pytype  File: python.info, Node: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?, Next: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?, Prev: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?, Up: General Questions 10.2.1.3 How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script? .................................................................... You don’t need the ability to compile Python to C code if all you want is a stand-alone program that users can download and run without having to install the Python distribution first. There are a number of tools that determine the set of modules required by a program and bind these modules together with a Python binary to produce a single executable. One is to use the freeze tool, which is included in the Python source tree as Tools/freeze(1). It converts Python byte code to C arrays; with a C compiler you can embed all your modules into a new program, which is then linked with the standard Python modules. It works by scanning your source recursively for import statements (in both forms) and looking for the modules in the standard Python path as well as in the source directory (for built-in modules). It then turns the bytecode for modules written in Python into C code (array initializers that can be turned into code objects using the marshal module) and creates a custom-made config file that only contains those built-in modules which are actually used in the program. It then compiles the generated C code and links it with the rest of the Python interpreter to form a self-contained binary which acts exactly like your script. The following packages can help with the creation of console and GUI executables: * Nuitka(2) (Cross-platform) * PyInstaller(3) (Cross-platform) * PyOxidizer(4) (Cross-platform) * cx_Freeze(5) (Cross-platform) * py2app(6) (macOS only) * py2exe(7) (Windows only) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/main/Tools/freeze (2) https://nuitka.net/ (3) https://pyinstaller.org/ (4) https://pyoxidizer.readthedocs.io/en/stable/ (5) https://marcelotduarte.github.io/cx_Freeze/ (6) https://github.com/ronaldoussoren/py2app (7) https://www.py2exe.org/  File: python.info, Node: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?, Prev: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?, Up: General Questions 10.2.1.4 Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs? ......................................................................... Yes. The coding style required for standard library modules is documented as PEP 8(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/  File: python.info, Node: Core Language, Next: Numbers and strings, Prev: General Questions, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.2 Core Language -------------------- * Menu: * Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?:: * What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?:: * Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?:: * How do I share global variables across modules?:: * What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?:: * Why are default values shared between objects?:: * How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?:: * What is the difference between arguments and parameters?:: * Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?:: * How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)?: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?. * How do you make a higher order function in Python?:: * How do I copy an object in Python?:: * How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?:: * How can my code discover the name of an object?:: * What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?:: * Is there an equivalent of C’s “?;” ternary operator?: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?. * Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?:: * What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean?: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?.  File: python.info, Node: Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?, Next: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.1 Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value? ............................................................................. It can be a surprise to get the *note UnboundLocalError: 1500. in previously working code when it is modified by adding an assignment statement somewhere in the body of a function. This code: >>> x = 10 >>> def bar(): ... print(x) ... >>> bar() 10 works, but this code: >>> x = 10 >>> def foo(): ... print(x) ... x += 1 results in an ‘UnboundLocalError’: >>> foo() Traceback (most recent call last): ... UnboundLocalError: local variable 'x' referenced before assignment This is because when you make an assignment to a variable in a scope, that variable becomes local to that scope and shadows any similarly named variable in the outer scope. Since the last statement in foo assigns a new value to ‘x’, the compiler recognizes it as a local variable. Consequently when the earlier ‘print(x)’ attempts to print the uninitialized local variable and an error results. In the example above you can access the outer scope variable by declaring it global: >>> x = 10 >>> def foobar(): ... global x ... print(x) ... x += 1 ... >>> foobar() 10 This explicit declaration is required in order to remind you that (unlike the superficially analogous situation with class and instance variables) you are actually modifying the value of the variable in the outer scope: >>> print(x) 11 You can do a similar thing in a nested scope using the *note nonlocal: 129a. keyword: >>> def foo(): ... x = 10 ... def bar(): ... nonlocal x ... print(x) ... x += 1 ... bar() ... print(x) ... >>> foo() 10 11  File: python.info, Node: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?, Next: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?, Prev: Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.2 What are the rules for local and global variables in Python? ..................................................................... In Python, variables that are only referenced inside a function are implicitly global. If a variable is assigned a value anywhere within the function’s body, it’s assumed to be a local unless explicitly declared as global. Though a bit surprising at first, a moment’s consideration explains this. On one hand, requiring *note global: 18a. for assigned variables provides a bar against unintended side-effects. On the other hand, if ‘global’ was required for all global references, you’d be using ‘global’ all the time. You’d have to declare as global every reference to a built-in function or to a component of an imported module. This clutter would defeat the usefulness of the ‘global’ declaration for identifying side-effects.  File: python.info, Node: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?, Next: How do I share global variables across modules?, Prev: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.3 Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result? ........................................................................................... Assume you use a for loop to define a few different lambdas (or even plain functions), e.g.: >>> squares = [] >>> for x in range(5): ... squares.append(lambda: x**2) This gives you a list that contains 5 lambdas that calculate ‘x**2’. You might expect that, when called, they would return, respectively, ‘0’, ‘1’, ‘4’, ‘9’, and ‘16’. However, when you actually try you will see that they all return ‘16’: >>> squares[2]() 16 >>> squares[4]() 16 This happens because ‘x’ is not local to the lambdas, but is defined in the outer scope, and it is accessed when the lambda is called — not when it is defined. At the end of the loop, the value of ‘x’ is ‘4’, so all the functions now return ‘4**2’, i.e. ‘16’. You can also verify this by changing the value of ‘x’ and see how the results of the lambdas change: >>> x = 8 >>> squares[2]() 64 In order to avoid this, you need to save the values in variables local to the lambdas, so that they don’t rely on the value of the global ‘x’: >>> squares = [] >>> for x in range(5): ... squares.append(lambda n=x: n**2) Here, ‘n=x’ creates a new variable ‘n’ local to the lambda and computed when the lambda is defined so that it has the same value that ‘x’ had at that point in the loop. This means that the value of ‘n’ will be ‘0’ in the first lambda, ‘1’ in the second, ‘2’ in the third, and so on. Therefore each lambda will now return the correct result: >>> squares[2]() 4 >>> squares[4]() 16 Note that this behaviour is not peculiar to lambdas, but applies to regular functions too.  File: python.info, Node: How do I share global variables across modules?, Next: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?, Prev: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.4 How do I share global variables across modules? ........................................................ The canonical way to share information across modules within a single program is to create a special module (often called config or cfg). Just import the config module in all modules of your application; the module then becomes available as a global name. Because there is only one instance of each module, any changes made to the module object get reflected everywhere. For example: config.py: x = 0 # Default value of the 'x' configuration setting mod.py: import config config.x = 1 main.py: import config import mod print(config.x) Note that using a module is also the basis for implementing the singleton design pattern, for the same reason.  File: python.info, Node: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?, Next: Why are default values shared between objects?, Prev: How do I share global variables across modules?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.5 What are the “best practices” for using import in a module? .................................................................... In general, don’t use ‘from modulename import *’. Doing so clutters the importer’s namespace, and makes it much harder for linters to detect undefined names. Import modules at the top of a file. Doing so makes it clear what other modules your code requires and avoids questions of whether the module name is in scope. Using one import per line makes it easy to add and delete module imports, but using multiple imports per line uses less screen space. It’s good practice if you import modules in the following order: 1. standard library modules – e.g. *note sys: d9, *note os: a1, *note argparse: 6, *note re: b9. 2. third-party library modules (anything installed in Python’s site-packages directory) – e.g. ‘dateutil’, ‘requests’, ‘PIL.Image’ 3. locally developed modules It is sometimes necessary to move imports to a function or class to avoid problems with circular imports. Gordon McMillan says: Circular imports are fine where both modules use the “import ” form of import. They fail when the 2nd module wants to grab a name out of the first (“from module import name”) and the import is at the top level. That’s because names in the 1st are not yet available, because the first module is busy importing the 2nd. In this case, if the second module is only used in one function, then the import can easily be moved into that function. By the time the import is called, the first module will have finished initializing, and the second module can do its import. It may also be necessary to move imports out of the top level of code if some of the modules are platform-specific. In that case, it may not even be possible to import all of the modules at the top of the file. In this case, importing the correct modules in the corresponding platform-specific code is a good option. Only move imports into a local scope, such as inside a function definition, if it’s necessary to solve a problem such as avoiding a circular import or are trying to reduce the initialization time of a module. This technique is especially helpful if many of the imports are unnecessary depending on how the program executes. You may also want to move imports into a function if the modules are only ever used in that function. Note that loading a module the first time may be expensive because of the one time initialization of the module, but loading a module multiple times is virtually free, costing only a couple of dictionary lookups. Even if the module name has gone out of scope, the module is probably available in *note sys.modules: 1550.  File: python.info, Node: Why are default values shared between objects?, Next: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?, Prev: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.6 Why are default values shared between objects? ....................................................... This type of bug commonly bites neophyte programmers. Consider this function: def foo(mydict={}): # Danger: shared reference to one dict for all calls ... compute something ... mydict[key] = value return mydict The first time you call this function, ‘mydict’ contains a single item. The second time, ‘mydict’ contains two items because when ‘foo()’ begins executing, ‘mydict’ starts out with an item already in it. It is often expected that a function call creates new objects for default values. This is not what happens. Default values are created exactly once, when the function is defined. If that object is changed, like the dictionary in this example, subsequent calls to the function will refer to this changed object. By definition, immutable objects such as numbers, strings, tuples, and ‘None’, are safe from change. Changes to mutable objects such as dictionaries, lists, and class instances can lead to confusion. Because of this feature, it is good programming practice to not use mutable objects as default values. Instead, use ‘None’ as the default value and inside the function, check if the parameter is ‘None’ and create a new list/dictionary/whatever if it is. For example, don’t write: def foo(mydict={}): ... but: def foo(mydict=None): if mydict is None: mydict = {} # create a new dict for local namespace This feature can be useful. When you have a function that’s time-consuming to compute, a common technique is to cache the parameters and the resulting value of each call to the function, and return the cached value if the same value is requested again. This is called “memoizing”, and can be implemented like this: # Callers can only provide two parameters and optionally pass _cache by keyword def expensive(arg1, arg2, *, _cache={}): if (arg1, arg2) in _cache: return _cache[(arg1, arg2)] # Calculate the value result = ... expensive computation ... _cache[(arg1, arg2)] = result # Store result in the cache return result You could use a global variable containing a dictionary instead of the default value; it’s a matter of taste.  File: python.info, Node: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?, Next: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?, Prev: Why are default values shared between objects?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.7 How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another? .................................................................................... Collect the arguments using the ‘*’ and ‘**’ specifiers in the function’s parameter list; this gives you the positional arguments as a tuple and the keyword arguments as a dictionary. You can then pass these arguments when calling another function by using ‘*’ and ‘**’: def f(x, *args, **kwargs): ... kwargs['width'] = '14.3c' ... g(x, *args, **kwargs)  File: python.info, Node: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?, Next: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?, Prev: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.8 What is the difference between arguments and parameters? ................................................................. *note Parameters: 1eff. are defined by the names that appear in a function definition, whereas *note arguments: 444. are the values actually passed to a function when calling it. Parameters define what *note kind of arguments: 1eff. a function can accept. For example, given the function definition: def func(foo, bar=None, **kwargs): pass 'foo', 'bar' and 'kwargs' are parameters of ‘func’. However, when calling ‘func’, for example: func(42, bar=314, extra=somevar) the values ‘42’, ‘314’, and ‘somevar’ are arguments.  File: python.info, Node: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?, Next: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?, Prev: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.9 Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’? ........................................................ If you wrote code like: >>> x = [] >>> y = x >>> y.append(10) >>> y [10] >>> x [10] you might be wondering why appending an element to ‘y’ changed ‘x’ too. There are two factors that produce this result: 1. Variables are simply names that refer to objects. Doing ‘y = x’ doesn’t create a copy of the list – it creates a new variable ‘y’ that refers to the same object ‘x’ refers to. This means that there is only one object (the list), and both ‘x’ and ‘y’ refer to it. 2. Lists are *note mutable: 1c00, which means that you can change their content. After the call to ‘append()’, the content of the mutable object has changed from ‘[]’ to ‘[10]’. Since both the variables refer to the same object, using either name accesses the modified value ‘[10]’. If we instead assign an immutable object to ‘x’: >>> x = 5 # ints are immutable >>> y = x >>> x = x + 1 # 5 can't be mutated, we are creating a new object here >>> x 6 >>> y 5 we can see that in this case ‘x’ and ‘y’ are not equal anymore. This is because integers are *note immutable: 1bfb, and when we do ‘x = x + 1’ we are not mutating the int ‘5’ by incrementing its value; instead, we are creating a new object (the int ‘6’) and assigning it to ‘x’ (that is, changing which object ‘x’ refers to). After this assignment we have two objects (the ints ‘6’ and ‘5’) and two variables that refer to them (‘x’ now refers to ‘6’ but ‘y’ still refers to ‘5’). Some operations (for example ‘y.append(10)’ and ‘y.sort()’) mutate the object, whereas superficially similar operations (for example ‘y = y + [10]’ and *note sorted(y): bce.) create a new object. In general in Python (and in all cases in the standard library) a method that mutates an object will return ‘None’ to help avoid getting the two types of operations confused. So if you mistakenly write ‘y.sort()’ thinking it will give you a sorted copy of ‘y’, you’ll instead end up with ‘None’, which will likely cause your program to generate an easily diagnosed error. However, there is one class of operations where the same operation sometimes has different behaviors with different types: the augmented assignment operators. For example, ‘+=’ mutates lists but not tuples or ints (‘a_list += [1, 2, 3]’ is equivalent to ‘a_list.extend([1, 2, 3])’ and mutates ‘a_list’, whereas ‘some_tuple += (1, 2, 3)’ and ‘some_int += 1’ create new objects). In other words: * If we have a mutable object (*note list: 60d, *note dict: 258, *note set: 5d5, etc.), we can use some specific operations to mutate it and all the variables that refer to it will see the change. * If we have an immutable object (*note str: 447, *note int: 259, *note tuple: 36b, etc.), all the variables that refer to it will always see the same value, but operations that transform that value into a new value always return a new object. If you want to know if two variables refer to the same object or not, you can use the *note is: 2ef. operator, or the built-in function *note id(): 13ee.  File: python.info, Node: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?, Next: How do you make a higher order function in Python?, Prev: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.10 How do I write a function with output parameters (call by reference)? ............................................................................... Remember that arguments are passed by assignment in Python. Since assignment just creates references to objects, there’s no alias between an argument name in the caller and callee, and so no call-by-reference per se. You can achieve the desired effect in a number of ways. 1. By returning a tuple of the results: >>> def func1(a, b): ... a = 'new-value' # a and b are local names ... b = b + 1 # assigned to new objects ... return a, b # return new values ... >>> x, y = 'old-value', 99 >>> func1(x, y) ('new-value', 100) This is almost always the clearest solution. 2. By using global variables. This isn’t thread-safe, and is not recommended. 3. By passing a mutable (changeable in-place) object: >>> def func2(a): ... a[0] = 'new-value' # 'a' references a mutable list ... a[1] = a[1] + 1 # changes a shared object ... >>> args = ['old-value', 99] >>> func2(args) >>> args ['new-value', 100] 4. By passing in a dictionary that gets mutated: >>> def func3(args): ... args['a'] = 'new-value' # args is a mutable dictionary ... args['b'] = args['b'] + 1 # change it in-place ... >>> args = {'a': 'old-value', 'b': 99} >>> func3(args) >>> args {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100} 5. Or bundle up values in a class instance: >>> class Namespace: ... def __init__(self, /, **args): ... for key, value in args.items(): ... setattr(self, key, value) ... >>> def func4(args): ... args.a = 'new-value' # args is a mutable Namespace ... args.b = args.b + 1 # change object in-place ... >>> args = Namespace(a='old-value', b=99) >>> func4(args) >>> vars(args) {'a': 'new-value', 'b': 100} There’s almost never a good reason to get this complicated. Your best choice is to return a tuple containing the multiple results.  File: python.info, Node: How do you make a higher order function in Python?, Next: How do I copy an object in Python?, Prev: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.11 How do you make a higher order function in Python? ............................................................ You have two choices: you can use nested scopes or you can use callable objects. For example, suppose you wanted to define ‘linear(a,b)’ which returns a function ‘f(x)’ that computes the value ‘a*x+b’. Using nested scopes: def linear(a, b): def result(x): return a * x + b return result Or using a callable object: class linear: def __init__(self, a, b): self.a, self.b = a, b def __call__(self, x): return self.a * x + self.b In both cases, taxes = linear(0.3, 2) gives a callable object where ‘taxes(10e6) == 0.3 * 10e6 + 2’. The callable object approach has the disadvantage that it is a bit slower and results in slightly longer code. However, note that a collection of callables can share their signature via inheritance: class exponential(linear): # __init__ inherited def __call__(self, x): return self.a * (x ** self.b) Object can encapsulate state for several methods: class counter: value = 0 def set(self, x): self.value = x def up(self): self.value = self.value + 1 def down(self): self.value = self.value - 1 count = counter() inc, dec, reset = count.up, count.down, count.set Here ‘inc()’, ‘dec()’ and ‘reset()’ act like functions which share the same counting variable.  File: python.info, Node: How do I copy an object in Python?, Next: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?, Prev: How do you make a higher order function in Python?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.12 How do I copy an object in Python? ............................................ In general, try *note copy.copy(): 52f. or *note copy.deepcopy(): b6e. for the general case. Not all objects can be copied, but most can. Some objects can be copied more easily. Dictionaries have a *note copy(): bd0. method: newdict = olddict.copy() Sequences can be copied by slicing: new_l = l[:]  File: python.info, Node: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?, Next: How can my code discover the name of an object?, Prev: How do I copy an object in Python?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.13 How can I find the methods or attributes of an object? ................................................................ For an instance ‘x’ of a user-defined class, *note dir(x): 62e. returns an alphabetized list of the names containing the instance attributes and methods and attributes defined by its class.  File: python.info, Node: How can my code discover the name of an object?, Next: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?, Prev: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.14 How can my code discover the name of an object? ......................................................... Generally speaking, it can’t, because objects don’t really have names. Essentially, assignment always binds a name to a value; the same is true of ‘def’ and ‘class’ statements, but in that case the value is a callable. Consider the following code: >>> class A: ... pass ... >>> B = A >>> a = B() >>> b = a >>> print(b) <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC> >>> print(a) <__main__.A object at 0x16D07CC> Arguably the class has a name: even though it is bound to two names and invoked through the name ‘B’ the created instance is still reported as an instance of class ‘A’. However, it is impossible to say whether the instance’s name is ‘a’ or ‘b’, since both names are bound to the same value. Generally speaking it should not be necessary for your code to “know the names” of particular values. Unless you are deliberately writing introspective programs, this is usually an indication that a change of approach might be beneficial. In comp.lang.python, Fredrik Lundh once gave an excellent analogy in answer to this question: The same way as you get the name of that cat you found on your porch: the cat (object) itself cannot tell you its name, and it doesn’t really care – so the only way to find out what it’s called is to ask all your neighbours (namespaces) if it’s their cat (object)… ….and don’t be surprised if you’ll find that it’s known by many names, or no name at all!  File: python.info, Node: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?, Next: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?, Prev: How can my code discover the name of an object?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.15 What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence? ......................................................... Comma is not an operator in Python. Consider this session: >>> "a" in "b", "a" (False, 'a') Since the comma is not an operator, but a separator between expressions the above is evaluated as if you had entered: ("a" in "b"), "a" not: "a" in ("b", "a") The same is true of the various assignment operators (‘=’, ‘+=’ etc). They are not truly operators but syntactic delimiters in assignment statements.  File: python.info, Node: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?, Next: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?, Prev: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.16 Is there an equivalent of C’s “?:” ternary operator? .............................................................. Yes, there is. The syntax is as follows: [on_true] if [expression] else [on_false] x, y = 50, 25 small = x if x < y else y Before this syntax was introduced in Python 2.5, a common idiom was to use logical operators: [expression] and [on_true] or [on_false] However, this idiom is unsafe, as it can give wrong results when 'on_true' has a false boolean value. Therefore, it is always better to use the ‘... if ... else ...’ form.  File: python.info, Node: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?, Next: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?, Prev: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.17 Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python? .................................................................. Yes. Usually this is done by nesting *note lambda: 128f. within ‘lambda’. See the following three examples, slightly adapted from Ulf Bartelt: from functools import reduce # Primes < 1000 print(list(filter(None,map(lambda y:y*reduce(lambda x,y:x*y!=0, map(lambda x,y=y:y%x,range(2,int(pow(y,0.5)+1))),1),range(2,1000))))) # First 10 Fibonacci numbers print(list(map(lambda x,f=lambda x,f:(f(x-1,f)+f(x-2,f)) if x>1 else 1: f(x,f), range(10)))) # Mandelbrot set print((lambda Ru,Ro,Iu,Io,IM,Sx,Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+'\n'+y,map(lambda y, Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,Sy=Sy,L=lambda yc,Iu=Iu,Io=Io,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro,i=IM, Sx=Sx,Sy=Sy:reduce(lambda x,y:x+y,map(lambda x,xc=Ru,yc=yc,Ru=Ru,Ro=Ro, i=i,Sx=Sx,F=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f=lambda xc,yc,x,y,k,f:(k<=0)or (x*x+y*y >=4.0) or 1+f(xc,yc,x*x-y*y+xc,2.0*x*y+yc,k-1,f):f(xc,yc,x,y,k,f):chr( 64+F(Ru+x*(Ro-Ru)/Sx,yc,0,0,i)),range(Sx))):L(Iu+y*(Io-Iu)/Sy),range(Sy ))))(-2.1, 0.7, -1.2, 1.2, 30, 80, 24)) # \___ ___/ \___ ___/ | | |__ lines on screen # V V | |______ columns on screen # | | |__________ maximum of "iterations" # | |_________________ range on y axis # |____________________________ range on x axis Don’t try this at home, kids!  File: python.info, Node: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?, Prev: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?, Up: Core Language 10.2.2.18 What does the slash(/) in the parameter list of a function mean? .......................................................................... A slash in the argument list of a function denotes that the parameters prior to it are positional-only. Positional-only parameters are the ones without an externally usable name. Upon calling a function that accepts positional-only parameters, arguments are mapped to parameters based solely on their position. For example, *note divmod(): 9a1. is a function that accepts positional-only parameters. Its documentation looks like this: >>> help(divmod) Help on built-in function divmod in module builtins: divmod(x, y, /) Return the tuple (x//y, x%y). Invariant: div*y + mod == x. The slash at the end of the parameter list means that both parameters are positional-only. Thus, calling *note divmod(): 9a1. with keyword arguments would lead to an error: >>> divmod(x=3, y=4) Traceback (most recent call last): File "", line 1, in TypeError: divmod() takes no keyword arguments  File: python.info, Node: Numbers and strings, Next: Performance<4>, Prev: Core Language, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.3 Numbers and strings -------------------------- * Menu: * How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?:: * Why does -22 // 10 return -3?:: * How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?:: * How do I convert a string to a number?:: * How do I convert a number to a string?:: * How do I modify a string in place?:: * How do I use strings to call functions/methods?:: * Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp() for removing trailing newlines from strings?: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?. * Is there a scanf() or sscanf() equivalent?: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?. * What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?:: * Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?::  File: python.info, Node: How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?, Next: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.1 How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers? ......................................................... To specify an octal digit, precede the octal value with a zero, and then a lower or uppercase “o”. For example, to set the variable “a” to the octal value “10” (8 in decimal), type: >>> a = 0o10 >>> a 8 Hexadecimal is just as easy. Simply precede the hexadecimal number with a zero, and then a lower or uppercase “x”. Hexadecimal digits can be specified in lower or uppercase. For example, in the Python interpreter: >>> a = 0xa5 >>> a 165 >>> b = 0XB2 >>> b 178  File: python.info, Node: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?, Next: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?, Prev: How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.2 Why does -22 // 10 return -3? ...................................... It’s primarily driven by the desire that ‘i % j’ have the same sign as ‘j’. If you want that, and also want: i == (i // j) * j + (i % j) then integer division has to return the floor. C also requires that identity to hold, and then compilers that truncate ‘i // j’ need to make ‘i % j’ have the same sign as ‘i’. There are few real use cases for ‘i % j’ when ‘j’ is negative. When ‘j’ is positive, there are many, and in virtually all of them it’s more useful for ‘i % j’ to be ‘>= 0’. If the clock says 10 now, what did it say 200 hours ago? ‘-190 % 12 == 2’ is useful; ‘-190 % 12 == -10’ is a bug waiting to bite.  File: python.info, Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?, Next: How do I convert a string to a number?, Prev: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.3 How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError? ................................................................... Trying to lookup an ‘int’ literal attribute in the normal manner gives a *note SyntaxError: 18d. because the period is seen as a decimal point: >>> 1.__class__ File "", line 1 1.__class__ ^ SyntaxError: invalid decimal literal The solution is to separate the literal from the period with either a space or parentheses. >>> 1 .__class__ >>> (1).__class__  File: python.info, Node: How do I convert a string to a number?, Next: How do I convert a number to a string?, Prev: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.4 How do I convert a string to a number? ............................................... For integers, use the built-in *note int(): 259. type constructor, e.g. ‘int('144') == 144’. Similarly, *note float(): 2f1. converts to a floating-point number, e.g. ‘float('144') == 144.0’. By default, these interpret the number as decimal, so that ‘int('0144') == 144’ holds true, and ‘int('0x144')’ raises *note ValueError: 204. ‘int(string, base)’ takes the base to convert from as a second optional argument, so ‘int( '0x144', 16) == 324’. If the base is specified as 0, the number is interpreted using Python’s rules: a leading ‘0o’ indicates octal, and ‘0x’ indicates a hex number. Do not use the built-in function *note eval(): 180. if all you need is to convert strings to numbers. *note eval(): 180. will be significantly slower and it presents a security risk: someone could pass you a Python expression that might have unwanted side effects. For example, someone could pass ‘__import__('os').system("rm -rf $HOME")’ which would erase your home directory. *note eval(): 180. also has the effect of interpreting numbers as Python expressions, so that e.g. ‘eval('09')’ gives a syntax error because Python does not allow leading ‘0’ in a decimal number (except ‘0’).  File: python.info, Node: How do I convert a number to a string?, Next: How do I modify a string in place?, Prev: How do I convert a string to a number?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.5 How do I convert a number to a string? ............................................... To convert, e.g., the number ‘144’ to the string ‘'144'’, use the built-in type constructor *note str(): 447. If you want a hexadecimal or octal representation, use the built-in functions *note hex(): 12c2. or *note oct(): 12c1. For fancy formatting, see the *note f-strings: 9a9. and *note Format String Syntax: 137c. sections, e.g. ‘"{:04d}".format(144)’ yields ‘'0144'’ and ‘"{:.3f}".format(1.0/3.0)’ yields ‘'0.333'’.  File: python.info, Node: How do I modify a string in place?, Next: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?, Prev: How do I convert a number to a string?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.6 How do I modify a string in place? ........................................... You can’t, because strings are immutable. In most situations, you should simply construct a new string from the various parts you want to assemble it from. However, if you need an object with the ability to modify in-place unicode data, try using an *note io.StringIO: f22. object or the *note array: 7. module: >>> import io >>> s = "Hello, world" >>> sio = io.StringIO(s) >>> sio.getvalue() 'Hello, world' >>> sio.seek(7) 7 >>> sio.write("there!") 6 >>> sio.getvalue() 'Hello, there!' >>> import array >>> a = array.array('w', s) >>> print(a) array('w', 'Hello, world') >>> a[0] = 'y' >>> print(a) array('w', 'yello, world') >>> a.tounicode() 'yello, world'  File: python.info, Node: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?, Next: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?, Prev: How do I modify a string in place?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.7 How do I use strings to call functions/methods? ........................................................ There are various techniques. * The best is to use a dictionary that maps strings to functions. The primary advantage of this technique is that the strings do not need to match the names of the functions. This is also the primary technique used to emulate a case construct: def a(): pass def b(): pass dispatch = {'go': a, 'stop': b} # Note lack of parens for funcs dispatch[get_input()]() # Note trailing parens to call function * Use the built-in function *note getattr(): bd1.: import foo getattr(foo, 'bar')() Note that *note getattr(): bd1. works on any object, including classes, class instances, modules, and so on. This is used in several places in the standard library, like this: class Foo: def do_foo(self): ... def do_bar(self): ... f = getattr(foo_instance, 'do_' + opname) f() * Use *note locals(): 141. to resolve the function name: def myFunc(): print("hello") fname = "myFunc" f = locals()[fname] f()  File: python.info, Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?, Next: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?, Prev: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.8 Is there an equivalent to Perl’s ‘chomp()’ for removing trailing newlines from strings? ................................................................................................ You can use ‘S.rstrip("\r\n")’ to remove all occurrences of any line terminator from the end of the string ‘S’ without removing other trailing whitespace. If the string ‘S’ represents more than one line, with several empty lines at the end, the line terminators for all the blank lines will be removed: >>> lines = ("line 1 \r\n" ... "\r\n" ... "\r\n") >>> lines.rstrip("\n\r") 'line 1 ' Since this is typically only desired when reading text one line at a time, using ‘S.rstrip()’ this way works well.  File: python.info, Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?, Next: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?, Prev: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.9 Is there a ‘scanf()’ or ‘sscanf()’ equivalent? ....................................................... Not as such. For simple input parsing, the easiest approach is usually to split the line into whitespace-delimited words using the *note split(): ea3. method of string objects and then convert decimal strings to numeric values using *note int(): 259. or *note float(): 2f1. ‘split()’ supports an optional “sep” parameter which is useful if the line uses something other than whitespace as a separator. For more complicated input parsing, regular expressions are more powerful than C’s ‘sscanf’ and better suited for the task.  File: python.info, Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?, Next: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?, Prev: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.10 What does ‘UnicodeDecodeError’ or ‘UnicodeEncodeError’ error mean? ............................................................................ See the *note Unicode HOWTO: 1297.  File: python.info, Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?, Prev: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?, Up: Numbers and strings 10.2.3.11 Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes? ................................................................... A raw string ending with an odd number of backslashes will escape the string’s quote: >>> r'C:\this\will\not\work\' File "", line 1 r'C:\this\will\not\work\' ^ SyntaxError: unterminated string literal (detected at line 1) There are several workarounds for this. One is to use regular strings and double the backslashes: >>> 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\' 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\' Another is to concatenate a regular string containing an escaped backslash to the raw string: >>> r'C:\this\will\work' '\\' 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\' It is also possible to use *note os.path.join(): 1633. to append a backslash on Windows: >>> os.path.join(r'C:\this\will\work', '') 'C:\\this\\will\\work\\' Note that while a backslash will “escape” a quote for the purposes of determining where the raw string ends, no escaping occurs when interpreting the value of the raw string. That is, the backslash remains present in the value of the raw string: >>> r'backslash\'preserved' "backslash\\'preserved" Also see the specification in the *note language reference: 1ea4.  File: python.info, Node: Performance<4>, Next: Sequences Tuples/Lists, Prev: Numbers and strings, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.4 Performance ------------------ * Menu: * My program is too slow. How do I speed it up?: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?. * What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?::  File: python.info, Node: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?, Next: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?, Up: Performance<4> 10.2.4.1 My program is too slow. How do I speed it up? ...................................................... That’s a tough one, in general. First, here are a list of things to remember before diving further: * Performance characteristics vary across Python implementations. This FAQ focuses on *note CPython: 6f1. * Behaviour can vary across operating systems, especially when talking about I/O or multi-threading. * You should always find the hot spots in your program 'before' attempting to optimize any code (see the *note profile: af. module). * Writing benchmark scripts will allow you to iterate quickly when searching for improvements (see the *note timeit: ef. module). * It is highly recommended to have good code coverage (through unit testing or any other technique) before potentially introducing regressions hidden in sophisticated optimizations. That being said, there are many tricks to speed up Python code. Here are some general principles which go a long way towards reaching acceptable performance levels: * Making your algorithms faster (or changing to faster ones) can yield much larger benefits than trying to sprinkle micro-optimization tricks all over your code. * Use the right data structures. Study documentation for the *note Built-in Types: 218e. and the *note collections: 1d. module. * When the standard library provides a primitive for doing something, it is likely (although not guaranteed) to be faster than any alternative you may come up with. This is doubly true for primitives written in C, such as builtins and some extension types. For example, be sure to use either the *note list.sort(): bcf. built-in method or the related *note sorted(): bce. function to do sorting (and see the *note Sorting Techniques: 217e. for examples of moderately advanced usage). * Abstractions tend to create indirections and force the interpreter to work more. If the levels of indirection outweigh the amount of useful work done, your program will be slower. You should avoid excessive abstraction, especially under the form of tiny functions or methods (which are also often detrimental to readability). If you have reached the limit of what pure Python can allow, there are tools to take you further away. For example, Cython(1) can compile a slightly modified version of Python code into a C extension, and can be used on many different platforms. Cython can take advantage of compilation (and optional type annotations) to make your code significantly faster than when interpreted. If you are confident in your C programming skills, you can also *note write a C extension module: 1bda. yourself. See also ........ The wiki page devoted to performance tips(2). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://cython.org (2) https://wiki.python.org/moin/PythonSpeed/PerformanceTips  File: python.info, Node: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?, Prev: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?, Up: Performance<4> 10.2.4.2 What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together? ............................................................................. *note str: 447. and *note bytes: 1c2. objects are immutable, therefore concatenating many strings together is inefficient as each concatenation creates a new object. In the general case, the total runtime cost is quadratic in the total string length. To accumulate many *note str: 447. objects, the recommended idiom is to place them into a list and call *note str.join(): 21ab. at the end: chunks = [] for s in my_strings: chunks.append(s) result = ''.join(chunks) (another reasonably efficient idiom is to use *note io.StringIO: f22.) To accumulate many *note bytes: 1c2. objects, the recommended idiom is to extend a *note bytearray: 53a. object using in-place concatenation (the ‘+=’ operator): result = bytearray() for b in my_bytes_objects: result += b  File: python.info, Node: Sequences Tuples/Lists, Next: Objects, Prev: Performance<4>, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.5 Sequences (Tuples/Lists) ------------------------------- * Menu: * How do I convert between tuples and lists?:: * What’s a negative index?:: * How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?:: * How do you remove duplicates from a list?:: * How do you remove multiple items from a list:: * How do you make an array in Python?:: * How do I create a multidimensional list?:: * How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?:: * Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?:: * I want to do a complicated sort; can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?. * How can I sort one list by values from another list?::  File: python.info, Node: How do I convert between tuples and lists?, Next: What’s a negative index?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.1 How do I convert between tuples and lists? ................................................... The type constructor ‘tuple(seq)’ converts any sequence (actually, any iterable) into a tuple with the same items in the same order. For example, ‘tuple([1, 2, 3])’ yields ‘(1, 2, 3)’ and ‘tuple('abc')’ yields ‘('a', 'b', 'c')’. If the argument is a tuple, it does not make a copy but returns the same object, so it is cheap to call *note tuple(): 36b. when you aren’t sure that an object is already a tuple. The type constructor ‘list(seq)’ converts any sequence or iterable into a list with the same items in the same order. For example, ‘list((1, 2, 3))’ yields ‘[1, 2, 3]’ and ‘list('abc')’ yields ‘['a', 'b', 'c']’. If the argument is a list, it makes a copy just like ‘seq[:]’ would.  File: python.info, Node: What’s a negative index?, Next: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?, Prev: How do I convert between tuples and lists?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.2 What’s a negative index? ................................. Python sequences are indexed with positive numbers and negative numbers. For positive numbers 0 is the first index 1 is the second index and so forth. For negative indices -1 is the last index and -2 is the penultimate (next to last) index and so forth. Think of ‘seq[-n]’ as the same as ‘seq[len(seq)-n]’. Using negative indices can be very convenient. For example ‘S[:-1]’ is all of the string except for its last character, which is useful for removing the trailing newline from a string.  File: python.info, Node: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?, Next: How do you remove duplicates from a list?, Prev: What’s a negative index?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.3 How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order? ........................................................... Use the *note reversed(): 862. built-in function: for x in reversed(sequence): ... # do something with x ... This won’t touch your original sequence, but build a new copy with reversed order to iterate over.  File: python.info, Node: How do you remove duplicates from a list?, Next: How do you remove multiple items from a list, Prev: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.4 How do you remove duplicates from a list? .................................................. See the Python Cookbook for a long discussion of many ways to do this: ‘https://code.activestate.com/recipes/52560/’ If you don’t mind reordering the list, sort it and then scan from the end of the list, deleting duplicates as you go: if mylist: mylist.sort() last = mylist[-1] for i in range(len(mylist)-2, -1, -1): if last == mylist[i]: del mylist[i] else: last = mylist[i] If all elements of the list may be used as set keys (i.e. they are all *note hashable: 60c.) this is often faster mylist = list(set(mylist)) This converts the list into a set, thereby removing duplicates, and then back into a list.  File: python.info, Node: How do you remove multiple items from a list, Next: How do you make an array in Python?, Prev: How do you remove duplicates from a list?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.5 How do you remove multiple items from a list ..................................................... As with removing duplicates, explicitly iterating in reverse with a delete condition is one possibility. However, it is easier and faster to use slice replacement with an implicit or explicit forward iteration. Here are three variations.: mylist[:] = filter(keep_function, mylist) mylist[:] = (x for x in mylist if keep_condition) mylist[:] = [x for x in mylist if keep_condition] The list comprehension may be fastest.  File: python.info, Node: How do you make an array in Python?, Next: How do I create a multidimensional list?, Prev: How do you remove multiple items from a list, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.6 How do you make an array in Python? ............................................ Use a list: ["this", 1, "is", "an", "array"] Lists are equivalent to C or Pascal arrays in their time complexity; the primary difference is that a Python list can contain objects of many different types. The ‘array’ module also provides methods for creating arrays of fixed types with compact representations, but they are slower to index than lists. Also note that NumPy(1) and other third party packages define array-like structures with various characteristics as well. To get Lisp-style linked lists, you can emulate 'cons cells' using tuples: lisp_list = ("like", ("this", ("example", None) ) ) If mutability is desired, you could use lists instead of tuples. Here the analogue of a Lisp 'car' is ‘lisp_list[0]’ and the analogue of 'cdr' is ‘lisp_list[1]’. Only do this if you’re sure you really need to, because it’s usually a lot slower than using Python lists. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://numpy.org/  File: python.info, Node: How do I create a multidimensional list?, Next: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?, Prev: How do you make an array in Python?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.7 How do I create a multidimensional list? ................................................. You probably tried to make a multidimensional array like this: >>> A = [[None] * 2] * 3 This looks correct if you print it: >>> A [[None, None], [None, None], [None, None]] But when you assign a value, it shows up in multiple places: >>> A[0][0] = 5 >>> A [[5, None], [5, None], [5, None]] The reason is that replicating a list with ‘*’ doesn’t create copies, it only creates references to the existing objects. The ‘*3’ creates a list containing 3 references to the same list of length two. Changes to one row will show in all rows, which is almost certainly not what you want. The suggested approach is to create a list of the desired length first and then fill in each element with a newly created list: A = [None] * 3 for i in range(3): A[i] = [None] * 2 This generates a list containing 3 different lists of length two. You can also use a list comprehension: w, h = 2, 3 A = [[None] * w for i in range(h)] Or, you can use an extension that provides a matrix datatype; NumPy(1) is the best known. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://numpy.org/  File: python.info, Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?, Next: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?, Prev: How do I create a multidimensional list?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.8 How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects? ...................................................................... To call a method or function and accumulate the return values is a list, a *note list comprehension: 6c9. is an elegant solution: result = [obj.method() for obj in mylist] result = [function(obj) for obj in mylist] To just run the method or function without saving the return values, a plain *note for: 2ec. loop will suffice: for obj in mylist: obj.method() for obj in mylist: function(obj)  File: python.info, Node: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?, Next: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?, Prev: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.9 Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works? .................................................................................... This is because of a combination of the fact that augmented assignment operators are 'assignment' operators, and the difference between mutable and immutable objects in Python. This discussion applies in general when augmented assignment operators are applied to elements of a tuple that point to mutable objects, but we’ll use a ‘list’ and ‘+=’ as our exemplar. If you wrote: >>> a_tuple = (1, 2) >>> a_tuple[0] += 1 Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment The reason for the exception should be immediately clear: ‘1’ is added to the object ‘a_tuple[0]’ points to (‘1’), producing the result object, ‘2’, but when we attempt to assign the result of the computation, ‘2’, to element ‘0’ of the tuple, we get an error because we can’t change what an element of a tuple points to. Under the covers, what this augmented assignment statement is doing is approximately this: >>> result = a_tuple[0] + 1 >>> a_tuple[0] = result Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment It is the assignment part of the operation that produces the error, since a tuple is immutable. When you write something like: >>> a_tuple = (['foo'], 'bar') >>> a_tuple[0] += ['item'] Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment The exception is a bit more surprising, and even more surprising is the fact that even though there was an error, the append worked: >>> a_tuple[0] ['foo', 'item'] To see why this happens, you need to know that (a) if an object implements an *note __iadd__(): 1f8e. magic method, it gets called when the ‘+=’ augmented assignment is executed, and its return value is what gets used in the assignment statement; and (b) for lists, ‘__iadd__()’ is equivalent to calling ‘extend()’ on the list and returning the list. That’s why we say that for lists, ‘+=’ is a “shorthand” for ‘list.extend()’: >>> a_list = [] >>> a_list += [1] >>> a_list [1] This is equivalent to: >>> result = a_list.__iadd__([1]) >>> a_list = result The object pointed to by a_list has been mutated, and the pointer to the mutated object is assigned back to ‘a_list’. The end result of the assignment is a no-op, since it is a pointer to the same object that ‘a_list’ was previously pointing to, but the assignment still happens. Thus, in our tuple example what is happening is equivalent to: >>> result = a_tuple[0].__iadd__(['item']) >>> a_tuple[0] = result Traceback (most recent call last): ... TypeError: 'tuple' object does not support item assignment The ‘__iadd__()’ succeeds, and thus the list is extended, but even though ‘result’ points to the same object that ‘a_tuple[0]’ already points to, that final assignment still results in an error, because tuples are immutable.  File: python.info, Node: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?, Next: How can I sort one list by values from another list?, Prev: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.10 I want to do a complicated sort: can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python? ........................................................................................ The technique, attributed to Randal Schwartz of the Perl community, sorts the elements of a list by a metric which maps each element to its “sort value”. In Python, use the ‘key’ argument for the *note list.sort(): bcf. method: Isorted = L[:] Isorted.sort(key=lambda s: int(s[10:15]))  File: python.info, Node: How can I sort one list by values from another list?, Prev: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?, Up: Sequences Tuples/Lists 10.2.5.11 How can I sort one list by values from another list? .............................................................. Merge them into an iterator of tuples, sort the resulting list, and then pick out the element you want. >>> list1 = ["what", "I'm", "sorting", "by"] >>> list2 = ["something", "else", "to", "sort"] >>> pairs = zip(list1, list2) >>> pairs = sorted(pairs) >>> pairs [("I'm", 'else'), ('by', 'sort'), ('sorting', 'to'), ('what', 'something')] >>> result = [x[1] for x in pairs] >>> result ['else', 'sort', 'to', 'something']  File: python.info, Node: Objects, Next: Modules<5>, Prev: Sequences Tuples/Lists, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.6 Objects -------------- * Menu: * What is a class?:: * What is a method?:: * What is self?:: * How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?:: * What is delegation?:: * How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?:: * How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?:: * How do I create static class data and static class methods?:: * How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python?: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?. * I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam.: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam. * My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object.: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object. * How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?:: * Why does the result of id() appear to be not unique?: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?. * When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?:: * How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?:: * How do I cache method calls?::  File: python.info, Node: What is a class?, Next: What is a method?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.1 What is a class? ......................... A class is the particular object type created by executing a class statement. Class objects are used as templates to create instance objects, which embody both the data (attributes) and code (methods) specific to a datatype. A class can be based on one or more other classes, called its base class(es). It then inherits the attributes and methods of its base classes. This allows an object model to be successively refined by inheritance. You might have a generic ‘Mailbox’ class that provides basic accessor methods for a mailbox, and subclasses such as ‘MboxMailbox’, ‘MaildirMailbox’, ‘OutlookMailbox’ that handle various specific mailbox formats.  File: python.info, Node: What is a method?, Next: What is self?, Prev: What is a class?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.2 What is a method? .......................... A method is a function on some object ‘x’ that you normally call as ‘x.name(arguments...)’. Methods are defined as functions inside the class definition: class C: def meth(self, arg): return arg * 2 + self.attribute  File: python.info, Node: What is self?, Next: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?, Prev: What is a method?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.3 What is self? ...................... Self is merely a conventional name for the first argument of a method. A method defined as ‘meth(self, a, b, c)’ should be called as ‘x.meth(a, b, c)’ for some instance ‘x’ of the class in which the definition occurs; the called method will think it is called as ‘meth(x, a, b, c)’. See also *note Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?: 5110.  File: python.info, Node: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?, Next: What is delegation?, Prev: What is self?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.4 How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it? ............................................................................................ Use the built-in function *note isinstance(obj, cls): 43d. You can check if an object is an instance of any of a number of classes by providing a tuple instead of a single class, e.g. ‘isinstance(obj, (class1, class2, ...))’, and can also check whether an object is one of Python’s built-in types, e.g. ‘isinstance(obj, str)’ or ‘isinstance(obj, (int, float, complex))’. Note that *note isinstance(): 43d. also checks for virtual inheritance from an *note abstract base class: 11a8. So, the test will return ‘True’ for a registered class even if hasn’t directly or indirectly inherited from it. To test for “true inheritance”, scan the *note MRO: 360b. of the class: from collections.abc import Mapping class P: pass class C(P): pass Mapping.register(P) >>> c = C() >>> isinstance(c, C) # direct True >>> isinstance(c, P) # indirect True >>> isinstance(c, Mapping) # virtual True # Actual inheritance chain >>> type(c).__mro__ (, , ) # Test for "true inheritance" >>> Mapping in type(c).__mro__ False Note that most programs do not use *note isinstance(): 43d. on user-defined classes very often. If you are developing the classes yourself, a more proper object-oriented style is to define methods on the classes that encapsulate a particular behaviour, instead of checking the object’s class and doing a different thing based on what class it is. For example, if you have a function that does something: def search(obj): if isinstance(obj, Mailbox): ... # code to search a mailbox elif isinstance(obj, Document): ... # code to search a document elif ... A better approach is to define a ‘search()’ method on all the classes and just call it: class Mailbox: def search(self): ... # code to search a mailbox class Document: def search(self): ... # code to search a document obj.search()  File: python.info, Node: What is delegation?, Next: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?, Prev: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.5 What is delegation? ............................ Delegation is an object oriented technique (also called a design pattern). Let’s say you have an object ‘x’ and want to change the behaviour of just one of its methods. You can create a new class that provides a new implementation of the method you’re interested in changing and delegates all other methods to the corresponding method of ‘x’. Python programmers can easily implement delegation. For example, the following class implements a class that behaves like a file but converts all written data to uppercase: class UpperOut: def __init__(self, outfile): self._outfile = outfile def write(self, s): self._outfile.write(s.upper()) def __getattr__(self, name): return getattr(self._outfile, name) Here the ‘UpperOut’ class redefines the ‘write()’ method to convert the argument string to uppercase before calling the underlying ‘self._outfile.write()’ method. All other methods are delegated to the underlying ‘self._outfile’ object. The delegation is accomplished via the *note __getattr__(): 4cf. method; consult *note the language reference: 1f64. for more information about controlling attribute access. Note that for more general cases delegation can get trickier. When attributes must be set as well as retrieved, the class must define a *note __setattr__(): 1f2d. method too, and it must do so carefully. The basic implementation of ‘__setattr__()’ is roughly equivalent to the following: class X: ... def __setattr__(self, name, value): self.__dict__[name] = value ... Many *note __setattr__(): 1f2d. implementations call ‘object.__setattr__()’ to set an attribute on self without causing infinite recursion: class X: def __setattr__(self, name, value): # Custom logic here... object.__setattr__(self, name, value) Alternatively, it is possible to set attributes by inserting entries into *note self.__dict__: 558. directly.  File: python.info, Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?, Next: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?, Prev: What is delegation?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.6 How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it? ............................................................................................. Use the built-in *note super(): 4d7. function: class Derived(Base): def meth(self): super().meth() # calls Base.meth In the example, *note super(): 4d7. will automatically determine the instance from which it was called (the ‘self’ value), look up the *note method resolution order: 2180. (MRO) with ‘type(self).__mro__’, and return the next in line after ‘Derived’ in the MRO: ‘Base’.  File: python.info, Node: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?, Next: How do I create static class data and static class methods?, Prev: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.7 How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class? ............................................................................... You could assign the base class to an alias and derive from the alias. Then all you have to change is the value assigned to the alias. Incidentally, this trick is also handy if you want to decide dynamically (e.g. depending on availability of resources) which base class to use. Example: class Base: ... BaseAlias = Base class Derived(BaseAlias): ...  File: python.info, Node: How do I create static class data and static class methods?, Next: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?, Prev: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.8 How do I create static class data and static class methods? .................................................................... Both static data and static methods (in the sense of C++ or Java) are supported in Python. For static data, simply define a class attribute. To assign a new value to the attribute, you have to explicitly use the class name in the assignment: class C: count = 0 # number of times C.__init__ called def __init__(self): C.count = C.count + 1 def getcount(self): return C.count # or return self.count ‘c.count’ also refers to ‘C.count’ for any ‘c’ such that ‘isinstance(c, C)’ holds, unless overridden by ‘c’ itself or by some class on the base-class search path from ‘c.__class__’ back to ‘C’. Caution: within a method of C, an assignment like ‘self.count = 42’ creates a new and unrelated instance named “count” in ‘self’’s own dict. Rebinding of a class-static data name must always specify the class whether inside a method or not: C.count = 314 Static methods are possible: class C: @staticmethod def static(arg1, arg2, arg3): # No 'self' parameter! ... However, a far more straightforward way to get the effect of a static method is via a simple module-level function: def getcount(): return C.count If your code is structured so as to define one class (or tightly related class hierarchy) per module, this supplies the desired encapsulation.  File: python.info, Node: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?, Next: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam, Prev: How do I create static class data and static class methods?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.9 How can I overload constructors (or methods) in Python? ................................................................ This answer actually applies to all methods, but the question usually comes up first in the context of constructors. In C++ you’d write class C { C() { cout << "No arguments\n"; } C(int i) { cout << "Argument is " << i << "\n"; } } In Python you have to write a single constructor that catches all cases using default arguments. For example: class C: def __init__(self, i=None): if i is None: print("No arguments") else: print("Argument is", i) This is not entirely equivalent, but close enough in practice. You could also try a variable-length argument list, e.g. def __init__(self, *args): ... The same approach works for all method definitions.  File: python.info, Node: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam, Next: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object, Prev: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.10 I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam. ............................................................................ Variable names with double leading underscores are “mangled” to provide a simple but effective way to define class private variables. Any identifier of the form ‘__spam’ (at least two leading underscores, at most one trailing underscore) is textually replaced with ‘_classname__spam’, where ‘classname’ is the current class name with any leading underscores stripped. The identifier can be used unchanged within the class, but to access it outside the class, the mangled name must be used: class A: def __one(self): return 1 def two(self): return 2 * self.__one() class B(A): def three(self): return 3 * self._A__one() four = 4 * A()._A__one() In particular, this does not guarantee privacy since an outside user can still deliberately access the private attribute; many Python programmers never bother to use private variable names at all. See also ........ The *note private name mangling specifications: 1cba. for details and special cases.  File: python.info, Node: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object, Next: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?, Prev: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam, Up: Objects 10.2.6.11 My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object. ................................................................................. There are several possible reasons for this. The *note del: 17a6. statement does not necessarily call *note __del__(): 1f61. – it simply decrements the object’s reference count, and if this reaches zero ‘__del__()’ is called. If your data structures contain circular links (e.g. a tree where each child has a parent reference and each parent has a list of children) the reference counts will never go back to zero. Once in a while Python runs an algorithm to detect such cycles, but the garbage collector might run some time after the last reference to your data structure vanishes, so your ‘__del__()’ method may be called at an inconvenient and random time. This is inconvenient if you’re trying to reproduce a problem. Worse, the order in which object’s ‘__del__()’ methods are executed is arbitrary. You can run *note gc.collect(): a39. to force a collection, but there 'are' pathological cases where objects will never be collected. Despite the cycle collector, it’s still a good idea to define an explicit ‘close()’ method on objects to be called whenever you’re done with them. The ‘close()’ method can then remove attributes that refer to subobjects. Don’t call ‘__del__()’ directly – ‘__del__()’ should call ‘close()’ and ‘close()’ should make sure that it can be called more than once for the same object. Another way to avoid cyclical references is to use the *note weakref: 114. module, which allows you to point to objects without incrementing their reference count. Tree data structures, for instance, should use weak references for their parent and sibling references (if they need them!). Finally, if your ‘__del__()’ method raises an exception, a warning message is printed to *note sys.stderr: 939.  File: python.info, Node: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?, Next: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?, Prev: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object, Up: Objects 10.2.6.12 How do I get a list of all instances of a given class? ................................................................ Python does not keep track of all instances of a class (or of a built-in type). You can program the class’s constructor to keep track of all instances by keeping a list of weak references to each instance.  File: python.info, Node: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?, Next: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?, Prev: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.13 Why does the result of ‘id()’ appear to be not unique? ................................................................ The *note id(): 13ee. builtin returns an integer that is guaranteed to be unique during the lifetime of the object. Since in CPython, this is the object’s memory address, it happens frequently that after an object is deleted from memory, the next freshly created object is allocated at the same position in memory. This is illustrated by this example: >>> id(1000) 13901272 >>> id(2000) 13901272 The two ids belong to different integer objects that are created before, and deleted immediately after execution of the ‘id()’ call. To be sure that objects whose id you want to examine are still alive, create another reference to the object: >>> a = 1000; b = 2000 >>> id(a) 13901272 >>> id(b) 13891296  File: python.info, Node: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?, Next: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?, Prev: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.14 When can I rely on identity tests with the 'is' operator? ................................................................... The ‘is’ operator tests for object identity. The test ‘a is b’ is equivalent to ‘id(a) == id(b)’. The most important property of an identity test is that an object is always identical to itself, ‘a is a’ always returns ‘True’. Identity tests are usually faster than equality tests. And unlike equality tests, identity tests are guaranteed to return a boolean ‘True’ or ‘False’. However, identity tests can 'only' be substituted for equality tests when object identity is assured. Generally, there are three circumstances where identity is guaranteed: 1. Assignments create new names but do not change object identity. After the assignment ‘new = old’, it is guaranteed that ‘new is old’. 2. Putting an object in a container that stores object references does not change object identity. After the list assignment ‘s[0] = x’, it is guaranteed that ‘s[0] is x’. 3. If an object is a singleton, it means that only one instance of that object can exist. After the assignments ‘a = None’ and ‘b = None’, it is guaranteed that ‘a is b’ because ‘None’ is a singleton. In most other circumstances, identity tests are inadvisable and equality tests are preferred. In particular, identity tests should not be used to check constants such as *note int: 259. and *note str: 447. which aren’t guaranteed to be singletons: >>> a = 1000 >>> b = 500 >>> c = b + 500 >>> a is c False >>> a = 'Python' >>> b = 'Py' >>> c = b + 'thon' >>> a is c False Likewise, new instances of mutable containers are never identical: >>> a = [] >>> b = [] >>> a is b False In the standard library code, you will see several common patterns for correctly using identity tests: 1. As recommended by PEP 8(1), an identity test is the preferred way to check for ‘None’. This reads like plain English in code and avoids confusion with other objects that may have boolean values that evaluate to false. 2. Detecting optional arguments can be tricky when ‘None’ is a valid input value. In those situations, you can create a singleton sentinel object guaranteed to be distinct from other objects. For example, here is how to implement a method that behaves like *note dict.pop(): 33e.: _sentinel = object() def pop(self, key, default=_sentinel): if key in self: value = self[key] del self[key] return value if default is _sentinel: raise KeyError(key) return default 3. Container implementations sometimes need to augment equality tests with identity tests. This prevents the code from being confused by objects such as ‘float('NaN')’ that are not equal to themselves. For example, here is the implementation of ‘collections.abc.Sequence.__contains__()’: def __contains__(self, value): for v in self: if v is value or v == value: return True return False ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/  File: python.info, Node: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?, Next: How do I cache method calls?, Prev: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.15 How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance? .................................................................................. When subclassing an immutable type, override the *note __new__(): 57d. method instead of the *note __init__(): 6ac. method. The latter only runs 'after' an instance is created, which is too late to alter data in an immutable instance. All of these immutable classes have a different signature than their parent class: from datetime import date class FirstOfMonthDate(date): "Always choose the first day of the month" def __new__(cls, year, month, day): return super().__new__(cls, year, month, 1) class NamedInt(int): "Allow text names for some numbers" xlat = {'zero': 0, 'one': 1, 'ten': 10} def __new__(cls, value): value = cls.xlat.get(value, value) return super().__new__(cls, value) class TitleStr(str): "Convert str to name suitable for a URL path" def __new__(cls, s): s = s.lower().replace(' ', '-') s = ''.join([c for c in s if c.isalnum() or c == '-']) return super().__new__(cls, s) The classes can be used like this: >>> FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 14) FirstOfMonthDate(2012, 2, 1) >>> NamedInt('ten') 10 >>> NamedInt(20) 20 >>> TitleStr('Blog: Why Python Rocks') 'blog-why-python-rocks'  File: python.info, Node: How do I cache method calls?, Prev: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?, Up: Objects 10.2.6.16 How do I cache method calls? ...................................... The two principal tools for caching methods are *note functools.cached_property(): 53e. and *note functools.lru_cache(): 9ee. The former stores results at the instance level and the latter at the class level. The 'cached_property' approach only works with methods that do not take any arguments. It does not create a reference to the instance. The cached method result will be kept only as long as the instance is alive. The advantage is that when an instance is no longer used, the cached method result will be released right away. The disadvantage is that if instances accumulate, so too will the accumulated method results. They can grow without bound. The 'lru_cache' approach works with methods that have *note hashable: 60c. arguments. It creates a reference to the instance unless special efforts are made to pass in weak references. The advantage of the least recently used algorithm is that the cache is bounded by the specified 'maxsize'. The disadvantage is that instances are kept alive until they age out of the cache or until the cache is cleared. This example shows the various techniques: class Weather: "Lookup weather information on a government website" def __init__(self, station_id): self._station_id = station_id # The _station_id is private and immutable def current_temperature(self): "Latest hourly observation" # Do not cache this because old results # can be out of date. @cached_property def location(self): "Return the longitude/latitude coordinates of the station" # Result only depends on the station_id @lru_cache(maxsize=20) def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='mm'): "Rainfall on a given date" # Depends on the station_id, date, and units. The above example assumes that the 'station_id' never changes. If the relevant instance attributes are mutable, the 'cached_property' approach can’t be made to work because it cannot detect changes to the attributes. To make the 'lru_cache' approach work when the 'station_id' is mutable, the class needs to define the *note __eq__(): afa. and *note __hash__(): afb. methods so that the cache can detect relevant attribute updates: class Weather: "Example with a mutable station identifier" def __init__(self, station_id): self.station_id = station_id def change_station(self, station_id): self.station_id = station_id def __eq__(self, other): return self.station_id == other.station_id def __hash__(self): return hash(self.station_id) @lru_cache(maxsize=20) def historic_rainfall(self, date, units='cm'): 'Rainfall on a given date' # Depends on the station_id, date, and units.  File: python.info, Node: Modules<5>, Prev: Objects, Up: Programming FAQ 10.2.7 Modules -------------- * Menu: * How do I create a .pyc file?: How do I create a pyc file?. * How do I find the current module name?:: * How can I have modules that mutually import each other?:: * __import__(‘x.y.z’) returns ; how do I get z?: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns ; how do I get z?. * When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen?: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?.  File: python.info, Node: How do I create a pyc file?, Next: How do I find the current module name?, Up: Modules<5> 10.2.7.1 How do I create a .pyc file? ..................................... When a module is imported for the first time (or when the source file has changed since the current compiled file was created) a ‘.pyc’ file containing the compiled code should be created in a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory of the directory containing the ‘.py’ file. The ‘.pyc’ file will have a filename that starts with the same name as the ‘.py’ file, and ends with ‘.pyc’, with a middle component that depends on the particular ‘python’ binary that created it. (See PEP 3147(1) for details.) One reason that a ‘.pyc’ file may not be created is a permissions problem with the directory containing the source file, meaning that the ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory cannot be created. This can happen, for example, if you develop as one user but run as another, such as if you are testing with a web server. Unless the *note PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: 139a. environment variable is set, creation of a .pyc file is automatic if you’re importing a module and Python has the ability (permissions, free space, etc…) to create a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory and write the compiled module to that subdirectory. Running Python on a top level script is not considered an import and no ‘.pyc’ will be created. For example, if you have a top-level module ‘foo.py’ that imports another module ‘xyz.py’, when you run ‘foo’ (by typing ‘python foo.py’ as a shell command), a ‘.pyc’ will be created for ‘xyz’ because ‘xyz’ is imported, but no ‘.pyc’ file will be created for ‘foo’ since ‘foo.py’ isn’t being imported. If you need to create a ‘.pyc’ file for ‘foo’ – that is, to create a ‘.pyc’ file for a module that is not imported – you can, using the *note py_compile: b3. and *note compileall: 20. modules. The *note py_compile: b3. module can manually compile any module. One way is to use the ‘compile()’ function in that module interactively: >>> import py_compile >>> py_compile.compile('foo.py') This will write the ‘.pyc’ to a ‘__pycache__’ subdirectory in the same location as ‘foo.py’ (or you can override that with the optional parameter ‘cfile’). You can also automatically compile all files in a directory or directories using the *note compileall: 20. module. You can do it from the shell prompt by running ‘compileall.py’ and providing the path of a directory containing Python files to compile: python -m compileall . ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-3147/  File: python.info, Node: How do I find the current module name?, Next: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?, Prev: How do I create a pyc file?, Up: Modules<5> 10.2.7.2 How do I find the current module name? ............................................... A module can find out its own module name by looking at the predefined global variable ‘__name__’. If this has the value ‘'__main__'’, the program is running as a script. Many modules that are usually used by importing them also provide a command-line interface or a self-test, and only execute this code after checking ‘__name__’: def main(): print('Running test...') ... if __name__ == '__main__': main()  File: python.info, Node: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?, Next: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns ; how do I get z?, Prev: How do I find the current module name?, Up: Modules<5> 10.2.7.3 How can I have modules that mutually import each other? ................................................................ Suppose you have the following modules: ‘foo.py’: from bar import bar_var foo_var = 1 ‘bar.py’: from foo import foo_var bar_var = 2 The problem is that the interpreter will perform the following steps: * main imports ‘foo’ * Empty globals for ‘foo’ are created * ‘foo’ is compiled and starts executing * ‘foo’ imports ‘bar’ * Empty globals for ‘bar’ are created * ‘bar’ is compiled and starts executing * ‘bar’ imports ‘foo’ (which is a no-op since there already is a module named ‘foo’) * The import mechanism tries to read ‘foo_var’ from ‘foo’ globals, to set ‘bar.foo_var = foo.foo_var’ The last step fails, because Python isn’t done with interpreting ‘foo’ yet and the global symbol dictionary for ‘foo’ is still empty. The same thing happens when you use ‘import foo’, and then try to access ‘foo.foo_var’ in global code. There are (at least) three possible workarounds for this problem. Guido van Rossum recommends avoiding all uses of ‘from import ...’, and placing all code inside functions. Initializations of global variables and class variables should use constants or built-in functions only. This means everything from an imported module is referenced as ‘.’. Jim Roskind suggests performing steps in the following order in each module: * exports (globals, functions, and classes that don’t need imported base classes) * ‘import’ statements * active code (including globals that are initialized from imported values). Van Rossum doesn’t like this approach much because the imports appear in a strange place, but it does work. Matthias Urlichs recommends restructuring your code so that the recursive import is not necessary in the first place. These solutions are not mutually exclusive.  File: python.info, Node: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns ; how do I get z?, Next: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?, Prev: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?, Up: Modules<5> 10.2.7.4 __import__(‘x.y.z’) returns ; how do I get z? .................................................................. Consider using the convenience function *note import_module(): 513. from *note importlib: 77. instead: z = importlib.import_module('x.y.z')  File: python.info, Node: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?, Prev: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns ; how do I get z?, Up: Modules<5> 10.2.7.5 When I edit an imported module and reimport it, the changes don’t show up. Why does this happen? ......................................................................................................... For reasons of efficiency as well as consistency, Python only reads the module file on the first time a module is imported. If it didn’t, in a program consisting of many modules where each one imports the same basic module, the basic module would be parsed and re-parsed many times. To force re-reading of a changed module, do this: import importlib import modname importlib.reload(modname) Warning: this technique is not 100% fool-proof. In particular, modules containing statements like from modname import some_objects will continue to work with the old version of the imported objects. If the module contains class definitions, existing class instances will 'not' be updated to use the new class definition. This can result in the following paradoxical behaviour: >>> import importlib >>> import cls >>> c = cls.C() # Create an instance of C >>> importlib.reload(cls) >>> isinstance(c, cls.C) # isinstance is false?!? False The nature of the problem is made clear if you print out the “identity” of the class objects: >>> hex(id(c.__class__)) '0x7352a0' >>> hex(id(cls.C)) '0x4198d0'  File: python.info, Node: Design and History FAQ, Next: Library and Extension FAQ, Prev: Programming FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.3 Design and History FAQ =========================== * Menu: * Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?:: * Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?:: * Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?:: * Why are Python strings immutable?:: * Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?:: * Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?:: * Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))?: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?. * Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method?: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?. * How fast are exceptions?:: * Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?:: * Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?:: * Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?:: * Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language?: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?. * How does Python manage memory?:: * Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?:: * Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?:: * Why are there separate tuple and list data types?:: * How are lists implemented in CPython?:: * How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?:: * Why must dictionary keys be immutable?:: * Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list?: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?. * How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?:: * Why is there no goto?:: * Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash?: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?. * Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?:: * Why don’t generators support the with statement?:: * Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?:: * Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?::  File: python.info, Node: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?, Next: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.1 Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements? ------------------------------------------------------------------ Guido van Rossum believes that using indentation for grouping is extremely elegant and contributes a lot to the clarity of the average Python program. Most people learn to love this feature after a while. Since there are no begin/end brackets there cannot be a disagreement between grouping perceived by the parser and the human reader. Occasionally C programmers will encounter a fragment of code like this: if (x <= y) x++; y--; z++; Only the ‘x++’ statement is executed if the condition is true, but the indentation leads many to believe otherwise. Even experienced C programmers will sometimes stare at it a long time wondering as to why ‘y’ is being decremented even for ‘x > y’. Because there are no begin/end brackets, Python is much less prone to coding-style conflicts. In C there are many different ways to place the braces. After becoming used to reading and writing code using a particular style, it is normal to feel somewhat uneasy when reading (or being required to write) in a different one. Many coding styles place begin/end brackets on a line by themselves. This makes programs considerably longer and wastes valuable screen space, making it harder to get a good overview of a program. Ideally, a function should fit on one screen (say, 20–30 lines). 20 lines of Python can do a lot more work than 20 lines of C. This is not solely due to the lack of begin/end brackets – the lack of declarations and the high-level data types are also responsible – but the indentation-based syntax certainly helps.  File: python.info, Node: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?, Next: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?, Prev: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.2 Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- See the next question.  File: python.info, Node: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?, Next: Why are Python strings immutable?, Prev: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.3 Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate? --------------------------------------------------------- Users are often surprised by results like this: >>> 1.2 - 1.0 0.19999999999999996 and think it is a bug in Python. It’s not. This has little to do with Python, and much more to do with how the underlying platform handles floating-point numbers. The *note float: 2f1. type in CPython uses a C ‘double’ for storage. A *note float: 2f1. object’s value is stored in binary floating-point with a fixed precision (typically 53 bits) and Python uses C operations, which in turn rely on the hardware implementation in the processor, to perform floating-point operations. This means that as far as floating-point operations are concerned, Python behaves like many popular languages including C and Java. Many numbers that can be written easily in decimal notation cannot be expressed exactly in binary floating point. For example, after: >>> x = 1.2 the value stored for ‘x’ is a (very good) approximation to the decimal value ‘1.2’, but is not exactly equal to it. On a typical machine, the actual stored value is: 1.0011001100110011001100110011001100110011001100110011 (binary) which is exactly: 1.1999999999999999555910790149937383830547332763671875 (decimal) The typical precision of 53 bits provides Python floats with 15–16 decimal digits of accuracy. For a fuller explanation, please see the *note floating-point arithmetic: 1d11. chapter in the Python tutorial.  File: python.info, Node: Why are Python strings immutable?, Next: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?, Prev: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.4 Why are Python strings immutable? ---------------------------------------- There are several advantages. One is performance: knowing that a string is immutable means we can allocate space for it at creation time, and the storage requirements are fixed and unchanging. This is also one of the reasons for the distinction between tuples and lists. Another advantage is that strings in Python are considered as “elemental” as numbers. No amount of activity will change the value 8 to anything else, and in Python, no amount of activity will change the string “eight” to anything else.  File: python.info, Node: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?, Next: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?, Prev: Why are Python strings immutable?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.5 Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- The idea was borrowed from Modula-3. It turns out to be very useful, for a variety of reasons. First, it’s more obvious that you are using a method or instance attribute instead of a local variable. Reading ‘self.x’ or ‘self.meth()’ makes it absolutely clear that an instance variable or method is used even if you don’t know the class definition by heart. In C++, you can sort of tell by the lack of a local variable declaration (assuming globals are rare or easily recognizable) – but in Python, there are no local variable declarations, so you’d have to look up the class definition to be sure. Some C++ and Java coding standards call for instance attributes to have an ‘m_’ prefix, so this explicitness is still useful in those languages, too. Second, it means that no special syntax is necessary if you want to explicitly reference or call the method from a particular class. In C++, if you want to use a method from a base class which is overridden in a derived class, you have to use the ‘::’ operator – in Python you can write ‘baseclass.methodname(self, )’. This is particularly useful for *note __init__(): 6ac. methods, and in general in cases where a derived class method wants to extend the base class method of the same name and thus has to call the base class method somehow. Finally, for instance variables it solves a syntactic problem with assignment: since local variables in Python are (by definition!) those variables to which a value is assigned in a function body (and that aren’t explicitly declared global), there has to be some way to tell the interpreter that an assignment was meant to assign to an instance variable instead of to a local variable, and it should preferably be syntactic (for efficiency reasons). C++ does this through declarations, but Python doesn’t have declarations and it would be a pity having to introduce them just for this purpose. Using the explicit ‘self.var’ solves this nicely. Similarly, for using instance variables, having to write ‘self.var’ means that references to unqualified names inside a method don’t have to search the instance’s directories. To put it another way, local variables and instance variables live in two different namespaces, and you need to tell Python which namespace to use.  File: python.info, Node: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?, Next: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?, Prev: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.6 Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression? ------------------------------------------------------ Starting in Python 3.8, you can! Assignment expressions using the walrus operator ‘:=’ assign a variable in an expression: while chunk := fp.read(200): print(chunk) See PEP 572(1) for more information. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0572/  File: python.info, Node: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?, Next: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?, Prev: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.7 Why does Python use methods for some functionality (e.g. list.index()) but functions for other (e.g. len(list))? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- As Guido said: (a) For some operations, prefix notation just reads better than postfix – prefix (and infix!) operations have a long tradition in mathematics which likes notations where the visuals help the mathematician thinking about a problem. Compare the easy with which we rewrite a formula like x*(a+b) into x*a + x*b to the clumsiness of doing the same thing using a raw OO notation. (b) When I read code that says len(x) I 'know' that it is asking for the length of something. This tells me two things: the result is an integer, and the argument is some kind of container. To the contrary, when I read x.len(), I have to already know that x is some kind of container implementing an interface or inheriting from a class that has a standard len(). Witness the confusion we occasionally have when a class that is not implementing a mapping has a get() or keys() method, or something that isn’t a file has a write() method. -- ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-3000/2006-November/004643.html’  File: python.info, Node: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?, Next: How fast are exceptions?, Prev: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.8 Why is join() a string method instead of a list or tuple method? ----------------------------------------------------------------------- Strings became much more like other standard types starting in Python 1.6, when methods were added which give the same functionality that has always been available using the functions of the string module. Most of these new methods have been widely accepted, but the one which appears to make some programmers feel uncomfortable is: ", ".join(['1', '2', '4', '8', '16']) which gives the result: "1, 2, 4, 8, 16" There are two common arguments against this usage. The first runs along the lines of: “It looks really ugly using a method of a string literal (string constant)”, to which the answer is that it might, but a string literal is just a fixed value. If the methods are to be allowed on names bound to strings there is no logical reason to make them unavailable on literals. The second objection is typically cast as: “I am really telling a sequence to join its members together with a string constant”. Sadly, you aren’t. For some reason there seems to be much less difficulty with having *note split(): ea3. as a string method, since in that case it is easy to see that "1, 2, 4, 8, 16".split(", ") is an instruction to a string literal to return the substrings delimited by the given separator (or, by default, arbitrary runs of white space). *note join(): 21ab. is a string method because in using it you are telling the separator string to iterate over a sequence of strings and insert itself between adjacent elements. This method can be used with any argument which obeys the rules for sequence objects, including any new classes you might define yourself. Similar methods exist for bytes and bytearray objects.  File: python.info, Node: How fast are exceptions?, Next: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?, Prev: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.9 How fast are exceptions? ------------------------------- A *note try: 6e4./*note except: 18b. block is extremely efficient if no exceptions are raised. Actually catching an exception is expensive. In versions of Python prior to 2.0 it was common to use this idiom: try: value = mydict[key] except KeyError: mydict[key] = getvalue(key) value = mydict[key] This only made sense when you expected the dict to have the key almost all the time. If that wasn’t the case, you coded it like this: if key in mydict: value = mydict[key] else: value = mydict[key] = getvalue(key) For this specific case, you could also use ‘value = dict.setdefault(key, getvalue(key))’, but only if the ‘getvalue()’ call is cheap enough because it is evaluated in all cases.  File: python.info, Node: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?, Next: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?, Prev: How fast are exceptions?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.10 Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python? ------------------------------------------------------------- In general, structured switch statements execute one block of code when an expression has a particular value or set of values. Since Python 3.10 one can easily match literal values, or constants within a namespace, with a ‘match ... case’ statement. An older alternative is a sequence of ‘if... elif... elif... else’. For cases where you need to choose from a very large number of possibilities, you can create a dictionary mapping case values to functions to call. For example: functions = {'a': function_1, 'b': function_2, 'c': self.method_1} func = functions[value] func() For calling methods on objects, you can simplify yet further by using the *note getattr(): bd1. built-in to retrieve methods with a particular name: class MyVisitor: def visit_a(self): ... def dispatch(self, value): method_name = 'visit_' + str(value) method = getattr(self, method_name) method() It’s suggested that you use a prefix for the method names, such as ‘visit_’ in this example. Without such a prefix, if values are coming from an untrusted source, an attacker would be able to call any method on your object. Imitating switch with fallthrough, as with C’s switch-case-default, is possible, much harder, and less needed.  File: python.info, Node: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?, Next: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?, Prev: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.11 Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Answer 1: Unfortunately, the interpreter pushes at least one C stack frame for each Python stack frame. Also, extensions can call back into Python at almost random moments. Therefore, a complete threads implementation requires thread support for C. Answer 2: Fortunately, there is Stackless Python(1), which has a completely redesigned interpreter loop that avoids the C stack. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/stackless-dev/stackless/wiki  File: python.info, Node: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?, Next: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?, Prev: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.12 Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements? -------------------------------------------------------- Python lambda expressions cannot contain statements because Python’s syntactic framework can’t handle statements nested inside expressions. However, in Python, this is not a serious problem. Unlike lambda forms in other languages, where they add functionality, Python lambdas are only a shorthand notation if you’re too lazy to define a function. Functions are already first class objects in Python, and can be declared in a local scope. Therefore the only advantage of using a lambda instead of a locally defined function is that you don’t need to invent a name for the function – but that’s just a local variable to which the function object (which is exactly the same type of object that a lambda expression yields) is assigned!  File: python.info, Node: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?, Next: How does Python manage memory?, Prev: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.13 Can Python be compiled to machine code, C or some other language? ------------------------------------------------------------------------- Cython(1) compiles a modified version of Python with optional annotations into C extensions. Nuitka(2) is an up-and-coming compiler of Python into C++ code, aiming to support the full Python language. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://cython.org/ (2) https://nuitka.net/  File: python.info, Node: How does Python manage memory?, Next: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?, Prev: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.14 How does Python manage memory? -------------------------------------- The details of Python memory management depend on the implementation. The standard implementation of Python, *note CPython: 6f1, uses reference counting to detect inaccessible objects, and another mechanism to collect reference cycles, periodically executing a cycle detection algorithm which looks for inaccessible cycles and deletes the objects involved. The *note gc: 60. module provides functions to perform a garbage collection, obtain debugging statistics, and tune the collector’s parameters. Other implementations (such as Jython(1) or PyPy(2)), however, can rely on a different mechanism such as a full-blown garbage collector. This difference can cause some subtle porting problems if your Python code depends on the behavior of the reference counting implementation. In some Python implementations, the following code (which is fine in CPython) will probably run out of file descriptors: for file in very_long_list_of_files: f = open(file) c = f.read(1) Indeed, using CPython’s reference counting and destructor scheme, each new assignment to ‘f’ closes the previous file. With a traditional GC, however, those file objects will only get collected (and closed) at varying and possibly long intervals. If you want to write code that will work with any Python implementation, you should explicitly close the file or use the *note with: 5ce. statement; this will work regardless of memory management scheme: for file in very_long_list_of_files: with open(file) as f: c = f.read(1) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.jython.org (2) https://pypy.org  File: python.info, Node: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?, Next: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?, Prev: How does Python manage memory?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.15 Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- For one thing, this is not a C standard feature and hence it’s not portable. (Yes, we know about the Boehm GC library. It has bits of assembler code for 'most' common platforms, not for all of them, and although it is mostly transparent, it isn’t completely transparent; patches are required to get Python to work with it.) Traditional GC also becomes a problem when Python is embedded into other applications. While in a standalone Python it’s fine to replace the standard ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ with versions provided by the GC library, an application embedding Python may want to have its 'own' substitute for ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’, and may not want Python’s. Right now, CPython works with anything that implements ‘malloc()’ and ‘free()’ properly.  File: python.info, Node: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?, Next: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?, Prev: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.16 Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits? ------------------------------------------------------ Objects referenced from the global namespaces of Python modules are not always deallocated when Python exits. This may happen if there are circular references. There are also certain bits of memory that are allocated by the C library that are impossible to free (e.g. a tool like Purify will complain about these). Python is, however, aggressive about cleaning up memory on exit and does try to destroy every single object. If you want to force Python to delete certain things on deallocation use the *note atexit: c. module to run a function that will force those deletions.  File: python.info, Node: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?, Next: How are lists implemented in CPython?, Prev: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.17 Why are there separate tuple and list data types? --------------------------------------------------------- Lists and tuples, while similar in many respects, are generally used in fundamentally different ways. Tuples can be thought of as being similar to Pascal ‘records’ or C ‘structs’; they’re small collections of related data which may be of different types which are operated on as a group. For example, a Cartesian coordinate is appropriately represented as a tuple of two or three numbers. Lists, on the other hand, are more like arrays in other languages. They tend to hold a varying number of objects all of which have the same type and which are operated on one-by-one. For example, *note os.listdir('.'): 10ee. returns a list of strings representing the files in the current directory. Functions which operate on this output would generally not break if you added another file or two to the directory. Tuples are immutable, meaning that once a tuple has been created, you can’t replace any of its elements with a new value. Lists are mutable, meaning that you can always change a list’s elements. Only immutable elements can be used as dictionary keys, and hence only tuples and not lists can be used as keys.  File: python.info, Node: How are lists implemented in CPython?, Next: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?, Prev: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.18 How are lists implemented in CPython? --------------------------------------------- CPython’s lists are really variable-length arrays, not Lisp-style linked lists. The implementation uses a contiguous array of references to other objects, and keeps a pointer to this array and the array’s length in a list head structure. This makes indexing a list ‘a[i]’ an operation whose cost is independent of the size of the list or the value of the index. When items are appended or inserted, the array of references is resized. Some cleverness is applied to improve the performance of appending items repeatedly; when the array must be grown, some extra space is allocated so the next few times don’t require an actual resize.  File: python.info, Node: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?, Next: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?, Prev: How are lists implemented in CPython?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.19 How are dictionaries implemented in CPython? ---------------------------------------------------- CPython’s dictionaries are implemented as resizable hash tables. Compared to B-trees, this gives better performance for lookup (the most common operation by far) under most circumstances, and the implementation is simpler. Dictionaries work by computing a hash code for each key stored in the dictionary using the *note hash(): 5e7. built-in function. The hash code varies widely depending on the key and a per-process seed; for example, ‘'Python'’ could hash to ‘-539294296’ while ‘'python'’, a string that differs by a single bit, could hash to ‘1142331976’. The hash code is then used to calculate a location in an internal array where the value will be stored. Assuming that you’re storing keys that all have different hash values, this means that dictionaries take constant time – 'O'(1), in Big-O notation – to retrieve a key.  File: python.info, Node: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?, Next: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?, Prev: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.20 Why must dictionary keys be immutable? ---------------------------------------------- The hash table implementation of dictionaries uses a hash value calculated from the key value to find the key. If the key were a mutable object, its value could change, and thus its hash could also change. But since whoever changes the key object can’t tell that it was being used as a dictionary key, it can’t move the entry around in the dictionary. Then, when you try to look up the same object in the dictionary it won’t be found because its hash value is different. If you tried to look up the old value it wouldn’t be found either, because the value of the object found in that hash bin would be different. If you want a dictionary indexed with a list, simply convert the list to a tuple first; the function ‘tuple(L)’ creates a tuple with the same entries as the list ‘L’. Tuples are immutable and can therefore be used as dictionary keys. Some unacceptable solutions that have been proposed: - Hash lists by their address (object ID). This doesn’t work because if you construct a new list with the same value it won’t be found; e.g.: mydict = {[1, 2]: '12'} print(mydict[[1, 2]]) would raise a *note KeyError: 33f. exception because the id of the ‘[1, 2]’ used in the second line differs from that in the first line. In other words, dictionary keys should be compared using ‘==’, not using *note is: 2ef. - Make a copy when using a list as a key. This doesn’t work because the list, being a mutable object, could contain a reference to itself, and then the copying code would run into an infinite loop. - Allow lists as keys but tell the user not to modify them. This would allow a class of hard-to-track bugs in programs when you forgot or modified a list by accident. It also invalidates an important invariant of dictionaries: every value in ‘d.keys()’ is usable as a key of the dictionary. - Mark lists as read-only once they are used as a dictionary key. The problem is that it’s not just the top-level object that could change its value; you could use a tuple containing a list as a key. Entering anything as a key into a dictionary would require marking all objects reachable from there as read-only – and again, self-referential objects could cause an infinite loop. There is a trick to get around this if you need to, but use it at your own risk: You can wrap a mutable structure inside a class instance which has both a *note __eq__(): afa. and a *note __hash__(): afb. method. You must then make sure that the hash value for all such wrapper objects that reside in a dictionary (or other hash based structure), remain fixed while the object is in the dictionary (or other structure). class ListWrapper: def __init__(self, the_list): self.the_list = the_list def __eq__(self, other): return self.the_list == other.the_list def __hash__(self): l = self.the_list result = 98767 - len(l)*555 for i, el in enumerate(l): try: result = result + (hash(el) % 9999999) * 1001 + i except Exception: result = (result % 7777777) + i * 333 return result Note that the hash computation is complicated by the possibility that some members of the list may be unhashable and also by the possibility of arithmetic overflow. Furthermore it must always be the case that if ‘o1 == o2’ (ie ‘o1.__eq__(o2) is True’) then ‘hash(o1) == hash(o2)’ (ie, ‘o1.__hash__() == o2.__hash__()’), regardless of whether the object is in a dictionary or not. If you fail to meet these restrictions dictionaries and other hash based structures will misbehave. In the case of ‘ListWrapper’, whenever the wrapper object is in a dictionary the wrapped list must not change to avoid anomalies. Don’t do this unless you are prepared to think hard about the requirements and the consequences of not meeting them correctly. Consider yourself warned.  File: python.info, Node: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?, Next: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?, Prev: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.21 Why doesn’t list.sort() return the sorted list? ------------------------------------------------------- In situations where performance matters, making a copy of the list just to sort it would be wasteful. Therefore, *note list.sort(): bcf. sorts the list in place. In order to remind you of that fact, it does not return the sorted list. This way, you won’t be fooled into accidentally overwriting a list when you need a sorted copy but also need to keep the unsorted version around. If you want to return a new list, use the built-in *note sorted(): bce. function instead. This function creates a new list from a provided iterable, sorts it and returns it. For example, here’s how to iterate over the keys of a dictionary in sorted order: for key in sorted(mydict): ... # do whatever with mydict[key]...  File: python.info, Node: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?, Next: Why is there no goto?, Prev: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.22 How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python? ------------------------------------------------------------------- An interface specification for a module as provided by languages such as C++ and Java describes the prototypes for the methods and functions of the module. Many feel that compile-time enforcement of interface specifications helps in the construction of large programs. Python 2.6 adds an *note abc: 4. module that lets you define Abstract Base Classes (ABCs). You can then use *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc. to check whether an instance or a class implements a particular ABC. The *note collections.abc: 1e. module defines a set of useful ABCs such as *note Iterable: 224d, *note Container: 224f, and *note MutableMapping: 10a2. For Python, many of the advantages of interface specifications can be obtained by an appropriate test discipline for components. A good test suite for a module can both provide a regression test and serve as a module interface specification and a set of examples. Many Python modules can be run as a script to provide a simple “self test.” Even modules which use complex external interfaces can often be tested in isolation using trivial “stub” emulations of the external interface. The *note doctest: 3a. and *note unittest: 106. modules or third-party test frameworks can be used to construct exhaustive test suites that exercise every line of code in a module. An appropriate testing discipline can help build large complex applications in Python as well as having interface specifications would. In fact, it can be better because an interface specification cannot test certain properties of a program. For example, the ‘list.append()’ method is expected to add new elements to the end of some internal list; an interface specification cannot test that your ‘list.append()’ implementation will actually do this correctly, but it’s trivial to check this property in a test suite. Writing test suites is very helpful, and you might want to design your code to make it easily tested. One increasingly popular technique, test-driven development, calls for writing parts of the test suite first, before you write any of the actual code. Of course Python allows you to be sloppy and not write test cases at all.  File: python.info, Node: Why is there no goto?, Next: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?, Prev: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.23 Why is there no goto? ----------------------------- In the 1970s people realized that unrestricted goto could lead to messy “spaghetti” code that was hard to understand and revise. In a high-level language, it is also unneeded as long as there are ways to branch (in Python, with *note if: 2ed. statements and *note or: 2f0, *note and: 2eb, and *note if: 2ed./*note else: 18c. expressions) and loop (with *note while: 1c04. and *note for: 2ec. statements, possibly containing *note continue: 9c9. and *note break: aa9.). One can also use exceptions to provide a “structured goto” that works even across function calls. Many feel that exceptions can conveniently emulate all reasonable uses of the ‘go’ or ‘goto’ constructs of C, Fortran, and other languages. For example: class label(Exception): pass # declare a label try: ... if condition: raise label() # goto label ... except label: # where to goto pass ... This doesn’t allow you to jump into the middle of a loop, but that’s usually considered an abuse of ‘goto’ anyway. Use sparingly.  File: python.info, Node: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?, Next: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?, Prev: Why is there no goto?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.24 Why can’t raw strings (r-strings) end with a backslash? --------------------------------------------------------------- More precisely, they can’t end with an odd number of backslashes: the unpaired backslash at the end escapes the closing quote character, leaving an unterminated string. Raw strings were designed to ease creating input for processors (chiefly regular expression engines) that want to do their own backslash escape processing. Such processors consider an unmatched trailing backslash to be an error anyway, so raw strings disallow that. In return, they allow you to pass on the string quote character by escaping it with a backslash. These rules work well when r-strings are used for their intended purpose. If you’re trying to build Windows pathnames, note that all Windows system calls accept forward slashes too: f = open("/mydir/file.txt") # works fine! If you’re trying to build a pathname for a DOS command, try e.g. one of dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir" "\\" dir = r"\this\is\my\dos\dir\ "[:-1] dir = "\\this\\is\\my\\dos\\dir\\"  File: python.info, Node: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?, Next: Why don’t generators support the with statement?, Prev: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.25 Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- Python has a *note with: 5ce. statement that wraps the execution of a block, calling code on the entrance and exit from the block. Some languages have a construct that looks like this: with obj: a = 1 # equivalent to obj.a = 1 total = total + 1 # obj.total = obj.total + 1 In Python, such a construct would be ambiguous. Other languages, such as Object Pascal, Delphi, and C++, use static types, so it’s possible to know, in an unambiguous way, what member is being assigned to. This is the main point of static typing – the compiler 'always' knows the scope of every variable at compile time. Python uses dynamic types. It is impossible to know in advance which attribute will be referenced at runtime. Member attributes may be added or removed from objects on the fly. This makes it impossible to know, from a simple reading, what attribute is being referenced: a local one, a global one, or a member attribute? For instance, take the following incomplete snippet: def foo(a): with a: print(x) The snippet assumes that ‘a’ must have a member attribute called ‘x’. However, there is nothing in Python that tells the interpreter this. What should happen if ‘a’ is, let us say, an integer? If there is a global variable named ‘x’, will it be used inside the *note with: 5ce. block? As you see, the dynamic nature of Python makes such choices much harder. The primary benefit of *note with: 5ce. and similar language features (reduction of code volume) can, however, easily be achieved in Python by assignment. Instead of: function(args).mydict[index][index].a = 21 function(args).mydict[index][index].b = 42 function(args).mydict[index][index].c = 63 write this: ref = function(args).mydict[index][index] ref.a = 21 ref.b = 42 ref.c = 63 This also has the side-effect of increasing execution speed because name bindings are resolved at run-time in Python, and the second version only needs to perform the resolution once. Similar proposals that would introduce syntax to further reduce code volume, such as using a ‘leading dot’, have been rejected in favour of explicitness (see ‘https://mail.python.org/pipermail/python-ideas/2016-May/040070.html’).  File: python.info, Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?, Next: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?, Prev: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.26 Why don’t generators support the with statement? -------------------------------------------------------- For technical reasons, a generator used directly as a context manager would not work correctly. When, as is most common, a generator is used as an iterator run to completion, no closing is needed. When it is, wrap it as *note contextlib.closing(generator): 294c. in the *note with: 5ce. statement.  File: python.info, Node: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?, Next: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?, Prev: Why don’t generators support the with statement?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.27 Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements? ---------------------------------------------------------------------- The colon is required primarily to enhance readability (one of the results of the experimental ABC language). Consider this: if a == b print(a) versus if a == b: print(a) Notice how the second one is slightly easier to read. Notice further how a colon sets off the example in this FAQ answer; it’s a standard usage in English. Another minor reason is that the colon makes it easier for editors with syntax highlighting; they can look for colons to decide when indentation needs to be increased instead of having to do a more elaborate parsing of the program text.  File: python.info, Node: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?, Prev: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?, Up: Design and History FAQ 10.3.28 Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples? -------------------------------------------------------------------- Python lets you add a trailing comma at the end of lists, tuples, and dictionaries: [1, 2, 3,] ('a', 'b', 'c',) d = { "A": [1, 5], "B": [6, 7], # last trailing comma is optional but good style } There are several reasons to allow this. When you have a literal value for a list, tuple, or dictionary spread across multiple lines, it’s easier to add more elements because you don’t have to remember to add a comma to the previous line. The lines can also be reordered without creating a syntax error. Accidentally omitting the comma can lead to errors that are hard to diagnose. For example: x = [ "fee", "fie" "foo", "fum" ] This list looks like it has four elements, but it actually contains three: “fee”, “fiefoo” and “fum”. Always adding the comma avoids this source of error. Allowing the trailing comma may also make programmatic code generation easier.  File: python.info, Node: Library and Extension FAQ, Next: Extending/Embedding FAQ, Prev: Design and History FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.4 Library and Extension FAQ ============================== * Menu: * General Library Questions:: * Common tasks:: * Threads:: * Input and Output: Input and Output<2>. * Network/Internet Programming:: * Databases:: * Mathematics and Numerics::  File: python.info, Node: General Library Questions, Next: Common tasks, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.1 General Library Questions -------------------------------- * Menu: * How do I find a module or application to perform task X?:: * Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file?: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?. * How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?:: * Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?:: * Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python?: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?. * Why don’t my signal handlers work?::  File: python.info, Node: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?, Next: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?, Up: General Library Questions 10.4.1.1 How do I find a module or application to perform task X? ................................................................. Check *note the Library Reference: 144. to see if there’s a relevant standard library module. (Eventually you’ll learn what’s in the standard library and will be able to skip this step.) For third-party packages, search the Python Package Index(1) or try Google(2) or another web search engine. Searching for “Python” plus a keyword or two for your topic of interest will usually find something helpful. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org (2) https://www.google.com  File: python.info, Node: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?, Next: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?, Prev: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?, Up: General Library Questions 10.4.1.2 Where is the math.py (socket.py, regex.py, etc.) source file? ...................................................................... If you can’t find a source file for a module it may be a built-in or dynamically loaded module implemented in C, C++ or other compiled language. In this case you may not have the source file or it may be something like ‘mathmodule.c’, somewhere in a C source directory (not on the Python Path). There are (at least) three kinds of modules in Python: 1. modules written in Python (.py); 2. modules written in C and dynamically loaded (.dll, .pyd, .so, .sl, etc); 3. modules written in C and linked with the interpreter; to get a list of these, type: import sys print(sys.builtin_module_names)  File: python.info, Node: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?, Next: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?, Prev: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?, Up: General Library Questions 10.4.1.3 How do I make a Python script executable on Unix? .......................................................... You need to do two things: the script file’s mode must be executable and the first line must begin with ‘#!’ followed by the path of the Python interpreter. The first is done by executing ‘chmod +x scriptfile’ or perhaps ‘chmod 755 scriptfile’. The second can be done in a number of ways. The most straightforward way is to write #!/usr/local/bin/python as the very first line of your file, using the pathname for where the Python interpreter is installed on your platform. If you would like the script to be independent of where the Python interpreter lives, you can use the ‘env’ program. Almost all Unix variants support the following, assuming the Python interpreter is in a directory on the user’s ‘PATH’: #!/usr/bin/env python 'Don’t' do this for CGI scripts. The ‘PATH’ variable for CGI scripts is often very minimal, so you need to use the actual absolute pathname of the interpreter. Occasionally, a user’s environment is so full that the ‘/usr/bin/env’ program fails; or there’s no env program at all. In that case, you can try the following hack (due to Alex Rezinsky): #! /bin/sh """:" exec python $0 ${1+"$@"} """ The minor disadvantage is that this defines the script’s __doc__ string. However, you can fix that by adding __doc__ = """...Whatever..."""  File: python.info, Node: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?, Next: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?, Prev: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?, Up: General Library Questions 10.4.1.4 Is there a curses/termcap package for Python? ...................................................... For Unix variants: The standard Python source distribution comes with a curses module in the Modules(1) subdirectory, though it’s not compiled by default. (Note that this is not available in the Windows distribution – there is no curses module for Windows.) The *note curses: 2b. module supports basic curses features as well as many additional functions from ncurses and SYSV curses such as colour, alternative character set support, pads, and mouse support. This means the module isn’t compatible with operating systems that only have BSD curses, but there don’t seem to be any currently maintained OSes that fall into this category. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Modules  File: python.info, Node: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?, Next: Why don’t my signal handlers work?, Prev: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?, Up: General Library Questions 10.4.1.5 Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit() in Python? .......................................................... The *note atexit: c. module provides a register function that is similar to C’s ‘onexit()’.  File: python.info, Node: Why don’t my signal handlers work?, Prev: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?, Up: General Library Questions 10.4.1.6 Why don’t my signal handlers work? ........................................... The most common problem is that the signal handler is declared with the wrong argument list. It is called as handler(signum, frame) so it should be declared with two parameters: def handler(signum, frame): ...  File: python.info, Node: Common tasks, Next: Threads, Prev: General Library Questions, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.2 Common tasks ------------------- * Menu: * How do I test a Python program or component?:: * How do I create documentation from doc strings?:: * How do I get a single keypress at a time?::  File: python.info, Node: How do I test a Python program or component?, Next: How do I create documentation from doc strings?, Up: Common tasks 10.4.2.1 How do I test a Python program or component? ..................................................... Python comes with two testing frameworks. The *note doctest: 3a. module finds examples in the docstrings for a module and runs them, comparing the output with the expected output given in the docstring. The *note unittest: 106. module is a fancier testing framework modelled on Java and Smalltalk testing frameworks. To make testing easier, you should use good modular design in your program. Your program should have almost all functionality encapsulated in either functions or class methods – and this sometimes has the surprising and delightful effect of making the program run faster (because local variable accesses are faster than global accesses). Furthermore the program should avoid depending on mutating global variables, since this makes testing much more difficult to do. The “global main logic” of your program may be as simple as if __name__ == "__main__": main_logic() at the bottom of the main module of your program. Once your program is organized as a tractable collection of function and class behaviours, you should write test functions that exercise the behaviours. A test suite that automates a sequence of tests can be associated with each module. This sounds like a lot of work, but since Python is so terse and flexible it’s surprisingly easy. You can make coding much more pleasant and fun by writing your test functions in parallel with the “production code”, since this makes it easy to find bugs and even design flaws earlier. “Support modules” that are not intended to be the main module of a program may include a self-test of the module. if __name__ == "__main__": self_test() Even programs that interact with complex external interfaces may be tested when the external interfaces are unavailable by using “fake” interfaces implemented in Python.  File: python.info, Node: How do I create documentation from doc strings?, Next: How do I get a single keypress at a time?, Prev: How do I test a Python program or component?, Up: Common tasks 10.4.2.2 How do I create documentation from doc strings? ........................................................ The *note pydoc: b5. module can create HTML from the doc strings in your Python source code. An alternative for creating API documentation purely from docstrings is epydoc(1). Sphinx(2) can also include docstring content. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://epydoc.sourceforge.net/ (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org  File: python.info, Node: How do I get a single keypress at a time?, Prev: How do I create documentation from doc strings?, Up: Common tasks 10.4.2.3 How do I get a single keypress at a time? .................................................. For Unix variants there are several solutions. It’s straightforward to do this using curses, but curses is a fairly large module to learn.  File: python.info, Node: Threads, Next: Input and Output<2>, Prev: Common tasks, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.3 Threads -------------- * Menu: * How do I program using threads?:: * None of my threads seem to run; why?: None of my threads seem to run why?. * How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?:: * What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?:: * Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?::  File: python.info, Node: How do I program using threads?, Next: None of my threads seem to run why?, Up: Threads 10.4.3.1 How do I program using threads? ........................................ Be sure to use the *note threading: ed. module and not the *note _thread: 2. module. The *note threading: ed. module builds convenient abstractions on top of the low-level primitives provided by the *note _thread: 2. module.  File: python.info, Node: None of my threads seem to run why?, Next: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?, Prev: How do I program using threads?, Up: Threads 10.4.3.2 None of my threads seem to run: why? ............................................. As soon as the main thread exits, all threads are killed. Your main thread is running too quickly, giving the threads no time to do any work. A simple fix is to add a sleep to the end of the program that’s long enough for all the threads to finish: import threading, time def thread_task(name, n): for i in range(n): print(name, i) for i in range(10): T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i)) T.start() time.sleep(10) # <---------------------------! But now (on many platforms) the threads don’t run in parallel, but appear to run sequentially, one at a time! The reason is that the OS thread scheduler doesn’t start a new thread until the previous thread is blocked. A simple fix is to add a tiny sleep to the start of the run function: def thread_task(name, n): time.sleep(0.001) # <--------------------! for i in range(n): print(name, i) for i in range(10): T = threading.Thread(target=thread_task, args=(str(i), i)) T.start() time.sleep(10) Instead of trying to guess a good delay value for *note time.sleep(): 699, it’s better to use some kind of semaphore mechanism. One idea is to use the *note queue: b6. module to create a queue object, let each thread append a token to the queue when it finishes, and let the main thread read as many tokens from the queue as there are threads.  File: python.info, Node: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?, Next: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?, Prev: None of my threads seem to run why?, Up: Threads 10.4.3.3 How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads? .................................................................. The easiest way is to use the *note concurrent.futures: 21. module, especially the *note ThreadPoolExecutor: 73d. class. Or, if you want fine control over the dispatching algorithm, you can write your own logic manually. Use the *note queue: b6. module to create a queue containing a list of jobs. The *note Queue: 137a. class maintains a list of objects and has a ‘.put(obj)’ method that adds items to the queue and a ‘.get()’ method to return them. The class will take care of the locking necessary to ensure that each job is handed out exactly once. Here’s a trivial example: import threading, queue, time # The worker thread gets jobs off the queue. When the queue is empty, it # assumes there will be no more work and exits. # (Realistically workers will run until terminated.) def worker(): print('Running worker') time.sleep(0.1) while True: try: arg = q.get(block=False) except queue.Empty: print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ') print('queue empty') break else: print('Worker', threading.current_thread(), end=' ') print('running with argument', arg) time.sleep(0.5) # Create queue q = queue.Queue() # Start a pool of 5 workers for i in range(5): t = threading.Thread(target=worker, name='worker %i' % (i+1)) t.start() # Begin adding work to the queue for i in range(50): q.put(i) # Give threads time to run print('Main thread sleeping') time.sleep(5) When run, this will produce the following output: Running worker Running worker Running worker Running worker Running worker Main thread sleeping Worker running with argument 0 Worker running with argument 1 Worker running with argument 2 Worker running with argument 3 Worker running with argument 4 Worker running with argument 5 ... Consult the module’s documentation for more details; the *note Queue: 137a. class provides a featureful interface.  File: python.info, Node: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?, Next: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?, Prev: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?, Up: Threads 10.4.3.4 What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe? ............................................................. A *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) is used internally to ensure that only one thread runs in the Python VM at a time. In general, Python offers to switch among threads only between bytecode instructions; how frequently it switches can be set via *note sys.setswitchinterval(): 94a. Each bytecode instruction and therefore all the C implementation code reached from each instruction is therefore atomic from the point of view of a Python program. In theory, this means an exact accounting requires an exact understanding of the PVM bytecode implementation. In practice, it means that operations on shared variables of built-in data types (ints, lists, dicts, etc) that “look atomic” really are. For example, the following operations are all atomic (L, L1, L2 are lists, D, D1, D2 are dicts, x, y are objects, i, j are ints): L.append(x) L1.extend(L2) x = L[i] x = L.pop() L1[i:j] = L2 L.sort() x = y x.field = y D[x] = y D1.update(D2) D.keys() These aren’t: i = i+1 L.append(L[-1]) L[i] = L[j] D[x] = D[x] + 1 Operations that replace other objects may invoke those other objects’ *note __del__(): 1f61. method when their reference count reaches zero, and that can affect things. This is especially true for the mass updates to dictionaries and lists. When in doubt, use a mutex!  File: python.info, Node: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?, Prev: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?, Up: Threads 10.4.3.5 Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock? ......................................................... The *note global interpreter lock: 148. (GIL) is often seen as a hindrance to Python’s deployment on high-end multiprocessor server machines, because a multi-threaded Python program effectively only uses one CPU, due to the insistence that (almost) all Python code can only run while the GIL is held. With the approval of PEP 703(1) work is now underway to remove the GIL from the CPython implementation of Python. Initially it will be implemented as an optional compiler flag when building the interpreter, and so separate builds will be available with and without the GIL. Long-term, the hope is to settle on a single build, once the performance implications of removing the GIL are fully understood. Python 3.13 is likely to be the first release containing this work, although it may not be completely functional in this release. The current work to remove the GIL is based on a fork of Python 3.9 with the GIL removed(2) by Sam Gross. Prior to that, in the days of Python 1.5, Greg Stein actually implemented a comprehensive patch set (the “free threading” patches) that removed the GIL and replaced it with fine-grained locking. Adam Olsen did a similar experiment in his python-safethread(3) project. Unfortunately, both of these earlier experiments exhibited a sharp drop in single-thread performance (at least 30% slower), due to the amount of fine-grained locking necessary to compensate for the removal of the GIL. The Python 3.9 fork is the first attempt at removing the GIL with an acceptable performance impact. The presence of the GIL in current Python releases doesn’t mean that you can’t make good use of Python on multi-CPU machines! You just have to be creative with dividing the work up between multiple 'processes' rather than multiple 'threads'. The *note ProcessPoolExecutor: 8ed. class in the new *note concurrent.futures: 21. module provides an easy way of doing so; the *note multiprocessing: 94. module provides a lower-level API in case you want more control over dispatching of tasks. Judicious use of C extensions will also help; if you use a C extension to perform a time-consuming task, the extension can release the GIL while the thread of execution is in the C code and allow other threads to get some work done. Some standard library modules such as *note zlib: 133. and *note hashlib: 68. already do this. An alternative approach to reducing the impact of the GIL is to make the GIL a per-interpreter-state lock rather than truly global. This was *note first implemented in Python 3.12: 437. and is available in the C API. A Python interface to it is expected in Python 3.13. The main limitation to it at the moment is likely to be 3rd party extension modules, since these must be written with multiple interpreters in mind in order to be usable, so many older extension modules will not be usable. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/ (2) https://github.com/colesbury/nogil (3) https://code.google.com/archive/p/python-safethread  File: python.info, Node: Input and Output<2>, Next: Network/Internet Programming, Prev: Threads, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.4 Input and Output ----------------------- * Menu: * How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…): How do I delete a file? And other file questions…. * How do I copy a file?:: * How do I read (or write) binary data?: How do I read or write binary data?. * I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why?: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?. * How do I access the serial (RS232) port?: How do I access the serial RS232 port?. * Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it?: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?.  File: python.info, Node: How do I delete a file? And other file questions…, Next: How do I copy a file?, Up: Input and Output<2> 10.4.4.1 How do I delete a file? (And other file questions…) ............................................................ Use ‘os.remove(filename)’ or ‘os.unlink(filename)’; for documentation, see the *note os: a1. module. The two functions are identical; *note unlink(): 10ea. is simply the name of the Unix system call for this function. To remove a directory, use *note os.rmdir(): 10e8.; use *note os.mkdir(): 21f. to create one. ‘os.makedirs(path)’ will create any intermediate directories in ‘path’ that don’t exist. ‘os.removedirs(path)’ will remove intermediate directories as long as they’re empty; if you want to delete an entire directory tree and its contents, use *note shutil.rmtree(): 2fb. To rename a file, use ‘os.rename(old_path, new_path)’. To truncate a file, open it using ‘f = open(filename, "rb+")’, and use ‘f.truncate(offset)’; offset defaults to the current seek position. There’s also ‘os.ftruncate(fd, offset)’ for files opened with *note os.open(): d91, where 'fd' is the file descriptor (a small integer). The *note shutil: c5. module also contains a number of functions to work on files including *note copyfile(): a58, *note copytree(): a28, and *note rmtree(): 2fb.  File: python.info, Node: How do I copy a file?, Next: How do I read or write binary data?, Prev: How do I delete a file? And other file questions…, Up: Input and Output<2> 10.4.4.2 How do I copy a file? .............................. The *note shutil: c5. module contains a *note copyfile(): a58. function. Note that on Windows NTFS volumes, it does not copy alternate data streams(1) nor resource forks(2) on macOS HFS+ volumes, though both are now rarely used. It also doesn’t copy file permissions and metadata, though using *note shutil.copy2(): a5a. instead will preserve most (though not all) of it. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTFS#Alternate_data_stream_(ADS) (2) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resource_fork  File: python.info, Node: How do I read or write binary data?, Next: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?, Prev: How do I copy a file?, Up: Input and Output<2> 10.4.4.3 How do I read (or write) binary data? .............................................. To read or write complex binary data formats, it’s best to use the *note struct: d5. module. It allows you to take a string containing binary data (usually numbers) and convert it to Python objects; and vice versa. For example, the following code reads two 2-byte integers and one 4-byte integer in big-endian format from a file: import struct with open(filename, "rb") as f: s = f.read(8) x, y, z = struct.unpack(">hhl", s) The ‘>’ in the format string forces big-endian data; the letter ‘h’ reads one “short integer” (2 bytes), and ‘l’ reads one “long integer” (4 bytes) from the string. For data that is more regular (e.g. a homogeneous list of ints or floats), you can also use the *note array: 7. module. Note: To read and write binary data, it is mandatory to open the file in binary mode (here, passing ‘"rb"’ to *note open(): 517.). If you use ‘"r"’ instead (the default), the file will be open in text mode and ‘f.read()’ will return *note str: 447. objects rather than *note bytes: 1c2. objects.  File: python.info, Node: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?, Next: How do I access the serial RS232 port?, Prev: How do I read or write binary data?, Up: Input and Output<2> 10.4.4.4 I can’t seem to use os.read() on a pipe created with os.popen(); why? .............................................................................. *note os.read(): d94. is a low-level function which takes a file descriptor, a small integer representing the opened file. *note os.popen(): a87. creates a high-level file object, the same type returned by the built-in *note open(): 517. function. Thus, to read 'n' bytes from a pipe 'p' created with *note os.popen(): a87, you need to use ‘p.read(n)’.  File: python.info, Node: How do I access the serial RS232 port?, Next: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?, Prev: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?, Up: Input and Output<2> 10.4.4.5 How do I access the serial (RS232) port? ................................................. For Win32, OSX, Linux, BSD, Jython, IronPython: pyserial(1) For Unix, see a Usenet post by Mitch Chapman: ‘https://groups.google.com/groups?selm=34A04430.CF9@ohioee.com’ ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://pypi.org/project/pyserial/  File: python.info, Node: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?, Prev: How do I access the serial RS232 port?, Up: Input and Output<2> 10.4.4.6 Why doesn’t closing sys.stdout (stdin, stderr) really close it? ........................................................................ Python *note file objects: 11b5. are a high-level layer of abstraction on low-level C file descriptors. For most file objects you create in Python via the built-in *note open(): 517. function, ‘f.close()’ marks the Python file object as being closed from Python’s point of view, and also arranges to close the underlying C file descriptor. This also happens automatically in ‘f’’s destructor, when ‘f’ becomes garbage. But stdin, stdout and stderr are treated specially by Python, because of the special status also given to them by C. Running ‘sys.stdout.close()’ marks the Python-level file object as being closed, but does 'not' close the associated C file descriptor. To close the underlying C file descriptor for one of these three, you should first be sure that’s what you really want to do (e.g., you may confuse extension modules trying to do I/O). If it is, use *note os.close(): b74.: os.close(stdin.fileno()) os.close(stdout.fileno()) os.close(stderr.fileno()) Or you can use the numeric constants 0, 1 and 2, respectively.  File: python.info, Node: Network/Internet Programming, Next: Databases, Prev: Input and Output<2>, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.5 Network/Internet Programming ----------------------------------- * Menu: * What WWW tools are there for Python?:: * What module should I use to help with generating HTML?:: * How do I send mail from a Python script?:: * How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket?: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?.  File: python.info, Node: What WWW tools are there for Python?, Next: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?, Up: Network/Internet Programming 10.4.5.1 What WWW tools are there for Python? ............................................. See the chapters titled *note Internet Protocols and Support: 3946. and *note Internet Data Handling: 3553. in the Library Reference Manual. Python has many modules that will help you build server-side and client-side web systems. A summary of available frameworks is maintained by Paul Boddie at ‘https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming’.  File: python.info, Node: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?, Next: How do I send mail from a Python script?, Prev: What WWW tools are there for Python?, Up: Network/Internet Programming 10.4.5.2 What module should I use to help with generating HTML? ............................................................... You can find a collection of useful links on the Web Programming wiki page(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/WebProgramming  File: python.info, Node: How do I send mail from a Python script?, Next: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?, Prev: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?, Up: Network/Internet Programming 10.4.5.3 How do I send mail from a Python script? ................................................. Use the standard library module *note smtplib: ca. Here’s a very simple interactive mail sender that uses it. This method will work on any host that supports an SMTP listener. import sys, smtplib fromaddr = input("From: ") toaddrs = input("To: ").split(',') print("Enter message, end with ^D:") msg = '' while True: line = sys.stdin.readline() if not line: break msg += line # The actual mail send server = smtplib.SMTP('localhost') server.sendmail(fromaddr, toaddrs, msg) server.quit() A Unix-only alternative uses sendmail. The location of the sendmail program varies between systems; sometimes it is ‘/usr/lib/sendmail’, sometimes ‘/usr/sbin/sendmail’. The sendmail manual page will help you out. Here’s some sample code: import os SENDMAIL = "/usr/sbin/sendmail" # sendmail location p = os.popen("%s -t -i" % SENDMAIL, "w") p.write("To: receiver@example.com\n") p.write("Subject: test\n") p.write("\n") # blank line separating headers from body p.write("Some text\n") p.write("some more text\n") sts = p.close() if sts != 0: print("Sendmail exit status", sts)  File: python.info, Node: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?, Prev: How do I send mail from a Python script?, Up: Network/Internet Programming 10.4.5.4 How do I avoid blocking in the connect() method of a socket? ..................................................................... The *note select: c1. module is commonly used to help with asynchronous I/O on sockets. To prevent the TCP connect from blocking, you can set the socket to non-blocking mode. Then when you do the *note connect(): da2, you will either connect immediately (unlikely) or get an exception that contains the error number as ‘.errno’. ‘errno.EINPROGRESS’ indicates that the connection is in progress, but hasn’t finished yet. Different OSes will return different values, so you’re going to have to check what’s returned on your system. You can use the *note connect_ex(): 1503. method to avoid creating an exception. It will just return the errno value. To poll, you can call *note connect_ex(): 1503. again later – ‘0’ or ‘errno.EISCONN’ indicate that you’re connected – or you can pass this socket to *note select.select(): d9f. to check if it’s writable. Note: The *note asyncio: a. module provides a general purpose single-threaded and concurrent asynchronous library, which can be used for writing non-blocking network code. The third-party Twisted(1) library is a popular and feature-rich alternative. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://twisted.org/  File: python.info, Node: Databases, Next: Mathematics and Numerics, Prev: Network/Internet Programming, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.6 Databases ---------------- * Menu: * Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?:: * How do you implement persistent objects in Python?::  File: python.info, Node: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?, Next: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?, Up: Databases 10.4.6.1 Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python? ................................................................. Yes. Interfaces to disk-based hashes such as *note DBM: 34. and *note GDBM: 33. are also included with standard Python. There is also the *note sqlite3: cf. module, which provides a lightweight disk-based relational database. Support for most relational databases is available. See the DatabaseProgramming wiki page(1) for details. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/DatabaseProgramming  File: python.info, Node: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?, Prev: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?, Up: Databases 10.4.6.2 How do you implement persistent objects in Python? ........................................................... The *note pickle: a6. library module solves this in a very general way (though you still can’t store things like open files, sockets or windows), and the *note shelve: c3. library module uses pickle and (g)dbm to create persistent mappings containing arbitrary Python objects.  File: python.info, Node: Mathematics and Numerics, Prev: Databases, Up: Library and Extension FAQ 10.4.7 Mathematics and Numerics ------------------------------- * Menu: * How do I generate random numbers in Python?::  File: python.info, Node: How do I generate random numbers in Python?, Up: Mathematics and Numerics 10.4.7.1 How do I generate random numbers in Python? .................................................... The standard module *note random: b8. implements a random number generator. Usage is simple: import random random.random() This returns a random floating-point number in the range [0, 1). There are also many other specialized generators in this module, such as: * ‘randrange(a, b)’ chooses an integer in the range [a, b). * ‘uniform(a, b)’ chooses a floating-point number in the range [a, b). * ‘normalvariate(mean, sdev)’ samples the normal (Gaussian) distribution. Some higher-level functions operate on sequences directly, such as: * ‘choice(S)’ chooses a random element from a given sequence. * ‘shuffle(L)’ shuffles a list in-place, i.e. permutes it randomly. There’s also a ‘Random’ class you can instantiate to create independent multiple random number generators.  File: python.info, Node: Extending/Embedding FAQ, Next: Python on Windows FAQ, Prev: Library and Extension FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.5 Extending/Embedding FAQ ============================ * Menu: * Can I create my own functions in C?:: * Can I create my own functions in C++?:: * Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?:: * How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?:: * How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?:: * How do I extract C values from a Python object?:: * How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length?: How do I use Py_BuildValue to create a tuple of arbitrary length?. * How do I call an object’s method from C?:: * How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)?: How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print or anything that prints to stdout/stderr ?. * How do I access a module written in Python from C?:: * How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?:: * I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?:: * How do I debug an extension?:: * I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why?: I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system but some files are missing Why?. * How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?:: * How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?:: * Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)?: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?.  File: python.info, Node: Can I create my own functions in C?, Next: Can I create my own functions in C++?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.1 Can I create my own functions in C? ------------------------------------------ Yes, you can create built-in modules containing functions, variables, exceptions and even new types in C. This is explained in the document *note Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter: 1bda. Most intermediate or advanced Python books will also cover this topic.  File: python.info, Node: Can I create my own functions in C++?, Next: Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?, Prev: Can I create my own functions in C?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.2 Can I create my own functions in C++? -------------------------------------------- Yes, using the C compatibility features found in C++. Place ‘extern "C" { ... }’ around the Python include files and put ‘extern "C"’ before each function that is going to be called by the Python interpreter. Global or static C++ objects with constructors are probably not a good idea.  File: python.info, Node: Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?, Next: How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?, Prev: Can I create my own functions in C++?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.3 Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives? ----------------------------------------------------- There are a number of alternatives to writing your own C extensions, depending on what you’re trying to do. *note Recommended third party tools: 48a8. offer both simpler and more sophisticated approaches to creating C and C++ extensions for Python.  File: python.info, Node: How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?, Next: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?, Prev: Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.4 How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C? ------------------------------------------------------------ The highest-level function to do this is *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4923. which takes a single string argument to be executed in the context of the module ‘__main__’ and returns ‘0’ for success and ‘-1’ when an exception occurred (including *note SyntaxError: 18d.). If you want more control, use *note PyRun_String(): 19da.; see the source for *note PyRun_SimpleString(): 4923. in ‘Python/pythonrun.c’.  File: python.info, Node: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?, Next: How do I extract C values from a Python object?, Prev: How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.5 How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C? ---------------------------------------------------------------- Call the function *note PyRun_String(): 19da. from the previous question with the start symbol *note Py_eval_input: 4b0d.; it parses an expression, evaluates it and returns its value.  File: python.info, Node: How do I extract C values from a Python object?, Next: How do I use Py_BuildValue to create a tuple of arbitrary length?, Prev: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.6 How do I extract C values from a Python object? ------------------------------------------------------ That depends on the object’s type. If it’s a tuple, *note PyTuple_Size(): 4a97. returns its length and *note PyTuple_GetItem(): 48d2. returns the item at a specified index. Lists have similar functions, *note PyList_Size(): 13e5. and *note PyList_GetItem(): 357. For bytes, *note PyBytes_Size(): 4972. returns its length and *note PyBytes_AsStringAndSize(): 496c. provides a pointer to its value and its length. Note that Python bytes objects may contain null bytes so C’s ‘strlen()’ should not be used. To test the type of an object, first make sure it isn’t ‘NULL’, and then use *note PyBytes_Check(): 1380, *note PyTuple_Check(): 4c86, *note PyList_Check(): 4c96, etc. There is also a high-level API to Python objects which is provided by the so-called ‘abstract’ interface – read ‘Include/abstract.h’ for further details. It allows interfacing with any kind of Python sequence using calls like *note PySequence_Length(): 4a78, *note PySequence_GetItem(): 1a52, etc. as well as many other useful protocols such as numbers (*note PyNumber_Index(): 891. et al.) and mappings in the PyMapping APIs.  File: python.info, Node: How do I use Py_BuildValue to create a tuple of arbitrary length?, Next: How do I call an object’s method from C?, Prev: How do I extract C values from a Python object?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.7 How do I use Py_BuildValue() to create a tuple of arbitrary length? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- You can’t. Use *note PyTuple_Pack(): 4a96. instead.  File: python.info, Node: How do I call an object’s method from C?, Next: How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print or anything that prints to stdout/stderr ?, Prev: How do I use Py_BuildValue to create a tuple of arbitrary length?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.8 How do I call an object’s method from C? ----------------------------------------------- The *note PyObject_CallMethod(): 39b. function can be used to call an arbitrary method of an object. The parameters are the object, the name of the method to call, a format string like that used with *note Py_BuildValue(): 8a6, and the argument values: PyObject * PyObject_CallMethod(PyObject *object, const char *method_name, const char *arg_format, ...); This works for any object that has methods – whether built-in or user-defined. You are responsible for eventually *note Py_DECREF(): 56c.‘ing the return value. To call, e.g., a file object’s “seek” method with arguments 10, 0 (assuming the file object pointer is “f”): res = PyObject_CallMethod(f, "seek", "(ii)", 10, 0); if (res == NULL) { ... an exception occurred ... } else { Py_DECREF(res); } Note that since *note PyObject_CallObject(): 48c7. 'always' wants a tuple for the argument list, to call a function without arguments, pass “()” for the format, and to call a function with one argument, surround the argument in parentheses, e.g. “(i)”.  File: python.info, Node: How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print or anything that prints to stdout/stderr ?, Next: How do I access a module written in Python from C?, Prev: How do I call an object’s method from C?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.9 How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print() (or anything that prints to stdout/stderr)? ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- In Python code, define an object that supports the ‘write()’ method. Assign this object to *note sys.stdout: ad6. and *note sys.stderr: 939. Call print_error, or just allow the standard traceback mechanism to work. Then, the output will go wherever your ‘write()’ method sends it. The easiest way to do this is to use the *note io.StringIO: f22. class: >>> import io, sys >>> sys.stdout = io.StringIO() >>> print('foo') >>> print('hello world!') >>> sys.stderr.write(sys.stdout.getvalue()) foo hello world! A custom object to do the same would look like this: >>> import io, sys >>> class StdoutCatcher(io.TextIOBase): ... def __init__(self): ... self.data = [] ... def write(self, stuff): ... self.data.append(stuff) ... >>> import sys >>> sys.stdout = StdoutCatcher() >>> print('foo') >>> print('hello world!') >>> sys.stderr.write(''.join(sys.stdout.data)) foo hello world!  File: python.info, Node: How do I access a module written in Python from C?, Next: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?, Prev: How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print or anything that prints to stdout/stderr ?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.10 How do I access a module written in Python from C? ---------------------------------------------------------- You can get a pointer to the module object as follows: module = PyImport_ImportModule(""); If the module hasn’t been imported yet (i.e. it is not yet present in *note sys.modules: 1550.), this initializes the module; otherwise it simply returns the value of ‘sys.modules[""]’. Note that it doesn’t enter the module into any namespace – it only ensures it has been initialized and is stored in *note sys.modules: 1550. You can then access the module’s attributes (i.e. any name defined in the module) as follows: attr = PyObject_GetAttrString(module, ""); Calling *note PyObject_SetAttrString(): 1602. to assign to variables in the module also works.  File: python.info, Node: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?, Next: I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?, Prev: How do I access a module written in Python from C?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.11 How do I interface to C++ objects from Python? ------------------------------------------------------ Depending on your requirements, there are many approaches. To do this manually, begin by reading *note the “Extending and Embedding” document: 1bda. Realize that for the Python run-time system, there isn’t a whole lot of difference between C and C++ – so the strategy of building a new Python type around a C structure (pointer) type will also work for C++ objects. For C++ libraries, see *note Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?: 516a.  File: python.info, Node: I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?, Next: How do I debug an extension?, Prev: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.12 I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why? ---------------------------------------------------------------------- Setup must end in a newline, if there is no newline there, the build process fails. (Fixing this requires some ugly shell script hackery, and this bug is so minor that it doesn’t seem worth the effort.)  File: python.info, Node: How do I debug an extension?, Next: I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system but some files are missing Why?, Prev: I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.13 How do I debug an extension? ------------------------------------ When using GDB with dynamically loaded extensions, you can’t set a breakpoint in your extension until your extension is loaded. In your ‘.gdbinit’ file (or interactively), add the command: br _PyImport_LoadDynamicModule Then, when you run GDB: $ gdb /local/bin/python gdb) run myscript.py gdb) continue # repeat until your extension is loaded gdb) finish # so that your extension is loaded gdb) br myfunction.c:50 gdb) continue  File: python.info, Node: I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system but some files are missing Why?, Next: How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?, Prev: How do I debug an extension?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.14 I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system, but some files are missing. Why? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Most packaged versions of Python omit some files required for compiling Python extensions. For Red Hat, install the python3-devel RPM to get the necessary files. For Debian, run ‘apt-get install python3-dev’.  File: python.info, Node: How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?, Next: How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?, Prev: I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system but some files are missing Why?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.15 How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”? -------------------------------------------------------------- Sometimes you want to emulate the Python interactive interpreter’s behavior, where it gives you a continuation prompt when the input is incomplete (e.g. you typed the start of an “if” statement or you didn’t close your parentheses or triple string quotes), but it gives you a syntax error message immediately when the input is invalid. In Python you can use the *note codeop: 1c. module, which approximates the parser’s behavior sufficiently. IDLE uses this, for example. The easiest way to do it in C is to call *note PyRun_InteractiveLoop(): 4b14. (perhaps in a separate thread) and let the Python interpreter handle the input for you. You can also set the *note PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer(): 583. to point at your custom input function. See ‘Modules/readline.c’ and ‘Parser/myreadline.c’ for more hints.  File: python.info, Node: How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?, Next: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?, Prev: How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.16 How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- To dynamically load g++ extension modules, you must recompile Python, relink it using g++ (change LINKCC in the Python Modules Makefile), and link your extension module using g++ (e.g., ‘g++ -shared -o mymodule.so mymodule.o’).  File: python.info, Node: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?, Prev: How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?, Up: Extending/Embedding FAQ 10.5.17 Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python (e.g. through inheritance)? ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ Yes, you can inherit from built-in classes such as *note int: 259, *note list: 60d, *note dict: 258, etc. The Boost Python Library (BPL, ‘https://www.boost.org/libs/python/doc/index.html’) provides a way of doing this from C++ (i.e. you can inherit from an extension class written in C++ using the BPL).  File: python.info, Node: Python on Windows FAQ, Next: Graphic User Interface FAQ, Prev: Extending/Embedding FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.6 Python on Windows FAQ ========================== * Menu: * How do I run a Python program under Windows?:: * How do I make Python scripts executable?:: * Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?:: * How do I make an executable from a Python script?:: * Is a *.pyd file the same as a DLL?: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?. * How can I embed Python into a Windows application?:: * How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?:: * How do I check for a keypress without blocking?:: * How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error?: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?.  File: python.info, Node: How do I run a Python program under Windows?, Next: How do I make Python scripts executable?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.1 How do I run a Python program under Windows? --------------------------------------------------- This is not necessarily a straightforward question. If you are already familiar with running programs from the Windows command line then everything will seem obvious; otherwise, you might need a little more guidance. Unless you use some sort of integrated development environment, you will end up 'typing' Windows commands into what is referred to as a “Command prompt window”. Usually you can create such a window from your search bar by searching for ‘cmd’. You should be able to recognize when you have started such a window because you will see a Windows “command prompt”, which usually looks like this: C:\> The letter may be different, and there might be other things after it, so you might just as easily see something like: D:\YourName\Projects\Python> depending on how your computer has been set up and what else you have recently done with it. Once you have started such a window, you are well on the way to running Python programs. You need to realize that your Python scripts have to be processed by another program called the Python 'interpreter'. The interpreter reads your script, compiles it into bytecodes, and then executes the bytecodes to run your program. So, how do you arrange for the interpreter to handle your Python? First, you need to make sure that your command window recognises the word “py” as an instruction to start the interpreter. If you have opened a command window, you should try entering the command ‘py’ and hitting return: C:\Users\YourName> py You should then see something like: Python 3.6.4 (v3.6.4:d48eceb, Dec 19 2017, 06:04:45) [MSC v.1900 32 bit (Intel)] on win32 Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information. >>> You have started the interpreter in “interactive mode”. That means you can enter Python statements or expressions interactively and have them executed or evaluated while you wait. This is one of Python’s strongest features. Check it by entering a few expressions of your choice and seeing the results: >>> print("Hello") Hello >>> "Hello" * 3 'HelloHelloHello' Many people use the interactive mode as a convenient yet highly programmable calculator. When you want to end your interactive Python session, call the *note exit(): 2189. function or hold the ‘Ctrl’ key down while you enter a ‘Z’, then hit the “‘Enter’” key to get back to your Windows command prompt. You may also find that you have a Start-menu entry such as Start ‣ Programs ‣ Python 3.x ‣ Python (command line) that results in you seeing the ‘>>>’ prompt in a new window. If so, the window will disappear after you call the *note exit(): 2189. function or enter the ‘Ctrl’-‘Z’ character; Windows is running a single “python” command in the window, and closes it when you terminate the interpreter. Now that we know the ‘py’ command is recognized, you can give your Python script to it. You’ll have to give either an absolute or a relative path to the Python script. Let’s say your Python script is located in your desktop and is named ‘hello.py’, and your command prompt is nicely opened in your home directory so you’re seeing something similar to: C:\Users\YourName> So now you’ll ask the ‘py’ command to give your script to Python by typing ‘py’ followed by your script path: C:\Users\YourName> py Desktop\hello.py hello  File: python.info, Node: How do I make Python scripts executable?, Next: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?, Prev: How do I run a Python program under Windows?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.2 How do I make Python scripts executable? ----------------------------------------------- On Windows, the standard Python installer already associates the .py extension with a file type (Python.File) and gives that file type an open command that runs the interpreter (‘D:\Program Files\Python\python.exe "%1" %*’). This is enough to make scripts executable from the command prompt as ‘foo.py’. If you’d rather be able to execute the script by simple typing ‘foo’ with no extension you need to add .py to the PATHEXT environment variable.  File: python.info, Node: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?, Next: How do I make an executable from a Python script?, Prev: How do I make Python scripts executable?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.3 Why does Python sometimes take so long to start? ------------------------------------------------------- Usually Python starts very quickly on Windows, but occasionally there are bug reports that Python suddenly begins to take a long time to start up. This is made even more puzzling because Python will work fine on other Windows systems which appear to be configured identically. The problem may be caused by a misconfiguration of virus checking software on the problem machine. Some virus scanners have been known to introduce startup overhead of two orders of magnitude when the scanner is configured to monitor all reads from the filesystem. Try checking the configuration of virus scanning software on your systems to ensure that they are indeed configured identically. McAfee, when configured to scan all file system read activity, is a particular offender.  File: python.info, Node: How do I make an executable from a Python script?, Next: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?, Prev: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.4 How do I make an executable from a Python script? -------------------------------------------------------- See *note How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?: 50d9. for a list of tools that can be used to make executables.  File: python.info, Node: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?, Next: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?, Prev: How do I make an executable from a Python script?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.5 Is a ‘*.pyd’ file the same as a DLL? ------------------------------------------- Yes, .pyd files are dll’s, but there are a few differences. If you have a DLL named ‘foo.pyd’, then it must have a function ‘PyInit_foo()’. You can then write Python “import foo”, and Python will search for foo.pyd (as well as foo.py, foo.pyc) and if it finds it, will attempt to call ‘PyInit_foo()’ to initialize it. You do not link your .exe with foo.lib, as that would cause Windows to require the DLL to be present. Note that the search path for foo.pyd is PYTHONPATH, not the same as the path that Windows uses to search for foo.dll. Also, foo.pyd need not be present to run your program, whereas if you linked your program with a dll, the dll is required. Of course, foo.pyd is required if you want to say ‘import foo’. In a DLL, linkage is declared in the source code with ‘__declspec(dllexport)’. In a .pyd, linkage is defined in a list of available functions.  File: python.info, Node: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?, Next: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?, Prev: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.6 How can I embed Python into a Windows application? --------------------------------------------------------- Embedding the Python interpreter in a Windows app can be summarized as follows: 1. Do 'not' build Python into your .exe file directly. On Windows, Python must be a DLL to handle importing modules that are themselves DLL’s. (This is the first key undocumented fact.) Instead, link to ‘python`NN'.dll’; it is typically installed in ‘C:\Windows\System’. 'NN' is the Python version, a number such as “33” for Python 3.3. You can link to Python in two different ways. Load-time linking means linking against ‘python`NN'.lib’, while run-time linking means linking against ‘python`NN'.dll’. (General note: ‘python`NN'.lib’ is the so-called “import lib” corresponding to ‘python`NN'.dll’. It merely defines symbols for the linker.) Run-time linking greatly simplifies link options; everything happens at run time. Your code must load ‘python`NN'.dll’ using the Windows ‘LoadLibraryEx()’ routine. The code must also use access routines and data in ‘python`NN'.dll’ (that is, Python’s C API’s) using pointers obtained by the Windows ‘GetProcAddress()’ routine. Macros can make using these pointers transparent to any C code that calls routines in Python’s C API. 2. If you use SWIG, it is easy to create a Python “extension module” that will make the app’s data and methods available to Python. SWIG will handle just about all the grungy details for you. The result is C code that you link 'into' your .exe file (!) You do 'not' have to create a DLL file, and this also simplifies linking. 3. SWIG will create an init function (a C function) whose name depends on the name of the extension module. For example, if the name of the module is leo, the init function will be called initleo(). If you use SWIG shadow classes, as you should, the init function will be called initleoc(). This initializes a mostly hidden helper class used by the shadow class. The reason you can link the C code in step 2 into your .exe file is that calling the initialization function is equivalent to importing the module into Python! (This is the second key undocumented fact.) 4. In short, you can use the following code to initialize the Python interpreter with your extension module. #include ... Py_Initialize(); // Initialize Python. initmyAppc(); // Initialize (import) the helper class. PyRun_SimpleString("import myApp"); // Import the shadow class. 5. There are two problems with Python’s C API which will become apparent if you use a compiler other than MSVC, the compiler used to build pythonNN.dll. Problem 1: The so-called “Very High Level” functions that take ‘FILE *’ arguments will not work in a multi-compiler environment because each compiler’s notion of a ‘struct FILE’ will be different. From an implementation standpoint these are very low level functions. Problem 2: SWIG generates the following code when generating wrappers to void functions: Py_INCREF(Py_None); _resultobj = Py_None; return _resultobj; Alas, Py_None is a macro that expands to a reference to a complex data structure called _Py_NoneStruct inside pythonNN.dll. Again, this code will fail in a mult-compiler environment. Replace such code by: return Py_BuildValue(""); It may be possible to use SWIG’s ‘%typemap’ command to make the change automatically, though I have not been able to get this to work (I’m a complete SWIG newbie). 6. Using a Python shell script to put up a Python interpreter window from inside your Windows app is not a good idea; the resulting window will be independent of your app’s windowing system. Rather, you (or the wxPythonWindow class) should create a “native” interpreter window. It is easy to connect that window to the Python interpreter. You can redirect Python’s i/o to _any_ object that supports read and write, so all you need is a Python object (defined in your extension module) that contains read() and write() methods.  File: python.info, Node: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?, Next: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?, Prev: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.7 How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source? ----------------------------------------------------------------------- The FAQ does not recommend using tabs, and the Python style guide, PEP 8(1), recommends 4 spaces for distributed Python code; this is also the Emacs python-mode default. Under any editor, mixing tabs and spaces is a bad idea. MSVC is no different in this respect, and is easily configured to use spaces: Take Tools ‣ Options ‣ Tabs, and for file type “Default” set “Tab size” and “Indent size” to 4, and select the “Insert spaces” radio button. Python raises *note IndentationError: 7a3. or *note TabError: 540. if mixed tabs and spaces are causing problems in leading whitespace. You may also run the *note tabnanny: dd. module to check a directory tree in batch mode. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0008/  File: python.info, Node: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?, Next: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?, Prev: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.8 How do I check for a keypress without blocking? ------------------------------------------------------ Use the *note msvcrt: 93. module. This is a standard Windows-specific extension module. It defines a function ‘kbhit()’ which checks whether a keyboard hit is present, and ‘getch()’ which gets one character without echoing it.  File: python.info, Node: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?, Prev: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?, Up: Python on Windows FAQ 10.6.9 How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0.dll error? -------------------------------------------------------------------------- This can occur on Python 3.5 and later when using Windows 8.1 or earlier without all updates having been installed. First ensure your operating system is supported and is up to date, and if that does not resolve the issue, visit the Microsoft support page(1) for guidance on manually installing the C Runtime update. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/3118401/  File: python.info, Node: Graphic User Interface FAQ, Next: “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ, Prev: Python on Windows FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.7 Graphic User Interface FAQ =============================== * Menu: * General GUI Questions:: * What GUI toolkits exist for Python?:: * Tkinter questions::  File: python.info, Node: General GUI Questions, Next: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?, Up: Graphic User Interface FAQ 10.7.1 General GUI Questions ----------------------------  File: python.info, Node: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?, Next: Tkinter questions, Prev: General GUI Questions, Up: Graphic User Interface FAQ 10.7.2 What GUI toolkits exist for Python? ------------------------------------------ Standard builds of Python include an object-oriented interface to the Tcl/Tk widget set, called *note tkinter: 3e3e. This is probably the easiest to install (since it comes included with most binary distributions(1) of Python) and use. For more info about Tk, including pointers to the source, see the Tcl/Tk home page(2). Tcl/Tk is fully portable to the macOS, Windows, and Unix platforms. Depending on what platform(s) you are aiming at, there are also several alternatives. A list of cross-platform(3) and platform-specific(4) GUI frameworks can be found on the python wiki. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.python.org/downloads/ (2) https://www.tcl.tk (3) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Cross-Platform_Frameworks (4) https://wiki.python.org/moin/GuiProgramming#Platform-specific_Frameworks  File: python.info, Node: Tkinter questions, Prev: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?, Up: Graphic User Interface FAQ 10.7.3 Tkinter questions ------------------------ * Menu: * How do I freeze Tkinter applications?:: * Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?:: * I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter; why?: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?.  File: python.info, Node: How do I freeze Tkinter applications?, Next: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?, Up: Tkinter questions 10.7.3.1 How do I freeze Tkinter applications? .............................................. Freeze is a tool to create stand-alone applications. When freezing Tkinter applications, the applications will not be truly stand-alone, as the application will still need the Tcl and Tk libraries. One solution is to ship the application with the Tcl and Tk libraries, and point to them at run-time using the ‘TCL_LIBRARY’ and ‘TK_LIBRARY’ environment variables. Various third-party freeze libraries such as py2exe and cx_Freeze have handling for Tkinter applications built-in.  File: python.info, Node: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?, Next: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?, Prev: How do I freeze Tkinter applications?, Up: Tkinter questions 10.7.3.2 Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O? ............................................................ On platforms other than Windows, yes, and you don’t even need threads! But you’ll have to restructure your I/O code a bit. Tk has the equivalent of Xt’s ‘XtAddInput()’ call, which allows you to register a callback function which will be called from the Tk mainloop when I/O is possible on a file descriptor. See *note File Handlers: 3e5b.  File: python.info, Node: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?, Prev: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?, Up: Tkinter questions 10.7.3.3 I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter: why? .......................................................... An often-heard complaint is that event handlers *note bound: 3e56. to events with the ‘bind()’ method don’t get handled even when the appropriate key is pressed. The most common cause is that the widget to which the binding applies doesn’t have “keyboard focus”. Check out the Tk documentation for the focus command. Usually a widget is given the keyboard focus by clicking in it (but not for labels; see the takefocus option).  File: python.info, Node: “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ, Prev: Graphic User Interface FAQ, Up: Python Frequently Asked Questions 10.8 “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ ================================================== * Menu: * What is Python?: What is Python?<2>. * Why is Python installed on my machine?:: * Can I delete Python?::  File: python.info, Node: What is Python?<2>, Next: Why is Python installed on my machine?, Up: “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ 10.8.1 What is Python? ---------------------- Python is a programming language. It’s used for many different applications. It’s used in some high schools and colleges as an introductory programming language because Python is easy to learn, but it’s also used by professional software developers at places such as Google, NASA, and Lucasfilm Ltd. If you wish to learn more about Python, start with the Beginner's Guide to Python(1). ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://wiki.python.org/moin/BeginnersGuide  File: python.info, Node: Why is Python installed on my machine?, Next: Can I delete Python?, Prev: What is Python?<2>, Up: “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ 10.8.2 Why is Python installed on my machine? --------------------------------------------- If you find Python installed on your system but don’t remember installing it, there are several possible ways it could have gotten there. * Perhaps another user on the computer wanted to learn programming and installed it; you’ll have to figure out who’s been using the machine and might have installed it. * A third-party application installed on the machine might have been written in Python and included a Python installation. There are many such applications, from GUI programs to network servers and administrative scripts. * Some Windows machines also have Python installed. At this writing we’re aware of computers from Hewlett-Packard and Compaq that include Python. Apparently some of HP/Compaq’s administrative tools are written in Python. * Many Unix-compatible operating systems, such as macOS and some Linux distributions, have Python installed by default; it’s included in the base installation.  File: python.info, Node: Can I delete Python?, Prev: Why is Python installed on my machine?, Up: “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ 10.8.3 Can I delete Python? --------------------------- That depends on where Python came from. If someone installed it deliberately, you can remove it without hurting anything. On Windows, use the Add/Remove Programs icon in the Control Panel. If Python was installed by a third-party application, you can also remove it, but that application will no longer work. You should use that application’s uninstaller rather than removing Python directly. If Python came with your operating system, removing it is not recommended. If you remove it, whatever tools were written in Python will no longer run, and some of them might be important to you. Reinstalling the whole system would then be required to fix things again.  File: python.info, Node: Deprecations, Next: Glossary, Prev: Python Frequently Asked Questions, Up: Top 11 Deprecations *************** * Menu: * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>. * Pending removal in Python 3.16: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>. * C API Deprecations::  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>, Up: Deprecations 11.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14 =================================== * *note argparse: 6.: The 'type', 'choices', and 'metavar' parameters of ‘argparse.BooleanOptionalAction’ are deprecated and will be removed in 3.14. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-92248(1).) * *note ast: 8.: The following features have been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.8, now cause a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted at runtime when they are accessed or used, and will be removed in Python 3.14: * ‘ast.Num’ * ‘ast.Str’ * ‘ast.Bytes’ * ‘ast.NameConstant’ * ‘ast.Ellipsis’ Use *note ast.Constant: 2bb. instead. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-90953(2).) * *note asyncio: a.: * The child watcher classes *note MultiLoopChildWatcher: 2bc, *note FastChildWatcher: 2bd, *note AbstractChildWatcher: 2be. and *note SafeChildWatcher: 2bf. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(3).) * *note asyncio.set_child_watcher(): 2c0, *note asyncio.get_child_watcher(): 2c1, *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.set_child_watcher(): 2c2. and *note asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy.get_child_watcher(): 2c3. are deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.14. (Contributed by Kumar Aditya in gh-94597(4).) * The *note get_event_loop(): 2c4. method of the default event loop policy now emits a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. if there is no current event loop set and it decides to create one. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka and Guido van Rossum in gh-100160(5).) * *note collections.abc: 1e.: Deprecated *note ByteString: 2c5. Prefer ‘Sequence’ or *note Buffer: 2c6. For use in typing, prefer a union, like ‘bytes | bytearray’, or *note collections.abc.Buffer: 2c6. (Contributed by Shantanu Jain in gh-91896(6).) * *note email: 3b.: Deprecated the 'isdst' parameter in *note email.utils.localtime(): 2c7. (Contributed by Alan Williams in gh-72346(7).) * *note importlib.abc: 78. deprecated classes: * ‘importlib.abc.ResourceReader’ * ‘importlib.abc.Traversable’ * ‘importlib.abc.TraversableResources’ Use *note importlib.resources.abc: 7c. classes instead: * *note importlib.resources.abc.Traversable: 1f5. * *note importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources: 2c8. (Contributed by Jason R. Coombs and Hugo van Kemenade in gh-93963(8).) * *note itertools: 81. had undocumented, inefficient, historically buggy, and inconsistent support for copy, deepcopy, and pickle operations. This will be removed in 3.14 for a significant reduction in code volume and maintenance burden. (Contributed by Raymond Hettinger in gh-101588(9).) * *note multiprocessing: 94.: The default start method will change to a safer one on Linux, BSDs, and other non-macOS POSIX platforms where ‘'fork'’ is currently the default (gh-84559(10)). Adding a runtime warning about this was deemed too disruptive as the majority of code is not expected to care. Use the *note get_context(): 2c9. or *note set_start_method(): 2ca. APIs to explicitly specify when your code 'requires' ‘'fork'’. See *note Contexts and start methods: 2cb. * *note pathlib: a4.: *note is_relative_to(): 2cc. and *note relative_to(): 2cd.: passing additional arguments is deprecated. * *note pkgutil: a9.: *note find_loader(): 2ce. and *note get_loader(): 2cf. now raise *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5.; use *note importlib.util.find_spec(): 2d0. instead. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-97850(11).) * *note pty: b1.: * ‘master_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2d1. * ‘slave_open()’: use *note pty.openpty(): 2d1. * *note sqlite3: cf.: * *note version: 2d2. and *note version_info: 2d3. * *note execute(): 2d4. and *note executemany(): 2d5. if *note named placeholders: 2d6. are used and 'parameters' is a sequence instead of a *note dict: 258. * *note typing: 104.: *note ByteString: 2d7, deprecated since Python 3.9, now causes a *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. to be emitted when it is used. * *note urllib: 108.: ‘urllib.parse.Quoter’ is deprecated: it was not intended to be a public API. (Contributed by Gregory P. Smith in gh-88168(12).) ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92248 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90953 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/94597 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/100160 (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91896 (7) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/72346 (8) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/93963 (9) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101588 (10) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/84559 (11) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97850 (12) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/88168  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>, Next: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>, Up: Deprecations 11.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15 =================================== * The import system: * Setting *note __cached__: 2d9. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.cached: 2da. is deprecated. In Python 3.15, ‘__cached__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879(1)) * Setting *note __package__: 2db. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.parent: 2dc. is deprecated. In Python 3.15, ‘__package__’ will cease to be set or take into consideration by the import system or standard library. (gh-97879(2)) * *note ctypes: 2a.: * The undocumented ‘ctypes.SetPointerType()’ function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. * *note http.server: 72.: * The obsolete and rarely used *note CGIHTTPRequestHandler: 2a3. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. No direct replacement exists. 'Anything' is better than CGI to interface a web server with a request handler. * The ‘--cgi’ flag to the ‘python -m http.server’ command-line interface has been deprecated since Python 3.13. * *note importlib: 77.: * ‘load_module()’ method: use ‘exec_module()’ instead. * *note locale: 86.: * The *note getdefaultlocale(): 2dd. function has been deprecated since Python 3.11. Its removal was originally planned for Python 3.13 (gh-90817(3)), but has been postponed to Python 3.15. Use *note getlocale(): 2de, *note setlocale(): 2df, and *note getencoding(): 2e0. instead. (Contributed by Hugo van Kemenade in gh-111187(4).) * *note pathlib: a4.: * *note PurePath.is_reserved(): 2a8. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use *note os.path.isreserved(): 225. to detect reserved paths on Windows. * *note platform: aa.: * *note java_ver(): 2a9. has been deprecated since Python 3.13. This function is only useful for Jython support, has a confusing API, and is largely untested. * *note sysconfig: db.: * The 'check_home' argument of *note sysconfig.is_python_build(): 2e1. has been deprecated since Python 3.12. * *note threading: ed.: * *note RLock(): 2e2. will take no arguments in Python 3.15. Passing any arguments has been deprecated since Python 3.14, as the Python version does not permit any arguments, but the C version allows any number of positional or keyword arguments, ignoring every argument. * *note types: 103.: * *note types.CodeType: 2e3.: Accessing *note co_lnotab: 2e4. was deprecated in PEP 626(5) since 3.10 and was planned to be removed in 3.12, but it only got a proper *note DeprecationWarning: 1a5. in 3.12. May be removed in 3.15. (Contributed by Nikita Sobolev in gh-101866(6).) * *note typing: 104.: * The undocumented keyword argument syntax for creating *note NamedTuple: 2b2. classes (e.g. ‘Point = NamedTuple("Point", x=int, y=int)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the class-based syntax or the functional syntax instead. * When using the functional syntax of *note TypedDict: 162.s, failing to pass a value to the 'fields' parameter (‘TD = TypedDict("TD")’) or passing ‘None’ (‘TD = TypedDict("TD", None)’) has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use ‘class TD(TypedDict): pass’ or ‘TD = TypedDict("TD", {})’ to create a TypedDict with zero field. * The *note typing.no_type_check_decorator(): 2b3. decorator function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. After eight years in the *note typing: 104. module, it has yet to be supported by any major type checker. * *note wave: 113.: * The *note getmark(): 2b6, ‘setmark()’, and *note getmarkers(): 2b7. methods of the *note Wave_read: 2b8. and *note Wave_write: 2b9. classes have been deprecated since Python 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/97879 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/90817 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/111187 (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0626/ (6) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101866  File: python.info, Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>, Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>, Up: Deprecations 11.3 Pending removal in Python 3.16 =================================== * The import system: * Setting *note __loader__: 2e6. on a module while failing to set *note __spec__.loader: 2e7. is deprecated. In Python 3.16, ‘__loader__’ will cease to be set or taken into consideration by the import system or the standard library. * *note array: 7.: * The ‘'u'’ format code (‘wchar_t’) has been deprecated in documentation since Python 3.3 and at runtime since Python 3.13. Use the ‘'w'’ format code (*note Py_UCS4: 29d.) for Unicode characters instead. * *note asyncio: a.: * ‘asyncio.iscoroutinefunction()’ is deprecated and will be removed in Python 3.16, use *note inspect.iscoroutinefunction(): 2e8. instead. (Contributed by Jiahao Li and Kumar Aditya in gh-122875(1).) * *note builtins: 12.: * Bitwise inversion on boolean types, ‘~True’ or ‘~False’ has been deprecated since Python 3.12, as it produces surprising and unintuitive results (‘-2’ and ‘-1’). Use ‘not x’ instead for the logical negation of a Boolean. In the rare case that you need the bitwise inversion of the underlying integer, convert to ‘int’ explicitly (‘~int(x)’). * *note shutil: c5.: * The ‘ExecError’ exception has been deprecated since Python 3.14. It has not been used by any function in ‘shutil’ since Python 3.4, and is now an alias of *note RuntimeError: 195. * *note symtable: d8.: * The *note Class.get_methods: 2e9. method has been deprecated since Python 3.14. * *note sys: d9.: * The *note _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding(): 2b0. function has been deprecated since Python 3.13. Use the *note PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: 2b1. environment variable instead. * *note tarfile: de.: * The undocumented and unused ‘TarFile.tarfile’ attribute has been deprecated since Python 3.13. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/122875  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>, Next: C API Deprecations, Prev: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>, Up: Deprecations 11.4 Pending Removal in Future Versions ======================================= The following APIs will be removed in the future, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal. * *note argparse: 6.: Nesting argument groups and nesting mutually exclusive groups are deprecated. * *note builtins: 12.: * ‘bool(NotImplemented)’. * Generators: ‘throw(type, exc, tb)’ and ‘athrow(type, exc, tb)’ signature is deprecated: use ‘throw(exc)’ and ‘athrow(exc)’ instead, the single argument signature. * Currently Python accepts numeric literals immediately followed by keywords, for example ‘0in x’, ‘1or x’, ‘0if 1else 2’. It allows confusing and ambiguous expressions like ‘[0x1for x in y]’ (which can be interpreted as ‘[0x1 for x in y]’ or ‘[0x1f or x in y]’). A syntax warning is raised if the numeric literal is immediately followed by one of keywords *note and: 2eb, *note else: 18c, *note for: 2ec, *note if: 2ed, *note in: 2ee, *note is: 2ef. and *note or: 2f0. In a future release it will be changed to a syntax error. (gh-87999(1)) * Support for ‘__index__()’ and ‘__int__()’ method returning non-int type: these methods will be required to return an instance of a strict subclass of *note int: 259. * Support for ‘__float__()’ method returning a strict subclass of *note float: 2f1.: these methods will be required to return an instance of *note float: 2f1. * Support for ‘__complex__()’ method returning a strict subclass of *note complex: 2f2.: these methods will be required to return an instance of *note complex: 2f2. * Delegation of ‘int()’ to ‘__trunc__()’ method. * Passing a complex number as the 'real' or 'imag' argument in the *note complex(): 2f2. constructor is now deprecated; it should only be passed as a single positional argument. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-109218(2).) * *note calendar: 14.: ‘calendar.January’ and ‘calendar.February’ constants are deprecated and replaced by *note calendar.JANUARY: 2f3. and *note calendar.FEBRUARY: 2f4. (Contributed by Prince Roshan in gh-103636(3).) * *note codeobject.co_lnotab: 2e4.: use the *note codeobject.co_lines(): 2f5. method instead. * *note datetime: 30.: * *note utcnow(): 2f6.: use ‘datetime.datetime.now(tz=datetime.UTC)’. * *note utcfromtimestamp(): 2f7.: use ‘datetime.datetime.fromtimestamp(timestamp, tz=datetime.UTC)’. * *note gettext: 63.: Plural value must be an integer. * *note importlib: 77.: * *note cache_from_source(): 2f8. 'debug_override' parameter is deprecated: use the 'optimization' parameter instead. * *note importlib.metadata: 7a.: * ‘EntryPoints’ tuple interface. * Implicit ‘None’ on return values. * *note logging: 87.: the ‘warn()’ method has been deprecated since Python 3.3, use *note warning(): 2f9. instead. * *note mailbox: 8b.: Use of StringIO input and text mode is deprecated, use BytesIO and binary mode instead. * *note os: a1.: Calling *note os.register_at_fork(): 2fa. in multi-threaded process. * ‘pydoc.ErrorDuringImport’: A tuple value for 'exc_info' parameter is deprecated, use an exception instance. * *note re: b9.: More strict rules are now applied for numerical group references and group names in regular expressions. Only sequence of ASCII digits is now accepted as a numerical reference. The group name in bytes patterns and replacement strings can now only contain ASCII letters and digits and underscore. (Contributed by Serhiy Storchaka in gh-91760(4).) * ‘sre_compile’, ‘sre_constants’ and ‘sre_parse’ modules. * *note shutil: c5.: *note rmtree(): 2fb.’s 'onerror' parameter is deprecated in Python 3.12; use the 'onexc' parameter instead. * *note ssl: d0. options and protocols: * *note ssl.SSLContext: 296. without protocol argument is deprecated. * *note ssl.SSLContext: 296.: *note set_npn_protocols(): 2fc. and ‘selected_npn_protocol()’ are deprecated: use ALPN instead. * ‘ssl.OP_NO_SSL*’ options * ‘ssl.OP_NO_TLS*’ options * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_SSLv3’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLS’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1’ * ‘ssl.PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.SSLv3’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1’ * ‘ssl.TLSVersion.TLSv1_1’ * *note threading: ed. methods: * ‘threading.Condition.notifyAll()’: use *note notify_all(): 2fd. * ‘threading.Event.isSet()’: use *note is_set(): 2fe. * ‘threading.Thread.isDaemon()’, *note threading.Thread.setDaemon(): 2ff.: use *note threading.Thread.daemon: 300. attribute. * ‘threading.Thread.getName()’, *note threading.Thread.setName(): 301.: use *note threading.Thread.name: 302. attribute. * ‘threading.currentThread()’: use *note threading.current_thread(): 303. * ‘threading.activeCount()’: use *note threading.active_count(): 304. * *note typing.Text: 305. (gh-92332(5)). * *note unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase: 306.: it is deprecated to return a value that is not ‘None’ from a test case. * *note urllib.parse: 10a. deprecated functions: *note urlparse(): 307. instead * ‘splitattr()’ * ‘splithost()’ * ‘splitnport()’ * ‘splitpasswd()’ * ‘splitport()’ * ‘splitquery()’ * ‘splittag()’ * ‘splittype()’ * ‘splituser()’ * ‘splitvalue()’ * ‘to_bytes()’ * *note urllib.request: 10b.: *note URLopener: 308. and *note FancyURLopener: 309. style of invoking requests is deprecated. Use newer *note urlopen(): 295. functions and methods. * *note wsgiref: 118.: ‘SimpleHandler.stdout.write()’ should not do partial writes. * *note xml.etree.ElementTree: 125.: Testing the truth value of an *note Element: 30a. is deprecated. In a future release it will always return ‘True’. Prefer explicit ‘len(elem)’ or ‘elem is not None’ tests instead. * *note zipimport.zipimporter.load_module(): 30b. is deprecated: use *note exec_module(): 30c. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/87999 (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/109218 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/103636 (4) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/91760 (5) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/92332  File: python.info, Node: C API Deprecations, Prev: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>, Up: Deprecations 11.5 C API Deprecations ======================= * Menu: * Pending Removal in Python 3.14: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>. * Pending Removal in Python 3.15: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>. * Pending Removal in Future Versions: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>.  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>, Next: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>, Up: C API Deprecations 11.5.1 Pending Removal in Python 3.14 ------------------------------------- * The ‘ma_version_tag’ field in *note PyDictObject: 3bd. for extension modules ( PEP 699(1); gh-101193(2)). * Creating *note immutable types: 3be. with mutable bases (gh-95388(3)). * Functions to configure Python’s initialization, deprecated in Python 3.11: * ‘PySys_SetArgvEx()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. instead. * ‘PySys_SetArgv()’: Set *note PyConfig.argv: 3bf. instead. * ‘Py_SetProgramName()’: Set *note PyConfig.program_name: 3c0. instead. * ‘Py_SetPythonHome()’: Set *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. instead. The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. * Global configuration variables: * *note Py_DebugFlag: 3c2.: Use *note PyConfig.parser_debug: 3c3. instead. * *note Py_VerboseFlag: 3c4.: Use *note PyConfig.verbose: 3c5. instead. * *note Py_QuietFlag: 3c6.: Use *note PyConfig.quiet: 3c7. instead. * *note Py_InteractiveFlag: 3c8.: Use *note PyConfig.interactive: 3c9. instead. * *note Py_InspectFlag: 3ca.: Use *note PyConfig.inspect: 3cb. instead. * *note Py_OptimizeFlag: 3cc.: Use *note PyConfig.optimization_level: 3cd. instead. * *note Py_NoSiteFlag: 3ce.: Use *note PyConfig.site_import: 3cf. instead. * *note Py_BytesWarningFlag: 3d0.: Use *note PyConfig.bytes_warning: 3d1. instead. * *note Py_FrozenFlag: 3d2.: Use *note PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings: 3d3. instead. * *note Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag: 3d4.: Use *note PyConfig.use_environment: 3d5. instead. * *note Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag: 3d6.: Use *note PyConfig.write_bytecode: 3d7. instead. * *note Py_NoUserSiteDirectory: 3d8.: Use *note PyConfig.user_site_directory: 3d9. instead. * *note Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag: 3da.: Use *note PyConfig.buffered_stdio: 3db. instead. * *note Py_HashRandomizationFlag: 3dc.: Use *note PyConfig.use_hash_seed: 3dd. and *note PyConfig.hash_seed: 3de. instead. * *note Py_IsolatedFlag: 3df.: Use *note PyConfig.isolated: 3e0. instead. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag: 3e1.: Use *note PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding: 3e2. instead. * *note Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag: 3e3.: Use *note PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio: 3a0. instead. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. instead. * ‘Py_HasFileSystemDefaultEncoding’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_encoding: 3e4. instead. * ‘Py_FileSystemDefaultEncodeErrors’: Use *note PyConfig.filesystem_errors: 3e5. instead. * ‘Py_UTF8Mode’: Use *note PyPreConfig.utf8_mode: 3e6. instead. (see *note Py_PreInitialize(): 3e7.) The *note Py_InitializeFromConfig(): 3c1. API should be used with *note PyConfig: 3a2. instead. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0699/ (2) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/101193 (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues/95388  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>, Next: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>, Up: C API Deprecations 11.5.2 Pending Removal in Python 3.15 ------------------------------------- * The *note PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock(): 3b9.: Use *note PyImport_ImportModule(): 3ba. instead. * *note PyWeakref_GetObject(): 374. and *note PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT(): 3bb.: Use *note PyWeakref_GetRef(): 373. instead. * *note Py_UNICODE: 3e9. type and the ‘Py_UNICODE_WIDE’ macro: Use ‘wchar_t’ instead. * Python initialization functions: * *note PySys_ResetWarnOptions(): 3ab.: Clear *note sys.warnoptions: 3ac. and ‘warnings.filters’ instead. * *note Py_GetExecPrefix(): 3ad.: Get *note sys.base_exec_prefix: 3ea. and *note sys.exec_prefix: 3ae. instead. * *note Py_GetPath(): 3af.: Get *note sys.path: 3b0. instead. * *note Py_GetPrefix(): 3b1.: Get *note sys.base_prefix: 3eb. and *note sys.prefix: 3b2. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramFullPath(): 3b3.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetProgramName(): 3b5.: Get *note sys.executable: 3b4. instead. * *note Py_GetPythonHome(): 3b6.: Get *note PyConfig.home: 3b7. or the *note PYTHONHOME: 3b8. environment variable instead.  File: python.info, Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>, Prev: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>, Up: C API Deprecations 11.5.3 Pending Removal in Future Versions ----------------------------------------- The following APIs are deprecated and will be removed, although there is currently no date scheduled for their removal. * *note Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE: 3ee.: Unneeded since Python 3.8. * *note PyErr_Fetch(): 3ef.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. * *note PyErr_NormalizeException(): 3f1.: Use *note PyErr_GetRaisedException(): 3f0. instead. * *note PyErr_Restore(): 3f2.: Use *note PyErr_SetRaisedException(): 3f3. instead. * *note PyModule_GetFilename(): 3f4.: Use *note PyModule_GetFilenameObject(): 3f5. instead. * *note PyOS_AfterFork(): 3f6.: Use *note PyOS_AfterFork_Child(): 3f7. instead. * *note PySlice_GetIndicesEx(): 3f8.: Use *note PySlice_Unpack(): 3f9. and *note PySlice_AdjustIndices(): 3fa. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsDecodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Decode(): 3fb. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedObject()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. instead. * ‘PyUnicode_AsEncodedUnicode()’: Use *note PyCodec_Encode(): 3fc. instead. * *note PyUnicode_READY(): 3fd.: Unneeded since Python 3.12 * ‘PyErr_Display()’: Use *note PyErr_DisplayException(): 3fe. instead. * ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions()’: Use ‘_PyErr_ChainExceptions1()’ instead. * ‘PyBytesObject.ob_shash’ member: call *note PyObject_Hash(): 3ff. instead. * ‘PyDictObject.ma_version_tag’ member. * Thread Local Storage (TLS) API: * *note PyThread_create_key(): 400.: Use *note PyThread_tss_alloc(): 401. instead. * *note PyThread_delete_key(): 402.: Use *note PyThread_tss_free(): 403. instead. * *note PyThread_set_key_value(): 404.: Use *note PyThread_tss_set(): 405. instead. * *note PyThread_get_key_value(): 406.: Use *note PyThread_tss_get(): 407. instead. * *note PyThread_delete_key_value(): 408.: Use *note PyThread_tss_delete(): 409. instead. * *note PyThread_ReInitTLS(): 40a.: Unneeded since Python 3.7.  File: python.info, Node: Glossary, Next: About this documentation, Prev: Deprecations, Up: Top 12 Glossary *********** ‘>>>’ The default Python prompt of the *note interactive: 169. shell. Often seen for code examples which can be executed interactively in the interpreter. ‘...’ Can refer to: * The default Python prompt of the *note interactive: 169. shell when entering the code for an indented code block, when within a pair of matching left and right delimiters (parentheses, square brackets, curly braces or triple quotes), or after specifying a decorator. * The *note Ellipsis: 2185. built-in constant. abstract base class Abstract base classes complement *note duck-typing: 51a0. by providing a way to define interfaces when other techniques like *note hasattr(): 4ce. would be clumsy or subtly wrong (for example with *note magic methods: 1f66.). ABCs introduce virtual subclasses, which are classes that don’t inherit from a class but are still recognized by *note isinstance(): 43d. and *note issubclass(): 7bc.; see the *note abc: 4. module documentation. Python comes with many built-in ABCs for data structures (in the *note collections.abc: 1e. module), numbers (in the *note numbers: 9e. module), streams (in the *note io: 7f. module), import finders and loaders (in the *note importlib.abc: 78. module). You can create your own ABCs with the *note abc: 4. module. annotation A label associated with a variable, a class attribute or a function parameter or return value, used by convention as a *note type hint: 1f81. Annotations of local variables cannot be accessed at runtime, but annotations of global variables, class attributes, and functions are stored in the ‘__annotations__’ special attribute of modules, classes, and functions, respectively. See *note variable annotation: d55, *note function annotation: 1c37, PEP 484(1) and PEP 526(2), which describe this functionality. Also see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. for best practices on working with annotations. argument A value passed to a *note function: 2059. (or *note method: 1552.) when calling the function. There are two kinds of argument: * 'keyword argument': an argument preceded by an identifier (e.g. ‘name=’) in a function call or passed as a value in a dictionary preceded by ‘**’. For example, ‘3’ and ‘5’ are both keyword arguments in the following calls to *note complex(): 2f2.: complex(real=3, imag=5) complex(**{'real': 3, 'imag': 5}) * 'positional argument': an argument that is not a keyword argument. Positional arguments can appear at the beginning of an argument list and/or be passed as elements of an *note iterable: 121a. preceded by ‘*’. For example, ‘3’ and ‘5’ are both positional arguments in the following calls: complex(3, 5) complex(*(3, 5)) Arguments are assigned to the named local variables in a function body. See the *note Calls: d7c. section for the rules governing this assignment. Syntactically, any expression can be used to represent an argument; the evaluated value is assigned to the local variable. See also the *note parameter: 1eff. glossary entry, the FAQ question on *note the difference between arguments and parameters: 50e4, and PEP 362(3). asynchronous context manager An object which controls the environment seen in an *note async with: 5d1. statement by defining *note __aenter__(): 1fd0. and *note __aexit__(): 162a. methods. Introduced by PEP 492(4). asynchronous generator A function which returns an *note asynchronous generator iterator: 4396. It looks like a coroutine function defined with *note async def: 5cd. except that it contains *note yield: 9cd. expressions for producing a series of values usable in an *note async for: aab. loop. Usually refers to an asynchronous generator function, but may refer to an 'asynchronous generator iterator' in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. An asynchronous generator function may contain *note await: 1b9. expressions as well as *note async for: aab, and *note async with: 5d1. statements. asynchronous generator iterator An object created by a *note asynchronous generator: 203e. function. This is an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. which when called using the *note __anext__(): 1573. method returns an awaitable object which will execute the body of the asynchronous generator function until the next *note yield: 9cd. expression. Each *note yield: 9cd. temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the 'asynchronous generator iterator' effectively resumes with another awaitable returned by *note __anext__(): 1573, it picks up where it left off. See PEP 492(5) and PEP 525(6). asynchronous iterable An object, that can be used in an *note async for: aab. statement. Must return an *note asynchronous iterator: 1ab. from its *note __aiter__(): bfb. method. Introduced by PEP 492(7). asynchronous iterator An object that implements the *note __aiter__(): bfb. and *note __anext__(): 1573. methods. *note __anext__(): 1573. must return an *note awaitable: 1ad. object. *note async for: aab. resolves the awaitables returned by an asynchronous iterator’s *note __anext__(): 1573. method until it raises a *note StopAsyncIteration: 1a2c. exception. Introduced by PEP 492(8). attribute A value associated with an object which is usually referenced by name using dotted expressions. For example, if an object 'o' has an attribute 'a' it would be referenced as 'o.a'. It is possible to give an object an attribute whose name is not an identifier as defined by *note Identifiers and keywords: 1e94, for example using *note setattr(): 215b, if the object allows it. Such an attribute will not be accessible using a dotted expression, and would instead need to be retrieved with *note getattr(): bd1. awaitable An object that can be used in an *note await: 1b9. expression. Can be a *note coroutine: 48d. or an object with an *note __await__(): 1fc7. method. See also PEP 492(9). BDFL Benevolent Dictator For Life, a.k.a. Guido van Rossum(10), Python’s creator. binary file A *note file object: 11b5. able to read and write *note bytes-like objects: d2d. Examples of binary files are files opened in binary mode (‘'rb'’, ‘'wb'’ or ‘'rb+'’), *note sys.stdin.buffer: 539, *note sys.stdout.buffer: ad6, and instances of *note io.BytesIO: e9d. and *note gzip.GzipFile: 416. See also *note text file: 1c86. for a file object able to read and write *note str: 447. objects. borrowed reference In Python’s C API, a borrowed reference is a reference to an object, where the code using the object does not own the reference. It becomes a dangling pointer if the object is destroyed. For example, a garbage collection can remove the last *note strong reference: 338. to the object and so destroy it. Calling *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. on the *note borrowed reference: 339. is recommended to convert it to a *note strong reference: 338. in-place, except when the object cannot be destroyed before the last usage of the borrowed reference. The *note Py_NewRef(): 898. function can be used to create a new *note strong reference: 338. bytes-like object An object that supports the *note Buffer Protocol: 393. and can export a C-*note contiguous: 2227. buffer. This includes all *note bytes: 1c2, *note bytearray: 53a, and *note array.array: 1a0. objects, as well as many common *note memoryview: 464. objects. Bytes-like objects can be used for various operations that work with binary data; these include compression, saving to a binary file, and sending over a socket. Some operations need the binary data to be mutable. The documentation often refers to these as “read-write bytes-like objects”. Example mutable buffer objects include *note bytearray: 53a. and a *note memoryview: 464. of a *note bytearray: 53a. Other operations require the binary data to be stored in immutable objects (“read-only bytes-like objects”); examples of these include *note bytes: 1c2. and a *note memoryview: 464. of a *note bytes: 1c2. object. bytecode Python source code is compiled into bytecode, the internal representation of a Python program in the CPython interpreter. The bytecode is also cached in ‘.pyc’ files so that executing the same file is faster the second time (recompilation from source to bytecode can be avoided). This “intermediate language” is said to run on a *note virtual machine: 3502. that executes the machine code corresponding to each bytecode. Do note that bytecodes are not expected to work between different Python virtual machines, nor to be stable between Python releases. A list of bytecode instructions can be found in the documentation for *note the dis module: 5ae. callable A callable is an object that can be called, possibly with a set of arguments (see *note argument: 444.), with the following syntax: callable(argument1, argument2, argumentN) A *note function: 2059, and by extension a *note method: 1552, is a callable. An instance of a class that implements the *note __call__(): 555. method is also a callable. callback A subroutine function which is passed as an argument to be executed at some point in the future. class A template for creating user-defined objects. Class definitions normally contain method definitions which operate on instances of the class. class variable A variable defined in a class and intended to be modified only at class level (i.e., not in an instance of the class). closure variable A *note free variable: 1fda. referenced from a *note nested scope: 1f3e. that is defined in an outer scope rather than being resolved at runtime from the globals or builtin namespaces. May be explicitly defined with the *note nonlocal: 129a. keyword to allow write access, or implicitly defined if the variable is only being read. For example, in the ‘inner’ function in the following code, both ‘x’ and ‘print’ are *note free variables: 1fda, but only ‘x’ is a 'closure variable': def outer(): x = 0 def inner(): nonlocal x x += 1 print(x) return inner Due to the *note codeobject.co_freevars: 1efb. attribute (which, despite its name, only includes the names of closure variables rather than listing all referenced free variables), the more general *note free variable: 1fda. term is sometimes used even when the intended meaning is to refer specifically to closure variables. complex number An extension of the familiar real number system in which all numbers are expressed as a sum of a real part and an imaginary part. Imaginary numbers are real multiples of the imaginary unit (the square root of ‘-1’), often written ‘i’ in mathematics or ‘j’ in engineering. Python has built-in support for complex numbers, which are written with this latter notation; the imaginary part is written with a ‘j’ suffix, e.g., ‘3+1j’. To get access to complex equivalents of the *note math: 8e. module, use *note cmath: 18. Use of complex numbers is a fairly advanced mathematical feature. If you’re not aware of a need for them, it’s almost certain you can safely ignore them. context This term has different meanings depending on where and how it is used. Some common meanings: * The temporary state or environment established by a *note context manager: 5d0. via a *note with: 5ce. statement. * The collection of key­value bindings associated with a particular *note contextvars.Context: 15a9. object and accessed via *note ContextVar: 155d. objects. Also see *note context variable: 51a4. * A *note contextvars.Context: 15a9. object. Also see *note current context: 15b2. context management protocol The *note __enter__(): 5c4. and *note __exit__(): 12f3. methods called by the *note with: 5ce. statement. See PEP 343(11). context manager An object which implements the *note context management protocol: 15b3. and controls the environment seen in a *note with: 5ce. statement. See PEP 343(12). context variable A variable whose value depends on which context is the *note current context: 15b2. Values are accessed via *note contextvars.ContextVar: 155d. objects. Context variables are primarily used to isolate state between concurrent asynchronous tasks. contiguous A buffer is considered contiguous exactly if it is either 'C-contiguous' or 'Fortran contiguous'. Zero-dimensional buffers are C and Fortran contiguous. In one-dimensional arrays, the items must be laid out in memory next to each other, in order of increasing indexes starting from zero. In multidimensional C-contiguous arrays, the last index varies the fastest when visiting items in order of memory address. However, in Fortran contiguous arrays, the first index varies the fastest. coroutine Coroutines are a more generalized form of subroutines. Subroutines are entered at one point and exited at another point. Coroutines can be entered, exited, and resumed at many different points. They can be implemented with the *note async def: 5cd. statement. See also PEP 492(13). coroutine function A function which returns a *note coroutine: 48d. object. A coroutine function may be defined with the *note async def: 5cd. statement, and may contain *note await: 1b9, *note async for: aab, and *note async with: 5d1. keywords. These were introduced by PEP 492(14). CPython The canonical implementation of the Python programming language, as distributed on python.org(15). The term “CPython” is used when necessary to distinguish this implementation from others such as Jython or IronPython. current context The *note context: 15b1. (*note contextvars.Context: 15a9. object) that is currently used by *note ContextVar: 155d. objects to access (get or set) the values of *note context variables: 51a4. Each thread has its own current context. Frameworks for executing asynchronous tasks (see *note asyncio: a.) associate each task with a context which becomes the current context whenever the task starts or resumes execution. decorator A function returning another function, usually applied as a function transformation using the ‘@wrapper’ syntax. Common examples for decorators are *note classmethod(): 166. and *note staticmethod(): 412. The decorator syntax is merely syntactic sugar, the following two function definitions are semantically equivalent: def f(arg): ... f = staticmethod(f) @staticmethod def f(arg): ... The same concept exists for classes, but is less commonly used there. See the documentation for *note function definitions: 1c36. and *note class definitions: 12ca. for more about decorators. descriptor Any object which defines the methods *note __get__(): 14b2, *note __set__(): 1f6a, or *note __delete__(): 1609. When a class attribute is a descriptor, its special binding behavior is triggered upon attribute lookup. Normally, using 'a.b' to get, set or delete an attribute looks up the object named 'b' in the class dictionary for 'a', but if 'b' is a descriptor, the respective descriptor method gets called. Understanding descriptors is a key to a deep understanding of Python because they are the basis for many features including functions, methods, properties, class methods, static methods, and reference to super classes. For more information about descriptors’ methods, see *note Implementing Descriptors: c4f. or the *note Descriptor How To Guide: 14b7. dictionary An associative array, where arbitrary keys are mapped to values. The keys can be any object with *note __hash__(): afb. and *note __eq__(): afa. methods. Called a hash in Perl. dictionary comprehension A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a dictionary with the results. ‘results = {n: n ** 2 for n in range(10)}’ generates a dictionary containing key ‘n’ mapped to value ‘n ** 2’. See *note Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: 5cc. dictionary view The objects returned from *note dict.keys(): 7c8, *note dict.values(): 7c9, and *note dict.items(): 7ca. are called dictionary views. They provide a dynamic view on the dictionary’s entries, which means that when the dictionary changes, the view reflects these changes. To force the dictionary view to become a full list use ‘list(dictview)’. See *note Dictionary view objects: 2243. docstring A string literal which appears as the first expression in a class, function or module. While ignored when the suite is executed, it is recognized by the compiler and put into the *note __doc__: 927. attribute of the enclosing class, function or module. Since it is available via introspection, it is the canonical place for documentation of the object. duck-typing A programming style which does not look at an object’s type to determine if it has the right interface; instead, the method or attribute is simply called or used (“If it looks like a duck and quacks like a duck, it must be a duck.”) By emphasizing interfaces rather than specific types, well-designed code improves its flexibility by allowing polymorphic substitution. Duck-typing avoids tests using *note type(): d48. or *note isinstance(): 43d. (Note, however, that duck-typing can be complemented with *note abstract base classes: 11a8.) Instead, it typically employs *note hasattr(): 4ce. tests or *note EAFP: 2b85. programming. dunder An informal short-hand for “double underscore”, used when talking about a *note special method: 18ab. For example, ‘__init__’ is often pronounced “dunder init”. EAFP Easier to ask for forgiveness than permission. This common Python coding style assumes the existence of valid keys or attributes and catches exceptions if the assumption proves false. This clean and fast style is characterized by the presence of many *note try: 6e4. and *note except: 18b. statements. The technique contrasts with the *note LBYL: 51a7. style common to many other languages such as C. expression A piece of syntax which can be evaluated to some value. In other words, an expression is an accumulation of expression elements like literals, names, attribute access, operators or function calls which all return a value. In contrast to many other languages, not all language constructs are expressions. There are also *note statement: 278b.s which cannot be used as expressions, such as *note while: 1c04. Assignments are also statements, not expressions. extension module A module written in C or C++, using Python’s C API to interact with the core and with user code. f-string String literals prefixed with ‘'f'’ or ‘'F'’ are commonly called “f-strings” which is short for *note formatted string literals: 9a9. See also PEP 498(16). file object An object exposing a file-oriented API (with methods such as ‘read()’ or ‘write()’) to an underlying resource. Depending on the way it was created, a file object can mediate access to a real on-disk file or to another type of storage or communication device (for example standard input/output, in-memory buffers, sockets, pipes, etc.). File objects are also called 'file-like objects' or 'streams'. There are actually three categories of file objects: raw *note binary files: 1c87, buffered *note binary files: 1c87. and *note text files: 1c86. Their interfaces are defined in the *note io: 7f. module. The canonical way to create a file object is by using the *note open(): 517. function. file-like object A synonym for *note file object: 11b5. filesystem encoding and error handler Encoding and error handler used by Python to decode bytes from the operating system and encode Unicode to the operating system. The filesystem encoding must guarantee to successfully decode all bytes below 128. If the file system encoding fails to provide this guarantee, API functions can raise *note UnicodeError: 1296. The *note sys.getfilesystemencoding(): c59. and *note sys.getfilesystemencodeerrors(): ce6. functions can be used to get the filesystem encoding and error handler. The *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. are configured at Python startup by the *note PyConfig_Read(): 78b. function: see *note filesystem_encoding: 3e4. and *note filesystem_errors: 3e5. members of *note PyConfig: 3a2. See also the *note locale encoding: 244. finder An object that tries to find the *note loader: 16b0. for a module that is being imported. There are two types of finder: *note meta path finders: 1069. for use with *note sys.meta_path: d2b, and *note path entry finders: 106a. for use with *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. See *note Finders and loaders: 1ff3. and *note importlib: 77. for much more detail. floor division Mathematical division that rounds down to nearest integer. The floor division operator is ‘//’. For example, the expression ‘11 // 4’ evaluates to ‘2’ in contrast to the ‘2.75’ returned by float true division. Note that ‘(-11) // 4’ is ‘-3’ because that is ‘-2.75’ rounded 'downward'. See PEP 238(17). free threading A threading model where multiple threads can run Python bytecode simultaneously within the same interpreter. This is in contrast to the *note global interpreter lock: 148. which allows only one thread to execute Python bytecode at a time. See PEP 703(18). free variable Formally, as defined in the *note language execution model: 1fd7, a free variable is any variable used in a namespace which is not a local variable in that namespace. See *note closure variable: 1f3f. for an example. Pragmatically, due to the name of the *note codeobject.co_freevars: 1efb. attribute, the term is also sometimes used as a synonym for *note closure variable: 1f3f. function A series of statements which returns some value to a caller. It can also be passed zero or more *note arguments: 444. which may be used in the execution of the body. See also *note parameter: 1eff, *note method: 1552, and the *note Function definitions: 1c36. section. function annotation An *note annotation: 453. of a function parameter or return value. Function annotations are usually used for *note type hints: 1f81.: for example, this function is expected to take two *note int: 259. arguments and is also expected to have an *note int: 259. return value: def sum_two_numbers(a: int, b: int) -> int: return a + b Function annotation syntax is explained in section *note Function definitions: 1c36. See *note variable annotation: d55. and PEP 484(19), which describe this functionality. Also see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. for best practices on working with annotations. __future__ A *note future statement: 189, ‘from __future__ import ’, directs the compiler to compile the current module using syntax or semantics that will become standard in a future release of Python. The *note __future__: 0. module documents the possible values of 'feature'. By importing this module and evaluating its variables, you can see when a new feature was first added to the language and when it will (or did) become the default: >>> import __future__ >>> __future__.division _Feature((2, 2, 0, 'alpha', 2), (3, 0, 0, 'alpha', 0), 8192) garbage collection The process of freeing memory when it is not used anymore. Python performs garbage collection via reference counting and a cyclic garbage collector that is able to detect and break reference cycles. The garbage collector can be controlled using the *note gc: 60. module. generator A function which returns a *note generator iterator: bde. It looks like a normal function except that it contains *note yield: 9cd. expressions for producing a series of values usable in a for-loop or that can be retrieved one at a time with the *note next(): 7d3. function. Usually refers to a generator function, but may refer to a 'generator iterator' in some contexts. In cases where the intended meaning isn’t clear, using the full terms avoids ambiguity. generator iterator An object created by a *note generator: 105a. function. Each *note yield: 9cd. temporarily suspends processing, remembering the execution state (including local variables and pending try-statements). When the 'generator iterator' resumes, it picks up where it left off (in contrast to functions which start fresh on every invocation). generator expression An *note expression: 1f85. that returns an *note iterator: 1ac. It looks like a normal expression followed by a ‘for’ clause defining a loop variable, range, and an optional ‘if’ clause. The combined expression generates values for an enclosing function: >>> sum(i*i for i in range(10)) # sum of squares 0, 1, 4, ... 81 285 generic function A function composed of multiple functions implementing the same operation for different types. Which implementation should be used during a call is determined by the dispatch algorithm. See also the *note single dispatch: 9f1. glossary entry, the *note functools.singledispatch(): 635. decorator, and PEP 443(20). generic type A *note type: 1933. that can be parameterized; typically a *note container class: 1f8a. such as *note list: 60d. or *note dict: 258. Used for *note type hints: 1f81. and *note annotations: 453. For more details, see *note generic alias types: 6ae, PEP 483(21), PEP 484(22), PEP 585(23), and the *note typing: 104. module. GIL See *note global interpreter lock: 148. global interpreter lock The mechanism used by the *note CPython: 6f1. interpreter to assure that only one thread executes Python *note bytecode: 187. at a time. This simplifies the CPython implementation by making the object model (including critical built-in types such as *note dict: 258.) implicitly safe against concurrent access. Locking the entire interpreter makes it easier for the interpreter to be multi-threaded, at the expense of much of the parallelism afforded by multi-processor machines. However, some extension modules, either standard or third-party, are designed so as to release the GIL when doing computationally intensive tasks such as compression or hashing. Also, the GIL is always released when doing I/O. As of Python 3.13, the GIL can be disabled using the *note -disable-gil: 174. build configuration. After building Python with this option, code must be run with *note -X gil=0: 176. or after setting the *note PYTHON_GIL=0: 175. environment variable. This feature enables improved performance for multi-threaded applications and makes it easier to use multi-core CPUs efficiently. For more details, see PEP 703(24). hash-based pyc A bytecode cache file that uses the hash rather than the last-modified time of the corresponding source file to determine its validity. See *note Cached bytecode invalidation: 5e8. hashable An object is 'hashable' if it has a hash value which never changes during its lifetime (it needs a *note __hash__(): afb. method), and can be compared to other objects (it needs an *note __eq__(): afa. method). Hashable objects which compare equal must have the same hash value. Hashability makes an object usable as a dictionary key and a set member, because these data structures use the hash value internally. Most of Python’s immutable built-in objects are hashable; mutable containers (such as lists or dictionaries) are not; immutable containers (such as tuples and frozensets) are only hashable if their elements are hashable. Objects which are instances of user-defined classes are hashable by default. They all compare unequal (except with themselves), and their hash value is derived from their *note id(): 13ee. IDLE An Integrated Development and Learning Environment for Python. *note IDLE — Python editor and shell: 100e. is a basic editor and interpreter environment which ships with the standard distribution of Python. immortal 'Immortal objects' are a CPython implementation detail introduced in PEP 683(25). If an object is immortal, its *note reference count: 48e2. is never modified, and therefore it is never deallocated while the interpreter is running. For example, *note True: c0d. and *note None: 671. are immortal in CPython. immutable An object with a fixed value. Immutable objects include numbers, strings and tuples. Such an object cannot be altered. A new object has to be created if a different value has to be stored. They play an important role in places where a constant hash value is needed, for example as a key in a dictionary. import path A list of locations (or *note path entries: 2004.) that are searched by the *note path based finder: 1ff9. for modules to import. During import, this list of locations usually comes from *note sys.path: 3b0, but for subpackages it may also come from the parent package’s ‘__path__’ attribute. importing The process by which Python code in one module is made available to Python code in another module. importer An object that both finds and loads a module; both a *note finder: 1f1e. and *note loader: 16b0. object. interactive Python has an interactive interpreter which means you can enter statements and expressions at the interpreter prompt, immediately execute them and see their results. Just launch ‘python’ with no arguments (possibly by selecting it from your computer’s main menu). It is a very powerful way to test out new ideas or inspect modules and packages (remember ‘help(x)’). For more on interactive mode, see *note Interactive Mode: 16f. interpreted Python is an interpreted language, as opposed to a compiled one, though the distinction can be blurry because of the presence of the bytecode compiler. This means that source files can be run directly without explicitly creating an executable which is then run. Interpreted languages typically have a shorter development/debug cycle than compiled ones, though their programs generally also run more slowly. See also *note interactive: 169. interpreter shutdown When asked to shut down, the Python interpreter enters a special phase where it gradually releases all allocated resources, such as modules and various critical internal structures. It also makes several calls to the *note garbage collector: 1919. This can trigger the execution of code in user-defined destructors or weakref callbacks. Code executed during the shutdown phase can encounter various exceptions as the resources it relies on may not function anymore (common examples are library modules or the warnings machinery). The main reason for interpreter shutdown is that the ‘__main__’ module or the script being run has finished executing. iterable An object capable of returning its members one at a time. Examples of iterables include all sequence types (such as *note list: 60d, *note str: 447, and *note tuple: 36b.) and some non-sequence types like *note dict: 258, *note file objects: 11b5, and objects of any classes you define with an *note __iter__(): 1f5c. method or with a *note __getitem__(): 285. method that implements *note sequence: 4ed. semantics. Iterables can be used in a *note for: 2ec. loop and in many other places where a sequence is needed (*note zip(): 7cb, *note map(): 860, …). When an iterable object is passed as an argument to the built-in function *note iter(): 7d2, it returns an iterator for the object. This iterator is good for one pass over the set of values. When using iterables, it is usually not necessary to call *note iter(): 7d2. or deal with iterator objects yourself. The *note for: 2ec. statement does that automatically for you, creating a temporary unnamed variable to hold the iterator for the duration of the loop. See also *note iterator: 1ac, *note sequence: 4ed, and *note generator: 105a. iterator An object representing a stream of data. Repeated calls to the iterator’s *note __next__(): 12c0. method (or passing it to the built-in function *note next(): 7d3.) return successive items in the stream. When no more data are available a *note StopIteration: bfa. exception is raised instead. At this point, the iterator object is exhausted and any further calls to its ‘__next__()’ method just raise *note StopIteration: bfa. again. Iterators are required to have an *note __iter__(): 1cc4. method that returns the iterator object itself so every iterator is also iterable and may be used in most places where other iterables are accepted. One notable exception is code which attempts multiple iteration passes. A container object (such as a *note list: 60d.) produces a fresh new iterator each time you pass it to the *note iter(): 7d2. function or use it in a *note for: 2ec. loop. Attempting this with an iterator will just return the same exhausted iterator object used in the previous iteration pass, making it appear like an empty container. More information can be found in *note Iterator Types: 2175. 'CPython implementation detail:' CPython does not consistently apply the requirement that an iterator define *note __iter__(): 1cc4. And also please note that the free-threading CPython does not guarantee the thread-safety of iterator operations. key function A key function or collation function is a callable that returns a value used for sorting or ordering. For example, *note locale.strxfrm(): 3d44. is used to produce a sort key that is aware of locale specific sort conventions. A number of tools in Python accept key functions to control how elements are ordered or grouped. They include *note min(): f03, *note max(): f04, *note sorted(): bce, *note list.sort(): bcf, *note heapq.merge(): e03, *note heapq.nsmallest(): 253c, *note heapq.nlargest(): 253b, and *note itertools.groupby(): 2735. There are several ways to create a key function. For example. the *note str.lower(): 17ec. method can serve as a key function for case insensitive sorts. Alternatively, a key function can be built from a *note lambda: 128f. expression such as ‘lambda r: (r[0], r[2])’. Also, *note operator.attrgetter(): e32, *note operator.itemgetter(): a61, and *note operator.methodcaller(): e33. are three key function constructors. See the *note Sorting HOW TO: 217e. for examples of how to create and use key functions. keyword argument See *note argument: 444. lambda An anonymous inline function consisting of a single *note expression: 1f85. which is evaluated when the function is called. The syntax to create a lambda function is ‘lambda [parameters]: expression’ LBYL Look before you leap. This coding style explicitly tests for pre-conditions before making calls or lookups. This style contrasts with the *note EAFP: 2b85. approach and is characterized by the presence of many *note if: 2ed. statements. In a multi-threaded environment, the LBYL approach can risk introducing a race condition between “the looking” and “the leaping”. For example, the code, ‘if key in mapping: return mapping[key]’ can fail if another thread removes 'key' from 'mapping' after the test, but before the lookup. This issue can be solved with locks or by using the EAFP approach. lexical analyzer Formal name for the 'tokenizer'; see *note token: 1e7d. list A built-in Python *note sequence: 4ed. Despite its name it is more akin to an array in other languages than to a linked list since access to elements is 'O'(1). list comprehension A compact way to process all or part of the elements in a sequence and return a list with the results. ‘result = ['{:#04x}'.format(x) for x in range(256) if x % 2 == 0]’ generates a list of strings containing even hex numbers (0x..) in the range from 0 to 255. The *note if: 2ed. clause is optional. If omitted, all elements in ‘range(256)’ are processed. loader An object that loads a module. It must define the ‘exec_module()’ and ‘create_module()’ methods to implement the *note Loader: ec0. interface. A loader is typically returned by a *note finder: 1f1e. See also: * *note Finders and loaders: 1ff3. * *note importlib.abc.Loader: ec0. * PEP 302(26) locale encoding On Unix, it is the encoding of the LC_CTYPE locale. It can be set with *note locale.setlocale(locale.LC_CTYPE, new_locale): 2df. On Windows, it is the ANSI code page (ex: ‘"cp1252"’). On Android and VxWorks, Python uses ‘"utf-8"’ as the locale encoding. *note locale.getencoding(): 2e0. can be used to get the locale encoding. See also the *note filesystem encoding and error handler: 537. magic method An informal synonym for *note special method: 18ab. mapping A container object that supports arbitrary key lookups and implements the methods specified in the *note collections.abc.Mapping: 8c9. or *note collections.abc.MutableMapping: 10a2. *note abstract base classes: 875. Examples include *note dict: 258, *note collections.defaultdict: 11af, *note collections.OrderedDict: 5d7. and *note collections.Counter: 108b. meta path finder A *note finder: 1f1e. returned by a search of *note sys.meta_path: d2b. Meta path finders are related to, but different from *note path entry finders: 106a. See *note importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder: 86b. for the methods that meta path finders implement. metaclass The class of a class. Class definitions create a class name, a class dictionary, and a list of base classes. The metaclass is responsible for taking those three arguments and creating the class. Most object oriented programming languages provide a default implementation. What makes Python special is that it is possible to create custom metaclasses. Most users never need this tool, but when the need arises, metaclasses can provide powerful, elegant solutions. They have been used for logging attribute access, adding thread-safety, tracking object creation, implementing singletons, and many other tasks. More information can be found in *note Metaclasses: 1f73. method A function which is defined inside a class body. If called as an attribute of an instance of that class, the method will get the instance object as its first *note argument: 444. (which is usually called ‘self’). See *note function: 2059. and *note nested scope: 1f3e. method resolution order Method Resolution Order is the order in which base classes are searched for a member during lookup. See *note The Python 2.3 Method Resolution Order: 1473. for details of the algorithm used by the Python interpreter since the 2.3 release. module An object that serves as an organizational unit of Python code. Modules have a namespace containing arbitrary Python objects. Modules are loaded into Python by the process of *note importing: 1fe9. See also *note package: 1f1a. module spec A namespace containing the import-related information used to load a module. An instance of *note importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec: 1e64. See also *note Module specs: 1f19. MRO See *note method resolution order: 2180. mutable Mutable objects can change their value but keep their *note id(): 13ee. See also *note immutable: 1bfb. named tuple The term “named tuple” applies to any type or class that inherits from tuple and whose indexable elements are also accessible using named attributes. The type or class may have other features as well. Several built-in types are named tuples, including the values returned by *note time.localtime(): 14c4. and *note os.stat(): 49c. Another example is *note sys.float_info: 19ea.: >>> sys.float_info[1] # indexed access 1024 >>> sys.float_info.max_exp # named field access 1024 >>> isinstance(sys.float_info, tuple) # kind of tuple True Some named tuples are built-in types (such as the above examples). Alternatively, a named tuple can be created from a regular class definition that inherits from *note tuple: 36b. and that defines named fields. Such a class can be written by hand, or it can be created by inheriting *note typing.NamedTuple: 2b2, or with the factory function *note collections.namedtuple(): 1ca. The latter techniques also add some extra methods that may not be found in hand-written or built-in named tuples. namespace The place where a variable is stored. Namespaces are implemented as dictionaries. There are the local, global and built-in namespaces as well as nested namespaces in objects (in methods). Namespaces support modularity by preventing naming conflicts. For instance, the functions *note builtins.open: 517. and *note os.open(): d91. are distinguished by their namespaces. Namespaces also aid readability and maintainability by making it clear which module implements a function. For instance, writing *note random.seed(): 1267. or *note itertools.islice(): b4c. makes it clear that those functions are implemented by the *note random: b8. and *note itertools: 81. modules, respectively. namespace package A *note package: 1f1a. which serves only as a container for subpackages. Namespace packages may have no physical representation, and specifically are not like a *note regular package: 1fed. because they have no ‘__init__.py’ file. Namespace packages allow several individually installable packages to have a common parent package. Otherwise, it is recommended to use a *note regular package: 1fed. For more information, see PEP 420(27) and *note Namespace packages: 1fef. See also *note module: 165f. nested scope The ability to refer to a variable in an enclosing definition. For instance, a function defined inside another function can refer to variables in the outer function. Note that nested scopes by default work only for reference and not for assignment. Local variables both read and write in the innermost scope. Likewise, global variables read and write to the global namespace. The *note nonlocal: 129a. allows writing to outer scopes. new-style class Old name for the flavor of classes now used for all class objects. In earlier Python versions, only new-style classes could use Python’s newer, versatile features like *note __slots__: 14b5, descriptors, properties, *note __getattribute__(): bd2, class methods, and static methods. object Any data with state (attributes or value) and defined behavior (methods). Also the ultimate base class of any *note new-style class: 2890. optimized scope A scope where target local variable names are reliably known to the compiler when the code is compiled, allowing optimization of read and write access to these names. The local namespaces for functions, generators, coroutines, comprehensions, and generator expressions are optimized in this fashion. Note: most interpreter optimizations are applied to all scopes, only those relying on a known set of local and nonlocal variable names are restricted to optimized scopes. package A Python *note module: 165f. which can contain submodules or recursively, subpackages. Technically, a package is a Python module with a ‘__path__’ attribute. See also *note regular package: 1fed. and *note namespace package: 1c68. parameter A named entity in a *note function: 2059. (or method) definition that specifies an *note argument: 444. (or in some cases, arguments) that the function can accept. There are five kinds of parameter: * 'positional-or-keyword': specifies an argument that can be passed either *note positionally: 444. or as a *note keyword argument: 444. This is the default kind of parameter, for example 'foo' and 'bar' in the following: def func(foo, bar=None): ... * 'positional-only': specifies an argument that can be supplied only by position. Positional-only parameters can be defined by including a ‘/’ character in the parameter list of the function definition after them, for example 'posonly1' and 'posonly2' in the following: def func(posonly1, posonly2, /, positional_or_keyword): ... * 'keyword-only': specifies an argument that can be supplied only by keyword. Keyword-only parameters can be defined by including a single var-positional parameter or bare ‘*’ in the parameter list of the function definition before them, for example 'kw_only1' and 'kw_only2' in the following: def func(arg, *, kw_only1, kw_only2): ... * 'var-positional': specifies that an arbitrary sequence of positional arguments can be provided (in addition to any positional arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with ‘*’, for example 'args' in the following: def func(*args, **kwargs): ... * 'var-keyword': specifies that arbitrarily many keyword arguments can be provided (in addition to any keyword arguments already accepted by other parameters). Such a parameter can be defined by prepending the parameter name with ‘**’, for example 'kwargs' in the example above. Parameters can specify both optional and required arguments, as well as default values for some optional arguments. See also the *note argument: 444. glossary entry, the FAQ question on *note the difference between arguments and parameters: 50e4, the *note inspect.Parameter: 1d0. class, the *note Function definitions: 1c36. section, and PEP 362(28). path entry A single location on the *note import path: 1ff6. which the *note path based finder: 1ff9. consults to find modules for importing. path entry finder A *note finder: 1f1e. returned by a callable on *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. (i.e. a *note path entry hook: 2006.) which knows how to locate modules given a *note path entry: 2004. See *note importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder: 86c. for the methods that path entry finders implement. path entry hook A callable on the *note sys.path_hooks: 101d. list which returns a *note path entry finder: 106a. if it knows how to find modules on a specific *note path entry: 2004. path based finder One of the default *note meta path finders: 1069. which searches an *note import path: 1ff6. for modules. path-like object An object representing a file system path. A path-like object is either a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. object representing a path, or an object implementing the *note os.PathLike: c51. protocol. An object that supports the *note os.PathLike: c51. protocol can be converted to a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. file system path by calling the *note os.fspath(): c53. function; *note os.fsdecode(): c54. and *note os.fsencode(): c55. can be used to guarantee a *note str: 447. or *note bytes: 1c2. result instead, respectively. Introduced by PEP 519(29). PEP Python Enhancement Proposal. A PEP is a design document providing information to the Python community, or describing a new feature for Python or its processes or environment. PEPs should provide a concise technical specification and a rationale for proposed features. PEPs are intended to be the primary mechanisms for proposing major new features, for collecting community input on an issue, and for documenting the design decisions that have gone into Python. The PEP author is responsible for building consensus within the community and documenting dissenting opinions. See PEP 1(30). portion A set of files in a single directory (possibly stored in a zip file) that contribute to a namespace package, as defined in PEP 420(31). positional argument See *note argument: 444. provisional API A provisional API is one which has been deliberately excluded from the standard library’s backwards compatibility guarantees. While major changes to such interfaces are not expected, as long as they are marked provisional, backwards incompatible changes (up to and including removal of the interface) may occur if deemed necessary by core developers. Such changes will not be made gratuitously – they will occur only if serious fundamental flaws are uncovered that were missed prior to the inclusion of the API. Even for provisional APIs, backwards incompatible changes are seen as a “solution of last resort” - every attempt will still be made to find a backwards compatible resolution to any identified problems. This process allows the standard library to continue to evolve over time, without locking in problematic design errors for extended periods of time. See PEP 411(32) for more details. provisional package See *note provisional API: b03. Python 3000 Nickname for the Python 3.x release line (coined long ago when the release of version 3 was something in the distant future.) This is also abbreviated “Py3k”. Pythonic An idea or piece of code which closely follows the most common idioms of the Python language, rather than implementing code using concepts common to other languages. For example, a common idiom in Python is to loop over all elements of an iterable using a *note for: 2ec. statement. Many other languages don’t have this type of construct, so people unfamiliar with Python sometimes use a numerical counter instead: for i in range(len(food)): print(food[i]) As opposed to the cleaner, Pythonic method: for piece in food: print(piece) qualified name A dotted name showing the “path” from a module’s global scope to a class, function or method defined in that module, as defined in PEP 3155(33). For top-level functions and classes, the qualified name is the same as the object’s name: >>> class C: ... class D: ... def meth(self): ... pass ... >>> C.__qualname__ 'C' >>> C.D.__qualname__ 'C.D' >>> C.D.meth.__qualname__ 'C.D.meth' When used to refer to modules, the 'fully qualified name' means the entire dotted path to the module, including any parent packages, e.g. ‘email.mime.text’: >>> import email.mime.text >>> email.mime.text.__name__ 'email.mime.text' reference count The number of references to an object. When the reference count of an object drops to zero, it is deallocated. Some objects are *note immortal: 4394. and have reference counts that are never modified, and therefore the objects are never deallocated. Reference counting is generally not visible to Python code, but it is a key element of the *note CPython: 6f1. implementation. Programmers can call the *note sys.getrefcount(): 4393. function to return the reference count for a particular object. In *note CPython: 6f1, reference counts are not considered to be stable or well-defined values; the number of references to an object, and how that number is affected by Python code, may be different between versions. regular package A traditional *note package: 1f1a, such as a directory containing an ‘__init__.py’ file. See also *note namespace package: 1c68. REPL An acronym for the “read–eval–print loop”, another name for the *note interactive: 169. interpreter shell. __slots__ A declaration inside a class that saves memory by pre-declaring space for instance attributes and eliminating instance dictionaries. Though popular, the technique is somewhat tricky to get right and is best reserved for rare cases where there are large numbers of instances in a memory-critical application. sequence An *note iterable: 121a. which supports efficient element access using integer indices via the *note __getitem__(): 285. special method and defines a *note __len__(): 1f63. method that returns the length of the sequence. Some built-in sequence types are *note list: 60d, *note str: 447, *note tuple: 36b, and *note bytes: 1c2. Note that *note dict: 258. also supports *note __getitem__(): 285. and ‘__len__()’, but is considered a mapping rather than a sequence because the lookups use arbitrary *note hashable: 60c. keys rather than integers. The *note collections.abc.Sequence: 11b6. abstract base class defines a much richer interface that goes beyond just *note __getitem__(): 285. and *note __len__(): 1f63, adding ‘count()’, ‘index()’, *note __contains__(): 1f5e, and *note __reversed__(): 1f5d. Types that implement this expanded interface can be registered explicitly using *note register(): 1082. For more documentation on sequence methods generally, see *note Common Sequence Operations: 21a9. set comprehension A compact way to process all or part of the elements in an iterable and return a set with the results. ‘results = {c for c in 'abracadabra' if c not in 'abc'}’ generates the set of strings ‘{'r', 'd'}’. See *note Displays for lists, sets and dictionaries: 5cc. single dispatch A form of *note generic function: 9f0. dispatch where the implementation is chosen based on the type of a single argument. slice An object usually containing a portion of a *note sequence: 4ed. A slice is created using the subscript notation, ‘[]’ with colons between numbers when several are given, such as in ‘variable_name[1:3:5]’. The bracket (subscript) notation uses *note slice: 465. objects internally. soft deprecated A soft deprecated API should not be used in new code, but it is safe for already existing code to use it. The API remains documented and tested, but will not be enhanced further. Soft deprecation, unlike normal deprecation, does not plan on removing the API and will not emit warnings. See PEP 387: Soft Deprecation(34). special method A method that is called implicitly by Python to execute a certain operation on a type, such as addition. Such methods have names starting and ending with double underscores. Special methods are documented in *note Special method names: c6e. standard library The collection of *note packages: 1f1a, *note modules: 165f. and *note extension modules: 45ac. distributed as a part of the official Python interpreter package. The exact membership of the collection may vary based on platform, available system libraries, or other criteria. Documentation can be found at *note The Python Standard Library: 144. See also *note sys.stdlib_module_names: 83d. for a list of all possible standard library module names. statement A statement is part of a suite (a “block” of code). A statement is either an *note expression: 1f85. or one of several constructs with a keyword, such as *note if: 2ed, *note while: 1c04. or *note for: 2ec. static type checker An external tool that reads Python code and analyzes it, looking for issues such as incorrect types. See also *note type hints: 1f81. and the *note typing: 104. module. stdlib An abbreviation of *note standard library: 51b3. strong reference In Python’s C API, a strong reference is a reference to an object which is owned by the code holding the reference. The strong reference is taken by calling *note Py_INCREF(): 56b. when the reference is created and released with *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. when the reference is deleted. The *note Py_NewRef(): 898. function can be used to create a strong reference to an object. Usually, the *note Py_DECREF(): 56c. function must be called on the strong reference before exiting the scope of the strong reference, to avoid leaking one reference. See also *note borrowed reference: 339. text encoding A string in Python is a sequence of Unicode code points (in range ‘U+0000’–‘U+10FFFF’). To store or transfer a string, it needs to be serialized as a sequence of bytes. Serializing a string into a sequence of bytes is known as “encoding”, and recreating the string from the sequence of bytes is known as “decoding”. There are a variety of different text serialization *note codecs: db8, which are collectively referred to as “text encodings”. text file A *note file object: 11b5. able to read and write *note str: 447. objects. Often, a text file actually accesses a byte-oriented datastream and handles the *note text encoding: 217a. automatically. Examples of text files are files opened in text mode (‘'r'’ or ‘'w'’), *note sys.stdin: 539, *note sys.stdout: ad6, and instances of *note io.StringIO: f22. See also *note binary file: 1c87. for a file object able to read and write *note bytes-like objects: d2d. token A small unit of source code, generated by the *note lexical analyzer: 1e7b. (also called the 'tokenizer'). Names, numbers, strings, operators, newlines and similar are represented by tokens. The *note tokenize: fb. module exposes Python’s lexical analyzer. The *note token: fa. module contains information on the various types of tokens. triple-quoted string A string which is bound by three instances of either a quotation mark (”) or an apostrophe (‘). While they don’t provide any functionality not available with single-quoted strings, they are useful for a number of reasons. They allow you to include unescaped single and double quotes within a string and they can span multiple lines without the use of the continuation character, making them especially useful when writing docstrings. type The type of a Python object determines what kind of object it is; every object has a type. An object’s type is accessible as its *note __class__: 1476. attribute or can be retrieved with ‘type(obj)’. type alias A synonym for a type, created by assigning the type to an identifier. Type aliases are useful for simplifying *note type hints: 1f81. For example: def remove_gray_shades( colors: list[tuple[int, int, int]]) -> list[tuple[int, int, int]]: pass could be made more readable like this: Color = tuple[int, int, int] def remove_gray_shades(colors: list[Color]) -> list[Color]: pass See *note typing: 104. and PEP 484(35), which describe this functionality. type hint An *note annotation: 453. that specifies the expected type for a variable, a class attribute, or a function parameter or return value. Type hints are optional and are not enforced by Python but they are useful to *note static type checkers: 26f. They can also aid IDEs with code completion and refactoring. Type hints of global variables, class attributes, and functions, but not local variables, can be accessed using *note typing.get_type_hints(): 6ad. See *note typing: 104. and PEP 484(36), which describe this functionality. universal newlines A manner of interpreting text streams in which all of the following are recognized as ending a line: the Unix end-of-line convention ‘'\n'’, the Windows convention ‘'\r\n'’, and the old Macintosh convention ‘'\r'’. See PEP 278(37) and PEP 3116(38), as well as *note bytes.splitlines(): 2215. for an additional use. variable annotation An *note annotation: 453. of a variable or a class attribute. When annotating a variable or a class attribute, assignment is optional: class C: field: 'annotation' Variable annotations are usually used for *note type hints: 1f81.: for example this variable is expected to take *note int: 259. values: count: int = 0 Variable annotation syntax is explained in section *note Annotated assignment statements: 20af. See *note function annotation: 1c37, PEP 484(39) and PEP 526(40), which describe this functionality. Also see *note Annotations Best Practices: 7d4. for best practices on working with annotations. virtual environment A cooperatively isolated runtime environment that allows Python users and applications to install and upgrade Python distribution packages without interfering with the behaviour of other Python applications running on the same system. See also *note venv: 111. virtual machine A computer defined entirely in software. Python’s virtual machine executes the *note bytecode: 187. emitted by the bytecode compiler. walrus operator A light-hearted way to refer to the *note assignment expression: 2081. operator ‘:=’ because it looks a bit like a walrus if you turn your head. Zen of Python Listing of Python design principles and philosophies that are helpful in understanding and using the language. The listing can be found by typing “‘import this’” at the interactive prompt. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (2) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/ (3) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/ (4) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (5) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (6) https://peps.python.org/pep-0525/ (7) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (8) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (9) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (10) https://gvanrossum.github.io/ (11) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/ (12) https://peps.python.org/pep-0343/ (13) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (14) https://peps.python.org/pep-0492/ (15) https://www.python.org (16) https://peps.python.org/pep-0498/ (17) https://peps.python.org/pep-0238/ (18) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/ (19) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (20) https://peps.python.org/pep-0443/ (21) https://peps.python.org/pep-0483/ (22) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (23) https://peps.python.org/pep-0585/ (24) https://peps.python.org/pep-0703/ (25) https://peps.python.org/pep-0683/ (26) https://peps.python.org/pep-0302/ (27) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/ (28) https://peps.python.org/pep-0362/ (29) https://peps.python.org/pep-0519/ (30) https://peps.python.org/pep-0001/ (31) https://peps.python.org/pep-0420/ (32) https://peps.python.org/pep-0411/ (33) https://peps.python.org/pep-3155/ (34) https://peps.python.org/pep-0387/#soft-deprecation (35) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (36) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (37) https://peps.python.org/pep-0278/ (38) https://peps.python.org/pep-3116/ (39) https://peps.python.org/pep-0484/ (40) https://peps.python.org/pep-0526/  File: python.info, Node: About this documentation, Next: Dealing with Bugs, Prev: Glossary, Up: Top 13 About this documentation *************************** Python’s documentation is generated from reStructuredText(1) sources using Sphinx(2), a documentation generator originally created for Python and now maintained as an independent project. Development of the documentation and its toolchain is an entirely volunteer effort, just like Python itself. If you want to contribute, please take a look at the *note Dealing with Bugs: 4931. page for information on how to do so. New volunteers are always welcome! Many thanks go to: * Fred L. Drake, Jr., the creator of the original Python documentation toolset and author of much of the content; * the Docutils(3) project for creating reStructuredText and the Docutils suite; * Fredrik Lundh for his Alternative Python Reference project from which Sphinx got many good ideas. * Menu: * Contributors to the Python documentation:: ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/rst.html (2) https://www.sphinx-doc.org/ (3) https://docutils.sourceforge.io/  File: python.info, Node: Contributors to the Python documentation, Up: About this documentation 13.1 Contributors to the Python documentation ============================================= Many people have contributed to the Python language, the Python standard library, and the Python documentation. See Misc/ACKS(1) in the Python source distribution for a partial list of contributors. It is only with the input and contributions of the Python community that Python has such wonderful documentation – Thank You! ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/python/cpython/tree/3.13/Misc/ACKS  File: python.info, Node: Dealing with Bugs, Next: Copyright, Prev: About this documentation, Up: Top 14 Dealing with Bugs ******************** Python is a mature programming language which has established a reputation for stability. In order to maintain this reputation, the developers would like to know of any deficiencies you find in Python. It can be sometimes faster to fix bugs yourself and contribute patches to Python as it streamlines the process and involves less people. Learn how to *note contribute: 51bd. * Menu: * Documentation bugs:: * Using the Python issue tracker:: * Getting started contributing to Python yourself::  File: python.info, Node: Documentation bugs, Next: Using the Python issue tracker, Up: Dealing with Bugs 14.1 Documentation bugs ======================= If you find a bug in this documentation or would like to propose an improvement, please submit a bug report on the *note tracker: 250. If you have a suggestion on how to fix it, include that as well. You can also open a discussion item on our Documentation Discourse forum(1). If you find a bug in the theme (HTML / CSS / JavaScript) of the documentation, please submit a bug report on the python-doc-theme bug tracker(2). If you’re short on time, you can also email documentation bug reports to (behavioral bugs can be sent to ). ‘docs@’ is a mailing list run by volunteers; your request will be noticed, though it may take a while to be processed. See also ........ Documentation bugs(3) A list of documentation bugs that have been submitted to the Python issue tracker. Issue Tracking(4) Overview of the process involved in reporting an improvement on the tracker. Helping with Documentation(5) Comprehensive guide for individuals that are interested in contributing to Python documentation. Documentation Translations(6) A list of GitHub pages for documentation translation and their primary contacts. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://discuss.python.org/c/documentation/26 (2) https://github.com/python/python-docs-theme (3) https://github.com/python/cpython/issues?q=is%3Aissue+is%3Aopen+label%3Adocs (4) https://devguide.python.org/tracker/ (5) https://devguide.python.org/docquality/#helping-with-documentation (6) https://devguide.python.org/documentation/translating/  File: python.info, Node: Using the Python issue tracker, Next: Getting started contributing to Python yourself, Prev: Documentation bugs, Up: Dealing with Bugs 14.2 Using the Python issue tracker =================================== Issue reports for Python itself should be submitted via the GitHub issues tracker (‘https://github.com/python/cpython/issues’). The GitHub issues tracker offers a web form which allows pertinent information to be entered and submitted to the developers. The first step in filing a report is to determine whether the problem has already been reported. The advantage in doing so, aside from saving the developers’ time, is that you learn what has been done to fix it; it may be that the problem has already been fixed for the next release, or additional information is needed (in which case you are welcome to provide it if you can!). To do this, search the tracker using the search box at the top of the page. If the problem you’re reporting is not already in the list, log in to GitHub. If you don’t already have a GitHub account, create a new account using the “Sign up” link. It is not possible to submit a bug report anonymously. Being now logged in, you can submit an issue. Click on the “New issue” button in the top bar to report a new issue. The submission form has two fields, “Title” and “Comment”. For the “Title” field, enter a 'very' short description of the problem; fewer than ten words is good. In the “Comment” field, describe the problem in detail, including what you expected to happen and what did happen. Be sure to include whether any extension modules were involved, and what hardware and software platform you were using (including version information as appropriate). Each issue report will be reviewed by a developer who will determine what needs to be done to correct the problem. You will receive an update each time an action is taken on the issue. See also ........ How to Report Bugs Effectively(1) Article which goes into some detail about how to create a useful bug report. This describes what kind of information is useful and why it is useful. Bug Writing Guidelines(2) Information about writing a good bug report. Some of this is specific to the Mozilla project, but describes general good practices. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://www.chiark.greenend.org.uk/~sgtatham/bugs.html (2) https://bugzilla.mozilla.org/page.cgi?id=bug-writing.html  File: python.info, Node: Getting started contributing to Python yourself, Prev: Using the Python issue tracker, Up: Dealing with Bugs 14.3 Getting started contributing to Python yourself ==================================================== Beyond just reporting bugs that you find, you are also welcome to submit patches to fix them. You can find more information on how to get started patching Python in the Python Developer's Guide(1). If you have questions, the core-mentorship mailing list(2) is a friendly place to get answers to any and all questions pertaining to the process of fixing issues in Python. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://devguide.python.org/ (2) https://mail.python.org/mailman3/lists/core-mentorship.python.org/  File: python.info, Node: Copyright, Next: History and License, Prev: Dealing with Bugs, Up: Top 15 Copyright ************ Python and this documentation is: Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation. All rights reserved. Copyright © 2000 BeOpen.com. All rights reserved. Copyright © 1995-2000 Corporation for National Research Initiatives. All rights reserved. Copyright © 1991-1995 Stichting Mathematisch Centrum. All rights reserved. __________________________________________________________________ See *note History and License: 51c3. for complete license and permissions information.  File: python.info, Node: History and License, Next: Python Module Index, Prev: Copyright, Up: Top 16 History and License ********************** * Menu: * History of the software:: * Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python:: * Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software::  File: python.info, Node: History of the software, Next: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python, Up: History and License 16.1 History of the software ============================ Python was created in the early 1990s by Guido van Rossum at Stichting Mathematisch Centrum (CWI, see ‘https://www.cwi.nl’) in the Netherlands as a successor of a language called ABC. Guido remains Python’s principal author, although it includes many contributions from others. In 1995, Guido continued his work on Python at the Corporation for National Research Initiatives (CNRI, see ‘https://www.cnri.reston.va.us’) in Reston, Virginia where he released several versions of the software. In May 2000, Guido and the Python core development team moved to BeOpen.com to form the BeOpen PythonLabs team. In October of the same year, the PythonLabs team moved to Digital Creations, which became Zope Corporation. In 2001, the Python Software Foundation (PSF, see ‘https://www.python.org/psf/’) was formed, a non-profit organization created specifically to own Python-related Intellectual Property. Zope Corporation was a sponsoring member of the PSF. All Python releases are Open Source (see ‘https://opensource.org’ for the Open Source Definition). Historically, most, but not all, Python releases have also been GPL-compatible; the table below summarizes the various releases. Release Derived from Year Owner GPL-compatible? (1) ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 0.9.0 thru 1.2 n/a 1991-1995 CWI yes 1.3 thru 1.5.2 1.2 1995-1999 CNRI yes 1.6 1.5.2 2000 CNRI no 2.0 1.6 2000 BeOpen.com no 1.6.1 1.6 2001 CNRI yes (2) 2.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF no 2.0.1 2.0+1.6.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.1 2.1+2.0.1 2001 PSF yes 2.1.2 2.1.1 2002 PSF yes 2.1.3 2.1.2 2002 PSF yes 2.2 and above 2.1.1 2001-now PSF yes Note: 1. GPL-compatible doesn’t mean that we’re distributing Python under the GPL. All Python licenses, unlike the GPL, let you distribute a modified version without making your changes open source. The GPL-compatible licenses make it possible to combine Python with other software that is released under the GPL; the others don’t. 2. According to Richard Stallman, 1.6.1 is not GPL-compatible, because its license has a choice of law clause. According to CNRI, however, Stallman’s lawyer has told CNRI’s lawyer that 1.6.1 is “not incompatible” with the GPL. Thanks to the many outside volunteers who have worked under Guido’s direction to make these releases possible.  File: python.info, Node: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python, Next: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software, Prev: History of the software, Up: History and License 16.2 Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python ================================================================= Python software and documentation are licensed under the Python Software Foundation License Version 2. Starting with Python 3.8.6, examples, recipes, and other code in the documentation are dual licensed under the PSF License Version 2 and the *note Zero-Clause BSD license: 51c8. Some software incorporated into Python is under different licenses. The licenses are listed with code falling under that license. See *note Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software: 51c9. for an incomplete list of these licenses. * Menu: * PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2:: * BEOPEN.COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2.0: BEOPEN COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2 0. * CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1.6.1: CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1 6 1. * CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 2. * ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION::  File: python.info, Node: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2, Next: BEOPEN COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2 0, Up: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python 16.2.1 PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 2 --------------------------------------------------- 1. This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between the Python Software Foundation ("PSF"), and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software ("Python") in source or binary form and its associated documentation. 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this License Agreement, PSF hereby grants Licensee a nonexclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use Python alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that PSF's License Agreement and PSF's notice of copyright, i.e., "Copyright © 2001-2024 Python Software Foundation; All Rights Reserved" are retained in Python alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. In the event Licensee prepares a derivative work that is based on or incorporates Python or any part thereof, and wants to make the derivative work available to others as provided herein, then Licensee hereby agrees to include in any such work a brief summary of the changes made to Python. 4. PSF is making Python available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. PSF MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, PSF MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF PYTHON WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 5. PSF SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF PYTHON FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF MODIFYING, DISTRIBUTING, OR OTHERWISE USING PYTHON, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 6. 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This LICENSE AGREEMENT is between BeOpen.com ("BeOpen"), having an office at 160 Saratoga Avenue, Santa Clara, CA 95051, and the Individual or Organization ("Licensee") accessing and otherwise using this software in source or binary form and its associated documentation ("the Software"). 2. Subject to the terms and conditions of this BeOpen Python License Agreement, BeOpen hereby grants Licensee a non-exclusive, royalty-free, world-wide license to reproduce, analyze, test, perform and/or display publicly, prepare derivative works, distribute, and otherwise use the Software alone or in any derivative version, provided, however, that the BeOpen Python License is retained in the Software, alone or in any derivative version prepared by Licensee. 3. BeOpen is making the Software available to Licensee on an "AS IS" basis. BEOPEN MAKES NO REPRESENTATIONS OR WARRANTIES, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED. BY WAY OF EXAMPLE, BUT NOT LIMITATION, BEOPEN MAKES NO AND DISCLAIMS ANY REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE OR THAT THE USE OF THE SOFTWARE WILL NOT INFRINGE ANY THIRD PARTY RIGHTS. 4. BEOPEN SHALL NOT BE LIABLE TO LICENSEE OR ANY OTHER USERS OF THE SOFTWARE FOR ANY INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR LOSS AS A RESULT OF USING, MODIFYING OR DISTRIBUTING THE SOFTWARE, OR ANY DERIVATIVE THEREOF, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY THEREOF. 5. This License Agreement will automatically terminate upon a material breach of its terms and conditions. 6. This License Agreement shall be governed by and interpreted in all respects by the law of the State of California, excluding conflict of law provisions. Nothing in this License Agreement shall be deemed to create any relationship of agency, partnership, or joint venture between BeOpen and Licensee. 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File: python.info, Node: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 2, Next: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION, Prev: CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1 6 1, Up: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python 16.2.4 CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0.9.0 THROUGH 1.2 --------------------------------------------------------- Copyright © 1991 - 1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum Amsterdam, The Netherlands. All rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Stichting Mathematisch Centrum or CWI not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL STICHTING MATHEMATISCH CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION, Prev: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 2, Up: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python 16.2.5 ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON DOCUMENTATION ------------------------------------------------------------------- Permission to use, copy, modify, and/or distribute this software for any purpose with or without fee is hereby granted. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software, Prev: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python, Up: History and License 16.3 Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software ============================================================ This section is an incomplete, but growing list of licenses and acknowledgements for third-party software incorporated in the Python distribution. * Menu: * Mersenne Twister:: * Sockets: Sockets<2>. * Asynchronous socket services:: * Cookie management:: * Execution tracing:: * UUencode and UUdecode functions:: * XML Remote Procedure Calls:: * test_epoll:: * Select kqueue:: * SipHash24:: * strtod and dtoa:: * OpenSSL: OpenSSL<2>. * expat:: * libffi:: * zlib: zlib<3>. * cfuhash:: * libmpdec:: * W3C C14N test suite:: * mimalloc:: * asyncio: asyncio<12>. * Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS): Global Unbounded Sequences GUS.  File: python.info, Node: Mersenne Twister, Next: Sockets<2>, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.1 Mersenne Twister ----------------------- The ‘_random’ C extension underlying the *note random: b8. module includes code based on a download from ‘http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/MT2002/emt19937ar.html’. The following are the verbatim comments from the original code: A C-program for MT19937, with initialization improved 2002/1/26. Coded by Takuji Nishimura and Makoto Matsumoto. Before using, initialize the state by using init_genrand(seed) or init_by_array(init_key, key_length). Copyright (C) 1997 - 2002, Makoto Matsumoto and Takuji Nishimura, All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. The names of its contributors may not be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. Any feedback is very welcome. http://www.math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/~m-mat/MT/emt.html email: m-mat @ math.sci.hiroshima-u.ac.jp (remove space)  File: python.info, Node: Sockets<2>, Next: Asynchronous socket services, Prev: Mersenne Twister, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.2 Sockets -------------- The *note socket: cc. module uses the functions, ‘getaddrinfo()’, and ‘getnameinfo()’, which are coded in separate source files from the WIDE Project, ‘https://www.wide.ad.jp/’. Copyright (C) 1995, 1996, 1997, and 1998 WIDE Project. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. 3. Neither the name of the project nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE PROJECT AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE PROJECT OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.  File: python.info, Node: Asynchronous socket services, Next: Cookie management, Prev: Sockets<2>, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.3 Asynchronous socket services ----------------------------------- The ‘test.support.asynchat’ and ‘test.support.asyncore’ modules contain the following notice: Copyright 1996 by Sam Rushing All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Sam Rushing not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SAM RUSHING DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL SAM RUSHING BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: Cookie management, Next: Execution tracing, Prev: Asynchronous socket services, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.4 Cookie management ------------------------ The *note http.cookies: 71. module contains the following notice: Copyright 2000 by Timothy O'Malley All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Timothy O'Malley not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. Timothy O'Malley DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL Timothy O'Malley BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: Execution tracing, Next: UUencode and UUdecode functions, Prev: Cookie management, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.5 Execution tracing ------------------------ The *note trace: fd. module contains the following notice: portions copyright 2001, Autonomous Zones Industries, Inc., all rights... err... reserved and offered to the public under the terms of the Python 2.2 license. Author: Zooko O'Whielacronx http://zooko.com/ mailto:zooko@zooko.com Copyright 2000, Mojam Media, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1999, Bioreason, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Andrew Dalke Copyright 1995-1997, Automatrix, Inc., all rights reserved. Author: Skip Montanaro Copyright 1991-1995, Stichting Mathematisch Centrum, all rights reserved. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this Python software and its associated documentation for any purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of neither Automatrix, Bioreason or Mojam Media be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission.  File: python.info, Node: UUencode and UUdecode functions, Next: XML Remote Procedure Calls, Prev: Execution tracing, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.6 UUencode and UUdecode functions -------------------------------------- The ‘uu’ codec contains the following notice: Copyright 1994 by Lance Ellinghouse Cathedral City, California Republic, United States of America. All Rights Reserved Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Lance Ellinghouse not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. LANCE ELLINGHOUSE DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS, IN NO EVENT SHALL LANCE ELLINGHOUSE CENTRUM BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE. Modified by Jack Jansen, CWI, July 1995: - Use binascii module to do the actual line-by-line conversion between ascii and binary. This results in a 1000-fold speedup. The C version is still 5 times faster, though. - Arguments more compliant with Python standard  File: python.info, Node: XML Remote Procedure Calls, Next: test_epoll, Prev: UUencode and UUdecode functions, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.7 XML Remote Procedure Calls --------------------------------- The *note xmlrpc.client: 12e. module contains the following notice: The XML-RPC client interface is Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Secret Labs AB Copyright (c) 1999-2002 by Fredrik Lundh By obtaining, using, and/or copying this software and/or its associated documentation, you agree that you have read, understood, and will comply with the following terms and conditions: Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its associated documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appears in all copies, and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation, and that the name of Secret Labs AB or the author not be used in advertising or publicity pertaining to distribution of the software without specific, written prior permission. SECRET LABS AB AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE, INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL SECRET LABS AB OR THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY SPECIAL, INDIRECT OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: test_epoll, Next: Select kqueue, Prev: XML Remote Procedure Calls, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.8 test_epoll ----------------- The ‘test.test_epoll’ module contains the following notice: Copyright (c) 2001-2006 Twisted Matrix Laboratories. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: Select kqueue, Next: SipHash24, Prev: test_epoll, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.9 Select kqueue -------------------- The *note select: c1. module contains the following notice for the kqueue interface: Copyright (c) 2000 Doug White, 2006 James Knight, 2007 Christian Heimes All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.  File: python.info, Node: SipHash24, Next: strtod and dtoa, Prev: Select kqueue, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.10 SipHash24 ----------------- The file ‘Python/pyhash.c’ contains Marek Majkowski’ implementation of Dan Bernstein’s SipHash24 algorithm. It contains the following note: Copyright (c) 2013 Marek Majkowski Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. Original location: https://github.com/majek/csiphash/ Solution inspired by code from: Samuel Neves (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little) djb (supercop/crypto_auth/siphash24/little2) Jean-Philippe Aumasson (https://131002.net/siphash/siphash24.c)  File: python.info, Node: strtod and dtoa, Next: OpenSSL<2>, Prev: SipHash24, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.11 strtod and dtoa ----------------------- The file ‘Python/dtoa.c’, which supplies C functions dtoa and strtod for conversion of C doubles to and from strings, is derived from the file of the same name by David M. Gay, currently available from ‘https://web.archive.org/web/20220517033456/http://www.netlib.org/fp/dtoa.c’. The original file, as retrieved on March 16, 2009, contains the following copyright and licensing notice: /**************************************************************** * * The author of this software is David M. Gay. * * Copyright (c) 1991, 2000, 2001 by Lucent Technologies. * * Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any * purpose without fee is hereby granted, provided that this entire notice * is included in all copies of any software which is or includes a copy * or modification of this software and in all copies of the supporting * documentation for such software. * * THIS SOFTWARE IS BEING PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED * WARRANTY. IN PARTICULAR, NEITHER THE AUTHOR NOR LUCENT MAKES ANY * REPRESENTATION OR WARRANTY OF ANY KIND CONCERNING THE MERCHANTABILITY * OF THIS SOFTWARE OR ITS FITNESS FOR ANY PARTICULAR PURPOSE. * ***************************************************************/  File: python.info, Node: OpenSSL<2>, Next: expat, Prev: strtod and dtoa, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.12 OpenSSL --------------- The modules *note hashlib: 68, *note posix: ad. and *note ssl: d0. use the OpenSSL library for added performance if made available by the operating system. Additionally, the Windows and macOS installers for Python may include a copy of the OpenSSL libraries, so we include a copy of the OpenSSL license here. For the OpenSSL 3.0 release, and later releases derived from that, the Apache License v2 applies: Apache License Version 2.0, January 2004 https://www.apache.org/licenses/ TERMS AND CONDITIONS FOR USE, REPRODUCTION, AND DISTRIBUTION 1. Definitions. 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END OF TERMS AND CONDITIONS  File: python.info, Node: expat, Next: libffi, Prev: OpenSSL<2>, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.13 expat ------------- The *note pyexpat: 126. extension is built using an included copy of the expat sources unless the build is configured ‘--with-system-expat’: Copyright (c) 1998, 1999, 2000 Thai Open Source Software Center Ltd and Clark Cooper Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: libffi, Next: zlib<3>, Prev: expat, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.14 libffi -------------- The ‘_ctypes’ C extension underlying the *note ctypes: 2a. module is built using an included copy of the libffi sources unless the build is configured ‘--with-system-libffi’: Copyright (c) 1996-2008 Red Hat, Inc and others. Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: zlib<3>, Next: cfuhash, Prev: libffi, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.15 zlib ------------ The *note zlib: 133. extension is built using an included copy of the zlib sources if the zlib version found on the system is too old to be used for the build: Copyright (C) 1995-2011 Jean-loup Gailly and Mark Adler This software is provided 'as-is', without any express or implied warranty. In no event will the authors be held liable for any damages arising from the use of this software. Permission is granted to anyone to use this software for any purpose, including commercial applications, and to alter it and redistribute it freely, subject to the following restrictions: 1. The origin of this software must not be misrepresented; you must not claim that you wrote the original software. If you use this software in a product, an acknowledgment in the product documentation would be appreciated but is not required. 2. Altered source versions must be plainly marked as such, and must not be misrepresented as being the original software. 3. This notice may not be removed or altered from any source distribution. Jean-loup Gailly Mark Adler jloup@gzip.org madler@alumni.caltech.edu  File: python.info, Node: cfuhash, Next: libmpdec, Prev: zlib<3>, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.16 cfuhash --------------- The implementation of the hash table used by the *note tracemalloc: ff. is based on the cfuhash project: Copyright (c) 2005 Don Owens All rights reserved. This code is released under the BSD license: Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the author nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this software without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.  File: python.info, Node: libmpdec, Next: W3C C14N test suite, Prev: cfuhash, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.17 libmpdec ---------------- The ‘_decimal’ C extension underlying the *note decimal: 36. module is built using an included copy of the libmpdec library unless the build is configured ‘--with-system-libmpdec’: Copyright (c) 2008-2020 Stefan Krah. All rights reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.  File: python.info, Node: W3C C14N test suite, Next: mimalloc, Prev: libmpdec, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.18 W3C C14N test suite --------------------------- The C14N 2.0 test suite in the *note test: e2. package (‘Lib/test/xmltestdata/c14n-20/’) was retrieved from the W3C website at ‘https://www.w3.org/TR/xml-c14n2-testcases/’ and is distributed under the 3-clause BSD license: Copyright (c) 2013 W3C(R) (MIT, ERCIM, Keio, Beihang), All Rights Reserved. Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: * Redistributions of works must retain the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer. * Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the original copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. * Neither the name of the W3C nor the names of its contributors may be used to endorse or promote products derived from this work without specific prior written permission. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE COPYRIGHT HOLDERS AND CONTRIBUTORS "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE COPYRIGHT OWNER OR CONTRIBUTORS BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.  File: python.info, Node: mimalloc, Next: asyncio<12>, Prev: W3C C14N test suite, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.19 mimalloc ---------------- MIT License: Copyright (c) 2018-2021 Microsoft Corporation, Daan Leijen Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE.  File: python.info, Node: asyncio<12>, Next: Global Unbounded Sequences GUS, Prev: mimalloc, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.20 asyncio --------------- Parts of the *note asyncio: a. module are incorporated from uvloop 0.16(1), which is distributed under the MIT license: Copyright (c) 2015-2021 MagicStack Inc. http://magic.io Permission is hereby granted, free of charge, to any person obtaining a copy of this software and associated documentation files (the "Software"), to deal in the Software without restriction, including without limitation the rights to use, copy, modify, merge, publish, distribute, sublicense, and/or sell copies of the Software, and to permit persons to whom the Software is furnished to do so, subject to the following conditions: The above copyright notice and this permission notice shall be included in all copies or substantial portions of the Software. THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS", WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO THE WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY, FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE AND NONINFRINGEMENT. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHORS OR COPYRIGHT HOLDERS BE LIABLE FOR ANY CLAIM, DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY, WHETHER IN AN ACTION OF CONTRACT, TORT OR OTHERWISE, ARISING FROM, OUT OF OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE SOFTWARE OR THE USE OR OTHER DEALINGS IN THE SOFTWARE. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/MagicStack/uvloop/tree/v0.16.0  File: python.info, Node: Global Unbounded Sequences GUS, Prev: asyncio<12>, Up: Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software 16.3.21 Global Unbounded Sequences (GUS) ---------------------------------------- The file ‘Python/qsbr.c’ is adapted from FreeBSD’s “Global Unbounded Sequences” safe memory reclamation scheme in subr_smr.c(1). The file is distributed under the 2-Clause BSD License: Copyright (c) 2019,2020 Jeffrey Roberson Redistribution and use in source and binary forms, with or without modification, are permitted provided that the following conditions are met: 1. Redistributions of source code must retain the above copyright notice unmodified, this list of conditions, and the following disclaimer. 2. Redistributions in binary form must reproduce the above copyright notice, this list of conditions and the following disclaimer in the documentation and/or other materials provided with the distribution. THIS SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED BY THE AUTHOR "AS IS" AND ANY EXPRESS OR IMPLIED WARRANTIES, INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, THE IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE ARE DISCLAIMED. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR ANY DIRECT, INDIRECT, INCIDENTAL, SPECIAL, EXEMPLARY, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES (INCLUDING, BUT NOT LIMITED TO, PROCUREMENT OF SUBSTITUTE GOODS OR SERVICES; LOSS OF USE, DATA, OR PROFITS; OR BUSINESS INTERRUPTION) HOWEVER CAUSED AND ON ANY THEORY OF LIABILITY, WHETHER IN CONTRACT, STRICT LIABILITY, OR TORT (INCLUDING NEGLIGENCE OR OTHERWISE) ARISING IN ANY WAY OUT OF THE USE OF THIS SOFTWARE, EVEN IF ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE. ---------- Footnotes ---------- (1) https://github.com/freebsd/freebsd-src/blob/main/sys/kern/subr_smr.c  File: python.info, Node: Python Module Index, Next: Index, Prev: History and License, Up: Top Python Module Index ******************* * Menu: * __future__: 0. Future statement definitions * __main__: 1. The environment where top-level code is run. Covers command-line interfaces, import-time behavior, and ''__name__ == '__main__'''. * _thread: 2. Low-level threading API. * _tkinter: 3. A binary module that contains the low-level interface to Tcl/Tk. * abc: 4. Abstract base classes according to :pep:'3119'. * aifc: 5. Removed in 3.13. * argparse: 6. Command-line option and argument parsing library. * array: 7. Space efficient arrays of uniformly typed numeric values. * ast: 8. Abstract Syntax Tree classes and manipulation. * asynchat: 9. Removed in 3.12. * asyncio: a. Asynchronous I/O. * asyncore: b. Removed in 3.12. * atexit: c. Register and execute cleanup functions. * audioop: d. Removed in 3.13. * base64: e. RFC 4648: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings; Base85 and Ascii85 * bdb: f. Debugger framework. * binascii: 10. Tools for converting between binary and various ASCII- encoded binary representations. * bisect: 11. Array bisection algorithms for binary searching. * builtins: 12. The module that provides the built-in namespace. * bz2: 13. Interfaces for bzip2 compression and decompression. * calendar: 14. Functions for working with calendars, including some emulation of the Unix cal program. * cgi: 15. Removed in 3.13. * cgitb: 16. Removed in 3.13. * chunk: 17. Removed in 3.13. * cmath: 18. Mathematical functions for complex numbers. * cmd: 19. Build line-oriented command interpreters. * code: 1a. Facilities to implement read-eval-print loops. * codecs: 1b. Encode and decode data and streams. * codeop: 1c. Compile (possibly incomplete) Python code. * collections: 1d. Container datatypes * collections.abc: 1e. Abstract base classes for containers * colorsys: 1f. Conversion functions between RGB and other color systems. * compileall: 20. Tools for byte-compiling all Python source files in a directory tree. * concurrent.futures: 21. Execute computations concurrently using threads or processes. * configparser: 22. Configuration file parser. * contextlib: 23. Utilities for with-statement contexts. * contextvars: 24. Context Variables * copy: 25. Shallow and deep copy operations. * copyreg: 26. Register pickle support functions. * cProfile: 27. * crypt: 28. Removed in 3.13. * csv: 29. Write and read tabular data to and from delimited files. * ctypes: 2a. A foreign function library for Python. * curses: 2b. An interface to the curses library, providing portable terminal handling. * curses.ascii: 2c. Constants and set-membership functions for ASCII characters. * curses.panel: 2d. A panel stack extension that adds depth to curses windows. * curses.textpad: 2e. Emacs-like input editing in a curses window. * dataclasses: 2f. Generate special methods on user-defined classes. * datetime: 30. Basic date and time types. * dbm: 31. Interfaces to various Unix "database" formats. * dbm.dumb: 32. Portable implementation of the simple DBM interface. * dbm.gnu: 33. GNU database manager * dbm.ndbm: 34. The New Database Manager * dbm.sqlite3: 35. SQLite backend for dbm * decimal: 36. Implementation of the General Decimal Arithmetic Specification. * difflib: 37. Helpers for computing differences between objects. * dis: 38. Disassembler for Python bytecode. * distutils: 39. Removed in 3.12. * doctest: 3a. Test pieces of code within docstrings. * email: 3b. Package supporting the parsing, manipulating, and generating email messages. * email.charset: 3c. Character Sets * email.contentmanager: 3d. Storing and Retrieving Content from MIME Parts * email.encoders: 3e. Encoders for email message payloads. * email.errors: 3f. The exception classes used by the email package. * email.generator: 40. Generate flat text email messages from a message structure. * email.header: 41. Representing non-ASCII headers * email.headerregistry: 42. Automatic Parsing of headers based on the field name * email.iterators: 43. Iterate over a message object tree. * email.message: 44. The base class representing email messages. * email.mime: 45. Build MIME messages. * email.mime.application: 46. * email.mime.audio: 47. * email.mime.base: 48. * email.mime.image: 49. * email.mime.message: 4a. * email.mime.multipart: 4b. * email.mime.nonmultipart: 4c. * email.mime.text: 4d. * email.parser: 4e. Parse flat text email messages to produce a message object structure. * email.policy: 4f. Controlling the parsing and generating of messages * email.utils: 50. Miscellaneous email package utilities. * encodings: 51. Encodings package * encodings.idna: 52. Internationalized Domain Names implementation * encodings.mbcs: 53. Windows ANSI codepage * encodings.utf_8_sig: 54. UTF-8 codec with BOM signature * ensurepip: 55. Bootstrapping the "pip" installer into an existing Python installation or virtual environment. * enum: 56. Implementation of an enumeration class. * errno: 57. Standard errno system symbols. * faulthandler: 58. Dump the Python traceback. * fcntl: 59. The fcntl() and ioctl() system calls. * filecmp: 5a. Compare files efficiently. * fileinput: 5b. Loop over standard input or a list of files. * fnmatch: 5c. Unix shell style filename pattern matching. * fractions: 5d. Rational numbers. * ftplib: 5e. FTP protocol client (requires sockets). * functools: 5f. Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. * gc: 60. Interface to the cycle-detecting garbage collector. * getopt: 61. Portable parser for command line options; support both short and long option names. * getpass: 62. Portable reading of passwords and retrieval of the userid. * gettext: 63. Multilingual internationalization services. * glob: 64. Unix shell style pathname pattern expansion. * graphlib: 65. Functionality to operate with graph-like structures * grp: 66. The group database (getgrnam() and friends). * gzip: 67. Interfaces for gzip compression and decompression using file objects. * hashlib: 68. Secure hash and message digest algorithms. * heapq: 69. Heap queue algorithm (a.k.a. priority queue). * hmac: 6a. Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication (HMAC) implementation * html: 6b. Helpers for manipulating HTML. * html.entities: 6c. Definitions of HTML general entities. * html.parser: 6d. A simple parser that can handle HTML and XHTML. * http: 6e. HTTP status codes and messages * http.client: 6f. HTTP and HTTPS protocol client (requires sockets). * http.cookiejar: 70. Classes for automatic handling of HTTP cookies. * http.cookies: 71. Support for HTTP state management (cookies). * http.server: 72. HTTP server and request handlers. * idlelib: 73. Implementation package for the IDLE shell/editor. * imaplib: 74. IMAP4 protocol client (requires sockets). * imghdr: 75. Removed in 3.13. * imp: 76. Removed in 3.12. * importlib: 77. The implementation of the import machinery. * importlib.abc: 78. Abstract base classes related to import * importlib.machinery: 79. Importers and path hooks * importlib.metadata: 7a. Accessing package metadata * importlib.resources: 7b. Package resource reading, opening, and access * importlib.resources.abc: 7c. Abstract base classes for resources * importlib.util: 7d. Utility code for importers * inspect: 7e. Extract information and source code from live objects. * io: 7f. Core tools for working with streams. * ipaddress: 80. IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library. * itertools: 81. Functions creating iterators for efficient looping. * json: 82. Encode and decode the JSON format. * json.tool: 83. A command line to validate and pretty-print JSON. * keyword: 84. Test whether a string is a keyword in Python. * linecache: 85. Provides random access to individual lines from text files. * locale: 86. Internationalization services. * logging: 87. Flexible event logging system for applications. * logging.config: 88. Configuration of the logging module. * logging.handlers: 89. Handlers for the logging module. * lzma: 8a. A Python wrapper for the liblzma compression library. * mailbox: 8b. Manipulate mailboxes in various formats * mailcap: 8c. Removed in 3.13. * marshal: 8d. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back (with different constraints). * math: 8e. Mathematical functions (sin() etc.). * mimetypes: 8f. Mapping of filename extensions to MIME types. * mmap: 90. Interface to memory-mapped files for Unix and Windows. * modulefinder: 91. Find modules used by a script. * msilib: 92. Removed in 3.13. * msvcrt: 93. Miscellaneous useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. * multiprocessing: 94. Process-based parallelism. * multiprocessing.connection: 95. API for dealing with sockets. * multiprocessing.dummy: 96. Dumb wrapper around threading. * multiprocessing.managers: 97. Share data between process with shared objects. * multiprocessing.pool: 98. Create pools of processes. * multiprocessing.shared_memory: 99. Provides shared memory for direct access across processes. * multiprocessing.sharedctypes: 9a. Allocate ctypes objects from shared memory. * netrc: 9b. Loading of .netrc files. * nis: 9c. Removed in 3.13. * nntplib: 9d. Removed in 3.13. * numbers: 9e. Numeric abstract base classes (Complex, Real, Integral, etc.). * operator: 9f. Functions corresponding to the standard operators. * optparse: a0. Command-line option parsing library. * os: a1. Miscellaneous operating system interfaces. * os.path: a2. Operations on pathnames. * ossaudiodev: a3. Removed in 3.13. * pathlib: a4. Object-oriented filesystem paths * pdb: a5. The Python debugger for interactive interpreters. * pickle: a6. Convert Python objects to streams of bytes and back. * pickletools: a7. Contains extensive comments about the pickle protocols and pickle-machine opcodes, as well as some useful functions. * pipes: a8. Removed in 3.13. * pkgutil: a9. Utilities for the import system. * platform: aa. Retrieves as much platform identifying data as possible. * plistlib: ab. Generate and parse Apple plist files. * poplib: ac. POP3 protocol client (requires sockets). * posix: ad. The most common POSIX system calls (normally used via module os). * pprint: ae. Data pretty printer. * profile: af. Python source profiler. * pstats: b0. Statistics object for use with the profiler. * pty: b1. Pseudo-Terminal Handling for Unix. * pwd: b2. The password database (getpwnam() and friends). * py_compile: b3. Generate byte-code files from Python source files. * pyclbr: b4. Supports information extraction for a Python module browser. * pydoc: b5. Documentation generator and online help system. * queue: b6. A synchronized queue class. * quopri: b7. Encode and decode files using the MIME quoted- printable encoding. * random: b8. Generate pseudo-random numbers with various common distributions. * re: b9. Regular expression operations. * readline: ba. GNU readline support for Python. * reprlib: bb. Alternate repr() implementation with size limits. * resource: bc. An interface to provide resource usage information on the current process. * rlcompleter: bd. Python identifier completion, suitable for the GNU readline library. * runpy: be. Locate and run Python modules without importing them first. * sched: bf. General purpose event scheduler. * secrets: c0. Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets. * select: c1. Wait for I/O completion on multiple streams. * selectors: c2. High-level I/O multiplexing. * shelve: c3. Python object persistence. * shlex: c4. Simple lexical analysis for Unix shell-like languages. * shutil: c5. High-level file operations, including copying. * signal: c6. Set handlers for asynchronous events. * site: c7. Module responsible for site-specific configuration. * sitecustomize: c8. * smtpd: c9. Removed in 3.12. * smtplib: ca. SMTP protocol client (requires sockets). * sndhdr: cb. Removed in 3.13. * socket: cc. Low-level networking interface. * socketserver: cd. A framework for network servers. * spwd: ce. Removed in 3.13. * sqlite3: cf. A DB-API 2.0 implementation using SQLite 3.x. * ssl: d0. TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects * stat: d1. Utilities for interpreting the results of os.stat(), os.lstat() and os.fstat(). * statistics: d2. Mathematical statistics functions * string: d3. Common string operations. * stringprep: d4. String preparation, as per RFC 3453 * struct: d5. Interpret bytes as packed binary data. * subprocess: d6. Subprocess management. * sunau: d7. Removed in 3.13. * symtable: d8. Interface to the compiler's internal symbol tables. * sys: d9. Access system-specific parameters and functions. * sys.monitoring: da. Access and control event monitoring * sysconfig: db. Python's configuration information * syslog: dc. An interface to the Unix syslog library routines. * tabnanny: dd. Tool for detecting white space related problems in Python source files in a directory tree. * tarfile: de. Read and write tar-format archive files. * telnetlib: df. Removed in 3.13. * tempfile: e0. Generate temporary files and directories. * termios: e1. POSIX style tty control. * test: e2. Regression tests package containing the testing suite for Python. * test.regrtest: e3. Drives the regression test suite. * test.support: e4. Support for Python's regression test suite. * test.support.bytecode_helper: e5. Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. * test.support.import_helper: e6. Support for import tests. * test.support.os_helper: e7. Support for os tests. * test.support.script_helper: e8. Support for Python's script execution tests. * test.support.socket_helper: e9. Support for socket tests. * test.support.threading_helper: ea. Support for threading tests. * test.support.warnings_helper: eb. Support for warnings tests. * textwrap: ec. Text wrapping and filling * threading: ed. Thread-based parallelism. * time: ee. Time access and conversions. * timeit: ef. Measure the execution time of small code snippets. * tkinter: f0. Interface to Tcl/Tk for graphical user interfaces * tkinter.colorchooser: f1. Color choosing dialog * tkinter.commondialog: f2. Tkinter base class for dialogs * tkinter.dnd: f3. Tkinter drag-and-drop interface * tkinter.filedialog: f4. Dialog classes for file selection * tkinter.font: f5. Tkinter font-wrapping class * tkinter.messagebox: f6. Various types of alert dialogs * tkinter.scrolledtext: f7. Text widget with a vertical scroll bar. * tkinter.simpledialog: f8. Simple dialog windows * tkinter.ttk: f9. Tk themed widget set * token: fa. Constants representing terminal nodes of the parse tree. * tokenize: fb. Lexical scanner for Python source code. * tomllib: fc. Parse TOML files. * trace: fd. Trace or track Python statement execution. * traceback: fe. Print or retrieve a stack traceback. * tracemalloc: ff. Trace memory allocations. * tty: 100. Utility functions that perform common terminal control operations. * turtle: 101. An educational framework for simple graphics applications * turtledemo: 102. A viewer for example turtle scripts * types: 103. Names for built-in types. * typing: 104. Support for type hints (see :pep:'484'). * unicodedata: 105. Access the Unicode Database. * unittest: 106. Unit testing framework for Python. * unittest.mock: 107. Mock object library. * urllib: 108. * urllib.error: 109. Exception classes raised by urllib.request. * urllib.parse: 10a. Parse URLs into or assemble them from components. * urllib.request: 10b. Extensible library for opening URLs. * urllib.response: 10c. Response classes used by urllib. * urllib.robotparser: 10d. Load a robots.txt file and answer questions about fetchability of other URLs. * usercustomize: 10e. * uu: 10f. Removed in 3.13. * uuid: 110. UUID objects (universally unique identifiers) according to RFC 4122 * venv: 111. Creation of virtual environments. * warnings: 112. Issue warning messages and control their disposition. * wave: 113. Provide an interface to the WAV sound format. * weakref: 114. Support for weak references and weak dictionaries. * webbrowser: 115. Easy-to-use controller for web browsers. * winreg: 116. Routines and objects for manipulating the Windows registry. * winsound: 117. Access to the sound-playing machinery for Windows. * wsgiref: 118. WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation. * wsgiref.handlers: 119. WSGI server/gateway base classes. * wsgiref.headers: 11a. WSGI response header tools. * wsgiref.simple_server: 11b. A simple WSGI HTTP server. * wsgiref.types: 11c. WSGI types for static type checking * wsgiref.util: 11d. WSGI environment utilities. * wsgiref.validate: 11e. WSGI conformance checker. * xdrlib: 11f. Removed in 3.13. * xml: 120. Package containing XML processing modules * xml.dom: 121. Document Object Model API for Python. * xml.dom.minidom: 122. Minimal Document Object Model (DOM) implementation. * xml.dom.pulldom: 123. Support for building partial DOM trees from SAX events. * xml.etree.ElementInclude: 124. * xml.etree.ElementTree: 125. Implementation of the ElementTree API. * xml.parsers.expat: 126. An interface to the Expat non-validating XML parser. * xml.parsers.expat.errors: 127. * xml.parsers.expat.model: 128. * xml.sax: 129. Package containing SAX2 base classes and convenience functions. * xml.sax.handler: 12a. Base classes for SAX event handlers. * xml.sax.saxutils: 12b. Convenience functions and classes for use with SAX. * xml.sax.xmlreader: 12c. Interface which SAX-compliant XML parsers must implement. * xmlrpc: 12d. Server and client modules implementing XML-RPC. * xmlrpc.client: 12e. XML-RPC client access. * xmlrpc.server: 12f. Basic XML-RPC server implementations. * zipapp: 130. Manage executable Python zip archives * zipfile: 131. Read and write ZIP-format archive files. * zipimport: 132. Support for importing Python modules from ZIP archives. * zlib: 133. Low-level interface to compression and decompression routines compatible with gzip. * zoneinfo: 134. IANA time zone support  File: python.info, Node: Index, Prev: Python Module Index, Up: Top Index ***** [index] * Menu: * _ (underscore); gettext: GNU gettext API. (line 32) * _ (underscore); in numeric literal: Numeric literals. (line 13) * _ (underscore); in numeric literal <1>: Integer literals. (line 39) * _ (underscore); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 124) * __, identifiers: Soft Keywords. (line 21) * __abs__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 73) * __abs__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 108) * __add__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 78) * __add__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __aenter__() (object method): Asynchronous Context Managers. (line 14) * __aexit__() (object method): Asynchronous Context Managers. (line 19) * __aiter__() (object method): Asynchronous Iterators. (line 14) * __all__: Importing * From a Package. (line 6) * __all__ (optional module attribute): The import statement. (line 84) * __all__ (package variable): Importing Modules<2>. (line 9) * __and__() (enum.Flag method): Data Types<2>. (line 499) * __and__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 83) * __and__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __anext__() (agen method): Asynchronous generator-iterator methods. (line 10) * __anext__() (object method): Asynchronous Iterators. (line 18) * __annotations__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __annotations__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __annotations__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 45) * __annotations__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __annotations__ (module attribute) <1>: Other writable attributes on module objects. (line 14) * __annotations__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 37) * __args__ (genericalias attribute): Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects. (line 15) * __await__() (object method): Awaitable Objects. (line 14) * __bases__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __bases__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 27) * __bool__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 320) * __bool__() (object method) <1>: Emulating container types. (line 41) * __bound__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 175) * __breakpointhook__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 421) * __buffer__() (object method): Emulating buffer types. (line 15) * __bytes__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 129) * __bytes__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 138) * __bytes__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 146) * __cached__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __cached__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 138) * __call__() (argparse.Action method): Action classes. (line 28) * __call__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 390) * __call__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 20) * __call__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 221) * __call__() (object method): Emulating callable objects. (line 6) * __call__() (object method) <1>: Calls. (line 158) * __call__() (weakref.finalize method): weakref — Weak references. (line 295) * __callback__ (weakref.ref attribute): weakref — Weak references. (line 126) * __cause__ (BaseException attribute): Exception context. (line 9) * __cause__ (exception attribute): The raise statement. (line 30) * __cause__ (exception attribute) <1>: Exception context. (line 6) * __cause__ (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 44) * __ceil__() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 190) * __ceil__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 138) * __class__ (instance attribute): Special attributes<2>. (line 6) * __class__ (method cell): Creating the class object. (line 6) * __class__ (module attribute): Customizing module attribute access. (line 6) * __class__ (object attribute): Special attributes<2>. (line 6) * __class__ (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 560) * __class_getitem__() (object class method): Emulating generic types. (line 32) * __classcell__ (class namespace entry): Creating the class object. (line 6) * __closure__ (function attribute): Special read-only attributes. (line 6) * __closure__ (function attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes. (line 16) * __code__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __code__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 36) * __code__ (function object attribute): Code Objects. (line 6) * __complex__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 116) * __concat__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 176) * __constraints__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 184) * __contains__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 179) * __contains__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 303) * __contains__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 65) * __contains__() (enum.Flag method): Data Types<2>. (line 437) * __contains__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 181) * __contains__() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 203) * __contains__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 150) * __context__ (BaseException attribute): Exception context. (line 9) * __context__ (exception attribute): The raise statement. (line 30) * __context__ (exception attribute) <1>: Exception context. (line 6) * __context__ (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 48) * __contravariant__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 163) * __copy__() (copy protocol): copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 80) * __covariant__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 159) * __debug__: The assert statement. (line 21) * __debug__ (built-in variable): Built-in Constants. (line 66) * __deepcopy__() (copy protocol): copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 80) * __default__ (typing.ParamSpec attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 427) * __default__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 194) * __default__ (typing.TypeVarTuple attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 326) * __defaults__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __defaults__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 30) * __del__() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 164) * __del__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 53) * __delattr__() (object method): Customizing attribute access. (line 69) * __delete__() (object method): Implementing Descriptors. (line 42) * __delitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 226) * __delitem__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 337) * __delitem__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 191) * __delitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 76) * __delitem__() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 79) * __delitem__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 108) * __dict__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __dict__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __dict__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 40) * __dict__ (instance attribute): Special attributes<2>. (line 6) * __dict__ (module attribute): Module dictionaries. (line 8) * __dict__ (module attribute) <1>: Module dictionaries. (line 8) * __dict__ (module attribute) <2>: Module Objects. (line 49) * __dict__ (object attribute): Special attributes<2>. (line 10) * __dict__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 22) * __dir__ (module attribute): Customizing module attribute access. (line 6) * __dir__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 175) * __dir__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 78) * __dir__() (object method): Customizing attribute access. (line 78) * __dir__() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 300) * __displayhook__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 421) * __divmod__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __doc__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __doc__ (definition attribute): Special Attributes. (line 26) * __doc__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __doc__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 12) * __doc__ (method attribute): Instance methods. (line 9) * __doc__ (method attribute) <1>: Instance methods. (line 18) * __doc__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __doc__ (module attribute) <1>: Other writable attributes on module objects. (line 9) * __doc__ (module attribute) <2>: Module Objects. (line 26) * __doc__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 33) * __enter__() (contextmanager method): Context Manager Types. (line 12) * __enter__() (object method): With Statement Context Managers. (line 22) * __enter__() (winreg.PyHKEY method): Registry Handle Objects. (line 56) * __eq__() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 150) * __eq__() (email.header.Header method): email header Internationalized headers. (line 170) * __eq__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * __eq__() (instance method): Comparisons<2>. (line 50) * __eq__() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 112) * __eq__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 180) * __excepthook__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 421) * __excepthook__ (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 65) * __exit__() (contextmanager method): Context Manager Types. (line 32) * __exit__() (object method): With Statement Context Managers. (line 28) * __exit__() (winreg.PyHKEY method): Registry Handle Objects. (line 56) * __file__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __file__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 136) * __file__ (module attribute) <2>: Module Objects. (line 26) * __file__ (module attribute) <3>: Module Objects. (line 92) * __firstlineno__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __firstlineno__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 66) * __float__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 116) * __floor__() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 180) * __floor__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 138) * __floordiv__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 88) * __floordiv__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __format__: Built-in Functions. (line 788) * __format__() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 307) * __format__() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 761) * __format__() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 227) * __format__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 316) * __format__() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 207) * __format__() (ipaddress.IPv4Address method): Address objects. (line 195) * __format__() (ipaddress.IPv6Address method): Address objects. (line 327) * __format__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 153) * __fspath__() (os.PathLike method): Process Parameters. (line 127) * __func__ (method attribute): Instance methods. (line 9) * __func__ (method attribute) <1>: Instance methods. (line 15) * __future__: Glossary. (line 596) * __future__; future statement: Future statements. (line 6) * __ge__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * __ge__() (instance method): Comparisons<2>. (line 50) * __ge__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 180) * __get__() (object method): Implementing Descriptors. (line 15) * __getattr__ (module attribute): Customizing module attribute access. (line 6) * __getattr__() (object method): Customizing attribute access. (line 10) * __getattribute__() (object method): Customizing attribute access. (line 33) * __getitem__() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 385) * __getitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 189) * __getitem__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 312) * __getitem__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 86) * __getitem__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 196) * __getitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 148) * __getitem__() (mapping object method): Special method names. (line 6) * __getitem__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 78) * __getitem__() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 90) * __getnewargs__() (object method): Pickling Class Instances. (line 47) * __getnewargs_ex__() (object method): Pickling Class Instances. (line 29) * __getstate__() (copy protocol): Handling Stateful Objects. (line 6) * __getstate__() (object method): Pickling Class Instances. (line 61) * __globals__ (function attribute): Special read-only attributes. (line 6) * __globals__ (function attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes. (line 10) * __gt__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * __gt__() (instance method): Comparisons<2>. (line 50) * __gt__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 180) * __hash__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 239) * __iadd__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 36) * __iadd__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __iand__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 41) * __iand__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __iconcat__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 46) * __ifloordiv__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 52) * __ifloordiv__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __ilshift__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 57) * __ilshift__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __imatmul__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 72) * __imatmul__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __imod__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 62) * __imod__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __import__() (in module importlib): Functions<12>. (line 6) * __imul__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 67) * __imul__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __index__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 93) * __index__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 124) * __infer_variance__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 168) * __init__() (asyncio.Future method): Future and Task private constructors. (line 17) * __init__() (asyncio.Task method): Future and Task private constructors. (line 23) * __init__() (difflib.HtmlDiff method): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 92) * __init__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 225) * __init__() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 13) * __init__() (logging.logging.Formatter method): Formatters. (line 13) * __init__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 37) * __init_subclass__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 238) * __init_subclass__() (object class method): Customizing class creation. (line 13) * __instancecheck__() (type method): Customizing instance and subclass checks. (line 15) * __int__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 116) * __interactivehook__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1172) * __inv__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 102) * __invert__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 102) * __invert__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 108) * __ior__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 79) * __ior__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __ipow__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 84) * __ipow__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __irshift__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 89) * __irshift__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __isub__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 94) * __isub__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __iter__() (container method): Iterator Types. (line 14) * __iter__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 94) * __iter__() (iterator method): Iterator Types. (line 29) * __iter__() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 116) * __iter__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 122) * __iter__() (unittest.TestSuite method): Grouping tests. (line 60) * __itruediv__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 99) * __itruediv__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __ixor__() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 104) * __ixor__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 77) * __kwdefaults__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __kwdefaults__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 52) * __le__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * __le__() (instance method): Comparisons<2>. (line 50) * __le__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 180) * __len__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 175) * __len__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 299) * __len__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 101) * __len__() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 208) * __len__() (mapping object method): Basic customization. (line 322) * __len__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 39) * __length_hint__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 54) * __loader__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __loader__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 98) * __loader__ (module attribute) <2>: Module Objects. (line 26) * __lshift__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 110) * __lshift__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __lt__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * __lt__() (instance method): Comparisons<2>. (line 50) * __lt__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 180) * __matmul__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 125) * __matmul__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __members__ (enum.EnumType attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 108) * __missing__(): Mapping Types — dict. (line 119) * __missing__() (collections.defaultdict method): defaultdict objects. (line 22) * __missing__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 117) * __mod__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 115) * __mod__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __module__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __module__ (definition attribute): Special Attributes. (line 22) * __module__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __module__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 26) * __module__ (method attribute): Instance methods. (line 9) * __module__ (method attribute) <1>: Instance methods. (line 28) * __module__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 18) * __module__ (typing.NewType attribute): Other special directives. (line 115) * __module__ (typing.TypeAliasType attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 513) * __mro__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 74) * __mro_entries__() (object method): Resolving MRO entries. (line 6) * __mul__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 120) * __mul__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __mutable_keys__ (typing.TypedDict attribute): Other special directives. (line 455) * __name__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __name__ (definition attribute): Special Attributes. (line 10) * __name__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __name__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 16) * __name__ (method attribute): Instance methods. (line 9) * __name__ (method attribute) <1>: Instance methods. (line 24) * __name__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __name__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 37) * __name__ (module attribute) <2>: Module Objects. (line 26) * __name__ (module attribute) <3>: Module Objects. (line 64) * __name__ (property attribute): Built-in Functions. (line 1677) * __name__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 10) * __name__ (typing.NewType attribute): Other special directives. (line 119) * __name__ (typing.ParamSpec attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 423) * __name__ (typing.TypeAliasType attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 505) * __name__ (typing.TypeVar attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 155) * __name__ (typing.TypeVarTuple attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 322) * __ne__() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 155) * __ne__() (email.header.Header method): email header Internationalized headers. (line 175) * __ne__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * __ne__() (instance method): Comparisons<2>. (line 50) * __ne__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 180) * __neg__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 132) * __neg__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 108) * __new__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 266) * __new__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 6) * __next__() (csv.csvreader method): Reader Objects. (line 9) * __next__() (generator method): Generator-iterator methods. (line 12) * __next__() (iterator method): Iterator Types. (line 37) * __not__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 49) * __notes__ (BaseException attribute): Base classes. (line 58) * __notes__ (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 66) * __objclass__ (object attribute): Implementing Descriptors. (line 50) * __optional_keys__ (typing.TypedDict attribute): Other special directives. (line 406) * __or__() (enum.Flag method): Data Types<2>. (line 492) * __or__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 137) * __or__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __origin__ (genericalias attribute): Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects. (line 8) * __package__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __package__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 55) * __package__ (module attribute) <2>: Module Objects. (line 26) * __parameters__ (genericalias attribute): Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects. (line 24) * __path__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __path__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 125) * __pos__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 142) * __pos__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 108) * __post_init__() (in module dataclasses): Post-init processing. (line 6) * __pow__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 147) * __pow__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __prepare__ (metaclass method): Preparing the class namespace. (line 6) * __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__: PyConfig. (line 187) * __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>: PyConfig. (line 705) * __qualname__ (definition attribute): Special Attributes. (line 15) * __qualname__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 20) * __qualname__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 14) * __radd__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rand__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rdivmod__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __readonly_keys__ (typing.TypedDict attribute): Other special directives. (line 447) * __reduce__() (object method): Pickling Class Instances. (line 124) * __reduce_ex__() (object method): Pickling Class Instances. (line 179) * __release_buffer__() (object method): Emulating buffer types. (line 25) * __replace__() (replace protocol): copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 98) * __repr__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 283) * __repr__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method): Proxy Objects. (line 145) * __repr__() (netrc.netrc method): netrc Objects. (line 16) * __repr__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 114) * __required_keys__ (typing.TypedDict attribute): Other special directives. (line 402) * __reversed__() (enum.EnumType method): Data Types<2>. (line 113) * __reversed__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 129) * __rfloordiv__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rlshift__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rmatmul__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rmod__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rmul__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __ror__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __round__() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 196) * __round__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 138) * __rpow__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rrshift__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rshift__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 152) * __rshift__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __rsub__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rtruediv__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __rxor__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 41) * __self__ (method attribute): Instance methods. (line 9) * __self__ (method attribute) <1>: Instance methods. (line 11) * __set__() (object method): Implementing Descriptors. (line 33) * __set_name__() (object method): Customizing class creation. (line 47) * __setattr__() (object method): Customizing attribute access. (line 54) * __setitem__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 204) * __setitem__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 323) * __setitem__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 205) * __setitem__() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 90) * __setitem__() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 193) * __setitem__() (object method): Emulating container types. (line 99) * __setstate__() (copy protocol): Handling Stateful Objects. (line 6) * __setstate__() (object method): Pickling Class Instances. (line 88) * __slots__: Glossary. (line 1341) * __spec__ (module attribute): Modules<3>. (line 21) * __spec__ (module attribute) <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 46) * __static_attributes__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __static_attributes__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 59) * __stderr__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1876) * __stdin__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1876) * __stdout__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1876) * __str__() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 280) * __str__() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 731) * __str__() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 217) * __str__() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 145) * __str__() (email.header.Header method): email header Internationalized headers. (line 158) * __str__() (email.headerregistry.Address method): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 447) * __str__() (email.headerregistry.Group method): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 482) * __str__() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 95) * __str__() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 101) * __str__() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 300) * __str__() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method): Proxy Objects. (line 149) * __str__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 131) * __sub__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 157) * __sub__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __subclasscheck__() (type method): Customizing instance and subclass checks. (line 21) * __subclasses__() (type method): Special methods. (line 15) * __subclasshook__() (abc.ABCMeta method): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 92) * __supertype__ (typing.NewType attribute): Other special directives. (line 123) * __suppress_context__ (BaseException attribute): Exception context. (line 9) * __suppress_context__ (exception attribute): Exception context. (line 6) * __suppress_context__ (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 61) * __test__ (module attribute): Which Docstrings Are Examined?. (line 9) * __total__ (typing.TypedDict attribute): Other special directives. (line 377) * __traceback__ (BaseException attribute): Base classes. (line 44) * __traceback__ (exception attribute): The raise statement. (line 6) * __truediv__() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 543) * __truediv__() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 136) * __truediv__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 162) * __truediv__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * __trunc__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 138) * __type_params__ (class attribute): Special attributes. (line 6) * __type_params__ (definition attribute): Special Attributes. (line 31) * __type_params__ (function attribute): Special writable attributes. (line 6) * __type_params__ (function attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes. (line 56) * __type_params__ (type attribute): Special attributes. (line 52) * __type_params__ (typing.TypeAliasType attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 521) * __unpacked__ (genericalias attribute): Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects. (line 40) * __unraisablehook__ (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 421) * __value__ (typing.TypeAliasType attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 533) * __version__ (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 20) * __xor__() (enum.Flag method): Data Types<2>. (line 508) * __xor__() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 168) * __xor__() (object method): Emulating numeric types. (line 11) * _, identifiers: Soft Keywords. (line 22) * _add_alias_() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 337) * _add_value_alias_() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 350) * _align_ (ctypes.Structure attribute): Structured data types. (line 87) * _anonymous_ (ctypes.Structure attribute): Structured data types. (line 96) * _asdict() (collections.somenamedtuple method): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. (line 110) * _b_base_ (ctypes._CData attribute): Data types. (line 71) * _b_needsfree_ (ctypes._CData attribute): Data types. (line 78) * _callmethod() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method): Proxy Objects. (line 96) * _CData (class in ctypes): Data types. (line 6) * _CFuncPtr (class in ctypes): Foreign functions. (line 22) * _clear_internal_caches() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 195) * _clear_type_cache() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 183) * _current_exceptions() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 223) * _current_frames() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 203) * _debugmallocstats() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 279) * _emscripten_info (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 344) * _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1782) * _enter_task() (in module asyncio): Task lifetime support. (line 22) * _exit() (in module os): Process Management. (line 123) * _Feature (class in __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 51) * _field_defaults (collections.somenamedtuple attribute): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. (line 159) * _field_types (ast.AST attribute): Node classes. (line 39) * _fields (ast.AST attribute): Node classes. (line 22) * _fields (collections.somenamedtuple attribute): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. (line 146) * _fields_ (ctypes.Structure attribute): Structured data types. (line 43) * _flush() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 117) * _frozen (C struct): Importing Modules<2>. (line 271) * _generate_next_value_() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 196) * _get_child_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 309) * _get_preferred_schemes() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 41) * _getframe() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 882) * _getframemodulename() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 897) * _getvalue() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseProxy method): Proxy Objects. (line 138) * _handle (ctypes.PyDLL attribute): Loading shared libraries. (line 157) * _ignore_ (enum.Enum attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 166) * _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 168) * _inittab (C struct): Importing Modules<2>. (line 307) * _inittab.initfunc (C member): Importing Modules<2>. (line 319) * _inittab.name (C member): Importing Modules<2>. (line 315) * _is_gil_enabled() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1202) * _is_interned() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1234) * _leave_task() (in module asyncio): Task lifetime support. (line 30) * _length_ (ctypes.Array attribute): Arrays and pointers. (line 18) * _log (logging.LoggerAdapter attribute): LoggerAdapter Objects. (line 34) * _make() (collections.somenamedtuple class method): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. (line 101) * _makeResult() (unittest.TextTestRunner method): Loading and running tests. (line 491) * _missing_() (enum.Enum method): Data Types<2>. (line 243) * _name (ctypes.PyDLL attribute): Loading shared libraries. (line 161) * _name_ (enum.Enum attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 153) * _numeric_repr_() (enum.Flag method): Data Types<2>. (line 528) * _objects (ctypes._CData attribute): Data types. (line 83) * _order_ (enum.Enum attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 161) * _pack_ (ctypes.Structure attribute): Structured data types. (line 79) * _parse() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 21) * _Pointer (class in ctypes): Arrays and pointers. (line 39) * _Py_c_diff (C function): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 33) * _Py_c_neg (C function): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 39) * _Py_c_pow (C function): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 59) * _Py_c_prod (C function): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 44) * _Py_c_quot (C function): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 50) * _Py_c_sum (C function): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 27) * _Py_InitializeMain (C function): Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API. (line 44) * _Py_NoneStruct (C var): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 65) * _PyBytes_Resize (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 182) * _PyCode_GetExtra (C function): Extra information. (line 45) * _PyCode_SetExtra (C function): Extra information. (line 58) * _PyEval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information. (line 29) * _PyFrameEvalFunction (C type): Low-level API. (line 165) * _PyInterpreterFrame (C struct): Internal Frames. (line 8) * _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc (C function): Low-level API. (line 180) * _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc (C function): Low-level API. (line 190) * _PyObject_GetDictPtr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 286) * _PyObject_New (C function): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 6) * _PyObject_NewVar (C function): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 9) * _PyTuple_Resize (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 100) * _register_task() (in module asyncio): Task lifetime support. (line 10) * _replace() (collections.somenamedtuple method): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. (line 128) * _setroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 15) * _SimpleCData (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 6) * _structure() (in module email.iterators): email iterators Iterators. (line 44) * _type_ (ctypes._Pointer attribute): Arrays and pointers. (line 54) * _type_ (ctypes.Array attribute): Arrays and pointers. (line 24) * _unregister_task() (in module asyncio): Task lifetime support. (line 16) * _value_ (enum.Enum attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 157) * _write() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 109) * _xoptions (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 2059) * - (minus); binary operator: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 83) * - (minus); binary operator <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * - (minus); in doctests: Option Flags. (line 164) * - (minus); in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 10) * - (minus); in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 15) * - (minus); in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 69) * - (minus); in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 63) * - (minus); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 178) * - (minus); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 74) * - (minus); unary operator: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 10) * - (minus); unary operator <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * -=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * ->; function annotations: Function Annotations. (line 6) * ->; function annotations <1>: Function definitions. (line 109) * , (comma): Parenthesized forms. (line 20) * , (comma); argument list: Slicings. (line 39) * , (comma); expression list: List displays. (line 6) * , (comma); expression list <1>: Set displays. (line 6) * , (comma); expression list <2>: Expression lists. (line 6) * , (comma); expression list <3>: The assert statement. (line 6) * , (comma); expression list <4>: Class definitions. (line 6) * , (comma); identifier list: The global statement. (line 6) * , (comma); identifier list <1>: The nonlocal statement. (line 6) * , (comma); import statement: The import statement. (line 6) * , (comma); in dictionary displays: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * , (comma); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 124) * , (comma); in target list: Assignment statements. (line 35) * , (comma); parameter list: Function definitions. (line 6) * , (comma); slicing: Slicings. (line 6) * , (comma); with statement: The with statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); annotated variable: Annotated assignment statements. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement: The if statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <1>: The while statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <2>: The for statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <3>: The try statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <4>: The with statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <5>: The match statement. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <6>: Function definitions. (line 6) * ; (colon); compound statement <7>: Class definitions. (line 6) * ; (colon); function annotations: Function Annotations. (line 6) * ; (colon); function annotations <1>: Function definitions. (line 109) * ; (colon); in dictionary expressions: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * ; (colon); in formatted string literal: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * ; (colon); in formatted string literal <1>: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * ; (colon); in SQL statements: Cursor objects. (line 24) * ; (colon); in string formatting: Format String Syntax. (line 13) * ; (colon); lambda expression: Lambdas. (line 6) * ; (colon); path separator (POSIX): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 138) * ; (colon); slicing: Slicings. (line 6) * ; (semicolon): Compound statements. (line 18) * ; (semicolon) <1>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 138) * ;= (colon equals): Boolean operations. (line 38) * ! (exclamation mark); in formatted string literal: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * ! (exclamation); in a command interpreter: Cmd Objects. (line 27) * ! (exclamation); in curses module: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 229) * ! (exclamation); in formatted string literal: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * ! (exclamation); in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 10) * ! (exclamation); in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 15) * ! (exclamation); in string formatting: Format String Syntax. (line 13) * ! (exclamation); in struct format strings: Byte Order Size and Alignment. (line 13) * ! (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 401) * ! f-string: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * ! formatted string literal: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * ! patterns: Patterns. (line 6) * ? (question mark); in a command interpreter: Cmd Objects. (line 27) * ? (question mark); in argparse module: nargs. (line 24) * ? (question mark); in AST grammar: Node classes. (line 22) * ? (question mark); in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 10) * ? (question mark); in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 15) * ? (question mark); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 81) * ? (question mark); in SQL statements: Cursor objects. (line 24) * ? (question mark); in struct format strings: Format Characters. (line 86) * ? (question mark); in struct format strings <1>: Format Characters. (line 168) * ? (question mark); replacement character: Error Handlers. (line 15) * ??; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 86) * ?+; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 96) * . (dot); attribute reference: Attribute references. (line 6) * . (dot); in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 10) * . (dot); in numeric literal: Integer literals. (line 40) * . (dot); in pathnames: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 104) * . (dot); in pathnames <1>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 132) * . (dot); in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 29) * . (dot); in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 23) * . (dot); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 46) * . (dot); in string formatting: Format String Syntax. (line 13) * ..; in pathnames: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 110) * ...: Glossary. (line 10) * ...; ellipsis literal: Ellipsis. (line 6) * ...; ellipsis literal <1>: Built-in Constants. (line 59) * ...; ellipsis literal <2>: The Null Object. (line 12) * ...; in doctests: Option Flags. (line 47) * ...; interpreter prompt: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?. (line 26) * ...; interpreter prompt <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1484) * ...; placeholder: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 276) * ...; placeholder <1>: PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 6) * ...; placeholder <2>: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. (line 61) * .ini; file: configparser — Configuration file parser. (line 8) * .pdbrc; file: Debugger Commands. (line 59) * ' (single quote); string literal: Literals. (line 8) * '''; string literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 36) * " (double quote); string literal: Literals. (line 8) * """; string literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 36) * (?; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 248) * (?;; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 287) * (?!; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 405) * (?(; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 448) * (?#; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 394) * (?: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 23) * () (parentheses); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 239) * () (parentheses); tuple display: Parenthesized forms. (line 6) * [] (square brackets); in assignment target list: Assignment statements. (line 35) * [] (square brackets); in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 10) * [] (square brackets); in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 15) * [] (square brackets); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 171) * [] (square brackets); in string formatting: Format String Syntax. (line 13) * [] (square brackets); list expression: List displays. (line 6) * [] (square brackets); subscription: Subscriptions. (line 6) * {} (curly brackets); dictionary expression: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * {} (curly brackets); in formatted string literal: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * {} (curly brackets); in formatted string literal <1>: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * {} (curly brackets); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 115) * {} (curly brackets); in string formatting: Format String Syntax. (line 13) * {} (curly brackets); set expression: Set displays. (line 6) * @ (at); class definition: Class definitions. (line 44) * @ (at); function definition: Function definitions. (line 35) * @ (at); in struct format strings: Byte Order Size and Alignment. (line 13) * * (asterisk); function definition: Function definitions. (line 93) * * (asterisk); import statement: The import statement. (line 80) * * (asterisk); in argparse module: nargs. (line 57) * * (asterisk); in assignment target list: Assignment statements. (line 35) * * (asterisk); in AST grammar: Node classes. (line 22) * * (asterisk); in expression lists: Expression lists. (line 18) * * (asterisk); in function calls: Arbitrary Argument Lists. (line 6) * * (asterisk); in function calls <1>: Calls. (line 73) * * (asterisk); in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 10) * * (asterisk); in glob-style wildcards <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 15) * * (asterisk); in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 29) * * (asterisk); in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 23) * * (asterisk); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 69) * *?; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 86) * **; function definition: Function definitions. (line 93) * **; in dictionary displays: Dictionary displays. (line 23) * **; in function calls: Unpacking Argument Lists. (line 19) * **; in function calls <1>: Calls. (line 100) * **; in glob-style wildcards: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 51) * **=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * *+; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 96) * *=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * / (slash); function definition: Function definitions. (line 93) * / (slash); in pathnames: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 116) * / (slash); in pathnames <1>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 125) * //=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * /=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * \ (backslash); escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \ (backslash); escape sequence <1>: Error Handlers. (line 15) * \ (backslash); in pathnames (Windows): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 116) * \ (backslash); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 156) * \ (backslash); in regular expressions <1>: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 190) * \ (backslash); in regular expressions <2>: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 467) * \\; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \\; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \a; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \A; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 479) * \a; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \b; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \b; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 483) * \B; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 501) * \b; in regular expressions <1>: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \d; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 517) * \D; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 532) * \f; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \f; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \g; in regular expressions: Functions<2>. (line 213) * \n; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \N; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \N; escape sequence <1>: Error Handlers. (line 54) * \n; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \N; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \r; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \r; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \s; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 539) * \S; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 555) * \t; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \t; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \u; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \U; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \u; escape sequence <1>: Error Handlers. (line 15) * \U; escape sequence <1>: Error Handlers. (line 15) * \u; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \U; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \v; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \v; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \w; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 562) * \W; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 579) * \x; escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * \x; escape sequence <1>: Error Handlers. (line 15) * \x; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 594) * \Z; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 590) * &=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * # (hash); comment: An Informal Introduction to Python. (line 14) * # (hash); comment <1>: Comments. (line 6) * # (hash); comment <2>: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 52) * # (hash); in doctests: Option Flags. (line 165) * # (hash); in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 69) * # (hash); in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 63) * # (hash); in regular expressions: Flags. (line 130) * # (hash); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 96) * # (hash); source encoding declaration: Encoding declarations. (line 6) * % (percent); datetime format: timezone Objects. (line 71) * % (percent); datetime format <1>: Functions<5>. (line 319) * % (percent); datetime format <2>: Functions<5>. (line 478) * % (percent); environment variables expansion (Windows): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 155) * % (percent); environment variables expansion (Windows) <1>: Functions<13>. (line 228) * % (percent); interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation of values. (line 10) * % (percent); printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * % (percent); printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * %=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * %APPDATA%: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths. (line 13) * ^ (caret); in curses module: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 229) * ^ (caret); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 53) * ^ (caret); in regular expressions <1>: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 200) * ^ (caret); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 44) * ^ (caret); marker: What About Exceptions?. (line 93) * ^ (caret); marker <1>: Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 36) * ^=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * + (plus); binary operator: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 74) * + (plus); binary operator <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * + (plus); in argparse module: nargs. (line 69) * + (plus); in doctests: Option Flags. (line 165) * + (plus); in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 69) * + (plus); in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 63) * + (plus); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 75) * + (plus); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 74) * + (plus); unary operator: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 14) * + (plus); unary operator <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * +?; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 86) * ++; in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 96) * +=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * < (less); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 44) * < (less); in struct format strings: Byte Order Size and Alignment. (line 13) * <<=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * : Option Flags. (line 28) * = (equals); assignment statement: Assignment statements. (line 6) * = (equals); class definition: Metaclasses. (line 6) * = (equals); for help in debugging using string literals: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * = (equals); for help in debugging using string literals <1>: String Methods<2>. (line 752) * = (equals); function definition: Function definitions. (line 68) * = (equals); in function calls: Slicings. (line 38) * = (equals); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 44) * = (equals); in struct format strings: Byte Order Size and Alignment. (line 13) * > (greater); in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 44) * > (greater); in struct format strings: Byte Order Size and Alignment. (line 13) * >>=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * >>>: Glossary. (line 6) * >>>; interpreter prompt: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?. (line 26) * >>>; interpreter prompt <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1484) * | (vertical bar); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 226) * |=; augmented assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * ~ (tilde); home directory expansion: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 131) * $ (dollar); environment variables expansion: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 155) * $ (dollar); in regular expressions: Regular Expression Syntax. (line 58) * $ (dollar); in template strings: Template strings. (line 13) * $ (dollar); interpolation in configuration files: Interpolation of values. (line 41) * 0b; integer literal: Numeric literals. (line 14) * 0o; integer literal: Numeric literals. (line 14) * 0x; integer literal: Numeric literals. (line 14) * 2-digit years: time — Time access and conversions. (line 34) * A (in module re): Flags. (line 16) * A_ALTCHARSET (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 67) * A_ATTRIBUTES (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 128) * A_BLINK (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 70) * A_BOLD (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 73) * A_CHARTEXT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 131) * A_COLOR (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 134) * A_DIM (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 76) * A_HORIZONTAL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 101) * A_INVIS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 79) * A_ITALIC (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 82) * A_LEFT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 104) * A_LOW (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 107) * A_NORMAL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 85) * A_PROTECT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 88) * A_REVERSE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 91) * A_RIGHT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 110) * A_STANDOUT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 95) * A_TOP (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 113) * A_UNDERLINE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 98) * A_VERTICAL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 116) * a2b_base64() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 40) * a2b_hex() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 144) * a2b_qp() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 70) * a2b_uu() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 25) * a85decode() (in module base64): Base85 Encodings. (line 52) * a85encode() (in module base64): Base85 Encodings. (line 28) * ABC (class in abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 27) * ABCMeta (class in abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 52) * ABDAY_1 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * ABDAY_2 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * ABDAY_3 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * ABDAY_4 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * ABDAY_5 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * ABDAY_6 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * ABDAY_7 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 229) * abiflags (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 13) * ABMON_1 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_10 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_11 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_12 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_2 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_3 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_4 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_5 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_6 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_7 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_8 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * ABMON_9 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 254) * abort (C function): Process Control. (line 7) * ABORT (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 147) * abort_clients() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 56) * abort() (asyncio.Barrier method): Barrier. (line 87) * abort() (asyncio.DatagramTransport method): Datagram Transports. (line 20) * abort() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 6) * abort() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 152) * abort() (in module os): Process Management. (line 16) * abort() (threading.Barrier method): Barrier objects. (line 82) * ABORTRETRYIGNORE (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 162) * ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 68) * above() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 13) * abs() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 261) * abs() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 73) * absolute_import (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 26) * absolute() (pathlib.Path method): Expanding and resolving paths. (line 38) * AbsoluteLinkError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 253) * AbsolutePathError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 239) * abspath() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 49) * abstract base class: Glossary. (line 23) * AbstractAsyncContextManager (class in contextlib): Utilities. (line 19) * AbstractBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 340) * AbstractChildWatcher (class in asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 43) * abstractclassmethod() (in module abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 238) * AbstractContextManager (class in contextlib): Utilities. (line 8) * AbstractDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 379) * AbstractEventLoop (class in asyncio): Event Loop Implementations. (line 54) * AbstractEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio): Policy Objects. (line 8) * abstractmethod() (in module abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 161) * abstractproperty() (in module abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 282) * AbstractSet (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 6) * abstractstaticmethod() (in module abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 260) * accept() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener method): Listeners and Clients. (line 84) * accept() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 13) * access() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 51) * accumulate() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 10) * ACK (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 37) * aclose() (agen method): Asynchronous generator-iterator methods. (line 61) * aclose() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method): Utilities. (line 650) * aclosing() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 187) * acos() (in module cmath): Trigonometric functions<2>. (line 6) * acos() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 6) * acosh() (in module cmath): Hyperbolic functions<2>. (line 6) * acosh() (in module math): Hyperbolic functions. (line 9) * acquire() (_thread.lock method): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 145) * acquire() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 47) * acquire() (asyncio.Lock method): Lock. (line 35) * acquire() (asyncio.Semaphore method): Semaphore. (line 42) * acquire() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 26) * acquire() (multiprocessing.Lock method): Synchronization primitives. (line 64) * acquire() (multiprocessing.RLock method): Synchronization primitives. (line 118) * acquire() (threading.Condition method): Condition objects. (line 85) * acquire() (threading.Lock method): Lock objects. (line 43) * acquire() (threading.RLock method): RLock objects. (line 44) * acquire() (threading.Semaphore method): Semaphore objects. (line 34) * ACS_BBSS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 472) * ACS_BLOCK (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 475) * ACS_BOARD (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 478) * ACS_BSBS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 481) * ACS_BSSB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 484) * ACS_BSSS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 487) * ACS_BTEE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 490) * ACS_BULLET (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 493) * ACS_CKBOARD (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 496) * ACS_DARROW (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 499) * ACS_DEGREE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 502) * ACS_DIAMOND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 505) * ACS_GEQUAL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 508) * ACS_HLINE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 511) * ACS_LANTERN (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 514) * ACS_LARROW (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 517) * ACS_LEQUAL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 520) * ACS_LLCORNER (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 523) * ACS_LRCORNER (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 526) * ACS_LTEE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 529) * ACS_NEQUAL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 532) * ACS_PI (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 535) * ACS_PLMINUS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 538) * ACS_PLUS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 541) * ACS_RARROW (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 544) * ACS_RTEE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 547) * ACS_S1 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 550) * ACS_S3 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 553) * ACS_S7 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 556) * ACS_S9 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 559) * ACS_SBBS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 562) * ACS_SBSB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 565) * ACS_SBSS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 568) * ACS_SSBB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 571) * ACS_SSBS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 574) * ACS_SSSB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 577) * ACS_SSSS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 580) * ACS_STERLING (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 583) * ACS_TTEE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 586) * ACS_UARROW (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 589) * ACS_ULCORNER (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 592) * ACS_URCORNER (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 595) * ACS_VLINE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 598) * Action (class in argparse): Action classes. (line 11) * action (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 19) * ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute): Adding new actions. (line 31) * activate_stack_trampoline() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1748) * active_children() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 6) * active_count() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 8) * actual() (tkinter.font.Font method): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 47) * Add (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * add_alias() (in module email.charset): email charset Representing character sets. (line 193) * add_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 640) * add_argument_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Argument groups. (line 6) * add_argument() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): The add_argument method. (line 6) * add_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 652) * add_cgi_vars() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 135) * add_charset() (in module email.charset): email charset Representing character sets. (line 164) * add_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method): Process Watchers. (line 45) * add_codec() (in module email.charset): email charset Representing character sets. (line 202) * add_cookie_header() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 11) * add_dll_directory() (in module os): Process Management. (line 24) * add_done_callback() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 81) * add_done_callback() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 101) * add_done_callback() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 66) * add_fallback() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 28) * add_flag() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 129) * add_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 76) * add_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage method): mboxMessage objects. (line 79) * add_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage method): MMDFMessage objects. (line 78) * add_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 75) * add_folder() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 45) * add_get_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. (line 75) * add_handler() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector method): OpenerDirector Objects. (line 8) * add_header() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 260) * add_header() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 370) * add_header() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 79) * add_header() (wsgiref.headers.Headers method): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. (line 61) * add_history() (in module readline): History list. (line 38) * add_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 55) * add_mutually_exclusive_group() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Mutual exclusion. (line 6) * add_note() (BaseException method): Base classes. (line 50) * add_option() (optparse.OptionParser method): Defining options. (line 14) * add_parent() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method): BaseHandler Objects. (line 10) * add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr method): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects. (line 9) * add_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects. (line 10) * add_reader() (asyncio.loop method): Watching file descriptors. (line 6) * add_related() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 627) * add_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 121) * add_section() (configparser.RawConfigParser method): RawConfigParser Objects. (line 37) * add_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage method): MHMessage objects. (line 41) * add_set_handler() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. (line 80) * add_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop method): Unix signals. (line 6) * add_subparsers() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Sub-commands. (line 6) * add_type() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 121) * add_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 104) * add_unredirected_header() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 91) * add_writer() (asyncio.loop method): Watching file descriptors. (line 20) * add() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 265) * add() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 195) * add() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter method): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 81) * add() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 78) * add() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 59) * add() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 193) * add() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 49) * add() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 273) * add() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 8) * addAsyncCleanup() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase method): Test cases. (line 892) * addaudithook() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 26) * addch() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 9) * addClassCleanup() (unittest.TestCase class method): Test cases. (line 811) * addCleanup() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 771) * addcomponent() (turtle.Shape method): Public classes. (line 66) * addDuration() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 438) * addError() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 368) * addExpectedFailure() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 404) * addFailure() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 379) * addfile() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 291) * addFilter() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 53) * addFilter() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 325) * addHandler() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 342) * addinfourl (class in urllib.response): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 12) * addition: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 74) * addLevelName() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 128) * addModuleCleanup() (in module unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule. (line 22) * addnstr() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 23) * AddPackagePath() (in module modulefinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 16) * addr_spec (email.headerregistry.Address attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 441) * Address (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 403) * address (email.headerregistry.SingleAddressHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 222) * address (multiprocessing.connection.Listener attribute): Listeners and Clients. (line 99) * address (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager attribute): Managers. (line 137) * address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 160) * address_exclude() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 342) * address_family (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 65) * address_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 333) * addresses (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 195) * addresses (email.headerregistry.Group attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 477) * AddressHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 180) * addressof() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 6) * AddressValueError: Custom Exceptions. (line 9) * addshape() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 71) * addsitedir() (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 52) * addSkip() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 396) * addstr() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 31) * addSubTest() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 422) * addSuccess() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 390) * addTest() (unittest.TestSuite method): Grouping tests. (line 25) * addTests() (unittest.TestSuite method): Grouping tests. (line 30) * addTypeEqualityFunc() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 588) * addUnexpectedSuccess() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 414) * adjust_int_max_str_digits() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 738) * adjusted() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 116) * adler32() (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 28) * AF_ALG (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 263) * AF_CAN (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 126) * AF_DIVERT (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 202) * AF_HYPERV (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * AF_INET (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 11) * AF_INET6 (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 11) * AF_LINK (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 287) * AF_PACKET (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 212) * AF_QIPCRTR (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 314) * AF_RDS (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 234) * AF_UNIX (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 11) * AF_UNSPEC (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 21) * AF_VSOCK (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 274) * alarm() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 269) * ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 510) * ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 510) * AlertDescription (class in ssl): Constants<9>. (line 524) * algorithm (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1057) * algorithms_available (in module hashlib): Attributes. (line 17) * algorithms_guaranteed (in module hashlib): Attributes. (line 8) * alias (class in ast): Imports. (line 38) * alias (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 373) * alignment() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 14) * alive (weakref.finalize attribute): weakref — Weak references. (line 312) * ALL_COMPLETED (in module asyncio): Waiting Primitives. (line 45) * ALL_COMPLETED (in module concurrent.futures): Module Functions. (line 40) * all_errors (in module ftplib): Module variables. (line 27) * all_features (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 95) * all_frames (tracemalloc.Filter attribute): Filter. (line 58) * all_properties (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 127) * all_suffixes() (in module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 57) * all_tasks() (in module asyncio): Introspection. (line 16) * allocate_lock() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 83) * allocfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 6) * ALLOW_MISSING (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 403) * allow_reuse_address (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 95) * allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 65) * ALT_DIGITS (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 334) * alt() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 221) * altsep (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 125) * altzone (in module time): Timezone Constants. (line 6) * ALWAYS_EQ (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 175) * ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute): Adding new actions. (line 43) * AmbiguousOptionError: Exceptions<10>. (line 25) * AMPER (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 212) * AMPEREQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 278) * Anchor (class in importlib.resources): importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access. (line 46) * anchor (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 65) * And (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 86) * and_() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 83) * android_ver() (in module platform): Android platform. (line 6) * AnnAssign (class in ast): Statements. (line 41) * Annotated (in module typing): Special forms. (line 290) * annotated; assignment: Annotated assignment statements. (line 6) * annotation: Glossary. (line 37) * annotation (inspect.Parameter attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 223) * ANNOTATION (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 26) * annotation; type annotation; type hint: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union. (line 6) * annotations (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 47) * anonymous; function: Lambdas. (line 6) * answer_challenge() (in module multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients. (line 25) * anticipate_failure() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 451) * Any (in module typing): Special types. (line 9) * ANY (in module unittest.mock): ANY. (line 6) * ANY_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 29) * AnyStr (in module typing): Special types. (line 21) * api_version (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 2017) * apilevel (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 65) * apop() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 42) * APPDATA: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 26) * append_history_file() (in module readline): History file. (line 20) * append() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 121) * append() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 35) * append() (email.header.Header method): email header Internationalized headers. (line 96) * append() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 33) * append() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * append() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 87) * appendChild() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 115) * appendleft() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 39) * AppleFrameworkLoader (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 442) * application_uri() (in module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 34) * apply_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 75) * apply_defaults() (inspect.BoundArguments method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 368) * apply() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 67) * APRIL (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * architecture() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 6) * archive (zipimport.zipimporter attribute): zipimporter Objects. (line 96) * AREGTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 278) * aRepr (in module reprlib): reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. (line 44) * arg (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 68) * args (BaseException attribute): Base classes. (line 17) * args (functools.partial attribute): partial Objects. (line 15) * args (inspect.BoundArguments attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 353) * args (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 263) * args (subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 105) * args (subprocess.Popen attribute): Popen Objects. (line 101) * args (typing.ParamSpec attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 408) * args_from_interpreter_flags() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 318) * argtypes (ctypes._CFuncPtr attribute): Foreign functions. (line 46) * argument: Glossary. (line 53) * argument; call semantics: Slicings. (line 39) * argument; difference from parameter: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?. (line 17) * argument; function definition: Function definitions. (line 68) * ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter (class in argparse): formatter_class. (line 10) * ArgumentError: Foreign functions. (line 94) * ArgumentError <1>: Exceptions<9>. (line 6) * ArgumentParser (class in argparse): ArgumentParser objects. (line 6) * arguments (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 49) * arguments (inspect.BoundArguments attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 334) * ArgumentTypeError: Exceptions<9>. (line 14) * argv (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 70) * argv (in module sys) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 218) * argv (in module sys) <2>: PyConfig. (line 130) * arithmetic: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * arithmetic; conversion: Arithmetic conversions. (line 6) * ArithmeticError: Base classes. (line 72) * array (class in array): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 88) * Array (class in ctypes): Arrays and pointers. (line 6) * ARRAY() (in module ctypes): Arrays and pointers. (line 31) * Array() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 51) * Array() (in module multiprocessing): Shared ctypes Objects. (line 42) * Array() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 213) * arrays: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 6) * arraysize (sqlite3.Cursor attribute): Cursor objects. (line 170) * AS pattern, OR pattern, capture pattern, wildcard pattern: Patterns. (line 6) * as_bytes() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 107) * as_bytes() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 106) * as_completed() (in module asyncio): Waiting Primitives. (line 60) * as_completed() (in module concurrent.futures): Module Functions. (line 44) * as_file() (in module importlib.resources): importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access. (line 74) * as_integer_ratio() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 124) * as_integer_ratio() (float method): Additional Methods on Float. (line 9) * as_integer_ratio() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 124) * as_integer_ratio() (int method): Additional Methods on Integer Types. (line 162) * as_posix() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 172) * as_string() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 61) * as_string() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 60) * as_tuple() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 138) * as_uri() (pathlib.Path method): Parsing and generating URIs. (line 42) * as; except clause: except clause. (line 30) * as; import statement: The import statement. (line 39) * as; match statement: The match statement. (line 6) * as; with statement: The with statement. (line 6) * ASCII: Notation. (line 32) * ASCII <1>: Literals. (line 8) * ASCII (in module re): Flags. (line 16) * ascii_letters (in module string): String constants. (line 8) * ascii_lowercase (in module string): String constants. (line 14) * ascii_uppercase (in module string): String constants. (line 19) * ascii() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 212) * asctime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 6) * asdict() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 345) * asend() (agen method): Asynchronous generator-iterator methods. (line 28) * asin() (in module cmath): Trigonometric functions<2>. (line 12) * asin() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 11) * asinh() (in module cmath): Hyperbolic functions<2>. (line 11) * asinh() (in module math): Hyperbolic functions. (line 13) * askcolor() (in module tkinter.colorchooser): tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog. (line 17) * askdirectory() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 54) * askfloat() (in module tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 14) * askinteger() (in module tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 14) * askokcancel() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 119) * askopenfile() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 31) * askopenfilename() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 42) * askopenfilenames() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 42) * askopenfiles() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 31) * askquestion() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 113) * askretrycancel() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 126) * asksaveasfile() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 37) * asksaveasfilename() (in module tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 49) * askstring() (in module tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 14) * askyesno() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 133) * askyesnocancel() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 139) * Assert (class in ast): Statements. (line 127) * assert_any_await() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 844) * assert_any_call() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 150) * assert_awaited_once_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 827) * assert_awaited_once() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 794) * assert_awaited_with() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 810) * assert_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 774) * assert_called_once_with() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 135) * assert_called_once() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 107) * assert_called_with() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 125) * assert_called() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 96) * assert_has_awaits() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 861) * assert_has_calls() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 166) * assert_never() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 44) * assert_not_awaited() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 888) * assert_not_called() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 187) * assert_python_failure() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 57) * assert_python_ok() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 40) * assert_type() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 15) * assertAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 511) * assertCountEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 567) * assertDictEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 676) * assertEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 177) * assertFalse() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 202) * assertGreater() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 536) * assertGreaterEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 536) * assertIn() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 229) * assertInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase method): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. (line 22) * AssertionError: Concrete exceptions. (line 8) * assertIs() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 214) * assertIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 236) * assertIsNone() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 222) * assertIsNot() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 214) * assertIsNotNone() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 222) * assertLess() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 536) * assertLessEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 536) * assertListEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 653) * assertLogs() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 411) * assertMultiLineEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 628) * assertNoLogs() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 455) * assertNotAlmostEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 511) * assertNotEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 197) * assertNotIn() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 229) * assertNotInBytecode() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase method): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. (line 28) * assertNotIsInstance() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 236) * assertNotRegex() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 549) * assertRaises() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 276) * assertRaisesRegex() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 317) * assertRegex() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 549) * assertSequenceEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 638) * assertSetEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 664) * assertTrue() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 202) * assertTupleEqual() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 653) * assertWarns() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 345) * assertWarnsRegex() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 386) * Assign (class in ast): Statements. (line 6) * assignment expression: Boolean operations. (line 38) * assignment; expression: Boolean operations. (line 37) * assignment; statement: Mutable sequences. (line 6) * assignment; statement <1>: Assignment statements. (line 6) * AST (class in ast): Node classes. (line 6) * ast command line option; -a: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 29) * ast command line option; -h: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 15) * ast command line option; -help: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 15) * ast command line option; -i: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 33) * ast command line option; -include-attributes: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 29) * ast command line option; -indent: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 33) * ast command line option; -m: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 19) * ast command line option; -mode: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 19) * ast command line option; -no-type-comments: Command-Line Usage<4>. (line 25) * astimezone() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 479) * astuple() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 377) * async for; in comprehensions: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. (line 14) * AsyncContextDecorator (class in contextlib): Utilities. (line 462) * AsyncContextManager (class in typing): Aliases to contextlib ABCs. (line 24) * asynccontextmanager() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 94) * AsyncExitStack (class in contextlib): Utilities. (line 621) * AsyncFor (class in ast): Async and await. (line 34) * AsyncFunctionDef (class in ast): Async and await. (line 6) * AsyncGenerator (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 163) * AsyncGenerator (class in typing): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 21) * AsyncGeneratorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 49) * asynchronous context manager: Glossary. (line 86) * asynchronous generator: Glossary. (line 92) * asynchronous generator iterator: Glossary. (line 109) * asynchronous generator; asynchronous iterator: Asynchronous generator functions. (line 6) * asynchronous generator; function: Asynchronous generator functions. (line 6) * asynchronous iterable: Glossary. (line 126) * asynchronous iterator: Glossary. (line 132) * asyncio.subprocess.DEVNULL (built-in variable): Constants<7>. (line 23) * asyncio.subprocess.PIPE (built-in variable): Constants<7>. (line 6) * asyncio.subprocess.Process (built-in class): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 11) * asyncio.subprocess.STDOUT (built-in variable): Constants<7>. (line 17) * AsyncIterable (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 149) * AsyncIterable (class in typing): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 39) * AsyncIterator (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 156) * AsyncIterator (class in typing): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 49) * AsyncMock (class in unittest.mock): The Mock Class. (line 702) * AsyncResult (class in multiprocessing.pool): Process Pools. (line 195) * asyncSetUp() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase method): Test cases. (line 868) * asyncTearDown() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase method): Test cases. (line 877) * AsyncWith (class in ast): Async and await. (line 34) * AT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 302) * at_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader method): StreamReader. (line 85) * atan() (in module cmath): Trigonometric functions<2>. (line 17) * atan() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 16) * atan2() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 21) * atanh() (in module cmath): Hyperbolic functions<2>. (line 17) * atanh() (in module math): Hyperbolic functions. (line 17) * ATEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 305) * atexit (weakref.finalize attribute): weakref — Weak references. (line 317) * athrow() (agen method): Asynchronous generator-iterator methods. (line 43) * atof() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 503) * atoi() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 509) * atom: Atoms. (line 6) * attach_loop() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method): Process Watchers. (line 63) * attach_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 258) * attach() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 167) * attempted (doctest.TestResults attribute): TestResults objects. (line 12) * AttlistDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 246) * attrgetter() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 234) * attrib (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute): Element Objects. (line 45) * attribute: The standard type hierarchy. (line 13) * attribute <1>: Glossary. (line 141) * Attribute (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 170) * attribute; assignment: Assignment statements. (line 6) * attribute; assignment <1>: Assignment statements. (line 76) * attribute; deletion: The del statement<2>. (line 20) * attribute; reference: Attribute references. (line 6) * AttributeError: Concrete exceptions. (line 12) * attributes (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 26) * AttributesImpl (class in xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 69) * AttributesNSImpl (class in xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 80) * attroff() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 53) * attron() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 58) * attrset() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 63) * audit events: Debugging and Profiling. (line 13) * audit() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 91) * auditing: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 93) * AugAssign (class in ast): Statements. (line 95) * augmented; assignment: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * AUGUST (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * auth() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method): FTP_TLS objects. (line 88) * auth() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 141) * authenticate() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 37) * AuthenticationError: Process and exceptions. (line 273) * authenticators() (netrc.netrc method): netrc Objects. (line 8) * authkey (multiprocessing.Process attribute): Process and exceptions. (line 174) * auto (class in enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 6) * autocommit (sqlite3.Connection attribute): Connection objects. (line 731) * autorange() (timeit.Timer method): Python Interface. (line 92) * available_timezones() (in module zoneinfo): Functions<3>. (line 6) * avoids_symlink_attacks (shutil.rmtree attribute): Directory and files operations. (line 325) * Await (class in ast): Async and await. (line 14) * await_args (unittest.mock.AsyncMock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 917) * await_args_list (unittest.mock.AsyncMock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 935) * await_count (unittest.mock.AsyncMock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 901) * await; in comprehensions: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. (line 45) * awaitable: Glossary. (line 153) * Awaitable (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 109) * Awaitable (class in typing): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 59) * b'; bytes literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 46) * b"; bytes literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 46) * b16decode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 123) * b16encode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 118) * b2a_base64() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 61) * b2a_hex() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 114) * b2a_qp() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 77) * b2a_uu() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 31) * b32decode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 78) * b32encode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 73) * b32hexdecode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 106) * b32hexencode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 99) * b64decode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 25) * b64encode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 10) * b85decode() (in module base64): Base85 Encodings. (line 84) * b85encode() (in module base64): Base85 Encodings. (line 73) * Babyl (class in mailbox): Babyl objects. (line 6) * BabylMessage (class in mailbox): BabylMessage objects. (line 6) * back() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 24) * backend (in module readline): readline — GNU readline interface. (line 49) * backslash character: Explicit line joining. (line 6) * backslashreplace_errors() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 161) * backslashreplace; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 15) * backup() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 529) * backward() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 24) * BadGzipFile: gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 63) * BadOptionError: Exceptions<10>. (line 21) * BadStatusLine: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 177) * BadZipFile: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 24) * BadZipfile: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 30) * Barrier (class in asyncio): Barrier. (line 6) * Barrier (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 13) * Barrier (class in threading): Barrier objects. (line 36) * Barrier() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 160) * base_exec_prefix (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 122) * base_prefix (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 136) * base64; encoding: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 8) * BaseCGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 53) * BaseCookie (class in http.cookies): http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 39) * BaseException: Base classes. (line 9) * BaseExceptionGroup: Exception groups. (line 14) * BaseHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 280) * BaseHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 89) * BaseHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 37) * BaseHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server): http server — HTTP servers. (line 51) * BaseManager (class in multiprocessing.managers): Managers. (line 23) * basename() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 57) * BaseProtocol (class in asyncio): Base Protocols. (line 6) * BaseProxy (class in multiprocessing.managers): Proxy Objects. (line 92) * BaseRequestHandler (class in socketserver): Request Handler Objects. (line 6) * BaseRotatingHandler (class in logging.handlers): BaseRotatingHandler. (line 12) * BaseSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 53) * BaseServer (class in socketserver): Server Objects<2>. (line 6) * BaseTransport (class in asyncio): Transports Hierarchy. (line 6) * basicConfig() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 204) * BasicContext (in module decimal): Context objects. (line 65) * BasicInterpolation (class in configparser): Interpolation of values. (line 10) * batched() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 71) * baudrate() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 18) * bbox() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 8) * BDADDR_ANY (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 298) * BDADDR_LOCAL (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 298) * Bdb (class in bdb): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 129) * BdbQuit: bdb — Debugger framework. (line 15) * BDFL: Glossary. (line 159) * beep() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 26) * Beep() (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 12) * BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 361) * BEFORE_WITH (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 513) * begin_fill() (in module turtle): Filling. (line 16) * begin_poly() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 6) * BEL (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 40) * BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 75) * below() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 17) * benchmarking: Functions<5>. (line 216) * benchmarking <1>: Functions<5>. (line 247) * benchmarking <2>: Functions<5>. (line 615) * Benchmarking: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets. (line 8) * betavariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 33) * bgcolor() (in module turtle): Window control. (line 6) * bgpic() (in module turtle): Window control. (line 21) * bidirectional() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 54) * bigaddrspacetest() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 566) * BigEndianStructure (class in ctypes): Structured data types. (line 22) * BigEndianUnion (class in ctypes): Structured data types. (line 10) * bigmemtest() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 550) * Binary (class in xmlrpc.client): Binary Objects. (line 6) * binary file: Glossary. (line 164) * binary literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * binary mode: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * binary semaphores: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 6) * BINARY_OP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 242) * BINARY_SLICE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 278) * BINARY_SUBSCR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 253) * binary; arithmetic; operation: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 6) * binary; bitwise; operation: Binary bitwise operations. (line 6) * binary; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * binaryfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 112) * BinaryIO (class in typing): ABCs for working with IO. (line 6) * bind (widgets): Bindings and Events. (line 6) * bind_partial() (inspect.Signature method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 129) * bind_port() (in module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 37) * bind_textdomain_codeset() (in module locale): Access to message catalogs. (line 16) * bind_unix_socket() (in module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 54) * bind() (inspect.Signature method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 122) * bind() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 30) * binding; name: Binding of names. (line 6) * binding; name <1>: Assignment statements. (line 6) * bindtextdomain() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 14) * bindtextdomain() (in module locale): Access to message catalogs. (line 14) * binomialvariate() (in module random): Discrete distributions. (line 8) * BinOp (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 41) * bisect_left() (in module bisect): bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 33) * bisect_right() (in module bisect): bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 58) * bisect() (in module bisect): bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 58) * bit_count() (int method): Additional Methods on Integer Types. (line 35) * bit_length() (int method): Additional Methods on Integer Types. (line 9) * BitAnd (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * BitOr (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * bits_per_digit (sys.int_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1146) * bitwise; and: Binary bitwise operations. (line 12) * bitwise; operations: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * bitwise; or: Binary bitwise operations. (line 20) * bitwise; xor: Binary bitwise operations. (line 16) * BitXor (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * bk() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 24) * bkgd() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 68) * bkgdset() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 80) * blake2b, blake2s: BLAKE2. (line 6) * blake2b.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 24) * blake2b.MAX_KEY_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 18) * blake2b.PERSON_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 12) * blake2b.SALT_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 6) * blake2b() (in module hashlib): Creating hash objects. (line 8) * blake2s.MAX_DIGEST_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 26) * blake2s.MAX_KEY_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 20) * blake2s.PERSON_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 14) * blake2s.SALT_SIZE (in module hashlib): Constants<5>. (line 8) * blake2s() (in module hashlib): Creating hash objects. (line 13) * blank line: Blank lines. (line 6) * BLKTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 295) * Blob (class in sqlite3): Blob objects. (line 6) * blobopen() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 34) * block: Structure of a program. (line 6) * block_on_close (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn attribute): Server Creation Notes. (line 45) * block_size (hmac.HMAC attribute): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 96) * blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 52) * BlockingIOError: OS exceptions. (line 9) * BlockingIOError <1>: High-level Module Interface. (line 67) * blocksize (http.client.HTTPConnection attribute): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 156) * BNF: Notation. (line 6) * BNF <1>: Expressions. (line 6) * body_encode() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 135) * body_encoding (email.charset.Charset attribute): email charset Representing character sets. (line 67) * body_line_iterator() (in module email.iterators): email iterators Iterators. (line 14) * body() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog method): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 25) * BOLD (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 15) * BOM (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_BE (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_LE (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF16 (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF16_BE (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF16_LE (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF32 (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF32_BE (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF32_LE (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * BOM_UTF8 (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 272) * bool (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 131) * BOOLEAN_STATES (configparser.ConfigParser attribute): Customizing Parser Behaviour. (line 246) * Boolean; operation: Boolean operations. (line 6) * Boolean; operations: Truth Value Testing. (line 6) * Boolean; operations <1>: Boolean Operations — and or not. (line 6) * Boolean; type: Built-in Functions. (line 142) * Boolean; values: Boolean Type - bool. (line 9) * BooleanOptionalAction (class in argparse): Action classes. (line 64) * BoolOp (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 69) * bootstrap() (in module ensurepip): Module API. (line 13) * border() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 91) * borrowed reference: Glossary. (line 175) * bottom_panel() (in module curses.panel): Functions<7>. (line 8) * bottom() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 21) * BoundArguments (class in inspect): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 328) * BoundaryError: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 38) * BoundedSemaphore (class in asyncio): BoundedSemaphore. (line 6) * BoundedSemaphore (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 19) * BoundedSemaphore (class in threading): Semaphore objects. (line 73) * BoundedSemaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 167) * box() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 130) * bpbynumber (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 110) * bpformat() (bdb.Breakpoint method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 56) * bplist (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 115) * bpprint() (bdb.Breakpoint method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 75) * BRANCH (monitoring event): Events. (line 8) * Break (class in ast): Control flow. (line 99) * break (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 97) * break_anywhere() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 263) * break_here() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 254) * break_long_words (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 248) * break_on_hyphens (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 258) * Breakpoint (class in bdb): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 22) * breakpointhook() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 242) * breakpoints: Help menu Shell and Editor. (line 29) * broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 91) * broadcast_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 311) * broken (asyncio.Barrier attribute): Barrier. (line 103) * broken (threading.Barrier attribute): Barrier objects. (line 101) * BrokenBarrierError: Barrier objects. (line 106) * BrokenBarrierError <1>: Barrier. (line 108) * BrokenExecutor: Exception classes. (line 18) * BrokenPipeError: OS exceptions. (line 38) * BrokenProcessPool: Exception classes. (line 41) * BrokenThreadPool: Exception classes. (line 33) * BROWSER: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 20) * BROWSER <1>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 34) * BROWSER <2>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 122) * BS (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 43) * BsdDbShelf (class in shelve): Restrictions. (line 60) * buf (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory attribute): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 116) * Buffer (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 173) * buffer (io.TextIOBase attribute): Text I/O<2>. (line 30) * buffer (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 293) * buffer interface; (see buffer protocol): Iterator Protocol. (line 78) * buffer object; (see buffer protocol): Iterator Protocol. (line 77) * buffer protocol: Iterator Protocol. (line 78) * buffer protocol; binary sequence types: printf-style String Formatting. (line 192) * buffer protocol; str (built-in class): Text Sequence Type — str. (line 61) * buffer size, I/O: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * buffer_info() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 125) * buffer_size (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 120) * buffer_text (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 127) * buffer_updated() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method): Buffered Streaming Protocols. (line 33) * buffer_used (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 138) * BufferedIOBase (class in io): I/O Base Classes. (line 224) * BufferedProtocol (class in asyncio): Base Protocols. (line 15) * BufferedRandom (class in io): Buffered Streams. (line 136) * BufferedReader (class in io): Buffered Streams. (line 56) * BufferedRWPair (class in io): Buffered Streams. (line 151) * BufferedWriter (class in io): Buffered Streams. (line 94) * BufferError: Base classes. (line 78) * BufferFlags (class in inspect): Buffer flags. (line 6) * BufferingFormatter (class in logging): Formatter Objects. (line 132) * BufferingHandler (class in logging.handlers): MemoryHandler. (line 19) * BufferTooShort: Process and exceptions. (line 265) * BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 693) * BUILD_LIST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 675) * BUILD_MAP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 683) * build_opener() (in module urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 122) * BUILD_SET (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 679) * BUILD_SLICE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1142) * BUILD_STRING (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 702) * BUILD_TUPLE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 662) * built-in function; __import__: Importing Modules<2>. (line 31) * built-in function; __import__(): Built-in Functions. (line 2181) * built-in function; abs: Emulating numeric types. (line 113) * built-in function; abs <1>: Number Protocol. (line 100) * built-in function; abs(): Built-in Functions. (line 43) * built-in function; aiter(): Built-in Functions. (line 50) * built-in function; all(): Built-in Functions. (line 60) * built-in function; anext(): Built-in Functions. (line 71) * built-in function; any(): Built-in Functions. (line 90) * built-in function; ascii: Object Protocol. (line 344) * built-in function; ascii(): Built-in Functions. (line 101) * built-in function; bin(): Built-in Functions. (line 109) * built-in function; breakpoint(): Built-in Functions. (line 144) * built-in function; bytes: Basic customization. (line 148) * built-in function; bytes <1>: Object Protocol. (line 367) * built-in function; call: Calls. (line 143) * built-in function; callable(): Built-in Functions. (line 227) * built-in function; chr: Immutable sequences. (line 15) * built-in function; chr(): Built-in Functions. (line 239) * built-in function; classmethod: Implementing functions and methods. (line 197) * built-in function; classmethod(): Built-in Functions. (line 250) * built-in function; compile: The global statement. (line 18) * built-in function; compile <1>: Code Objects. (line 6) * built-in function; compile <2>: Standard Interpreter Types. (line 58) * built-in function; compile <3>: Importing Modules<2>. (line 131) * built-in function; compile(): Built-in Functions. (line 288) * built-in function; complex: Emulating numeric types. (line 120) * built-in function; complex <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * built-in function; delattr(): Built-in Functions. (line 442) * built-in function; dir(): Built-in Functions. (line 465) * built-in function; divmod: Emulating numeric types. (line 26) * built-in function; divmod <1>: Emulating numeric types. (line 56) * built-in function; divmod <2>: Number Protocol. (line 71) * built-in function; divmod(): Built-in Functions. (line 526) * built-in function; enumerate(): Built-in Functions. (line 538) * built-in function; eval: The global statement. (line 18) * built-in function; eval <1>: Expression input. (line 6) * built-in function; eval <2>: Code Objects. (line 17) * built-in function; eval <3>: Functions<4>. (line 87) * built-in function; eval <4>: PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 68) * built-in function; eval(): Built-in Functions. (line 561) * built-in function; exec: The global statement. (line 18) * built-in function; exec <1>: Built-in Functions. (line 636) * built-in function; exec <2>: Code Objects. (line 17) * built-in function; exec(): Built-in Functions. (line 636) * built-in function; filter(): Built-in Functions. (line 705) * built-in function; float: Emulating numeric types. (line 120) * built-in function; float <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * built-in function; float <2>: Number Protocol. (line 266) * built-in function; format(): Built-in Functions. (line 788) * built-in function; getattr(): Built-in Functions. (line 821) * built-in function; globals(): Built-in Functions. (line 838) * built-in function; hasattr(): Built-in Functions. (line 844) * built-in function; hash: Basic customization. (line 241) * built-in function; hash <1>: Immutable Sequence Types. (line 6) * built-in function; hash <2>: Object Protocol. (line 418) * built-in function; hash <3>: PyTypeObject Slots. (line 361) * built-in function; hash(): Built-in Functions. (line 851) * built-in function; help: Operating System Interface. (line 20) * built-in function; help(): Built-in Functions. (line 863) * built-in function; hex(): Built-in Functions. (line 887) * built-in function; id: Objects values and types. (line 11) * built-in function; id(): Built-in Functions. (line 918) * built-in function; input(): Built-in Functions. (line 931) * built-in function; int: Emulating numeric types. (line 120) * built-in function; int <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * built-in function; int <2>: Number Protocol. (line 258) * built-in function; isinstance(): Built-in Functions. (line 1031) * built-in function; issubclass(): Built-in Functions. (line 1047) * built-in function; iter(): Built-in Functions. (line 1060) * built-in function; len: Sequences. (line 6) * built-in function; len <1>: Set types. (line 6) * built-in function; len <2>: Mappings. (line 6) * built-in function; len <3>: Emulating container types. (line 41) * built-in function; len <4>: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * built-in function; len <5>: Mapping Types — dict. (line 6) * built-in function; len <6>: Object Protocol. (line 467) * built-in function; len <7>: Sequence Protocol. (line 16) * built-in function; len <8>: Mapping Protocol. (line 19) * built-in function; len <9>: List Objects. (line 41) * built-in function; len <10>: Dictionary Objects. (line 227) * built-in function; len <11>: Set Objects. (line 99) * built-in function; len(): Built-in Functions. (line 1089) * built-in function; locals(): Built-in Functions. (line 1107) * built-in function; map(): Built-in Functions. (line 1159) * built-in function; max: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * built-in function; max(): Built-in Functions. (line 1169) * built-in function; min: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * built-in function; min(): Built-in Functions. (line 1203) * built-in function; multiprocessing.Manager(): Managers. (line 12) * built-in function; next(): Built-in Functions. (line 1232) * built-in function; oct(): Built-in Functions. (line 1252) * built-in function; open: Reading and Writing Files. (line 6) * built-in function; open <1>: I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * built-in function; open(): Built-in Functions. (line 1277) * built-in function; ord: Immutable sequences. (line 15) * built-in function; ord(): Built-in Functions. (line 1515) * built-in function; pow: Emulating numeric types. (line 26) * built-in function; pow <1>: Emulating numeric types. (line 26) * built-in function; pow <2>: Emulating numeric types. (line 56) * built-in function; pow <3>: Emulating numeric types. (line 67) * built-in function; pow <4>: Number Protocol. (line 80) * built-in function; pow <5>: Number Protocol. (line 206) * built-in function; pow(): Built-in Functions. (line 1528) * built-in function; print: Basic customization. (line 153) * built-in function; print(): Built-in Functions. (line 1568) * built-in function; property.deleter(): Built-in Functions. (line 1643) * built-in function; property.getter(): Built-in Functions. (line 1639) * built-in function; property.setter(): Built-in Functions. (line 1641) * built-in function; range: The for statement. (line 37) * built-in function; repr: Expression statements. (line 17) * built-in function; repr <1>: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 90) * built-in function; repr <2>: Object Protocol. (line 331) * built-in function; repr <3>: PyTypeObject Slots. (line 299) * built-in function; repr(): Built-in Functions. (line 1692) * built-in function; reversed(): Built-in Functions. (line 1715) * built-in function; round: Emulating numeric types. (line 143) * built-in function; round(): Built-in Functions. (line 1722) * built-in function; setattr(): Built-in Functions. (line 1761) * built-in function; slice: Slice objects. (line 6) * built-in function; slice <1>: Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1144) * built-in function; sorted(): Built-in Functions. (line 1810) * built-in function; staticmethod: Implementing functions and methods. (line 204) * built-in function; staticmethod(): Built-in Functions. (line 1846) * built-in function; sum(): Built-in Functions. (line 1901) * built-in function; tuple: Sequence Protocol. (line 120) * built-in function; tuple <1>: List Objects. (line 162) * built-in function; type: Objects values and types. (line 11) * built-in function; type <1>: Metaclasses. (line 6) * built-in function; type <2>: Type Objects. (line 6) * built-in function; type <3>: Object Protocol. (line 449) * built-in function; vars(): Built-in Functions. (line 2059) * built-in function; zip(): Built-in Functions. (line 2084) * built-in method; call: Calls. (line 143) * built-in; method: Built-in methods. (line 6) * built-in; types: Built-in Types. (line 9) * builtin_module_names (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 157) * BuiltinFunctionType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 81) * BuiltinImporter (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 67) * BuiltinMethodType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 81) * busy_retry() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 197) * BUTTON_ALT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 629) * BUTTON_CTRL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 626) * BUTTON_SHIFT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 623) * buttonbox() (tkinter.simpledialog.Dialog method): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 30) * BUTTONn_CLICKED (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 614) * BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 617) * BUTTONn_PRESSED (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 608) * BUTTONn_RELEASED (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 611) * BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 620) * bye() (in module turtle): Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen. (line 6) * byref() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 19) * byte: Immutable sequences. (line 39) * bytearray: Mutable sequences. (line 25) * bytearray (built-in class): Bytearray Objects. (line 9) * bytearray; formatting: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * bytearray; interpolation: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * bytearray; methods: Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 6) * bytecode: Code objects. (line 6) * bytecode <1>: Glossary. (line 208) * Bytecode (class in dis): Bytecode analysis. (line 12) * BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 40) * Bytecode.codeobj (in module dis): Bytecode analysis. (line 49) * Bytecode.first_line (in module dis): Bytecode analysis. (line 53) * BytecodeTestCase (class in test.support.bytecode_helper): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. (line 13) * byteorder (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 150) * bytes: Immutable sequences. (line 39) * bytes (built-in class): Bytes Objects. (line 12) * bytes (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 86) * bytes literal: Literals. (line 8) * bytes_le (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 91) * bytes_warning (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 559) * bytes-like object: Glossary. (line 189) * bytes; formatting: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * bytes; interpolation: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * bytes; methods: Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 6) * bytes; str (built-in class): Text Sequence Type — str. (line 61) * BytesFeedParser (class in email.parser): FeedParser API. (line 28) * BytesGenerator (class in email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 42) * BytesHeaderParser (class in email.parser): Parser API. (line 68) * BytesIO (class in io): Buffered Streams. (line 9) * BytesParser (class in email.parser): Parser API. (line 18) * ByteString (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 68) * ByteString (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 14) * byteswap() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 145) * BytesWarning: Warnings. (line 76) * BZ2Compressor (class in bz2): Incremental de compression. (line 6) * BZ2Decompressor (class in bz2): Incremental de compression. (line 33) * BZ2File (class in bz2): De compression of files. (line 40) * C: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * c_bool (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 207) * c_byte (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 45) * c_char (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 51) * c_char_p (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 58) * C_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 25) * c_contiguous (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 473) * c_double (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 65) * c_float (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 76) * c_int (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 81) * c_int16 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 93) * c_int32 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 98) * c_int64 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 103) * c_int8 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 88) * c_long (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 108) * c_longdouble (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 70) * c_longlong (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 113) * C_RAISE (monitoring event): Events. (line 16) * C_RETURN (monitoring event): Events. (line 21) * c_short (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 119) * c_size_t (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 124) * c_ssize_t (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 128) * c_time_t (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 134) * c_ubyte (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 140) * c_uint (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 146) * c_uint16 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 158) * c_uint32 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 163) * c_uint64 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 168) * c_uint8 (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 153) * c_ulong (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 173) * c_ulonglong (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 178) * c_ushort (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 184) * c_void_p (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 189) * c_wchar (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 194) * c_wchar_p (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 201) * C-contiguous: shape strides suboffsets. (line 26) * C-contiguous <1>: Glossary. (line 330) * C; language: The standard type hierarchy. (line 6) * C; language <1>: numbers Real float. (line 6) * C; language <2>: Built-in functions. (line 6) * C; language <3>: Comparisons. (line 6) * C; language <4>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 6) * C; structures: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data. (line 8) * C14NWriterTarget (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 94) * CACHE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 177) * cache_clear() (functools.lru_cache method): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 202) * cache_from_source() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 21) * cache_info() (functools.lru_cache method): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 197) * cache() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 16) * cached (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 421) * cached_property() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 49) * CacheFTPHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 438) * calcobjsize() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 434) * calcsize() (in module struct): Functions and Exceptions. (line 55) * calcvobjsize() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 440) * Calendar (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 27) * calendar command line option; -c: Command-Line Usage. (line 117) * calendar command line option; -css: Command-Line Usage. (line 117) * calendar command line option; -e: Command-Line Usage. (line 66) * calendar command line option; -encoding: Command-Line Usage. (line 66) * calendar command line option; -f: Command-Line Usage. (line 75) * calendar command line option; -first-weekday: Command-Line Usage. (line 75) * calendar command line option; -h: Command-Line Usage. (line 57) * calendar command line option; -help: Command-Line Usage. (line 57) * calendar command line option; -L: Command-Line Usage. (line 61) * calendar command line option; -l: Command-Line Usage. (line 100) * calendar command line option; -lines: Command-Line Usage. (line 100) * calendar command line option; -locale: Command-Line Usage. (line 61) * calendar command line option; -m: Command-Line Usage. (line 111) * calendar command line option; -months: Command-Line Usage. (line 111) * calendar command line option; -s: Command-Line Usage. (line 106) * calendar command line option; -spacing: Command-Line Usage. (line 106) * calendar command line option; -t: Command-Line Usage. (line 71) * calendar command line option; -type: Command-Line Usage. (line 71) * calendar command line option; -w: Command-Line Usage. (line 94) * calendar command line option; -width: Command-Line Usage. (line 94) * calendar command line option; month: Command-Line Usage. (line 86) * calendar command line option; year: Command-Line Usage. (line 82) * calendar() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 412) * call: Slicings. (line 39) * Call (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 121) * CALL (monitoring event): Events. (line 12) * CALL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1036) * call_args (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 438) * call_args_list (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 482) * call_at() (asyncio.loop method): Scheduling delayed callbacks. (line 37) * call_count (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 331) * call_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method): Error Handling API. (line 45) * CALL_FUNCTION_EX (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1088) * CALL_INTRINSIC_1 (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1292) * CALL_INTRINSIC_2 (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1353) * CALL_KW (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1061) * call_later() (asyncio.loop method): Scheduling delayed callbacks. (line 10) * call_list() (unittest.mock.call method): call. (line 20) * call_soon_threadsafe() (asyncio.loop method): Scheduling callbacks. (line 24) * call_soon() (asyncio.loop method): Scheduling callbacks. (line 6) * call_tracing() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 166) * call; instance: Emulating callable objects. (line 8) * call() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 221) * call() (in module subprocess): Older high-level API. (line 10) * call() (in module unittest.mock): call. (line 6) * callable: Glossary. (line 223) * Callable (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 19) * Callable (in module typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 22) * CallableProxyType (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 340) * callback: Glossary. (line 234) * callback (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 68) * callback_args (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 74) * callback_kwargs (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 74) * callback() (contextlib.ExitStack method): Utilities. (line 582) * callbacks (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 258) * called (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 319) * CalledProcessError: Using the subprocess Module. (line 205) * calloc (C function): Overview<4>. (line 33) * CAN (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 97) * CAN_BCM (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 145) * can_change_color() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 30) * can_fetch() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 33) * CAN_ISOTP (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 184) * CAN_J1939 (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 193) * CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 160) * CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 173) * can_symlink() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 75) * can_write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 47) * can_write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 14) * can_xattr() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 79) * CANCEL (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 155) * cancel_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 82) * cancel_dump_traceback_later() (in module faulthandler): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout. (line 29) * cancel_join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 198) * cancel() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 113) * cancel() (asyncio.Handle method): Callback Handles. (line 18) * cancel() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 199) * cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 16) * cancel() (sched.scheduler method): Scheduler Objects. (line 41) * cancel() (threading.Timer method): Timer objects. (line 35) * cancel() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler method): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 48) * cancelled() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 71) * cancelled() (asyncio.Handle method): Callback Handles. (line 23) * cancelled() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 263) * cancelled() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 23) * CancelledError: Exception classes. (line 6) * CancelledError <1>: Exceptions<13>. (line 18) * cancelling() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 320) * CannotSendHeader: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 169) * CannotSendRequest: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 165) * canonic() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 149) * canonical() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 269) * canonical() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 143) * canonicalize() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 6) * capa() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 24) * capitalize() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 472) * capitalize() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 472) * capitalize() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 22) * capitals (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 146) * CapsuleType (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 293) * captured_stderr() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 328) * captured_stdin() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 328) * captured_stdout() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 328) * captureWarnings() (in module logging): Integration with the warnings module. (line 9) * capwords() (in module string): Helper functions. (line 6) * case block: Irrefutable Case Blocks. (line 6) * casefold() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 32) * cast() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 33) * cast() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 6) * cast() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 273) * catch_threading_exception() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 47) * catch_unraisable_exception() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 596) * catch_warnings (class in warnings): Available Context Managers. (line 6) * category() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 49) * cbreak() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 35) * cbrt() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 6) * CC: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 58) * ccc() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method): FTP_TLS objects. (line 98) * cdf() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 86) * CDLL (class in ctypes): Loading shared libraries. (line 9) * ceil() (in module math): Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 107) * ceil() (in module math) <1>: Floating point arithmetic. (line 6) * CellType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 70) * center() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 291) * center() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 291) * center() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 48) * CERT_NONE (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 11) * CERT_OPTIONAL (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 24) * CERT_REQUIRED (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 40) * cert_store_stats() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 88) * cert_time_to_seconds() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 6) * CertificateError: Exceptions<16>. (line 94) * certificates: SSL Contexts. (line 762) * CFLAGS: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 59) * CFLAGS <1>: Performance options. (line 28) * CFLAGS <2>: Compiler flags. (line 26) * CFLAGS <3>: Compiler flags. (line 28) * CFLAGS <4>: Compiler flags. (line 32) * CFLAGS <5>: Compiler flags. (line 54) * CFLAGS <6>: Linker flags. (line 18) * CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags. (line 24) * CFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Compiler flags. (line 61) * CFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Linker flags. (line 26) * cfmakecbreak() (in module tty): tty — Terminal control functions. (line 28) * cfmakeraw() (in module tty): tty — Terminal control functions. (line 20) * CFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes): Function prototypes. (line 15) * cget() (tkinter.font.Font method): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 51) * cgi_directories (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 466) * CGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 11) * CGIHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server): http server — HTTP servers. (line 440) * CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers. (line 50) * chain() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 105) * chaining; comparisons: Comparisons. (line 19) * chaining; comparisons <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * ChainMap (class in collections): ChainMap objects. (line 16) * ChainMap (class in typing): Aliases to types in collections. (line 28) * change_cwd() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 83) * CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 471) * CHAR_MAX (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 571) * character: Immutable sequences. (line 15) * character <1>: Subscriptions. (line 58) * character <2>: unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 6) * CharacterDataHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 278) * characters_written (BlockingIOError attribute): OS exceptions. (line 19) * characters() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 129) * charmap_build() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 45) * Charset (class in email.charset): email charset Representing character sets. (line 24) * charset() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 68) * chdir() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 364) * chdir() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 116) * check (lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 159) * check__all__() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 676) * check_call() (in module subprocess): Older high-level API. (line 43) * check_disallow_instantiation() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 730) * CHECK_EG_MATCH (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 476) * CHECK_EXC_MATCH (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 468) * check_free_after_iterating() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 664) * check_hostname (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 493) * check_impl_detail() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 292) * check_no_resource_warning() (in module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. (line 25) * check_output() (doctest.OutputChecker method): OutputChecker objects. (line 17) * check_output() (in module subprocess): Older high-level API. (line 80) * check_returncode() (subprocess.CompletedProcess method): Using the subprocess Module. (line 134) * check_syntax_error() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 570) * check_syntax_warning() (in module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. (line 32) * check_unused_args() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 91) * check_warnings() (in module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. (line 48) * check() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 58) * check() (in module tabnanny): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation. (line 17) * checkcache() (in module linecache): linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 43) * CHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute): py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 109) * checkfuncname() (in module bdb): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 455) * checksizeof() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 446) * checksum; Cyclic Redundancy Check: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 123) * chflags() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 135) * chgat() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 136) * childNodes (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 49) * ChildProcessError: OS exceptions. (line 25) * children (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 35) * children (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 34) * children (tkinter.Tk attribute): Tkinter Modules. (line 88) * chksum (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 137) * chmod() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 176) * chmod() (pathlib.Path method): Permissions and ownership. (line 36) * choice() (in module random): Functions for sequences. (line 6) * choice() (in module secrets): Random numbers. (line 15) * choices (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 63) * choices() (in module random): Functions for sequences. (line 11) * Chooser (class in tkinter.colorchooser): tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog. (line 15) * chown() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 246) * chown() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 397) * chroot() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 273) * CHRTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 291) * cipher() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 229) * circle() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 211) * CIRCUMFLEX (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 251) * CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 284) * clamp (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 152) * Clamped (class in decimal): Signals. (line 20) * class: Glossary. (line 239) * Class (class in pyclbr): Class Objects<2>. (line 6) * Class (class in symtable): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 150) * CLASS (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 19) * class instance; attribute: Class instances. (line 6) * class instance; attribute; assignment: Class instances. (line 21) * class instance; call: Calls. (line 152) * class object; call: Custom classes. (line 19) * class object; call <1>: Custom classes. (line 31) * class object; call <2>: Calls. (line 148) * class variable: Glossary. (line 245) * class; attribute: Custom classes. (line 19) * class; attribute; assignment: Custom classes. (line 28) * class; body: Executing the class body. (line 6) * class; constructor: Basic customization. (line 39) * class; definition: The return statement. (line 6) * class; definition <1>: Class definitions. (line 6) * class; instance: Class instances. (line 6) * class; name: Class definitions. (line 6) * ClassDef (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 169) * ClassMethodDescriptorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 116) * ClassVar (in module typing): Special forms. (line 193) * clause: Compound statements. (line 18) * CLD_CONTINUED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1051) * CLD_DUMPED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1051) * CLD_EXITED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1051) * CLD_KILLED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1051) * CLD_STOPPED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1051) * CLD_TRAPPED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1051) * clean() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 86) * cleandoc() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 71) * CleanImport (class in test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 87) * cleanup functions: Process Control. (line 33) * CLEANUP_THROW (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 351) * cleanup() (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory method): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 202) * clear (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 126) * Clear Breakpoint: Help menu Shell and Editor. (line 30) * clear_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 369) * clear_all_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 364) * clear_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 358) * clear_break() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 353) * clear_cache() (in module filecmp): filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons. (line 56) * clear_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo class method): The ZoneInfo class. (line 58) * clear_content() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 672) * clear_flags() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 183) * clear_frames() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 177) * clear_history() (in module readline): History list. (line 8) * clear_overloads() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 303) * clear_session_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 90) * clear_traces() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 6) * clear_traps() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 187) * clear() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 224) * clear() (asyncio.Event method): Event. (line 58) * clear() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 43) * clear() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 152) * clear() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 122) * clear() (dbm.ndbm.ndbm method): dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. (line 75) * clear() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 165) * clear() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 668) * clear() (frame method): Frame object methods. (line 8) * clear() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 213) * clear() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 78) * clear() (in module turtle): More drawing control. (line 23) * clear() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 212) * clear() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * clear() (threading.Event method): Event objects. (line 36) * clear() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 58) * clearcache() (in module linecache): linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 38) * clearok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 157) * clearscreen() (in module turtle): Window control. (line 46) * clearstamp() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 282) * clearstamps() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 301) * client_address (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 71) * client_address (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler attribute): Request Handler Objects. (line 47) * Client() (in module multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients. (line 34) * CLOCK_BOOTTIME (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 9) * clock_getres() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 40) * clock_gettime_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 63) * clock_gettime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 50) * CLOCK_HIGHRES (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 23) * CLOCK_MONOTONIC (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 34) * CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 43) * CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 52) * CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 61) * CLOCK_PROF (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 69) * CLOCK_REALTIME (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 129) * clock_seq (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 125) * clock_seq_hi_variant (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 113) * clock_seq_low (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 116) * clock_settime_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 84) * clock_settime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 72) * CLOCK_TAI (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 77) * CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 89) * CLOCK_UPTIME (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 97) * CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 107) * CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX (in module time): Clock ID Constants. (line 117) * CLONE_FILES (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_FS (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWCGROUP (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWIPC (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWNET (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWNS (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWPID (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWTIME (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWUSER (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_NEWUTS (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_SIGHAND (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_SYSVSEM (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_THREAD (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * CLONE_VM (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 628) * clone() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 111) * clone() (email.generator.Generator method): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 207) * clone() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 223) * clone() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 32) * cloneNode() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 147) * close (in module os): Sub-interpreter support. (line 196) * close_clients() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 44) * close_connection (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 80) * close() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method): Process Watchers. (line 81) * close() (asyncio.BaseTransport method): Base Transport. (line 6) * close() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 43) * close() (asyncio.Runner method): Runner context manager. (line 49) * close() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 32) * close() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 37) * close() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 59) * close() (contextlib.ExitStack method): Utilities. (line 614) * close() (coroutine method): Coroutine Objects. (line 50) * close() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm method): dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. (line 84) * close() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 118) * close() (dbm.ndbm.ndbm method): dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. (line 71) * close() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser method): FeedParser API. (line 65) * close() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 369) * close() (generator method): Generator-iterator methods. (line 65) * close() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 15) * close() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 152) * close() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 62) * close() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 132) * close() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 21) * close() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 9) * close() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 48) * close() (logging.FileHandler method): FileHandler. (line 27) * close() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 74) * close() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 56) * close() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method): NTEventLogHandler. (line 29) * close() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 20) * close() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method): SysLogHandler. (line 46) * close() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 269) * close() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 215) * close() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 107) * close() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 183) * close() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 35) * close() (multiprocessing.connection.Listener method): Listeners and Clients. (line 91) * close() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 172) * close() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 229) * close() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 174) * close() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory method): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 93) * close() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 225) * close() (os.scandir method): Files and Directories. (line 876) * close() (select.devpoll method): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 12) * close() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 65) * close() (select.kqueue method): Kqueue Objects. (line 6) * close() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 137) * close() (shelve.Shelf method): shelve — Python object persistence. (line 77) * close() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 41) * close() (sqlite3.Blob method): Blob objects. (line 37) * close() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 88) * close() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 153) * close() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 325) * close() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method): BaseHandler Objects. (line 14) * close() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 13) * close() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 29) * Close() (winreg.PyHKEY method): Registry Handle Objects. (line 34) * close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 28) * close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method): XMLParser Objects. (line 20) * close() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method): XMLPullParser Objects. (line 41) * close() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method): IncrementalParser Objects. (line 13) * close() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 107) * CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 85) * closed (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 75) * closed (io.IOBase attribute): I/O Base Classes. (line 58) * closed (mmap.mmap attribute): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 189) * closed (select.devpoll attribute): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 18) * closed (select.epoll attribute): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 69) * closed (select.kqueue attribute): Kqueue Objects. (line 10) * CloseKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 8) * closelog() (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 78) * closerange() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 32) * closing() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 152) * closure variable: Glossary. (line 250) * clrtobot() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 162) * clrtoeol() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 168) * Cmd (class in cmd): cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters. (line 15) * cmd (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 216) * cmd (subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 173) * cmdloop() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 8) * cmdqueue (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 143) * cmp_op (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 21) * cmp_to_key() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 118) * cmp() (in module filecmp): filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons. (line 16) * cmpfiles() (in module filecmp): filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons. (line 36) * CMSG_LEN() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 336) * CMSG_SPACE() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 353) * co_argcount (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_argcount (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 14) * CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 48) * CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 52) * co_cellvars (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_cellvars (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 39) * co_code (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_code (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 54) * co_consts (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_consts (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 58) * CO_COROUTINE (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 42) * CO_COROUTINE (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 35) * co_filename (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_filename (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 66) * co_firstlineno (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_firstlineno (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 70) * co_flags (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_flags (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 85) * co_freevars (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_freevars (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 45) * CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 54) * CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 69) * CO_FUTURE_DIVISION (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 51) * CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 66) * CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 60) * CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 63) * CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 57) * CO_GENERATOR (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 39) * CO_GENERATOR (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 30) * CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 45) * CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 43) * co_kwonlyargcount (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_kwonlyargcount (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 25) * co_lines() (codeobject method): Methods on code objects. (line 43) * co_lnotab (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_lnotab (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 73) * co_name (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_name (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 6) * co_names (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_names (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 62) * CO_NESTED (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 36) * CO_NESTED (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 26) * CO_NEWLOCALS (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 27) * CO_NEWLOCALS (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 13) * co_nlocals (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_nlocals (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 30) * CO_OPTIMIZED (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 24) * CO_OPTIMIZED (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 9) * co_positions() (codeobject method): Methods on code objects. (line 6) * co_posonlyargcount (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_posonlyargcount (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 20) * co_qualname (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_qualname (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 9) * co_stacksize (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_stacksize (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 82) * CO_VARARGS (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 30) * CO_VARARGS (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 18) * CO_VARKEYWORDS (C macro): Code Object Flags. (line 33) * CO_VARKEYWORDS (in module inspect): Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 22) * co_varnames (code object attribute): Code objects. (line 16) * co_varnames (codeobject attribute): Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 34) * code (SystemExit attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 407) * code (urllib.error.HTTPError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 43) * code (urllib.response.addinfourl attribute): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 40) * code (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError attribute): Exceptions<19>. (line 14) * code (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute): ExpatError Exceptions. (line 9) * code object: Code objects. (line 6) * code object <1>: Methods. (line 43) * code object <2>: marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 33) * code object <3>: Cell Objects. (line 57) * code_context (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 32) * code_context (inspect.Traceback attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 72) * code_info() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 11) * code; block: Execution model. (line 6) * Codec (class in codecs): Stateless Encoding and Decoding. (line 9) * CodecInfo (class in codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 67) * CodecRegistryError: encodings — Encodings package. (line 41) * Codecs: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 8) * Codecs; decode: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 8) * Codecs; encode: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 8) * codecs.escape_decode() (in module codecs): Standalone Codec Functions. (line 22) * codecs.escape_encode() (in module codecs): Standalone Codec Functions. (line 12) * coded_value (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 53) * codepoint2name (in module html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities. (line 35) * codes (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 16) * CODESET (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 187) * CodeType (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 56) * coding; style: Intermezzo Coding Style. (line 6) * col_offset (ast.AST attribute): Node classes. (line 50) * collapse_addresses() (in module ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions. (line 43) * collapse_rfc2231_value() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 200) * collect() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 34) * collectedDurations (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 277) * Collection (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 37) * Collection (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 23) * colno (json.JSONDecodeError attribute): Exceptions<17>. (line 27) * colno (re.PatternError attribute): Exceptions<3>. (line 32) * colno (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 57) * COLON (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 188) * colon (mailbox.Maildir attribute): Maildir objects. (line 45) * COLONEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 314) * COLOR_BLACK (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 641) * COLOR_BLUE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 644) * color_content() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 45) * COLOR_CYAN (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 647) * COLOR_GREEN (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 650) * COLOR_MAGENTA (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 653) * color_pair() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 53) * COLOR_PAIRS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 41) * COLOR_RED (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 656) * COLOR_WHITE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 659) * COLOR_YELLOW (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 662) * color() (in module turtle): Color control. (line 104) * colormode() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 34) * COLORS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 36) * COLS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 46) * column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 35) * columnize() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 88) * COLUMNS: Functions<6>. (line 595) * COLUMNS <1>: Functions<6>. (line 598) * columns (os.terminal_size attribute): Querying the size of a terminal. (line 30) * comb() (in module math): Number-theoretic functions. (line 6) * combinations_with_replacement() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 170) * combinations() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 128) * combine() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 180) * combining() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 59) * Combobox (class in tkinter.ttk): ttk Combobox. (line 6) * comma: Parenthesized forms. (line 20) * COMMA (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 191) * command (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 93) * command line: Complete Python programs. (line 25) * command line option; -?: Generic options. (line 6) * command line option; -b: Miscellaneous options. (line 6) * command line option; -B: Miscellaneous options. (line 16) * command line option; -build: Cross Compiling Options. (line 12) * command line option; -c: Interface options. (line 37) * command line option; -check-hash-based-pycs: Miscellaneous options. (line 21) * command line option; -d: Miscellaneous options. (line 35) * command line option; -disable-gil: General Options. (line 224) * command line option; -disable-ipv6: General Options. (line 16) * command line option; -disable-test-modules: Install Options. (line 24) * command line option; -E: Miscellaneous options. (line 43) * command line option; -enable-big-digits: General Options. (line 21) * command line option; -enable-bolt: Performance options. (line 62) * command line option; -enable-experimental-jit: General Options. (line 236) * command line option; -enable-framework: macOS Options. (line 15) * command line option; -enable-framework <1>: macOS Options. (line 17) * command line option; -enable-framework <2>: iOS Options. (line 8) * command line option; -enable-loadable-sqlite-extensions: General Options. (line 6) * command line option; -enable-optimizations: Performance options. (line 10) * command line option; -enable-profiling: Performance options. (line 128) * command line option; -enable-pystats: General Options. (line 131) * command line option; -enable-shared: Linker options<2>. (line 6) * command line option; -enable-universalsdk: macOS Options. (line 8) * command line option; -enable-universalsdk <1>: macOS Options. (line 10) * command line option; -enable-wasm-dynamic-linking: WebAssembly Options. (line 16) * command line option; -enable-wasm-pthreads: WebAssembly Options. (line 26) * command line option; -exec-prefix: Install Options. (line 16) * command line option; -h: Generic options. (line 6) * command line option; -help: Generic options. (line 6) * command line option; -help-all: Generic options. (line 27) * command line option; -help-env: Generic options. (line 13) * command line option; -help-xoptions: Generic options. (line 20) * command line option; -host: Cross Compiling Options. (line 16) * command line option; -i: Miscellaneous options. (line 50) * command line option; -I: Miscellaneous options. (line 71) * command line option; -J: Options you shouldn’t use. (line 6) * command line option; -m: Interface options. (line 51) * command line option; -O: Miscellaneous options. (line 83) * command line option; -OO: Miscellaneous options. (line 93) * command line option; -P: Miscellaneous options. (line 102) * command line option; -prefix: Install Options. (line 6) * command line option; -q: Miscellaneous options. (line 121) * command line option; -R: Miscellaneous options. (line 128) * command line option; -s: Miscellaneous options. (line 153) * command line option; -S: Miscellaneous options. (line 165) * command line option; -u: Miscellaneous options. (line 173) * command line option; -V: Generic options. (line 33) * command line option; -v: Miscellaneous options. (line 183) * command line option; -version: Generic options. (line 33) * command line option; -W: Miscellaneous options. (line 196) * command line option; -with-address-sanitizer: Debug options. (line 59) * command line option; -with-app-store-compliance: macOS Options. (line 56) * command line option; -with-app-store-compliance <1>: macOS Options. (line 58) * command line option; -with-assertions: Debug options. (line 34) * command line option; -with-build-python: Cross Compiling Options. (line 20) * command line option; -with-builtin-hashlib-hashes: Security Options. (line 21) * command line option; -with-computed-gotos: Performance options. (line 99) * command line option; -with-dbmliborder: General Options. (line 68) * command line option; -with-dtrace: Debug options. (line 51) * command line option; -with-emscripten-target: WebAssembly Options. (line 6) * command line option; -with-ensurepip: Install Options. (line 32) * command line option; -with-framework-name: macOS Options. (line 51) * command line option; -with-framework-name <1>: iOS Options. (line 13) * command line option; -with-hash-algorithm: Security Options. (line 6) * command line option; -with-libc: Libraries options. (line 58) * command line option; -with-libm: Libraries options. (line 53) * command line option; -with-libs: Libraries options. (line 6) * command line option; -with-lto: Performance options. (line 46) * command line option; -with-memory-sanitizer: Debug options. (line 69) * command line option; -with-openssl: Libraries options. (line 63) * command line option; -with-openssl-rpath: Libraries options. (line 69) * command line option; -with-pkg-config: General Options. (line 118) * command line option; -with-platlibdir: General Options. (line 96) * command line option; -with-pydebug: Debug options. (line 6) * command line option; -with-readline: Libraries options. (line 35) * command line option; -with-ssl-default-suites: Security Options. (line 40) * command line option; -with-strict-overflow: Performance options. (line 132) * command line option; -with-suffix: General Options. (line 32) * command line option; -with-system-expat: Libraries options. (line 10) * command line option; -with-system-libmpdec: Libraries options. (line 15) * command line option; -with-thread-sanitizer: Debug options. (line 83) * command line option; -with-trace-refs: Debug options. (line 11) * command line option; -with-tzpath: General Options. (line 44) * command line option; -with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer: Debug options. (line 76) * command line option; -with-universal-archs: macOS Options. (line 23) * command line option; -with-valgrind: Debug options. (line 47) * command line option; -with-wheel-pkg-dir: General Options. (line 106) * command line option; -without-c-locale-coercion: General Options. (line 81) * command line option; -without-decimal-contextvar: General Options. (line 57) * command line option; -without-doc-strings: Performance options. (line 118) * command line option; -without-freelists: General Options. (line 90) * command line option; -without-mimalloc: Performance options. (line 104) * command line option; -without-pymalloc: Performance options. (line 111) * command line option; -without-readline: Libraries options. (line 45) * command line option; -without-static-libpython: Linker options<2>. (line 11) * command line option; -x: Miscellaneous options. (line 257) * command line option; -X: Miscellaneous options. (line 262) * command line option; BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS: Performance options. (line 87) * command line option; BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS: Performance options. (line 93) * command line option; BZIP2_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 8) * command line option; BZIP2_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 10) * command line option; CC: C compiler options. (line 6) * command line option; CFLAGS: C compiler options. (line 10) * command line option; CONFIG_SITE: Cross Compiling Options. (line 26) * command line option; CPP: C compiler options. (line 14) * command line option; CPPFLAGS: C compiler options. (line 18) * command line option; CURSES_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 15) * command line option; CURSES_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 17) * command line option; GDBM_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 22) * command line option; GDBM_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 24) * command line option; HOSTRUNNER: Cross Compiling Options. (line 38) * command line option; LDFLAGS: Linker options. (line 6) * command line option; LIBB2_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 28) * command line option; LIBB2_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 30) * command line option; LIBEDIT_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 35) * command line option; LIBEDIT_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 37) * command line option; LIBFFI_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 42) * command line option; LIBFFI_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 44) * command line option; LIBLZMA_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 59) * command line option; LIBLZMA_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 61) * command line option; LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 49) * command line option; LIBMPDEC_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 51) * command line option; LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 66) * command line option; LIBREADLINE_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 68) * command line option; LIBS: Linker options. (line 10) * command line option; LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 73) * command line option; LIBSQLITE3_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 75) * command line option; LIBUUID_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 80) * command line option; LIBUUID_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 82) * command line option; MACHDEP: Linker options. (line 14) * command line option; PANEL_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 87) * command line option; PANEL_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 89) * command line option; PKG_CONFIG: General Options. (line 258) * command line option; PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR: General Options. (line 262) * command line option; PKG_CONFIG_PATH: General Options. (line 264) * command line option; TCLTK_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 96) * command line option; TCLTK_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 98) * command line option; ZLIB_CFLAGS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 102) * command line option; ZLIB_LIBS: Options for third-party dependencies. (line 104) * CommandCompiler (class in codeop): codeop — Compile Python code. (line 65) * commands (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 160) * comment: Comments. (line 6) * comment (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 62) * comment (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * COMMENT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 71) * comment (zipfile.ZipFile attribute): ZipFile Objects. (line 362) * comment (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 89) * comment_url (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 67) * Comment() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 72) * comment() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 49) * comment() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler method): LexicalHandler Objects. (line 18) * commenters (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 85) * CommentHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 336) * commit() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 72) * common (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 63) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983: Build and C API Changes<8>. (line 77) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <1>: Build and C API Changes<9>. (line 47) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2008-5983 <2>: Process-wide parameters. (line 256) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876: Security<41>. (line 23) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <1>: Security<44>. (line 14) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2012-0876 <2>: Security<50>. (line 14) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-0340: Security<21>. (line 22) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2013-1753: Library<101>. (line 193) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-0224: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. (line 30) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2014-4616: Library<101>. (line 1122) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283: Security<47>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2015-1283 <1>: Security<52>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718: Security<41>. (line 22) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <1>: Security<41>. (line 23) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <2>: Security<41>. (line 35) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <3>: Security<44>. (line 13) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <4>: Security<44>. (line 14) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <5>: Security<45>. (line 7) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <6>: Security<50>. (line 13) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <7>: Security<50>. (line 14) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0718 <8>: Security<50>. (line 26) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772: Security<47>. (line 8) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-0772 <1>: Security<52>. (line 8) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110: Library<80>. (line 82) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-1000110 <1>: Library<87>. (line 267) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183: Library<79>. (line 178) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-2183 <1>: Library<87>. (line 205) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-3189: Windows<26>. (line 25) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472: Security<41>. (line 35) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <1>: Security<45>. (line 7) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-4472 <2>: Security<50>. (line 26) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300: Security<41>. (line 24) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <1>: Security<44>. (line 15) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-5300 <2>: Security<50>. (line 15) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063: Security<41>. (line 21) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <1>: Security<44>. (line 12) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2016-9063 <2>: Security<50>. (line 12) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-1000158: Security<49>. (line 21) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233: Security<41>. (line 20) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <1>: Security<44>. (line 11) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2017-9233 <2>: Security<50>. (line 11) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060: Security<38>. (line 48) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <1>: Security<39>. (line 15) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1060 <2>: Security<42>. (line 11) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061: Security<38>. (line 49) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <1>: Security<39>. (line 16) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-1061 <2>: Security<42>. (line 12) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-14647: Security<38>. (line 26) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-25032: Windows<26>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970: Security<38>. (line 38) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2018-8970 <1>: Security<39>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-12900: Windows<26>. (line 26) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-15903: Security<34>. (line 20) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-18348: Security<31>. (line 7) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-20907: Library<44>. (line 186) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-5010: Security<38>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9740: Security<36>. (line 9) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2019-9948: Security<35>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735: Other CPython Implementation Changes. (line 56) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <1>: Notable security feature in 3 10 7. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <2>: Notable security feature in 3 9 14. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <3>: Notable security feature in 3 8 14. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <4>: Notable security feature in 3 7 14. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-10735 <5>: Integer string conversion length limitation. (line 20) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15523: Security<28>. (line 13) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-15801: Security<28>. (line 7) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2020-8492: Security<30>. (line 11) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2021-3426: Security<23>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-26488: Windows<26>. (line 28) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-37434: Windows<23>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-42919: Security<19>. (line 24) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303: Security<15>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2022-4303 <1>: Security<15>. (line 11) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-0286: Security<15>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-24329: Security<14>. (line 19) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043: email. (line 22) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-27043 <1>: Library<18>. (line 429) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-40217: Security<13>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425: xml. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <1>: Security<10>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <2>: Documentation<12>. (line 6) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2023-52425 <3>: XML security. (line 47) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718: tarfile. (line 13) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <1>: tarfile. (line 21) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-12718 <2>: Security<2>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030: os. (line 38) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <1>: tempfile. (line 8) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2024-4030 <2>: Security<8>. (line 11) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138: tarfile. (line 8) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4138 <1>: Security<2>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330: tarfile. (line 20) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4330 <1>: Security<2>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4435: tarfile. (line 25) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517: os path<2>. (line 10) * Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures; CVE 2025-4517 <1>: Security<2>. (line 11) * Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 257: Recipes and best practices. (line 16) * Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295: ssl<2>. (line 21) * Common Weakness Enumeration; CWE 295 <1>: Library<28>. (line 516) * common_dirs (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 75) * common_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 79) * common_funny (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 83) * common_types (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 158) * commonpath() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 68) * commonprefix() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 84) * communicate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process method): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 50) * communicate() (subprocess.Popen method): Popen Objects. (line 36) * Compare (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 91) * compare_digest() (in module hmac): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 114) * compare_digest() (in module secrets): Other functions. (line 6) * compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 237) * compare_networks() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 352) * COMPARE_OP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 797) * compare_signal() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 277) * compare_signal() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 160) * compare_to() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method): Snapshot. (line 13) * compare_total_mag() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 285) * compare_total_mag() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 192) * compare_total() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 281) * compare_total() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 167) * compare() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 273) * compare() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 149) * compare() (difflib.Differ method): Differ Objects. (line 38) * comparison: Comparisons. (line 6) * COMPARISON_FLAGS (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 102) * comparisons: Basic customization. (line 187) * Compat32 (class in email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 563) * compat32 (in module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 618) * Compile (class in codeop): codeop — Compile Python code. (line 56) * compile_command() (in module code): code — Interpreter base classes. (line 60) * compile_command() (in module codeop): codeop — Compile Python code. (line 29) * compile_dir() (in module compileall): Public functions. (line 6) * compile_file() (in module compileall): Public functions. (line 96) * compile_path() (in module compileall): Public functions. (line 161) * compile() (in module py_compile): py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 24) * compile() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 6) * compileall command line option; -b: Command-line use. (line 66) * compileall command line option; -d: Command-line use. (line 32) * compileall command line option; -e: Command-line use. (line 107) * compileall command line option; -f: Command-line use. (line 22) * compileall command line option; -hardlink-dupes: Command-line use. (line 111) * compileall command line option; -i: Command-line use. (line 60) * compileall command line option; -invalidation-mode: Command-line use. (line 87) * compileall command line option; -j: Command-line use. (line 81) * compileall command line option; -l: Command-line use. (line 17) * compileall command line option; -o: Command-line use. (line 101) * compileall command line option; -p: Command-line use. (line 47) * compileall command line option; -q: Command-line use. (line 26) * compileall command line option; -r: Command-line use. (line 74) * compileall command line option; -s: Command-line use. (line 40) * compileall command line option; -x: Command-line use. (line 54) * compileall command line option; directory: Command-line use. (line 9) * compileall command line option; file: Command-line use. (line 9) * compiler_flag (__future__._Feature attribute): Module Contents<5>. (line 88) * complete_statement() (in module sqlite3): Module functions. (line 104) * complete() (rlcompleter.Completer method): rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline. (line 43) * completedefault() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 82) * CompletedProcess (class in subprocess): Using the subprocess Module. (line 100) * Completer (class in rlcompleter): rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline. (line 39) * complex (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 368) * Complex (class in numbers): The numeric tower. (line 6) * complex literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * complex number: Glossary. (line 278) * complex number; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * complex; number: numbers Complex complex. (line 6) * compound; statement: Compound statements. (line 6) * comprehension (class in ast): Comprehensions. (line 58) * comprehensions: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. (line 6) * compress_size (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 140) * compress_type (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 85) * compress() (bz2.BZ2Compressor method): Incremental de compression. (line 15) * compress() (in module bz2): One-shot de compression. (line 6) * compress() (in module gzip): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 191) * compress() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 212) * compress() (in module lzma): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 183) * compress() (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 43) * compress() (lzma.LZMACompressor method): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 81) * compress() (zlib.Compress method): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 203) * compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 58) * compressed (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 107) * compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 251) * compressed (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 319) * compression() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 247) * CompressionError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 209) * compressobj() (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 80) * COMSPEC: Process Management. (line 777) * COMSPEC <1>: Popen Constructor. (line 112) * concat() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 176) * Concatenate (in module typing): Special forms. (line 74) * concatenation; operation: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * cond (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 96) * Condition (class in asyncio): Condition. (line 6) * Condition (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 32) * Condition (class in threading): Condition objects. (line 72) * condition (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 153) * Condition() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 172) * Conditional; expression: Boolean operations. (line 6) * conditional; expression: Conditional expressions. (line 6) * config() (tkinter.font.Font method): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 55) * ConfigParser (class in configparser): ConfigParser Objects. (line 6) * configuration information: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information. (line 10) * configuration; file: configparser — Configuration file parser. (line 8) * configure_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 265) * configure() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 24) * CONFORM (enum.FlagBoundary attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 689) * confstr_names (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 28) * confstr() (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 6) * conjugate() (complex number method): Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 94) * conjugate() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 204) * conjugate() (numbers.Complex method): The numeric tower. (line 23) * connect_accepted_socket() (asyncio.loop method): Creating network servers. (line 146) * connect_ex() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 86) * connect_read_pipe() (asyncio.loop method): Working with pipes. (line 6) * connect_write_pipe() (asyncio.loop method): Working with pipes. (line 22) * connect() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 89) * connect() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 143) * connect() (in module sqlite3): Module functions. (line 6) * connect() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method): Managers. (line 76) * connect() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 33) * connect() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 62) * Connection (class in multiprocessing.connection): Connection Objects. (line 13) * Connection (class in sqlite3): Connection objects. (line 6) * connection (sqlite3.Cursor attribute): Cursor objects. (line 176) * connection_lost() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method): Base Protocol. (line 23) * connection_made() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method): Base Protocol. (line 15) * ConnectionAbortedError: OS exceptions. (line 45) * ConnectionError: OS exceptions. (line 30) * ConnectionRefusedError: OS exceptions. (line 51) * ConnectionResetError: OS exceptions. (line 57) * ConnectRegistry() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 17) * const (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 58) * constant: Literals. (line 6) * Constant (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 6) * constructor() (in module copyreg): copyreg — Register pickle support functions. (line 17) * consumed (asyncio.LimitOverrunError attribute): Exceptions<13>. (line 67) * container: Objects values and types. (line 67) * container <1>: Custom classes. (line 19) * Container (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 6) * Container (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 33) * container; iteration over: Iterator Types. (line 6) * CONTAINS_OP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 812) * contains() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 181) * content (urllib.error.ContentTooShortError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 72) * content_disposition (email.headerregistry.ContentDispositionHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 285) * content_manager (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 419) * content_type (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 272) * ContentDispositionHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 280) * ContentHandler (class in xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 18) * ContentManager (class in email.contentmanager): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. (line 12) * contents (ctypes._Pointer attribute): Arrays and pointers. (line 58) * contents() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 491) * contents() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 68) * contents() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 150) * ContentTooShortError: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 66) * ContentTransferEncoding (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 290) * ContentTypeHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 267) * context: Glossary. (line 291) * Context (class in contextvars): Manual Context Management. (line 20) * Context (class in decimal): Context objects. (line 115) * context (ssl.SSLSocket attribute): SSL Sockets. (line 340) * context management protocol: Context Manager Types. (line 6) * context management protocol <1>: Glossary. (line 308) * context manager: With Statement Context Managers. (line 14) * context manager <1>: Context Manager Types. (line 6) * context manager <2>: Glossary. (line 312) * context variable: Glossary. (line 318) * context_diff() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 155) * ContextDecorator (class in contextlib): Utilities. (line 382) * ContextManager (class in typing): Aliases to contextlib ABCs. (line 6) * contextmanager() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 31) * ContextVar (class in contextvars): Context Variables. (line 6) * CONTIG (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 33) * CONTIG_RO (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 35) * contiguous: shape strides suboffsets. (line 26) * contiguous <1>: Glossary. (line 326) * contiguous (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 487) * Continue (class in ast): Control flow. (line 99) * continue (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 226) * CONTINUOUS (enum.EnumCheck attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 628) * control() (select.kqueue method): Kqueue Objects. (line 22) * controlnames (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 240) * CONTTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 307) * convert_arg_line_to_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Customizing file parsing. (line 6) * convert_field() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 108) * CONVERT_VALUE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1168) * Cookie (class in http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 113) * CookieError: http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 34) * CookieJar (class in http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 46) * cookiejar (urllib.request.HTTPCookieProcessor attribute): HTTPCookieProcessor Objects. (line 8) * CookiePolicy (class in http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 77) * Coordinated Universal Time: time — Time access and conversions. (line 39) * Copy: Help menu Shell and Editor. (line 30) * COPY (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 159) * copy_abs() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 290) * copy_abs() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 209) * copy_context() (in module contextvars): Manual Context Management. (line 6) * copy_decimal() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 197) * copy_file_range() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 44) * COPY_FREE_VARS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1015) * copy_location() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 161) * copy_negate() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 294) * copy_negate() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 215) * copy_sign() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 298) * copy_sign() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 221) * copy; protocol: Pickling Class Instances. (line 111) * copy() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 47) * copy() (contextvars.Context method): Manual Context Management. (line 103) * copy() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 193) * copy() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 169) * copy() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 123) * copy() (hashlib.hash method): Hash Objects. (line 51) * copy() (hmac.HMAC method): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 84) * copy() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 99) * copy() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 68) * copy() (in module copy): copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 18) * copy() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 83) * copy() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 122) * copy() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * copy() (tkinter.font.Font method): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 59) * copy() (types.MappingProxyType method): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 256) * copy() (zlib.Compress method): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 224) * copy() (zlib.Decompress method): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 293) * copy2() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 154) * copyfile() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 17) * copyfileobj() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 6) * copying files: shutil — High-level file operations. (line 8) * copymode() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 59) * copyright (built-in variable): Constants added by the site module. (line 24) * copyright (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 178) * copyright (in module sys) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 190) * copysign() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 6) * copystat() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 77) * copytree() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 193) * coroutine: Special method lookup. (line 74) * coroutine <1>: Yield expressions. (line 54) * coroutine <2>: Glossary. (line 337) * Coroutine (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 127) * Coroutine (class in typing): Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 6) * coroutine function: Glossary. (line 345) * coroutine; function: Coroutine functions. (line 6) * coroutine() (in module types): Coroutine Utility Functions. (line 6) * CoroutineType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 42) * correlation() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 580) * cos() (in module cmath): Trigonometric functions<2>. (line 23) * cos() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 31) * cosh() (in module cmath): Hyperbolic functions<2>. (line 23) * cosh() (in module math): Hyperbolic functions. (line 21) * count (tracemalloc.Statistic attribute): Statistic. (line 15) * count (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute): StatisticDiff. (line 15) * count_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute): StatisticDiff. (line 20) * count() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 153) * count() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 36) * count() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 36) * count() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 53) * count() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 225) * count() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList method): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 332) * count() (sequence method): Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * count() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 62) * Counter (class in collections): Counter objects. (line 24) * Counter (class in typing): Aliases to types in collections. (line 39) * countOf() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 187) * countTestCases() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 737) * countTestCases() (unittest.TestSuite method): Grouping tests. (line 55) * covariance() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 558) * CoverageResults (class in trace): Programmatic Interface. (line 47) * CPPFLAGS: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 59) * CPPFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags. (line 8) * CPPFLAGS <2>: Preprocessor flags. (line 18) * CPPFLAGS <3>: Linker flags. (line 50) * cProfile command line option; -m: Instant User’s Manual. (line 99) * cProfile command line option; -o: Instant User’s Manual. (line 89) * cProfile command line option; -s: Instant User’s Manual. (line 93) * CPU time: Functions<5>. (line 247) * CPU time <1>: Functions<5>. (line 615) * cpu_count() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 13) * cpu_count() (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 37) * CPython: Glossary. (line 353) * cpython_only() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 528) * CR (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 64) * crawl_delay() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 50) * CRC (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 136) * crc_hqx() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 91) * crc32() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 98) * crc32() (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 121) * create_aggregate() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 157) * create_archive() (in module zipapp): Python API. (line 8) * create_autospec() (in module unittest.mock): create_autospec. (line 6) * CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 140) * create_collation() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 301) * create_configuration() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 148) * create_connection() (asyncio.loop method): Opening network connections. (line 6) * create_connection() (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 83) * create_datagram_endpoint() (asyncio.loop method): Opening network connections. (line 157) * create_decimal_from_float() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 225) * create_decimal() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 201) * create_default_context() (in module ssl): Context creation. (line 9) * CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 130) * create_eager_task_factory() (in module asyncio): Eager Task Factory. (line 32) * create_empty_file() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 92) * create_function() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 115) * create_future() (asyncio.loop method): Creating Futures and Tasks. (line 6) * create_git_ignore_file() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 215) * create_module() (importlib.abc.Loader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 103) * create_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 314) * create_module() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 23) * CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 54) * CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 59) * CREATE_NO_WINDOW (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 115) * create_server() (asyncio.loop method): Creating network servers. (line 6) * create_server() (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 114) * create_stats() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 86) * create_string_buffer() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 40) * create_subprocess_exec() (in module asyncio): Creating Subprocesses. (line 6) * create_subprocess_shell() (in module asyncio): Creating Subprocesses. (line 23) * create_system (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 100) * create_task() (asyncio.loop method): Creating Futures and Tasks. (line 17) * create_task() (asyncio.TaskGroup method): Task Groups. (line 17) * create_task() (in module asyncio): Creating Tasks. (line 10) * create_unicode_buffer() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 81) * create_unix_connection() (asyncio.loop method): Opening network connections. (line 242) * create_unix_server() (asyncio.loop method): Creating network servers. (line 116) * create_version (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 104) * create_window_function() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 212) * create() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 72) * create() (in module venv): API<2>. (line 235) * create() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 62) * createAttribute() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 46) * createAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 53) * createComment() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 34) * createDocument() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method): DOMImplementation Objects. (line 16) * createDocumentType() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method): DOMImplementation Objects. (line 26) * createElement() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 14) * createElementNS() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 21) * createfilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk method): File Handlers. (line 27) * CreateKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 35) * CreateKeyEx() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 63) * createLock() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 20) * createLock() (logging.NullHandler method): NullHandler. (line 24) * createProcessingInstruction() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 40) * createSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 72) * createSocket() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method): SysLogHandler. (line 50) * createTextNode() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 28) * credits (built-in variable): Constants added by the site module. (line 24) * CRITICAL (in module logging): Logging Levels. (line 45) * critical() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 86) * critical() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 307) * CRNCYSTR (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 295) * CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 89) * CRT_ASSERT (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 66) * CRT_ERROR (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 61) * CRT_WARN (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 56) * CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 70) * CRTDBG_MODE_FILE (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 74) * CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 80) * CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 85) * CrtSetReportFile() (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 48) * CrtSetReportMode() (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 40) * cryptography: Cryptographic Services. (line 6) * cssclass_month (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 293) * cssclass_month_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 286) * cssclass_noday (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 272) * cssclass_year (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 300) * cssclass_year_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 307) * cssclasses (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 259) * cssclasses_weekday_head (calendar.HTMLCalendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 279) * csv: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing. (line 8) * cte (email.headerregistry.ContentTransferEncoding attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 294) * cte_type (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 160) * ctermid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 9) * ctime() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 284) * ctime() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 736) * ctime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 93) * CTRL_BREAK_EVENT (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 199) * CTRL_C_EVENT (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 190) * ctrl() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 216) * curdir (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 104) * currency() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 468) * current context: Glossary. (line 360) * current_process() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 35) * current_task() (in module asyncio): Introspection. (line 6) * current_thread() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 16) * current() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox method): ttk Combobox. (line 8) * CurrentByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 195) * CurrentColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 199) * currentframe() (in module inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 161) * CurrentLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 203) * curs_set() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 61) * Cursor (class in sqlite3): Cursor objects. (line 19) * cursor() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 27) * cursyncup() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 172) * Cut: Help menu Shell and Editor. (line 30) * cwd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 336) * cwd() (pathlib.Path class method): Expanding and resolving paths. (line 30) * cycle() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 247) * CycleError: Exceptions<4>. (line 8) * Cyclic Redundancy Check: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 123) * D_FMT (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 198) * D_T_FMT (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 192) * daemon (multiprocessing.Process attribute): Process and exceptions. (line 134) * daemon (threading.Thread attribute): Thread objects. (line 202) * daemon_threads (socketserver.ThreadingMixIn attribute): Server Creation Notes. (line 55) * dangling; else: Compound statements. (line 55) * data: Objects values and types. (line 6) * data (collections.UserDict attribute): UserDict objects. (line 24) * data (collections.UserList attribute): UserList objects. (line 29) * data (collections.UserString attribute): UserString objects. (line 24) * data (plistlib.UID attribute): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 147) * data (select.kevent attribute): Kevent Objects. (line 175) * data (selectors.SelectorKey attribute): Classes<4>. (line 48) * data (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 39) * data (xml.dom.Comment attribute): Comment Objects. (line 9) * data (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction attribute): ProcessingInstruction Objects. (line 14) * data (xml.dom.Text attribute): Text and CDATASection Objects. (line 15) * data (xmlrpc.client.Binary attribute): Binary Objects. (line 12) * data_filter() (in module tarfile): Default named filters. (line 36) * data_open() (urllib.request.DataHandler method): DataHandler Objects. (line 6) * data_received() (asyncio.Protocol method): Streaming Protocols. (line 13) * data; tabular: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing. (line 8) * data; type: The standard type hierarchy. (line 6) * data() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 33) * DatabaseError: Exceptions<7>. (line 44) * databases: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. (line 8) * dataclass_transform() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 114) * dataclass() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 6) * DataError: Exceptions<7>. (line 51) * datagram_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol method): Datagram Protocols. (line 9) * DatagramHandler (class in logging.handlers): DatagramHandler. (line 10) * DatagramProtocol (class in asyncio): Base Protocols. (line 20) * DatagramRequestHandler (class in socketserver): Request Handler Objects. (line 56) * DatagramTransport (class in asyncio): Transports Hierarchy. (line 43) * DataHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 428) * date (class in datetime): date Objects. (line 13) * date_time (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 55) * date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 320) * date() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 442) * DateHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 136) * datetime (class in datetime): datetime Objects. (line 17) * DateTime (class in xmlrpc.client): DateTime Objects. (line 6) * datetime (email.headerregistry.DateHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 145) * Day (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 460) * day (datetime.date attribute): date Objects. (line 124) * day (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 313) * DAY_1 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * DAY_2 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * DAY_3 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * DAY_4 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * DAY_5 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * DAY_6 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * DAY_7 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 215) * day_abbr (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 438) * day_name (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 429) * daylight (in module time): Timezone Constants. (line 13) * Daylight Saving Time: time — Time access and conversions. (line 45) * days (datetime.timedelta attribute): timedelta Objects. (line 110) * DbfilenameShelf (class in shelve): Restrictions. (line 73) * DC1 (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 76) * DC2 (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 79) * DC3 (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 82) * DC4 (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 85) * dcgettext() (in module locale): Access to message catalogs. (line 10) * deactivate_stack_trampoline() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1764) * deallocation, object: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 6) * debug (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute): IMAP4 Objects. (line 398) * DEBUG (in module logging): Logging Levels. (line 24) * DEBUG (in module re): Flags. (line 32) * debug (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 429) * debug (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 162) * debug (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 529) * debug (zipfile.ZipFile attribute): ZipFile Objects. (line 356) * DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 20) * DEBUG_COLLECTABLE (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 302) * DEBUG_LEAK (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 322) * DEBUG_SAVEALL (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 316) * debug_src() (in module doctest): Debugging. (line 147) * DEBUG_STATS (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 297) * DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 306) * debug() (in module doctest): Debugging. (line 124) * debug() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 46) * debug() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 186) * debug() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 120) * debug() (unittest.TestSuite method): Grouping tests. (line 48) * debugger: Reference<2>. (line 132) * debugger <1>: Debug menu Shell window only. (line 15) * debugger <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 945) * debugger <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1603) * debugger; configuration; file: Debugger Commands. (line 59) * debugging: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 8) * debugging; assertions: The assert statement. (line 6) * debuglevel (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 69) * DebugRunner (class in doctest): Debugging. (line 168) * DECEMBER (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * Decimal (class in decimal): Decimal objects. (line 6) * decimal literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * decimal() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 31) * DecimalException (class in decimal): Signals. (line 29) * decode (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 78) * decode_header() (in module email.header): email header Internationalized headers. (line 183) * decode_params() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 217) * decode_rfc2231() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 187) * decode_source() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 72) * decode() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 92) * decode() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 92) * decode() (codecs.Codec method): Stateless Encoding and Decoding. (line 29) * decode() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method): IncrementalDecoder Objects. (line 28) * decode() (in module base64): Legacy Interface. (line 6) * decode() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 34) * decode() (in module quopri): quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 19) * decode() (json.JSONDecoder method): Encoders and Decoders. (line 87) * decode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary method): Binary Objects. (line 20) * decode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime method): DateTime Objects. (line 13) * decodebytes() (in module base64): Legacy Interface. (line 13) * DecodedGenerator (class in email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 231) * decodestring() (in module quopri): quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 41) * decomposition() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 75) * decompress() (bz2.BZ2Decompressor method): Incremental de compression. (line 45) * decompress() (in module bz2): One-shot de compression. (line 16) * decompress() (in module gzip): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 213) * decompress() (in module lzma): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 192) * decompress() (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 135) * decompress() (lzma.LZMADecompressor method): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 132) * decompress() (zlib.Decompress method): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 262) * decompressobj() (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 180) * decorator: Glossary. (line 370) * DEDENT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 91) * DEDENT token: Indentation. (line 33) * DEDENT token <1>: Compound statements. (line 55) * dedent() (in module textwrap): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 76) * deepcopy() (in module copy): copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 22) * def_prog_mode() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 70) * def_shell_mode() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 77) * default (in module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 504) * DEFAULT (in module unittest.mock): DEFAULT. (line 6) * default (inspect.Parameter attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 217) * default (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 44) * DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE (in module io): High-level Module Interface. (line 6) * default_bufsize (in module xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. (line 102) * default_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method): Error Handling API. (line 34) * default_factory (collections.defaultdict attribute): defaultdict objects. (line 50) * DEFAULT_FORMAT (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 339) * DEFAULT_IGNORES (in module filecmp): The dircmp class. (line 115) * default_loader() (in module xml.etree.ElementInclude): Functions<10>. (line 6) * default_max_str_digits (sys.int_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1155) * default_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method): BaseHandler Objects. (line 30) * DEFAULT_PROTOCOL (in module pickle): Module Interface. (line 21) * DEFAULT_TIMEOUT (unittest.mock.ThreadingMock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 999) * default_timer() (in module timeit): Python Interface. (line 32) * default; parameter; value: Function definitions. (line 68) * default() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 76) * default() (json.JSONEncoder method): Encoders and Decoders. (line 199) * DefaultContext (in module decimal): Context objects. (line 90) * DefaultCookiePolicy (class in http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 82) * defaultdict (class in collections): defaultdict objects. (line 6) * DefaultDict (class in typing): Aliases to types in collections. (line 6) * DefaultEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio): Policy Objects. (line 54) * DefaultHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 351) * DefaultHandlerExpand() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 358) * defaults() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 112) * DefaultSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 161) * defaultTestLoader (in module unittest): Loading and running tests. (line 457) * defaultTestResult() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 742) * defects (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 52) * defects (email.message.EmailMessage attribute): email message Representing an email message. (line 712) * defects (email.message.Message attribute): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 727) * defpath (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 144) * DefragResult (class in urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results. (line 40) * DefragResultBytes (class in urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results. (line 65) * degrees() (in module math): Angular conversion. (line 6) * degrees() (in module turtle): Settings for measurement. (line 6) * Del (class in ast): Variables. (line 11) * DEL (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 124) * del_param() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 383) * del_param() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 545) * delay_output() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 85) * delay() (in module turtle): Animation control. (line 6) * delayload (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar attribute): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 159) * delch() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 177) * dele() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 68) * Delete (class in ast): Statements. (line 139) * DELETE_ATTR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 615) * DELETE_DEREF (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1005) * DELETE_FAST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 966) * DELETE_GLOBAL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 629) * DELETE_NAME (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 569) * DELETE_SUBSCR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 270) * delete() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 329) * delete() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 76) * delete() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 73) * deleteacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 80) * deletefilehandler() (_tkinter.Widget.tk method): File Handlers. (line 37) * DeleteKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 102) * DeleteKeyEx() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 124) * deleteln() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 181) * deleteMe() (bdb.Breakpoint method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 42) * DeleteValue() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 160) * deletion; target: The del statement<2>. (line 6) * deletion; target; list: The del statement<2>. (line 6) * delimiter (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 19) * delimiters: Delimiters. (line 6) * delitem() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 191) * deliver_challenge() (in module multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients. (line 15) * delocalize() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 489) * demo_app() (in module wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 36) * denominator (fractions.Fraction attribute): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 119) * denominator (numbers.Rational attribute): The numeric tower. (line 55) * deprecated() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 136) * DeprecationWarning: Warnings. (line 17) * deque (class in collections): deque objects. (line 6) * Deque (class in typing): Aliases to types in collections. (line 49) * dequeue() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method): QueueListener. (line 50) * DER_cert_to_PEM_cert() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 52) * derive() (BaseExceptionGroup method): Exception groups. (line 76) * derwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 186) * descrgetfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 69) * description (inspect.Parameter.kind attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 283) * description (sqlite3.Cursor attribute): Cursor objects. (line 189) * descriptor: Glossary. (line 392) * descrsetfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 74) * deserialize() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 697) * dest (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 35) * destructor: Basic customization. (line 55) * destructor <1>: Assignment statements. (line 71) * destructor (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 24) * detach() (io.BufferedIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 259) * detach() (io.TextIOBase method): Text I/O<2>. (line 37) * detach() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 100) * detach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 79) * detach() (weakref.finalize method): weakref — Weak references. (line 301) * Detach() (winreg.PyHKEY method): Registry Handle Objects. (line 40) * DETACHED_PROCESS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 122) * detect_api_mismatch() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 638) * detect_encoding() (in module tokenize): Tokenizing Input. (line 76) * deterministic profiling: Introduction to the profilers. (line 6) * dev_mode (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 568) * device_encoding() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 81) * devmajor (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 141) * devminor (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 145) * devnull (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 159) * DEVNULL (in module subprocess): Using the subprocess Module. (line 141) * devpoll() (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 36) * DevpollSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 184) * dgettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 39) * dgettext() (in module locale): Access to message catalogs. (line 8) * Dialect (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 185) * dialect (csv.csvreader attribute): Reader Objects. (line 19) * dialect (csv.csvwriter attribute): Writer Objects. (line 33) * Dialog (class in tkinter.commondialog): tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates. (line 14) * Dialog (class in tkinter.simpledialog): tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 21) * dict (built-in class): Mapping Types — dict. (line 19) * Dict (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 104) * Dict (class in typing): Aliases to built-in types. (line 6) * DICT_MERGE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 742) * DICT_UPDATE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 731) * dict() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 222) * DictComp (class in ast): Comprehensions. (line 6) * dictConfig() (in module logging.config): Configuration functions. (line 13) * dictionary: Glossary. (line 409) * dictionary comprehension: Glossary. (line 415) * dictionary view: Glossary. (line 423) * dictionary; comprehensions: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * dictionary; display: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * DictReader (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 102) * DictWriter (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 149) * diff_bytes() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 337) * diff_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 94) * Differ (class in difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 50) * difference_update() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 182) * difference() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 109) * dig (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 630) * digest_size (hmac.HMAC attribute): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 92) * digest() (hashlib.hash method): Hash Objects. (line 38) * digest() (hashlib.shake method): SHAKE variable length digests. (line 15) * digest() (hmac.HMAC method): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 58) * digest() (in module hmac): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 33) * digit() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 37) * digits (in module string): String constants. (line 24) * dir() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 311) * dircmp (class in filecmp): The dircmp class. (line 6) * Directory (class in tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 71) * directory; changing: Files and Directories. (line 118) * directory; creating: Files and Directories. (line 544) * directory; deleting: Directory and files operations. (line 267) * directory; deleting <1>: Files and Directories. (line 734) * directory; traversal: Files and Directories. (line 1644) * directory; traversal <1>: Files and Directories. (line 1745) * directory; walking: Files and Directories. (line 1644) * directory; walking <1>: Files and Directories. (line 1745) * DirEntry (class in os): Files and Directories. (line 915) * dirname() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 102) * dirs_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 86) * dirs_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 90) * DirsOnSysPath (class in test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 97) * DIRTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 299) * dis command line option; -C: Command-line interface<3>. (line 17) * dis command line option; -h: Command-line interface<3>. (line 13) * dis command line option; -help: Command-line interface<3>. (line 13) * dis command line option; -O: Command-line interface<3>. (line 23) * dis command line option; -show-caches: Command-line interface<3>. (line 17) * dis command line option; -show-offsets: Command-line interface<3>. (line 23) * dis() (dis.Bytecode method): Bytecode analysis. (line 57) * dis() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 40) * dis() (in module pickletools): Programmatic Interface<2>. (line 6) * DISABLE (in module sys.monitoring): Disabling events. (line 6) * disable (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 133) * disable_faulthandler() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 352) * disable_gc() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 364) * disable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser method): Querying and manipulating your option parser. (line 10) * disable() (bdb.Breakpoint method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 52) * disable() (in module faulthandler): Fault handler state. (line 26) * disable() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 26) * disable() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 105) * disable() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 82) * disabled (logging.Logger attribute): Logger Objects. (line 97) * DisableReflectionKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 482) * disassemble() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 99) * discard (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 58) * discard() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 204) * discard() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 76) * discard() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 79) * discover() (unittest.TestLoader method): Loading and running tests. (line 117) * disk_usage() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 378) * dispatch_call() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 211) * dispatch_exception() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 231) * dispatch_line() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 201) * dispatch_return() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 221) * dispatch_table (pickle.Pickler attribute): Module Interface. (line 179) * DISPLAY: Tkinter Modules. (line 27) * display (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 291) * display_name (email.headerregistry.Address attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 426) * display_name (email.headerregistry.Group attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 471) * displayhook() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 300) * dist() (in module math): Summation and product functions. (line 6) * distance() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 68) * Distribution (class in importlib.metadata): Distributions. (line 14) * distribution() (in module importlib.metadata): Distributions. (line 6) * Div (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * divide_int() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 306) * divide() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 302) * division: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 34) * division (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 22) * DivisionByZero (class in decimal): Signals. (line 34) * divmod() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 310) * DLE (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 73) * DllCanUnloadNow() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 95) * DllGetClassObject() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 103) * dllhandle (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 294) * dnd_start() (in module tkinter.dnd): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 65) * DndHandler (class in tkinter.dnd): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 43) * dngettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 58) * dnpgettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 69) * do_clear() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 294) * do_command() (curses.textpad.Textbox method): Textbox objects. (line 30) * do_GET() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 385) * do_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 126) * do_HEAD() (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 378) * do_help() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 49) * do_POST() (http.server.CGIHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 473) * doc (json.JSONDecodeError attribute): Exceptions<17>. (line 15) * doc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 155) * DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server. (line 22) * DocFileSuite() (in module doctest): Unittest API. (line 24) * doClassCleanups() (unittest.TestCase class method): Test cases. (line 836) * doCleanups() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 794) * docmd() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 17) * docstring: Class definitions. (line 6) * docstring <1>: Glossary. (line 433) * docstring (doctest.DocTest attribute): DocTest Objects. (line 49) * docstrings: Defining Functions. (line 21) * docstrings <1>: Documentation Strings. (line 6) * DocTest (class in doctest): DocTest Objects. (line 6) * doctest command line option; -f: Command-line Usage. (line 35) * doctest command line option; -fail-fast: Command-line Usage. (line 35) * doctest command line option; -o: Command-line Usage. (line 28) * doctest command line option; -option: Command-line Usage. (line 28) * doctest command line option; -v: Command-line Usage. (line 11) * doctest command line option; -verbose: Command-line Usage. (line 11) * DocTestFailure: Debugging. (line 186) * DocTestFinder (class in doctest): DocTestFinder objects. (line 6) * DocTestParser (class in doctest): DocTestParser objects. (line 6) * DocTestRunner (class in doctest): DocTestRunner objects. (line 6) * DocTestSuite() (in module doctest): Unittest API. (line 100) * doctype() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 67) * documentation string: Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 104) * documentation strings: Defining Functions. (line 21) * documentation strings <1>: Documentation Strings. (line 6) * documentation; generation: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 8) * documentation; online: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 8) * documentElement (xml.dom.Document attribute): Document Objects. (line 10) * DocXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server. (line 27) * DocXMLRPCServer (class in xmlrpc.server): Documenting XMLRPC server. (line 11) * domain (email.headerregistry.Address attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 437) * domain (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 41) * domain (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * domain (tracemalloc.DomainFilter attribute): DomainFilter. (line 20) * domain (tracemalloc.Filter attribute): Filter. (line 31) * domain (tracemalloc.Trace attribute): Trace. (line 15) * domain_initial_dot (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 90) * domain_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 27) * domain_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 86) * DomainFilter (class in tracemalloc): DomainFilter. (line 6) * DomainLiberal (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 156) * DomainRFC2965Match (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 149) * DomainStrict (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 161) * DomainStrictNoDots (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 136) * DomainStrictNonDomain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 142) * DOMEventStream (class in xml.dom.pulldom): DOMEventStream Objects. (line 6) * DOMException: Exceptions<20>. (line 18) * doModuleCleanups() (in module unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule. (line 44) * DomstringSizeErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 23) * done() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 63) * done() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 66) * done() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 32) * done() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter method): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 135) * done() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 106) * DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 28) * DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_1 (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 16) * dont_write_bytecode (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 336) * dont_write_bytecode (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 544) * doRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method): RotatingFileHandler. (line 43) * doRollover() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method): TimedRotatingFileHandler. (line 106) * DOT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 224) * dot() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 252) * DOTALL (in module re): Flags. (line 108) * doublequote (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 24) * DOUBLESLASH (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 296) * DOUBLESLASHEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 299) * DOUBLESTAR (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 260) * DOUBLESTAREQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 293) * doupdate() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 89) * down (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 87) * down() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 6) * dpgettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 65) * drain() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 66) * drive (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 15) * drop_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 201) * dropwhile() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 268) * dst() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 538) * dst() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 245) * dst() (datetime.timezone method): timezone Objects. (line 57) * dst() (datetime.tzinfo method): tzinfo Objects. (line 65) * DTDHandler (class in xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 24) * duck-typing: Glossary. (line 442) * dump_stats() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 104) * dump_stats() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 59) * dump_traceback_later() (in module faulthandler): Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout. (line 6) * dump_traceback() (in module faulthandler): Dumping the traceback. (line 6) * dump() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 269) * dump() (in module json): Basic Usage. (line 6) * dump() (in module marshal): marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 51) * dump() (in module pickle): Module Interface. (line 35) * dump() (in module plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 93) * dump() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 86) * dump() (pickle.Pickler method): Module Interface. (line 155) * dump() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method): Snapshot. (line 29) * dumps() (in module json): Basic Usage. (line 91) * dumps() (in module marshal): marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 93) * dumps() (in module pickle): Module Interface. (line 47) * dumps() (in module plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 130) * dumps() (in module xmlrpc.client): Convenience Functions. (line 6) * dunder: Glossary. (line 455) * dup() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 93) * dup() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 108) * dup2() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 107) * DuplicateOptionError: Exceptions<8>. (line 24) * DuplicateSectionError: Exceptions<8>. (line 14) * dwFlags (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 19) * DynamicClassAttribute() (in module types): Additional Utility Classes and Functions. (line 55) * e (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 10) * e (in module math): Constants<2>. (line 10) * e; in numeric literal: Integer literals. (line 40) * E2BIG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 54) * EACCES (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 80) * EADDRINUSE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 432) * EADDRNOTAVAIL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 436) * EADV (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 306) * EAFNOSUPPORT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 428) * EAFP: Glossary. (line 461) * EAGAIN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 71) * eager_task_factory() (in module asyncio): Eager Task Factory. (line 6) * EALREADY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 501) * east_asian_width() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 64) * EAUTH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 581) * EBADARCH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 587) * EBADE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 242) * EBADEXEC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 593) * EBADF (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 62) * EBADFD (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 342) * EBADMACHO (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 599) * EBADMSG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 330) * EBADR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 246) * EBADRPC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 665) * EBADRQC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 258) * EBADSLT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 262) * EBFONT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 270) * EBUSY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 93) * ECANCELED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 692) * ECHILD (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 66) * echo() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 105) * echochar() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 196) * ECHRNG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 210) * ECOMM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 314) * ECONNABORTED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 452) * ECONNREFUSED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 488) * ECONNRESET (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 457) * EDEADLK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 173) * EDEADLOCK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 266) * EDESTADDRREQ (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 390) * EDEVERR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 605) * edit() (curses.textpad.Textbox method): Textbox objects. (line 19) * EDOM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 165) * EDOTDOT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 326) * EDQUOT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 535) * EEXIST (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 97) * EFAULT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 85) * EFBIG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 140) * EFD_CLOEXEC (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1919) * EFD_NONBLOCK (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1928) * EFD_SEMAPHORE (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1937) * effective() (in module bdb): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 466) * EFTYPE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 611) * ehlo_or_helo_if_needed() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 75) * ehlo() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 58) * EHOSTDOWN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 493) * EHOSTUNREACH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 497) * EIDRM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 206) * EILSEQ (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 370) * EINPROGRESS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 506) * EINTR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 41) * EINVAL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 120) * EIO (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 46) * EISCONN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 466) * EISDIR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 115) * EISNAM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 527) * EJECT (enum.FlagBoundary attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 703) * EKEYEXPIRED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 557) * EKEYREJECTED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 565) * EKEYREVOKED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 561) * EL2HLT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 238) * EL2NSYNC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 214) * EL3HLT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 218) * EL3RST (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 222) * Element (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): Element Objects. (line 6) * element_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 131) * element_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 252) * element_options() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 256) * ElementDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 240) * elements() (collections.Counter method): Counter objects. (line 67) * ElementTree (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): ElementTree Objects. (line 6) * ELIBACC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 350) * ELIBBAD (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 354) * ELIBEXEC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 366) * ELIBMAX (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 362) * ELIBSCN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 358) * Ellipsis (built-in variable): Built-in Constants. (line 59) * ELLIPSIS (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 47) * ELLIPSIS (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 311) * EllipsisType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 144) * ELNRNG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 226) * ELOCKUNMAPPED (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 573) * ELOOP (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 193) * else; conditional expression: Conditional expressions. (line 6) * EM (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 100) * EmailMessage (class in email.message): email message Representing an email message. (line 52) * EmailPolicy (class in email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 360) * Emax (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 139) * EMEDIUMTYPE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 549) * EMFILE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 128) * Emin (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 139) * emit() (logging.FileHandler method): FileHandler. (line 31) * emit() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 109) * emit() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 24) * emit() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method): DatagramHandler. (line 29) * emit() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler method): HTTPHandler. (line 36) * emit() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method): NTEventLogHandler. (line 38) * emit() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method): QueueHandler. (line 43) * emit() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method): RotatingFileHandler. (line 47) * emit() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler method): SMTPHandler. (line 35) * emit() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 24) * emit() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method): SysLogHandler. (line 61) * emit() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method): TimedRotatingFileHandler. (line 110) * emit() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler method): WatchedFileHandler. (line 50) * emit() (logging.NullHandler method): NullHandler. (line 16) * emit() (logging.StreamHandler method): StreamHandler. (line 17) * EMLINK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 156) * Empty: queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 82) * empty (inspect.Parameter attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 200) * empty (inspect.Signature attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 100) * EMPTY_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom): Module Contents<4>. (line 35) * empty; list: List displays. (line 6) * empty; tuple: Immutable sequences. (line 29) * empty; tuple <1>: Parenthesized forms. (line 16) * empty() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 27) * empty() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 116) * empty() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 235) * empty() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 15) * empty() (queue.SimpleQueue method): SimpleQueue Objects. (line 14) * empty() (sched.scheduler method): Scheduler Objects. (line 47) * emptyline() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 70) * emscripten_version (sys._emscripten_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 350) * EMSGSIZE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 394) * EMULTIHOP (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 322) * enable (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 140) * enable_callback_tracebacks() (in module sqlite3): Module functions. (line 125) * enable_interspersed_args() (optparse.OptionParser method): Querying and manipulating your option parser. (line 31) * enable_load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 425) * enable_traversal() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 75) * ENABLE_USER_SITE (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 10) * enable() (bdb.Breakpoint method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 48) * enable() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 84) * enable() (in module faulthandler): Fault handler state. (line 6) * enable() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 22) * enable() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 78) * EnableControlFlowGuard: Build<34>. (line 47) * enabled (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 106) * EnableReflectionKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 500) * ENAMETOOLONG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 177) * ENAVAIL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 523) * enclose() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 201) * encode (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 78) * encode_7or8bit() (in module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders. (line 57) * encode_base64() (in module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders. (line 49) * encode_noop() (in module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders. (line 63) * encode_quopri() (in module email.encoders): email encoders Encoders. (line 42) * encode_rfc2231() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 191) * encode() (codecs.Codec method): Stateless Encoding and Decoding. (line 11) * encode() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder method): IncrementalEncoder Objects. (line 28) * encode() (email.header.Header method): email header Internationalized headers. (line 125) * encode() (in module base64): Legacy Interface. (line 21) * encode() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 23) * encode() (in module quopri): quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 29) * encode() (json.JSONEncoder method): Encoders and Decoders. (line 218) * encode() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 83) * encode() (xmlrpc.client.Binary method): Binary Objects. (line 25) * encode() (xmlrpc.client.DateTime method): DateTime Objects. (line 17) * encodebytes() (in module base64): Legacy Interface. (line 31) * EncodedFile() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 212) * encodePriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method): SysLogHandler. (line 95) * encodestring() (in module quopri): quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 46) * encoding (curses.window attribute): Window Objects. (line 211) * ENCODING (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 273) * ENCODING (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 126) * encoding (io.TextIOBase attribute): Text I/O<2>. (line 15) * encoding (UnicodeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 445) * encoding declarations (source file): Encoding declarations. (line 6) * encodings_map (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 150) * encodings_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute): MimeTypes Objects. (line 33) * EncodingWarning: Warnings. (line 68) * end (UnicodeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 461) * END_ASYNC_FOR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 338) * end_col_offset (ast.AST attribute): Node classes. (line 50) * end_colno (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 62) * end_fill() (in module turtle): Filling. (line 20) * END_FOR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 145) * end_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 275) * end_lineno (ast.AST attribute): Node classes. (line 50) * end_lineno (SyntaxError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 336) * end_lineno (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 49) * end_lineno (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 99) * end_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 86) * end_offset (SyntaxError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 342) * end_offset (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 115) * end_poly() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 11) * END_SEND (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 152) * end() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 147) * end() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 38) * endCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler method): LexicalHandler Objects. (line 39) * EndCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 347) * EndDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 235) * endDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 40) * endDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler method): LexicalHandler Objects. (line 28) * endElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 95) * EndElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 270) * endElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 121) * endheaders() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 184) * ENDMARKER (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 122) * EndNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 326) * endpos (re.Match attribute): Match Objects. (line 186) * endPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 73) * endswith() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 122) * endswith() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 122) * endswith() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 114) * endwin() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 110) * ENEEDAUTH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 617) * ENETDOWN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 440) * ENETRESET (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 448) * ENETUNREACH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 444) * ENFILE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 124) * ENOANO (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 254) * ENOATTR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 623) * ENOBUFS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 462) * ENOCSI (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 234) * ENODATA (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 278) * ENODEV (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 106) * ENOENT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 31) * ENOEXEC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 58) * ENOKEY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 553) * ENOLCK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 181) * ENOLINK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 302) * ENOMEDIUM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 545) * ENOMEM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 76) * ENOMSG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 202) * ENONET (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 290) * ENOPKG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 294) * ENOPOLICY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 629) * ENOPROTOOPT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 402) * ENOSPC (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 144) * ENOSR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 286) * ENOSTR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 274) * ENOSYS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 185) * ENOTACTIVE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 577) * ENOTBLK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 89) * ENOTCAPABLE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 683) * ENOTCONN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 470) * ENOTDIR (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 110) * ENOTEMPTY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 189) * ENOTNAM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 519) * ENOTRECOVERABLE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 704) * ENOTSOCK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 386) * ENOTSUP (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 418) * ENOTTY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 132) * ENOTUNIQ (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 338) * ENQ (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 34) * enqueue_sentinel() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method): QueueListener. (line 94) * enqueue() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method): QueueHandler. (line 86) * ensure_directories() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 90) * ensure_future() (in module asyncio): Future Functions. (line 19) * ensurepip command line option; -altinstall: Command line interface. (line 42) * ensurepip command line option; -default-pip: Command line interface. (line 47) * ensurepip command line option; -root: Command line interface. (line 25) * ensurepip command line option; -user: Command line interface. (line 31) * enter_async_context() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method): Utilities. (line 631) * enter_context() (contextlib.ExitStack method): Utilities. (line 546) * enter() (sched.scheduler method): Scheduler Objects. (line 30) * enterabs() (sched.scheduler method): Scheduler Objects. (line 9) * enterAsyncContext() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase method): Test cases. (line 897) * enterClassContext() (unittest.TestCase class method): Test cases. (line 827) * enterContext() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 785) * enterModuleContext() (in module unittest): setUpModule and tearDownModule. (line 35) * entities (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute): DocumentType Objects. (line 38) * EntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 299) * entitydefs (in module html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities. (line 25) * EntityResolver (class in xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 31) * entry_points() (in module importlib.metadata): Entry points. (line 6) * EntryPoint (class in importlib.metadata): Entry points. (line 26) * EntryPoints (class in importlib.metadata): Entry points. (line 18) * Enum (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 120) * enum_certificates() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 87) * enum_crls() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 110) * EnumCheck (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 607) * EnumDict (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 734) * enumerate() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 98) * EnumKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 172) * EnumType (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 6) * EnumValue() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 191) * EnvBuilder (class in venv): API<2>. (line 11) * environ (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 16) * environ (in module posix): Notable Module Contents. (line 9) * environb (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 58) * environment: Resolution of names. (line 12) * environment variable; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__: PyConfig. (line 187) * environment variable; __PYVENV_LAUNCHER__ <1>: PyConfig. (line 705) * environment variable; %APPDATA%: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths. (line 13) * environment variable; APPDATA: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 26) * environment variable; BASECFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 66) * environment variable; BASECPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags. (line 22) * environment variable; BLDSHARED: Linker flags. (line 67) * environment variable; BROWSER: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 20) * environment variable; BROWSER <1>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 34) * environment variable; BROWSER <2>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 122) * environment variable; CC: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 58) * environment variable; CC <1>: Compiler flags. (line 6) * environment variable; CCSHARED: Compiler flags. (line 81) * environment variable; CFLAGS: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 59) * environment variable; CFLAGS <1>: Performance options. (line 28) * environment variable; CFLAGS <2>: Compiler flags. (line 18) * environment variable; CFLAGS <3>: Compiler flags. (line 26) * environment variable; CFLAGS <4>: Compiler flags. (line 28) * environment variable; CFLAGS <5>: Compiler flags. (line 32) * environment variable; CFLAGS <6>: Compiler flags. (line 54) * environment variable; CFLAGS <7>: Linker flags. (line 18) * environment variable; CFLAGS_ALIASING: Compiler flags. (line 74) * environment variable; CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags. (line 22) * environment variable; CFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Compiler flags. (line 24) * environment variable; CFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Compiler flags. (line 61) * environment variable; CFLAGS_NODIST <3>: Linker flags. (line 26) * environment variable; CFLAGSFORSHARED: Compiler flags. (line 87) * environment variable; COLUMNS: Functions<6>. (line 595) * environment variable; COLUMNS <1>: Functions<6>. (line 598) * environment variable; COMPILEALL_OPTS: Compiler flags. (line 41) * environment variable; COMSPEC: Process Management. (line 777) * environment variable; COMSPEC <1>: Popen Constructor. (line 112) * environment variable; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 52) * environment variable; CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags. (line 59) * environment variable; CONFIGURE_CPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags. (line 6) * environment variable; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags. (line 13) * environment variable; CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags. (line 38) * environment variable; CPPFLAGS: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 59) * environment variable; CPPFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags. (line 8) * environment variable; CPPFLAGS <2>: Preprocessor flags. (line 13) * environment variable; CPPFLAGS <3>: Preprocessor flags. (line 18) * environment variable; CPPFLAGS <4>: Linker flags. (line 50) * environment variable; CXX: Compiler flags. (line 12) * environment variable; DISPLAY: Tkinter Modules. (line 27) * environment variable; EnableControlFlowGuard: Build<34>. (line 47) * environment variable; EXTRA_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 48) * environment variable; HOME: os path<5>. (line 15) * environment variable; HOME <1>: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 117) * environment variable; HOME <2>: Windows<43>. (line 15) * environment variable; HOME <3>: Windows<43>. (line 18) * environment variable; HOME <4>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 136) * environment variable; HOME <5>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 153) * environment variable; HOME <6>: Tkinter Modules. (line 66) * environment variable; HOMEDRIVE: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 143) * environment variable; HOMEPATH: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 143) * environment variable; IDLESTARTUP: IDLE<39>. (line 176) * environment variable; IDLESTARTUP <1>: IDLE<43>. (line 9) * environment variable; IDLESTARTUP <2>: IDLE<49>. (line 9) * environment variable; IDLESTARTUP <3>: Startup and Code Execution. (line 7) * environment variable; IDLESTARTUP <4>: Command line usage. (line 41) * environment variable; LANG: GNU gettext API. (line 21) * environment variable; LANG <1>: Class-based API. (line 26) * environment variable; LANG <2>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 52) * environment variable; LANG <3>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 348) * environment variable; LANG <4>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 352) * environment variable; LANGUAGE: GNU gettext API. (line 20) * environment variable; LANGUAGE <1>: Class-based API. (line 25) * environment variable; LC_ALL: GNU gettext API. (line 20) * environment variable; LC_ALL <1>: Class-based API. (line 25) * environment variable; LC_MESSAGES: GNU gettext API. (line 20) * environment variable; LC_MESSAGES <1>: Class-based API. (line 26) * environment variable; LDCXXSHARED: Build and C API Changes<8>. (line 153) * environment variable; LDFLAGS: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 59) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags. (line 18) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <2>: Linker flags. (line 15) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <3>: Linker flags. (line 18) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <4>: Linker flags. (line 28) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <5>: Linker flags. (line 31) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <6>: Linker flags. (line 35) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <7>: Linker flags. (line 45) * environment variable; LDFLAGS <8>: Linker flags. (line 50) * environment variable; LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags. (line 24) * environment variable; LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Linker flags. (line 26) * environment variable; LDFLAGS_NODIST <2>: Linker flags. (line 40) * environment variable; LDSHARED: Linker flags. (line 61) * environment variable; LIBS: Linker flags. (line 54) * environment variable; LINES: Functions<6>. (line 125) * environment variable; LINES <1>: Functions<6>. (line 595) * environment variable; LINES <2>: Functions<6>. (line 597) * environment variable; LINKCC: Linker flags. (line 6) * environment variable; LOGNAME: Process Parameters. (line 239) * environment variable; LOGNAME <1>: getpass — Portable password input. (line 43) * environment variable; MANPAGER: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 46) * environment variable; MANPAGER <1>: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 48) * environment variable; no_proxy: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 311) * environment variable; OPT: Debug options. (line 39) * environment variable; OPT <1>: Compiler flags. (line 70) * environment variable; PAGER: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 46) * environment variable; PATH: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 144) * environment variable; PATH <1>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 6) * environment variable; PATH <2>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 11) * environment variable; PATH <3>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 12) * environment variable; PATH <4>: macOS<7>. (line 14) * environment variable; PATH <5>: Windows<24>. (line 56) * environment variable; PATH <6>: Windows<28>. (line 14) * environment variable; PATH <7>: Security<36>. (line 16) * environment variable; PATH <8>: Security<36>. (line 20) * environment variable; PATH <9>: The Module Search Path. (line 17) * environment variable; PATH <10>: Executable Python Scripts. (line 11) * environment variable; PATH <11>: Environment variables. (line 27) * environment variable; PATH <12>: Miscellaneous. (line 16) * environment variable; PATH <13>: Installation steps. (line 34) * environment variable; PATH <14>: Installation steps. (line 58) * environment variable; PATH <15>: Installing Without UI. (line 77) * environment variable; PATH <16>: Installing Without UI. (line 81) * environment variable; PATH <17>: Excursus Setting environment variables. (line 23) * environment variable; PATH <18>: Excursus Setting environment variables. (line 35) * environment variable; PATH <19>: Finding the Python executable. (line 14) * environment variable; PATH <20>: Finding the Python executable. (line 21) * environment variable; PATH <21>: Finding the Python executable. (line 22) * environment variable; PATH <22>: Python Launcher for Windows. (line 13) * environment variable; PATH <23>: From the command-line. (line 9) * environment variable; PATH <24>: Shebang Lines. (line 54) * environment variable; PATH <25>: Shebang Lines. (line 60) * environment variable; PATH <26>: Shebang Lines. (line 62) * environment variable; PATH <27>: Shebang Lines. (line 67) * environment variable; PATH <28>: Comparison to the os and os path modules. (line 41) * environment variable; PATH <29>: Directory and files operations. (line 427) * environment variable; PATH <30>: Directory and files operations. (line 432) * environment variable; PATH <31>: Process Management. (line 45) * environment variable; PATH <32>: Process Management. (line 86) * environment variable; PATH <33>: Process Management. (line 89) * environment variable; PATH <34>: Process Management. (line 92) * environment variable; PATH <35>: Process Management. (line 544) * environment variable; PATH <36>: Process Management. (line 631) * environment variable; PATH <37>: Process Management. (line 635) * environment variable; PATH <38>: Process Management. (line 637) * environment variable; PATH <39>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 141) * environment variable; PATH <40>: Popen Constructor. (line 34) * environment variable; PATH <41>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 241) * environment variable; PATH <42>: How venvs work. (line 16) * environment variable; PATH <43>: How venvs work. (line 61) * environment variable; PATH <44>: How venvs work. (line 66) * environment variable; PATH <45>: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 66) * environment variable; PATH <46>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 31) * environment variable; PATH <47>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 37) * environment variable; PATH <48>: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?. (line 24) * environment variable; PATH <49>: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?. (line 28) * environment variable; PATHEXT: Other Improvements<2>. (line 30) * environment variable; PATHEXT <1>: Library<43>. (line 138) * environment variable; PATHEXT <2>: Installing Without UI. (line 77) * environment variable; PATHEXT <3>: Installing Without UI. (line 81) * environment variable; PATHEXT <4>: Directory and files operations. (line 442) * environment variable; PIP_USER: Windows<45>. (line 102) * environment variable; PROFILE_TASK: Build<18>. (line 13) * environment variable; PROFILE_TASK <1>: Performance options. (line 12) * environment variable; PROFILE_TASK <2>: Performance options. (line 34) * environment variable; PURIFY: Compiler flags. (line 130) * environment variable; PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 121) * environment variable; PY_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 94) * environment variable; PY_CFLAGS_NODIST: Compiler flags. (line 99) * environment variable; PY_CORE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 115) * environment variable; PY_CORE_LDFLAGS: Linker flags. (line 83) * environment variable; PY_CPPFLAGS: Preprocessor flags. (line 26) * environment variable; PY_LDFLAGS: Linker flags. (line 73) * environment variable; PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags. (line 77) * environment variable; PY_PYTHON: Customizing default Python versions. (line 18) * environment variable; PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS: Compiler flags. (line 106) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL: Windows<12>. (line 24) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<26>. (line 15) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>: Install on demand. (line 6) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL: Install on demand. (line 12) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG: Diagnostics. (line 6) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN: Dry Run. (line 6) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>: Install on demand. (line 14) * environment variable; PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH: Shebang Lines. (line 65) * environment variable; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: A better interactive interpreter. (line 27) * environment variable; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>: Library<7>. (line 322) * environment variable; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>: Library<7>. (line 326) * environment variable; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>: Core and Builtins<13>. (line 55) * environment variable; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>: Interactive Mode<2>. (line 23) * environment variable; PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <5>: Environment variables. (line 519) * environment variable; PYTHON_COLORS: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 57) * environment variable; PYTHON_COLORS <1>: Improved error messages. (line 8) * environment variable; PYTHON_COLORS <2>: doctest. (line 7) * environment variable; PYTHON_COLORS <3>: Controlling color. (line 22) * environment variable; PYTHON_COLORS <4>: Environment variables. (line 511) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: os. (line 11) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 375) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>: Environment variables. (line 487) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 48) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 69) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>: Miscellaneous<3>. (line 31) * environment variable; PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <6>: PyConfig. (line 497) * environment variable; PYTHON_DOM: Module Contents<4>. (line 23) * environment variable; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: Other Language Changes. (line 46) * environment variable; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>: Core and Builtins<20>. (line 105) * environment variable; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 346) * environment variable; PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <3>: Environment variables. (line 497) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL: Free-threaded CPython. (line 22) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL <1>: Free-threaded CPython. (line 38) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL <2>: Core and Builtins<10>. (line 40) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL <3>: Miscellaneous options. (line 393) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL <4>: Environment variables. (line 536) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL <5>: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python. (line 7) * environment variable; PYTHON_GIL <6>: Glossary. (line 693) * environment variable; PYTHON_HISTORY: Other Language Changes. (line 57) * environment variable; PYTHON_HISTORY <1>: Library<18>. (line 544) * environment variable; PYTHON_HISTORY <2>: Environment variables. (line 528) * environment variable; PYTHON_JIT: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 21) * environment variable; PYTHON_JIT <1>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 24) * environment variable; PYTHON_JIT <2>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 28) * environment variable; PYTHON_JIT <3>: Environment variables. (line 548) * environment variable; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: Other Language Changes. (line 52) * environment variable; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 365) * environment variable; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>: Environment variables. (line 474) * environment variable; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>: PyConfig. (line 876) * environment variable; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>: PyConfig. (line 879) * environment variable; PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <5>: How to work without frame pointers. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHON_PRESITE: Miscellaneous options. (line 387) * environment variable; PYTHON_PRESITE <1>: Debug-mode variables. (line 25) * environment variable; PYTHON_PRESITE <2>: PyConfig. (line 776) * environment variable; PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module: Core and Builtins<20>. (line 154) * environment variable; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: Environment variables. (line 277) * environment variable; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>: Enabling debug mode. (line 10) * environment variable; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>: Debug Mode. (line 11) * environment variable; PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 65) * environment variable; PYTHONBREAKPOINT: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint. (line 13) * environment variable; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>: Environment variables. (line 81) * environment variable; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>: Built-in Functions. (line 159) * environment variable; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 257) * environment variable; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 271) * environment variable; PYTHONBREAKPOINT <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 275) * environment variable; PYTHONCASEOK: Changes in the Python API<4>. (line 29) * environment variable; PYTHONCASEOK <1>: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms. (line 17) * environment variable; PYTHONCASEOK <2>: Library<47>. (line 144) * environment variable; PYTHONCASEOK <3>: Environment variables. (line 131) * environment variable; PYTHONCASEOK <4>: Built-in Functions. (line 2249) * environment variable; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. (line 13) * environment variable; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>: Environment variables. (line 365) * environment variable; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>: General Options. (line 88) * environment variable; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 57) * environment variable; PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <4>: Python Configuration. (line 15) * environment variable; PYTHONDEBUG: Miscellaneous options. (line 37) * environment variable; PYTHONDEBUG <1>: Environment variables. (line 94) * environment variable; PYTHONDEBUG <2>: Python Debug Build. (line 20) * environment variable; PYTHONDEBUG <3>: Global configuration variables. (line 38) * environment variable; PYTHONDEBUG <4>: PyConfig. (line 667) * environment variable; PYTHONDEVMODE: Python Development Mode -X dev. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONDEVMODE <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 305) * environment variable; PYTHONDEVMODE <2>: Environment variables. (line 421) * environment variable; PYTHONDEVMODE <3>: Python Development Mode. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHONDEVMODE <4>: PyConfig. (line 296) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: Interpreter Changes<2>. (line 16) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>. (line 626) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 19) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: Environment variables. (line 136) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 341) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: Global configuration variables. (line 52) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: PyConfig. (line 953) * environment variable; PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <7>: How do I create a pyc file?. (line 21) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFS: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build. (line 15) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>: Build<51>. (line 54) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>: Debug-mode variables. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>: Debug options. (line 22) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>: Debug options. (line 24) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFS <5>: PyConfig. (line 307) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: Core and Builtins<37>. (line 154) * environment variable; PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE <1>: Debug-mode variables. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHONEXECUTABLE: Environment variables. (line 217) * environment variable; PYTHONEXECUTABLE <1>: PyConfig. (line 702) * environment variable; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: faulthandler<4>. (line 11) * environment variable; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 267) * environment variable; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>: Environment variables. (line 245) * environment variable; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 59) * environment variable; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback. (line 15) * environment variable; PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <5>: PyConfig. (line 345) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED: Builtin functions and types. (line 17) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <1>: Porting Python code. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <2>: Core and Builtins<64>. (line 30) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <3>: Miscellaneous options. (line 130) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <4>: Miscellaneous options. (line 146) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <5>: Environment variables. (line 151) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <6>: Environment variables. (line 156) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <7>: Basic customization. (line 316) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <8>: Global configuration variables. (line 77) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <9>: Global configuration variables. (line 80) * environment variable; PYTHONHASHSEED <10>: PyConfig. (line 415) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME: Deprecated C APIs. (line 26) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <1>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>. (line 36) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>. (line 36) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <3>: Summary – Release highlights<6>. (line 107) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <4>: Miscellaneous options. (line 46) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <5>: Environment variables. (line 11) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <6>: Environment variables. (line 19) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <7>: Environment variables. (line 21) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <8>: Environment variables. (line 38) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <9>: Finding modules. (line 29) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <10>: Finding modules. (line 47) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <11>: Finding modules. (line 81) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <12>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 149) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <13>: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 25) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <14>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 30) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <15>: Virtual environments<2>. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <16>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 38) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <17>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 44) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <18>: Global configuration variables. (line 92) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <19>: Process-wide parameters. (line 295) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <20>: Process-wide parameters. (line 311) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <21>: Process-wide parameters. (line 320) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <22>: PyConfig. (line 423) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <23>: PyConfig. (line 425) * environment variable; PYTHONHOME <24>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>. (line 36) * environment variable; PYTHONINSPECT: Other Changes and Fixes<2>. (line 13) * environment variable; PYTHONINSPECT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 68) * environment variable; PYTHONINSPECT <2>: Environment variables. (line 103) * environment variable; PYTHONINSPECT <3>: Global configuration variables. (line 109) * environment variable; PYTHONINSPECT <4>: PyConfig. (line 450) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: Core and Builtins<29>. (line 106) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 289) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>: Environment variables. (line 169) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>: Configuring the limit. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>: Configuring the limit. (line 16) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1163) * environment variable; PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <6>: PyConfig. (line 481) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING: Other Improvements<2>. (line 75) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING <1>: Interpreter Changes<2>. (line 23) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING <2>: Environment variables. (line 177) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING <3>: Environment variables. (line 402) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING <4>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 29) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1848) * environment variable; PYTHONIOENCODING <6>: PyConfig. (line 836) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: New Deprecations. (line 130) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 16. (line 50) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>. (line 50) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8. (line 18) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: Windows<14>. (line 37) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>: Environment variables. (line 338) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1788) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1799) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1805) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>: Global configuration variables. (line 151) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>: PyPreConfig. (line 123) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <11>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>. (line 50) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8. (line 12) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: Environment variables. (line 191) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: Environment variables. (line 352) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1852) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: Global configuration variables. (line 169) * environment variable; PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <5>: PyConfig. (line 534) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <1>: Changes in the C API<6>. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <2>: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 90) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <3>: Environment variables. (line 284) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <4>: Environment variables. (line 329) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <5>: Performance options. (line 109) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <6>: Performance options. (line 116) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <7>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 46) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <8>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 50) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <9>: Overview<4>. (line 75) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <10>: Default Memory Allocators. (line 26) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <11>: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators. (line 11) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOC <12>: The pymalloc allocator. (line 27) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 96) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>: Environment variables. (line 323) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>: PyConfig. (line 550) * environment variable; PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <3>: Overview<4>. (line 78) * environment variable; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks. (line 63) * environment variable; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 334) * environment variable; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>: Environment variables. (line 451) * environment variable; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>: Methods on code objects. (line 40) * environment variable; PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <4>: PyConfig. (line 249) * environment variable; PYTHONNOUSERSITE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 30) * environment variable; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 158) * environment variable; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>: Environment variables. (line 195) * environment variable; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>: Module contents<5>. (line 15) * environment variable; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>: Global configuration variables. (line 203) * environment variable; PYTHONNOUSERSITE <5>: PyConfig. (line 906) * environment variable; PYTHONOPTIMIZE: Miscellaneous options. (line 88) * environment variable; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>: Environment variables. (line 75) * environment variable; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>: Global configuration variables. (line 214) * environment variable; PYTHONOPTIMIZE <3>: PyConfig. (line 617) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 8) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <1>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <2>: The Module Search Path. (line 16) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <3>: Standard Modules. (line 34) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <4>: Standard Modules. (line 35) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <5>: Miscellaneous options. (line 45) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <6>: Environment variables. (line 24) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <7>: Environment variables. (line 32) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <8>: Environment variables. (line 39) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <9>: Environment variables. (line 42) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <10>: Excursus Setting environment variables. (line 38) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <11>: Finding modules. (line 15) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <12>: Finding modules. (line 38) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <13>: Finding modules. (line 81) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <14>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 152) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <15>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 183) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <16>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 189) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <17>: Path entry finders. (line 23) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <18>: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 26) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <19>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1329) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <20>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1334) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <21>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <22>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 18) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <23>: Building C and C++ Extensions. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <24>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 39) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <25>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 45) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <26>: Global configuration variables. (line 91) * environment variable; PYTHONPATH <27>: PyConfig. (line 583) * environment variable; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: Other Language Changes<2>. (line 85) * environment variable; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 354) * environment variable; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>: Environment variables. (line 462) * environment variable; PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <3>: How to enable perf profiling support. (line 7) * environment variable; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 274) * environment variable; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>: Environment variables. (line 54) * environment variable; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 51) * environment variable; PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <3>: PyConfig. (line 562) * environment variable; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: Other Language Changes<7>. (line 47) * environment variable; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<66>. (line 66) * environment variable; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 298) * environment variable; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: Environment variables. (line 269) * environment variable; PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <4>: PyConfig. (line 435) * environment variable; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>: Core and Builtins<57>. (line 402) * environment variable; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 318) * environment variable; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>: Environment variables. (line 142) * environment variable; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 387) * environment variable; PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <5>: PyConfig. (line 724) * environment variable; PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<26>. (line 13) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH: Summary – Release highlights<2>. (line 27) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>: Other Language Changes<3>. (line 37) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>: Security<20>. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>: Miscellaneous options. (line 116) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>: Environment variables. (line 46) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1346) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>: Security Considerations<3>. (line 47) * environment variable; PYTHONSAFEPATH <7>: PyConfig. (line 166) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP: sys<12>. (line 17) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <1>: sys<12>. (line 21) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <2>: IDLE<39>. (line 176) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <3>: IDLE<43>. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <4>: IDLE<49>. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <5>: The Interactive Startup File. (line 8) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <6>: Miscellaneous options. (line 64) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <7>: Environment variables. (line 61) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <8>: Environment variables. (line 117) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <9>: Example. (line 10) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <10>: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O. (line 87) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <11>: Startup and Code Execution. (line 7) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <12>: Command line usage. (line 42) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1176) * environment variable; PYTHONSTARTUP <14>: Readline configuration. (line 12) * environment variable; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: Miscellaneous options. (line 284) * environment variable; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>: Environment variables. (line 256) * environment variable; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations. (line 25) * environment variable; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations. (line 32) * environment variable; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>: Functions<11>. (line 90) * environment variable; PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <5>: PyConfig. (line 864) * environment variable; PYTHONTZPATH: Environment configuration. (line 11) * environment variable; PYTHONTZPATH <1>: Exceptions and warnings. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHONUNBUFFERED: Core and Builtins<50>. (line 107) * environment variable; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 178) * environment variable; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>: Environment variables. (line 120) * environment variable; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1859) * environment variable; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>: Global configuration variables. (line 242) * environment variable; PYTHONUNBUFFERED <5>: PyConfig. (line 213) * environment variable; PYTHONUOPS: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 27) * environment variable; PYTHONUOPS <1>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 179) * environment variable; PYTHONUOPS <2>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 258) * environment variable; PYTHONUOPS <3>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 317) * environment variable; PYTHONUOPS <4>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 382) * environment variable; PYTHONUSERBASE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 23) * environment variable; PYTHONUSERBASE <1>: Environment variables. (line 205) * environment variable; PYTHONUSERBASE <2>: Module contents<5>. (line 40) * environment variable; PYTHONUSERBASE <3>: Module contents<5>. (line 68) * environment variable; PYTHONUSERSITE: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 26) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 312) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <2>: Environment variables. (line 412) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <3>: Environment variables. (line 430) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <4>: UTF-8 mode. (line 18) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <5>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 52) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <6>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 54) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <7>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1850) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <8>: PyPreConfig. (line 152) * environment variable; PYTHONUTF8 <9>: Python Configuration. (line 14) * environment variable; PYTHONVERBOSE: Miscellaneous options. (line 194) * environment variable; PYTHONVERBOSE <1>: Environment variables. (line 125) * environment variable; PYTHONVERBOSE <2>: Global configuration variables. (line 259) * environment variable; PYTHONVERBOSE <3>: PyConfig. (line 923) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option. (line 19) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<38>. (line 45) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 324) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: Environment variables. (line 441) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <4>: Opt-in EncodingWarning. (line 9) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS: warnings<3>. (line 21) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <1>: Other Language Changes<12>. (line 160) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <2>: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings. (line 25) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <3>: Interpreter Changes. (line 6) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <4>: Documentation<23>. (line 67) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <5>: Miscellaneous options. (line 248) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <6>: Environment variables. (line 223) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <7>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 30) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <8>: The Warnings Filter. (line 46) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <9>: The Warnings Filter. (line 56) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <10>: Describing Warning Filters. (line 7) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <11>: Describing Warning Filters. (line 21) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <12>: Default Warning Filter. (line 7) * environment variable; PYTHONWARNINGS <13>: PyConfig. (line 942) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH: py_compile<3>. (line 7) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>: Library<56>. (line 452) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>: Build<59>. (line 15) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 66) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 82) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 86) * environment variable; SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>: Command-line use. (line 97) * environment variable; SSLKEYLOGFILE: Context creation. (line 34) * environment variable; SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>: Context creation. (line 83) * environment variable; SystemRoot: Popen Constructor. (line 308) * environment variable; TEMP: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths. (line 7) * environment variable; TEMP <1>: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 329) * environment variable; TERM: Functions<6>. (line 485) * environment variable; TERM <1>: Functions<6>. (line 512) * environment variable; TMP: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 331) * environment variable; TMPDIR: Library<2>. (line 116) * environment variable; TMPDIR <1>: Tests<25>. (line 68) * environment variable; TMPDIR <2>: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 327) * environment variable; TZ: Functions<5>. (line 641) * environment variable; TZ <1>: Functions<5>. (line 642) * environment variable; TZ <2>: Functions<5>. (line 650) * environment variable; TZ <3>: Functions<5>. (line 655) * environment variable; TZ <4>: Functions<5>. (line 657) * environment variable; TZ <5>: Functions<5>. (line 718) * environment variable; USER: getpass — Portable password input. (line 43) * environment variable; USERNAME: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 145) * environment variable; USERNAME <1>: Process Parameters. (line 239) * environment variable; USERNAME <2>: getpass — Portable password input. (line 44) * environment variable; USERPROFILE: os path<5>. (line 14) * environment variable; USERPROFILE <1>: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 116) * environment variable; USERPROFILE <2>: Windows<43>. (line 15) * environment variable; USERPROFILE <3>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 142) * environment variables; deleting: Process Parameters. (line 587) * environment variables; setting: Process Parameters. (line 354) * EnvironmentError: Concrete exceptions. (line 497) * Environments; virtual: venv — Creation of virtual environments. (line 10) * EnvironmentVarGuard (class in test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 49) * ENXIO (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 50) * eof (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute): Incremental de compression. (line 72) * eof (lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 165) * eof (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 178) * eof (ssl.MemoryBIO attribute): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 143) * eof (zlib.Decompress attribute): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 252) * eof_received() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method): Buffered Streaming Protocols. (line 40) * eof_received() (asyncio.Protocol method): Streaming Protocols. (line 30) * EOFError: Concrete exceptions. (line 33) * EOFError (built-in exception): File Objects. (line 44) * EOPNOTSUPP (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 414) * EOT (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 31) * EOVERFLOW (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 334) * EOWNERDEAD (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 698) * EPERM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 26) * EPFNOSUPPORT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 424) * epilogue (email.message.EmailMessage attribute): email message Representing an email message. (line 704) * epilogue (email.message.Message attribute): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 717) * EPIPE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 160) * epoch: time — Time access and conversions. (line 20) * epoll() (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 55) * EpollSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 175) * EPROCLIM (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 635) * EPROCUNAVAIL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 641) * EPROGMISMATCH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 647) * EPROGUNAVAIL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 653) * EPROTO (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 318) * EPROTONOSUPPORT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 406) * EPROTOTYPE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 398) * epsilon (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 623) * EPWROFF (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 659) * Eq (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * eq() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * EQEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 236) * EQFULL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 539) * EQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 221) * ERA (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 302) * ERA_D_FMT (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 324) * ERA_D_T_FMT (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 319) * ERA_T_FMT (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 329) * ERANGE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 169) * erase() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 221) * erasechar() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 114) * EREMCHG (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 346) * EREMOTE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 298) * EREMOTEIO (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 531) * ERESTART (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 374) * erf() (in module math): Special functions. (line 6) * erfc() (in module math): Special functions. (line 20) * ERFKILL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 569) * EROFS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 152) * ERPCMISMATCH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 671) * ERR (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 8) * errcheck (ctypes._CFuncPtr attribute): Foreign functions. (line 70) * errcode (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute): ProtocolError Objects. (line 17) * errmsg (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute): ProtocolError Objects. (line 21) * errno (OSError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 172) * error: Functions and Exceptions. (line 8) * Error: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 33) * Error <1>: Directory and files operations. (line 471) * error <1>: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”. (line 22) * error <2>: dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 22) * error <3>: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. (line 28) * error <4>: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. (line 23) * Error <2>: Exceptions<7>. (line 15) * error <5>: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 24) * Error <3>: Module Contents<3>. (line 333) * Error <4>: Exceptions<8>. (line 6) * error <6>: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces. (line 51) * error <7>: Functions<6>. (line 8) * error <8>: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 21) * error <9>: Exceptions<15>. (line 6) * error <10>: select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 29) * Error <5>: Exceptions<18>. (line 8) * Error <6>: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 157) * error <11>: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 30) * Error <7>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 62) * Error <8>: wave — Read and write WAV files. (line 52) * Error <9>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 22) * error <12>: resource — Resource usage information. (line 19) * error <13>: getopt — C-style parser for command line options. (line 93) * ERROR (in module logging): Logging Levels. (line 40) * ERROR (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 192) * error handling: Exceptions<2>. (line 6) * error_body (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 265) * error_content_type (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 157) * error_headers (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 258) * error_leader() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 69) * error_message_format (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 149) * error_output() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 228) * error_perm: Module variables. (line 16) * error_proto: Module variables. (line 21) * error_proto <1>: poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 89) * error_received() (asyncio.DatagramProtocol method): Datagram Protocols. (line 15) * error_reply: Module variables. (line 6) * error_status (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 252) * error_temp: Module variables. (line 11) * error() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Exiting methods. (line 19) * error() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 80) * error() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 302) * error() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector method): OpenerDirector Objects. (line 58) * error() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method): ErrorHandler Objects. (line 16) * ErrorByteIndex (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 170) * errorcode (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 13) * ErrorCode (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 174) * ErrorColumnNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 180) * ErrorHandler (class in xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 38) * errorlevel (tarfile.TarFile attribute): TarFile Objects. (line 224) * ErrorLineNumber (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 184) * errors: Exceptions<2>. (line 6) * errors (io.TextIOBase attribute): Text I/O<2>. (line 20) * errors (unittest.TestLoader attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 17) * errors (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 246) * Errors; logging: logging — Logging facility for Python. (line 8) * ErrorStream (class in wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 28) * ErrorString() (in module xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 41) * ERRORTOKEN (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 159) * ESC (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 106) * escape (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 110) * escape sequence: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * escape() (in module glob): glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 102) * escape() (in module html): html — HyperText Markup Language support. (line 12) * escape() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 256) * escape() (in module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 14) * escapechar (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 35) * escapedquotes (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 122) * ESHLIBVERS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 677) * ESHUTDOWN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 474) * ESOCKTNOSUPPORT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 410) * ESPIPE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 148) * ESRCH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 36) * ESRMNT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 310) * ESTALE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 511) * ESTRPIPE (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 378) * ETB (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 94) * ETH_P_ALL (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 222) * ETHERTYPE_ARP (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 364) * ETHERTYPE_IP (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 364) * ETHERTYPE_IPV6 (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 364) * ETHERTYPE_VLAN (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 364) * ETIME (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 282) * ETIMEDOUT (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 483) * Etiny() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 244) * ETOOMANYREFS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 479) * Etop() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 250) * ETX (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 28) * ETXTBSY (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 136) * EUCLEAN (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 515) * EUNATCH (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 230) * EUSERS (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 382) * evaluation; order: Evaluation order. (line 6) * Event (class in asyncio): Event. (line 6) * Event (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 42) * Event (class in threading): Event objects. (line 14) * event scheduling: sched — Event scheduler. (line 8) * EVENT_READ (in module selectors): Classes<4>. (line 23) * EVENT_WRITE (in module selectors): Classes<4>. (line 26) * Event() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 183) * eventfd_read() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1899) * eventfd_write() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1909) * eventfd() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1846) * EventLoop (class in asyncio): Event Loop Implementations. (line 44) * events (selectors.SelectorKey attribute): Classes<4>. (line 44) * events (widgets): Bindings and Events. (line 6) * EWOULDBLOCK (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 197) * EX_CANTCREAT (in module os): Process Management. (line 207) * EX_CONFIG (in module os): Process Management. (line 243) * EX_DATAERR (in module os): Process Management. (line 156) * EX_IOERR (in module os): Process Management. (line 214) * EX_NOHOST (in module os): Process Management. (line 175) * EX_NOINPUT (in module os): Process Management. (line 162) * EX_NOPERM (in module os): Process Management. (line 236) * EX_NOTFOUND (in module os): Process Management. (line 250) * EX_NOUSER (in module os): Process Management. (line 169) * EX_OK (in module os): Process Management. (line 141) * EX_OSERR (in module os): Process Management. (line 193) * EX_OSFILE (in module os): Process Management. (line 200) * EX_PROTOCOL (in module os): Process Management. (line 229) * EX_SOFTWARE (in module os): Process Management. (line 187) * EX_TEMPFAIL (in module os): Process Management. (line 221) * EX_UNAVAILABLE (in module os): Process Management. (line 181) * EX_USAGE (in module os): Process Management. (line 149) * EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 326) * Example (class in doctest): Example Objects. (line 6) * example (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute): Debugging. (line 200) * example (doctest.UnexpectedException attribute): Debugging. (line 221) * examples (doctest.DocTest attribute): DocTest Objects. (line 17) * exc_info (doctest.UnexpectedException attribute): Debugging. (line 225) * exc_info (in module sys): Traceback objects. (line 6) * exc_info (in module sys) <1>: Exceptions<21>. (line 45) * exc_info() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 449) * exc_msg (doctest.Example attribute): Example Objects. (line 31) * exc_type (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 79) * exc_type_str (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 85) * excel (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 204) * excel_tab (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 210) * ExceptHandler (class in ast): Control flow. (line 201) * excepthook() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 393) * excepthook() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 26) * exception: Exceptions<2>. (line 6) * exception <1>: The raise statement. (line 6) * Exception: Base classes. (line 66) * EXCEPTION (in module _tkinter): File Handlers. (line 41) * exception handler: Exceptions<2>. (line 6) * EXCEPTION_HANDLED (monitoring event): Events. (line 26) * exception; AssertionError: The assert statement. (line 21) * exception; AttributeError: Attribute references. (line 10) * exception; chaining: The raise statement. (line 30) * exception; chaining <1>: Exception context. (line 6) * exception; GeneratorExit: Generator-iterator methods. (line 65) * exception; GeneratorExit <1>: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods. (line 61) * exception; handler: Traceback objects. (line 6) * exception; ImportError: The import statement. (line 6) * exception; NameError: Identifiers Names. (line 10) * exception; StopAsyncIteration: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods. (line 10) * exception; StopIteration: Generator-iterator methods. (line 12) * exception; StopIteration <1>: The yield statement. (line 6) * exception; TypeError: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 23) * exception; ValueError: Shifting operations. (line 20) * exception; ZeroDivisionError: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 34) * exception() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 123) * exception() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 87) * exception() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 52) * exception() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 92) * exception() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 437) * exception() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 318) * ExceptionGroup: Exception groups. (line 12) * exceptions (BaseExceptionGroup attribute): Exception groups. (line 38) * exceptions (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 439) * exceptions (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 53) * EXCLAMATION (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 317) * exclusive; or: Binary bitwise operations. (line 16) * EXDEV (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 102) * exec_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 260) * exec_module() (importlib.abc.Loader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 114) * exec_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 407) * exec_module() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 321) * exec_module() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 31) * exec_prefix (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 469) * execl() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * execle() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * execlp() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * execlpe() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * executable (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 486) * executable (in module sys) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 117) * Executable Zip Files: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives. (line 10) * execute() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 97) * execute() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 24) * executemany() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 103) * executemany() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 59) * executescript() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 109) * executescript() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 100) * execution model: Execution model. (line 6) * execution; frame: Structure of a program. (line 18) * execution; frame <1>: Class definitions. (line 6) * execution; stack: Traceback objects. (line 6) * ExecutionLoader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 273) * Executor (class in concurrent.futures): Executor Objects. (line 6) * execv() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * execve() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * execvp() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * execvpe() (in module os): Process Management. (line 53) * EXFULL (in module errno): errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 250) * exists() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 110) * exists() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 36) * exists() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 89) * exists() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 74) * exit (built-in variable): Constants added by the site module. (line 11) * exit (C function): Process Control. (line 23) * exit() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Exiting methods. (line 6) * exit() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 78) * exit() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 493) * exitcode (multiprocessing.Process attribute): Process and exceptions. (line 159) * exitonclick() (in module turtle): Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen. (line 10) * ExitStack (class in contextlib): Utilities. (line 503) * exp() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 315) * exp() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 234) * exp() (in module cmath): Power and logarithmic functions. (line 6) * exp() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 12) * exp2() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 18) * expand_tabs (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 167) * expand() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 23) * ExpandEnvironmentStrings() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 228) * expandNode() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method): DOMEventStream Objects. (line 21) * expandtabs() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 483) * expandtabs() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 483) * expandtabs() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 134) * expanduser() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 131) * expanduser() (pathlib.Path method): Expanding and resolving paths. (line 18) * expandvars() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 155) * Expat: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 11) * ExpatError: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 24) * expected (asyncio.IncompleteReadError attribute): Exceptions<13>. (line 52) * expectedFailure() (in module unittest): Skipping tests and expected failures. (line 98) * expectedFailures (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 266) * expired() (asyncio.Timeout method): Timeouts. (line 72) * expires (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 53) * expires (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 60) * exploded (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 109) * exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 259) * exploded (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 321) * expm1() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 24) * expovariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 38) * Expr (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 6) * expression: Expressions. (line 6) * expression <1>: Glossary. (line 471) * Expression (class in ast): Root nodes. (line 26) * expression; list: Expression lists. (line 6) * expression; list <1>: Expression statements. (line 6) * expression; list <2>: Expression statements. (line 6) * expression; statement: Expression statements. (line 6) * expunge() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 93) * extend_path() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 19) * extend() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 157) * extend() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 59) * extend() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * extend() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 93) * EXTENDED_ARG (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1160) * ExtendedContext (in module decimal): Context objects. (line 76) * ExtendedInterpolation (class in configparser): Interpolation of values. (line 41) * extendleft() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 64) * extension module: Glossary. (line 482) * EXTENSION_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 50) * extension; module: The standard type hierarchy. (line 6) * ExtensionFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 288) * extensions_map (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 365) * External Data Representation: Data stream format. (line 6) * external_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 128) * ExternalClashError: Exceptions<18>. (line 24) * ExternalEntityParserCreate() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 44) * ExternalEntityRefHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 374) * extra (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 94) * extract_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 31) * extract_stack() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 94) * extract_tb() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 82) * extract_version (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 108) * extract() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 175) * extract() (traceback.StackSummary class method): StackSummary Objects. (line 12) * extract() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 187) * extractall() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 138) * extractall() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 214) * ExtractError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 219) * extractfile() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 208) * extraction_filter (tarfile.TarFile attribute): TarFile Objects. (line 244) * extsep (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 132) * f_back (frame attribute): Frame objects. (line 10) * f_back (frame attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 6) * f_builtins (frame attribute): Frame objects. (line 10) * f_builtins (frame attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 29) * f_code (frame attribute): Frame objects. (line 10) * f_code (frame attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 10) * F_CONTIGUOUS (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 27) * f_contiguous (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 480) * f_globals (frame attribute): Frame objects. (line 10) * f_globals (frame attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 25) * f_lasti (frame attribute): Frame objects. (line 10) * f_lasti (frame attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 33) * f_lineno (frame attribute): Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 37) * f_lineno (frame attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes<2>. (line 23) * f_locals (frame attribute): Frame objects. (line 10) * f_locals (frame attribute) <1>: Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 16) * F_LOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 280) * F_OK (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 107) * F_TEST (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 280) * F_TLOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 280) * f_trace (frame attribute): Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 38) * f_trace (frame attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes<2>. (line 6) * f_trace_lines (frame attribute): Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 38) * f_trace_lines (frame attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes<2>. (line 12) * f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute): Special read-only attributes<3>. (line 38) * f_trace_opcodes (frame attribute) <1>: Special writable attributes<2>. (line 16) * F_ULOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 280) * f-string: Fancier Output Formatting. (line 93) * f-string <1>: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * f-string <2>: Glossary. (line 487) * f-strings: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * f'; formatted string literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 64) * f"; formatted string literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 64) * fabs() (in module math): Floating point arithmetic. (line 13) * factorial() (in module math): Number-theoretic functions. (line 23) * factory() (importlib.util.LazyLoader class method): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 222) * FAIL_FAST (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 138) * fail() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 688) * failed (doctest.TestResults attribute): TestResults objects. (line 8) * failfast (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 304) * failureException (unittest.TestCase attribute): Test cases. (line 693) * failures (doctest.DocTestRunner attribute): DocTestRunner objects. (line 139) * failures (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 252) * FakePath (class in test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 60) * False: numbers Integral. (line 27) * false: Truth Value Testing. (line 6) * False <1>: Truth Value Testing. (line 23) * False <2>: Boolean Type - bool. (line 9) * False (Built-in object): Truth Value Testing. (line 15) * False (built-in variable): Built-in Constants. (line 8) * families() (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 88) * family (socket.socket attribute): Socket Objects. (line 615) * FancyURLopener (class in urllib.request): Legacy interface. (line 146) * fast (pickle.Pickler attribute): Module Interface. (line 218) * FastChildWatcher (class in asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 142) * fatalError() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method): ErrorHandler Objects. (line 24) * Fault (class in xmlrpc.client): Fault Objects. (line 6) * faultCode (xmlrpc.client.Fault attribute): Fault Objects. (line 11) * faultString (xmlrpc.client.Fault attribute): Fault Objects. (line 15) * fchdir() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 281) * fchmod() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 121) * fchown() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 137) * fcntl() (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 67) * fd (selectors.SelectorKey attribute): Classes<4>. (line 40) * fd_count() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 97) * fd() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 6) * fdatasync() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 152) * fdopen() (in module os): File Object Creation. (line 9) * feature_external_ges (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 81) * feature_external_pes (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 88) * feature_namespace_prefixes (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 60) * feature_namespaces (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 53) * feature_string_interning (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 67) * feature_validation (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 74) * FEBRUARY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * feed_eof() (asyncio.StreamReader method): StreamReader. (line 16) * feed() (email.parser.BytesFeedParser method): FeedParser API. (line 56) * feed() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 8) * feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method): XMLParser Objects. (line 27) * feed() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method): XMLPullParser Objects. (line 18) * feed() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method): IncrementalParser Objects. (line 9) * FeedParser (class in email.parser): FeedParser API. (line 71) * fetch() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 99) * fetchall() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 146) * fetchmany() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 129) * fetchone() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 122) * FF (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 61) * fflags (select.kevent attribute): Kevent Objects. (line 90) * Field (class in dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 309) * field_size_limit() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 95) * field() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 211) * fieldnames (csv.DictReader attribute): Reader Objects. (line 31) * fields (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 96) * fields() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 337) * FIFOTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 303) * file (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 82) * file (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 12) * file (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 11) * file object: Glossary. (line 493) * file object; io module: Overview<2>. (line 6) * file object; open() built-in function: Built-in Functions. (line 1277) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 452) * file_digest() (in module hashlib): File hashing. (line 9) * file_open() (urllib.request.FileHandler method): FileHandler Objects. (line 6) * file_size (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 144) * file-like object: Glossary. (line 509) * file; byte-code: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 8) * file; copying: shutil — High-level file operations. (line 8) * file; large files: Large File Support. (line 6) * file; mime.types: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 138) * file; modes: Built-in Functions. (line 1303) * fileConfig() (in module logging.config): Configuration functions. (line 61) * FileCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar): http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 57) * FileDialog (class in tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 78) * FileExistsError: OS exceptions. (line 63) * FileFinder (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 153) * FileHandler (class in logging): FileHandler. (line 10) * FileHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 424) * FileInput (class in fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 139) * FileIO (class in io): Raw File I/O. (line 6) * filelineno() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 104) * FileLoader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 292) * filemode() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 121) * filename (doctest.DocTest attribute): DocTest Objects. (line 36) * filename (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar attribute): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 154) * filename (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 17) * filename (inspect.Traceback attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 57) * filename (netrc.NetrcParseError attribute): netrc — netrc file processing. (line 57) * filename (OSError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 194) * filename (SyntaxError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 317) * filename (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 28) * filename (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 91) * filename (tracemalloc.Frame attribute): Frame. (line 13) * filename (zipfile.ZipFile attribute): ZipFile Objects. (line 352) * filename (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 51) * filename_only (in module tabnanny): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation. (line 31) * filename_pattern (tracemalloc.Filter attribute): Filter. (line 54) * filename() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 86) * filename2 (OSError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 194) * filenames; pathname expansion: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 8) * filenames; wildcard expansion: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 8) * fileno() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 88) * fileno() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 36) * fileno() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 91) * fileno() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 62) * fileno() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 31) * fileno() (select.devpoll method): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 24) * fileno() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 73) * fileno() (select.kqueue method): Kqueue Objects. (line 14) * fileno() (selectors.DevpollSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 188) * fileno() (selectors.EpollSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 179) * fileno() (selectors.KqueueSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 199) * fileno() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 118) * fileno() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 14) * FileNotFoundError: OS exceptions. (line 68) * fileobj (selectors.SelectorKey attribute): Classes<4>. (line 36) * files_double_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 94) * files_select_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 98) * files() (importlib.abc.TraversableResources method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 583) * files() (importlib.resources.abc.TraversableResources method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 169) * files() (in module importlib.metadata): Distribution files. (line 6) * files() (in module importlib.resources): importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access. (line 52) * filesystem encoding and error handler: Glossary. (line 513) * FileType (class in argparse): FileType objects. (line 6) * FileWrapper (class in wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 32) * FileWrapper (class in wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 117) * fill() (in module textwrap): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 33) * fill() (textwrap.TextWrapper method): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 295) * fillcolor() (in module turtle): Color control. (line 58) * filling() (in module turtle): Filling. (line 6) * fillvalue (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 10) * Filter (class in logging): Filter Objects. (line 13) * Filter (class in tracemalloc): Filter. (line 6) * filter (select.kevent attribute): Kevent Objects. (line 15) * filter_command() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 102) * FILTER_DIR (in module unittest.mock): FILTER_DIR. (line 6) * filter_traces() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method): Snapshot. (line 35) * filter() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 121) * filter() (in module fnmatch): fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 75) * filter() (logging.Filter method): Filter Objects. (line 20) * filter() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 61) * filter() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 333) * FilterError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 230) * filterfalse() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 289) * filterwarnings() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 107) * Final (in module typing): Special forms. (line 224) * final() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 311) * finalization, of objects: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 6) * finalize (class in weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 268) * finalizer: Basic customization. (line 55) * find_class() (pickle protocol): Restricting Globals. (line 6) * find_class() (pickle.Unpickler method): Module Interface. (line 293) * find_library() (in module ctypes.util): Utility functions. (line 111) * find_loader() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 55) * find_longest_match() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 64) * find_msvcrt() (in module ctypes.util): Utility functions. (line 120) * find_spec() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 35) * find_spec() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 71) * find_spec() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 183) * find_spec() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 116) * find_spec() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 101) * find_spec() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 38) * find_unused_port() (in module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 15) * find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgr method): HTTPPasswordMgr Objects. (line 16) * find_user_password() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects. (line 19) * find() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 133) * find() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 133) * find() (doctest.DocTestFinder method): DocTestFinder objects. (line 32) * find() (in module gettext): Class-based API. (line 14) * find() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 195) * find() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 158) * find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 101) * find() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 21) * findall() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 131) * findall() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 85) * findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 110) * findall() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 26) * findCaller() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 350) * finder: Finders and loaders. (line 6) * finder <1>: Glossary. (line 533) * finder; find_spec: The meta path. (line 6) * findfile() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 271) * finditer() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 157) * finditer() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 91) * findlabels() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 182) * findlinestarts() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 165) * findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 119) * findtext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 31) * finish_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 128) * finish() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method): Request Handler Objects. (line 35) * finish() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler method): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 52) * FIRST_COMPLETED (in module asyncio): Waiting Primitives. (line 35) * FIRST_COMPLETED (in module concurrent.futures): Module Functions. (line 30) * FIRST_EXCEPTION (in module asyncio): Waiting Primitives. (line 39) * FIRST_EXCEPTION (in module concurrent.futures): Module Functions. (line 34) * firstChild (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 54) * FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 92) * firstkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 85) * firstweekday (calendar.Calendar attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 40) * firstweekday() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 360) * fix_missing_locations() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 145) * fix_sentence_endings (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 222) * Flag (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 430) * flag_bits (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 116) * FlagBoundary (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 666) * flags (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 133) * flags (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 524) * flags (re.Pattern attribute): Regular Expression Objects. (line 107) * flags (select.kevent attribute): Kevent Objects. (line 52) * flash() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 132) * flatten() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 79) * flatten() (email.generator.Generator method): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 174) * flattening; objects: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 8) * float (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 722) * float_info (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 608) * float_repr_style (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 716) * floating-point literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * floating-point; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * floating-point; number: numbers Real float. (line 6) * FloatingPointError: Concrete exceptions. (line 40) * FloatOperation (class in decimal): Signals. (line 102) * flock() (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 160) * floor division: Glossary. (line 545) * floor() (in module math): Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 107) * floor() (in module math) <1>: Floating point arithmetic. (line 17) * FloorDiv (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * floordiv() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 88) * flush_headers() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 284) * flush_std_streams() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 403) * flush() (bz2.BZ2Compressor method): Incremental de compression. (line 25) * flush() (io.BufferedWriter method): Buffered Streams. (line 122) * flush() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 68) * flush() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 69) * flush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 30) * flush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 61) * flush() (logging.StreamHandler method): StreamHandler. (line 25) * flush() (lzma.LZMACompressor method): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 91) * flush() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 249) * flush() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 204) * flush() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 102) * flush() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 205) * flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLParser method): XMLParser Objects. (line 31) * flush() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method): XMLPullParser Objects. (line 22) * flush() (zlib.Compress method): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 211) * flush() (zlib.Decompress method): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 283) * flushinp() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 139) * FlushKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 239) * fma() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 319) * fma() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 272) * fma() (in module math): Floating point arithmetic. (line 23) * fmean() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 49) * fmod() (in module math): Floating point arithmetic. (line 38) * FMT_BINARY (in module plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 162) * FMT_XML (in module plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 156) * fnmatch() (in module fnmatch): fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 50) * fnmatchcase() (in module fnmatch): fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 69) * focus() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 93) * fold (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 339) * fold (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 71) * fold_binary() (email.policy.Compat32 method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 608) * fold_binary() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 487) * fold_binary() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 351) * fold() (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader method): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 72) * fold() (email.policy.Compat32 method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 600) * fold() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 467) * fold() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 336) * Font (class in tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 20) * For (class in ast): Control flow. (line 44) * FOR_ITER (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 898) * for; in comprehensions: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. (line 14) * forget() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 11) * forget() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 18) * fork() (in module os): Process Management. (line 256) * fork() (in module pty): pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities. (line 22) * ForkingMixIn (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 27) * ForkingTCPServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ForkingUDPServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ForkingUnixDatagramServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ForkingUnixStreamServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * forkpty() (in module os): Process Management. (line 300) * FORMAT (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 19) * format (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 421) * format (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList attribute): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 341) * format (struct.Struct attribute): Classes<3>. (line 54) * format_datetime() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 173) * format_exc() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 164) * format_exception_only() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 118) * format_exception_only() (traceback.TracebackException method): TracebackException Objects. (line 155) * format_exception() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 148) * format_field() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 102) * format_frame_summary() (traceback.StackSummary method): StackSummary Objects. (line 53) * format_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Printing help. (line 30) * format_list() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 108) * format_map() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 202) * FORMAT_SIMPLE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1186) * format_stack_entry() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 414) * format_stack() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 173) * format_string() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 451) * format_tb() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 169) * format_usage() (argparse.Action method): Action classes. (line 57) * format_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Printing help. (line 25) * FORMAT_WITH_SPEC (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1198) * format() (built-in function); __str__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 131) * format() (inspect.Signature method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 157) * format() (logging.BufferingFormatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 155) * format() (logging.Formatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 52) * format() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 104) * format() (pprint.PrettyPrinter method): PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 82) * format() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 172) * format() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 17) * format() (traceback.StackSummary method): StackSummary Objects. (line 38) * format() (traceback.TracebackException method): TracebackException Objects. (line 143) * format() (tracemalloc.Traceback method): Traceback. (line 37) * formataddr() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 71) * formatargvalues() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 73) * formatdate() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 152) * formatday() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 156) * FormatError: Exceptions<18>. (line 31) * FormatError() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 132) * formatException() (logging.Formatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 117) * formatFooter() (logging.BufferingFormatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 148) * formatHeader() (logging.BufferingFormatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 141) * formatmonth() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 229) * formatmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 185) * formatmonthname() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 250) * formatmonthname() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 194) * formatStack() (logging.Formatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 125) * formatted string literal: Fancier Output Formatting. (line 93) * formatted string literal <1>: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * formatted string literals: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * FormattedValue (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 18) * Formatter (class in logging): Formatter Objects. (line 6) * Formatter (class in string): Custom String Formatting. (line 13) * formatTime() (logging.Formatter method): Formatter Objects. (line 77) * formatting, string (%): printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * formatting; bytearray (%): printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * formatting; bytes (%): printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * formatwarning() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 98) * formatweek() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 163) * formatweekday() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 171) * formatweekheader() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 178) * formatyear() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 235) * formatyear() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 208) * formatyearpage() (calendar.HTMLCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 240) * Fortran contiguous: shape strides suboffsets. (line 25) * Fortran contiguous <1>: Glossary. (line 330) * forward() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 6) * ForwardRef (class in typing): Introspection helpers. (line 148) * fp (urllib.error.HTTPError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 62) * fpathconf() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 161) * Fraction (class in fractions): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 16) * Frame (class in tracemalloc): Frame. (line 6) * frame (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 13) * frame (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText attribute): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget. (line 26) * FrameInfo (class in inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 11) * FrameSummary (class in traceback): FrameSummary Objects. (line 11) * FrameType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 195) * free (C function): Overview<4>. (line 33) * free threading: Glossary. (line 553) * free variable: Glossary. (line 560) * free_tool_id() (in module sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools. (line 13) * free; variable: Binding of names. (line 48) * freedesktop_os_release() (in module platform): Linux platforms. (line 6) * freefunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 27) * freeze utility: Importing Modules<2>. (line 273) * freeze_support() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 50) * freeze() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 205) * frexp() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 12) * FRIDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * from_address() (ctypes._CData method): Data types. (line 42) * from_buffer_copy() (ctypes._CData method): Data types. (line 31) * from_buffer() (ctypes._CData method): Data types. (line 19) * from_bytes() (int class method): Additional Methods on Integer Types. (line 111) * from_callable() (inspect.Signature class method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 169) * from_decimal() (fractions.Fraction class method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 149) * from_exception() (traceback.TracebackException class method): TracebackException Objects. (line 126) * from_file() (zipfile.ZipInfo class method): ZipInfo Objects. (line 14) * from_file() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo class method): The ZoneInfo class. (line 28) * from_float() (decimal.Decimal class method): Decimal objects. (line 245) * from_float() (fractions.Fraction class method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 138) * from_iterable() (itertools.chain class method): Itertool Functions. (line 117) * from_list() (traceback.StackSummary class method): StackSummary Objects. (line 31) * from_param() (ctypes._CData method): Data types. (line 51) * from_samples() (statistics.NormalDist class method): NormalDist objects. (line 45) * from_traceback() (dis.Bytecode class method): Bytecode analysis. (line 43) * from_uri() (pathlib.Path class method): Parsing and generating URIs. (line 12) * from; import statement: Binding of names. (line 9) * from; import statement <1>: The import statement. (line 52) * from; yield from expression: Yield expressions. (line 66) * frombuf() (tarfile.TarInfo class method): TarInfo Objects. (line 37) * frombytes() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 165) * fromfd() (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 159) * fromfd() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 77) * fromfd() (select.kqueue method): Kqueue Objects. (line 18) * fromfile() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 175) * fromhex() (bytearray class method): Bytearray Objects. (line 36) * fromhex() (bytes class method): Bytes Objects. (line 62) * fromhex() (float class method): Additional Methods on Float. (line 39) * fromisocalendar() (datetime.date class method): date Objects. (line 91) * fromisocalendar() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 246) * fromisoformat() (datetime.date class method): date Objects. (line 63) * fromisoformat() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 197) * fromisoformat() (datetime.time class method): time Objects. (line 107) * fromkeys() (collections.Counter method): Counter objects. (line 117) * fromkeys() (dict class method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 173) * fromlist() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 183) * fromordinal() (datetime.date class method): date Objects. (line 54) * fromordinal() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 171) * fromshare() (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 176) * fromstring() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 99) * fromstringlist() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 107) * fromtarfile() (tarfile.TarInfo class method): TarInfo Objects. (line 44) * fromtimestamp() (datetime.date class method): date Objects. (line 35) * fromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 100) * fromunicode() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 189) * fromutc() (datetime.timezone method): timezone Objects. (line 61) * fromutc() (datetime.tzinfo method): tzinfo Objects. (line 163) * FrozenImporter (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 80) * FrozenInstanceError: Module contents<4>. (line 513) * frozenset (built-in class): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 33) * FrozenSet (class in typing): Aliases to built-in types. (line 42) * FS (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 109) * fs_is_case_insensitive() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 101) * FS_NONASCII (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 11) * fsdecode() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 95) * fsencode() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 82) * fspath() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 108) * fstat() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 183) * fstatvfs() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 195) * fstring: Fancier Output Formatting. (line 93) * fstring <1>: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * fstring <2>: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * FSTRING_END (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 115) * FSTRING_MIDDLE (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 105) * FSTRING_START (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 96) * fsum() (in module math): Summation and product functions. (line 18) * fsync() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 203) * FTP: urllib request Restrictions. (line 37) * FTP (class in ftplib): FTP objects. (line 6) * ftp_open() (urllib.request.FTPHandler method): FTPHandler Objects. (line 6) * FTP_TLS (class in ftplib): FTP_TLS objects. (line 6) * FTP; ftplib (standard module): ftplib — FTP protocol client. (line 8) * FTP; protocol: urllib request Restrictions. (line 6) * FTP; protocol <1>: ftplib — FTP protocol client. (line 8) * FTPHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 434) * ftruncate() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 216) * Full: queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 88) * FULL (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 45) * full_match() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 254) * FULL_RO (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 47) * full_url (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 11) * full() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 31) * full() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 125) * full() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 22) * fullmatch() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 67) * fullmatch() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 62) * fully_trusted_filter() (in module tarfile): Default named filters. (line 9) * func (functools.partial attribute): partial Objects. (line 9) * funcname (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 101) * function: Glossary. (line 569) * Function (class in pyclbr): Function Objects. (line 6) * Function (class in symtable): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 122) * function (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 27) * function (inspect.Traceback attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 67) * FUNCTION (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 15) * function annotation: Glossary. (line 577) * function; annotations: Function Annotations. (line 6) * function; annotations <1>: Function definitions. (line 109) * function; argument: Callable types. (line 6) * function; call: Callable types. (line 6) * function; call <1>: Calls. (line 132) * function; call <2>: Calls. (line 143) * function; definition: The return statement. (line 6) * function; definition <1>: Function definitions. (line 6) * function; generator: The yield statement. (line 6) * function; name: Function definitions. (line 6) * function; name <1>: Function definitions. (line 6) * FunctionDef (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 6) * FunctionTestCase (class in unittest): Test cases. (line 956) * FunctionType (class in ast): Root nodes. (line 57) * FunctionType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 25) * funny_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 99) * Future (class in asyncio): Future Object. (line 6) * Future (class in concurrent.futures): Future Objects. (line 10) * future; statement: Future statements. (line 6) * FutureWarning: Warnings. (line 51) * fwalk() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1742) * gaierror: Exceptions<15>. (line 27) * gamma() (in module math): Special functions. (line 29) * gammavariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 48) * garbage (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 239) * garbage collection: Objects values and types. (line 37) * garbage collection <1>: Glossary. (line 611) * gather() (curses.textpad.Textbox method): Textbox objects. (line 109) * gather() (in module asyncio): Running Tasks Concurrently. (line 6) * gauss() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 61) * gc_collect() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 356) * gcd() (in module math): Number-theoretic functions. (line 30) * gcvisitobjects_t (C type): Querying Garbage Collector State. (line 26) * ge() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * generate_tokens() (in module tokenize): Tokenizing Input. (line 38) * generator: Glossary. (line 620) * generator <1>: Glossary. (line 620) * Generator (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 56) * Generator (class in email.generator): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 139) * Generator (class in typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 37) * generator expression: Glossary. (line 642) * generator expression <1>: Glossary. (line 642) * generator iterator: Glossary. (line 630) * generator_stop (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 43) * generator; expression: Generator expressions. (line 6) * generator; function: Generator functions. (line 6) * generator; function <1>: Yield expressions. (line 6) * generator; function <2>: The yield statement. (line 6) * generator; iterator: Generator functions. (line 6) * generator; iterator <1>: The yield statement. (line 6) * GeneratorExit: Concrete exceptions. (line 44) * GeneratorExp (class in ast): Comprehensions. (line 6) * generators (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 18) * GeneratorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 37) * Generic (class in typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 15) * generic function: Glossary. (line 651) * generic type: Glossary. (line 659) * generic_visit() (ast.NodeVisitor method): ast Helpers. (line 201) * Generic; Alias: Generic Alias Type. (line 6) * generic; special; attribute: The standard type hierarchy. (line 13) * GenericAlias (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 150) * genops() (in module pickletools): Programmatic Interface<2>. (line 22) * geometric_mean() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 77) * GET_AITER (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 322) * get_all_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 398) * get_all_start_methods() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 76) * get_all() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 254) * get_all() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 364) * get_all() (wsgiref.headers.Headers method): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. (line 51) * GET_ANEXT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 331) * get_annotations() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 156) * get_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer method): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 69) * get_archive_formats() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 68) * get_args() (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 81) * get_asyncgen_hooks() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1007) * get_attribute() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 591) * GET_AWAITABLE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 303) * get_begidx() (in module readline): Completion. (line 40) * get_blocking() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 229) * get_body_encoding() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 96) * get_body() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 518) * get_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 403) * get_boundary() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 582) * get_bpbynumber() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 374) * get_break() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 383) * get_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 388) * get_buffer() (asyncio.BufferedProtocol method): Buffered Streaming Protocols. (line 21) * get_bytes() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 167) * get_bytes() (mailbox.mbox method): mbox objects. (line 32) * get_bytes() (mailbox.MMDF method): MMDF objects. (line 29) * get_ca_certs() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 178) * get_cache_token() (in module abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 326) * get_channel_binding() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 258) * get_charset() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 268) * get_charsets() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 431) * get_charsets() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 616) * get_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method): Policy Objects. (line 33) * get_child_watcher() (in module asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 25) * get_children() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 118) * get_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 19) * get_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 192) * get_clock_info() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 105) * get_close_matches() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 205) * get_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 207) * get_code() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 402) * get_code() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 333) * get_code() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 269) * get_code() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 45) * get_completer_delims() (in module readline): Completion. (line 50) * get_completer() (in module readline): Completion. (line 29) * get_completion_type() (in module readline): Completion. (line 34) * get_config_h_filename() (in module sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line 70) * get_config_var() (in module sysconfig): Configuration variables. (line 26) * get_config_vars() (in module sysconfig): Configuration variables. (line 16) * get_content_charset() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 424) * get_content_charset() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 605) * get_content_disposition() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 455) * get_content_disposition() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 630) * get_content_maintype() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 324) * get_content_maintype() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 434) * get_content_subtype() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 330) * get_content_subtype() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 440) * get_content_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 308) * get_content_type() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 418) * get_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. (line 19) * get_content() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 582) * get_content() (in module email.contentmanager): Content Manager Instances. (line 24) * get_context() (asyncio.Handle method): Callback Handles. (line 11) * get_context() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 170) * get_context() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 85) * get_coro() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 157) * get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1021) * get_count() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 113) * get_current_history_length() (in module readline): History list. (line 14) * get_data() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 324) * get_data() (importlib.abc.ResourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 187) * get_data() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 185) * get_data() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 50) * get_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 92) * get_debug() (asyncio.loop method): Enabling debug mode. (line 6) * get_debug() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 58) * get_default_scheme() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 14) * get_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 335) * get_default_type() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 445) * get_default_verify_paths() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 62) * get_default() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Parser defaults. (line 33) * get_dialect() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 85) * get_disassembly_as_string() (test.support.bytecode_helper.BytecodeTestCase method): test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. (line 18) * get_docstring() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 122) * get_doctest() (doctest.DocTestParser method): DocTestParser objects. (line 13) * get_endidx() (in module readline): Completion. (line 40) * get_environ() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 91) * get_errno() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 148) * get_escdelay() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 448) * get_event_loop_policy() (in module asyncio): Getting and Setting the Policy. (line 9) * get_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method): Policy Objects. (line 12) * get_event_loop() (in module asyncio): Event Loop. (line 39) * get_events() (in module sys.monitoring): Setting events globally. (line 9) * get_examples() (doctest.DocTestParser method): DocTestParser objects. (line 22) * get_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method): Error Handling API. (line 27) * get_exec_path() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 167) * get_extra_info() (asyncio.BaseTransport method): Base Transport. (line 21) * get_extra_info() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 61) * get_field() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 55) * get_file_breaks() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 393) * get_file() (mailbox.Babyl method): Babyl objects. (line 49) * get_file() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 183) * get_file() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 221) * get_file() (mailbox.mbox method): mbox objects. (line 39) * get_file() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 96) * get_file() (mailbox.MMDF method): MMDF objects. (line 36) * get_filename() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 393) * get_filename() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 572) * get_filename() (importlib.abc.ExecutionLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 279) * get_filename() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 320) * get_filename() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 341) * get_filename() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 58) * get_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 106) * get_flags() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 92) * get_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 63) * get_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage method): mboxMessage objects. (line 64) * get_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage method): MMDFMessage objects. (line 63) * get_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 69) * get_folder() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 39) * get_frees() (symtable.Function method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 145) * get_freeze_count() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 230) * get_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage method): mboxMessage objects. (line 47) * get_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage method): MMDFMessage objects. (line 46) * get_full_url() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 107) * get_globals() (symtable.Function method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 136) * get_grouped_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 168) * get_handle_inheritable() (in module os): Inheritance of File Descriptors. (line 34) * get_header() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 121) * get_history_item() (in module readline): History list. (line 20) * get_history_length() (in module readline): History file. (line 30) * get_id() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 69) * get_ident() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 88) * get_ident() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 73) * get_identifiers() (string.Template method): Template strings. (line 75) * get_identifiers() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 103) * get_importer() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 73) * get_info() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 155) * get_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 102) * get_inheritable() (in module os): Inheritance of File Descriptors. (line 25) * get_inheritable() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 127) * get_instructions() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 138) * get_int_max_str_digits() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 822) * get_interpreter() (in module zipapp): Python API. (line 83) * GET_ITER (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 214) * get_key() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 145) * get_labels() (mailbox.Babyl method): Babyl objects. (line 35) * get_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 47) * get_last_error() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 156) * GET_LEN (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 524) * get_line_buffer() (in module readline): Line buffer. (line 8) * get_lineno() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 85) * get_loader() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 87) * get_local_events() (in module sys.monitoring): Per code object events. (line 11) * get_locals() (symtable.Function method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 132) * get_logger() (in module multiprocessing): Logging<2>. (line 11) * get_loop() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 136) * get_loop() (asyncio.Runner method): Runner context manager. (line 57) * get_loop() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 69) * get_makefile_filename() (in module sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line 74) * get_map() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 153) * get_matching_blocks() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 107) * get_message() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 160) * get_method() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 69) * get_methods() (symtable.Class method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 155) * get_mixed_type_key() (in module ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions. (line 56) * get_name() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 177) * get_name() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 196) * get_name() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 73) * get_namespace() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 267) * get_namespaces() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 263) * get_native_id() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 96) * get_native_id() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 83) * get_nonlocals() (symtable.Function method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 140) * get_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 102) * get_nowait() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 48) * get_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 166) * get_nowait() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 66) * get_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue method): SimpleQueue Objects. (line 51) * get_object_traceback() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 12) * get_objects() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 62) * get_opcodes() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 125) * get_option_group() (optparse.OptionParser method): Grouping Options. (line 103) * get_option() (optparse.OptionParser method): Querying and manipulating your option parser. (line 37) * get_origin() (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 58) * get_original_bases() (in module types): Dynamic Type Creation. (line 72) * get_original_stdout() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 313) * get_osfhandle() (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 58) * get_output_charset() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 111) * get_overloads() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 286) * get_pagesize() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 280) * get_param() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 480) * get_parameters() (symtable.Function method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 127) * get_params() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 459) * get_path_names() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 57) * get_path() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 62) * get_paths() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 93) * get_payload() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 180) * get_pid() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 6) * get_pipe_transport() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 10) * get_platform() (in module sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line 11) * get_poly() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 17) * get_preferred_scheme() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 24) * get_protocol_members() (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 99) * get_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport method): Base Transport. (line 88) * get_proxy_response_headers() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 134) * get_python_version() (in module sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line 6) * get_ready() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter method): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 150) * get_referents() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 145) * get_referrers() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 123) * get_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 134) * get_returncode() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 29) * get_running_loop() (in module asyncio): Event Loop. (line 29) * get_scheme_names() (in module sysconfig): Installation path functions. (line 9) * get_scheme() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 191) * get_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 110) * get_sequences() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 56) * get_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage method): MHMessage objects. (line 32) * get_server_certificate() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 29) * get_server() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method): Managers. (line 63) * get_shapepoly() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 169) * get_source_segment() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 133) * get_source() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 221) * get_source() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 420) * get_source() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 337) * get_source() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 274) * get_source() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 66) * get_stack() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 121) * get_stack() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 405) * get_start_method() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 99) * get_starttag_text() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 32) * get_stats_profile() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 225) * get_stats() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 73) * get_stderr() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 129) * get_stderr() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 101) * get_stdin() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 123) * get_string() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 175) * get_string() (mailbox.mbox method): mbox objects. (line 50) * get_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 47) * get_symbols() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 113) * get_tabsize() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 463) * get_task_factory() (asyncio.loop method): Creating Futures and Tasks. (line 70) * get_terminal_size() (in module os): Querying the size of a terminal. (line 8) * get_terminal_size() (in module shutil): Querying the size of the output terminal. (line 6) * get_threshold() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 118) * get_token() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 8) * get_tool() (in module sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools. (line 22) * get_traceback_limit() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 22) * get_traced_memory() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 32) * get_tracemalloc_memory() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 56) * get_type_hints() (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 6) * get_type() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 53) * get_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 152) * get_unixfrom() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 162) * get_unpack_formats() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 190) * get_unverified_chain() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 222) * get_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method): Other methods. (line 22) * get_value() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 65) * get_verified_chain() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 213) * get_version() (optparse.OptionParser method): Printing a version string. (line 34) * get_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 63) * get_wch() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 241) * get_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 23) * get_write_buffer_size() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 19) * GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 218) * get() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 39) * get() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 223) * get() (contextvars.Context method): Manual Context Management. (line 118) * get() (contextvars.ContextVar method): Context Variables. (line 30) * get() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 185) * get() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 245) * get() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 356) * get() (in module webbrowser): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 104) * get() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 148) * get() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method): Process Pools. (line 200) * get() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 151) * get() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 242) * get() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 46) * get() (queue.SimpleQueue method): SimpleQueue Objects. (line 40) * get() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox method): ttk Combobox. (line 15) * get() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox method): ttk Spinbox. (line 8) * get() (types.MappingProxyType method): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 260) * get() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 64) * getacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 106) * getaddresses() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 85) * getaddrinfo() (asyncio.loop method): DNS. (line 6) * getaddrinfo() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 17) * getallocatedblocks() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 728) * getandroidapilevel() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 749) * getannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 111) * getargvalues() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 62) * getasyncgenlocals() (in module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. (line 100) * getasyncgenstate() (in module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. (line 47) * getatime() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 167) * getattr_static() (in module inspect): Fetching attributes statically. (line 16) * getattrfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 43) * getAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 31) * getAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 37) * getAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 47) * getAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 41) * getattrofunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 54) * GetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 31) * getbegyx() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 225) * getbkgd() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 229) * getblocking() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 164) * getboolean() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 257) * getbuffer() (io.BytesIO method): Buffered Streams. (line 21) * getbufferproc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 100) * getByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 48) * getcallargs() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 92) * getcanvas() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 55) * getch() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 234) * getch() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 11) * getCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 64) * getche() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 26) * getChild() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 162) * getChildren() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 174) * getclasstree() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 6) * getclosurevars() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 123) * getcode() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 89) * getcode() (urllib.response.addinfourl method): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 45) * getColumnNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method): Locator Objects. (line 8) * getcomments() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 18) * getcompname() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 41) * getcomptype() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 36) * getconfig() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 647) * getContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 21) * getcontext() (in module decimal): Context objects. (line 14) * getcoroutinelocals() (in module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. (line 92) * getcoroutinestate() (in module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. (line 28) * getctime() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 183) * getcwd() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 293) * getcwdb() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 297) * getdecoder() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 116) * getdefaultencoding() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 760) * getdefaultlocale() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 340) * getdefaulttimeout() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 375) * getdlopenflags() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 765) * getdoc() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 6) * getDOMImplementation() (in module xml.dom): Module Contents<4>. (line 17) * getDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 30) * getEffectiveLevel() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 152) * getegid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 177) * getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 61) * getElementsByTagName() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 14) * getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Document method): Document Objects. (line 66) * getElementsByTagNameNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 18) * getencoder() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 108) * getencoding() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 403) * getEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 32) * getEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 39) * getenv() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 135) * getenvb() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 151) * getErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 50) * geteuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 185) * getEvent() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method): DOMEventStream Objects. (line 11) * getEventCategory() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method): NTEventLogHandler. (line 43) * getEventType() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method): NTEventLogHandler. (line 49) * getException() (xml.sax.SAXException method): SAXException Objects. (line 13) * getFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 69) * getfile() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 27) * getFilesToDelete() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method): TimedRotatingFileHandler. (line 115) * getfilesystemencodeerrors() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 805) * getfilesystemencoding() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 774) * getfirstweekday() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 48) * getfloat() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 250) * getfqdn() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 99) * getframeinfo() (in module inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 123) * getframerate() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 28) * getfullargspec() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 17) * getgeneratorlocals() (in module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. (line 72) * getgeneratorstate() (in module inspect): Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators. (line 12) * getgid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 191) * getgrall() (in module grp): grp — The group database. (line 58) * getgrgid() (in module grp): grp — The group database. (line 44) * getgrnam() (in module grp): grp — The group database. (line 53) * getgrouplist() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 200) * getgroups() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 211) * getHandlerByName() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 183) * getHandlerNames() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 190) * getheader() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 24) * getheaders() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 32) * gethostbyaddr() (in module socket): Process Parameters. (line 552) * gethostbyaddr() (in module socket) <1>: Other functions<2>. (line 156) * gethostbyname_ex() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 126) * gethostbyname() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 111) * gethostname() (in module socket): Process Parameters. (line 552) * gethostname() (in module socket) <1>: Other functions<2>. (line 143) * getincrementaldecoder() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 132) * getincrementalencoder() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 124) * getinfo() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 112) * getinnerframes() (in module inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 146) * GetInputContext() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 37) * getint() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 243) * getitem() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 196) * getiterfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 88) * getitimer() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 436) * getkey() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 249) * GetLastError() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 140) * getLength() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method): The Attributes Interface. (line 11) * getLevelName() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 150) * getLevelNamesMapping() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 141) * getlimit() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 591) * getline() (in module linecache): linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 23) * getLineNumber() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method): Locator Objects. (line 12) * getloadavg() (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 52) * getlocale() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 367) * getLogger() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 9) * getLoggerClass() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 23) * getlogin() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 234) * getLogRecordFactory() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 34) * getMandatoryRelease() (__future__._Feature method): Module Contents<5>. (line 74) * getmark() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 72) * getmarkers() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 64) * getmaxyx() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 256) * getmember() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 103) * getmembers_static() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 323) * getmembers() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 310) * getmembers() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 111) * getMessage() (logging.LogRecord method): LogRecord Objects. (line 64) * getMessage() (xml.sax.SAXException method): SAXException Objects. (line 9) * getMessageID() (logging.handlers.NTEventLogHandler method): NTEventLogHandler. (line 60) * getmodule() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 33) * getmodulename() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 339) * getmouse() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 145) * getmro() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 84) * getmtime() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 174) * getName() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 159) * getNameByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method): The AttributesNS Interface. (line 16) * getnameinfo() (asyncio.loop method): DNS. (line 11) * getnameinfo() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 172) * getnames() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 117) * getNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method): The Attributes Interface. (line 15) * getnchannels() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 19) * getnframes() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 32) * getnode() (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 161) * getobjects() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 914) * getopt() (in module getopt): getopt — C-style parser for command line options. (line 33) * GetoptError: getopt — C-style parser for command line options. (line 82) * getOptionalRelease() (__future__._Feature method): Module Contents<5>. (line 69) * getouterframes() (in module inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 131) * getoutput() (in module subprocess): Legacy Shell Invocation Functions. (line 45) * getpagesize() (in module resource): Resource Usage. (line 101) * getparams() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 46) * getparyx() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 260) * getpass() (in module getpass): getpass — Portable password input. (line 17) * GetPassWarning: getpass — Portable password input. (line 34) * getpeercert() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 144) * getpeername() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 135) * getpen() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 40) * getpgid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 245) * getpgrp() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 253) * getpid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 259) * getpos() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 28) * getppid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 266) * getpreferredencoding() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 379) * getpriority() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 277) * getprofile() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 939) * getprofile() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 152) * getProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 83) * getprotobyname() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 192) * getproxies() (in module urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 168) * getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 10) * getPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method): Locator Objects. (line 16) * getpwall() (in module pwd): pwd — The password database. (line 63) * getpwnam() (in module pwd): pwd — The password database. (line 59) * getpwuid() (in module pwd): pwd — The password database. (line 55) * getQNameByName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method): The AttributesNS Interface. (line 20) * getQNames() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method): The AttributesNS Interface. (line 24) * getquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 116) * getquotaroot() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 121) * getrandbits() (in module random): Functions for integers. (line 37) * getrandbits() (random.Random method): Alternative Generator. (line 41) * getrandom() (in module os): Random numbers<2>. (line 6) * getreader() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 140) * getrecursionlimit() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 846) * getrefcount() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 830) * GetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 111) * getresgid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 324) * getresponse() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 75) * getresuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 315) * getrlimit() (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 24) * getroot() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 36) * getrusage() (in module resource): Resource Usage. (line 8) * getsampwidth() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 24) * getscreen() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 51) * getservbyname() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 203) * getservbyport() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 214) * GetSetDescriptorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 200) * getshapes() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 64) * getsid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 510) * getsignal() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 284) * getsitepackages() (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 58) * getsize() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 194) * getsizeof() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 853) * getsockname() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 143) * getsockopt() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 149) * getsource() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 59) * getsourcefile() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 38) * getsourcelines() (in module inspect): Retrieving source code. (line 45) * getstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method): IncrementalDecoder Objects. (line 44) * getstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder method): IncrementalEncoder Objects. (line 42) * getstate() (in module random): Bookkeeping functions. (line 32) * getstate() (random.Random method): Alternative Generator. (line 23) * getstatusoutput() (in module subprocess): Legacy Shell Invocation Functions. (line 11) * getstr() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 266) * getSubject() (logging.handlers.SMTPHandler method): SMTPHandler. (line 39) * getswitchinterval() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 875) * getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 18) * getSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Locator method): Locator Objects. (line 20) * getsyx() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 163) * gettarinfo() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 303) * gettempdir() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 318) * gettempdirb() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 350) * gettempprefix() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 356) * gettempprefixb() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 361) * getter (C type): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 33) * getTestCaseNames() (unittest.TestLoader method): Loading and running tests. (line 111) * gettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method): The GNUTranslations class. (line 38) * gettext() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 35) * gettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 32) * gettext() (in module locale): Access to message catalogs. (line 6) * gettimeout() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 173) * gettrace() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 943) * gettrace() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 130) * getturtle() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 40) * getType() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method): The Attributes Interface. (line 19) * getuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 333) * getunicodeinternedsize() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 743) * geturl() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 79) * geturl() (urllib.parse.urllib.parse.SplitResult method): Structured Parse Results. (line 12) * geturl() (urllib.response.addinfourl method): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 30) * getuser() (in module getpass): getpass — Portable password input. (line 39) * getuserbase() (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 64) * getusersitepackages() (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 72) * getvalue() (io.BytesIO method): Buffered Streams. (line 38) * getvalue() (io.StringIO method): Text I/O<2>. (line 265) * getValue() (xml.sax.xmlreader.Attributes method): The Attributes Interface. (line 24) * getValueByQName() (xml.sax.xmlreader.AttributesNS method): The AttributesNS Interface. (line 12) * getwch() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 21) * getwche() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 31) * getweakrefcount() (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 156) * getweakrefs() (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 161) * getwelcome() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 121) * getwelcome() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 20) * getwin() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 169) * getwindowsversion() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 954) * getwriter() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 148) * getxattr() (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 10) * getyx() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 277) * gid (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 113) * GIL: Glossary. (line 668) * glob() (in module glob): glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 29) * glob() (pathlib.Path method): Reading directories. (line 30) * Global (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 145) * global interpreter lock: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock. (line 6) * global interpreter lock <1>: Glossary. (line 672) * global_enum() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 92) * global; name; binding: The global statement. (line 6) * global; namespace: Special read-only attributes. (line 6) * globs (doctest.DocTest attribute): DocTest Objects. (line 22) * gmtime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 139) * gname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 129) * GNOME: The Catalog constructor. (line 6) * GNU_FORMAT (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 331) * gnu_getopt() (in module getopt): getopt — C-style parser for command line options. (line 70) * GNUTranslations (class in gettext): The GNUTranslations class. (line 33) * GNUTYPE_LONGLINK (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 315) * GNUTYPE_LONGNAME (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 311) * GNUTYPE_SPARSE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 319) * go() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 114) * got (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute): Debugging. (line 204) * goto() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 74) * grammar: Notation. (line 6) * grantpt() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 248) * Graphical User Interface: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk. (line 6) * GREATER (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 218) * GREATEREQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 245) * Greenwich Mean Time: time — Time access and conversions. (line 39) * GRND_NONBLOCK (in module os): Random numbers<2>. (line 76) * GRND_RANDOM (in module os): Random numbers<2>. (line 89) * Group (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 457) * group() (pathlib.Path method): Permissions and ownership. (line 21) * group() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 36) * groupby() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 306) * groupdict() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 136) * groupindex (re.Pattern attribute): Regular Expression Objects. (line 118) * grouping: Indentation. (line 6) * groups (email.headerregistry.AddressHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 188) * groups (re.Pattern attribute): Regular Expression Objects. (line 114) * groups() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 113) * GS (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 112) * Gt (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * gt() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * GtE (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * guard: Guards. (line 6) * guess_all_extensions() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 64) * guess_all_extensions() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 72) * guess_extension() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 76) * guess_extension() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 55) * guess_file_type() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 55) * guess_file_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 65) * guess_scheme() (in module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 14) * guess_type() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 24) * guess_type() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 60) * GUI: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk. (line 6) * gzip command line option; -best: Command line options. (line 14) * gzip command line option; -d: Command line options. (line 18) * gzip command line option; -decompress: Command line options. (line 18) * gzip command line option; -fast: Command line options. (line 10) * gzip command line option; -h: Command line options. (line 22) * gzip command line option; -help: Command line options. (line 22) * gzip command line option; file: Command line options. (line 6) * GzipFile (class in gzip): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 71) * halfdelay() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 211) * Handle (class in asyncio): Callback Handles. (line 6) * handle an exception: Exceptions<2>. (line 6) * handle_charref() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 93) * handle_comment() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 102) * handle_data() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 80) * handle_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 115) * handle_defect() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 235) * handle_endtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 64) * handle_entityref() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 86) * handle_error() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 140) * handle_expect_100() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 205) * handle_one_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 199) * handle_pi() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 123) * handle_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 21) * handle_request() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 50) * handle_startendtag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 71) * handle_starttag() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 45) * handle_timeout() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 150) * handle() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 192) * handle() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 83) * handle() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method): QueueListener. (line 67) * handle() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 365) * handle() (logging.NullHandler method): NullHandler. (line 20) * handle() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method): Request Handler Objects. (line 20) * handle() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIRequestHandler method): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 106) * handleError() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 90) * handleError() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 33) * Handler (class in logging): Handler Objects. (line 11) * Handlers (class in signal): Module contents<2>. (line 24) * handlers (logging.Logger attribute): Logger Objects. (line 87) * hardlink_to() (pathlib.Path method): Creating files and directories. (line 73) * harmonic_mean() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 97) * HAS_ALPN (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 382) * has_children() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 98) * has_colors() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 176) * has_default() (typing.ParamSpec method): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 434) * has_default() (typing.TypeVar method): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 201) * has_default() (typing.TypeVarTuple method): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 333) * has_dualstack_ipv6() (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 152) * HAS_ECDH (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 398) * has_extended_color_support() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 181) * has_extn() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 85) * has_header() (csv.Sniffer method): Module Contents<3>. (line 239) * has_header() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 95) * has_ic() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 192) * has_il() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 199) * has_ipv6 (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 293) * has_key() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 206) * has_location (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 435) * HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 390) * has_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 98) * HAS_NPN (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 413) * has_option() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 141) * has_option() (optparse.OptionParser method): Querying and manipulating your option parser. (line 42) * HAS_PSK (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 465) * has_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 132) * HAS_SNI (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 406) * HAS_SSLv2 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 423) * HAS_SSLv3 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 430) * has_ticket (ssl.SSLSession attribute): SSL session. (line 20) * HAS_TLSv1 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 437) * HAS_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 444) * HAS_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 451) * HAS_TLSv1_3 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 458) * hasarg (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 25) * hasAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 22) * hasAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 26) * hasAttributes() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 94) * hasChildNodes() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 98) * hascompare (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 58) * hasconst (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 31) * hasexc (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 62) * hasFeature() (xml.dom.DOMImplementation method): DOMImplementation Objects. (line 11) * hasfree (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 35) * hash character: Comments. (line 6) * hash_bits (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1062) * hash_info (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1031) * hash_randomization (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 565) * hash-based pyc: Glossary. (line 696) * hash.block_size (in module hashlib): Hash Objects. (line 13) * hash.digest_size (in module hashlib): Hash Objects. (line 9) * hashable: Dictionary displays. (line 37) * hashable <1>: Glossary. (line 702) * Hashable (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 11) * Hashable (class in typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 53) * hasHandlers() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 380) * hashfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 79) * hasjabs (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 75) * hasjrel (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 68) * hasjump (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 47) * haslocal (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 54) * hasname (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 43) * HAVE_ARGUMENT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1272) * HAVE_CONTEXTVAR (in module decimal): Constants<4>. (line 32) * HAVE_DOCSTRINGS (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 163) * HAVE_THREADS (in module decimal): Constants<4>. (line 25) * HCI_DATA_DIR (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 306) * HCI_FILTER (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 306) * HCI_TIME_STAMP (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 306) * Header (class in email.header): email header Internationalized headers. (line 60) * header_encode_lines() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 125) * header_encode() (email.charset.Charset method): email charset Representing character sets. (line 118) * header_encoding (email.charset.Charset attribute): email charset Representing character sets. (line 59) * header_factory (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 408) * header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 594) * header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 458) * header_fetch_parse() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 319) * header_items() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 126) * header_max_count() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 435) * header_max_count() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 260) * header_offset (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 132) * header_source_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 582) * header_source_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 441) * header_source_parse() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 282) * header_store_parse() (email.policy.Compat32 method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 590) * header_store_parse() (email.policy.EmailPolicy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 449) * header_store_parse() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 303) * HeaderDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 60) * HeaderError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 225) * HeaderParseError: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 26) * HeaderParser (class in email.parser): Parser API. (line 107) * HeaderRegistry (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 299) * Headers (class in wsgiref.headers): wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. (line 9) * headers (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 56) * headers (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 109) * headers (urllib.error.HTTPError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 55) * headers (urllib.response.addinfourl attribute): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 19) * headers (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute): ProtocolError Objects. (line 25) * HeaderWriteError: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 50) * heading() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 58) * heading() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 99) * heapify() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 59) * heapmin() (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 6) * heappop() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 45) * heappush() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 40) * heappushpop() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 52) * heapreplace() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 63) * helo() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 47) * help (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 80) * help (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 73) * help; online: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 8) * herror: Exceptions<15>. (line 13) * hex (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 128) * hex() (bytearray method): Bytearray Objects. (line 52) * hex() (bytes method): Bytes Objects. (line 78) * hex() (float method): Additional Methods on Float. (line 33) * hex() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 188) * hexadecimal literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * hexadecimal; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * hexdigest() (hashlib.hash method): Hash Objects. (line 44) * hexdigest() (hashlib.shake method): SHAKE variable length digests. (line 21) * hexdigest() (hmac.HMAC method): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 71) * hexdigits (in module string): String constants. (line 28) * hexlify() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 114) * hexversion (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1075) * hidden() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 25) * hide_cookie2 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 76) * hide() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 30) * hide() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 23) * hideturtle() (in module turtle): Visibility. (line 6) * HierarchyRequestErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 29) * HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 82) * HIGHEST_PROTOCOL (in module pickle): Module Interface. (line 14) * hits (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 124) * HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 6) * HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 38) * HKEY_CURRENT_USER (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 12) * HKEY_DYN_DATA (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 43) * HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 19) * HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 31) * HKEY_USERS (in module winreg): HKEY_* Constants. (line 25) * hline() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 282) * hls_to_rgb() (in module colorsys): colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 40) * HOME: os path<5>. (line 15) * HOME <1>: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 117) * HOME <2>: Windows<43>. (line 15) * HOME <3>: Windows<43>. (line 18) * HOME <4>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 136) * HOME <5>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 153) * HOME <6>: Tkinter Modules. (line 66) * home() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 195) * home() (pathlib.Path class method): Expanding and resolving paths. (line 6) * HOMEDRIVE: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 143) * HOMEPATH: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 143) * hook_compressed() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 196) * hook_encoded() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 216) * hooks; import: Import hooks. (line 6) * hooks; meta: Import hooks. (line 6) * hooks; path: Import hooks. (line 6) * host (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 25) * hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 97) * hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 313) * hostname_checks_common_name (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 614) * hosts (netrc.netrc attribute): netrc Objects. (line 23) * hosts() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 136) * hosts() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 331) * hour (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 318) * hour (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 50) * HRESULT (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 213) * hStdError (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 42) * hStdInput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 27) * hStdOutput (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 35) * hsv_to_rgb() (in module colorsys): colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 48) * HT (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 49) * ht() (in module turtle): Visibility. (line 6) * HTML: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser. (line 8) * HTML <1>: urllib request Restrictions. (line 29) * html5 (in module html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities. (line 14) * HTMLCalendar (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 223) * HtmlDiff (class in difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 82) * HTMLParser (class in html.parser): html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser. (line 14) * htonl() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 242) * htons() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 249) * HTTP (in module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 525) * http_error_301() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 35) * http_error_302() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 42) * http_error_303() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 48) * http_error_307() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 54) * http_error_308() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 61) * http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPBasicAuthHandler method): HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects. (line 6) * http_error_401() (urllib.request.HTTPDigestAuthHandler method): HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects. (line 6) * http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyBasicAuthHandler method): ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects. (line 6) * http_error_407() (urllib.request.ProxyDigestAuthHandler method): ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects. (line 6) * http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractBasicAuthHandler method): AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects. (line 6) * http_error_auth_reqed() (urllib.request.AbstractDigestAuthHandler method): AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects. (line 6) * http_error_default() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method): BaseHandler Objects. (line 66) * http_open() (urllib.request.HTTPHandler method): HTTPHandler Objects. (line 6) * HTTP_PORT (in module http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 200) * http_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor method): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects. (line 6) * http_version (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 306) * HTTP; http (standard module): http — HTTP modules. (line 8) * HTTP; http.client (standard module): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 8) * HTTP; protocol: urllib request Restrictions. (line 6) * HTTP; protocol <1>: urllib request Restrictions. (line 29) * HTTP; protocol <2>: http — HTTP modules. (line 8) * HTTP; protocol <3>: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 8) * HTTP; protocol <4>: http server — HTTP servers. (line 8) * http.server command line option; -b: Command-line interface<2>. (line 21) * http.server command line option; -bind: Command-line interface<2>. (line 21) * http.server command line option; -cgi: Command-line interface<2>. (line 54) * http.server command line option; -d: Command-line interface<2>. (line 34) * http.server command line option; -directory: Command-line interface<2>. (line 34) * http.server command line option; -p: Command-line interface<2>. (line 44) * http.server command line option; -protocol: Command-line interface<2>. (line 44) * http.server command line option; port: Command-line interface<2>. (line 14) * http.server; security: Security considerations<3>. (line 6) * HTTPBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 363) * HTTPConnection (class in http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 31) * HTTPCookieProcessor (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 294) * httpd: http server — HTTP servers. (line 8) * HTTPDefaultErrorHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 285) * HTTPDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 387) * HTTPError: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 31) * HTTPErrorProcessor (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 447) * HTTPException: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 131) * HTTPHandler (class in logging.handlers): HTTPHandler. (line 10) * HTTPHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 411) * HTTPMessage (class in http.client): HTTPMessage Objects. (line 6) * HTTPMethod (class in http): HTTP status category. (line 38) * httponly (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * HTTPPasswordMgr (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 320) * HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 324) * HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 330) * HTTPRedirectHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 290) * HTTPResponse (class in http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 99) * https_open() (urllib.request.HTTPSHandler method): HTTPSHandler Objects. (line 6) * HTTPS_PORT (in module http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 204) * https_response() (urllib.request.HTTPErrorProcessor method): HTTPErrorProcessor Objects. (line 18) * HTTPSConnection (class in http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 62) * HTTPServer (class in http.server): http server — HTTP servers. (line 30) * HTTPSHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 415) * HTTPStatus (class in http): http — HTTP modules. (line 27) * HV_GUID_BROADCAST (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HV_GUID_CHILDREN (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HV_GUID_LOOPBACK (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HV_GUID_PARENT (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HV_GUID_WILDCARD (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HV_GUID_ZERO (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HV_PROTOCOL_RAW (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 344) * hypot() (in module math): Summation and product functions. (line 33) * I (in module re): Flags. (line 38) * I/O control; buffering: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * I/O control; buffering <1>: Socket Objects. (line 212) * iadd() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 36) * iand() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 41) * iconcat() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 46) * id (ssl.SSLSession attribute): SSL session. (line 12) * id() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 752) * idcok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 289) * ident (select.kevent attribute): Kevent Objects. (line 8) * ident (threading.Thread attribute): Thread objects. (line 167) * identchars (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 135) * identifier: Identifiers and keywords. (line 6) * identifier <1>: Identifiers Names. (line 6) * identify_column() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 143) * identify_element() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 172) * identify_region() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 150) * identify_row() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 139) * identify() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 32) * identify() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 133) * identify() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method): ttk Widget. (line 11) * identity of an object: Objects values and types. (line 11) * identity; test: Membership test operations. (line 39) * IDLE: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>. (line 8) * IDLE <1>: Glossary. (line 722) * idle command line option; -: Command line usage. (line 49) * idle command line option; -c: Command line usage. (line 13) * idle command line option; -d: Command line usage. (line 19) * idle command line option; -e: Command line usage. (line 23) * idle command line option; -h: Command line usage. (line 27) * idle command line option; -i: Command line usage. (line 31) * idle command line option; -r: Command line usage. (line 35) * idle command line option; -s: Command line usage. (line 39) * idle command line option; -t: Command line usage. (line 45) * IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 89) * IDLESTARTUP: IDLE<39>. (line 176) * IDLESTARTUP <1>: IDLE<43>. (line 9) * IDLESTARTUP <2>: IDLE<49>. (line 9) * IDLESTARTUP <3>: Startup and Code Execution. (line 7) * IDLESTARTUP <4>: Command line usage. (line 41) * idlok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 297) * If (class in ast): Control flow. (line 9) * if_indextoname() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 444) * if_nameindex() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 401) * if_nametoindex() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 426) * if; conditional expression: Conditional expressions. (line 6) * if; in comprehensions: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. (line 14) * IfExp (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 157) * ifloordiv() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 52) * iglob() (in module glob): glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 79) * ignorableWhitespace() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 150) * ignore (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 120) * IGNORE (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 151) * ignore (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 144) * ignore_environment (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 553) * ignore_errors() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 147) * IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 56) * ignore_patterns() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 186) * ignore_warnings() (in module test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. (line 11) * ignore; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 15) * IGNORECASE (in module re): Flags. (line 38) * IISCGIHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 24) * IllegalMonthError: calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 518) * IllegalWeekdayError: calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 527) * ilshift() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 57) * imag (numbers.Complex attribute): The numeric tower. (line 19) * imag (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1053) * imaginary literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * imap_unordered() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 145) * imap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 130) * IMAP4 (class in imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 25) * IMAP4_SSL (class in imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 74) * IMAP4_SSL; protocol: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 8) * IMAP4_stream (class in imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 104) * IMAP4_stream; protocol: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 8) * IMAP4; protocol: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 8) * IMAP4.abort: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 58) * IMAP4.error: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 53) * IMAP4.readonly: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 65) * imatmul() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 72) * immedok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 303) * immortal: Glossary. (line 729) * immutable: Glossary. (line 739) * immutable object: Objects values and types. (line 11) * immutable; data; type: Literals<2>. (line 17) * immutable; object: Literals<2>. (line 17) * immutable; object <1>: Dictionary displays. (line 37) * immutable; sequence; types: Immutable Sequence Types. (line 6) * imod() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 62) * impl_detail() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 532) * implementation (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1098) * Import (class in ast): Imports. (line 6) * import hooks: Import hooks. (line 6) * import machinery: The import system. (line 6) * import path: Glossary. (line 747) * import_fresh_module() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 16) * IMPORT_FROM (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 827) * import_module() (in module importlib): Functions<12>. (line 15) * import_module() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 52) * IMPORT_NAME (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 818) * importer: Glossary. (line 760) * ImportError: Concrete exceptions. (line 52) * ImportFrom (class in ast): Imports. (line 20) * importing: Glossary. (line 755) * ImportWarning: Warnings. (line 57) * ImproperConnectionState: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 161) * imul() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 67) * In (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * in_dll() (ctypes._CData method): Data types. (line 63) * in_table_a1() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 40) * in_table_b1() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 45) * in_table_c11_c12() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 69) * in_table_c11() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 60) * in_table_c12() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 64) * in_table_c21_c22() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 84) * in_table_c21() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 74) * in_table_c22() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 79) * in_table_c3() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 89) * in_table_c4() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 93) * in_table_c5() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 98) * in_table_c6() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 102) * in_table_c7() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 107) * in_table_c8() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 112) * in_table_c9() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 117) * in_table_d1() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 121) * in_table_d2() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 126) * in_transaction (sqlite3.Connection attribute): Connection objects. (line 765) * inch() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 311) * include() (in module xml.etree.ElementInclude): Functions<10>. (line 17) * inclusive (tracemalloc.DomainFilter attribute): DomainFilter. (line 12) * inclusive (tracemalloc.Filter attribute): Filter. (line 39) * inclusive; or: Binary bitwise operations. (line 20) * Incomplete: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 161) * IncompleteRead: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 157) * IncompleteReadError: Exceptions<13>. (line 44) * incr_item(): Exceptions<21>. (line 78) * incr_item() <1>: Exceptions<21>. (line 123) * increment_lineno() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 155) * IncrementalDecoder (class in codecs): IncrementalDecoder Objects. (line 11) * incrementaldecoder (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 87) * IncrementalEncoder (class in codecs): IncrementalEncoder Objects. (line 11) * incrementalencoder (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 87) * IncrementalNewlineDecoder (class in io): Text I/O<2>. (line 287) * IncrementalParser (class in xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 20) * indent (doctest.Example attribute): Example Objects. (line 47) * INDENT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 86) * indent (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 54) * INDENT token: Indentation. (line 33) * indent() (in module textwrap): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 102) * indent() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 118) * indentation: Indentation. (line 6) * IndentationError: Concrete exceptions. (line 357) * index (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 37) * index (inspect.Traceback attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 77) * index operation: Sequences. (line 6) * index() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 197) * index() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 154) * index() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 154) * index() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 70) * index() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 93) * index() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList method): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 336) * index() (sequence method): Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * index() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 217) * index() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 37) * index() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 178) * IndexError: Concrete exceptions. (line 80) * indexOf() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 201) * IndexSizeErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 34) * indices() (slice method): Slice objects. (line 16) * INDIRECT (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 31) * inet_aton() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 259) * inet_ntoa() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 279) * inet_ntop() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 314) * inet_pton() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 296) * Inexact (class in decimal): Signals. (line 43) * inf (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 20) * inf (in module math): Constants<2>. (line 24) * inf (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1045) * infile (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 140) * Infinity: Built-in Functions. (line 726) * infj (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 26) * INFO (in module logging): Logging Levels. (line 29) * INFO (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 194) * info() (dis.Bytecode method): Bytecode analysis. (line 63) * info() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 63) * info() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 84) * info() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 64) * info() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 288) * info() (urllib.response.addinfourl method): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 35) * infolist() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 119) * inheritance: Class definitions. (line 6) * ini file: configparser — Configuration file parser. (line 8) * init_color() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 220) * init_pair() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 232) * init() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 92) * inited (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 131) * initgroups() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 342) * initial_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 210) * initproc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 35) * initscr() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 245) * InitVar (class in dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 328) * inode() (os.DirEntry method): Files and Directories. (line 966) * input: Expression input. (line 6) * input_charset (email.charset.Charset attribute): email charset Representing character sets. (line 53) * input_codec (email.charset.Charset attribute): email charset Representing character sets. (line 82) * input() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 56) * InputSource (class in xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 51) * InputStream (class in wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 24) * inquiry (C type): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 198) * insch() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 317) * insdelln() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 324) * insert_text() (in module readline): Line buffer. (line 13) * insert() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 208) * insert() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 78) * insert() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * insert() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 42) * insert() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 183) * insert() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 130) * insertBefore() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 121) * insertln() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 332) * insnstr() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 337) * insort_left() (in module bisect): bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 72) * insort_right() (in module bisect): bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 89) * insort() (in module bisect): bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 89) * inspect (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 532) * inspect command line option; -details: Command Line Interface<3>. (line 13) * InspectLoader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 202) * insstr() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 348) * install_opener() (in module urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 113) * install_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 183) * install() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 72) * install() (in module gettext): Class-based API. (line 69) * installHandler() (in module unittest): Signal Handling. (line 29) * instance; call: Calls. (line 158) * instate() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method): ttk Widget. (line 18) * instr() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 358) * instream (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 146) * Instruction (class in dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 10) * INSTRUCTION (monitoring event): Events. (line 30) * Instruction.arg (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 34) * Instruction.argrepr (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 46) * Instruction.argval (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 42) * Instruction.baseopcode (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 24) * Instruction.baseopname (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 29) * Instruction.cache_info (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 92) * Instruction.cache_offset (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 61) * Instruction.end_offset (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 65) * Instruction.is_jump_target (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 78) * Instruction.jump_target (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 82) * Instruction.line_number (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 73) * Instruction.offset (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 51) * Instruction.oparg (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 38) * Instruction.opcode (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 14) * Instruction.opname (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 20) * Instruction.positions (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 87) * Instruction.start_offset (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 55) * Instruction.starts_line (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 69) * int (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 956) * int (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 132) * int_info (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1141) * int_max_str_digits (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 578) * Int2AP() (in module imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 118) * integer: Immutable sequences. (line 15) * integer literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * integer; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * integer; representation: numbers Integral. (line 9) * Integral (class in numbers): The numeric tower. (line 59) * Integrated Development Environment: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>. (line 8) * IntegrityError: Exceptions<7>. (line 65) * IntEnum (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 363) * interact (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 352) * interact() (code.InteractiveConsole method): Interactive Console Objects. (line 10) * interact() (in module code): code — Interpreter base classes. (line 42) * interactive: Glossary. (line 765) * Interactive (class in ast): Root nodes. (line 37) * interactive (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 535) * interactive mode: Complete Python programs. (line 19) * InteractiveConsole (class in code): code — Interpreter base classes. (line 30) * InteractiveInterpreter (class in code): code — Interpreter base classes. (line 15) * InterfaceError: Exceptions<7>. (line 37) * intern() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1186) * internal type: Internal types. (line 6) * internal_attr (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 124) * Internaldate2tuple() (in module imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 112) * InternalError: Exceptions<7>. (line 71) * internalSubset (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute): DocumentType Objects. (line 27) * Internet: Internet Protocols and Support. (line 6) * INTERNET_TIMEOUT (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 65) * interpolated string literal: Fancier Output Formatting. (line 93) * interpolated string literal <1>: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * interpolated string literal <2>: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * interpolation, string (%): printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * interpolation; bytearray (%): printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * interpolation; bytes (%): printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * InterpolationDepthError: Exceptions<8>. (line 42) * InterpolationError: Exceptions<8>. (line 37) * InterpolationMissingOptionError: Exceptions<8>. (line 49) * InterpolationSyntaxError: Exceptions<8>. (line 54) * interpreted: Glossary. (line 775) * interpreter: Top-level components. (line 6) * interpreter lock: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock. (line 6) * interpreter prompts: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1484) * interpreter shutdown: Glossary. (line 785) * interpreter_requires_environment() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 9) * interrupt_main() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 56) * interrupt() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 339) * InterruptedError: OS exceptions. (line 73) * intersection_update() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 175) * intersection() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 102) * IntFlag (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 543) * intro (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 150) * InuseAttributeErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 39) * inv_cdf() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 92) * inv() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 102) * InvalidAccessErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 44) * invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.MetaPathFinder method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 49) * invalidate_caches() (importlib.abc.PathEntryFinder method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 84) * invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 190) * invalidate_caches() (importlib.machinery.PathFinder class method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 139) * invalidate_caches() (in module importlib): Functions<12>. (line 40) * invalidate_caches() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 89) * InvalidBase64CharactersDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 129) * InvalidBase64LengthDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 135) * InvalidBase64PaddingDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 123) * InvalidCharacterErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 49) * InvalidDateDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 141) * InvalidFileException: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 170) * InvalidModificationErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 57) * InvalidOperation (class in decimal): Signals. (line 51) * InvalidStateErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 61) * InvalidStateError: Exception classes. (line 26) * InvalidStateError <1>: Exceptions<13>. (line 30) * InvalidTZPathWarning: Exceptions and warnings. (line 12) * InvalidURL: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 140) * inversion: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 18) * Invert (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 27) * invert() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 102) * invocation: Callable types. (line 6) * IO (class in typing): ABCs for working with IO. (line 6) * IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 476) * IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 476) * IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 476) * IOBase (class in io): I/O Base Classes. (line 6) * IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 274) * ioctl() (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 103) * ioctl() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 179) * IOError: Concrete exceptions. (line 499) * ior() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 79) * ios_ver() (in module platform): iOS platform. (line 6) * ip (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 19) * ip (ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 74) * ip_address() (in module ipaddress): Convenience factory functions. (line 9) * ip_interface() (in module ipaddress): Convenience factory functions. (line 37) * ip_network() (in module ipaddress): Convenience factory functions. (line 23) * ipow() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 84) * ipv4_mapped (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 299) * IPv4Address (class in ipaddress): Address objects. (line 13) * IPv4Interface (class in ipaddress): Interface objects. (line 9) * IPv4Network (class in ipaddress): Network objects. (line 13) * IPV6_ENABLED (in module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 11) * ipv6_mapped (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 188) * IPv6Address (class in ipaddress): Address objects. (line 220) * IPv6Interface (class in ipaddress): Interface objects. (line 64) * IPv6Network (class in ipaddress): Network objects. (line 253) * irrefutable case block: Irrefutable Case Blocks. (line 6) * irshift() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 89) * Is (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * is_() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 63) * is_absolute() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 183) * is_active() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method): Process Watchers. (line 72) * is_active() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter method): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 110) * is_alive() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 126) * is_alive() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 193) * is_android (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 40) * is_annotated() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 230) * is_assigned() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 241) * is_async (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 41) * is_attachment() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 445) * is_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects. (line 30) * is_block_device() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 127) * is_blocked() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 60) * is_canonical() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 323) * is_canonical() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 280) * is_char_device() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 136) * IS_CHARACTER_JUNK() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 362) * is_check_supported() (in module lzma): Miscellaneous<2>. (line 6) * is_closed() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 39) * is_closing() (asyncio.BaseTransport method): Base Transport. (line 17) * is_closing() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 107) * is_dataclass() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 470) * is_declared_global() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 221) * is_dir() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 531) * is_dir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 103) * is_dir() (os.DirEntry method): Files and Directories. (line 977) * is_dir() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 67) * is_dir() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 57) * is_dir() (zipfile.ZipInfo method): ZipInfo Objects. (line 43) * is_enabled() (in module faulthandler): Fault handler state. (line 31) * is_expired() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 113) * is_fifo() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 119) * is_file() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 535) * is_file() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 107) * is_file() (os.DirEntry method): Files and Directories. (line 1006) * is_file() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 54) * is_file() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 61) * is_finalized() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 185) * is_finalizing() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1212) * is_finite() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 327) * is_finite() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 287) * is_free() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 236) * is_global (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 135) * is_global (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 279) * is_global() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 213) * is_hop_by_hop() (in module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 112) * is_imported() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 204) * is_infinite() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 331) * is_infinite() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 292) * is_integer() (float method): Additional Methods on Float. (line 16) * is_integer() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 132) * is_integer() (int method): Additional Methods on Integer Types. (line 171) * is_junction() (os.DirEntry method): Files and Directories. (line 1041) * is_junction() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 88) * is_jython (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 36) * IS_LINE_JUNK() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 355) * is_linetouched() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 368) * is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 183) * is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 80) * is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 289) * is_link_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 307) * is_local() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 226) * is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 178) * is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 78) * is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 287) * is_loopback (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 305) * is_mount() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 95) * is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 92) * is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 70) * is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 275) * is_multicast (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 297) * is_multipart() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 134) * is_multipart() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 145) * is_namespace() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 245) * is_nan() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 335) * is_nan() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 297) * is_nested() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 94) * is_nonlocal() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 217) * is_normal() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 340) * is_normal() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 302) * is_normalized() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 117) * is_not_allowed() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 74) * is_not() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 67) * IS_OP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 806) * is_optimized() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 90) * is_package() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 234) * is_package() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 425) * is_package() (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 328) * is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 220) * is_package() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 264) * is_package() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 73) * is_parameter() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 209) * is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 97) * is_private (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 72) * is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 277) * is_private (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 299) * is_protocol() (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 114) * is_python_build() (in module sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line 52) * is_qnan() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 345) * is_qnan() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 308) * is_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method): Read-only Transports. (line 6) * is_referenced() (symtable.Symbol method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 200) * is_relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 202) * is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 163) * is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 76) * is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 285) * is_reserved (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 303) * is_reserved() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 226) * is_resource_enabled() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 245) * is_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 485) * is_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 62) * is_resource() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 136) * is_running() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 35) * is_safe (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 152) * is_serving() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 117) * is_set() (asyncio.Event method): Event. (line 65) * is_set() (threading.Event method): Event objects. (line 24) * is_signed() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 350) * is_signed() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 313) * is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 291) * is_site_local (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 357) * is_skipped_line() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 245) * is_snan() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 354) * is_snan() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 319) * is_socket() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 110) * is_stack_trampoline_active() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1774) * is_subnormal() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 359) * is_subnormal() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 324) * is_symlink() (os.DirEntry method): Files and Directories. (line 1022) * is_symlink() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 80) * is_symlink() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 65) * is_tarfile() (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 190) * is_term_resized() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 253) * is_tracing() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 61) * is_tracked() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 160) * is_typeddict() (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 129) * is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 158) * is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 74) * is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 283) * is_unspecified (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 301) * is_valid() (string.Template method): Template strings. (line 67) * is_wintouched() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 375) * is_zero() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 363) * is_zero() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 329) * is_zipfile() (in module zipfile): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 77) * isabs() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 201) * isabstract() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 514) * IsADirectoryError: OS exceptions. (line 83) * isalnum() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 510) * isalnum() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 510) * isalnum() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 134) * isalnum() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 222) * isalpha() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 528) * isalpha() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 528) * isalpha() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 139) * isalpha() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 229) * isascii() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 543) * isascii() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 543) * isascii() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 144) * isascii() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 239) * isasyncgen() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 474) * isasyncgenfunction() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 453) * isatty() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 260) * isatty() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 73) * isawaitable() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 432) * isblank() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 148) * isblk() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 210) * isbuiltin() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 494) * ischr() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 206) * isclass() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 359) * isclose() (in module cmath): Classification functions. (line 23) * isclose() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 25) * iscntrl() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 152) * iscode() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 490) * iscoroutine() (in module asyncio): Introspection. (line 26) * iscoroutine() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 425) * iscoroutinefunction() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 389) * isctrl() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 193) * isDaemon() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 215) * isdatadescriptor() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 541) * isdecimal() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 247) * isdev() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 218) * isdevdrive() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 264) * isdigit() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 551) * isdigit() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 551) * isdigit() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 157) * isdigit() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 255) * isdir() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 220) * isdir() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 194) * isdisjoint() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 68) * isdown() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 86) * iselement() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 130) * isenabled() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 30) * isEnabledFor() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 144) * isendwin() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 258) * ISEOF() (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 39) * isfifo() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 214) * isfile() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 212) * isfile() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 185) * isfinite() (in module cmath): Classification functions. (line 6) * isfinite() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 60) * isfirstline() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 111) * isframe() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 486) * isfunction() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 368) * isfuture() (in module asyncio): Future Functions. (line 6) * isgenerator() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 385) * isgeneratorfunction() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 373) * isgetsetdescriptor() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 554) * isgraph() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 162) * isidentifier() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 265) * isinf() (in module cmath): Classification functions. (line 13) * isinf() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 67) * isjunction() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 228) * iskeyword() (in module keyword): keyword — Testing for Python keywords. (line 13) * isleap() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 364) * islice() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 368) * islink() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 236) * islnk() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 202) * islower() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 565) * islower() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 565) * islower() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 166) * islower() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 283) * ismemberdescriptor() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 563) * ismeta() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 197) * ismethod() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 364) * ismethoddescriptor() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 518) * ismethodwrapper() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 499) * ismodule() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 355) * ismount() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 244) * isnan() (in module cmath): Classification functions. (line 18) * isnan() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 72) * ISNONTERMINAL() (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 35) * IsNot (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * isnumeric() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 289) * isocalendar() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 244) * isocalendar() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 649) * isoformat() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 271) * isoformat() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 654) * isoformat() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 163) * isolated (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 538) * IsolatedAsyncioTestCase (class in unittest): Test cases. (line 853) * isolation_level (sqlite3.Connection attribute): Connection objects. (line 775) * isoweekday() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 237) * isoweekday() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 643) * isprint() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 170) * isprintable() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 299) * ispunct() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 174) * isqrt() (in module math): Number-theoretic functions. (line 43) * isreadable() (in module pprint): Functions<4>. (line 85) * isreadable() (pprint.PrettyPrinter method): PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 66) * isrecursive() (in module pprint): Functions<4>. (line 94) * isrecursive() (pprint.PrettyPrinter method): PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 74) * isreg() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 190) * isreserved() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 283) * isReservedKey() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 65) * isroutine() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 509) * isSameNode() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 102) * issoftkeyword() (in module keyword): keyword — Testing for Python keywords. (line 24) * isspace() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 582) * isspace() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 582) * isspace() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 179) * isspace() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 316) * isstdin() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 116) * issubset() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 74) * issuperset() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 85) * issym() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 198) * ISTERMINAL() (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 31) * istitle() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 590) * istitle() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 590) * istitle() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 326) * istraceback() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 482) * isub() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 94) * isupper() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 604) * isupper() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 604) * isupper() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 184) * isupper() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 333) * isvisible() (in module turtle): Visibility. (line 22) * isxdigit() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 188) * ITALIC (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 15) * item selection: Sequences. (line 6) * item() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 202) * item() (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap method): NamedNodeMap Objects. (line 12) * item() (xml.dom.NodeList method): NodeList Objects. (line 15) * itemgetter() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 271) * items() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 270) * items() (contextvars.Context method): Manual Context Management. (line 141) * items() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 191) * items() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 240) * items() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 351) * items() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 142) * items() (types.MappingProxyType method): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 267) * items() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 71) * itemsize (array.array attribute): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 116) * itemsize (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 433) * ItemsView (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 102) * ItemsView (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 41) * iter_attachments() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 560) * iter_child_nodes() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 172) * iter_fields() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 167) * iter_importers() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 107) * iter_modules() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 125) * iter_parts() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 576) * iter_unpack() (in module struct): Functions and Exceptions. (line 42) * iter_unpack() (struct.Struct method): Classes<3>. (line 46) * iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 136) * iter() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 40) * iterable: Glossary. (line 800) * Iterable (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 26) * Iterable (class in typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 6) * iterable; unpacking: Expression lists. (line 18) * iterator: Glossary. (line 822) * Iterator (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 43) * Iterator (class in typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 14) * iterator protocol: Iterator Types. (line 6) * iterdecode() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 244) * iterdir() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 527) * iterdir() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 99) * iterdir() (pathlib.Path method): Reading directories. (line 6) * iterdir() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 53) * iterdump() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 500) * iterencode() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 231) * iterencode() (json.JSONEncoder method): Encoders and Decoders. (line 226) * iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 147) * iterfind() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 47) * iteritems() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 133) * iterkeys() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 107) * itermonthdates() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 67) * itermonthdays() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 75) * itermonthdays2() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 83) * itermonthdays3() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 91) * itermonthdays4() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 101) * iternextfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 92) * iterparse() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 136) * itertext() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 156) * itervalues() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 116) * iterweekdays() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 61) * ITIMER_PROF (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 223) * ITIMER_REAL (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 213) * ITIMER_VIRTUAL (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 218) * ItimerError: Module contents<2>. (line 256) * itruediv() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 99) * ixor() (in module operator): In-place Operators. (line 104) * j; in numeric literal: Floating-point literals. (line 28) * JANUARY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * java_ver() (in module platform): Java platform. (line 6) * Java; language: numbers Real float. (line 6) * join_thread() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 11) * join_thread() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 186) * join() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 53) * join() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 166) * join() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 166) * join() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 305) * join() (in module shlex): shlex — Simple lexical analysis. (line 29) * join() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 271) * join() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 184) * join() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 99) * join() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 88) * join() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 348) * join() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 127) * JoinableQueue (class in multiprocessing): Pipes and Queues. (line 250) * JoinedStr (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 42) * joinpath() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 539) * joinpath() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 111) * joinpath() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 240) * joinpath() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 114) * js_output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method): Cookie Objects. (line 32) * js_output() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 76) * json.tool command line option; -compact: Command line options<2>. (line 48) * json.tool command line option; -h: Command line options<2>. (line 54) * json.tool command line option; -help: Command line options<2>. (line 54) * json.tool command line option; -indent: Command line options<2>. (line 48) * json.tool command line option; -json-lines: Command line options<2>. (line 42) * json.tool command line option; -no-ensure-ascii: Command line options<2>. (line 35) * json.tool command line option; -no-indent: Command line options<2>. (line 48) * json.tool command line option; -sort-keys: Command line options<2>. (line 29) * json.tool command line option; -tab: Command line options<2>. (line 48) * json.tool command line option; infile: Command line options<2>. (line 6) * json.tool command line option; outfile: Command line options<2>. (line 24) * JSONDecodeError: Exceptions<17>. (line 6) * JSONDecoder (class in json): Encoders and Decoders. (line 6) * JSONEncoder (class in json): Encoders and Decoders. (line 104) * JULY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * JUMP (monitoring event): Events. (line 34) * JUMP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1427) * jump (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 230) * JUMP_BACKWARD (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 837) * JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 843) * JUMP_FORWARD (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 833) * JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1429) * JUNE (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * kbhit() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 6) * kde_random() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 185) * kde() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 137) * KEEP (enum.FlagBoundary attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 717) * kevent() (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 108) * key: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * key (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 57) * key (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo attribute): The ZoneInfo class. (line 75) * key function: Glossary. (line 849) * KEY_A1 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 236) * KEY_A3 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 239) * KEY_ALL_ACCESS (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 8) * KEY_B2 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 242) * KEY_BACKSPACE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 166) * KEY_BEG (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 254) * KEY_BREAK (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 148) * KEY_BTAB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 251) * KEY_C1 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 245) * KEY_C3 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 248) * KEY_CANCEL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 257) * KEY_CATAB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 218) * KEY_CLEAR (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 191) * KEY_CLOSE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 260) * KEY_COMMAND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 263) * KEY_COPY (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 266) * KEY_CREATE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 269) * KEY_CREATE_LINK (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 51) * KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 38) * KEY_CTAB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 215) * KEY_DC (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 182) * KEY_DL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 176) * KEY_DOWN (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 151) * KEY_EIC (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 188) * KEY_END (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 272) * KEY_ENTER (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 221) * KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 42) * KEY_EOL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 197) * KEY_EOS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 194) * KEY_EXECUTE (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 26) * KEY_EXIT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 275) * KEY_F0 (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 169) * KEY_FIND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 278) * KEY_Fn (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 173) * KEY_HELP (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 281) * KEY_HOME (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 163) * KEY_IC (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 185) * KEY_IL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 179) * KEY_LEFT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 157) * KEY_LL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 233) * KEY_MARK (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 284) * KEY_MAX (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 425) * KEY_MESSAGE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 287) * KEY_MIN (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 145) * KEY_MOUSE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 419) * KEY_MOVE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 290) * KEY_NEXT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 293) * KEY_NOTIFY (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 46) * KEY_NPAGE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 206) * KEY_OPEN (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 296) * KEY_OPTIONS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 299) * KEY_PPAGE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 209) * KEY_PREVIOUS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 302) * KEY_PRINT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 230) * KEY_QUERY_VALUE (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 30) * KEY_READ (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 20) * KEY_REDO (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 305) * KEY_REFERENCE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 308) * KEY_REFRESH (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 311) * KEY_REPLACE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 314) * KEY_RESET (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 227) * KEY_RESIZE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 422) * KEY_RESTART (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 317) * KEY_RESUME (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 320) * KEY_RIGHT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 160) * KEY_SAVE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 323) * KEY_SBEG (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 326) * KEY_SCANCEL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 329) * KEY_SCOMMAND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 332) * KEY_SCOPY (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 335) * KEY_SCREATE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 338) * KEY_SDC (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 341) * KEY_SDL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 344) * KEY_SELECT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 347) * KEY_SEND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 350) * KEY_SEOL (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 353) * KEY_SET_VALUE (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 34) * KEY_SEXIT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 356) * KEY_SF (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 200) * KEY_SFIND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 359) * KEY_SHELP (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 362) * KEY_SHOME (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 365) * KEY_SIC (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 368) * KEY_SLEFT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 371) * KEY_SMESSAGE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 374) * KEY_SMOVE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 377) * KEY_SNEXT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 380) * KEY_SOPTIONS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 383) * KEY_SPREVIOUS (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 386) * KEY_SPRINT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 389) * KEY_SR (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 203) * KEY_SREDO (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 392) * KEY_SREPLACE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 395) * KEY_SRESET (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 224) * KEY_SRIGHT (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 398) * KEY_SRSUME (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 401) * KEY_SSAVE (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 404) * KEY_SSUSPEND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 407) * KEY_STAB (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 212) * KEY_SUNDO (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 410) * KEY_SUSPEND (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 413) * KEY_UNDO (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 416) * KEY_UP (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 154) * KEY_WOW64_32KEY (in module winreg): 64-bit Specific. (line 14) * KEY_WOW64_64KEY (in module winreg): 64-bit Specific. (line 8) * KEY_WRITE (in module winreg): Access Rights. (line 15) * key/value pair: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * KeyboardInterrupt: Concrete exceptions. (line 91) * KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception): Signal Handling<2>. (line 7) * KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <1>: Signal Handling<2>. (line 34) * KeyboardInterrupt (built-in exception) <2>: Signal Handling<2>. (line 43) * KeyError: Concrete exceptions. (line 86) * keylog_filename (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 528) * keyname() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 263) * keypad() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 380) * keyrefs() (weakref.WeakKeyDictionary method): weakref — Weak references. (line 210) * keys() (contextvars.Context method): Manual Context Management. (line 133) * keys() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 196) * keys() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 232) * keys() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 343) * keys() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 111) * keys() (sqlite3.Row method): Row objects. (line 19) * keys() (types.MappingProxyType method): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 272) * keys() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 76) * KeysView (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 102) * KeysView (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 50) * keyword: Keywords. (line 6) * keyword <1>: Soft Keywords. (line 6) * keyword (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 151) * keyword argument: Glossary. (line 871) * keyword; as: The import statement. (line 6) * keyword; as <1>: The try statement. (line 6) * keyword; as <2>: The with statement. (line 6) * keyword; as <3>: The match statement. (line 6) * keyword; async: Coroutine function definition. (line 9) * keyword; await: Calls. (line 160) * keyword; await <1>: Coroutine function definition. (line 9) * keyword; case: The match statement. (line 6) * keyword; elif: The if statement. (line 6) * keyword; else: The break statement. (line 12) * keyword; else <1>: The if statement. (line 6) * keyword; else <2>: The while statement. (line 6) * keyword; else <3>: The for statement. (line 6) * keyword; else <4>: The try statement. (line 6) * keyword; else <5>: except* clause. (line 57) * keyword; except: The try statement. (line 6) * keyword; except_star: except clause. (line 82) * keyword; finally: The return statement. (line 17) * keyword; finally <1>: The break statement. (line 18) * keyword; finally <2>: The continue statement. (line 6) * keyword; finally <3>: The try statement. (line 6) * keyword; finally <4>: else clause. (line 11) * keyword; from: Yield expressions. (line 6) * keyword; from <1>: The import statement. (line 6) * keyword; if: The match statement. (line 6) * keyword; in: The for statement. (line 6) * keyword; yield: Yield expressions. (line 6) * keywords (functools.partial attribute): partial Objects. (line 20) * kill_python() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 77) * kill() (asyncio.subprocess.Process method): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 106) * kill() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 35) * kill() (in module os): Process Management. (line 326) * kill() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 222) * kill() (subprocess.Popen method): Popen Objects. (line 92) * killchar() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 273) * killpg() (in module os): Process Management. (line 348) * kind (inspect.Parameter attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 229) * knownfiles (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 136) * kqueue() (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 97) * KqueueSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 195) * KW_ONLY (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 486) * kwargs (inspect.BoundArguments attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 358) * kwargs (typing.ParamSpec attribute): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 410) * kwlist (in module keyword): keyword — Testing for Python keywords. (line 17) * L (in module re): Flags. (line 58) * lambda: Glossary. (line 875) * Lambda (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 32) * lambda; expression: Lambdas. (line 6) * lambda; expression <1>: Function definitions. (line 128) * lambda; form: Lambdas. (line 6) * LambdaType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 25) * LANG: GNU gettext API. (line 21) * LANG <1>: Class-based API. (line 26) * LANG <2>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 52) * LANG <3>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 348) * LANG <4>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 352) * LANGUAGE: GNU gettext API. (line 20) * LANGUAGE <1>: Class-based API. (line 25) * large files: Large File Support. (line 6) * LARGEST (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 185) * LargeZipFile: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 37) * last_accepted (multiprocessing.connection.Listener attribute): Listeners and Clients. (line 103) * last_exc (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1221) * last_traceback (in module sys): Traceback objects. (line 6) * last_traceback (in module sys) <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1244) * last_type (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1244) * last_value (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1244) * lastChild (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 59) * lastcmd (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 139) * lastgroup (re.Match attribute): Match Objects. (line 201) * lastindex (re.Match attribute): Match Objects. (line 193) * lastResort (in module logging): Module-Level Attributes. (line 6) * lastrowid (sqlite3.Cursor attribute): Cursor objects. (line 199) * layout() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 96) * lazycache() (in module linecache): linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 50) * LazyLoader (class in importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 192) * LBRACE (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 230) * LBYL: Glossary. (line 882) * LC_ALL: GNU gettext API. (line 20) * LC_ALL <1>: Class-based API. (line 25) * LC_ALL (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 562) * LC_COLLATE (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 528) * LC_CTYPE (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 514) * LC_MESSAGES: GNU gettext API. (line 20) * LC_MESSAGES <1>: Class-based API. (line 26) * LC_MESSAGES (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 544) * LC_MONETARY (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 539) * LC_NUMERIC (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 554) * LC_TIME (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 534) * lchflags() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 305) * lchmod() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 319) * lchmod() (pathlib.Path method): Permissions and ownership. (line 54) * lchown() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 340) * lcm() (in module math): Number-theoretic functions. (line 56) * LDCXXSHARED: Build and C API Changes<8>. (line 153) * ldexp() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 77) * LDFLAGS: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>. (line 59) * LDFLAGS <1>: Preprocessor flags. (line 18) * LDFLAGS <2>: Linker flags. (line 15) * LDFLAGS <3>: Linker flags. (line 18) * LDFLAGS <4>: Linker flags. (line 28) * LDFLAGS <5>: Linker flags. (line 31) * LDFLAGS <6>: Linker flags. (line 35) * LDFLAGS <7>: Linker flags. (line 50) * LDFLAGS_NODIST: Linker flags. (line 26) * LDFLAGS_NODIST <1>: Linker flags. (line 40) * le() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * leading whitespace: Indentation. (line 6) * leapdays() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 369) * leaveok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 387) * left (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 45) * left_list (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 53) * left_only (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 67) * left() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 57) * LEFTSHIFT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 254) * LEFTSHIFTEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 287) * LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 6) * lenfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 96) * length (xml.dom.NamedNodeMap attribute): NamedNodeMap Objects. (line 8) * length (xml.dom.NodeList attribute): NodeList Objects. (line 21) * length_hint() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 210) * LESS (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 215) * LESSEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 242) * level (logging.Logger attribute): Logger Objects. (line 33) * lexical analysis: Lexical analysis. (line 6) * lexical analyzer: Glossary. (line 896) * lexical definitions: Notation. (line 32) * LexicalHandler (class in xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 45) * lexists() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 123) * LF (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 52) * lgamma() (in module math): Special functions. (line 35) * libc_ver() (in module platform): Unix platforms. (line 6) * LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 98) * library (in module dbm.ndbm): dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. (line 34) * library (ssl.SSLError attribute): Exceptions<16>. (line 19) * LibraryLoader (class in ctypes): Loading shared libraries. (line 170) * license (built-in variable): Constants added by the site module. (line 30) * LifoQueue (class in asyncio): LIFO Queue. (line 6) * LifoQueue (class in queue): queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 42) * light-weight processes: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 6) * limit_denominator() (fractions.Fraction method): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 158) * LimitOverrunError: Exceptions<13>. (line 61) * line (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 86) * LINE (monitoring event): Events. (line 38) * line (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 43) * line continuation: Explicit line joining. (line 6) * line joining: Logical lines. (line 6) * line joining <1>: Explicit line joining. (line 6) * line structure: Line structure. (line 6) * line_buffering (io.TextIOWrapper attribute): Text I/O<2>. (line 171) * line_num (csv.csvreader attribute): Reader Objects. (line 23) * line-buffered I/O: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * linear_regression() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 628) * lineno (ast.AST attribute): Node classes. (line 50) * lineno (doctest.DocTest attribute): DocTest Objects. (line 42) * lineno (doctest.Example attribute): Example Objects. (line 41) * lineno (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 22) * lineno (inspect.Traceback attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 62) * lineno (json.JSONDecodeError attribute): Exceptions<17>. (line 23) * lineno (netrc.NetrcParseError attribute): netrc — netrc file processing. (line 61) * lineno (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 24) * lineno (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 23) * lineno (re.PatternError attribute): Exceptions<3>. (line 28) * lineno (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 169) * lineno (SyntaxError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 321) * lineno (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 34) * lineno (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 95) * lineno (tracemalloc.Filter attribute): Filter. (line 49) * lineno (tracemalloc.Frame attribute): Frame. (line 17) * lineno (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute): ExpatError Exceptions. (line 27) * lineno() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 97) * LINES: Functions<6>. (line 125) * LINES <1>: Functions<6>. (line 595) * LINES <2>: Functions<6>. (line 597) * LINES (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 53) * lines (os.terminal_size attribute): Querying the size of a terminal. (line 34) * linesep (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 153) * linesep (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 150) * lineterminator (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 55) * LineTooLong: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 182) * link() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 354) * LinkFallbackError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 262) * linkname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 95) * LinkOutsideDestinationError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 257) * list: Glossary. (line 900) * list (built-in class): Lists<2>. (line 10) * List (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 66) * List (class in typing): Aliases to built-in types. (line 18) * list (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 240) * list comprehension: Glossary. (line 906) * LIST_APPEND (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 381) * list_dialects() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 91) * LIST_EXTEND (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 709) * list_folders() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 65) * list_folders() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 35) * list; comprehensions: List displays. (line 6) * list; display: List displays. (line 6) * list() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 126) * list() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 231) * list() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 57) * list() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 122) * ListComp (class in ast): Comprehensions. (line 6) * listdir() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 376) * listdrives() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 413) * listen() (in module logging.config): Configuration functions. (line 118) * listen() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 6) * listen() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 197) * Listener (class in multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients. (line 50) * listener (logging.handlers.QueueHandler attribute): QueueHandler. (line 92) * listMethods() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method): ServerProxy Objects. (line 17) * listmounts() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 432) * listvolumes() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 456) * listxattr() (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 26) * literal: Literals. (line 6) * literal <1>: Literals<2>. (line 6) * Literal (in module typing): Special forms. (line 132) * literal_eval() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 84) * LiteralString (in module typing): Special types. (line 67) * LittleEndianStructure (class in ctypes): Structured data types. (line 26) * LittleEndianUnion (class in ctypes): Structured data types. (line 16) * ljust() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 303) * ljust() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 303) * ljust() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 356) * LK_LOCK (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 19) * LK_NBLCK (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 27) * LK_NBRLCK (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 27) * LK_RLCK (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 19) * LK_UNLCK (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 33) * ll (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 256) * LMTP (class in smtplib): smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 105) * ln() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 367) * ln() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 334) * LNKTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 283) * Load (class in ast): Variables. (line 11) * LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 501) * LOAD_ATTR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 749) * LOAD_BUILD_CLASS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 508) * load_cert_chain() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 101) * LOAD_CLOSURE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1434) * LOAD_CONST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 633) * load_default_certs() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 132) * LOAD_DEREF (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 977) * load_dh_params() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 353) * load_extension() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 473) * LOAD_FAST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 915) * LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 939) * LOAD_FAST_CHECK (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 931) * LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 924) * LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 985) * LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 652) * LOAD_GLOBAL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 908) * LOAD_LOCALS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 643) * LOAD_METHOD (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1444) * load_module() (importlib.abc.FileLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 313) * load_module() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 266) * load_module() (importlib.abc.Loader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 127) * load_module() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 413) * load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 235) * load_module() (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 279) * load_module() (zipimport.zipimporter method): zipimporter Objects. (line 79) * LOAD_NAME (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 637) * load_package_tests() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 623) * LOAD_SUPER_ATTR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 767) * load_verify_locations() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 149) * load() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 126) * load() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method): Cookie Objects. (line 40) * load() (in module json): Basic Usage. (line 107) * load() (in module marshal): marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 71) * load() (in module pickle): Module Interface. (line 58) * load() (in module plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 46) * load() (in module tomllib): tomllib — Parse TOML files. (line 32) * load() (pickle.Unpickler method): Module Interface. (line 271) * load() (tracemalloc.Snapshot class method): Snapshot. (line 50) * loader: Finders and loaders. (line 6) * loader <1>: Glossary. (line 915) * Loader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 91) * loader (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 386) * loader_state (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 415) * LoadError: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 34) * LoadFileDialog (class in tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 135) * LoadKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 258) * LoadLibrary() (ctypes.LibraryLoader method): Loading shared libraries. (line 181) * loads() (in module json): Basic Usage. (line 188) * loads() (in module marshal): marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 110) * loads() (in module pickle): Module Interface. (line 76) * loads() (in module plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 82) * loads() (in module tomllib): tomllib — Parse TOML files. (line 48) * loads() (in module xmlrpc.client): Convenience Functions. (line 19) * loadTestsFromModule() (unittest.TestLoader method): Loading and running tests. (line 41) * loadTestsFromName() (unittest.TestLoader method): Loading and running tests. (line 70) * loadTestsFromNames() (unittest.TestLoader method): Loading and running tests. (line 104) * loadTestsFromTestCase() (unittest.TestLoader method): Loading and running tests. (line 29) * local (class in threading): Thread-local data. (line 127) * LOCAL_CREDS (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 321) * LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 321) * localcontext() (in module decimal): Context objects. (line 25) * LOCALE (in module re): Flags. (line 58) * locale encoding: Glossary. (line 929) * localeconv() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 56) * LocaleHTMLCalendar (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 336) * LocaleTextCalendar (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 330) * localize() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 496) * localName (xml.dom.Attr attribute): Attr Objects. (line 13) * localName (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 64) * localtime() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 13) * localtime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 149) * Locator (class in xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 43) * Lock (class in asyncio): Lock. (line 6) * Lock (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 46) * Lock (class in threading): Lock objects. (line 33) * lock (sys.thread_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1934) * LOCK_EX (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 188) * LOCK_NB (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 192) * LOCK_SH (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 184) * LOCK_UN (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 180) * lock, interpreter: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock. (line 6) * lock() (mailbox.Babyl method): Babyl objects. (line 59) * lock() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 256) * lock() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 209) * lock() (mailbox.mbox method): mbox objects. (line 57) * lock() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 87) * lock() (mailbox.MMDF method): MMDF objects. (line 47) * Lock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 188) * locked() (_thread.lock method): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 175) * locked() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 63) * locked() (asyncio.Lock method): Lock. (line 58) * locked() (asyncio.Semaphore method): Semaphore. (line 50) * locked() (threading.Lock method): Lock objects. (line 87) * lockf() (in module fcntl): fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 173) * lockf() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 265) * locking() (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 6) * LockType (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 28) * LOG_ALERT (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * LOG_AUTH (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_AUTHPRIV (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_CONS (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 158) * LOG_CRIT (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * LOG_CRON (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_DAEMON (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * log_date_time_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 329) * LOG_DEBUG (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * LOG_EMERG (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * LOG_ERR (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * log_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 298) * log_exception() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 212) * LOG_FTP (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_INFO (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * LOG_INSTALL (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_KERN (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LAUNCHD (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL0 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL1 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL2 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL3 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL4 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL5 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL6 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LOCAL7 (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_LPR (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_MAIL (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * log_message() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 304) * LOG_NDELAY (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 158) * LOG_NETINFO (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_NEWS (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_NOTICE (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * LOG_NOWAIT (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 158) * LOG_ODELAY (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 158) * LOG_PERROR (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 158) * LOG_PID (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 158) * LOG_RAS (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_REMOTEAUTH (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * log_request() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 291) * LOG_SYSLOG (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * log_to_stderr() (in module multiprocessing): Logging<2>. (line 24) * LOG_USER (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_UUCP (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 123) * LOG_WARNING (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 112) * log() (in module cmath): Power and logarithmic functions. (line 11) * log() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 99) * log() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 40) * log() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 313) * log10() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 371) * log10() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 340) * log10() (in module cmath): Power and logarithmic functions. (line 17) * log10() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 67) * log1p() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 48) * log2() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 53) * logb() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 375) * logb() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 346) * Logger (class in logging): Logger Objects. (line 24) * LoggerAdapter (class in logging): LoggerAdapter Objects. (line 11) * logical line: Logical lines. (line 6) * logical_and() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 379) * logical_and() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 354) * logical_invert() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 384) * logical_invert() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 360) * logical_or() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 388) * logical_or() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 365) * logical_xor() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 393) * logical_xor() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 371) * login_cram_md5() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 137) * login_tty() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 291) * login() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 128) * login() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 132) * login() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 102) * LOGNAME: Process Parameters. (line 239) * LOGNAME <1>: getpass — Portable password input. (line 43) * lognormvariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 78) * logout() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 143) * LogRecord (class in logging): LogRecord Objects. (line 11) * LONG_MAX (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 142) * LONG_TIMEOUT (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 93) * longMessage (unittest.TestCase attribute): Test cases. (line 702) * longname() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 280) * lookup_error() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 130) * lookup() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 56) * lookup() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 16) * lookup() (symtable.SymbolTable method): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 108) * lookup() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 81) * LookupError: Base classes. (line 83) * loop control; target: The break statement. (line 12) * loop_factory (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase attribute): Test cases. (line 860) * loop; over mutable sequence: Common Sequence Operations. (line 75) * loop; statement: The break statement. (line 6) * loop; statement <1>: The continue statement. (line 6) * loop; statement <2>: The while statement. (line 6) * loop; statement <3>: The for statement. (line 6) * LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 48) * lower() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 622) * lower() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 622) * lower() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 363) * LPAR (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 176) * lpAttributeList (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 60) * lru_cache() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 143) * lseek() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 302) * LShift (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * lshift() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 110) * LSQB (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 182) * lstat() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 477) * lstat() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 30) * lstrip() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 315) * lstrip() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 315) * lstrip() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 371) * lsub() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 150) * Lt (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * lt() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * lt() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 57) * LtE (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * LWPCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers. (line 28) * LZMACompressor (class in lzma): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 6) * LZMADecompressor (class in lzma): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 100) * LZMAError: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm. (line 24) * LZMAFile (class in lzma): Reading and writing compressed files. (line 45) * M (in module re): Flags. (line 82) * mac_ver() (in module platform): macOS platform. (line 6) * machine() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 35) * macros (netrc.netrc attribute): netrc Objects. (line 29) * MADV_AUTOSYNC (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_CORE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_DODUMP (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_DOFORK (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_DONTDUMP (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_DONTFORK (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_DONTNEED (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_FREE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_FREE_REUSABLE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_FREE_REUSE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_HUGEPAGE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_HWPOISON (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_MERGEABLE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_NOCORE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_NOHUGEPAGE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_NORMAL (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_NOSYNC (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_PROTECT (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_RANDOM (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_REMOVE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_SEQUENTIAL (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_UNMERGEABLE (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * MADV_WILLNEED (in module mmap): MADV_* Constants. (line 6) * madvise() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 223) * magic method: Glossary. (line 943) * MAGIC_NUMBER (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 13) * magic; method: Glossary. (line 947) * MagicMock (class in unittest.mock): Magic Mock. (line 9) * Mailbox (class in mailbox): Mailbox objects. (line 6) * Maildir (class in mailbox): Maildir objects. (line 6) * MaildirMessage (class in mailbox): MaildirMessage objects. (line 6) * main_thread() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 106) * main(): Process-wide parameters. (line 7) * main() <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 218) * main() <2>: PyConfig. (line 130) * main() (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 42) * main() (in module unittest): Loading and running tests. (line 514) * mainloop() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 106) * maintype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 276) * major (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 247) * major() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 623) * make_alternative() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 607) * make_archive() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 14) * make_bad_fd() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 106) * MAKE_CELL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 970) * make_cookies() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 61) * make_dataclass() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 397) * make_file() (difflib.HtmlDiff method): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 112) * MAKE_FUNCTION (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1109) * make_header() (in module email.header): email header Internationalized headers. (line 220) * make_legacy_pyc() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 80) * make_mixed() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 617) * make_msgid() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 27) * make_parser() (in module xml.sax): xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 27) * make_pkg() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 97) * make_related() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 598) * make_script() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 82) * make_server() (in module wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 14) * make_table() (difflib.HtmlDiff method): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 144) * make_zip_pkg() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 103) * make_zip_script() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 89) * makedev() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 633) * makedirs() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 542) * makeelement() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 164) * makefile() (socket method): I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * makefile() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 209) * makeLogRecord() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 196) * makePickle() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 45) * makeRecord() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 374) * makeSocket() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method): DatagramHandler. (line 37) * makeSocket() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 39) * maketrans() (bytearray static method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 176) * maketrans() (bytes static method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 176) * maketrans() (str static method): String Methods<2>. (line 393) * MalformedHeaderDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 108) * malloc (C function): Overview<4>. (line 33) * manager (logging.LoggerAdapter attribute): LoggerAdapter Objects. (line 30) * mangle_from_ (email.policy.Compat32 attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 575) * mangle_from_ (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 187) * MANPAGER: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 46) * MANPAGER <1>: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 48) * mant_dig (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 635) * MAP_32BIT (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_ADD (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 390) * MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_ANON (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_ANONYMOUS (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * map_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 111) * MAP_CONCEAL (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_DENYWRITE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_EXECUTABLE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_HASSEMAPHORE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_JIT (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_NOCACHE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_NOEXTEND (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_NORESERVE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_POPULATE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_PRIVATE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_SHARED (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_STACK (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * map_table_b2() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 50) * map_table_b3() (in module stringprep): stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 55) * map_to_type() (email.headerregistry.HeaderRegistry method): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 377) * MAP_TPRO (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * MAP_UNIX03 (in module mmap): MAP_* Constants. (line 6) * map() (concurrent.futures.Executor method): Executor Objects. (line 22) * map() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 94) * map() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 48) * mapLogRecord() (logging.handlers.HTTPHandler method): HTTPHandler. (line 27) * mapping: Glossary. (line 947) * Mapping (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 97) * Mapping (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 58) * MappingProxyType (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 224) * MappingView (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 102) * MappingView (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 66) * mapPriority() (logging.handlers.SysLogHandler method): SysLogHandler. (line 201) * maps (collections.ChainMap attribute): ChainMap objects. (line 39) * MARCH (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * markcoroutinefunction() (in module inspect): Types and members. (line 409) * marshalling; objects: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 8) * masking; operations: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * master (tkinter.Tk attribute): Tkinter Modules. (line 77) * Match (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 6) * Match (class in re): Match Objects. (line 15) * Match (class in typing): Aliases to other concrete types. (line 6) * match_case (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 15) * MATCH_CLASS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1211) * MATCH_KEYS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 550) * MATCH_MAPPING (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 531) * MATCH_SEQUENCE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 540) * match_value() (test.support.Matcher method): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 786) * match; case: The match statement. (line 6) * match() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 48) * match() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 285) * match() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 43) * MatchAs (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 293) * MatchClass (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 230) * Matcher (class in test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 780) * matches() (test.support.Matcher method): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 782) * MatchMapping (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 184) * MatchOr (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 333) * MatchSequence (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 114) * MatchSingleton (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 90) * MatchStar (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 144) * MatchValue (class in ast): Pattern matching. (line 63) * matmul() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 125) * MatMult (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * matrix multiplication: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 26) * max (datetime.date attribute): date Objects. (line 105) * max (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 293) * max (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 37) * max (datetime.timedelta attribute): timedelta Objects. (line 93) * max (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 640) * max_10_exp (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 649) * max_count (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 60) * MAX_EMAX (in module decimal): Constants<4>. (line 16) * max_exp (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 644) * MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH (in module configparser): ConfigParser Objects. (line 345) * max_line_length (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 146) * max_lines (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 268) * max_mag() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 402) * max_mag() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 384) * max_memuse (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 145) * MAX_PREC (in module decimal): Constants<4>. (line 13) * max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 49) * max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 65) * max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 273) * max_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 295) * MAX_Py_ssize_t (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 141) * max() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 398) * max() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 377) * maxarray (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * maxdeque (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * maxdict (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * maxDiff (unittest.TestCase attribute): Test cases. (line 719) * maxfrozenset (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 565) * maximum_version (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 539) * maxlen (collections.deque attribute): deque objects. (line 120) * maxlevel (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 17) * maxlist (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * maxlong (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 34) * maxother (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 47) * maxset (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * maxsize (asyncio.Queue attribute): Queue. (line 23) * maxsize (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1252) * maxstring (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 39) * maxtuple (reprlib.Repr attribute): Repr Objects. (line 22) * maxunicode (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1258) * MAXYEAR (in module datetime): Constants. (line 13) * MAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * MB_ICONASTERISK (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 134) * MB_ICONEXCLAMATION (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 138) * MB_ICONHAND (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 142) * MB_ICONQUESTION (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 146) * MB_OK (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 150) * mbox (class in mailbox): mbox objects. (line 6) * mboxMessage (class in mailbox): mboxMessage objects. (line 6) * md5() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 20) * mean (statistics.NormalDist attribute): NormalDist objects. (line 21) * mean() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 10) * measure() (tkinter.font.Font method): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 63) * median (statistics.NormalDist attribute): NormalDist objects. (line 26) * median_grouped() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 274) * median_high() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 256) * median_low() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 238) * median() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 211) * member_names (enum.EnumDict attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 749) * member() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 80) * MemberDescriptorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 208) * membership; test: Membership test operations. (line 36) * memfd_create() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1802) * memmove() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 166) * MemoryBIO (class in ssl): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 134) * MemoryError: Concrete exceptions. (line 107) * MemoryHandler (class in logging.handlers): MemoryHandler. (line 41) * memoryview (built-in class): Memory Views. (line 10) * memset() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 172) * merge() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 82) * message (BaseExceptionGroup attribute): Exception groups. (line 33) * Message (class in email.message): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 49) * Message (class in mailbox): Message objects. (line 6) * Message (class in tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 21) * message digest, MD5: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests. (line 8) * message_factory (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 196) * message_from_binary_file() (in module email): Parser API. (line 130) * message_from_bytes() (in module email): Parser API. (line 117) * message_from_file() (in module email): Parser API. (line 153) * message_from_string() (in module email): Parser API. (line 143) * MessageBeep() (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 31) * MessageClass (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 173) * MessageDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 55) * MessageError: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 13) * MessageParseError: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 19) * messages (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 22) * meta hooks: Import hooks. (line 6) * meta path finder: Glossary. (line 957) * meta_path (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1268) * meta() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 287) * metaclass: Metaclasses. (line 6) * metaclass <1>: Glossary. (line 966) * metaclass hint: Determining the appropriate metaclass. (line 6) * metadata() (in module importlib.metadata): Distribution metadata. (line 6) * MetaPathFinder (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 27) * metavar (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 88) * MetavarTypeHelpFormatter (class in argparse): formatter_class. (line 10) * METH_CLASS (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 195) * METH_COEXIST (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 212) * METH_FASTCALL (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 124) * METH_KEYWORDS (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 108) * METH_METHOD (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 151) * METH_NOARGS (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 169) * METH_O (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 182) * METH_STATIC (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 202) * METH_VARARGS (C macro): Implementing functions and methods. (line 98) * method: Glossary. (line 981) * method (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 52) * method resolution order: Glossary. (line 989) * method_calls (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 505) * method; call: Calls. (line 143) * methodcaller() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 321) * MethodDescriptorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 109) * methodHelp() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method): ServerProxy Objects. (line 43) * methods (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 50) * methodSignature() (xmlrpc.client.ServerProxy.system method): ServerProxy Objects. (line 22) * MethodType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 77) * MethodType (in module types) <1>: Function Objects<3>. (line 14) * MethodType (in module types) <2>: Method Objects<2>. (line 12) * MethodWrapperType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 96) * metrics() (tkinter.font.Font method): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 69) * MFD_ALLOW_SEALING (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_CLOEXEC (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_16GB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_16MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_1GB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_1MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_256MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_2GB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_2MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_32MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_512KB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_512MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_64KB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_8MB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_MASK (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGE_SHIFT (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MFD_HUGETLB (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1820) * MH (class in mailbox): MH objects. (line 6) * MHMessage (class in mailbox): MHMessage objects. (line 6) * microsecond (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 330) * microsecond (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 62) * microseconds (datetime.timedelta attribute): timedelta Objects. (line 129) * MIME; base64 encoding: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 8) * MIME; content type: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 8) * MIME; headers: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 26) * MIME; headers <1>: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 57) * MIME; quoted-printable encoding: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 8) * MIMEApplication (class in email.mime.application): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 95) * MIMEAudio (class in email.mime.audio): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 125) * MIMEBase (class in email.mime.base): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 30) * MIMEImage (class in email.mime.image): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 157) * MIMEMessage (class in email.mime.message): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 190) * MIMEMultipart (class in email.mime.multipart): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 66) * MIMENonMultipart (class in email.mime.nonmultipart): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 55) * MIMEPart (class in email.message): email message Representing an email message. (line 718) * MIMEText (class in email.mime.text): email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 208) * MimeTypes (class in mimetypes): MimeTypes Objects. (line 10) * MIMEVersionHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 234) * min (datetime.date attribute): date Objects. (line 101) * min (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 288) * min (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 33) * min (datetime.timedelta attribute): timedelta Objects. (line 88) * min (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 654) * min_10_exp (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 667) * MIN_EMIN (in module decimal): Constants<4>. (line 19) * MIN_ETINY (in module decimal): Constants<4>. (line 22) * min_exp (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 662) * min_mag() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 410) * min_mag() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 396) * min() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 406) * min() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 389) * MINEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 266) * MINIMUM_SUPPORTED (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 563) * minimum_version (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 557) * minor (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 251) * minor() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 628) * minus: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 10) * MINUS (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 200) * minus() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 414) * minute (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 322) * minute (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 54) * MINYEAR (in module datetime): Constants. (line 8) * mirrored() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 69) * misc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 160) * MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 96) * MISSING (contextvars.Token attribute): Context Variables. (line 94) * MISSING (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 482) * MISSING (in module sys.monitoring): Callback function arguments. (line 6) * MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 155) * missing_compiler_executable() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 669) * MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 100) * MissingSectionHeaderError: Exceptions<8>. (line 60) * mkd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 340) * mkdir() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 509) * mkdir() (pathlib.Path method): Creating files and directories. (line 21) * mkdir() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 338) * mkdtemp() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 287) * mkfifo() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 582) * mknod() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 603) * mkstemp() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 229) * mktemp() (in module tempfile): Deprecated functions and variables. (line 15) * mktime_tz() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 146) * mktime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 162) * mlsd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 286) * mmap (class in mmap): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 54) * MMDF (class in mailbox): MMDF objects. (line 6) * MMDFMessage (class in mailbox): MMDFMessage objects. (line 6) * Mock (class in unittest.mock): The Mock Class. (line 24) * mock_add_spec() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 249) * mock_calls (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 523) * mock_open() (in module unittest.mock): mock_open. (line 6) * Mod (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * mod() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 115) * mode (bz2.BZ2File attribute): De compression of files. (line 130) * mode (gzip.GzipFile attribute): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 144) * mode (io.FileIO attribute): Raw File I/O. (line 56) * mode (lzma.LZMAFile attribute): Reading and writing compressed files. (line 100) * mode (statistics.NormalDist attribute): NormalDist objects. (line 31) * mode (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 78) * mode() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 323) * mode() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 6) * modf() (in module math): Floating point arithmetic. (line 55) * modified() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 45) * modify() (select.devpoll method): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 49) * modify() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 85) * modify() (select.poll method): Polling Objects. (line 60) * modify() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 94) * module: Glossary. (line 996) * Module (class in ast): Root nodes. (line 6) * module (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 16) * module (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 15) * MODULE (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 11) * Module browser: File menu Shell and Editor. (line 22) * module spec: Finders and loaders. (line 6) * module spec <1>: Glossary. (line 1005) * module_from_spec() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 121) * module; __future__: __future__ — Future statement definitions. (line 6) * module; __main__: Resolution of names. (line 54) * module; __main__ <1>: Complete Python programs. (line 6) * module; __main__ <2>: Complete Python programs. (line 19) * module; __main__ <3>: __main__ — Top-level code environment. (line 6) * module; __main__ <4>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 30) * module; __main__ <5>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 101) * module; __main__ <6>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 12) * module; __main__ <7>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * module; __main__ <8>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 112) * module; __main__ <9>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 197) * module; _locale: locale — Internationalization services. (line 16) * module; _thread: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 6) * module; _thread <1>: High-level API. (line 49) * module; _tkinter: Tkinter Modules. (line 150) * module; abc: abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 6) * module; aifc: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files. (line 6) * module; argparse: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands. (line 6) * module; array: Mutable sequences. (line 10) * module; array <1>: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview. (line 6) * module; array <2>: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 6) * module; ast: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees. (line 6) * module; asynchat: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler. (line 6) * module; asyncio: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O. (line 6) * module; asyncore: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler. (line 6) * module; atexit: atexit — Exit handlers. (line 6) * module; audioop: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data. (line 6) * module; base64: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 6) * module; base64 <1>: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 6) * module; bdb: bdb — Debugger framework. (line 6) * module; bdb <1>: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 17) * module; binascii: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 6) * module; bisect: bisect — Array bisection algorithm. (line 6) * module; builtins: The dir Function. (line 47) * module; builtins <1>: Complete Python programs. (line 6) * module; builtins <2>: Built-in Functions. (line 2184) * module; builtins <3>: builtins — Built-in objects. (line 6) * module; builtins <4>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 12) * module; builtins <5>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * module; builtins <6>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 112) * module; builtins <7>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 197) * module; bz2: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression. (line 6) * module; calendar: calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 6) * module; cgi: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support. (line 6) * module; cgitb: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts. (line 6) * module; chunk: chunk — Read IFF chunked data. (line 6) * module; cmath: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers. (line 6) * module; cmd: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters. (line 6) * module; cmd <1>: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 17) * module; code: code — Interpreter base classes. (line 6) * module; codecs: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 6) * module; codeop: codeop — Compile Python code. (line 6) * module; collections: Mutable sequences. (line 11) * module; collections <1>: collections — Container datatypes. (line 6) * module; collections.abc: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers. (line 6) * module; colorsys: colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 6) * module; compileall: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries. (line 6) * module; concurrent.futures: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks. (line 6) * module; configparser: configparser — Configuration file parser. (line 6) * module; contextlib: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts. (line 6) * module; contextvars: contextvars — Context Variables. (line 6) * module; copy: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 6) * module; copy <1>: copyreg — Register pickle support functions. (line 8) * module; copyreg: copyreg — Register pickle support functions. (line 6) * module; cProfile: profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 6) * module; crypt: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords. (line 6) * module; csv: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing. (line 6) * module; ctypes: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python. (line 6) * module; curses: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays. (line 6) * module; curses.ascii: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 6) * module; curses.panel: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses. (line 6) * module; curses.textpad: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs. (line 6) * module; dataclasses: dataclasses — Data Classes. (line 6) * module; datetime: datetime — Basic date and time types. (line 6) * module; dbm: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”. (line 6) * module; dbm.dumb: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. (line 6) * module; dbm.gnu: Dictionaries<2>. (line 25) * module; dbm.gnu <1>: Restrictions. (line 6) * module; dbm.gnu <2>: dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 6) * module; dbm.ndbm: Dictionaries<2>. (line 25) * module; dbm.ndbm <1>: Restrictions. (line 6) * module; dbm.ndbm <2>: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. (line 6) * module; dbm.sqlite3: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm. (line 6) * module; decimal: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic. (line 6) * module; difflib: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 6) * module; dis: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode. (line 6) * module; distutils: distutils — Building and installing Python modules. (line 6) * module; doctest: doctest — Test interactive Python examples. (line 6) * module; email: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 6) * module; email.charset: email charset Representing character sets. (line 6) * module; email.contentmanager: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. (line 6) * module; email.encoders: email encoders Encoders. (line 6) * module; email.errors: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 6) * module; email.generator: email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 6) * module; email.header: email header Internationalized headers. (line 6) * module; email.headerregistry: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 6) * module; email.iterators: email iterators Iterators. (line 6) * module; email.message: email message Representing an email message. (line 6) * module; email.mime: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 6) * module; email.mime.application: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 95) * module; email.mime.audio: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 125) * module; email.mime.base: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 30) * module; email.mime.image: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 157) * module; email.mime.message: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 190) * module; email.mime.multipart: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 66) * module; email.mime.nonmultipart: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 55) * module; email.mime.text: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch. (line 208) * module; email.parser: email parser Parsing email messages. (line 6) * module; email.policy: email policy Policy Objects. (line 6) * module; email.utils: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 6) * module; encodings: encodings — Encodings package. (line 6) * module; encodings.idna: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 6) * module; encodings.mbcs: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage. (line 6) * module; encodings.utf_8_sig: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature. (line 6) * module; ensurepip: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer. (line 6) * module; enum: enum — Support for enumerations. (line 6) * module; errno: Concrete exceptions. (line 155) * module; errno <1>: errno — Standard errno system symbols. (line 6) * module; faulthandler: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback. (line 6) * module; fcntl: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 6) * module; filecmp: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons. (line 6) * module; fileinput: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 6) * module; fnmatch: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 6) * module; fractions: fractions — Rational numbers. (line 6) * module; ftplib: ftplib — FTP protocol client. (line 6) * module; functools: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 6) * module; gc: gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 6) * module; getopt: getopt — C-style parser for command line options. (line 6) * module; getpass: getpass — Portable password input. (line 6) * module; gettext: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services. (line 6) * module; glob: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 6) * module; glob <1>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 34) * module; graphlib: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 6) * module; grp: grp — The group database. (line 6) * module; gzip: gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 6) * module; hashlib: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests. (line 6) * module; heapq: heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 6) * module; hmac: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 6) * module; html: html — HyperText Markup Language support. (line 6) * module; html.entities: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities. (line 6) * module; html.parser: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser. (line 6) * module; http: http — HTTP modules. (line 6) * module; http.client: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 6) * module; http.cookiejar: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 6) * module; http.cookies: http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 6) * module; http.server: http server — HTTP servers. (line 6) * module; idlelib: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application. (line 6) * module; imaplib: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 6) * module; imghdr: imghdr — Determine the type of an image. (line 6) * module; imp: imp — Access the import internals. (line 6) * module; importing: The import statement. (line 6) * module; importlib: importlib — The implementation of import. (line 6) * module; importlib.abc: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 6) * module; importlib.machinery: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 6) * module; importlib.metadata: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata. (line 6) * module; importlib.resources: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access. (line 6) * module; importlib.resources.abc: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 6) * module; importlib.util: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 6) * module; inspect: inspect — Inspect live objects. (line 6) * module; io: I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * module; io <1>: io — Core tools for working with streams. (line 6) * module; ipaddress: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library. (line 6) * module; itertools: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping. (line 6) * module; json: Saving structured data with json. (line 6) * module; json <1>: json — JSON encoder and decoder. (line 6) * module; json.tool: Command Line Interface<2>. (line 6) * module; keyword: keyword — Testing for Python keywords. (line 6) * module; linecache: linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 6) * module; locale: locale — Internationalization services. (line 6) * module; logging: logging — Logging facility for Python. (line 6) * module; logging.config: logging config — Logging configuration. (line 6) * module; logging.handlers: logging handlers — Logging handlers. (line 6) * module; lzma: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm. (line 6) * module; mailbox: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats. (line 6) * module; mailcap: mailcap — Mailcap file handling. (line 6) * module; marshal: marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 6) * module; math: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 107) * module; math <1>: math — Mathematical functions. (line 6) * module; math <2>: Constants<3>. (line 47) * module; mimetypes: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 6) * module; mmap: mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 6) * module; modulefinder: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 6) * module; msilib: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files. (line 6) * module; msvcrt: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime. (line 6) * module; multiprocessing: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism. (line 6) * module; multiprocessing.connection: Listeners and Clients. (line 6) * module; multiprocessing.dummy: The multiprocessing dummy module. (line 6) * module; multiprocessing.managers: Managers. (line 19) * module; multiprocessing.pool: Process Pools. (line 6) * module; multiprocessing.shared_memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 6) * module; multiprocessing.sharedctypes: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 6) * module; namespace: Modules<3>. (line 21) * module; netrc: netrc — netrc file processing. (line 6) * module; nis: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages. (line 6) * module; nntplib: nntplib — NNTP protocol client. (line 6) * module; numbers: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes. (line 6) * module; operator: operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 6) * module; optparse: optparse — Parser for command line options. (line 6) * module; os: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces. (line 6) * module; os <1>: posix — The most common POSIX system calls. (line 14) * module; os.path: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 6) * module; ossaudiodev: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (line 6) * module; pathlib: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths. (line 6) * module; pdb: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 6) * module; pickle: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 75) * module; pickle <1>: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 6) * module; pickle <2>: copyreg — Register pickle support functions. (line 8) * module; pickle <3>: shelve — Python object persistence. (line 8) * module; pickle <4>: marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 15) * module; pickletools: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers. (line 6) * module; pipes: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines. (line 6) * module; pkgutil: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 6) * module; platform: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data. (line 6) * module; plistlib: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 6) * module; poplib: poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 6) * module; posix: posix — The most common POSIX system calls. (line 6) * module; pprint: pprint — Data pretty printer. (line 6) * module; profile: profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 6) * module; pstats: The Stats Class. (line 9) * module; pty: File Descriptor Operations. (line 482) * module; pty <1>: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities. (line 6) * module; pwd: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 136) * module; pwd <1>: pwd — The password database. (line 6) * module; py_compile: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 6) * module; pyclbr: pyclbr — Python module browser support. (line 6) * module; pydoc: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 6) * module; pyexpat: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 19) * module; queue: queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 6) * module; quopri: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 6) * module; random: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers. (line 6) * module; re: String Methods<2>. (line 6) * module; re <1>: re — Regular expression operations. (line 6) * module; re <2>: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 8) * module; readline: readline — GNU readline interface. (line 6) * module; reprlib: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. (line 6) * module; resource: resource — Resource usage information. (line 6) * module; rlcompleter: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline. (line 6) * module; runpy: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 6) * module; sched: sched — Event scheduler. (line 6) * module; search; path: The Module Search Path. (line 6) * module; search; path <1>: linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 30) * module; search; path <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1328) * module; search; path <3>: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 14) * module; search; path <4>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 12) * module; search; path <5>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * module; search; path <6>: Process-wide parameters. (line 136) * module; secrets: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets. (line 6) * module; select: select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 6) * module; selectors: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing. (line 6) * module; shelve: shelve — Python object persistence. (line 6) * module; shelve <1>: marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 15) * module; shlex: shlex — Simple lexical analysis. (line 6) * module; shutil: shutil — High-level file operations. (line 6) * module; signal: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 192) * module; signal <1>: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events. (line 6) * module; signal <2>: Signal Handling<2>. (line 7) * module; signal <3>: Signal Handling<2>. (line 34) * module; signal <4>: Signal Handling<2>. (line 43) * module; site: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 6) * module; sitecustomize: sitecustomize. (line 6) * module; smtpd: smtpd — SMTP Server. (line 6) * module; smtplib: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 6) * module; sndhdr: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file. (line 6) * module; socket: socket — Low-level networking interface. (line 6) * module; socket <1>: Internet Protocols and Support. (line 6) * module; socketserver: socketserver — A framework for network servers. (line 6) * module; spwd: spwd — The shadow password database. (line 6) * module; sqlite3: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases. (line 6) * module; ssl: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 6) * module; stat: stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 6) * module; stat <1>: Files and Directories. (line 1113) * module; statistics: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions. (line 6) * module; string: string — Common string operations. (line 6) * module; stringprep: stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 6) * module; struct: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data. (line 6) * module; struct <1>: Socket Objects. (line 567) * module; subprocess: subprocess — Subprocess management. (line 6) * module; sunau: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files. (line 6) * module; symtable: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables. (line 6) * module; sys: Standard Modules. (line 6) * module; sys <1>: except clause. (line 59) * module; sys <2>: Complete Python programs. (line 6) * module; sys <3>: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * module; sys <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 6) * module; sys <5>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 12) * module; sys <6>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * module; sys <7>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 112) * module; sys <8>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 197) * module; sys.monitoring: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring. (line 6) * module; sysconfig: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information. (line 6) * module; syslog: syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 6) * module; tabnanny: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation. (line 6) * module; tarfile: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 6) * module; telnetlib: telnetlib — Telnet client. (line 6) * module; tempfile: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 6) * module; termios: termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 6) * module; test: test — Regression tests package for Python. (line 6) * module; test.regrtest: Running tests using the command-line interface. (line 6) * module; test.support: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 6) * module; test.support.bytecode_helper: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation. (line 6) * module; test.support.import_helper: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 6) * module; test.support.os_helper: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 6) * module; test.support.script_helper: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 6) * module; test.support.socket_helper: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 6) * module; test.support.threading_helper: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 6) * module; test.support.warnings_helper: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. (line 6) * module; textwrap: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 6) * module; threading: threading — Thread-based parallelism. (line 6) * module; time: time — Time access and conversions. (line 6) * module; timeit: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets. (line 6) * module; tkinter: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk. (line 6) * module; tkinter.colorchooser: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog. (line 6) * module; tkinter.commondialog: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates. (line 6) * module; tkinter.dnd: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 6) * module; tkinter.filedialog: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs. (line 6) * module; tkinter.font: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 6) * module; tkinter.messagebox: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 6) * module; tkinter.scrolledtext: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget. (line 6) * module; tkinter.simpledialog: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs. (line 6) * module; tkinter.ttk: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets. (line 6) * module; token: token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 6) * module; tokenize: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source. (line 6) * module; tomllib: tomllib — Parse TOML files. (line 6) * module; trace: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution. (line 6) * module; traceback: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback. (line 6) * module; tracemalloc: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations. (line 6) * module; tty: tty — Terminal control functions. (line 6) * module; turtle: turtle — Turtle graphics. (line 6) * module; turtledemo: turtledemo — Demo scripts. (line 6) * module; types: Type Objects. (line 6) * module; types <1>: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types. (line 6) * module; typing: typing — Support for type hints. (line 6) * module; unicodedata: unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 6) * module; unittest: unittest — Unit testing framework. (line 6) * module; unittest.mock: unittest mock — mock object library. (line 6) * module; urllib: urllib — URL handling modules. (line 6) * module; urllib.error: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 6) * module; urllib.parse: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 6) * module; urllib.request: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 6) * module; urllib.request <1>: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 8) * module; urllib.response: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 6) * module; urllib.robotparser: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 6) * module; usercustomize: usercustomize. (line 6) * module; uu: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files. (line 6) * module; uuid: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 8) * module; venv: venv — Creation of virtual environments. (line 6) * module; warnings: warnings — Warning control. (line 6) * module; wave: wave — Read and write WAV files. (line 6) * module; weakref: weakref — Weak references. (line 6) * module; webbrowser: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 6) * module; winreg: winreg — Windows registry access. (line 6) * module; winsound: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 6) * module; wsgiref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation. (line 6) * module; wsgiref.handlers: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 6) * module; wsgiref.headers: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. (line 6) * module; wsgiref.simple_server: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 6) * module; wsgiref.types: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 6) * module; wsgiref.util: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 6) * module; wsgiref.validate: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. (line 6) * module; xdrlib: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data. (line 6) * module; xml: XML Processing Modules. (line 6) * module; xml.dom: xml dom — The Document Object Model API. (line 6) * module; xml.dom.minidom: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation. (line 6) * module; xml.dom.pulldom: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. (line 6) * module; xml.etree.ElementInclude: Functions<10>. (line 6) * module; xml.etree.ElementTree: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API. (line 6) * module; xml.parsers.expat: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 6) * module; xml.parsers.expat.errors: Expat error constants. (line 6) * module; xml.parsers.expat.model: Content Model Descriptions. (line 6) * module; xml.sax: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 6) * module; xml.sax.handler: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 6) * module; xml.sax.saxutils: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 6) * module; xml.sax.xmlreader: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 6) * module; xmlrpc: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules. (line 6) * module; xmlrpc.client: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access. (line 6) * module; xmlrpc.server: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers. (line 6) * module; zipapp: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives. (line 6) * module; zipfile: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 6) * module; zipimport: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives. (line 6) * module; zlib: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 6) * module; zoneinfo: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support. (line 6) * ModuleFinder (class in modulefinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 26) * ModuleInfo (class in pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 13) * ModuleNotFoundError: Concrete exceptions. (line 72) * modules (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1301) * modules (in module sys) <1>: Importing Modules<2>. (line 9) * modules (in module sys) <2>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * modules (modulefinder.ModuleFinder attribute): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 49) * modules_cleanup() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 71) * modules_setup() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 67) * ModuleSpec (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 364) * ModuleType (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 123) * ModuleType (in module types): Module Objects. (line 7) * modulo: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 46) * modulus (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1041) * MON_1 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_10 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_11 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_12 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_2 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_3 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_4 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_5 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_6 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_7 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_8 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MON_9 (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 239) * MONDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * monotonic_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 208) * monotonic() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 175) * month (calendar.IllegalMonthError attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 523) * Month (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 508) * month (datetime.date attribute): date Objects. (line 120) * month (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 309) * month_abbr (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 479) * month_name (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 468) * month() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 402) * monthcalendar() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 391) * monthdatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 111) * monthdays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 117) * monthdayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 123) * monthrange() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 386) * Morsel (class in http.cookies): Morsel Objects. (line 6) * most_common() (collections.Counter method): Counter objects. (line 78) * mouseinterval() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 292) * mousemask() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 299) * move_to_end() (collections.OrderedDict method): OrderedDict objects. (line 74) * move() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 35) * move() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 396) * move() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 334) * move() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 236) * move() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 211) * MozillaCookieJar (class in http.cookiejar): FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers. (line 9) * MRO: Glossary. (line 1013) * mro() (type method): Special methods. (line 9) * msg (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 40) * msg (json.JSONDecodeError attribute): Exceptions<17>. (line 11) * msg (netrc.NetrcParseError attribute): netrc — netrc file processing. (line 53) * msg (re.PatternError attribute): Exceptions<3>. (line 15) * msg (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 122) * mtime (gzip.GzipFile attribute): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 151) * mtime (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 69) * mtime() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 39) * mul() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 120) * Mult (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * MultiCall (class in xmlrpc.client): MultiCall Objects. (line 9) * MULTILINE (in module re): Flags. (line 82) * MultilineContinuationError: Exceptions<8>. (line 73) * MultiLoopChildWatcher (class in asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 106) * multimode() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 357) * MultipartConversionError: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 42) * MultipartInvariantViolationDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 116) * multiplication: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 16) * multiply() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 419) * mutable: Glossary. (line 1017) * mutable object: Objects values and types. (line 11) * mutable sequence; loop over: Common Sequence Operations. (line 75) * mutable; sequence; types: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 6) * MutableMapping (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 97) * MutableMapping (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 74) * MutableSequence (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 68) * MutableSequence (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 82) * MutableSet (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 92) * MutableSet (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 90) * mvderwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 400) * mvwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 407) * myrights() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 157) * N_TOKENS (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 322) * n_waiting (asyncio.Barrier attribute): Barrier. (line 98) * n_waiting (threading.Barrier attribute): Barrier objects. (line 97) * NAK (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 88) * name: Identifiers and keywords. (line 6) * name <1>: Binding of names. (line 6) * name <2>: Identifiers Names. (line 6) * name (AttributeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 22) * name (bz2.BZ2File attribute): De compression of files. (line 136) * Name (class in ast): Variables. (line 6) * name (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 74) * name (contextvars.ContextVar attribute): Context Variables. (line 24) * name (doctest.DocTest attribute): DocTest Objects. (line 30) * name (email.headerregistry.BaseHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 45) * name (enum.Enum attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 124) * name (gzip.GzipFile attribute): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 159) * name (hashlib.hash attribute): Hash Objects. (line 19) * name (hmac.HMAC attribute): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 102) * name (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 28) * name (ImportError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 61) * name (importlib.abc.FileLoader attribute): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 305) * name (importlib.abc.Traversable attribute): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 522) * name (importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 500) * name (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 306) * name (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 380) * name (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 212) * name (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 256) * name (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable attribute): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 94) * name (in module os): os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces. (line 55) * NAME (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 45) * name (inspect.Parameter attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 205) * name (io.FileIO attribute): Raw File I/O. (line 60) * name (logging.Logger attribute): Logger Objects. (line 26) * name (lzma.LZMAFile attribute): Reading and writing compressed files. (line 106) * name (multiprocessing.Process attribute): Process and exceptions. (line 115) * name (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory attribute): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 120) * name (NameError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 126) * name (os.DirEntry attribute): Files and Directories. (line 941) * name (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 122) * name (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 20) * name (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 19) * name (sys.thread_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1921) * name (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 61) * name (tempfile.TemporaryDirectory attribute): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 194) * name (threading.Thread attribute): Thread objects. (line 153) * name (traceback.FrameSummary attribute): FrameSummary Objects. (line 38) * name (webbrowser.controller attribute): Browser Controller Objects. (line 10) * name (xml.dom.Attr attribute): Attr Objects. (line 8) * name (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute): DocumentType Objects. (line 33) * name (zipfile.Path attribute): Path Objects. (line 31) * name; binding: The import statement. (line 6) * name; binding <1>: The import statement. (line 52) * name; binding <2>: Function definitions. (line 6) * name; binding <3>: Function definitions. (line 6) * name; binding <4>: Class definitions. (line 6) * name; mangling: Private Variables. (line 13) * name; mangling <1>: Identifiers Names. (line 14) * name() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 25) * name2codepoint (in module html.entities): html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities. (line 30) * named expression: Boolean operations. (line 38) * Named Shared Memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 10) * named tuple: Glossary. (line 1022) * NAMED_FLAGS (enum.EnumCheck attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 643) * NamedExpr (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 184) * NamedTemporaryFile() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 74) * NamedTuple (class in typing): Other special directives. (line 10) * namedtuple() (in module collections): namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields. (line 11) * NameError: Concrete exceptions. (line 118) * NameError (built-in exception): Resolution of names. (line 16) * namelist() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 126) * nameprep() (in module encodings.idna): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 50) * namer (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler attribute): BaseRotatingHandler. (line 17) * namereplace_errors() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 181) * namereplace; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 54) * names() (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 92) * namespace: Naming and binding. (line 6) * namespace <1>: Glossary. (line 1049) * Namespace (class in argparse): The Namespace object. (line 6) * Namespace (class in multiprocessing.managers): Managers. (line 243) * namespace package: Glossary. (line 1063) * NAMESPACE_DNS (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 206) * NAMESPACE_OID (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 215) * NAMESPACE_URL (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 211) * NAMESPACE_X500 (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 219) * namespace() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 162) * Namespace() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 193) * NamespaceErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 66) * NamespaceLoader (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 347) * namespaceURI (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 74) * nametofont() (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 96) * NaN: Built-in Functions. (line 726) * nan (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 33) * nan (in module math): Constants<2>. (line 31) * nan (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1049) * nanj (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 40) * NannyNag: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation. (line 37) * napms() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 308) * nargs (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 50) * native_id (threading.Thread attribute): Thread objects. (line 175) * nbytes (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 380) * ncurses_version (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 24) * ND (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 21) * ndiff() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 233) * ndim (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 446) * ne() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 24) * needs_input (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute): Incremental de compression. (line 85) * needs_input (lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 175) * neg() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 132) * negation: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 10) * nested scope: Glossary. (line 1079) * nested_scopes (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 14) * netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 101) * netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 315) * NetmaskValueError: Custom Exceptions. (line 13) * netrc (class in netrc): netrc — netrc file processing. (line 13) * NetrcParseError: netrc — netrc file processing. (line 47) * netscape (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 68) * network (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 28) * network (ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 76) * network_address (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 86) * network_address (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 309) * Never (in module typing): Special types. (line 99) * NEVER_EQ (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 180) * new_child() (collections.ChainMap method): ChainMap objects. (line 46) * new_class() (in module types): Dynamic Type Creation. (line 6) * new_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method): Policy Objects. (line 27) * new_event_loop() (in module asyncio): Event Loop. (line 67) * new_panel() (in module curses.panel): Functions<7>. (line 12) * new-style class: Glossary. (line 1089) * new() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 6) * new() (in module hmac): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 15) * newfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 31) * NEWLINE (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 76) * NEWLINE token: Logical lines. (line 6) * NEWLINE token <1>: Compound statements. (line 55) * newlines (io.TextIOBase attribute): Text I/O<2>. (line 24) * newpad() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 312) * NewType (class in typing): Other special directives. (line 102) * newwin() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 332) * next (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 202) * next_minus() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 423) * next_minus() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 401) * next_plus() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 427) * next_plus() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 407) * next_toward() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 431) * next_toward() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 413) * next() (tarfile.TarFile method): TarFile Objects. (line 132) * next() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 222) * nextafter() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 82) * nextfile() (in module fileinput): fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams. (line 121) * nextkey() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 93) * nextSibling (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 42) * ngettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method): The GNUTranslations class. (line 47) * ngettext() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 41) * ngettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 44) * nice() (in module os): Process Management. (line 357) * NL (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 55) * NL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 80) * nl_langinfo() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 175) * nl() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 342) * nlargest() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 109) * nlst() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 301) * NO (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 159) * no_cache() (zoneinfo.ZoneInfo class method): The ZoneInfo class. (line 41) * NO_EVENTS (monitoring event): Events. (line 94) * no_proxy: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 311) * no_site (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 550) * no_tracing() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 538) * no_type_check_decorator() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 360) * no_type_check() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 348) * no_user_site (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 547) * NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 75) * nocbreak() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 348) * NoDataAllowedErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 83) * node (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 119) * node() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 40) * NoDefault (in module typing): Introspection helpers. (line 164) * nodelay() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 411) * nodeName (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 79) * NodeTransformer (class in ast): ast Helpers. (line 224) * nodeType (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 8) * nodeValue (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 88) * NodeVisitor (class in ast): ast Helpers. (line 184) * noecho() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 353) * NOEXPR (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 284) * NOFLAG (in module re): Flags. (line 96) * NoModificationAllowedErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 88) * NonCallableMagicMock (class in unittest.mock): Magic Mock. (line 22) * NonCallableMock (class in unittest.mock): The Mock Class. (line 581) * None (Built-in object): Truth Value Testing. (line 15) * None (built-in variable): Built-in Constants. (line 18) * NoneType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 19) * nonl() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 357) * Nonlocal (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 145) * nonmember() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 86) * noop() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 166) * noop() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 79) * NoOptionError: Exceptions<8>. (line 32) * NOP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 134) * noqiflush() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 367) * noraw() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 375) * NoReturn (in module typing): Special types. (line 99) * NORMAL (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 15) * NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 96) * NormalDist (class in statistics): NormalDist objects. (line 13) * normalize_encoding() (in module encodings): encodings — Encodings package. (line 8) * NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 37) * normalize() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 435) * normalize() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 421) * normalize() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 425) * normalize() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 81) * normalize() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 141) * normalvariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 85) * normcase() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 327) * normpath() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 336) * NoSectionError: Exceptions<8>. (line 10) * NoSuchMailboxError: Exceptions<18>. (line 12) * Not (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 27) * not_() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 49) * NotADirectoryError: OS exceptions. (line 89) * notation: Notation. (line 6) * notationDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler method): DTDHandler Objects. (line 8) * NotationDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 313) * notations (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute): DocumentType Objects. (line 46) * NotConnected: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 136) * Notebook (class in tkinter.ttk): ttk Notebook. (line 6) * NotEmptyError: Exceptions<18>. (line 19) * NotEq (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * NOTEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 239) * NotFoundErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 72) * notify_all() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 67) * notify_all() (threading.Condition method): Condition objects. (line 172) * notify() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 54) * notify() (threading.Condition method): Condition objects. (line 152) * notimeout() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 415) * NotImplemented (built-in variable): Built-in Constants. (line 25) * NotImplementedError: Concrete exceptions. (line 132) * NotImplementedType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 103) * NotIn (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 108) * NotRequired (in module typing): Special forms. (line 260) * NOTSET (in module logging): Logging Levels. (line 16) * NotStandaloneHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 364) * NotSupportedErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 78) * NotSupportedError: Exceptions<7>. (line 85) * noutrefresh() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 423) * NOVEMBER (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * now() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 61) * npgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method): The GNUTranslations class. (line 79) * npgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 55) * npgettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 67) * NSIG (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 208) * nsmallest() (in module heapq): heapq — Heap queue algorithm. (line 117) * NTEventLogHandler (class in logging.handlers): NTEventLogHandler. (line 11) * ntohl() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 225) * ntohs() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 232) * ntransfercmd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 278) * NUL (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 19) * null; operation: The pass statement. (line 6) * null; operation <1>: The pass statement. (line 6) * nullcontext() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 220) * NullHandler (class in logging): NullHandler. (line 12) * NullTranslations (class in gettext): The NullTranslations class. (line 13) * num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 128) * num_addresses (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 327) * num_tickets (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 564) * number: Numeric literals. (line 6) * Number (class in numbers): numbers — Numeric abstract base classes. (line 15) * NUMBER (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 50) * number_class() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 439) * number_class() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 444) * numerator (fractions.Fraction attribute): fractions — Rational numbers. (line 115) * numerator (numbers.Rational attribute): The numeric tower. (line 51) * numeric literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * numeric; conversions: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 107) * numeric; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * numeric() (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 43) * numinput() (in module turtle): Input methods. (line 22) * O_APPEND (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * O_ASYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_BINARY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_CLOEXEC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_CREAT (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * O_DIRECT (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_DIRECTORY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_DSYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_EVTONLY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 452) * O_EXCL (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * O_EXLOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_FSYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 452) * O_NDELAY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_NOATIME (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_NOCTTY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_NOFOLLOW (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_NOFOLLOW_ANY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 452) * O_NOINHERIT (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_NONBLOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_PATH (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_RANDOM (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_RDONLY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * O_RDWR (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * O_RSYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_SEQUENTIAL (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_SHLOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_SHORT_LIVED (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_SYMLINK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 452) * O_SYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 430) * O_TEMPORARY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_TEXT (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 442) * O_TMPFILE (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 463) * O_TRUNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * O_WRONLY (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 420) * obj (AttributeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 26) * obj (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 369) * object: Objects values and types. (line 6) * object <1>: Glossary. (line 1097) * object (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 1241) * object (UnicodeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 453) * object; asynchronous-generator: Asynchronous generator functions<2>. (line 66) * object; Boolean: numbers Integral. (line 27) * object; Boolean <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 6) * object; built-in function: Built-in functions. (line 6) * object; built-in function <1>: Calls. (line 143) * object; built-in method: Built-in methods. (line 6) * object; built-in method <1>: Calls. (line 143) * object; bytearray: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 6) * object; bytearray <1>: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview. (line 6) * object; bytearray <2>: Bytearray Objects. (line 6) * object; bytearray <3>: Byte Array Objects. (line 6) * object; bytes: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview. (line 6) * object; bytes <1>: Bytes Objects. (line 6) * object; bytes <2>: Bytes Objects<2>. (line 9) * object; callable: Callable types. (line 6) * object; callable <1>: Slicings. (line 39) * object; Capsule: Capsules<2>. (line 6) * object; class: Custom classes. (line 19) * object; class <1>: Calls. (line 148) * object; class <2>: Class definitions. (line 6) * object; class instance: Custom classes. (line 19) * object; class instance <1>: Class instances. (line 6) * object; class instance <2>: Calls. (line 152) * object; code: Code objects. (line 6) * object; code <1>: Methods. (line 44) * object; code <2>: marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 33) * object; code <3>: Cell Objects. (line 58) * object; complex: numbers Complex complex. (line 6) * object; complex number: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 6) * object; complex number <1>: Complex Number Objects. (line 6) * object; deallocation: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 6) * object; dictionary: Dictionaries<2>. (line 6) * object; dictionary <1>: Custom classes. (line 19) * object; dictionary <2>: Basic customization. (line 241) * object; dictionary <3>: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * object; dictionary <4>: Subscriptions. (line 6) * object; dictionary <5>: Assignment statements. (line 115) * object; dictionary <6>: Mapping Types — dict. (line 6) * object; dictionary <7>: Dictionary Objects. (line 6) * object; Ellipsis: Ellipsis. (line 6) * object; file: Reading and Writing Files. (line 6) * object; file <1>: File Objects. (line 6) * object; finalization: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 6) * object; floating-point: numbers Real float. (line 6) * object; floating-point <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 6) * object; floating-point <2>: Floating-Point Objects. (line 6) * object; frame: Frame objects. (line 6) * object; frozenset: Set types. (line 29) * object; frozenset <1>: Set Objects. (line 6) * object; function: User-defined functions. (line 6) * object; function <1>: Built-in functions. (line 6) * object; function <2>: Calls. (line 132) * object; function <3>: Calls. (line 143) * object; function <4>: Function definitions. (line 6) * object; function <5>: Function Objects<3>. (line 6) * object; generator: Special read-only attributes<2>. (line 89) * object; generator <1>: Generator expressions. (line 6) * object; generator <2>: Yield expressions. (line 110) * object; GenericAlias: Generic Alias Type. (line 6) * object; immutable: Immutable sequences. (line 6) * object; immutable sequence: Immutable sequences. (line 6) * object; instance: Custom classes. (line 19) * object; instance <1>: Class instances. (line 6) * object; instance <2>: Calls. (line 152) * object; instancemethod: Instance Method Objects. (line 6) * object; integer: numbers Integral. (line 6) * object; integer <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 6) * object; integer <2>: Integer Objects. (line 6) * object; io.StringIO: Text Sequence Type — str. (line 36) * object; list: Mutable sequences. (line 18) * object; list <1>: List displays. (line 6) * object; list <2>: Attribute references. (line 10) * object; list <3>: Subscriptions. (line 6) * object; list <4>: Slicings. (line 6) * object; list <5>: Assignment statements. (line 106) * object; list <6>: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 6) * object; list <7>: Lists<2>. (line 6) * object; list <8>: List Objects. (line 6) * object; long integer: Integer Objects. (line 6) * object; mapping: Mappings. (line 6) * object; mapping <1>: Class instances. (line 26) * object; mapping <2>: Subscriptions. (line 6) * object; mapping <3>: Assignment statements. (line 115) * object; mapping <4>: Mapping Types — dict. (line 6) * object; mapping <5>: Container Objects. (line 6) * object; memoryview: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview. (line 6) * object; memoryview <1>: Ellipsis Object. (line 19) * object; method: Instance Objects. (line 26) * object; method <1>: Instance methods. (line 6) * object; method <2>: Built-in methods. (line 6) * object; method <3>: Calls. (line 143) * object; method <4>: Methods. (line 6) * object; method <5>: Method Objects<2>. (line 6) * object; module: Modules<3>. (line 6) * object; module <1>: Attribute references. (line 10) * object; module <2>: Module Objects. (line 6) * object; mutable: Mutable sequences. (line 6) * object; mutable <1>: Assignment statements. (line 6) * object; mutable <2>: Assignment statements. (line 101) * object; mutable sequence: Mutable sequences. (line 6) * object; None: None. (line 6) * object; None <1>: Expression statements. (line 17) * object; None <2>: The None Object. (line 6) * object; NotImplemented: NotImplemented. (line 6) * object; numeric: numbers Number. (line 6) * object; numeric <1>: Class instances. (line 26) * object; numeric <2>: Comparisons<2>. (line 43) * object; numeric <3>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 6) * object; numeric <4>: Numeric Objects. (line 6) * object; range: Ranges. (line 6) * object; sequence: Sequences. (line 6) * object; sequence <1>: Class instances. (line 26) * object; sequence <2>: Subscriptions. (line 6) * object; sequence <3>: Slicings. (line 6) * object; sequence <4>: Membership test operations. (line 36) * object; sequence <5>: Assignment statements. (line 106) * object; sequence <6>: The for statement. (line 6) * object; sequence <7>: Common Sequence Operations. (line 6) * object; sequence <8>: Sequence Objects. (line 6) * object; set: Set types. (line 23) * object; set <1>: Set displays. (line 6) * object; set <2>: Set Types — set frozenset. (line 6) * object; set <3>: Set Objects. (line 6) * object; set type: Set types. (line 6) * object; slice: Emulating container types. (line 66) * object; socket: socket — Low-level networking interface. (line 22) * object; string: Subscriptions. (line 6) * object; string <1>: Slicings. (line 6) * object; string <2>: Ranges. (line 125) * object; traceback: Traceback objects. (line 6) * object; traceback <1>: The raise statement. (line 21) * object; traceback <2>: except clause. (line 59) * object; traceback <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 460) * object; traceback <4>: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback. (line 19) * object; tuple: Immutable sequences. (line 29) * object; tuple <1>: Subscriptions. (line 6) * object; tuple <2>: Slicings. (line 6) * object; tuple <3>: Expression lists. (line 13) * object; tuple <4>: Immutable Sequence Types. (line 6) * object; tuple <5>: Tuples. (line 6) * object; tuple <6>: Tuple Objects. (line 6) * object; type: Built-in Functions. (line 2017) * object; type <1>: Objects Types and Reference Counts. (line 6) * object; type <2>: Type Objects<2>. (line 6) * object; Union: Union Type. (line 6) * object; user-defined function: User-defined functions. (line 6) * object; user-defined function <1>: Calls. (line 132) * object; user-defined function <2>: Function definitions. (line 6) * object; user-defined method: Instance methods. (line 6) * object.__match_args__ (built-in variable): Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching. (line 12) * object.__slots__ (built-in variable): __slots__<2>. (line 14) * objects; comparing: Comparisons<2>. (line 43) * objobjargproc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 138) * objobjproc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 134) * octal literal: Numeric literals. (line 6) * octal; literals: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 19) * octdigits (in module string): String constants. (line 32) * OCTOBER (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * offset (SyntaxError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 326) * offset (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 149) * offset (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 110) * offset (xml.parsers.expat.ExpatError attribute): ExpatError Exceptions. (line 32) * offset_data (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 153) * OK (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 13) * OK (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 153) * ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.LoadFileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 140) * ok_command() (tkinter.filedialog.SaveFileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 150) * ok_event() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 119) * OKCANCEL (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 171) * old_value (contextvars.Token attribute): Context Variables. (line 87) * OleDLL (class in ctypes): Loading shared libraries. (line 35) * on_motion() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler method): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 56) * on_release() (tkinter.dnd.DndHandler method): tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support. (line 61) * onclick() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 56) * ondrag() (in module turtle): Using events. (line 57) * onecmd() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 59) * onkey() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 12) * onkeypress() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 35) * onkeyrelease() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 12) * onrelease() (in module turtle): Using events. (line 30) * onscreenclick() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 56) * ontimer() (in module turtle): Using screen events. (line 86) * OP (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 62) * OP_ALL (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 211) * OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 300) * OP_ENABLE_KTLS (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 358) * OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 324) * OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 350) * OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 375) * OP_NO_COMPRESSION (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 333) * OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 290) * OP_NO_SSLv2 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 219) * OP_NO_SSLv3 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 229) * OP_NO_TICKET (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 344) * OP_NO_TLSv1 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 239) * OP_NO_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 251) * OP_NO_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 263) * OP_NO_TLSv1_3 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 275) * OP_SINGLE_DH_USE (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 308) * OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 316) * Open (class in tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 60) * open_binary() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 35) * open_code() (in module io): High-level Module Interface. (line 22) * open_connection() (in module asyncio): Streams. (line 42) * open_flags (in module dbm.gnu): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 76) * open_new_tab() (in module webbrowser): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 96) * open_new_tab() (webbrowser.controller method): Browser Controller Objects. (line 26) * open_new() (in module webbrowser): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 88) * open_new() (webbrowser.controller method): Browser Controller Objects. (line 20) * open_osfhandle() (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 44) * open_resource() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 470) * open_resource() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 47) * open_text() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 51) * open_unix_connection() (in module asyncio): Streams. (line 118) * open_unknown() (urllib.request.URLopener method): Legacy interface. (line 108) * open_urlresource() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 580) * open() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 170) * open() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 547) * open() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 141) * open() (in module bz2): De compression of files. (line 6) * open() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 182) * open() (in module dbm.dumb): dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. (line 29) * open() (in module dbm.gnu): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 28) * open() (in module dbm.ndbm): dbm ndbm — New Database Manager. (line 38) * open() (in module dbm.sqlite3): dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm. (line 22) * open() (in module dbm): dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”. (line 49) * open() (in module gzip): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 28) * open() (in module io): High-level Module Interface. (line 12) * open() (in module lzma): Reading and writing compressed files. (line 6) * open() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 375) * open() (in module shelve): shelve — Python object persistence. (line 17) * open() (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 41) * open() (in module tokenize): Tokenizing Input. (line 99) * open() (in module wave): wave — Read and write WAV files. (line 21) * open() (in module webbrowser): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 68) * open() (pathlib.Path method): Reading and writing files. (line 6) * open() (tarfile.TarFile class method): TarFile Objects. (line 98) * open() (urllib.request.OpenerDirector method): OpenerDirector Objects. (line 46) * open() (urllib.request.URLopener method): Legacy interface. (line 97) * open() (webbrowser.controller method): Browser Controller Objects. (line 14) * open() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 35) * open() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 130) * OpenerDirector (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 274) * OpenKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 286) * OpenKeyEx() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 286) * openlog() (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 51) * openpty() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 480) * openpty() (in module pty): pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities. (line 35) * OPENSSL_VERSION (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 479) * OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 489) * OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 499) * OpenSSL; (use in module hashlib): Hash algorithms. (line 18) * OpenSSL; (use in module ssl): ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 8) * OperationalError: Exceptions<7>. (line 57) * operations on; dictionary; type: Mapping Types — dict. (line 6) * operations on; integer; types: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operations on; list; type: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * operations on; mapping; types: Mapping Types — dict. (line 6) * operations on; numeric; types: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 94) * operations on; sequence; types: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * operations on; sequence; types <1>: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * operator; - (minus): Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 10) * operator; - (minus) <1>: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 83) * operator; - (minus) <2>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; !=: Comparisons. (line 6) * operator; != <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; @ (at): Binary arithmetic operations. (line 26) * operator; * (asterisk): Binary arithmetic operations. (line 16) * operator; * (asterisk) <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; **: The power operator. (line 6) * operator; ** <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; / (slash): Binary arithmetic operations. (line 34) * operator; / (slash) <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; //: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 34) * operator; // <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; & (ampersand): Binary bitwise operations. (line 12) * operator; & (ampersand) <1>: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operator; % (percent): Binary arithmetic operations. (line 46) * operator; % (percent) <1>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; ^ (caret): Binary bitwise operations. (line 16) * operator; ^ (caret) <1>: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operator; + (plus): Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 14) * operator; + (plus) <1>: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 74) * operator; + (plus) <2>: Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 27) * operator; < (less): Comparisons. (line 6) * operator; < (less) <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; <<: Shifting operations. (line 6) * operator; << <1>: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operator; <=: Comparisons. (line 6) * operator; <= <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; ==: Comparisons. (line 6) * operator; == <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; > (greater): Comparisons. (line 6) * operator; > (greater) <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; >=: Comparisons. (line 6) * operator; >= <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; >>: Shifting operations. (line 6) * operator; >> <1>: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operator; | (vertical bar): Binary bitwise operations. (line 20) * operator; | (vertical bar) <1>: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operator; ~ (tilde): Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 18) * operator; ~ (tilde) <1>: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * operator; and: Boolean operations. (line 21) * operator; and <1>: Truth Value Testing. (line 23) * operator; and <2>: Boolean Operations — and or not. (line 22) * operator; comparison: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; in: Membership test operations. (line 36) * operator; in <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 64) * operator; in <2>: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * operator; is: Membership test operations. (line 39) * operator; is <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; is not: Membership test operations. (line 39) * operator; is not <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 6) * operator; not: Boolean operations. (line 18) * operator; not <1>: Boolean Operations — and or not. (line 22) * operator; not in: Membership test operations. (line 36) * operator; not in <1>: Comparisons<2>. (line 64) * operator; not in <2>: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * operator; or: Boolean operations. (line 25) * operator; or <1>: Truth Value Testing. (line 23) * operator; or <2>: Boolean Operations — and or not. (line 22) * operator; overloading: Special method names. (line 6) * operator; precedence: Operator precedence. (line 6) * operators: Operators. (line 6) * opmap (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 17) * opname (in module dis): Opcode collections. (line 13) * OPT: Debug options. (line 39) * optim_args_from_interpreter_flags() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 323) * optimize (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 541) * optimize() (in module pickletools): Programmatic Interface<2>. (line 31) * optimized scope: Glossary. (line 1103) * OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 30) * Option (class in optparse): Option attributes. (line 6) * Optional (in module typing): Special forms. (line 52) * OptionConflictError: Exceptions<10>. (line 11) * OptionError: Exceptions<10>. (line 6) * OptionGroup (class in optparse): Grouping Options. (line 12) * OptionParser (class in optparse): Creating the parser. (line 9) * Options (class in ssl): Constants<9>. (line 340) * options (doctest.Example attribute): Example Objects. (line 53) * options (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 572) * options() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 137) * OptionValueError: Exceptions<10>. (line 16) * optionxform() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 319) * Or (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 86) * or_() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 137) * ordered_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 145) * OrderedDict (class in collections): OrderedDict objects. (line 60) * OrderedDict (class in typing): Aliases to types in collections. (line 17) * orig_argv (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1313) * origin (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 392) * origin_req_host (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 30) * origin_server (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 294) * os_environ (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 169) * OSError: Concrete exceptions. (line 150) * OUT_TO_DEFAULT (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 20) * OUT_TO_MSGBOX (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 30) * OUT_TO_STDERR (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 25) * output: Expression statements. (line 17) * output (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 220) * output (subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 181) * output (unittest.TestCase attribute): Test cases. (line 440) * output_charset (email.charset.Charset attribute): email charset Representing character sets. (line 74) * output_codec (email.charset.Charset attribute): email charset Representing character sets. (line 88) * output_difference() (doctest.OutputChecker method): OutputChecker objects. (line 27) * output() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method): Cookie Objects. (line 24) * output() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 69) * OutputChecker (class in doctest): OutputChecker objects. (line 6) * OutputString() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 84) * OutsideDestinationError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 243) * Overflow (class in decimal): Signals. (line 68) * OverflowError: Concrete exceptions. (line 215) * OverflowError (built-in exception): Integer Objects. (line 142) * OverflowError (built-in exception) <1>: Integer Objects. (line 197) * OverflowError (built-in exception) <2>: Integer Objects. (line 239) * OverflowError (built-in exception) <3>: Integer Objects. (line 251) * OverflowError (built-in exception) <4>: Integer Objects. (line 263) * OverflowError (built-in exception) <5>: Integer Objects. (line 276) * overlap() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 102) * overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 155) * overlaps() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 340) * overlay() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 430) * overload() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 247) * override() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 372) * overwrite() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 443) * owner() (pathlib.Path method): Permissions and ownership. (line 6) * p (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 268) * P_ALL (in module os): Process Management. (line 964) * P_DETACH (in module os): Process Management. (line 694) * P_NOWAIT (in module os): Process Management. (line 674) * P_NOWAITO (in module os): Process Management. (line 674) * P_OVERLAY (in module os): Process Management. (line 694) * P_PGID (in module os): Process Management. (line 964) * P_PID (in module os): Process Management. (line 964) * P_PIDFD (in module os): Process Management. (line 964) * P_WAIT (in module os): Process Management. (line 684) * pack_into() (in module struct): Functions and Exceptions. (line 19) * pack_into() (struct.Struct method): Classes<3>. (line 29) * pack() (in module struct): Functions and Exceptions. (line 13) * pack() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 67) * pack() (struct.Struct method): Classes<3>. (line 24) * package: Packages<2>. (line 6) * package <1>: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 74) * package <2>: Glossary. (line 1114) * package variable; __all__: Importing Modules<2>. (line 9) * package; namespace: Namespace packages. (line 6) * package; portion: Namespace packages. (line 6) * package; regular: Regular packages. (line 6) * PackageMetadata (class in importlib.metadata): Distribution metadata. (line 14) * PackageNotFoundError: Overview<3>. (line 35) * PackagePath (class in importlib.metadata): Distribution files. (line 18) * packages_distributions() (in module importlib.metadata): Mapping import to distribution packages. (line 6) * packed (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 71) * packed (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 267) * packing (widgets): The Packer. (line 6) * packing; binary; data: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data. (line 8) * PAGER: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system. (line 46) * pair_content() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 380) * pair_number() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 386) * pairwise() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 413) * parameter: Glossary. (line 1123) * Parameter (class in inspect): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 190) * parameter; call semantics: Calls. (line 25) * parameter; difference from argument: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?. (line 16) * parameter; function definition: Class Patterns. (line 140) * ParameterizedMIMEHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 255) * parameters (inspect.Signature attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 105) * params (email.headerregistry.ParameterizedMIMEHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 263) * ParamSpec (class in ast): Type parameters. (line 36) * ParamSpec (class in typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 351) * ParamSpecArgs (in module typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 471) * ParamSpecKwargs (in module typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 471) * paramstyle (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 70) * pardir (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 110) * parent (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 428) * parent (logging.Logger attribute): Logger Objects. (line 42) * parent (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 94) * parent (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 28) * parent (pyclbr.Function attribute): Function Objects. (line 27) * parent (urllib.request.BaseHandler attribute): BaseHandler Objects. (line 25) * parent_process() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 42) * parent() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 227) * parenthesized form: Parenthesized forms. (line 6) * parentNode (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 17) * parents (collections.ChainMap attribute): ChainMap objects. (line 62) * parents (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 78) * paretovariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 101) * parse_and_bind() (in module readline): Init file. (line 8) * parse_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): The parse_args method. (line 6) * parse_args() (optparse.OptionParser method): Parsing arguments. (line 9) * PARSE_COLNAMES (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 35) * parse_config_h() (in module sysconfig): Other functions<3>. (line 59) * PARSE_DECLTYPES (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 13) * parse_headers() (in module http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 110) * parse_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Intermixed parsing. (line 6) * parse_known_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Partial parsing. (line 6) * parse_known_intermixed_args() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Intermixed parsing. (line 9) * parse_qs() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 152) * parse_qsl() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 198) * parse() (doctest.DocTestParser method): DocTestParser objects. (line 29) * parse() (email.parser.BytesParser method): Parser API. (line 35) * parse() (email.parser.Parser method): Parser API. (line 87) * parse() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 9) * parse() (in module xml.dom.minidom): xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation. (line 35) * parse() (in module xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. (line 84) * parse() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 177) * parse() (in module xml.sax): xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 38) * parse() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 40) * parse() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 29) * parse() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 54) * Parse() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 8) * parse() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 8) * parseaddr() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 57) * parsebytes() (email.parser.BytesParser method): Parser API. (line 55) * parsedate_to_datetime() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 130) * parsedate_tz() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 119) * parsedate() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 107) * ParseError (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): Exceptions<19>. (line 6) * ParseFile() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 16) * ParseFlags() (in module imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 123) * parser: Lexical analysis. (line 6) * Parser (class in email.parser): Parser API. (line 76) * parser (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 8) * ParserCreate() (in module xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 45) * ParseResult (class in urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results. (line 48) * ParseResultBytes (class in urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results. (line 73) * parsestr() (email.parser.Parser method): Parser API. (line 97) * parseString() (in module xml.dom.minidom): xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation. (line 48) * parseString() (in module xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. (line 97) * parseString() (in module xml.sax): xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 49) * ParsingError: Exceptions<8>. (line 65) * partial (asyncio.IncompleteReadError attribute): Exceptions<13>. (line 56) * partial() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 189) * partial() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 320) * partialmethod (class in functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 351) * parties (asyncio.Barrier attribute): Barrier. (line 94) * parties (threading.Barrier attribute): Barrier objects. (line 93) * partition() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 187) * partition() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 187) * partition() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 409) * parts (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Accessing individual parts. (line 9) * Pass (class in ast): Statements. (line 154) * pass_() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 36) * Paste: Help menu Shell and Editor. (line 30) * patch.dict() (in module unittest.mock): patch dict. (line 6) * patch.multiple() (in module unittest.mock): patch multiple. (line 6) * patch.object() (in module unittest.mock): patch object. (line 6) * patch.stopall() (in module unittest.mock): patch methods start and stop. (line 70) * patch() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 651) * patch() (in module unittest.mock): patch. (line 9) * PATH: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 144) * PATH <1>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 6) * PATH <2>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 11) * PATH <3>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 12) * PATH <4>: macOS<7>. (line 14) * PATH <5>: Windows<24>. (line 56) * PATH <6>: Windows<28>. (line 14) * PATH <7>: Security<36>. (line 16) * PATH <8>: Security<36>. (line 20) * PATH <9>: The Module Search Path. (line 17) * PATH <10>: Executable Python Scripts. (line 11) * PATH <11>: Environment variables. (line 27) * PATH <12>: Miscellaneous. (line 16) * PATH <13>: Installation steps. (line 34) * PATH <14>: Installation steps. (line 58) * PATH <15>: Installing Without UI. (line 77) * PATH <16>: Installing Without UI. (line 81) * PATH <17>: Excursus Setting environment variables. (line 23) * PATH <18>: Excursus Setting environment variables. (line 35) * PATH <19>: Finding the Python executable. (line 14) * PATH <20>: Finding the Python executable. (line 21) * PATH <21>: Finding the Python executable. (line 22) * PATH <22>: Python Launcher for Windows. (line 13) * PATH <23>: From the command-line. (line 9) * PATH <24>: Shebang Lines. (line 54) * PATH <25>: Shebang Lines. (line 60) * PATH <26>: Shebang Lines. (line 62) * PATH <27>: Shebang Lines. (line 67) * PATH <28>: Comparison to the os and os path modules. (line 41) * PATH <29>: Directory and files operations. (line 427) * PATH <30>: Directory and files operations. (line 432) * PATH <31>: Process Management. (line 45) * PATH <32>: Process Management. (line 86) * PATH <33>: Process Management. (line 89) * PATH <34>: Process Management. (line 92) * PATH <35>: Process Management. (line 544) * PATH <36>: Process Management. (line 631) * PATH <37>: Process Management. (line 635) * PATH <38>: Process Management. (line 637) * PATH <39>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 141) * PATH <40>: Popen Constructor. (line 34) * PATH <41>: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 241) * PATH <42>: How venvs work. (line 16) * PATH <43>: How venvs work. (line 61) * PATH <44>: How venvs work. (line 66) * PATH <45>: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 66) * PATH <46>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 31) * PATH <47>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 37) * PATH <48>: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?. (line 24) * PATH <49>: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?. (line 28) * Path (class in pathlib): Concrete paths. (line 11) * Path (class in zipfile): Path Objects. (line 6) * path (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 45) * path (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * path (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 97) * path (ImportError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 65) * path (importlib.abc.FileLoader attribute): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 309) * path (importlib.machinery.AppleFrameworkLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 504) * path (importlib.machinery.ExtensionFileLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 310) * path (importlib.machinery.FileFinder attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 179) * path (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 216) * path (importlib.machinery.SourcelessFileLoader attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 260) * path (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1326) * path (in module sys) <1>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 12) * path (in module sys) <2>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * path (in module sys) <3>: Process-wide parameters. (line 136) * path (os.DirEntry attribute): Files and Directories. (line 951) * path based finder: The Path Based Finder. (line 6) * path based finder <1>: Glossary. (line 1195) * Path browser: File menu Shell and Editor. (line 22) * path entry: Glossary. (line 1175) * path entry finder: Glossary. (line 1180) * path entry hook: Glossary. (line 1189) * path hooks: Import hooks. (line 6) * path_hook() (importlib.machinery.FileFinder class method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 194) * path_hooks (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1359) * path_importer_cache (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1368) * path_mtime() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 375) * path_return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 56) * path_stats() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 353) * path_stats() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 225) * path-like object: Glossary. (line 1200) * path; configuration; file: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 74) * path; operations: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths. (line 10) * path; operations <1>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 9) * Path.stem (in module zipfile): Path Objects. (line 86) * Path.suffix (in module zipfile): Path Objects. (line 79) * Path.suffixes (in module zipfile): Path Objects. (line 92) * path() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 110) * pathconf_names (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 662) * pathconf() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 638) * PathEntryFinder (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 59) * PATHEXT: Other Improvements<2>. (line 30) * PATHEXT <1>: Library<43>. (line 138) * PATHEXT <2>: Installing Without UI. (line 77) * PATHEXT <3>: Installing Without UI. (line 81) * PATHEXT <4>: Directory and files operations. (line 442) * PathFinder (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 107) * PathLike (class in os): Process Parameters. (line 120) * pathname2url() (in module urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 144) * pathsep (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 138) * Pattern (class in re): Regular Expression Objects. (line 6) * Pattern (class in typing): Aliases to other concrete types. (line 6) * pattern (re.Pattern attribute): Regular Expression Objects. (line 124) * pattern (re.PatternError attribute): Exceptions<3>. (line 19) * pattern matching: The match statement. (line 6) * PatternError: Exceptions<3>. (line 6) * pause_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method): Read-only Transports. (line 12) * pause_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method): Base Protocol. (line 40) * pause() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 312) * PAX_FORMAT (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 335) * pax_headers (tarfile.TarFile attribute): TarFile Objects. (line 330) * pax_headers (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 161) * pbkdf2_hmac() (in module hashlib): Key derivation. (line 11) * pd() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 6) * Pdb (class in pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 17) * Pdb (class in pdb) <1>: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 194) * pdb command line option; -c: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 85) * pdb command line option; -command: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 85) * pdb command line option; -m: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 92) * pdf() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 74) * peek() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 74) * peek() (gzip.GzipFile method): gzip — Support for gzip files. (line 130) * peek() (io.BufferedReader method): Buffered Streams. (line 75) * peek() (lzma.LZMAFile method): Reading and writing compressed files. (line 87) * peek() (weakref.finalize method): weakref — Weak references. (line 307) * PEM_cert_to_DER_cert() (in module ssl): Certificate handling. (line 57) * pen() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 33) * pencolor() (in module turtle): Color control. (line 6) * pending (ssl.MemoryBIO attribute): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 139) * pending() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 335) * PendingDeprecationWarning: Warnings. (line 28) * pendown() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 6) * pensize() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 18) * penup() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 12) * PEP: Glossary. (line 1212) * PERCENT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 227) * PERCENTEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 275) * perf_counter_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 238) * perf_counter() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 214) * Performance: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets. (line 8) * perm() (in module math): Number-theoretic functions. (line 66) * PermissionError: OS exceptions. (line 97) * permutations() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 436) * persistence: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 8) * persistent_id (pickle protocol): Persistence of External Objects. (line 6) * persistent_id() (pickle.Pickler method): Module Interface. (line 160) * persistent_load (pickle protocol): Persistence of External Objects. (line 6) * persistent_load() (pickle.Unpickler method): Module Interface. (line 278) * persistent; objects: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 8) * PF_CAN (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 126) * PF_DIVERT (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 202) * PF_PACKET (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 212) * PF_RDS (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 234) * pformat() (in module pprint): Functions<4>. (line 76) * pformat() (pprint.PrettyPrinter method): PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 50) * pgettext() (gettext.GNUTranslations method): The GNUTranslations class. (line 68) * pgettext() (gettext.NullTranslations method): The NullTranslations class. (line 47) * pgettext() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 63) * PGO (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 107) * phase() (in module cmath): Conversions to and from polar coordinates. (line 20) * Philbrick, Geoff: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions. (line 25) * physical line: Logical lines. (line 6) * physical line <1>: Explicit line joining. (line 6) * physical line <2>: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * pi (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 6) * pi (in module math): Constants<2>. (line 6) * pi() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 56) * pickle() (in module copyreg): copyreg — Register pickle support functions. (line 23) * PickleBuffer (class in pickle): Module Interface. (line 308) * PickleError: Module Interface. (line 95) * Pickler (class in pickle): Module Interface. (line 121) * pickletools command line option; -a: Command line options<3>. (line 6) * pickletools command line option; -annotate: Command line options<3>. (line 6) * pickletools command line option; -indentlevel: Command line options<3>. (line 14) * pickletools command line option; -l: Command line options<3>. (line 14) * pickletools command line option; -m: Command line options<3>. (line 18) * pickletools command line option; -memo: Command line options<3>. (line 18) * pickletools command line option; -o: Command line options<3>. (line 10) * pickletools command line option; -output: Command line options<3>. (line 10) * pickletools command line option; -p: Command line options<3>. (line 23) * pickletools command line option; -preamble: Command line options<3>. (line 23) * pickling; objects: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 8) * PicklingError: Module Interface. (line 100) * pid (asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 138) * pid (multiprocessing.Process attribute): Process and exceptions. (line 154) * pid (subprocess.Popen attribute): Popen Objects. (line 142) * PIDFD_NONBLOCK (in module os): Process Management. (line 377) * pidfd_open() (in module os): Process Management. (line 364) * pidfd_send_signal() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 330) * PidfdChildWatcher (class in asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 156) * PIP_USER: Windows<45>. (line 102) * PIPE (in module subprocess): Using the subprocess Module. (line 149) * PIPE_BUF (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 162) * pipe_connection_lost() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method): Subprocess Protocols. (line 19) * pipe_data_received() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method): Subprocess Protocols. (line 10) * PIPE_MAX_SIZE (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 111) * Pipe() (in module multiprocessing): Pipes and Queues. (line 79) * pipe() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 492) * pipe2() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 503) * placeholder (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 276) * platform (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1378) * platform (in module sys) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 173) * platform command line option; -nonaliased: Command-line usage<2>. (line 19) * platform command line option; -terse: Command-line usage<2>. (line 13) * platform() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 45) * platlibdir (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1443) * PlaySound() (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 20) * plist; file: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 8) * plock() (in module os): Process Management. (line 389) * plus: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 14) * PLUS (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 197) * plus() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 443) * PLUSEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 263) * pm() (in module pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 184) * POINTER() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 178) * pointer() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 184) * polar() (in module cmath): Conversions to and from polar coordinates. (line 38) * Policy (class in email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 129) * poll() (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 89) * poll() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 42) * poll() (select.devpoll method): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 65) * poll() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 96) * poll() (select.poll method): Polling Objects. (line 77) * poll() (subprocess.Popen method): Popen Objects. (line 8) * PollSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 171) * Pool (class in multiprocessing.pool): Process Pools. (line 9) * pop_all() (contextlib.ExitStack method): Utilities. (line 594) * POP_BLOCK (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1422) * POP_EXCEPT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 441) * POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 865) * POP_JUMP_IF_NONE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 889) * POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 880) * POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 850) * pop_source() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 63) * POP_TOP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 139) * pop() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 214) * pop() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 87) * pop() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 201) * pop() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 208) * pop() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 216) * pop() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * POP3 (class in poplib): poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 34) * POP3_SSL (class in poplib): poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 54) * POP3; protocol: poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 8) * Popen (class in subprocess): Popen Constructor. (line 11) * popen() (in module os): I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * popen() (in module os) <1>: Process Management. (line 396) * popen() (in module os) <2>: select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 143) * popitem() (collections.OrderedDict method): OrderedDict objects. (line 67) * popitem() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 207) * popitem() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 225) * popleft() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 92) * port (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 36) * port_specified (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 81) * portion: Glossary. (line 1228) * pos (json.JSONDecodeError attribute): Exceptions<17>. (line 19) * pos (re.Match attribute): Match Objects. (line 179) * pos (re.PatternError attribute): Exceptions<3>. (line 23) * pos() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 142) * pos() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 6) * position (xml.etree.ElementTree.ParseError attribute): Exceptions<19>. (line 20) * position() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 6) * positional argument: Glossary. (line 1234) * Positions (class in dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 110) * positions (inspect.FrameInfo attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 42) * positions (inspect.Traceback attribute): The interpreter stack. (line 82) * Positions.col_offset (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 119) * Positions.end_col_offset (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 121) * Positions.end_lineno (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 117) * Positions.lineno (in module dis): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 115) * POSIX Shared Memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 10) * POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 537) * POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 537) * POSIX_FADV_NORMAL (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 537) * POSIX_FADV_RANDOM (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 537) * POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 537) * POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 537) * posix_fadvise() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 523) * posix_fallocate() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 514) * posix_openpt() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 564) * POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE (in module os): Process Management. (line 463) * POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM (in module os): Process Management. (line 475) * POSIX_SPAWN_DUP2 (in module os): Process Management. (line 469) * POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN (in module os): Process Management. (line 457) * posix_spawn() (in module os): Process Management. (line 434) * posix_spawnp() (in module os): Process Management. (line 536) * POSIX; I/O control: termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 6) * PosixPath (class in pathlib): Concrete paths. (line 22) * post_handshake_auth (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 590) * post_mortem() (in module pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 175) * post_setup() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 177) * postcmd() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 104) * postloop() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 122) * Pow (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * pow() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 72) * pow() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 147) * power; operation: The power operator. (line 6) * power() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 449) * pp (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 276) * pp() (in module pprint): Functions<4>. (line 6) * pprint() (in module pprint): Functions<4>. (line 67) * pprint() (pprint.PrettyPrinter method): PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 56) * prcal() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 407) * pread() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 551) * preadv() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 582) * preamble (email.message.EmailMessage attribute): email message Representing an email message. (line 680) * preamble (email.message.Message attribute): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 693) * prec (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 123) * precmd() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 94) * prefix (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1468) * prefix (xml.dom.Attr attribute): Attr Objects. (line 18) * prefix (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 69) * prefix (zipimport.zipimporter attribute): zipimporter Objects. (line 101) * PREFIXES (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 6) * prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 132) * prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 329) * preloop() (cmd.Cmd method): Cmd Objects. (line 116) * prepare_class() (in module types): Dynamic Type Creation. (line 23) * prepare_input_source() (in module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 81) * prepare() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter method): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 100) * prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueHandler method): QueueHandler. (line 53) * prepare() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method): QueueListener. (line 58) * PrepareProtocol (class in sqlite3): PrepareProtocol objects. (line 6) * PrettyPrinter (class in pprint): PrettyPrinter Objects. (line 6) * prev() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 232) * previousSibling (xml.dom.Node attribute): Node Objects. (line 32) * primary: Primaries. (line 6) * print_callees() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 217) * print_callers() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 196) * print_exc() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 58) * print_exc() (timeit.Timer method): Python Interface. (line 135) * print_exception() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 24) * print_function (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 35) * print_help() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Printing help. (line 16) * print_last() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 63) * print_list() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 101) * print_stack() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 143) * print_stack() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 70) * print_stats() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 91) * print_stats() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 164) * print_tb() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 6) * print_usage() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Printing help. (line 10) * print_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method): Other methods. (line 15) * print_version() (optparse.OptionParser method): Printing a version string. (line 26) * print_warning() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 411) * print() (built-in function); __str__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 131) * print() (traceback.TracebackException method): TracebackException Objects. (line 136) * printable (in module string): String constants. (line 41) * printdir() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 236) * printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * PRIO_DARWIN_BG (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 303) * PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 303) * PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 303) * PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 303) * PRIO_PGRP (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 292) * PRIO_PROCESS (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 292) * PRIO_USER (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 292) * PriorityQueue (class in asyncio): Priority Queue. (line 6) * PriorityQueue (class in queue): queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 50) * private; names: Identifiers Names. (line 14) * prlimit() (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 56) * prmonth() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 203) * prmonth() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 398) * ProactorEventLoop (class in asyncio): Event Loop Implementations. (line 32) * procedure; call: Expression statements. (line 17) * Process (class in multiprocessing): Process and exceptions. (line 6) * process_cpu_count() (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 60) * process_exited() (asyncio.SubprocessProtocol method): Subprocess Protocols. (line 26) * process_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 159) * process_time_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 258) * process_time() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 245) * process_tokens() (in module tabnanny): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation. (line 42) * process; group: Process Parameters. (line 193) * process; group <1>: Process Parameters. (line 255) * process; id: Process Parameters. (line 261) * process; id of parent: Process Parameters. (line 268) * process; killing: Process Management. (line 328) * process; killing <1>: Process Management. (line 350) * process; scheduling priority: Process Parameters. (line 279) * process; scheduling priority <1>: Process Parameters. (line 467) * process; signalling: Process Management. (line 328) * process; signalling <1>: Process Management. (line 350) * process() (logging.LoggerAdapter method): LoggerAdapter Objects. (line 21) * ProcessError: Process and exceptions. (line 261) * processes, light-weight: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 6) * ProcessingInstruction() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 184) * processingInstruction() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 164) * ProcessingInstructionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 274) * ProcessLookupError: OS exceptions. (line 107) * processor time: Functions<5>. (line 247) * processor time <1>: Functions<5>. (line 615) * processor() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 66) * ProcessPoolExecutor (class in concurrent.futures): ProcessPoolExecutor. (line 27) * prod() (in module math): Summation and product functions. (line 51) * product() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 488) * Profile (class in profile): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 35) * profile function: Reference<2>. (line 138) * profile function <1>: Reference<2>. (line 154) * profile function <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 941) * profile function <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1515) * PROFILE_TASK: Build<18>. (line 13) * PROFILE_TASK <1>: Performance options. (line 12) * profiler: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 941) * profiler <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1515) * profiling, deterministic: Introduction to the profilers. (line 6) * program: Complete Python programs. (line 6) * ProgrammingError: Exceptions<7>. (line 78) * Progressbar (class in tkinter.ttk): ttk Progressbar. (line 6) * prompt (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 131) * prompt_user_passwd() (urllib.request.FancyURLopener method): Legacy interface. (line 183) * prompts, interpreter: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1484) * propagate (logging.Logger attribute): Logger Objects. (line 50) * property (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 1592) * property list: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 8) * property_declaration_handler (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 106) * property_dom_node (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 113) * property_lexical_handler (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 99) * property_xml_string (in module xml.sax.handler): xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers. (line 120) * property() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 39) * PropertyMock (class in unittest.mock): The Mock Class. (line 650) * prot_c() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method): FTP_TLS objects. (line 110) * prot_p() (ftplib.FTP_TLS method): FTP_TLS objects. (line 106) * proto (socket.socket attribute): Socket Objects. (line 623) * Protocol (class in asyncio): Base Protocols. (line 10) * Protocol (class in typing): Other special directives. (line 132) * protocol (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 609) * PROTOCOL_SSLv23 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 161) * PROTOCOL_SSLv3 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 168) * PROTOCOL_TLS (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 131) * PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 144) * PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 153) * PROTOCOL_TLSv1 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 184) * PROTOCOL_TLSv1_1 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 191) * PROTOCOL_TLSv1_2 (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 201) * protocol_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 162) * PROTOCOL_VERSION (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute): IMAP4 Objects. (line 393) * protocol; context management: Context Manager Types. (line 6) * protocol; iterator: Iterator Types. (line 6) * ProtocolError (class in xmlrpc.client): ProtocolError Objects. (line 6) * provisional API: Glossary. (line 1238) * provisional package: Glossary. (line 1258) * proxy() (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 136) * proxyauth() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 194) * ProxyBasicAuthHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 372) * ProxyDigestAuthHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 404) * ProxyHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 298) * ProxyType (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 336) * ProxyTypes (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 344) * pryear() (calendar.TextCalendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 218) * ps1 (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1481) * ps2 (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1481) * pstdev() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 371) * pthread_getcpuclockid() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 21) * pthread_kill() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 345) * pthread_sigmask() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 375) * pthreads: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 16) * pthreads (sys._emscripten_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 360) * ptsname() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 641) * pu() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 12) * publicId (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute): DocumentType Objects. (line 17) * PullDom (class in xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. (line 76) * punctuation (in module string): String constants. (line 36) * punctuation_chars (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 183) * PurePath (class in pathlib): Pure paths. (line 10) * PurePosixPath (class in pathlib): Pure paths. (line 72) * PureWindowsPath (class in pathlib): Pure paths. (line 82) * purge() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 289) * Purpose.CLIENT_AUTH (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 540) * Purpose.SERVER_AUTH (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 531) * push_async_callback() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method): Utilities. (line 645) * push_async_exit() (contextlib.AsyncExitStack method): Utilities. (line 640) * PUSH_EXC_INFO (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 460) * PUSH_NULL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1102) * push_source() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 56) * push_token() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 16) * push() (code.InteractiveConsole method): Interactive Console Objects. (line 28) * push() (contextlib.ExitStack method): Utilities. (line 561) * put_nowait() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 73) * put_nowait() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 147) * put_nowait() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 42) * put_nowait() (queue.SimpleQueue method): SimpleQueue Objects. (line 35) * put() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 65) * put() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 131) * put() (multiprocessing.SimpleQueue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 246) * put() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 29) * put() (queue.SimpleQueue method): SimpleQueue Objects. (line 20) * putch() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 36) * putenv() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 352) * putheader() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 177) * putp() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 392) * putrequest() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 166) * putwch() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 40) * putwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 456) * pvariance() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 380) * pwd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 344) * pwrite() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 655) * pwritev() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 666) * Py_ABS (C macro): Useful macros. (line 34) * Py_AddPendingCall (C function): Asynchronous Notifications. (line 10) * Py_ALWAYS_INLINE (C macro): Useful macros. (line 40) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 461) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 446) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 443) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 449) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 452) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 458) * Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 455) * Py_AtExit (C function): Process Control. (line 32) * Py_AUDIT_READ (C macro): Member flags. (line 12) * Py_AuditHookFunction (C type): System Functions. (line 150) * Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro): Releasing the GIL from extension code. (line 21) * Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>: High-level API. (line 165) * Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro): Python Critical Section API. (line 49) * Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro): Python Critical Section API. (line 77) * Py_BLOCK_THREADS (C macro): High-level API. (line 179) * Py_buffer (C type): Buffer structure. (line 25) * Py_buffer.buf (C member): Buffer structure. (line 27) * Py_buffer.format (C member): Buffer structure. (line 89) * Py_buffer.internal (C member): Buffer structure. (line 152) * Py_buffer.itemsize (C member): Buffer structure. (line 69) * Py_buffer.len (C member): Buffer structure. (line 52) * Py_buffer.ndim (C member): Buffer structure. (line 98) * Py_buffer.obj (C member): Buffer structure. (line 39) * Py_buffer.readonly (C member): Buffer structure. (line 64) * Py_buffer.shape (C member): Buffer structure. (line 107) * Py_buffer.strides (C member): Buffer structure. (line 120) * Py_buffer.suboffsets (C member): Buffer structure. (line 133) * Py_BuildValue (C function): Building values. (line 6) * Py_BytesMain (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 114) * Py_BytesWarningFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 15) * Py_CHARMASK (C macro): Useful macros. (line 65) * Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED (C macro): Other objects. (line 40) * Py_CLEAR (C function): Reference Counting. (line 144) * Py_CompileString (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 221) * Py_CompileString (C function) <1>: The Very High Level Layer. (line 312) * Py_CompileString (C function) <2>: The Very High Level Layer. (line 317) * Py_CompileString (C function) <3>: The Very High Level Layer. (line 324) * Py_CompileStringExFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 255) * Py_CompileStringFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 228) * Py_CompileStringObject (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 234) * Py_complex (C type): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 10) * Py_complex.imag (C member): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 17) * Py_complex.real (C member): Complex Numbers as C Structures. (line 17) * Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 28) * Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 43) * Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 40) * Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 46) * Py_CONSTANT_FALSE (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 22) * Py_CONSTANT_NONE (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 19) * Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 31) * Py_CONSTANT_ONE (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 37) * Py_CONSTANT_TRUE (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 25) * Py_CONSTANT_ZERO (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 34) * PY_CXX_CONST (C macro): API Functions. (line 115) * Py_DEBUG (C macro): Debugging Builds. (line 17) * Py_DEBUG (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 116) * Py_DebugFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 29) * Py_DecodeLocale (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 115) * Py_DECREF (C function): Reference Counts<2>. (line 18) * Py_DECREF (C function) <1>: Reference Counting. (line 104) * Py_DecRef (C function): Reference Counting. (line 167) * Py_DEPRECATED (C macro): Useful macros. (line 70) * Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 43) * Py_Ellipsis (C var): Ellipsis Object. (line 11) * Py_EncodeLocale (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 168) * Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro): Releasing the GIL from extension code. (line 21) * Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS (C macro) <1>: High-level API. (line 172) * Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION (C macro): Python Critical Section API. (line 64) * Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION2 (C macro): Python Critical Section API. (line 93) * Py_EndInterpreter (C function): Sub-interpreter support. (line 206) * Py_EnterRecursiveCall (C function): Recursion Control. (line 13) * Py_EQ (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1072) * Py_eval_input (C var): The Very High Level Layer. (line 310) * Py_Exit (C function): Process Control. (line 22) * Py_ExitStatusException (C function): PyStatus. (line 65) * Py_False (C var): Boolean Objects. (line 21) * Py_FatalError (C function): Process Control. (line 6) * Py_FatalError(): Process-wide parameters. (line 218) * Py_FdIsInteractive (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 18) * Py_file_input (C var): The Very High Level Layer. (line 315) * Py_Finalize (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 109) * Py_FinalizeEx (C function): Process Control. (line 23) * Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <1>: Process Control. (line 33) * Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <2>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <3>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 64) * Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <4>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 169) * Py_FinalizeEx (C function) <5>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 207) * Py_FrozenFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 57) * Py_GE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1081) * Py_GenericAlias (C function): Objects for Type Hinting. (line 10) * Py_GenericAliasType (C var): Objects for Type Hinting. (line 42) * Py_GetArgcArgv (C function): Py_GetArgcArgv. (line 6) * Py_GetBuildInfo (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 205) * Py_GetCompiler (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 194) * Py_GetConstant (C function): Object Protocol. (line 6) * Py_GetConstantBorrowed (C function): Object Protocol. (line 57) * Py_GetCopyright (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 184) * Py_GETENV (C macro): Useful macros. (line 81) * Py_GetExecPrefix (C function): Embedding Python<2>. (line 42) * Py_GetExecPrefix (C function) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 68) * Py_GetPath (C function): Embedding Python<2>. (line 42) * Py_GetPath (C function) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 135) * Py_GetPath(): Process-wide parameters. (line 7) * Py_GetPlatform (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 172) * Py_GetPrefix (C function): Embedding Python<2>. (line 42) * Py_GetPrefix (C function) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 45) * Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function): Embedding Python<2>. (line 42) * Py_GetProgramFullPath (C function) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 116) * Py_GetProgramName (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 30) * Py_GetPythonHome (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 308) * Py_GetVersion (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 158) * Py_GT (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1078) * Py_hash_t (C type): PyHash API. (line 9) * Py_HashPointer (C function): PyHash API. (line 85) * Py_HashRandomizationFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 70) * Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 85) * Py_INCREF (C function): Reference Counts<2>. (line 18) * Py_INCREF (C function) <1>: Reference Counting. (line 42) * Py_IncRef (C function): Reference Counting. (line 161) * Py_Initialize (C function): Embedding Python<2>. (line 12) * Py_Initialize (C function) <1>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 6) * Py_Initialize (C function) <2>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 169) * Py_Initialize(): Process-wide parameters. (line 7) * Py_InitializeEx (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 30) * Py_InitializeFromConfig (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 40) * Py_InspectFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 98) * Py_InteractiveFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 114) * Py_Is (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 59) * Py_IS_TYPE (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 98) * Py_IsFalse (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 79) * Py_IsFinalizing (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 57) * Py_IsInitialized (C function): Embedding Python<2>. (line 51) * Py_IsInitialized (C function) <1>: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 51) * Py_IsNone (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 65) * Py_IsolatedFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 124) * Py_IsTrue (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 72) * Py_LE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1069) * Py_LeaveRecursiveCall (C function): Recursion Control. (line 33) * Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 140) * Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 160) * Py_LIMITED_API (C macro): Limited C API. (line 11) * Py_LT (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1066) * Py_Main (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 122) * PY_MAJOR_VERSION (C macro): API and ABI Versioning. (line 13) * Py_MAX (C macro): Useful macros. (line 86) * Py_MEMBER_SIZE (C macro): Useful macros. (line 92) * PY_MICRO_VERSION (C macro): API and ABI Versioning. (line 21) * Py_MIN (C macro): Useful macros. (line 98) * PY_MINOR_VERSION (C macro): API and ABI Versioning. (line 17) * Py_mod_create (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 77) * Py_mod_exec (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 111) * Py_mod_gil (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 154) * Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 164) * Py_MOD_GIL_USED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 158) * Py_mod_multiple_interpreters (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 123) * Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 127) * Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 131) * Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED (C macro): Multi-phase initialization. (line 137) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 44) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 50) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 53) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 47) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 56) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 59) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 62) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 65) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 68) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 71) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 74) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 77) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 80) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 83) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 86) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 89) * PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION (C macro): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 92) * PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT (C function): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 100) * Py_NE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1075) * Py_NewInterpreter (C function): Sub-interpreter support. (line 196) * Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig (C function): Sub-interpreter support. (line 109) * Py_NewRef (C function): Reference Counting. (line 72) * Py_NO_INLINE (C macro): Useful macros. (line 104) * Py_None (C var): The None Object. (line 11) * Py_NoSiteFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 178) * Py_NotImplemented (C var): Object Protocol. (line 71) * Py_NoUserSiteDirectory (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 194) * py_object (class in ctypes): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 220) * Py_OpenCodeHookFunction (C type): File Objects. (line 65) * Py_OptimizeFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 208) * Py_PreInitialize (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig. (line 21) * Py_PreInitializeFromArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig. (line 38) * Py_PreInitializeFromBytesArgs (C function): Preinitialize Python with PyPreConfig. (line 28) * Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 82) * Py_PRINT_RAW (C macro) <1>: File Objects. (line 94) * PY_PYTHON: Customizing default Python versions. (line 18) * Py_QuietFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 219) * Py_READONLY (C macro): Member flags. (line 8) * Py_REFCNT (C function): Reference Counting. (line 9) * Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET (C macro): Member flags. (line 17) * PY_RELEASE_LEVEL (C macro): API and ABI Versioning. (line 25) * PY_RELEASE_SERIAL (C macro): API and ABI Versioning. (line 30) * Py_ReprEnter (C function): Recursion Control. (line 47) * Py_ReprLeave (C function): Recursion Control. (line 64) * PY_RESUME (monitoring event): Events. (line 43) * PY_RETURN (monitoring event): Events. (line 48) * Py_RETURN_FALSE (C macro): Boolean Objects. (line 37) * Py_RETURN_NONE (C macro): The None Object. (line 19) * Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED (C macro): Object Protocol. (line 76) * Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1087) * Py_RETURN_TRUE (C macro): Boolean Objects. (line 41) * Py_RunMain (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 170) * Py_SET_REFCNT (C function): Reference Counting. (line 29) * Py_SET_SIZE (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 121) * Py_SET_TYPE (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 105) * Py_SetProgramName (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 6) * Py_SetPythonHome (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 289) * Py_SETREF (C macro): Reference Counting. (line 173) * Py_single_input (C var): The Very High Level Layer. (line 322) * Py_SIZE (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 111) * Py_ssize_t (C type): Types. (line 14) * PY_SSIZE_T_MAX (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 239) * PY_START (monitoring event): Events. (line 53) * Py_STRINGIFY (C macro): Useful macros. (line 116) * Py_T_BOOL (C macro): Member types. (line 59) * Py_T_BYTE (C macro): Member types. (line 20) * Py_T_CHAR (C macro): Member types. (line 68) * Py_T_DOUBLE (C macro): Member types. (line 56) * Py_T_FLOAT (C macro): Member types. (line 53) * Py_T_INT (C macro): Member types. (line 26) * Py_T_LONG (C macro): Member types. (line 29) * Py_T_LONGLONG (C macro): Member types. (line 32) * Py_T_OBJECT_EX (C macro): Member types. (line 71) * Py_T_PYSSIZET (C macro): Member types. (line 50) * Py_T_SHORT (C macro): Member types. (line 23) * Py_T_STRING (C macro): Member types. (line 62) * Py_T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro): Member types. (line 65) * Py_T_UBYTE (C macro): Member types. (line 35) * Py_T_UINT (C macro): Member types. (line 38) * Py_T_ULONG (C macro): Member types. (line 44) * Py_T_ULONGLONG (C macro): Member types. (line 47) * Py_T_USHORT (C macro): Member types. (line 41) * PY_THROW (monitoring event): Events. (line 58) * Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 716) * Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 566) * Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 710) * Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 616) * Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 714) * Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 772) * Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 729) * Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 594) * Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 740) * Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 548) * Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 758) * Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 684) * Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 706) * Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 704) * Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 652) * Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 672) * Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 800) * Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 627) * Py_TPFLAGS_READY (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 576) * Py_TPFLAGS_READYING (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 585) * Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 824) * Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 708) * Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 718) * Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 712) * Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG (C macro): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 848) * Py_tracefunc (C type): Profiling and Tracing. (line 18) * Py_True (C var): Boolean Objects. (line 29) * Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT (C macro): Thread Specific Storage TSS API. (line 28) * Py_tss_t (C type): Thread Specific Storage TSS API. (line 17) * Py_TYPE (C function): Base object types and macros. (line 86) * Py_UCS1 (C type): Unicode Type. (line 9) * Py_UCS2 (C type): Unicode Type. (line 9) * Py_UCS4 (C type): Unicode Type. (line 9) * Py_uhash_t (C type): PyHash API. (line 15) * Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS (C macro): High-level API. (line 184) * Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 234) * Py_UNICODE (C type): Unicode Type. (line 19) * Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 99) * Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 103) * Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 95) * Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 52) * Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 47) * Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 35) * Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 39) * Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 30) * Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 15) * Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 43) * Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 57) * Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 10) * Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 25) * Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 20) * Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 107) * Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 76) * Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 82) * Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 64) * Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 88) * Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 72) * Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER (C function): Unicode Character Properties. (line 68) * Py_UNREACHABLE (C macro): Useful macros. (line 123) * Py_UNUSED (C macro): Useful macros. (line 148) * PY_UNWIND (monitoring event): Events. (line 62) * Py_VaBuildValue (C function): Building values. (line 202) * PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET (C macro): The Vectorcall Protocol. (line 69) * Py_VerboseFlag (C var): Global configuration variables. (line 247) * Py_Version (C var): API and ABI Versioning. (line 69) * PY_VERSION_HEX (C macro): API and ABI Versioning. (line 34) * Py_VISIT (C macro): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 180) * Py_XDECREF (C function): Exceptions<21>. (line 123) * Py_XDECREF (C function) <1>: Reference Counting. (line 138) * Py_XINCREF (C function): Reference Counting. (line 65) * Py_XNewRef (C function): Reference Counting. (line 96) * Py_XSETREF (C macro): Reference Counting. (line 199) * PY_YIELD (monitoring event): Events. (line 66) * PyAIter_Check (C function): Iterator Protocol. (line 14) * PyAnySet_Check (C function): Set Objects. (line 54) * PyAnySet_CheckExact (C function): Set Objects. (line 67) * PyArg_Parse (C function): API Functions. (line 55) * PyArg_ParseTuple (C function): Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions. (line 6) * PyArg_ParseTuple (C function) <1>: API Functions. (line 6) * PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions. (line 6) * PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords (C function) <1>: API Functions. (line 19) * PyArg_UnpackTuple (C function): API Functions. (line 75) * PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments (C function): API Functions. (line 47) * PyArg_VaParse (C function): API Functions. (line 13) * PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords (C function): API Functions. (line 40) * PyASCIIObject (C type): Unicode Type. (line 30) * PyAsyncMethods (C type): Async Object Structures. (line 8) * PyAsyncMethods.am_aiter (C member): Async Object Structures. (line 35) * PyAsyncMethods.am_anext (C member): Async Object Structures. (line 47) * PyAsyncMethods.am_await (C member): Async Object Structures. (line 23) * PyAsyncMethods.am_send (C member): Async Object Structures. (line 56) * PyBaseObject_Type (C var): Base object types and macros. (line 55) * PyBool_Check (C function): Boolean Objects. (line 16) * PyBool_FromLong (C function): Boolean Objects. (line 45) * PyBool_Type (C var): Boolean Objects. (line 11) * PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS (C macro): contiguity requests. (line 20) * PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS (C macro): contiguity requests. (line 14) * PyBUF_CONTIG (C macro): compound requests. (line 36) * PyBUF_CONTIG_RO (C macro): compound requests. (line 39) * PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS (C macro): contiguity requests. (line 17) * PyBUF_FORMAT (C macro): readonly format. (line 16) * PyBUF_FULL (C macro): compound requests. (line 18) * PyBUF_FULL_RO (C macro): compound requests. (line 21) * PyBUF_INDIRECT (C macro): shape strides suboffsets. (line 14) * PyBUF_MAX_NDIM (C macro): Buffer structure. (line 162) * PyBUF_ND (C macro): shape strides suboffsets. (line 20) * PyBUF_READ (C macro): MemoryView objects. (line 18) * PyBUF_RECORDS (C macro): compound requests. (line 24) * PyBUF_RECORDS_RO (C macro): compound requests. (line 27) * PyBUF_SIMPLE (C macro): shape strides suboffsets. (line 23) * PyBUF_STRIDED (C macro): compound requests. (line 30) * PyBUF_STRIDED_RO (C macro): compound requests. (line 33) * PyBUF_STRIDES (C macro): shape strides suboffsets. (line 17) * PyBUF_WRITABLE (C macro): readonly format. (line 6) * PyBUF_WRITE (C macro): MemoryView objects. (line 22) * PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 87) * PyBuffer_FillInfo (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 96) * PyBuffer_FromContiguous (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 63) * PyBuffer_GetPointer (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 57) * PyBuffer_IsContiguous (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 49) * PyBuffer_Release (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 31) * PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 41) * PyBuffer_ToContiguous (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 70) * PyBufferProcs (C type): Buffer Protocol. (line 20) * PyBufferProcs (C type) <1>: Buffer Object Structures. (line 6) * PyBufferProcs.bf_getbuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures. (line 12) * PyBufferProcs.bf_releasebuffer (C member): Buffer Object Structures. (line 60) * PyByteArray_AS_STRING (C function): Macros. (line 8) * PyByteArray_AsString (C function): Direct API functions. (line 35) * PyByteArray_Check (C function): Type check macros. (line 6) * PyByteArray_CheckExact (C function): Type check macros. (line 11) * PyByteArray_Concat (C function): Direct API functions. (line 22) * PyByteArray_FromObject (C function): Direct API functions. (line 6) * PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize (C function): Direct API functions. (line 14) * PyByteArray_GET_SIZE (C function): Macros. (line 13) * PyByteArray_Resize (C function): Direct API functions. (line 40) * PyByteArray_Size (C function): Direct API functions. (line 30) * PyByteArray_Type (C var): Byte Array Objects. (line 11) * PyByteArrayObject (C type): Byte Array Objects. (line 6) * PyBytes_AS_STRING (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 138) * PyBytes_AsString (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 127) * PyBytes_AsStringAndSize (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 143) * PyBytes_Check (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 19) * PyBytes_CheckExact (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 24) * PyBytes_Concat (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 165) * PyBytes_ConcatAndDel (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 175) * PyBytes_FromFormat (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 43) * PyBytes_FromFormatV (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 108) * PyBytes_FromObject (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 114) * PyBytes_FromString (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 30) * PyBytes_FromStringAndSize (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 36) * PyBytes_GET_SIZE (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 123) * PyBytes_Size (C function): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 119) * PyBytes_Type (C var): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 14) * PyBytesObject (C type): Bytes Objects<2>. (line 9) * pycache_prefix (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 372) * PyCallable_Check (C function): Call Support API. (line 6) * PyCallIter_Check (C function): Iterator Objects. (line 34) * PyCallIter_New (C function): Iterator Objects. (line 39) * PyCallIter_Type (C var): Iterator Objects. (line 29) * PyCapsule (C type): Capsules<2>. (line 11) * PyCapsule_CheckExact (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 29) * PyCapsule_Destructor (C type): Capsules<2>. (line 20) * PyCapsule_GetContext (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 76) * PyCapsule_GetDestructor (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 65) * PyCapsule_GetName (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 86) * PyCapsule_GetPointer (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 54) * PyCapsule_Import (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 96) * PyCapsule_IsValid (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 118) * PyCapsule_New (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 34) * PyCapsule_SetContext (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 134) * PyCapsule_SetDestructor (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 142) * PyCapsule_SetName (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 150) * PyCapsule_SetPointer (C function): Capsules<2>. (line 160) * PyCell_Check (C function): Cell Objects. (line 24) * PyCell_Get (C function): Cell Objects. (line 33) * PyCell_GET (C function): Cell Objects. (line 38) * PyCell_New (C function): Cell Objects. (line 29) * PyCell_Set (C function): Cell Objects. (line 43) * PyCell_SET (C function): Cell Objects. (line 52) * PyCell_Type (C var): Cell Objects. (line 20) * PyCellObject (C type): Cell Objects. (line 16) * PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (C macro): The Very High Level Layer. (line 356) * PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT (in module ast): Compiler Flags. (line 9) * PyCF_ONLY_AST (C macro): The Very High Level Layer. (line 356) * PyCF_ONLY_AST (in module ast): Compiler Flags. (line 16) * PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (C macro): The Very High Level Layer. (line 356) * PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST (in module ast): Compiler Flags. (line 21) * PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (C macro): The Very High Level Layer. (line 356) * PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS (in module ast): Compiler Flags. (line 28) * PyCFunction (C type): Implementing functions and methods. (line 6) * PyCFunction_New (C function): Implementing functions and methods. (line 257) * PyCFunction_NewEx (C function): Implementing functions and methods. (line 252) * PyCFunctionFast (C type): Implementing functions and methods. (line 29) * PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords (C type): Implementing functions and methods. (line 38) * PyCFunctionWithKeywords (C type): Implementing functions and methods. (line 20) * PycInvalidationMode (class in py_compile): py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 92) * PyCMethod (C type): Implementing functions and methods. (line 49) * PyCMethod_New (C function): Implementing functions and methods. (line 225) * PyCode_Addr2Line (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 97) * PyCode_Addr2Location (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 106) * PyCode_AddWatcher (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 163) * PyCode_Check (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 20) * PyCode_ClearWatcher (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 172) * PyCode_GetCellvars (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 142) * PyCode_GetCode (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 118) * PyCode_GetFreevars (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 153) * PyCode_GetNumFree (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 25) * PyCode_GetVarnames (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 132) * PyCode_New (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 64) * PyCode_NewEmpty (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 91) * PyCode_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 82) * PyCode_Type (C var): Code Objects<2>. (line 15) * PyCode_WatchCallback (C type): Code Objects<2>. (line 188) * PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 55) * PyCodec_Decode (C function): Codec registry and support functions. (line 38) * PyCodec_Decoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line 16) * PyCodec_Encode (C function): Codec registry and support functions. (line 27) * PyCodec_Encoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line 11) * PyCodec_IgnoreErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 39) * PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line 27) * PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder (C function): Codec lookup API. (line 21) * PyCodec_KnownEncoding (C function): Codec registry and support functions. (line 22) * PyCodec_LookupError (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 27) * PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 61) * PyCodec_Register (C function): Codec registry and support functions. (line 6) * PyCodec_RegisterError (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 6) * PyCodec_ReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 44) * PyCodec_StreamReader (C function): Codec lookup API. (line 33) * PyCodec_StreamWriter (C function): Codec lookup API. (line 39) * PyCodec_StrictErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 34) * PyCodec_Unregister (C function): Codec registry and support functions. (line 14) * PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors (C function): Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers. (line 49) * PyCodeEvent (C type): Code Objects<2>. (line 181) * PyCodeObject (C type): Code Objects<2>. (line 10) * PyCompactUnicodeObject (C type): Unicode Type. (line 30) * PyCompileError: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 19) * PyCompilerFlags (C struct): The Very High Level Layer. (line 328) * PyCompilerFlags.cf_feature_version (C member): The Very High Level Layer. (line 344) * PyCompilerFlags.cf_flags (C member): The Very High Level Layer. (line 340) * PyComplex_AsCComplex (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 72) * PyComplex_Check (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 16) * PyComplex_CheckExact (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 22) * PyComplex_FromCComplex (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 28) * PyComplex_FromDoubles (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 34) * PyComplex_ImagAsDouble (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 56) * PyComplex_RealAsDouble (C function): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 40) * PyComplex_Type (C var): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 11) * PyComplexObject (C type): Complex Numbers as Python Objects. (line 6) * PyConfig (C type): PyConfig. (line 6) * PyConfig_Clear (C function): PyConfig. (line 97) * PyConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyConfig. (line 20) * PyConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyConfig. (line 15) * PyConfig_Read (C function): PyConfig. (line 66) * PyConfig_SetArgv (C function): PyConfig. (line 41) * PyConfig_SetBytesArgv (C function): PyConfig. (line 49) * PyConfig_SetBytesString (C function): PyConfig. (line 32) * PyConfig_SetString (C function): PyConfig. (line 25) * PyConfig_SetWideStringList (C function): PyConfig. (line 58) * PyConfig.argv (C member): PyConfig. (line 128) * PyConfig.base_exec_prefix (C member): PyConfig. (line 173) * PyConfig.base_executable (C member): PyConfig. (line 183) * PyConfig.base_prefix (C member): PyConfig. (line 197) * PyConfig.buffered_stdio (C member): PyConfig. (line 207) * PyConfig.bytes_warning (C member): PyConfig. (line 220) * PyConfig.check_hash_pycs_mode (C member): PyConfig. (line 257) * PyConfig.code_debug_ranges (C member): PyConfig. (line 243) * PyConfig.configure_c_stdio (C member): PyConfig. (line 277) * PyConfig.cpu_count (C member): PyConfig. (line 489) * PyConfig.dev_mode (C member): PyConfig. (line 292) * PyConfig.dump_refs (C member): PyConfig. (line 301) * PyConfig.exec_prefix (C member): PyConfig. (line 315) * PyConfig.executable (C member): PyConfig. (line 327) * PyConfig.faulthandler (C member): PyConfig. (line 338) * PyConfig.filesystem_encoding (C member): PyConfig. (line 350) * PyConfig.filesystem_errors (C member): PyConfig. (line 383) * PyConfig.hash_seed (C member): PyConfig. (line 405) * PyConfig.home (C member): PyConfig. (line 420) * PyConfig.import_time (C member): PyConfig. (line 431) * PyConfig.inspect (C member): PyConfig. (line 440) * PyConfig.install_signal_handlers (C member): PyConfig. (line 455) * PyConfig.int_max_str_digits (C member): PyConfig. (line 469) * PyConfig.interactive (C member): PyConfig. (line 461) * PyConfig.isolated (C member): PyConfig. (line 503) * PyConfig.legacy_windows_stdio (C member): PyConfig. (line 528) * PyConfig.malloc_stats (C member): PyConfig. (line 545) * PyConfig.module_search_paths (C member): PyConfig. (line 589) * PyConfig.module_search_paths_set (C member): PyConfig. (line 591) * PyConfig.optimization_level (C member): PyConfig. (line 605) * PyConfig.orig_argv (C member): PyConfig. (line 621) * PyConfig.parse_argv (C member): PyConfig. (line 639) * PyConfig.parser_debug (C member): PyConfig. (line 660) * PyConfig.pathconfig_warnings (C member): PyConfig. (line 674) * PyConfig.perf_profiling (C member): PyConfig. (line 868) * PyConfig.platlibdir (C member): PyConfig. (line 558) * PyConfig.prefix (C member): PyConfig. (line 686) * PyConfig.program_name (C member): PyConfig. (line 697) * PyConfig.pycache_prefix (C member): PyConfig. (line 718) * PyConfig.pythonpath_env (C member): PyConfig. (line 578) * PyConfig.quiet (C member): PyConfig. (line 731) * PyConfig.run_command (C member): PyConfig. (line 740) * PyConfig.run_filename (C member): PyConfig. (line 748) * PyConfig.run_module (C member): PyConfig. (line 762) * PyConfig.run_presite (C member): PyConfig. (line 770) * PyConfig.safe_path (C member): PyConfig. (line 151) * PyConfig.show_ref_count (C member): PyConfig. (line 784) * PyConfig.site_import (C member): PyConfig. (line 796) * PyConfig.skip_source_first_line (C member): PyConfig. (line 815) * PyConfig.stdio_encoding (C member): PyConfig. (line 827) * PyConfig.stdio_errors (C member): PyConfig. (line 829) * PyConfig.tracemalloc (C member): PyConfig. (line 857) * PyConfig.use_environment (C member): PyConfig. (line 887) * PyConfig.use_hash_seed (C member): PyConfig. (line 407) * PyConfig.user_site_directory (C member): PyConfig. (line 898) * PyConfig.verbose (C member): PyConfig. (line 911) * PyConfig.warn_default_encoding (C member): PyConfig. (line 233) * PyConfig.warnoptions (C member): PyConfig. (line 928) * PyConfig.write_bytecode (C member): PyConfig. (line 948) * PyConfig.xoptions (C member): PyConfig. (line 961) * PyContext (C type): Context Variables Objects. (line 26) * PyContext_CheckExact (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 55) * PyContext_Copy (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 76) * PyContext_CopyCurrent (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 80) * PyContext_Enter (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 84) * PyContext_Exit (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 89) * PyContext_New (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 72) * PyContext_Type (C var): Context Variables Objects. (line 41) * PyContextToken (C type): Context Variables Objects. (line 36) * PyContextToken_CheckExact (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 65) * PyContextToken_Type (C var): Context Variables Objects. (line 49) * PyContextVar (C type): Context Variables Objects. (line 31) * PyContextVar_CheckExact (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 60) * PyContextVar_Get (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 105) * PyContextVar_New (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 97) * PyContextVar_Reset (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 129) * PyContextVar_Set (C function): Context Variables Objects. (line 123) * PyContextVar_Type (C var): Context Variables Objects. (line 45) * PyCoro_CheckExact (C function): Coroutine Objects<2>. (line 19) * PyCoro_New (C function): Coroutine Objects<2>. (line 24) * PyCoro_Type (C var): Coroutine Objects<2>. (line 15) * PyCoroObject (C type): Coroutine Objects<2>. (line 11) * PyDate_Check (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 75) * PyDate_CheckExact (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 81) * PyDate_FromDate (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 132) * PyDate_FromTimestamp (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 305) * PyDateTime_Check (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 86) * PyDateTime_CheckExact (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 92) * PyDateTime_Date (C type): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 14) * PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 228) * PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 211) * PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 223) * PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 215) * PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 219) * PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 234) * PyDateTime_DateTime (C type): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 19) * PyDateTime_DateTimeType (C var): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 40) * PyDateTime_DateType (C var): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 34) * PyDateTime_Delta (C type): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 29) * PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 278) * PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 290) * PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 284) * PyDateTime_DeltaType (C var): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 52) * PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 137) * PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 144) * PyDateTime_FromTimestamp (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 299) * PyDateTime_GET_DAY (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 203) * PyDateTime_GET_MONTH (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 199) * PyDateTime_GET_YEAR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 195) * PyDateTime_Time (C type): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 24) * PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 261) * PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 245) * PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 257) * PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 249) * PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 253) * PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 267) * PyDateTime_TimeType (C var): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 46) * PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC (C var): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 66) * PyDateTime_TZInfoType (C var): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 58) * PyDelta_Check (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 108) * PyDelta_CheckExact (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 114) * PyDelta_FromDSU (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 166) * PyDescr_IsData (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 37) * PyDescr_NewClassMethod (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 32) * PyDescr_NewGetSet (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 13) * PyDescr_NewMember (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 18) * PyDescr_NewMethod (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 23) * PyDescr_NewWrapper (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 28) * PyDict_AddWatcher (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 324) * PyDict_Check (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 16) * PyDict_CheckExact (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 21) * PyDict_Clear (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 38) * PyDict_ClearWatcher (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 333) * PyDict_Contains (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 42) * PyDict_ContainsString (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 48) * PyDict_Copy (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 56) * PyDict_DelItem (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 75) * PyDict_DelItemString (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 82) * PyDict_GetItem (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 104) * PyDict_GetItemRef (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 87) * PyDict_GetItemString (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 128) * PyDict_GetItemStringRef (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 141) * PyDict_GetItemWithError (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 120) * PyDict_Items (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 211) * PyDict_Keys (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 216) * PyDict_Merge (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 291) * PyDict_MergeFromSeq2 (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 309) * PyDict_New (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 26) * PyDict_Next (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 232) * PyDict_Pop (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 183) * PyDict_PopString (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 202) * PyDict_SetDefault (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 150) * PyDict_SetDefaultRef (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 162) * PyDict_SetItem (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 61) * PyDict_SetItemString (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 69) * PyDict_Size (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 226) * PyDict_Type (C var): Dictionary Objects. (line 11) * PyDict_Unwatch (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 350) * PyDict_Update (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 301) * PyDict_Values (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 221) * PyDict_Watch (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 341) * PyDict_WatchCallback (C type): Dictionary Objects. (line 369) * PyDict_WatchEvent (C type): Dictionary Objects. (line 360) * PyDictObject (C type): Dictionary Objects. (line 6) * PyDictProxy_New (C function): Dictionary Objects. (line 30) * PyDLL (class in ctypes): Loading shared libraries. (line 70) * PyDoc_STR (C macro): Useful macros. (line 174) * PyDoc_STRVAR (C macro): Useful macros. (line 156) * PyEllipsis_Type (C var): Ellipsis Object. (line 6) * PyErr_BadArgument (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 46) * PyErr_BadInternalCall (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 219) * PyErr_CheckSignals (C function): Signal Handling<2>. (line 6) * PyErr_Clear (C function): Exceptions<21>. (line 25) * PyErr_Clear (C function) <1>: Exceptions<21>. (line 123) * PyErr_Clear (C function) <2>: Printing and clearing. (line 6) * PyErr_DisplayException (C function): Printing and clearing. (line 67) * PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function): Exceptions<21>. (line 123) * PyErr_ExceptionMatches (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator. (line 22) * PyErr_Fetch (C function): Finalization and De-allocation. (line 33) * PyErr_Fetch (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator. (line 74) * PyErr_Format (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 25) * PyErr_FormatUnraisable (C function): Printing and clearing. (line 56) * PyErr_FormatV (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 34) * PyErr_GetExcInfo (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 178) * PyErr_GetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 149) * PyErr_GetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 36) * PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 28) * PyErr_NewException (C function): Exception Classes. (line 6) * PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc (C function): Exception Classes. (line 24) * PyErr_NoMemory (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 52) * PyErr_NormalizeException (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 125) * PyErr_Occurred (C function): Exceptions<21>. (line 12) * PyErr_Occurred (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator. (line 6) * PyErr_Print (C function): Printing and clearing. (line 30) * PyErr_PrintEx (C function): Printing and clearing. (line 10) * PyErr_ResourceWarning (C function): Issuing warnings. (line 70) * PyErr_Restore (C function): Finalization and De-allocation. (line 33) * PyErr_Restore (C function) <1>: Querying the error indicator. (line 102) * PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 117) * PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 163) * PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 139) * PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 151) * PyErr_SetExcInfo (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 197) * PyErr_SetFromErrno (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 58) * PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 95) * PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 74) * PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 84) * PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 102) * PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 126) * PyErr_SetHandledException (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 165) * PyErr_SetImportError (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 173) * PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 184) * PyErr_SetInterrupt (C function): Signal Handling<2>. (line 33) * PyErr_SetInterruptEx (C function): Signal Handling<2>. (line 42) * PyErr_SetNone (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 42) * PyErr_SetObject (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 20) * PyErr_SetRaisedException (C function): Querying the error indicator. (line 64) * PyErr_SetString (C function): Exceptions<21>. (line 25) * PyErr_SetString (C function) <1>: Raising exceptions. (line 10) * PyErr_SyntaxLocation (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 213) * PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 204) * PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 194) * PyErr_WarnEx (C function): Issuing warnings. (line 19) * PyErr_WarnExplicit (C function): Issuing warnings. (line 54) * PyErr_WarnExplicitObject (C function): Issuing warnings. (line 42) * PyErr_WarnFormat (C function): Issuing warnings. (line 62) * PyErr_WriteUnraisable (C function): Printing and clearing. (line 34) * PyEval_AcquireThread (C function): Low-level API. (line 223) * PyEval_AcquireThread(): High-level API. (line 31) * PyEval_EvalCode (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 264) * PyEval_EvalCodeEx (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 271) * PyEval_EvalFrame (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 284) * PyEval_EvalFrameEx (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 290) * PyEval_GetBuiltins (C function): Reflection. (line 6) * PyEval_GetFrame (C function): Reflection. (line 60) * PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins (C function): Reflection. (line 67) * PyEval_GetFrameGlobals (C function): Reflection. (line 89) * PyEval_GetFrameLocals (C function): Reflection. (line 75) * PyEval_GetFuncDesc (C function): Reflection. (line 103) * PyEval_GetFuncName (C function): Reflection. (line 98) * PyEval_GetGlobals (C function): Reflection. (line 50) * PyEval_GetLocals (C function): Reflection. (line 17) * PyEval_InitThreads (C function): High-level API. (line 30) * PyEval_InitThreads(): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 7) * PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 305) * PyEval_ReleaseThread (C function): Low-level API. (line 244) * PyEval_ReleaseThread(): High-level API. (line 31) * PyEval_RestoreThread (C function): Releasing the GIL from extension code. (line 33) * PyEval_RestoreThread (C function) <1>: High-level API. (line 56) * PyEval_RestoreThread(): High-level API. (line 31) * PyEval_SaveThread (C function): Releasing the GIL from extension code. (line 33) * PyEval_SaveThread (C function) <1>: High-level API. (line 49) * PyEval_SaveThread(): High-level API. (line 31) * PyEval_SetProfile (C function): Profiling and Tracing. (line 117) * PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing. (line 132) * PyEval_SetTrace (C function): Profiling and Tracing. (line 147) * PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads (C function): Profiling and Tracing. (line 162) * PyExc_ArithmeticError (C var): Exception types. (line 23) * PyExc_AssertionError (C var): Exception types. (line 27) * PyExc_AttributeError (C var): Exception types. (line 31) * PyExc_BaseException (C var): Exception types. (line 10) * PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup (C var): Exception types. (line 14) * PyExc_BlockingIOError (C var): Exception types. (line 35) * PyExc_BrokenPipeError (C var): Exception types. (line 40) * PyExc_BufferError (C var): Exception types. (line 45) * PyExc_BytesWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 13) * PyExc_ChildProcessError (C var): Exception types. (line 49) * PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError (C var): Exception types. (line 54) * PyExc_ConnectionError (C var): Exception types. (line 59) * PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError (C var): Exception types. (line 64) * PyExc_ConnectionResetError (C var): Exception types. (line 69) * PyExc_DeprecationWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 17) * PyExc_EncodingWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 21) * PyExc_EnvironmentError (C var): OSError aliases. (line 15) * PyExc_EOFError (C var): Exception types. (line 74) * PyExc_Exception (C var): Exception types. (line 19) * PyExc_FileExistsError (C var): Exception types. (line 77) * PyExc_FileNotFoundError (C var): Exception types. (line 82) * PyExc_FloatingPointError (C var): Exception types. (line 87) * PyExc_FutureWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 26) * PyExc_GeneratorExit (C var): Exception types. (line 91) * PyExc_ImportError (C var): Exception types. (line 95) * PyExc_ImportWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 30) * PyExc_IndentationError (C var): Exception types. (line 99) * PyExc_IndexError (C var): Exception types. (line 103) * PyExc_InterruptedError (C var): Exception types. (line 107) * PyExc_IOError (C var): OSError aliases. (line 21) * PyExc_IsADirectoryError (C var): Exception types. (line 112) * PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt (C var): Exception types. (line 120) * PyExc_KeyError (C var): Exception types. (line 117) * PyExc_LookupError (C var): Exception types. (line 124) * PyExc_MemoryError (C var): Exception types. (line 128) * PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError (C var): Exception types. (line 132) * PyExc_NameError (C var): Exception types. (line 137) * PyExc_NotADirectoryError (C var): Exception types. (line 141) * PyExc_NotImplementedError (C var): Exception types. (line 146) * PyExc_OSError (C var): Exception types. (line 150) * PyExc_OverflowError (C var): Exception types. (line 153) * PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 34) * PyExc_PermissionError (C var): Exception types. (line 157) * PyExc_ProcessLookupError (C var): Exception types. (line 162) * PyExc_PythonFinalizationError (C var): Exception types. (line 167) * PyExc_RecursionError (C var): Exception types. (line 170) * PyExc_ReferenceError (C var): Exception types. (line 175) * PyExc_ResourceWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 38) * PyExc_RuntimeError (C var): Exception types. (line 179) * PyExc_RuntimeWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 43) * PyExc_StopAsyncIteration (C var): Exception types. (line 183) * PyExc_StopIteration (C var): Exception types. (line 188) * PyExc_SyntaxError (C var): Exception types. (line 192) * PyExc_SyntaxWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 47) * PyExc_SystemError (C var): Exception types. (line 196) * PyExc_SystemExit (C var): Exception types. (line 200) * PyExc_TabError (C var): Exception types. (line 204) * PyExc_TimeoutError (C var): Exception types. (line 207) * PyExc_TypeError (C var): Exception types. (line 212) * PyExc_UnboundLocalError (C var): Exception types. (line 216) * PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError (C var): Exception types. (line 220) * PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError (C var): Exception types. (line 224) * PyExc_UnicodeError (C var): Exception types. (line 228) * PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError (C var): Exception types. (line 232) * PyExc_UnicodeWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 51) * PyExc_UserWarning (C var): Warning types. (line 55) * PyExc_ValueError (C var): Exception types. (line 236) * PyExc_Warning (C var): Warning types. (line 10) * PyExc_WindowsError (C var): OSError aliases. (line 27) * PyExc_ZeroDivisionError (C var): Exception types. (line 240) * PyException_GetArgs (C function): Exception Objects. (line 53) * PyException_GetCause (C function): Exception Objects. (line 35) * PyException_GetContext (C function): Exception Objects. (line 19) * PyException_GetTraceback (C function): Exception Objects. (line 6) * PyException_SetArgs (C function): Exception Objects. (line 57) * PyException_SetCause (C function): Exception Objects. (line 43) * PyException_SetContext (C function): Exception Objects. (line 28) * PyException_SetTraceback (C function): Exception Objects. (line 14) * PyExceptionClass_Check (C function): Exception Classes. (line 34) * PyExceptionClass_Name (C function): Exception Classes. (line 39) * PyFile_FromFd (C function): File Objects. (line 15) * PyFile_GetLine (C function): File Objects. (line 41) * PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook (C function): File Objects. (line 57) * PyFile_WriteObject (C function): File Objects. (line 92) * PyFile_WriteString (C function): File Objects. (line 102) * PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 50) * PyFloat_AsDouble (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 38) * PyFloat_Check (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 16) * PyFloat_CheckExact (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 22) * PyFloat_FromDouble (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 33) * PyFloat_FromString (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 28) * PyFloat_GetInfo (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 55) * PyFloat_GetMax (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 61) * PyFloat_GetMin (C function): Floating-Point Objects. (line 65) * PyFloat_Pack2 (C function): Pack functions. (line 22) * PyFloat_Pack4 (C function): Pack functions. (line 26) * PyFloat_Pack8 (C function): Pack functions. (line 30) * PyFloat_Type (C var): Floating-Point Objects. (line 11) * PyFloat_Unpack2 (C function): Unpack functions. (line 20) * PyFloat_Unpack4 (C function): Unpack functions. (line 24) * PyFloat_Unpack8 (C function): Unpack functions. (line 28) * PyFloatObject (C type): Floating-Point Objects. (line 6) * PyFrame_Check (C function): Frame Objects. (line 29) * PyFrame_GetBack (C function): Frame Objects. (line 36) * PyFrame_GetBuiltins (C function): Frame Objects. (line 45) * PyFrame_GetCode (C function): Frame Objects. (line 54) * PyFrame_GetGenerator (C function): Frame Objects. (line 65) * PyFrame_GetGlobals (C function): Frame Objects. (line 76) * PyFrame_GetLasti (C function): Frame Objects. (line 85) * PyFrame_GetLineNumber (C function): Frame Objects. (line 133) * PyFrame_GetLocals (C function): Frame Objects. (line 116) * PyFrame_GetVar (C function): Frame Objects. (line 93) * PyFrame_GetVarString (C function): Frame Objects. (line 109) * PyFrame_Type (C var): Frame Objects. (line 21) * PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check (C function): Frame Locals Proxies. (line 20) * PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type (C var): Frame Locals Proxies. (line 16) * PyFrameObject (C type): Frame Objects. (line 6) * PyFrozenSet_Check (C function): Set Objects. (line 49) * PyFrozenSet_CheckExact (C function): Set Objects. (line 73) * PyFrozenSet_New (C function): Set Objects. (line 86) * PyFrozenSet_Type (C var): Set Objects. (line 35) * PyFunction_AddWatcher (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 139) * PyFunction_Check (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 18) * PyFunction_ClearWatcher (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 149) * PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GET_CODE (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GET_MODULE (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 121) * PyFunction_GetAnnotations (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 108) * PyFunction_GetClosure (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 94) * PyFunction_GetCode (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 46) * PyFunction_GetDefaults (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 64) * PyFunction_GetGlobals (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 50) * PyFunction_GetKwDefaults (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 88) * PyFunction_GetModule (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 55) * PyFunction_New (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 24) * PyFunction_NewWithQualName (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 36) * PyFunction_SetAnnotations (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 113) * PyFunction_SetClosure (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 100) * PyFunction_SetDefaults (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 70) * PyFunction_SetVectorcall (C function): Function Objects<3>. (line 78) * PyFunction_Type (C var): Function Objects<3>. (line 12) * PyFunction_WatchCallback (C type): Function Objects<3>. (line 174) * PyFunction_WatchEvent (C type): Function Objects<3>. (line 158) * PyFunctionObject (C type): Function Objects<3>. (line 8) * PYFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes): Function prototypes. (line 35) * PyGC_Collect (C function): Controlling the Garbage Collector State. (line 9) * PyGC_Disable (C function): Controlling the Garbage Collector State. (line 27) * PyGC_Enable (C function): Controlling the Garbage Collector State. (line 20) * PyGC_IsEnabled (C function): Controlling the Garbage Collector State. (line 34) * PyGen_Check (C function): Generator Objects. (line 19) * PyGen_CheckExact (C function): Generator Objects. (line 24) * PyGen_New (C function): Generator Objects. (line 29) * PyGen_NewWithQualName (C function): Generator Objects. (line 34) * PyGen_Type (C var): Generator Objects. (line 15) * PyGenObject (C type): Generator Objects. (line 11) * PyGetSetDef (C type): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 6) * PyGetSetDef.closure (C member): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 28) * PyGetSetDef.doc (C member): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 24) * PyGetSetDef.get (C member): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 15) * PyGetSetDef.name (C member): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 11) * PyGetSetDef.set (C member): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 19) * PyGILState_Check (C function): High-level API. (line 149) * PyGILState_Ensure (C function): High-level API. (line 99) * PyGILState_GetThisThreadState (C function): High-level API. (line 140) * PyGILState_Release (C function): High-level API. (line 130) * PyHASH_BITS (C macro): PyHash API. (line 27) * PyHash_FuncDef (C type): PyHash API. (line 51) * PyHash_FuncDef.hash (C member): PyHash API. (line 55) * PyHash_FuncDef.hash_bits (C member): PyHash API. (line 64) * PyHash_FuncDef.name (C member): PyHash API. (line 60) * PyHash_FuncDef.seed_bits (C member): PyHash API. (line 68) * PyHash_GetFuncDef (C function): PyHash API. (line 74) * PyHASH_IMAG (C macro): PyHash API. (line 45) * PyHASH_INF (C macro): PyHash API. (line 39) * PyHASH_MODULUS (C macro): PyHash API. (line 21) * PyHASH_MULTIPLIER (C macro): PyHash API. (line 33) * PyImport_AddModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 122) * PyImport_AddModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 113) * PyImport_AddModuleRef (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 90) * PyImport_AppendInittab (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 297) * PyImport_ExecCodeModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 128) * PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 168) * PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 177) * PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 191) * PyImport_ExtendInittab (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 324) * PyImport_FrozenModules (C var): Importing Modules<2>. (line 289) * PyImport_GetImporter (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 239) * PyImport_GetMagicNumber (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 207) * PyImport_GetMagicTag (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 215) * PyImport_GetModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 229) * PyImport_GetModuleDict (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 223) * PyImport_Import (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 72) * PyImport_ImportFrozenModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 266) * PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 252) * PyImport_ImportModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 6) * PyImport_ImportModuleEx (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 28) * PyImport_ImportModuleLevel (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 62) * PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 45) * PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 14) * PyImport_ReloadModule (C function): Importing Modules<2>. (line 83) * PyIndex_Check (C function): Number Protocol. (line 306) * PyInit_modulename (C function): Building C and C++ Extensions. (line 16) * PyInstanceMethod_Check (C function): Instance Method Objects. (line 15) * PyInstanceMethod_Function (C function): Instance Method Objects. (line 27) * PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): Instance Method Objects. (line 32) * PyInstanceMethod_New (C function): Instance Method Objects. (line 21) * PyInstanceMethod_Type (C var): Instance Method Objects. (line 10) * PyInterpreterConfig (C type): Sub-interpreter support. (line 24) * PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support. (line 93) * PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support. (line 102) * PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL (C macro): Sub-interpreter support. (line 98) * PyInterpreterConfig.allow_daemon_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 69) * PyInterpreterConfig.allow_exec (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 54) * PyInterpreterConfig.allow_fork (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 45) * PyInterpreterConfig.allow_threads (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 64) * PyInterpreterConfig.check_multi_interp_extensions (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 76) * PyInterpreterConfig.gil (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 88) * PyInterpreterConfig.use_main_obmalloc (C member): Sub-interpreter support. (line 35) * PyInterpreterState (C type): High-level API. (line 9) * PyInterpreterState_Clear (C function): Low-level API. (line 21) * PyInterpreterState_Delete (C function): Low-level API. (line 30) * PyInterpreterState_Get (C function): Low-level API. (line 118) * PyInterpreterState_GetDict (C function): Low-level API. (line 140) * PyInterpreterState_GetID (C function): Low-level API. (line 130) * PyInterpreterState_Head (C function): Advanced Debugger Support. (line 9) * PyInterpreterState_Main (C function): Advanced Debugger Support. (line 15) * PyInterpreterState_New (C function): Low-level API. (line 12) * PyInterpreterState_Next (C function): Advanced Debugger Support. (line 20) * PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead (C function): Advanced Debugger Support. (line 26) * PyIter_Check (C function): Iterator Protocol. (line 8) * PyIter_Next (C function): Iterator Protocol. (line 21) * PyIter_Send (C function): Iterator Protocol. (line 62) * PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL: Windows<12>. (line 24) * PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <1>: Windows<26>. (line 15) * PYLAUNCHER_ALLOW_INSTALL <2>: Install on demand. (line 6) * PYLAUNCHER_ALWAYS_INSTALL: Install on demand. (line 12) * PYLAUNCHER_DEBUG: Diagnostics. (line 6) * PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN: Dry Run. (line 6) * PYLAUNCHER_DRYRUN <1>: Install on demand. (line 14) * PYLAUNCHER_NO_SEARCH_PATH: Shebang Lines. (line 65) * PyList_Append (C function): List Objects. (line 105) * PyList_AsTuple (C function): List Objects. (line 160) * PyList_Check (C function): List Objects. (line 16) * PyList_CheckExact (C function): List Objects. (line 21) * PyList_Clear (C function): List Objects. (line 139) * PyList_Extend (C function): List Objects. (line 128) * PyList_GET_ITEM (C function): List Objects. (line 67) * PyList_GET_SIZE (C function): List Objects. (line 46) * PyList_GetItem (C function): Reference Count Details. (line 117) * PyList_GetItem (C function) <1>: List Objects. (line 61) * PyList_GetItemRef (C function): List Objects. (line 50) * PyList_GetSlice (C function): List Objects. (line 111) * PyList_Insert (C function): List Objects. (line 98) * PyList_New (C function): List Objects. (line 26) * PyList_Reverse (C function): List Objects. (line 155) * PyList_SET_ITEM (C function): List Objects. (line 83) * PyList_SetItem (C function): Reference Count Details. (line 26) * PyList_SetItem (C function) <1>: List Objects. (line 72) * PyList_SetSlice (C function): List Objects. (line 119) * PyList_Size (C function): List Objects. (line 40) * PyList_Sort (C function): List Objects. (line 150) * PyList_Type (C var): List Objects. (line 11) * PyListObject (C type): List Objects. (line 6) * PyLong_AS_LONG (C function): Integer Objects. (line 160) * PyLong_AsDouble (C function): Integer Objects. (line 325) * PyLong_AsInt (C function): Integer Objects. (line 169) * PyLong_AsLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 141) * PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow (C function): Integer Objects. (line 176) * PyLong_AsLongLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 196) * PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow (C function): Integer Objects. (line 215) * PyLong_AsNativeBytes (C function): Integer Objects. (line 346) * PyLong_AsSize_t (C function): Integer Objects. (line 262) * PyLong_AsSsize_t (C function): Integer Objects. (line 237) * PyLong_AsUnsignedLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 250) * PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 274) * PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask (C function): Integer Objects. (line 307) * PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask (C function): Integer Objects. (line 290) * PyLong_AsVoidPtr (C function): Integer Objects. (line 336) * PyLong_Check (C function): Integer Objects. (line 22) * PyLong_CheckExact (C function): Integer Objects. (line 27) * PyLong_FromDouble (C function): Integer Objects. (line 69) * PyLong_FromLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 32) * PyLong_FromLongLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 58) * PyLong_FromNativeBytes (C function): Integer Objects. (line 112) * PyLong_FromSize_t (C function): Integer Objects. (line 53) * PyLong_FromSsize_t (C function): Integer Objects. (line 48) * PyLong_FromString (C function): Integer Objects. (line 74) * PyLong_FromUnicodeObject (C function): Integer Objects. (line 99) * PyLong_FromUnsignedLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 42) * PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong (C function): Integer Objects. (line 63) * PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes (C function): Integer Objects. (line 128) * PyLong_FromVoidPtr (C function): Integer Objects. (line 106) * PyLong_GetInfo (C function): Integer Objects. (line 499) * PyLong_Type (C var): Integer Objects. (line 17) * PyLongObject (C type): Integer Objects. (line 13) * PyMapping_Check (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 9) * PyMapping_DelItem (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 60) * PyMapping_DelItemString (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 64) * PyMapping_GetItemString (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 24) * PyMapping_GetOptionalItem (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 31) * PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 45) * PyMapping_HasKey (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 89) * PyMapping_HasKeyString (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 100) * PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 80) * PyMapping_HasKeyWithError (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 71) * PyMapping_Items (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 129) * PyMapping_Keys (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 113) * PyMapping_Length (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 17) * PyMapping_SetItemString (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 54) * PyMapping_Size (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 17) * PyMapping_Values (C function): Mapping Protocol. (line 121) * PyMappingMethods (C type): Mapping Object Structures. (line 6) * PyMappingMethods.mp_ass_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures. (line 27) * PyMappingMethods.mp_length (C member): Mapping Object Structures. (line 11) * PyMappingMethods.mp_subscript (C member): Mapping Object Structures. (line 18) * PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 74) * PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 47) * PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 65) * PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 90) * PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 56) * PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 20) * PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 30) * PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString (C function): Data marshalling support. (line 39) * PyMem_Calloc (C function): Memory Interface. (line 28) * PyMem_Del (C function): Memory Interface. (line 84) * PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM (C macro): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 52) * PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ (C macro): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 64) * PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW (C macro): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 40) * PyMem_Free (C function): Memory Interface. (line 56) * PyMem_GetAllocator (C function): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 76) * PyMem_Malloc (C function): Memory Interface. (line 19) * PyMem_New (C macro): Memory Interface. (line 68) * PyMem_RawCalloc (C function): Raw Memory Interface. (line 24) * PyMem_RawFree (C function): Raw Memory Interface. (line 52) * PyMem_RawMalloc (C function): Raw Memory Interface. (line 15) * PyMem_RawRealloc (C function): Raw Memory Interface. (line 36) * PyMem_Realloc (C function): Memory Interface. (line 40) * PyMem_Resize (C macro): Memory Interface. (line 74) * PyMem_SetAllocator (C function): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 81) * PyMem_SetupDebugHooks (C function): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 124) * PyMemAllocatorDomain (C type): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 36) * PyMemAllocatorEx (C type): Customize Memory Allocators. (line 8) * PyMember_GetOne (C function): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 71) * PyMember_SetOne (C function): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 80) * PyMemberDef (C type): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 6) * PyMemberDef.doc (C member): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 36) * PyMemberDef.flags (C member): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 31) * PyMemberDef.name (C member): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 14) * PyMemberDef.offset (C member): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 26) * PyMemberDef.type (C member): Accessing attributes of extension types. (line 21) * PyMemoryView_Check (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 54) * PyMemoryView_FromBuffer (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 35) * PyMemoryView_FromMemory (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 26) * PyMemoryView_FromObject (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 10) * PyMemoryView_GET_BASE (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 68) * PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 60) * PyMemoryView_GetContiguous (C function): MemoryView objects. (line 42) * PyMethod_Check (C function): Method Objects<2>. (line 16) * PyMethod_Function (C function): Method Objects<2>. (line 29) * PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION (C function): Method Objects<2>. (line 33) * PyMethod_GET_SELF (C function): Method Objects<2>. (line 42) * PyMethod_New (C function): Method Objects<2>. (line 22) * PyMethod_Self (C function): Method Objects<2>. (line 38) * PyMethod_Type (C var): Method Objects<2>. (line 10) * PyMethodDef (C type): Implementing functions and methods. (line 63) * PyMethodDef.ml_doc (C member): Implementing functions and methods. (line 80) * PyMethodDef.ml_flags (C member): Implementing functions and methods. (line 76) * PyMethodDef.ml_meth (C member): Implementing functions and methods. (line 72) * PyMethodDef.ml_name (C member): Implementing functions and methods. (line 68) * PyMODINIT_FUNC (C macro): Useful macros. (line 11) * PyModule_Add (C function): Support functions. (line 63) * PyModule_AddFunctions (C function): Low-level module creation functions. (line 53) * PyModule_AddIntConstant (C function): Support functions. (line 113) * PyModule_AddIntMacro (C macro): Support functions. (line 136) * PyModule_AddObject (C function): Support functions. (line 79) * PyModule_AddObjectRef (C function): Support functions. (line 11) * PyModule_AddStringConstant (C function): Support functions. (line 124) * PyModule_AddStringMacro (C macro): Support functions. (line 144) * PyModule_AddType (C function): Support functions. (line 148) * PyModule_Check (C function): Module Objects. (line 13) * PyModule_CheckExact (C function): Module Objects. (line 18) * PyModule_Create (C function): Single-phase initialization. (line 10) * PyModule_Create2 (C function): Single-phase initialization. (line 16) * PyModule_ExecDef (C function): Low-level module creation functions. (line 37) * PyModule_FromDefAndSpec (C function): Low-level module creation functions. (line 11) * PyModule_FromDefAndSpec2 (C function): Low-level module creation functions. (line 20) * PyModule_GetDef (C function): Module Objects. (line 83) * PyModule_GetDict (C function): Module Objects. (line 46) * PyModule_GetFilename (C function): Module Objects. (line 102) * PyModule_GetFilenameObject (C function): Module Objects. (line 89) * PyModule_GetName (C function): Module Objects. (line 72) * PyModule_GetNameObject (C function): Module Objects. (line 61) * PyModule_GetState (C function): Module Objects. (line 77) * PyModule_New (C function): Module Objects. (line 41) * PyModule_NewObject (C function): Module Objects. (line 23) * PyModule_SetDocString (C function): Low-level module creation functions. (line 44) * PyModule_Type (C var): Module Objects. (line 6) * PyModuleDef (C type): Initializing C modules. (line 17) * PyModuleDef_Init (C function): Multi-phase initialization. (line 47) * PyModuleDef_Slot (C type): Multi-phase initialization. (line 61) * PyModuleDef_Slot.slot (C member): Multi-phase initialization. (line 63) * PyModuleDef_Slot.value (C member): Multi-phase initialization. (line 67) * PyModuleDef.m_base (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 23) * PyModuleDef.m_clear (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 91) * PyModuleDef.m_doc (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 31) * PyModuleDef.m_free (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 113) * PyModuleDef.m_methods (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 58) * PyModuleDef.m_name (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 27) * PyModuleDef.m_size (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 36) * PyModuleDef.m_slots (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 64) * PyModuleDef.m_slots.m_reload (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 73) * PyModuleDef.m_traverse (C member): Initializing C modules. (line 75) * PyMonitoring_EnterScope (C function): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 9) * PyMonitoring_ExitScope (C function): Managing the Monitoring State. (line 95) * PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 70) * PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 53) * PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 93) * PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 76) * PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 105) * PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 64) * PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 59) * PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 38) * PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 43) * PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 33) * PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 81) * PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 111) * PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 48) * PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 87) * PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 99) * PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent (C function): Generating Execution Events. (line 117) * PyMonitoringState (C type): Generating Execution Events. (line 22) * PyMutex (C type): Synchronization Primitives<2>. (line 8) * PyMutex_Lock (C function): Synchronization Primitives<2>. (line 25) * PyMutex_Unlock (C function): Synchronization Primitives<2>. (line 34) * PyNumber_Absolute (C function): Number Protocol. (line 98) * PyNumber_Add (C function): Number Protocol. (line 13) * PyNumber_And (C function): Number Protocol. (line 124) * PyNumber_AsSsize_t (C function): Number Protocol. (line 291) * PyNumber_Check (C function): Number Protocol. (line 6) * PyNumber_Divmod (C function): Number Protocol. (line 68) * PyNumber_Float (C function): Number Protocol. (line 264) * PyNumber_FloorDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line 43) * PyNumber_Index (C function): Number Protocol. (line 272) * PyNumber_InPlaceAdd (C function): Number Protocol. (line 145) * PyNumber_InPlaceAnd (C function): Number Protocol. (line 232) * PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line 176) * PyNumber_InPlaceLshift (C function): Number Protocol. (line 216) * PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply (C function): Number Protocol. (line 166) * PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply (C function): Number Protocol. (line 159) * PyNumber_InPlaceOr (C function): Number Protocol. (line 248) * PyNumber_InPlacePower (C function): Number Protocol. (line 203) * PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder (C function): Number Protocol. (line 196) * PyNumber_InPlaceRshift (C function): Number Protocol. (line 224) * PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract (C function): Number Protocol. (line 152) * PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line 184) * PyNumber_InPlaceXor (C function): Number Protocol. (line 240) * PyNumber_Invert (C function): Number Protocol. (line 105) * PyNumber_Long (C function): Number Protocol. (line 256) * PyNumber_Lshift (C function): Number Protocol. (line 110) * PyNumber_MatrixMultiply (C function): Number Protocol. (line 34) * PyNumber_Multiply (C function): Number Protocol. (line 27) * PyNumber_Negative (C function): Number Protocol. (line 88) * PyNumber_Or (C function): Number Protocol. (line 138) * PyNumber_Positive (C function): Number Protocol. (line 93) * PyNumber_Power (C function): Number Protocol. (line 77) * PyNumber_Remainder (C function): Number Protocol. (line 61) * PyNumber_Rshift (C function): Number Protocol. (line 117) * PyNumber_Subtract (C function): Number Protocol. (line 20) * PyNumber_ToBase (C function): Number Protocol. (line 281) * PyNumber_TrueDivide (C function): Number Protocol. (line 50) * PyNumber_Xor (C function): Number Protocol. (line 131) * PyNumberMethods (C type): Number Object Structures. (line 6) * PyNumberMethods.nb_absolute (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 93) * PyNumberMethods.nb_add (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 70) * PyNumberMethods.nb_and (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 107) * PyNumberMethods.nb_bool (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 96) * PyNumberMethods.nb_divmod (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 81) * PyNumberMethods.nb_float (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 117) * PyNumberMethods.nb_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 150) * PyNumberMethods.nb_index (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 162) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_add (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 120) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_and (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 141) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_floor_divide (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 156) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_lshift (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 135) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 168) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 126) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_or (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 147) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_power (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 132) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 129) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_rshift (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 138) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 123) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 159) * PyNumberMethods.nb_inplace_xor (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 144) * PyNumberMethods.nb_int (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 113) * PyNumberMethods.nb_invert (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 98) * PyNumberMethods.nb_lshift (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 101) * PyNumberMethods.nb_matrix_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 165) * PyNumberMethods.nb_multiply (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 75) * PyNumberMethods.nb_negative (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 87) * PyNumberMethods.nb_or (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 111) * PyNumberMethods.nb_positive (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 90) * PyNumberMethods.nb_power (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 84) * PyNumberMethods.nb_remainder (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 78) * PyNumberMethods.nb_reserved (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 115) * PyNumberMethods.nb_rshift (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 104) * PyNumberMethods.nb_subtract (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 72) * PyNumberMethods.nb_true_divide (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 153) * PyNumberMethods.nb_xor (C member): Number Object Structures. (line 109) * PyObject (C type): Base object types and macros. (line 14) * PyObject_ASCII (C function): Object Protocol. (line 342) * PyObject_AsFileDescriptor (C function): File Objects. (line 33) * PyObject_Bytes (C function): Object Protocol. (line 365) * PyObject_Call (C function): Object Calling API. (line 57) * PyObject_CallFunction (C function): Object Calling API. (line 108) * PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API. (line 149) * PyObject_CallMethod (C function): Object Calling API. (line 127) * PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs (C function): Object Calling API. (line 174) * PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs (C function): Object Calling API. (line 162) * PyObject_CallMethodOneArg (C function): Object Calling API. (line 186) * PyObject_CallNoArgs (C function): Object Calling API. (line 73) * PyObject_CallObject (C function): Calling Python Functions from C. (line 64) * PyObject_CallObject (C function) <1>: Object Calling API. (line 96) * PyObject_Calloc (C function): Object allocators. (line 30) * PyObject_CallOneArg (C function): Object Calling API. (line 85) * PyObject_CheckBuffer (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 6) * PyObject_ClearManagedDict (C function): Object Protocol. (line 596) * PyObject_ClearWeakRefs (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 92) * PyObject_CopyData (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 80) * PyObject_Del (C function): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 57) * PyObject_DelAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 241) * PyObject_DelAttrString (C function): Object Protocol. (line 247) * PyObject_DelItem (C function): Object Protocol. (line 499) * PyObject_DelItemString (C function): Object Protocol. (line 504) * PyObject_Dir (C function): Object Protocol. (line 510) * PyObject_Format (C function): Object Protocol. (line 319) * PyObject_Free (C function): Object allocators. (line 58) * PyObject_GC_Del (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 133) * PyObject_GC_IsFinalized (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 123) * PyObject_GC_IsTracked (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 113) * PyObject_GC_New (C macro): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 56) * PyObject_GC_NewVar (C macro): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 61) * PyObject_GC_Resize (C macro): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 87) * PyObject_GC_Track (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 97) * PyObject_GC_UnTrack (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 138) * PyObject_GenericGetAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 187) * PyObject_GenericGetDict (C function): Object Protocol. (line 262) * PyObject_GenericHash (C function): PyHash API. (line 94) * PyObject_GenericSetAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 229) * PyObject_GenericSetDict (C function): Object Protocol. (line 278) * PyObject_GetAIter (C function): Object Protocol. (line 534) * PyObject_GetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator. (line 26) * PyObject_GetAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 143) * PyObject_GetAttrString (C function): Object Protocol. (line 153) * PyObject_GetBuffer (C function): Buffer-related functions. (line 12) * PyObject_GetItem (C function): Object Protocol. (line 485) * PyObject_GetItemData (C function): Object Protocol. (line 575) * PyObject_GetIter (C function): Object Protocol. (line 520) * PyObject_GetOptionalAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 163) * PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString (C function): Object Protocol. (line 178) * PyObject_GetTypeData (C function): Object Protocol. (line 545) * PyObject_HasAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 115) * PyObject_HasAttrString (C function): Object Protocol. (line 128) * PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError (C function): Object Protocol. (line 106) * PyObject_HasAttrWithError (C function): Object Protocol. (line 97) * PyObject_Hash (C function): Object Protocol. (line 417) * PyObject_HashNotImplemented (C function): Object Protocol. (line 427) * PyObject_HEAD (C macro): Base object types and macros. (line 35) * PyObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro): Base object types and macros. (line 127) * PyObject_Init (C function): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 13) * PyObject_InitVar (C function): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 20) * PyObject_IS_GC (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 105) * PyObject_IsInstance (C function): Object Protocol. (line 396) * PyObject_IsSubclass (C function): Object Protocol. (line 375) * PyObject_IsTrue (C function): Object Protocol. (line 435) * PyObject_Length (C function): Object Protocol. (line 465) * PyObject_LengthHint (C function): Object Protocol. (line 474) * PyObject_Malloc (C function): Object allocators. (line 21) * PyObject_New (C macro): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 26) * PyObject_NewVar (C macro): Allocating Objects on the Heap. (line 40) * PyObject_Not (C function): Object Protocol. (line 441) * PyObject_Print (C function): Object Protocol. (line 89) * PyObject_Realloc (C function): Object allocators. (line 42) * PyObject_Repr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 329) * PyObject_RichCompare (C function): Object Protocol. (line 296) * PyObject_RichCompareBool (C function): Object Protocol. (line 308) * PyObject_SelfIter (C function): Object Protocol. (line 528) * PyObject_SetArenaAllocator (C function): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator. (line 31) * PyObject_SetAttr (C function): Object Protocol. (line 199) * PyObject_SetAttrString (C function): Object Protocol. (line 211) * PyObject_SetItem (C function): Object Protocol. (line 492) * PyObject_Size (C function): Object Protocol. (line 465) * PyObject_Str (C function): Object Protocol. (line 353) * PyObject_Type (C function): Object Protocol. (line 447) * PyObject_TypeCheck (C function): Object Protocol. (line 460) * PyObject_VAR_HEAD (C macro): Base object types and macros. (line 45) * PyObject_Vectorcall (C function): Object Calling API. (line 198) * PyObject_VectorcallDict (C function): Object Calling API. (line 212) * PyObject_VectorcallMethod (C function): Object Calling API. (line 228) * PyObject_VisitManagedDict (C function): Object Protocol. (line 586) * PyObject.ob_refcnt (C member): PyObject Slots. (line 13) * PyObject.ob_type (C member): PyObject Slots. (line 26) * PyObjectArenaAllocator (C type): Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator. (line 8) * PyOS_AfterFork (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 79) * PyOS_AfterFork_Child (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 56) * PyOS_AfterFork_Parent (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 42) * PyOS_BeforeFork (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 29) * PyOS_CheckStack (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 89) * PyOS_double_to_string (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 118) * PyOS_FSPath (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 6) * PyOS_getsig (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 103) * PyOS_InputHook (C var): The Very High Level Layer. (line 136) * PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer (C var): The Very High Level Layer. (line 148) * PyOS_setsig (C function): Operating System Utilities. (line 108) * PyOS_sighandler_t (C type): Operating System Utilities. (line 100) * PyOS_snprintf (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 8) * PyOS_stricmp (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 152) * PyOS_string_to_double (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 85) * PyOS_strnicmp (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 157) * PyOS_strtol (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 72) * PyOS_strtoul (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 50) * PyOS_vsnprintf (C function): String conversion and formatting. (line 14) * PyPreConfig (C type): PyPreConfig. (line 6) * PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig (C function): PyPreConfig. (line 18) * PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig (C function): PyPreConfig. (line 12) * PyPreConfig.allocator (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 26) * PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 82) * PyPreConfig.coerce_c_locale_warn (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 93) * PyPreConfig.configure_locale (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 71) * PyPreConfig.dev_mode (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 99) * PyPreConfig.isolated (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 106) * PyPreConfig.legacy_windows_fs_encoding (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 112) * PyPreConfig.parse_argv (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 131) * PyPreConfig.use_environment (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 140) * PyPreConfig.utf8_mode (C member): PyPreConfig. (line 147) * PyProperty_Type (C var): Descriptor Objects. (line 9) * PyRefTracer (C type): Reference tracing. (line 8) * PyRefTracer_CREATE (C var): Reference tracing. (line 21) * PyRefTracer_DESTROY (C var): Reference tracing. (line 26) * PyRefTracer_GetTracer (C function): Reference tracing. (line 49) * PyRefTracer_SetTracer (C function): Reference tracing. (line 31) * PyRun_AnyFile (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 24) * PyRun_AnyFileEx (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 36) * PyRun_AnyFileExFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 42) * PyRun_AnyFileFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 30) * PyRun_File (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 191) * PyRun_FileEx (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 197) * PyRun_FileExFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 211) * PyRun_FileFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 204) * PyRun_InteractiveLoop (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 120) * PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 127) * PyRun_InteractiveOne (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 99) * PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 106) * PyRun_SimpleFile (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 74) * PyRun_SimpleFileEx (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 80) * PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 86) * PyRun_SimpleString (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 54) * PyRun_SimpleStringFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 60) * PyRun_String (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 172) * PyRun_StringFlags (C function): The Very High Level Layer. (line 178) * PySendResult (C type): Iterator Protocol. (line 55) * PySeqIter_Check (C function): Iterator Objects. (line 18) * PySeqIter_New (C function): Iterator Objects. (line 23) * PySeqIter_Type (C var): Iterator Objects. (line 12) * PySequence_Check (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 6) * PySequence_Concat (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 21) * PySequence_Contains (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 99) * PySequence_Count (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 92) * PySequence_DelItem (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 75) * PySequence_DelSlice (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 86) * PySequence_Fast (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 128) * PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 152) * PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 143) * PySequence_Fast_ITEMS (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 158) * PySequence_GetItem (C function): Reference Count Details. (line 117) * PySequence_GetItem (C function) <1>: Sequence Protocol. (line 51) * PySequence_GetSlice (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 57) * PySequence_Index (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 105) * PySequence_InPlaceConcat (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 35) * PySequence_InPlaceRepeat (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 43) * PySequence_ITEM (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 169) * PySequence_Length (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 14) * PySequence_List (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 111) * PySequence_Repeat (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 28) * PySequence_SetItem (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 64) * PySequence_SetSlice (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 80) * PySequence_Size (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 14) * PySequence_Tuple (C function): Sequence Protocol. (line 118) * PySequenceMethods (C type): Sequence Object Structures. (line 6) * PySequenceMethods.sq_ass_item (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 50) * PySequenceMethods.sq_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 19) * PySequenceMethods.sq_contains (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 60) * PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_concat (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 68) * PySequenceMethods.sq_inplace_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 79) * PySequenceMethods.sq_item (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 34) * PySequenceMethods.sq_length (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 11) * PySequenceMethods.sq_repeat (C member): Sequence Object Structures. (line 26) * PySet_Add (C function): Set Objects. (line 119) * PySet_Check (C function): Set Objects. (line 44) * PySet_CheckExact (C function): Set Objects. (line 60) * PySet_Clear (C function): Set Objects. (line 152) * PySet_Contains (C function): Set Objects. (line 110) * PySet_Discard (C function): Set Objects. (line 134) * PySet_GET_SIZE (C function): Set Objects. (line 106) * PySet_New (C function): Set Objects. (line 78) * PySet_Pop (C function): Set Objects. (line 144) * PySet_Size (C function): Set Objects. (line 98) * PySet_Type (C var): Set Objects. (line 31) * PySetObject (C type): Set Objects. (line 19) * PySignal_SetWakeupFd (C function): Signal Handling<2>. (line 67) * PySlice_AdjustIndices (C function): Slice Objects. (line 99) * PySlice_Check (C function): Slice Objects. (line 11) * PySlice_GetIndices (C function): Slice Objects. (line 28) * PySlice_GetIndicesEx (C function): Slice Objects. (line 44) * PySlice_New (C function): Slice Objects. (line 16) * PySlice_Type (C var): Slice Objects. (line 6) * PySlice_Unpack (C function): Slice Objects. (line 86) * PyState_AddModule (C function): Module lookup. (line 25) * PyState_FindModule (C function): Module lookup. (line 15) * PyState_RemoveModule (C function): Module lookup. (line 49) * PyStatus (C type): PyStatus. (line 6) * PyStatus_Error (C function): PyStatus. (line 34) * PyStatus_Exception (C function): PyStatus. (line 51) * PyStatus_Exit (C function): PyStatus. (line 45) * PyStatus_IsError (C function): PyStatus. (line 57) * PyStatus_IsExit (C function): PyStatus. (line 61) * PyStatus_NoMemory (C function): PyStatus. (line 41) * PyStatus_Ok (C function): PyStatus. (line 30) * PyStatus.err_msg (C member): PyStatus. (line 20) * PyStatus.exitcode (C member): PyStatus. (line 16) * PyStatus.func (C member): PyStatus. (line 24) * PyStructSequence_Desc (C type): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 33) * PyStructSequence_Desc.doc (C member): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 42) * PyStructSequence_Desc.fields (C member): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 46) * PyStructSequence_Desc.n_in_sequence (C member): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 51) * PyStructSequence_Desc.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 37) * PyStructSequence_Field (C type): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 56) * PyStructSequence_Field.doc (C member): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 70) * PyStructSequence_Field.name (C member): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 64) * PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 97) * PyStructSequence_GetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 88) * PyStructSequence_InitType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 20) * PyStructSequence_InitType2 (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 25) * PyStructSequence_New (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 80) * PyStructSequence_NewType (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 11) * PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 117) * PyStructSequence_SetItem (C function): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 105) * PyStructSequence_UnnamedField (C var): Struct Sequence Objects. (line 74) * PySys_AddAuditHook (C function): System Functions. (line 116) * PySys_Audit (C function): System Functions. (line 75) * PySys_AuditTuple (C function): System Functions. (line 108) * PySys_FormatStderr (C function): System Functions. (line 60) * PySys_FormatStdout (C function): System Functions. (line 52) * PySys_GetObject (C function): System Functions. (line 11) * PySys_GetXOptions (C function): System Functions. (line 67) * PySys_ResetWarnOptions (C function): System Functions. (line 22) * PySys_SetArgv (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 268) * PySys_SetArgvEx (C function): Process-wide parameters. (line 216) * PySys_SetObject (C function): System Functions. (line 16) * PySys_WriteStderr (C function): System Functions. (line 47) * PySys_WriteStdout (C function): System Functions. (line 30) * Python 3000: Glossary. (line 1262) * Python Editor: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0007#documentation-strings: Documentation<24>. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0249#threadsafety: Module constants. (line 108) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0453#recommendations-for-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0477#disabling-ensurepip-by-downstream-distributors: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0564#annex-clocks-resolution-in-python: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0626#out-of-process-debuggers-and-profilers: Code Objects<2>. (line 104) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0632#migration-advice: Summary – Release highlights. (line 111) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 0683: Reference Counting. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1: New Development Process. (line 67) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <1>: New Development Process. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 1 <2>: Glossary. (line 1228) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 100: Unicode<2>. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11: Support for mobile platforms. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <1>: Support for mobile platforms. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <2>: Build Changes. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <3>: Build Changes. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <4>: Build Changes. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <5>: Build Changes. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <6>: Build Changes<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <7>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <8>: Unsupported Operating Systems. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <9>: Library Changes. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <10>: Build<26>. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <11>: Build<26>. (line 107) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <12>: Build<62>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <13>: Build Requirements. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <14>: Using Python on Windows. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11 <15>: Other Platforms. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-2: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 139) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 134) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 137) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 11#tier-3 <2>: Build Changes<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 201: New Development Process. (line 86) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205: PEP 205 Weak References. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 205 <1>: weakref — Weak references. (line 353) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 207 <1>: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 208: PEP 208 New Coercion Model. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 217: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <1>: Other Language Changes<17>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 218 <2>: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype. (line 81) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227: PEP 227 Nested Scopes. (line 96) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>. (line 96) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 227 <2>: Module Contents<5>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 229: PEP 229 New Build System. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 230: PEP 230 Warning Framework. (line 73) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 232: PEP 232 Function Attributes. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 234: PEP 234 Iterators. (line 124) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 235: Introduction<12>. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>. (line 87) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <1>: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>. (line 88) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <2>: PEP 236 __future__ Directives. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <3>: Future statements. (line 85) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 236 <4>: Module Contents<5>. (line 103) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237: Integers. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <1>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <2>: Other Language Changes<17>. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <3>: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <4>: printf-style String Formatting. (line 185) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 237 <5>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 189) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238: Integers. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <1>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <2>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <3>: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator. (line 68) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <4>: Module Contents<5>. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 238 <5>: Glossary. (line 553) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <1>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 241 <2>: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 243: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246: Documentation<23>. (line 48) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 246 <1>: PrepareProtocol objects. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 247: hmac<3>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249: sqlite3<2>. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <1>: The sqlite3 package. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <2>: The sqlite3 package. (line 110) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <3>: Library<27>. (line 121) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <4>: Library<30>. (line 296) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <5>: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <6>: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <7>: Module functions. (line 72) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <8>: Connection objects. (line 733) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <9>: Connection objects. (line 736) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <10>: Connection objects. (line 748) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <11>: Exceptions<7>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <12>: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries. (line 53) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <13>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 249 <14>: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252: Related Links. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <1>: Related Links. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 252 <2>: Implementing Descriptors. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253: Old and New Classes. (line 28) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <1>: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <2>: Related Links. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <3>: Related Links. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 253 <4>: Related Links. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255: PEP 255 Simple Generators. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <1>: PEP 255 Simple Generators. (line 131) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <2>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <3>: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>. (line 129) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <4>: Yield expressions. (line 90) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 255 <5>: Module Contents<5>. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261: Unicode Changes. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 261 <1>: Unicode Changes. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263: Other Language Changes<16>. (line 99) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <1>: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <2>: Core and Builtins<35>. (line 84) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <3>: Introduction<12>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <4>: Tokenizing Input. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <5>: Tokenizing Input. (line 88) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 263 <6>: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code. (line 48) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 264: Other Changes and Fixes<3>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <1>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <2>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 273 <3>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 274: New Syntax. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 277: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 278 <1>: Glossary. (line 1551) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 279: PEP 279 enumerate. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282: PEP 282 The logging Package. (line 105) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <1>: PEP 282 The logging Package. (line 111) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <2>: Archiving operations. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 282 <3>: Integration with the warnings module. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285: PEP 285 A Boolean Type. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 285 <1>: PEP 285 A Boolean Type. (line 70) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 288: PEP 342 New Generator Features. (line 146) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289: PEP 289 Generator Expressions. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <1>: Other Language Changes<17>. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 289 <2>: Python documentation. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 292 <1>: Template strings. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 293: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3000: Python 3 0. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 301: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <1>: Visible Changes. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <2>: Porting Python code. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <3>: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>. (line 106) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <4>: New Improved and Removed Modules. (line 289) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <5>: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <6>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <7>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <8>: PEP 302 New Import Hooks. (line 62) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <9>: The import system. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <10>: References. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <11>: Built-in Functions. (line 2192) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <12>: linecache — Random access to text lines. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1366) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <14>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1376) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <15>: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <16>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 65) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <17>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 84) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <18>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 99) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <19>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 122) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <20>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 143) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <21>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 182) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <22>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <23>: Introduction<12>. (line 59) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <24>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 93) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <25>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 180) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <26>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 205) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <27>: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 277) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 302 <28>: Glossary. (line 928) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 305 <1>: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <1>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <2>: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 307 <3>: Data stream format. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions. (line 72) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <1>: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 308 <2>: Conditional expressions. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 309: PEP 309 Partial Function Application. (line 73) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3100: Python 3 0. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting. (line 3) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <1>: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <2>: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting. (line 161) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <3>: Custom String Formatting. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3101 <4>: Custom String Formatting. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3102: New Syntax. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104: New Syntax. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3104 <1>: The nonlocal statement. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105: Print Is A Function. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <1>: PEP 3105 print As a Function. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3105 <2>: Module Contents<5>. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3106: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <1>: PEP 484 - Type Hints. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <2>: New Syntax. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <3>: Function Annotations. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3107 <4>: Function definitions. (line 147) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108: Library Changes. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <1>: Library Changes. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3108 <2>: Library Changes. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109: Changed Syntax. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3109 <1>: Changes To Exceptions. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110: Changed Syntax. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <1>: Changes To Exceptions. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3110 <2>: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes. (line 48) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3111: Builtins. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112: PEP 3112 Byte Literals. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3112 <1>: Module Contents<5>. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3113: Removed Syntax. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3114: Operators And Special Methods. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115: types<7>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <1>: Changed Syntax. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <2>: Preparing the class namespace. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <3>: Class definitions. (line 83) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <4>: Dynamic Type Creation. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3115 <5>: Function and class definitions. (line 181) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116: Optimizations<12>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <1>: PEP 3116 New I/O Library. (line 69) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3116 <2>: Glossary. (line 1551) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <1>: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <2>: API changes. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <3>: Build and C API Changes<4>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <4>: Build and C API Changes<7>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <5>: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <6>: Library<67>. (line 99) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <7>: Library<72>. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <8>: Library<101>. (line 958) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3118 <9>: Memory Views. (line 114) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes. (line 139) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <1>: Customizing instance and subclass checks. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <2>: Examples and Recipes. (line 73) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <3>: abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <4>: Object Protocol. (line 386) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3119 <5>: Object Protocol. (line 406) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit. (line 107) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <1>: Lexical analysis. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3120 <2>: Introduction<12>. (line 91) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121: Build and C API Changes<7>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <1>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 230) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3121 <2>: Initializing C modules. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3123: Build and C API Changes<7>. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3127: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129: PEP 3129 Class Decorators. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <1>: Function definitions. (line 169) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3129 <2>: Class definitions. (line 89) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit. (line 109) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <1>: Library<56>. (line 599) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <2>: Identifiers and keywords. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3131 <3>: Identifiers and keywords. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132: New Syntax. (line 28) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3132 <1>: Assignment statements. (line 158) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134: Changed Syntax. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <1>: Changes To Exceptions. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <2>: Changes To Exceptions. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <3>: Library<30>. (line 48) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3134 <4>: Base classes. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135: Builtins. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3135 <1>: Creating the class object. (line 53) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3137: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3138: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit. (line 103) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 314: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <1>: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3141 <2>: abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3144: ipaddress<6>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <1>: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories. (line 69) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <2>: “Compiled” Python files. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <3>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 156) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <4>: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <5>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 86) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <6>: Introduction<12>. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <7>: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <8>: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <9>: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 64) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <10>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <11>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 70) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <12>: Command-line use. (line 70) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <13>: Public functions. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <14>: Public functions. (line 122) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <15>: Importing Modules<2>. (line 217) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3147 <16>: How do I create a pyc file?. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3148 <1>: Module Functions. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <1>: Core and Builtins<99>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3149 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy. (line 84) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <1>: OS exceptions. (line 123) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <2>: Exceptions<15>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <3>: select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <4>: resource — Resource usage information. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3151 <5>: Exception types. (line 252) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <1>: pickle<4>. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <2>: Library<56>. (line 1279) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3154 <3>: Data stream format. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3155 <1>: Glossary. (line 1291) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <2>: asyncio<11>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <3>: asyncio<11>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3156 <4>: selectors<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods. (line 101) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <1>: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods. (line 125) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <2>: Other Language Changes<17>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <3>: Function definitions. (line 166) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 318 <4>: Class definitions. (line 92) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 322 <1>: Other Language Changes<17>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324: PEP 324 New subprocess Module. (line 86) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 324 <1>: subprocess — Subprocess management. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 325: PEP 342 New Generator Features. (line 147) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 327: The Context type. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328: Porting Python code. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <1>: Removed Syntax. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <2>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <3>: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <4>: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <5>: Other Language Changes<17>. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <6>: References. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <7>: Built-in Functions. (line 2210) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <8>: Module Contents<5>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 328 <9>: Introduction<12>. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 331: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333: The wsgiref package. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 333 <1>: The wsgiref package. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333: New Modules<3>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <1>: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <2>: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <3>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <4>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <5>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <6>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 76) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <7>: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <8>: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <9>: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 99) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <10>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <11>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <12>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 237) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <13>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 255) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <14>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 262) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <15>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 271) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <16>: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 314) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <17>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333 <18>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#input-and-error-streams <1>: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#optional-platform-specific-file-handling: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 3333#the-start-response-callable: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <1>: Interface options. (line 100) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <2>: References. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 338 <3>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 177) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 339: Build and C API Changes<10>. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 341: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342: PEP 342 New Generator Features. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features. (line 140) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <2>: Porting to Python 2 5. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <3>: Yield expressions. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <4>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 59) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <5>: Passing values into a generator. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 342 <6>: Python documentation. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343: The contextlib module. (line 64) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <1>: PEP 342 New Generator Features. (line 129) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <2>: The contextlib module<2>. (line 64) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <3>: With Statement Context Managers. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <4>: The with statement. (line 111) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <5>: Using a context manager as a function decorator. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <6>: Module Contents<5>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <7>: Glossary. (line 312) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 343 <8>: Glossary. (line 318) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 347: Build and C API Changes<10>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352: Changes To Exceptions. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <1>: Deprecations and Removals. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 352 <2>: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353: Porting to Python 3 10<2>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <1>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <2>: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <3>: Build and C API Changes<10>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <4>: C API<41>. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 353 <5>: Types. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 356: What’s New in Python 2 5. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 357: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 361: What’s New in Python 2 6. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362: PEP 362 Function Signature Object. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <1>: Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 399) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <2>: Glossary. (line 86) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 362 <3>: Glossary. (line 1175) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366: Visible Changes. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <1>: Import-related attributes on module objects. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <2>: References. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <3>: References. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <4>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 181) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 366 <5>: Introduction<12>. (line 67) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <1>: Library<28>. (line 605) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 163) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <3>: Environment variables. (line 203) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <4>: Environment variables. (line 215) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 370 <5>: Command Line Interface<4>. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 371: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package. (line 145) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 372 <1>: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections. (line 97) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373: The Future for Python 2 x. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 373 <1>: How stable is Python?. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <1>: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 378 <2>: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 144) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator. (line 66) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380 <1>: Yield expressions. (line 100) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 380#use-of-stopiteration-to-return-values: The STOP_ITERATION event. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383: Documentation<24>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <1>: Error Handlers. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <2>: Socket families. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <3>: Locale Encoding. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <4>: Locale Encoding. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 383 <5>: File System Encoding. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384: Removed<6>. (line 53) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <1>: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 384 <2>: C API<35>. (line 100) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 385: Code Repository. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387: Warnings. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <1>: Warnings. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <2>: C API Stability. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <3>: Stable ABI. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 387 <4>: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module. (line 92) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 389 <1>: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines. (line 100) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 391 <1>: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 392: What’s New In Python 3 2. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393: Removed<6>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <1>: Porting to Python 3 9<2>. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <2>: Removed<8>. (line 101) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <3>: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <4>: Functionality. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <5>: Performance and resource usage. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <6>: Optimizations<10>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <7>: Build and C API Changes<4>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <8>: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <9>: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <10>: Porting C code. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <11>: C API<33>. (line 143) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <12>: Encodings and Unicode. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <13>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1263) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 393 <14>: Unicode Objects. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <1>: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 397 <2>: Python Launcher for Windows. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 398: What’s New In Python 3 3. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 4: Library Changes. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405: PEP 405 Virtual Environments. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 405 <1>: venv — Creation of virtual environments. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 409: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1019) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1029) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1726) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1746) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 411 <4>: Glossary. (line 1258) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 412 <1>: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 90) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 414 <1>: String and Bytes literals. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 418: time<8>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <1>: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <2>: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <3>: Core and Builtins<89>. (line 114) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <4>: The import system. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <5>: Namespace packages. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <6>: __path__ attributes on modules. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <7>: __path__ attributes on modules. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <8>: References. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <9>: References. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <10>: References. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <11>: Introduction<12>. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <12>: Glossary. (line 1076) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 420 <13>: Glossary. (line 1233) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421: SimpleNamespace. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1134) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 421 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1139) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424: Other Language Changes<10>. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 424 <1>: operator<3>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <1>: pathlib<11>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 428 <2>: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 429: What’s New In Python 3 4. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432: Other CPython implementation changes. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <1>: Core and Builtins<67>. (line 312) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <2>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 432 <3>: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 434 <1>: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <1>: enum<9>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 435 <2>: enum<9>. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 120) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <1>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 436 <2>: PEP 436 Argument Clinic. (line 28) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441: zipapp<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 441 <1>: zipapp<2>. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442: Removed<7>. (line 68) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 113) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <2>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 115) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <3>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <4>: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <5>: C API<48>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <6>: gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 254) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <7>: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 89) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 442 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1663) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <1>: functools<5>. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 443 <2>: Glossary. (line 659) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 118) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <1>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <2>: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 445 <3>: Other Improvements<2>. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <2>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <3>: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 446 <4>: Core and Builtins<19>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <1>: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <2>: Documentation<71>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <3>: Documentation<75>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <4>: Core and Builtins<92>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <5>: Core and Builtins<95>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <6>: Dictionary displays. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <7>: Calls. (line 122) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 448 <8>: Expression lists. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <1>: statistics<6>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 450 <2>: statistics<6>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451: zipimport<2>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <1>: zipimport<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <2>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <3>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <4>: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <5>: Library<28>. (line 457) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <6>: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <7>: References. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1295) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <9>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 68) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <10>: pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 102) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <11>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 90) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <12>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 167) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <13>: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 185) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <14>: Introduction<12>. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 451 <15>: Multi-phase initialization. (line 87) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <2>: Bootstrapping pip By Default. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <3>: Documentation Changes. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <4>: ensurepip<2>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <5>: venv<7>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <6>: Other Improvements<2>. (line 73) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <7>: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <8>: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <9>: Documentation Changes<2>. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 453 <10>: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <1>: tracemalloc<4>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 454 <2>: tracemalloc<4>. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456: Summary – Release Highlights<3>. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <1>: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 456 <2>: PyHash API. (line 81) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <1>: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 461 <2>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 198) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <1>: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 465 <3>: Tools/Demos<51>. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <1>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <2>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 466 <3>: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <1>: Library<74>. (line 87) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 468 <2>: OrderedDict objects. (line 105) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <1>: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 471 <2>: Library<100>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <1>: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <2>: Changes in the Python API<9>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <3>: Library<65>. (line 228) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <4>: Library<98>. (line 143) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <5>: Built-in Functions. (line 1501) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <6>: OS exceptions. (line 80) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <7>: File Descriptor Operations. (line 409) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <8>: File Descriptor Operations. (line 750) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <9>: File Descriptor Operations. (line 936) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <10>: Process Management. (line 933) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <11>: I/O Base Classes. (line 282) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <12>: I/O Base Classes. (line 300) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <13>: Functions<5>. (line 311) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <14>: Socket Objects. (line 28) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <15>: Socket Objects. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <16>: Socket Objects. (line 245) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <17>: Socket Objects. (line 259) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <18>: Socket Objects. (line 335) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <19>: Socket Objects. (line 409) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <20>: Socket Objects. (line 428) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <21>: Socket Objects. (line 447) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <22>: Socket Objects. (line 491) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <23>: select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 159) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <24>: /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <25>: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 102) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <26>: Polling Objects. (line 94) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <27>: Kqueue Objects. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <28>: Classes<4>. (line 133) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <29>: Module contents<2>. (line 591) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 475 <30>: Module contents<2>. (line 610) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 476: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 477: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 478: What’s New In Python 3 5. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479: Changes in Python Behavior. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <1>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <2>: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <3>: Library<56>. (line 1267) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <4>: Library<60>. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <5>: Core and Builtins<63>. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <6>: Library<68>. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <7>: Library<81>. (line 80) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <8>: Library<87>. (line 326) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <9>: Concrete exceptions. (line 292) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <10>: Concrete exceptions. (line 294) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 479 <11>: Module Contents<5>. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483: PEP 484 - Type Hints. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 483 <1>: Glossary. (line 667) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <1>: New Features Related to Type Hints. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <2>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <3>: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <4>: PEP 646 Variadic generics. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <5>: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <6>: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <7>: PEP 613 TypeAlias. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <8>: ast<3>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <9>: ast<3>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <10>: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <11>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <12>: PEP 484 - Type Hints. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <13>: PEP 484 - Type Hints. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <14>: Function Annotations. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <15>: Emulating generic types. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <16>: Annotated assignment statements. (line 48) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <17>: Function definitions. (line 151) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <18>: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <19>: NewType. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <20>: Nominal vs structural subtyping. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <21>: Nominal vs structural subtyping. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <22>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 113) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <23>: Functions and decorators. (line 280) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <24>: Root nodes. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <25>: ast Helpers. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <26>: ast Helpers. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <27>: Compiler Flags. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <28>: Glossary. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <29>: Glossary. (line 594) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <30>: Glossary. (line 667) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <31>: Glossary. (line 1526) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <32>: Glossary. (line 1543) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484 <33>: Glossary. (line 1573) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 484#annotating-instance-and-class-methods: PEP 673 Self type. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <1>: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <2>: Library<96>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <3>: Floating point manipulation functions. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 485 <4>: Classification functions. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <1>: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 486 <2>: Windows<77>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <1>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <2>: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <3>: Changes in the Python API<8>. (line 103) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <4>: Documentation<61>. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <5>: Documentation<68>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 487 <6>: Core and Builtins<81>. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <1>: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <2>: Changes in the Python API<9>. (line 79) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <3>: Core and Builtins<99>. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <4>: Miscellaneous options. (line 88) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <5>: Miscellaneous options. (line 90) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <6>: Miscellaneous options. (line 97) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <7>: Miscellaneous options. (line 99) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <8>: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <9>: Introduction<12>. (line 79) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <10>: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <11>: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 64) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 488 <12>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <1>: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <2>: Build and C API Changes<3>. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <3>: Library<14>. (line 254) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <4>: Library<24>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <5>: Library<40>. (line 64) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <6>: Library<40>. (line 79) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <7>: Core and Builtins<42>. (line 70) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <8>: Library<41>. (line 68) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <9>: Library<41>. (line 177) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <10>: Core and Builtins<43>. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <11>: Library<42>. (line 103) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <12>: C API<39>. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <13>: C API<39>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <14>: C API<39>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <15>: C API<39>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <16>: C API<39>. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <17>: C API<39>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <18>: C API<39>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <19>: C API<39>. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <20>: C API<39>. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <21>: C API<39>. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <22>: C API<39>. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <23>: Library<43>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <24>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <25>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <26>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <27>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <28>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <29>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <30>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <31>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <32>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 74) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <33>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 90) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <34>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 102) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <35>: Library<44>. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <36>: Library<44>. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <37>: Library<44>. (line 423) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <38>: Core and Builtins<46>. (line 28) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <39>: Core and Builtins<46>. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <40>: Core and Builtins<46>. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <41>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <42>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <43>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <44>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <45>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <46>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <47>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <48>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <49>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <50>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 109) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <51>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 118) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <52>: Core and Builtins<49>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <53>: Core and Builtins<49>. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <54>: Core and Builtins<49>. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <55>: Core and Builtins<49>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <56>: Core and Builtins<49>. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <57>: Core and Builtins<50>. (line 62) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <58>: Introduction<12>. (line 83) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <59>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <60>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 298) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <61>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 317) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <62>: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 323) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <63>: importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 183) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <64>: Creating extensions without third party tools. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <65>: Building C and C++ Extensions. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <66>: Multi-phase initialization. (line 181) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 489 <67>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 81) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <1>: New Keywords. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <2>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <3>: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax. (line 97) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <4>: New Keywords<2>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <5>: Changes in the C API<7>. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <6>: Core and Builtins<66>. (line 98) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <7>: Library<82>. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <8>: Library<88>. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <9>: Core and Builtins<96>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <10>: Awaitable Objects. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <11>: Yield expressions. (line 107) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <12>: The async with statement. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <13>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 166) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <14>: Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <15>: Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <16>: Glossary. (line 92) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <17>: Glossary. (line 125) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <18>: Glossary. (line 132) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <19>: Glossary. (line 141) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <20>: Glossary. (line 159) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <21>: Glossary. (line 345) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 492 <22>: Glossary. (line 352) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 493: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 494: What’s New In Python 3 6. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <1>: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <2>: Library<80>. (line 96) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 495 <3>: Using ZoneInfo. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498: PEP 498 Formatted string literals. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <1>: PEP 498 Formatted string literals. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <2>: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 283) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <3>: f-strings. (line 154) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 498 <4>: Glossary. (line 493) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5: PEP 230 Warning Framework. (line 66) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 5 <1>: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506: secrets. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <1>: Library<83>. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 506 <2>: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets. (line 24) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 511: Changes in the Python API<8>. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514: Windows py exe launcher improvements. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <1>: Windows<26>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <2>: Windows<69>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 514 <3>: From the command-line. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515: fractions<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <1>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <2>: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <3>: Core and Builtins<80>. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <4>: Core and Builtins<80>. (line 43) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <5>: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 146) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 515 <6>: fractions — Rational numbers. (line 98) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol. (line 62) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <1>: Library<80>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <2>: Core and Builtins<83>. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <3>: Library<82>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <4>: Library<82>. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <5>: Library<82>. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <6>: C API<69>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 519 <7>: Glossary. (line 1212) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 520: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523: New Features<4>. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <2>: Porting to Python 3 9<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <3>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <4>: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <5>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <6>: Tools/Demos<33>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <7>: Tools/Demos<37>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <8>: Core and Builtins<80>. (line 83) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <9>: Internal Frames. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <10>: Low-level API. (line 186) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 523 <11>: Low-level API. (line 195) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524: Summary – Release highlights<6>. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <1>: os<8>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <2>: os<8>. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <3>: Library<79>. (line 150) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <4>: Library<79>. (line 154) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 524 <5>: Random numbers<2>. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <1>: Core and Builtins<80>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <2>: Yield expressions. (line 105) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 166) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1016) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1721) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <6>: Code Objects Bit Flags. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 525 <7>: Glossary. (line 126) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526: Other Language Changes<4>. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <1>: ast<3>. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <2>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <3>: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <4>: typing<9>. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <5>: Core and Builtins<80>. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <6>: Annotated assignment statements. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <7>: Function definitions. (line 155) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <8>: Special forms. (line 197) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <9>: Other special directives. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <10>: dataclasses — Data Classes. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <11>: Class variables. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <12>: ast Helpers. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <13>: Compiler Flags. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <14>: Glossary. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 526 <15>: Glossary. (line 1573) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <1>: UTF-8 mode. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <2>: Global configuration variables. (line 172) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 528 <3>: PyConfig. (line 542) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <1>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <2>: Documentation<24>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <3>: Library<51>. (line 619) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <4>: Windows<64>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <5>: Environment variables. (line 350) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <6>: UTF-8 mode. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <7>: Files and Directories. (line 302) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <8>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 799) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <9>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1802) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <10>: File System Encoding. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 529 <11>: Global configuration variables. (line 154) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <1>: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <2>: Core and Builtins<80>. (line 145) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 530 <3>: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <1>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <2>: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. (line 48) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <3>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <4>: Documentation<51>. (line 68) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <5>: Documentation<52>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <6>: Core and Builtins<67>. (line 134) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <7>: Environment variables. (line 419) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <8>: General Options. (line 88) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <9>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 518) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 538 <10>: Python Configuration. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <1>: PEP 539 New C API for Thread-Local Storage. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <2>: C API<58>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 539 <3>: Thread Specific Storage TSS API. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <1>: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <2>: Core and Builtins<64>. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <4>: locale — Internationalization services. (line 518) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 540 <5>: Python Configuration. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544: typing<8>. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <1>: Nominal vs structural subtyping. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 544 <2>: Other special directives. (line 154) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 545 <1>: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552: Other CPython Implementation Changes. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <1>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <2>: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <3>: Library<56>. (line 794) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <4>: Core and Builtins<64>. (line 75) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <5>: Introduction<12>. (line 87) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <6>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 552 <7>: PyConfig. (line 275) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 553 <1>: Core and Builtins<66>. (line 72) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 554 <1>: A Per-Interpreter GIL. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557: dataclasses<3>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 557 <1>: dataclasses — Data Classes. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <1>: types<4>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <2>: Core and Builtins<64>. (line 66) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <3>: Resolving MRO entries. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <4>: __class_getitem__ versus __getitem__. (line 85) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <5>: Dynamic Type Creation. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <6>: Dynamic Type Creation. (line 76) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 560 <7>: Dynamic Type Creation. (line 114) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562: PEP 562 Customization of Access to Module Attributes. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <1>: Library<63>. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <2>: Core and Builtins<64>. (line 69) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 562 <3>: Customizing module attribute access. (line 52) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563: PEP 563 may not be the future. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <1>: PEP 563 Postponed Evaluation of Annotations. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <2>: Library<37>. (line 300) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <3>: Core and Builtins<44>. (line 83) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <4>: Future statements. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <5>: Function definitions. (line 160) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <6>: Constant. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <7>: Module Contents<5>. (line 131) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 563 <8>: Module Contents<5>. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <1>: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <2>: time<5>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 564 <3>: Library<65>. (line 299) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 565 <1>: Warnings. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 566: Distribution metadata. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567: contextvars. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <1>: asyncio<7>. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <2>: Documentation<51>. (line 86) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <3>: Documentation<53>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <4>: Core and Builtins<63>. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <5>: contextvars — Context Variables. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <6>: Scheduling callbacks. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <7>: Scheduling delayed callbacks. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <8>: Scheduling delayed callbacks. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 567 <9>: Future Object. (line 104) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570: Positional-only parameters. (line 70) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <1>: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 160) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <2>: Core and Builtins<54>. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 570 <3>: Function definitions. (line 107) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572: Other Language Changes<2>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <1>: Assignment expressions. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <2>: CPython bytecode changes<5>. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <3>: Core and Builtins<26>. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <4>: Documentation<42>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <5>: Core and Builtins<52>. (line 184) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <6>: Core and Builtins<57>. (line 92) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <7>: Dictionary displays. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <8>: Assignment expressions<2>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <9>: Capture Patterns. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 572 <10>: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <1>: New Features<10>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <2>: Core and Builtins<46>. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 573 <3>: C API<42>. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574: Pickle protocol 5 with out-of-band data buffers. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <1>: Data stream format. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 574 <2>: Example<4>. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <1>: Audit events table. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 578 <3>: System Functions. (line 138) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <1>: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <2>: Library<46>. (line 193) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <3>: Library<46>. (line 196) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <4>: Library<46>. (line 210) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <5>: Library<47>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <6>: Library<47>. (line 62) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <7>: Library<47>. (line 120) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <8>: Library<47>. (line 142) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <9>: ChainMap objects. (line 90) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <10>: defaultdict objects. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <11>: OrderedDict objects. (line 110) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <12>: weakref — Weak references. (line 201) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <13>: weakref — Weak references. (line 221) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <14>: Standard Interpreter Types. (line 233) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <15>: Process Parameters. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 584 <16>: Process Parameters. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <1>: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <2>: Library<25>. (line 158) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <3>: Library<34>. (line 124) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <4>: Documentation<30>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <5>: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <6>: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers. (line 87) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <7>: Standard Interpreter Types. (line 176) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <8>: Introspection helpers. (line 157) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <9>: Deprecated aliases. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <10>: Aliases to built-in types. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <11>: Aliases to built-in types. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <12>: Aliases to built-in types. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <13>: Aliases to built-in types. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <14>: Aliases to built-in types. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <15>: Aliases to built-in types. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <16>: Aliases to types in collections. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <17>: Aliases to types in collections. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <18>: Aliases to types in collections. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <19>: Aliases to types in collections. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <20>: Aliases to types in collections. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <21>: Aliases to other concrete types. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <22>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <23>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <24>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <25>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <26>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <27>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 63) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <28>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <29>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 79) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <30>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 88) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <31>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <32>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 103) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <33>: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 111) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <34>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <35>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <36>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <37>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 56) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <38>: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc. (line 66) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <39>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <40>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <41>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <42>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 47) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <43>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 65) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <44>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <45>: Aliases to contextlib ABCs. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <46>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 585 <47>: Glossary. (line 668) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586: typing<5>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <1>: typing<7>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <2>: typing<8>. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 586 <3>: Special forms. (line 154) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587: Removed C APIs. (line 104) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <1>: Deprecated<4>. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <2>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <3>: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration. (line 83) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <4>: C API<33>. (line 125) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <5>: Core and Builtins<52>. (line 76) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <6>: C API<49>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 587 <7>: Python Initialization Configuration. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589: typing<8>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 589 <1>: Other special directives. (line 463) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590: Removed C APIs. (line 135) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>. (line 98) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <2>: Optimizations<4>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <4>: Optimizations<5>. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <5>: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <6>: Core and Builtins<15>. (line 170) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <7>: Library<20>. (line 1079) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <8>: C API<18>. (line 146) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <9>: Core and Builtins<28>. (line 113) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <10>: Library<30>. (line 69) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <11>: Core and Builtins<33>. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <12>: Core and Builtins<36>. (line 118) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <13>: Core and Builtins<37>. (line 348) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <14>: Core and Builtins<39>. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <15>: Core and Builtins<39>. (line 74) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <16>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <17>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <18>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <19>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 91) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <20>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <21>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <22>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 67) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <23>: C API<49>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 590 <24>: The Vectorcall Protocol. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591: typing<8>. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <1>: Special forms. (line 242) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 591 <2>: Functions and decorators. (line 335) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <1>: typing<6>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <2>: Library<48>. (line 91) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <3>: Special forms. (line 431) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 593 <4>: Introspection helpers. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <1>: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 13. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <3>: asynchat and asyncore. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <4>: smtpd. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <5>: Summary – Release highlights<2>. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <6>: Modules. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <7>: Library<20>. (line 845) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <8>: Library<20>. (line 848) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <9>: Library<20>. (line 851) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <10>: Library<20>. (line 859) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <11>: Library<20>. (line 863) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <12>: Library<20>. (line 869) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <13>: Library<20>. (line 872) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <14>: Library<20>. (line 887) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <15>: Library<20>. (line 890) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <16>: Library<20>. (line 897) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <17>: Library<20>. (line 900) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <18>: Library<20>. (line 903) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <19>: Library<20>. (line 906) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <20>: Library<20>. (line 909) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <21>: Library<20>. (line 964) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <22>: Library<20>. (line 967) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <23>: Library<20>. (line 970) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <24>: Library<20>. (line 973) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <25>: Library<27>. (line 102) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <26>: Library<28>. (line 684) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <27>: Library<29>. (line 94) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <28>: Library<30>. (line 124) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <29>: Library<30>. (line 150) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <30>: Tests<27>. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <31>: Superseded Modules. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <32>: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <33>: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <34>: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <35>: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <36>: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <37>: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <38>: chunk — Read IFF chunked data. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <39>: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <40>: imghdr — Determine the type of an image. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <41>: mailcap — Mailcap file handling. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <42>: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <43>: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <44>: nntplib — NNTP protocol client. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <45>: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <46>: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <47>: smtpd — SMTP Server. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <48>: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <49>: spwd — The shadow password database. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <50>: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <51>: telnetlib — Telnet client. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <52>: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 594 <53>: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 596: What’s New In Python 3 9. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <1>: Library<38>. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 597 <2>: Opt-in EncodingWarning. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 164) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <1>: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 602 <2>: How stable is Python?. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <1>: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator. (line 28) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <2>: Library<41>. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <3>: Documentation<39>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <4>: Union Type. (line 104) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 604 <5>: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations. (line 42) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 610: Distributions. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 29) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <1>: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <2>: Library<36>. (line 691) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <3>: Library<37>. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <4>: Core and Builtins<42>. (line 59) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <5>: Library<41>. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <6>: Library<41>. (line 119) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <7>: Annotating callable objects. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <8>: User-defined generic types. (line 179) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <9>: Special forms. (line 125) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <10>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 464) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 612 <11>: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 31) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <1>: PEP 613 TypeAlias. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <2>: Library<43>. (line 98) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 613 <3>: Special types. (line 228) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <1>: Other Language Changes<5>. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <2>: Core and Builtins<48>. (line 112) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <3>: Function definitions. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 614 <4>: Class definitions. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <1>: zoneinfo. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <2>: Library<45>. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 615 <3>: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <1>: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 616 <2>: Core and Builtins<47>. (line 82) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings. (line 69) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <1>: Modules. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <2>: Parenthesized context managers. (line 45) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<4>. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <4>: New Parser. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <5>: Deprecated<7>. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <6>: Library<36>. (line 178) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <7>: Library<46>. (line 34) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 617 <8>: Full Grammar specification. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 19) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <1>: Other Language Changes<4>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 618 <2>: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 209) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623: Summary – Release highlights. (line 107) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <1>: Optimizations<2>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <2>: Removed<2>. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <4>: C API<26>. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <5>: Core and Builtins<40>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <6>: Documentation<34>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 623 <7>: Unicode Objects. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624: Summary – Release highlights<2>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <1>: Removed<4>. (line 97) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624 <3>: C API<33>. (line 143) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 624#alternative-apis: Removed<4>. (line 97) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626: Pending Removal in Python 3 15. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <1>: Deprecated. (line 215) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<3>. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <3>: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 23) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <4>: Core and Builtins<29>. (line 422) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <5>: Methods on code objects. (line 81) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <6>: Analysis functions. (line 175) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 626 <7>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>. (line 77) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628: cmath. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <1>: math<7>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 628 <2>: Library<80>. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632: Summary – Release highlights. (line 111) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <1>: distutils. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <2>: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <3>: distutils<2>. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <4>: Library<27>. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 632 <5>: distutils — Building and installing Python modules. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <1>: Other Key Features. (line 53) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <2>: Core and Builtins<30>. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <3>: Core and Builtins<38>. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <4>: Core and Builtins<40>. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <5>: Customizing positional arguments in class pattern matching. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <6>: The match statement. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <7>: Class Patterns. (line 136) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <8>: PyTypeObject Slots. (line 820) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 634 <9>: PyTypeObject Slots. (line 844) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 635 <1>: Other Key Features. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <1>: Other Key Features. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <2>: match Statements. (line 180) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <3>: The match statement. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 636 <4>: Class Patterns. (line 138) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644: hashlib. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <1>: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 37) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <2>: hashlib<3>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <3>: ssl<3>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <4>: Build Changes<4>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <5>: Core and Builtins<19>. (line 167) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <6>: Library<28>. (line 525) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <7>: Build<35>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 644 <8>: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646: PEP 646 Variadic generics. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <1>: PEP 646 Variadic generics. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <2>: Subscriptions. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <3>: Expression lists. (line 27) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <4>: Function definitions. (line 126) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 646 <5>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 320) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647: Summary – Release highlights<3>. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <1>: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <2>: Library<37>. (line 182) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 647 <3>: Special forms. (line 545) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649: Annotation scopes. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 649 <1>: Module Contents<5>. (line 132) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 652 <1>: C API<34>. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <1>: PEP 654 Exception Groups and except*. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <2>: New opcodes. (line 18) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <3>: Core and Builtins<29>. (line 174) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <4>: Core and Builtins<34>. (line 146) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 654 <5>: Core and Builtins<36>. (line 88) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <1>: Library<29>. (line 266) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <2>: Special forms. (line 256) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <3>: Special forms. (line 265) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 655 <4>: Other special directives. (line 469) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <1>: inspect<2>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <2>: Library<29>. (line 223) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 657 <3>: Core and Builtins<37>. (line 337) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <1>: PEP 659 Specializing Adaptive Interpreter. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 659 <2>: Single-threaded performance. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <1>: Defined mutation semantics for locals. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <2>: Defined mutation semantics for locals. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <3>: Deprecated C APIs. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <4>: Changes in the Python API. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <5>: Changes in the Python API. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <6>: Changes in the Python API. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <7>: Built-in Functions. (line 1153) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <8>: pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 128) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <9>: Reflection. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <10>: Frame Objects. (line 130) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 667 <11>: Frame Locals Proxies. (line 14) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 110) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <1>: New Features<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <2>: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 669 <3>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 203) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670: Summary – Release highlights<2>. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 670 <1>: Porting to Python 3 11<2>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673: PEP 673 Self type. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <1>: Library<31>. (line 134) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 673 <2>: Special types. (line 194) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <1>: Library<30>. (line 59) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 675 <2>: Special types. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 676: Documentation<25>. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678: Other Language Changes<2>. (line 36) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <1>: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <2>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 183) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <3>: Core and Builtins<23>. (line 57) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 678 <4>: Core and Builtins<30>. (line 118) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680: Summary – Release highlights<2>. (line 20) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <1>: New Modules<3>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 680 <2>: Library<30>. (line 205) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681: PEP 681 Data class transforms. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <1>: Library<29>. (line 110) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 681 <2>: Functions and decorators. (line 243) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682: Other Language Changes<3>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 682 <1>: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 94) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683: New Features<4>. (line 147) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <1>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 73) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <2>: Reference Counting. (line 122) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 683 <3>: Glossary. (line 734) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 684 <1>: New Features<4>. (line 182) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 71) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 686 <1>: Text Encoding. (line 32) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687: Library<16>. (line 137) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <1>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 326) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <2>: Library<21>. (line 290) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <3>: Library<21>. (line 297) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <4>: Library<21>. (line 330) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <5>: Library<21>. (line 333) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <6>: Library<21>. (line 343) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <7>: Library<21>. (line 400) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <8>: Core and Builtins<23>. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <9>: Library<23>. (line 111) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 687 <10>: Library<23>. (line 118) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <1>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 211) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <2>: Emulating buffer types. (line 39) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 688 <3>: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 176) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 689: C API<21>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <1>: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing. (line 21) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <2>: Library<21>. (line 117) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <3>: Documentation<16>. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 692 <4>: Special forms. (line 625) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 693: What’s New In Python 3 12. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <1>: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <2>: CPython bytecode changes. (line 41) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <3>: Library<12>. (line 76) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <4>: Library<14>. (line 123) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <5>: Library<20>. (line 95) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <6>: Library<20>. (line 661) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <7>: Library<20>. (line 856) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <8>: Library<20>. (line 949) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <9>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <10>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 108) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <11>: Library<21>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <12>: Annotation scopes. (line 55) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <13>: The type statement. (line 40) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <14>: Special types. (line 60) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <15>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 113) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <16>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 212) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <17>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 346) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <18>: Building generic types and type aliases. (line 453) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 695 <19>: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 115) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <1>: Core and Builtins<15>. (line 190) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <2>: Annotation scopes. (line 58) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 696 <3>: Type parameter lists. (line 8) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697: New Features<4>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <1>: New Features<4>. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 697 <2>: C API<19>. (line 38) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing. (line 30) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <1>: Library<23>. (line 100) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 698 <2>: Functions and decorators. (line 407) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <1>: Deprecated<2>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<4>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <3>: Build<22>. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 699 <4>: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7: Build and C API Changes<2>. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <1>: Build Requirements. (line 51) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <2>: Coding standards. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <3>: Useful macros. (line 162) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 7 <4>: Useful macros. (line 180) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <1>: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings. (line 66) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <2>: tokenize. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <3>: Optimizations<2>. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <4>: Changes in the Python API<2>. (line 76) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <5>: Changes in the Python API<2>. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 701 <6>: Changes in the Python API<2>. (line 100) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 119) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <1>: warnings. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <2>: Library<18>. (line 469) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 702 <3>: Available Functions. (line 182) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 10) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 46) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <2>: Free-threaded CPython. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <3>: Core and Builtins<17>. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <4>: C API<17>. (line 137) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <5>: Installing Free-threaded Binaries. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <6>: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <7>: GIL and performance considerations. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <8>: Python experimental support for free threading. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <9>: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?. (line 12) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <10>: Glossary. (line 560) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 703 <11>: Glossary. (line 696) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 123) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <1>: typing. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <2>: Library<16>. (line 17) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 705 <3>: Special forms. (line 286) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706: Other Language Changes<2>. (line 78) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <1>: tarfile<2>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <2>: tarfile<3>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <3>: tarfile<4>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <4>: tarfile<6>. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 706 <5>: Extraction filters. (line 22) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709: Changes in the Python API. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <1>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <2>: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <3>: CPython bytecode changes. (line 33) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <4>: Core and Builtins<22>. (line 213) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 709 <5>: Built-in Functions. (line 1151) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 719: What’s New In Python 3 13. (line 16) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 133) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730 <1>: Support for mobile platforms. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 730 <2>: Support for mobile platforms. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 734: Library<14>. (line 161) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737: Changed C APIs. (line 44) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737 <1>: C API<13>. (line 6) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 737 <2>: C API<13>. (line 49) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 136) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <1>: Support for mobile platforms. (line 15) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <2>: Support for mobile platforms. (line 25) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 738 <3>: Library<14>. (line 54) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 127) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <1>: typing. (line 9) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <2>: Library<14>. (line 239) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 742 <3>: Special forms. (line 523) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 11) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <1>: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 50) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 744 <2>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 62) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8: Library Changes. (line 26) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <1>: Library<65>. (line 124) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <2>: IDLE<65>. (line 81) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <3>: Intermezzo Coding Style. (line 13) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <4>: Editors and IDEs. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <5>: Value comparisons. (line 61) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <6>: Built-in Functions. (line 1835) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <7>: Odds and Ends<2>. (line 35) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <8>: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?. (line 7) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <9>: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?. (line 59) * Python Enhancement Proposals; PEP 8 <10>: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?. (line 6) * PYTHON_BASIC_REPL: A better interactive interpreter. (line 27) * PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <1>: Library<7>. (line 322) * PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <2>: Library<7>. (line 326) * PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <3>: Core and Builtins<13>. (line 55) * PYTHON_BASIC_REPL <4>: Interactive Mode<2>. (line 23) * python_branch() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 85) * python_build() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 75) * PYTHON_COLORS: Summary – Release Highlights. (line 57) * PYTHON_COLORS <1>: Improved error messages. (line 8) * PYTHON_COLORS <2>: doctest. (line 7) * PYTHON_COLORS <3>: Controlling color. (line 22) * python_compiler() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 80) * PYTHON_CPU_COUNT: os. (line 11) * PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 375) * PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <2>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 48) * PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <3>: Miscellaneous System Information. (line 69) * PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <4>: Miscellaneous<3>. (line 31) * PYTHON_CPU_COUNT <5>: PyConfig. (line 497) * PYTHON_DOM: Module Contents<4>. (line 23) * PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES: Other Language Changes. (line 46) * PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <1>: Core and Builtins<20>. (line 105) * PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 346) * PYTHON_GIL: Free-threaded CPython. (line 22) * PYTHON_GIL <1>: Free-threaded CPython. (line 38) * PYTHON_GIL <2>: Core and Builtins<10>. (line 40) * PYTHON_GIL <3>: Miscellaneous options. (line 393) * PYTHON_GIL <4>: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python. (line 7) * PYTHON_GIL <5>: Glossary. (line 693) * PYTHON_HISTORY: Other Language Changes. (line 57) * PYTHON_HISTORY <1>: Library<18>. (line 544) * python_implementation() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 89) * python_is_optimized() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 251) * PYTHON_JIT: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 21) * PYTHON_JIT <1>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 24) * PYTHON_JIT <2>: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler. (line 28) * PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT: Other Language Changes. (line 52) * PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 365) * PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <2>: PyConfig. (line 876) * PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <3>: PyConfig. (line 879) * PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT <4>: How to work without frame pointers. (line 14) * PYTHON_PRESITE: Miscellaneous options. (line 387) * PYTHON_PRESITE <1>: PyConfig. (line 776) * PYTHON_PRESITE=package.module: Core and Builtins<20>. (line 154) * python_revision() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 94) * python_version_tuple() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 106) * python_version() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 99) * python-m-py_compile command line option; -: Command-Line Interface<6>. (line 13) * python-m-py_compile command line option; -q: Command-Line Interface<6>. (line 19) * python-m-py_compile command line option; -quiet: Command-Line Interface<6>. (line 19) * python-m-py_compile command line option; : Command-Line Interface<6>. (line 13) * python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -h: Command-line interface. (line 14) * python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -help: Command-line interface. (line 14) * python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -v: Command-line interface. (line 18) * python-m-sqlite3-[-h]-[-v]-[filename]-[sql] command line option; -version: Command-line interface. (line 18) * PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG: Enabling debug mode. (line 10) * PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <1>: Debug Mode. (line 11) * PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG <2>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 65) * PYTHONBREAKPOINT: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint. (line 13) * PYTHONBREAKPOINT <1>: Built-in Functions. (line 159) * PYTHONBREAKPOINT <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 257) * PYTHONBREAKPOINT <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 271) * PYTHONBREAKPOINT <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 275) * PYTHONCASEOK: Changes in the Python API<4>. (line 29) * PYTHONCASEOK <1>: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms. (line 17) * PYTHONCASEOK <2>: Library<47>. (line 144) * PYTHONCASEOK <3>: Built-in Functions. (line 2249) * PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion. (line 13) * PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <1>: General Options. (line 88) * PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <2>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 57) * PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE <3>: Python Configuration. (line 15) * PYTHONDEBUG: Miscellaneous options. (line 37) * PYTHONDEBUG <1>: Python Debug Build. (line 20) * PYTHONDEBUG <2>: Global configuration variables. (line 38) * PYTHONDEBUG <3>: PyConfig. (line 667) * PYTHONDEVMODE: Python Development Mode -X dev. (line 6) * PYTHONDEVMODE <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 305) * PYTHONDEVMODE <2>: Python Development Mode. (line 14) * PYTHONDEVMODE <3>: PyConfig. (line 296) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE: Interpreter Changes<2>. (line 16) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <1>: New and Improved Modules<2>. (line 626) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 19) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 341) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <4>: Global configuration variables. (line 52) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <5>: PyConfig. (line 953) * PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE <6>: How do I create a pyc file?. (line 21) * PYTHONDUMPREFS: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build. (line 15) * PYTHONDUMPREFS <1>: Build<51>. (line 54) * PYTHONDUMPREFS <2>: Debug options. (line 22) * PYTHONDUMPREFS <3>: Debug options. (line 24) * PYTHONDUMPREFS <4>: PyConfig. (line 307) * PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE: Core and Builtins<37>. (line 154) * PYTHONEXECUTABLE: PyConfig. (line 702) * PYTHONFAULTHANDLER: faulthandler<4>. (line 11) * PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 267) * PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <2>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 59) * PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <3>: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback. (line 15) * PYTHONFAULTHANDLER <4>: PyConfig. (line 345) * PythonFinalizationError: Concrete exceptions. (line 225) * PYTHONHASHSEED: Builtin functions and types. (line 17) * PYTHONHASHSEED <1>: Porting Python code. (line 6) * PYTHONHASHSEED <2>: Core and Builtins<64>. (line 30) * PYTHONHASHSEED <3>: Miscellaneous options. (line 130) * PYTHONHASHSEED <4>: Miscellaneous options. (line 146) * PYTHONHASHSEED <5>: Environment variables. (line 156) * PYTHONHASHSEED <6>: Basic customization. (line 316) * PYTHONHASHSEED <7>: Global configuration variables. (line 77) * PYTHONHASHSEED <8>: Global configuration variables. (line 80) * PYTHONHASHSEED <9>: PyConfig. (line 415) * PYTHONHOME: Deprecated C APIs. (line 26) * PYTHONHOME <1>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>. (line 36) * PYTHONHOME <2>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<4>. (line 36) * PYTHONHOME <3>: Summary – Release highlights<6>. (line 107) * PYTHONHOME <4>: Miscellaneous options. (line 46) * PYTHONHOME <5>: Environment variables. (line 19) * PYTHONHOME <6>: Environment variables. (line 21) * PYTHONHOME <7>: Environment variables. (line 38) * PYTHONHOME <8>: Finding modules. (line 29) * PYTHONHOME <9>: Finding modules. (line 47) * PYTHONHOME <10>: Finding modules. (line 81) * PYTHONHOME <11>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 149) * PYTHONHOME <12>: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 25) * PYTHONHOME <13>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 30) * PYTHONHOME <14>: Virtual environments<2>. (line 14) * PYTHONHOME <15>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 38) * PYTHONHOME <16>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 44) * PYTHONHOME <17>: Global configuration variables. (line 92) * PYTHONHOME <18>: Process-wide parameters. (line 295) * PYTHONHOME <19>: Process-wide parameters. (line 311) * PYTHONHOME <20>: Process-wide parameters. (line 320) * PYTHONHOME <21>: PyConfig. (line 423) * PYTHONHOME <22>: PyConfig. (line 425) * PYTHONHOME <23>: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>. (line 36) * Pythonic: Glossary. (line 1268) * PYTHONINSPECT: Other Changes and Fixes<2>. (line 13) * PYTHONINSPECT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 68) * PYTHONINSPECT <2>: Global configuration variables. (line 109) * PYTHONINSPECT <3>: PyConfig. (line 450) * PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS: Core and Builtins<29>. (line 106) * PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 289) * PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <2>: Configuring the limit. (line 9) * PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <3>: Configuring the limit. (line 16) * PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1163) * PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS <5>: PyConfig. (line 481) * PYTHONIOENCODING: Other Improvements<2>. (line 75) * PYTHONIOENCODING <1>: Interpreter Changes<2>. (line 23) * PYTHONIOENCODING <2>: Environment variables. (line 402) * PYTHONIOENCODING <3>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 29) * PYTHONIOENCODING <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1848) * PYTHONIOENCODING <5>: PyConfig. (line 836) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING: New Deprecations. (line 130) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <1>: Pending removal in Python 3 16. (line 50) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <2>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<3>. (line 50) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <3>: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8. (line 18) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <4>: Windows<14>. (line 37) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <5>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1788) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <6>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1799) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <7>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1805) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <8>: Global configuration variables. (line 151) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <9>: PyPreConfig. (line 123) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING <10>: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>. (line 50) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8. (line 12) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <1>: Environment variables. (line 191) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1852) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <3>: Global configuration variables. (line 169) * PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO <4>: PyConfig. (line 534) * PYTHONMALLOC: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable. (line 6) * PYTHONMALLOC <1>: Changes in the C API<6>. (line 9) * PYTHONMALLOC <2>: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 90) * PYTHONMALLOC <3>: Environment variables. (line 329) * PYTHONMALLOC <4>: Performance options. (line 109) * PYTHONMALLOC <5>: Performance options. (line 116) * PYTHONMALLOC <6>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 46) * PYTHONMALLOC <7>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 50) * PYTHONMALLOC <8>: Overview<4>. (line 75) * PYTHONMALLOC <9>: Default Memory Allocators. (line 26) * PYTHONMALLOC <10>: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators. (line 11) * PYTHONMALLOC <11>: The pymalloc allocator. (line 27) * PYTHONMALLOCSTATS: Core and Builtins<84>. (line 96) * PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <1>: PyConfig. (line 550) * PYTHONMALLOCSTATS <2>: Overview<4>. (line 78) * PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES: PEP 657 Fine-grained error locations in tracebacks. (line 63) * PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 334) * PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <2>: Methods on code objects. (line 40) * PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES <3>: PyConfig. (line 249) * PYTHONNOUSERSITE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 30) * PYTHONNOUSERSITE <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 158) * PYTHONNOUSERSITE <2>: Module contents<5>. (line 15) * PYTHONNOUSERSITE <3>: Global configuration variables. (line 203) * PYTHONNOUSERSITE <4>: PyConfig. (line 906) * PYTHONOPTIMIZE: Miscellaneous options. (line 88) * PYTHONOPTIMIZE <1>: Global configuration variables. (line 214) * PYTHONOPTIMIZE <2>: PyConfig. (line 617) * PYTHONPATH: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 8) * PYTHONPATH <1>: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>. (line 9) * PYTHONPATH <2>: The Module Search Path. (line 16) * PYTHONPATH <3>: Standard Modules. (line 34) * PYTHONPATH <4>: Standard Modules. (line 35) * PYTHONPATH <5>: Miscellaneous options. (line 45) * PYTHONPATH <6>: Environment variables. (line 32) * PYTHONPATH <7>: Environment variables. (line 39) * PYTHONPATH <8>: Environment variables. (line 42) * PYTHONPATH <9>: Excursus Setting environment variables. (line 38) * PYTHONPATH <10>: Finding modules. (line 15) * PYTHONPATH <11>: Finding modules. (line 38) * PYTHONPATH <12>: Finding modules. (line 81) * PYTHONPATH <13>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 152) * PYTHONPATH <14>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 183) * PYTHONPATH <15>: Adding Python to an iOS project. (line 189) * PYTHONPATH <16>: Path entry finders. (line 6) * PYTHONPATH <17>: Path entry finders. (line 23) * PYTHONPATH <18>: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 26) * PYTHONPATH <19>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1329) * PYTHONPATH <20>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1334) * PYTHONPATH <21>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 14) * PYTHONPATH <22>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 18) * PYTHONPATH <23>: Building C and C++ Extensions. (line 9) * PYTHONPATH <24>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 39) * PYTHONPATH <25>: Embedding Python<2>. (line 45) * PYTHONPATH <26>: Global configuration variables. (line 91) * PYTHONPATH <27>: PyConfig. (line 583) * PYTHONPERFSUPPORT: Other Language Changes<2>. (line 85) * PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 354) * PYTHONPERFSUPPORT <2>: How to enable perf profiling support. (line 7) * PYTHONPLATLIBDIR: Core and Builtins<45>. (line 274) * PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <1>: The initialization of the sys path module search path. (line 51) * PYTHONPLATLIBDIR <2>: PyConfig. (line 562) * PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME: Other Language Changes<7>. (line 47) * PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <1>: Core and Builtins<66>. (line 66) * PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 298) * PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME <3>: PyConfig. (line 435) * PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files. (line 6) * PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <1>: Core and Builtins<57>. (line 402) * PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 318) * PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 387) * PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX <4>: PyConfig. (line 724) * PYTHONREGRTEST_UNICODE_GUARD: Tests<26>. (line 13) * PYTHONSAFEPATH: Summary – Release highlights<2>. (line 27) * PYTHONSAFEPATH <1>: Other Language Changes<3>. (line 37) * PYTHONSAFEPATH <2>: Security<20>. (line 6) * PYTHONSAFEPATH <3>: Miscellaneous options. (line 116) * PYTHONSAFEPATH <4>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1346) * PYTHONSAFEPATH <5>: Security Considerations<3>. (line 47) * PYTHONSAFEPATH <6>: PyConfig. (line 166) * PYTHONSTARTUP: sys<12>. (line 17) * PYTHONSTARTUP <1>: sys<12>. (line 21) * PYTHONSTARTUP <2>: IDLE<39>. (line 176) * PYTHONSTARTUP <3>: IDLE<43>. (line 9) * PYTHONSTARTUP <4>: IDLE<49>. (line 9) * PYTHONSTARTUP <5>: The Interactive Startup File. (line 8) * PYTHONSTARTUP <6>: Miscellaneous options. (line 64) * PYTHONSTARTUP <7>: Environment variables. (line 117) * PYTHONSTARTUP <8>: Example. (line 10) * PYTHONSTARTUP <9>: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O. (line 87) * PYTHONSTARTUP <10>: Startup and Code Execution. (line 7) * PYTHONSTARTUP <11>: Command line usage. (line 42) * PYTHONSTARTUP <12>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1176) * PYTHONSTARTUP <13>: Readline configuration. (line 12) * PYTHONTRACEMALLOC: Miscellaneous options. (line 284) * PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <1>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations. (line 25) * PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <2>: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations. (line 32) * PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <3>: Functions<11>. (line 90) * PYTHONTRACEMALLOC <4>: PyConfig. (line 864) * PYTHONTZPATH: Exceptions and warnings. (line 14) * PYTHONUNBUFFERED: Core and Builtins<50>. (line 107) * PYTHONUNBUFFERED <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 178) * PYTHONUNBUFFERED <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1859) * PYTHONUNBUFFERED <3>: Global configuration variables. (line 242) * PYTHONUNBUFFERED <4>: PyConfig. (line 213) * PYTHONUOPS: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 27) * PYTHONUOPS <1>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 179) * PYTHONUOPS <2>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 258) * PYTHONUOPS <3>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 317) * PYTHONUOPS <4>: Core and Builtins<21>. (line 382) * PYTHONUSERBASE: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory. (line 23) * PYTHONUSERBASE <1>: Module contents<5>. (line 40) * PYTHONUSERBASE <2>: Module contents<5>. (line 68) * PYTHONUSERSITE: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 26) * PYTHONUTF8: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode. (line 6) * PYTHONUTF8 <1>: Miscellaneous options. (line 312) * PYTHONUTF8 <2>: Environment variables. (line 412) * PYTHONUTF8 <3>: UTF-8 mode. (line 18) * PYTHONUTF8 <4>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 52) * PYTHONUTF8 <5>: Python UTF-8 Mode. (line 54) * PYTHONUTF8 <6>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1850) * PYTHONUTF8 <7>: PyPreConfig. (line 152) * PYTHONUTF8 <8>: Python Configuration. (line 14) * PYTHONVERBOSE: Miscellaneous options. (line 194) * PYTHONVERBOSE <1>: Global configuration variables. (line 259) * PYTHONVERBOSE <2>: PyConfig. (line 923) * PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option. (line 19) * PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <1>: Library<38>. (line 45) * PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <2>: Miscellaneous options. (line 324) * PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING <3>: Opt-in EncodingWarning. (line 9) * PYTHONWARNINGS: warnings<3>. (line 21) * PYTHONWARNINGS <1>: Other Language Changes<12>. (line 160) * PYTHONWARNINGS <2>: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings. (line 25) * PYTHONWARNINGS <3>: Interpreter Changes. (line 6) * PYTHONWARNINGS <4>: Documentation<23>. (line 67) * PYTHONWARNINGS <5>: Miscellaneous options. (line 248) * PYTHONWARNINGS <6>: Effects of the Python Development Mode. (line 30) * PYTHONWARNINGS <7>: The Warnings Filter. (line 46) * PYTHONWARNINGS <8>: The Warnings Filter. (line 56) * PYTHONWARNINGS <9>: Describing Warning Filters. (line 7) * PYTHONWARNINGS <10>: Describing Warning Filters. (line 21) * PYTHONWARNINGS <11>: Default Warning Filter. (line 7) * PYTHONWARNINGS <12>: PyConfig. (line 942) * PyThread_create_key (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API. (line 18) * PyThread_delete_key (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API. (line 21) * PyThread_delete_key_value (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API. (line 30) * PyThread_get_key_value (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API. (line 27) * PyThread_ReInitTLS (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API. (line 33) * PyThread_set_key_value (C function): Thread Local Storage TLS API. (line 24) * PyThread_tss_alloc (C function): Dynamic Allocation. (line 11) * PyThread_tss_create (C function): Methods<2>. (line 16) * PyThread_tss_delete (C function): Methods<2>. (line 24) * PyThread_tss_free (C function): Dynamic Allocation. (line 17) * PyThread_tss_get (C function): Methods<2>. (line 39) * PyThread_tss_is_created (C function): Methods<2>. (line 11) * PyThread_tss_set (C function): Methods<2>. (line 33) * PyThreadState (C type): Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock. (line 23) * PyThreadState (C type) <1>: High-level API. (line 21) * PyThreadState_Clear (C function): Low-level API. (line 44) * PyThreadState_Delete (C function): Low-level API. (line 55) * PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent (C function): Low-level API. (line 61) * PyThreadState_EnterTracing (C function): Low-level API. (line 99) * PyThreadState_Get (C function): High-level API. (line 70) * PyThreadState_GetDict (C function): Low-level API. (line 199) * PyThreadState_GetFrame (C function): Low-level API. (line 68) * PyThreadState_GetID (C function): Low-level API. (line 82) * PyThreadState_GetInterpreter (C function): Low-level API. (line 90) * PyThreadState_GetUnchecked (C function): High-level API. (line 78) * PyThreadState_LeaveTracing (C function): Low-level API. (line 108) * PyThreadState_New (C function): Low-level API. (line 37) * PyThreadState_Next (C function): Advanced Debugger Support. (line 32) * PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc (C function): Low-level API. (line 208) * PyThreadState_Swap (C function): High-level API. (line 87) * PyThreadState.interp (C member): High-level API. (line 26) * PyTime_AsSecondsDouble (C function): Conversion functions. (line 6) * PyTime_Check (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 97) * PyTime_CheckExact (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 103) * PyTime_FromTime (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 153) * PyTime_FromTimeAndFold (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 158) * PyTime_MAX (C var): Types<2>. (line 24) * PyTime_MIN (C var): Types<2>. (line 20) * PyTime_Monotonic (C function): Clock Functions. (line 21) * PyTime_MonotonicRaw (C function): Raw Clock Functions. (line 16) * PyTime_PerfCounter (C function): Clock Functions. (line 26) * PyTime_PerfCounterRaw (C function): Raw Clock Functions. (line 21) * PyTime_t (C type): Types<2>. (line 6) * PyTime_Time (C function): Clock Functions. (line 31) * PyTime_TimeRaw (C function): Raw Clock Functions. (line 26) * PyTimeZone_FromOffset (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 174) * PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 182) * PyTrace_C_CALL (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 94) * PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 99) * PyTrace_C_RETURN (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 104) * PyTrace_CALL (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 62) * PyTrace_EXCEPTION (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 70) * PyTrace_LINE (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 82) * PyTrace_OPCODE (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 109) * PyTrace_RETURN (C var): Profiling and Tracing. (line 89) * PyTraceMalloc_Track (C function): tracemalloc C API. (line 8) * PyTraceMalloc_Untrack (C function): tracemalloc C API. (line 20) * PyTuple_Check (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 16) * PyTuple_CheckExact (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 21) * PyTuple_GET_ITEM (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 61) * PyTuple_GET_SIZE (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 44) * PyTuple_GetItem (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 48) * PyTuple_GetSlice (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 66) * PyTuple_New (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 26) * PyTuple_Pack (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 31) * PyTuple_SET_ITEM (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 86) * PyTuple_SetItem (C function): Reference Count Details. (line 26) * PyTuple_SetItem (C function) <1>: Tuple Objects. (line 75) * PyTuple_Size (C function): Tuple Objects. (line 39) * PyTuple_Type (C var): Tuple Objects. (line 11) * PyTupleObject (C type): Tuple Objects. (line 6) * PyType_AddWatcher (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 67) * PyType_Check (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 15) * PyType_CheckExact (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 21) * PyType_ClearCache (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 27) * PyType_ClearWatcher (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 80) * PyType_FromMetaclass (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 9) * PyType_FromModuleAndSpec (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 59) * PyType_FromSpec (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 96) * PyType_FromSpecWithBases (C function): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 79) * PyType_GenericAlloc (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 138) * PyType_GenericNew (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 145) * PyType_GetDict (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 43) * PyType_GetFlags (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 31) * PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 184) * PyType_GetModule (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 219) * PyType_GetModuleByDef (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 253) * PyType_GetModuleName (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 194) * PyType_GetModuleState (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 239) * PyType_GetName (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 168) * PyType_GetQualName (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 176) * PyType_GetSlot (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 202) * PyType_GetTypeDataSize (C function): Object Protocol. (line 558) * PyType_HasFeature (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 119) * PyType_IS_GC (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 124) * PyType_IsSubtype (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 129) * PyType_Modified (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 61) * PyType_Ready (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 152) * PyType_Slot (C type): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 179) * PyType_Slot.pfunc (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 240) * PyType_Slot.slot (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 184) * PyType_Spec (C type): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 112) * PyType_Spec.basicsize (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 121) * PyType_Spec.flags (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 165) * PyType_Spec.itemsize (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 139) * PyType_Spec.name (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 116) * PyType_Spec.slots (C member): Creating Heap-Allocated Types. (line 172) * PyType_Type (C var): Type Objects<2>. (line 10) * PyType_Watch (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 92) * PyType_WatchCallback (C type): Type Objects<2>. (line 108) * PyTypeObject (C type): Type Objects<2>. (line 6) * PyTypeObject.tp_alloc (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1419) * PyTypeObject.tp_as_async (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 281) * PyTypeObject.tp_as_buffer (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 495) * PyTypeObject.tp_as_mapping (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 347) * PyTypeObject.tp_as_number (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 323) * PyTypeObject.tp_as_sequence (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 335) * PyTypeObject.tp_base (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1242) * PyTypeObject.tp_bases (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1534) * PyTypeObject.tp_basicsize (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 48) * PyTypeObject.tp_cache (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1568) * PyTypeObject.tp_call (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 401) * PyTypeObject.tp_clear (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 960) * PyTypeObject.tp_dealloc (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 134) * PyTypeObject.tp_del (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1607) * PyTypeObject.tp_descr_get (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1310) * PyTypeObject.tp_descr_set (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1323) * PyTypeObject.tp_dict (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1274) * PyTypeObject.tp_dictoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1339) * PyTypeObject.tp_doc (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 857) * PyTypeObject.tp_finalize (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1619) * PyTypeObject.tp_flags (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 507) * PyTypeObject.tp_free (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1481) * PyTypeObject.tp_getattr (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 240) * PyTypeObject.tp_getattro (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 439) * PyTypeObject.tp_getset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1226) * PyTypeObject.tp_hash (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 359) * PyTypeObject.tp_init (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1383) * PyTypeObject.tp_is_gc (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1505) * PyTypeObject.tp_itemsize (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 48) * PyTypeObject.tp_iter (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1155) * PyTypeObject.tp_iternext (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1171) * PyTypeObject.tp_members (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1210) * PyTypeObject.tp_methods (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1194) * PyTypeObject.tp_mro (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1554) * PyTypeObject.tp_name (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 12) * PyTypeObject.tp_new (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1442) * PyTypeObject.tp_repr (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 297) * PyTypeObject.tp_richcompare (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1042) * PyTypeObject.tp_setattr (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 260) * PyTypeObject.tp_setattro (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 466) * PyTypeObject.tp_str (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 413) * PyTypeObject.tp_subclasses (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1576) * PyTypeObject.tp_traverse (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 867) * PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1665) * PyTypeObject.tp_vectorcall_offset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 200) * PyTypeObject.tp_version_tag (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1611) * PyTypeObject.tp_watched (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1681) * PyTypeObject.tp_weaklist (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1592) * PyTypeObject.tp_weaklistoffset (C member): PyTypeObject Slots. (line 1119) * PyTZInfo_Check (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 119) * PyTZInfo_CheckExact (C function): DateTime Objects<2>. (line 125) * PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA (C function): Unicode Type. (line 82) * PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND (C macro): Unicode Type. (line 97) * PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA (C function): Unicode Type. (line 82) * PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND (C macro): Unicode Type. (line 97) * PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA (C function): Unicode Type. (line 82) * PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND (C macro): Unicode Type. (line 97) * PyUnicode_AsASCIIString (C function): ASCII Codecs. (line 16) * PyUnicode_AsCharmapString (C function): Character Map Codecs. (line 31) * PyUnicode_AsEncodedString (C function): Generic Codecs. (line 18) * PyUnicode_AsLatin1String (C function): Latin-1 Codecs. (line 17) * PyUnicode_AsMBCSString (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows. (line 37) * PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs. (line 15) * PyUnicode_AsUCS4 (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 388) * PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 398) * PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs. (line 15) * PyUnicode_AsUTF16String (C function): UTF-16 Codecs. (line 48) * PyUnicode_AsUTF32String (C function): UTF-32 Codecs. (line 47) * PyUnicode_AsUTF8 (C function): UTF-8 Codecs. (line 65) * PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize (C function): UTF-8 Codecs. (line 35) * PyUnicode_AsUTF8String (C function): UTF-8 Codecs. (line 25) * PyUnicode_AsWideChar (C function): wchar_t Support. (line 16) * PyUnicode_AsWideCharString (C function): wchar_t Support. (line 34) * PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 297) * PyUnicode_Check (C function): Unicode Type. (line 54) * PyUnicode_CheckExact (C function): Unicode Type. (line 59) * PyUnicode_Compare (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 132) * PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 162) * PyUnicode_Concat (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 12) * PyUnicode_Contains (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 196) * PyUnicode_CopyCharacters (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 324) * PyUnicode_Count (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 118) * PyUnicode_DATA (C function): Unicode Type. (line 116) * PyUnicode_Decode (C function): Generic Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeASCII (C function): ASCII Codecs. (line 9) * PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap (C function): Character Map Codecs. (line 15) * PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows. (line 29) * PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding. (line 77) * PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize (C function): File System Encoding. (line 60) * PyUnicode_DecodeLatin1 (C function): Latin-1 Codecs. (line 10) * PyUnicode_DecodeLocale (C function): Locale Encoding. (line 37) * PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize (C function): Locale Encoding. (line 9) * PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows. (line 12) * PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows. (line 19) * PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape (C function): Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape (C function): Unicode-Escape Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16 (C function): UTF-16 Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful (C function): UTF-16 Codecs. (line 36) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32 (C function): UTF-32 Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful (C function): UTF-32 Codecs. (line 35) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7 (C function): UTF-7 Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful (C function): UTF-7 Codecs. (line 15) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8 (C function): UTF-8 Codecs. (line 8) * PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful (C function): UTF-8 Codecs. (line 15) * PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage (C function): MBCS codecs for Windows. (line 44) * PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault (C function): File System Encoding. (line 89) * PyUnicode_EncodeLocale (C function): Locale Encoding. (line 46) * PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8 (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 153) * PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 140) * PyUnicode_Fill (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 335) * PyUnicode_Find (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 91) * PyUnicode_FindChar (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 102) * PyUnicode_Format (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 190) * PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 280) * PyUnicode_FromFormat (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 62) * PyUnicode_FromFormatV (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 254) * PyUnicode_FromKindAndData (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 23) * PyUnicode_FromObject (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 260) * PyUnicode_FromOrdinal (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 271) * PyUnicode_FromString (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 56) * PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 39) * PyUnicode_FromWideChar (C function): wchar_t Support. (line 8) * PyUnicode_FSConverter (C function): File System Encoding. (line 13) * PyUnicode_FSDecoder (C function): File System Encoding. (line 38) * PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH (C function): Unicode Type. (line 73) * PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 307) * PyUnicode_GetLength (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 315) * PyUnicode_InternFromString (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 230) * PyUnicode_InternInPlace (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 204) * PyUnicode_IsIdentifier (C function): Unicode Type. (line 165) * PyUnicode_Join (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 77) * PyUnicode_KIND (C function): Unicode Type. (line 107) * PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE (C function): Unicode Type. (line 155) * PyUnicode_New (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 9) * PyUnicode_Partition (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 48) * PyUnicode_READ (C function): Unicode Type. (line 137) * PyUnicode_READ_CHAR (C function): Unicode Type. (line 146) * PyUnicode_ReadChar (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 366) * PyUnicode_READY (C function): Unicode Type. (line 64) * PyUnicode_Replace (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 124) * PyUnicode_RichCompare (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 172) * PyUnicode_RPartition (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 63) * PyUnicode_RSplit (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 30) * PyUnicode_Split (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 17) * PyUnicode_Splitlines (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 40) * PyUnicode_Substring (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 378) * PyUnicode_Tailmatch (C function): Methods and Slot Functions. (line 83) * PyUnicode_Translate (C function): Character Map Codecs. (line 46) * PyUnicode_Type (C var): Unicode Type. (line 41) * PyUnicode_WRITE (C function): Unicode Type. (line 124) * PyUnicode_WriteChar (C function): Creating and accessing Unicode strings. (line 350) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 9) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 17) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 54) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 25) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 74) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 34) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 64) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 83) * PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 44) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 17) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 54) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 25) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 74) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 34) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 64) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 83) * PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 44) * PyUnicodeIter_Type (C var): Unicode Type. (line 46) * PyUnicodeObject (C type): Unicode Type. (line 30) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 54) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 25) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 74) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 34) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 64) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 83) * PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart (C function): Unicode Exception Objects. (line 44) * PyUnstable: Unstable C API. (line 6) * PyUnstable_AtExit (C function): Initializing and finalizing the interpreter. (line 202) * PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra (C function): Extra information. (line 35) * PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 31) * PyUnstable_Code_New (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 41) * PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs (C function): Code Objects<2>. (line 68) * PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra (C function): Extra information. (line 51) * PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex (C function): Extra information. (line 14) * PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar (C function): Exception Objects. (line 61) * PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects (C function): Querying Garbage Collector State. (line 9) * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode (C function): Internal Frames. (line 14) * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti (C function): Internal Frames. (line 24) * PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine (C function): Internal Frames. (line 32) * PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule (C function): Low-level API. (line 153) * PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue (C function): Integer Objects. (line 527) * PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact (C function): Integer Objects. (line 509) * PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL (C function): Support functions. (line 158) * PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 100) * PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData (C function): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 66) * PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini (C function): Support for Perf Maps. (line 48) * PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init (C function): Support for Perf Maps. (line 19) * PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag (C function): Type Objects<2>. (line 275) * PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry (C function): Support for Perf Maps. (line 33) * PyVarObject (C type): Base object types and macros. (line 26) * PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT (C macro): Base object types and macros. (line 135) * PyVarObject.ob_size (C member): PyVarObject Slots. (line 6) * PyVectorcall_Call (C function): Vectorcall Support API. (line 33) * PyVectorcall_Function (C function): Vectorcall Support API. (line 19) * PyVectorcall_NARGS (C function): Vectorcall Support API. (line 6) * PyWeakref_Check (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 11) * PyWeakref_CheckProxy (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 21) * PyWeakref_CheckRef (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 16) * PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 84) * PyWeakref_GetObject (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 68) * PyWeakref_GetRef (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 54) * PyWeakref_NewProxy (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 40) * PyWeakref_NewRef (C function): Weak Reference Objects<2>. (line 26) * PyWideStringList (C type): PyWideStringList. (line 6) * PyWideStringList_Append (C function): PyWideStringList. (line 15) * PyWideStringList_Insert (C function): PyWideStringList. (line 22) * PyWideStringList.items (C member): PyWideStringList. (line 41) * PyWideStringList.length (C member): PyWideStringList. (line 37) * PyWrapper_New (C function): Descriptor Objects. (line 43) * PyZipFile (class in zipfile): PyZipFile Objects. (line 10) * qiflush() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 398) * QName (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): QName Objects. (line 6) * qsize() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 80) * qsize() (multiprocessing.Queue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 106) * qsize() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 9) * qsize() (queue.SimpleQueue method): SimpleQueue Objects. (line 9) * qualified name: Glossary. (line 1287) * quantiles() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 501) * quantiles() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 109) * quantize() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 490) * quantize() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 478) * QueryInfoKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 319) * QueryReflectionKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 516) * QueryValue() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 348) * QueryValueEx() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 368) * QUESTION (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 196) * Queue (class in asyncio): Queue. (line 6) * Queue (class in multiprocessing): Pipes and Queues. (line 92) * Queue (class in queue): queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 34) * queue (sched.scheduler attribute): Scheduler Objects. (line 73) * Queue() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 198) * QueueEmpty: Exceptions<12>. (line 6) * QueueFull: Exceptions<12>. (line 11) * QueueHandler (class in logging.handlers): QueueHandler. (line 21) * QueueListener (class in logging.handlers): QueueListener. (line 25) * QueueShutDown: Exceptions<12>. (line 16) * quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 204) * quiet (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 562) * quit (built-in variable): Constants added by the site module. (line 11) * quit (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 425) * quit() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 360) * quit() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 83) * quit() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 341) * quit() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 123) * quitting (bdb.Bdb attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 337) * QUOTE_ALL (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 269) * quote_from_bytes() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 53) * QUOTE_MINIMAL (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 273) * QUOTE_NONE (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 293) * QUOTE_NONNUMERIC (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 279) * QUOTE_NOTNULL (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 306) * quote_plus() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 42) * QUOTE_STRINGS (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 318) * quote() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 45) * quote() (in module shlex): shlex — Simple lexical analysis. (line 43) * quote() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 13) * quoteattr() (in module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 38) * quotechar (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 64) * quoted-printable; encoding: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 8) * quotes (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 115) * quoting (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 75) * R_OK (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 107) * r'; raw string literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 51) * r"; raw string literal: String and Bytes literals. (line 51) * radians() (in module math): Angular conversion. (line 10) * radians() (in module turtle): Settings for measurement. (line 28) * radix (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 671) * radix() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 495) * radix() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 507) * RADIXCHAR (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 269) * Raise (class in ast): Statements. (line 113) * RAISE (monitoring event): Events. (line 71) * raise an exception: Exceptions<2>. (line 6) * raise_on_defect (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 181) * raise_signal() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 324) * RAISE_VARARGS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1023) * raiseExceptions (in module logging): Module-Level Attributes. (line 19) * raising; exception: The raise statement. (line 6) * RAND_add() (in module ssl): Random generation. (line 30) * RAND_bytes() (in module ssl): Random generation. (line 6) * RAND_status() (in module ssl): Random generation. (line 23) * randbelow() (in module secrets): Random numbers. (line 19) * randbits() (in module secrets): Random numbers. (line 23) * randbytes() (in module random): Functions for bytes. (line 6) * randbytes() (random.Random method): Alternative Generator. (line 46) * randint() (in module random): Functions for integers. (line 32) * Random (class in random): Alternative Generator. (line 6) * random command line option; -c: Command-line usage. (line 18) * random command line option; -choice: Command-line usage. (line 18) * random command line option; -f: Command-line usage. (line 29) * random command line option; -float: Command-line usage. (line 29) * random command line option; -h: Command-line usage. (line 14) * random command line option; -help: Command-line usage. (line 14) * random command line option; -i: Command-line usage. (line 23) * random command line option; -integer: Command-line usage. (line 23) * random() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 11) * random() (random.Random method): Alternative Generator. (line 33) * randrange() (in module random): Functions for integers. (line 6) * range (built-in class): Ranges. (line 10) * RARROW (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 308) * ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 180) * Rational (class in numbers): The numeric tower. (line 41) * raw (io.BufferedIOBase attribute): I/O Base Classes. (line 252) * raw string: String and Bytes literals. (line 36) * raw_data_manager (in module email.contentmanager): Content Manager Instances. (line 11) * raw_decode() (json.JSONDecoder method): Encoders and Decoders. (line 95) * raw_input() (code.InteractiveConsole method): Interactive Console Objects. (line 45) * raw() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 405) * raw() (pickle.PickleBuffer method): Module Interface. (line 324) * RawArray() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 16) * RawConfigParser (class in configparser): RawConfigParser Objects. (line 6) * RawDescriptionHelpFormatter (class in argparse): formatter_class. (line 10) * RawIOBase (class in io): I/O Base Classes. (line 170) * RawPen (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 6) * RawTextHelpFormatter (class in argparse): formatter_class. (line 10) * RawTurtle (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 6) * RawValue() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 33) * RBRACE (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 233) * re (re.Match attribute): Match Objects. (line 206) * READ (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 49) * read_binary() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 75) * read_byte() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 253) * read_bytes() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 556) * read_bytes() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 150) * read_bytes() (pathlib.Path method): Reading and writing files. (line 35) * read_bytes() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 110) * read_dict() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 207) * read_environ() (in module wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 312) * read_events() (xml.etree.ElementTree.XMLPullParser method): XMLPullParser Objects. (line 48) * read_file() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 185) * read_history_file() (in module readline): History file. (line 8) * read_init_file() (in module readline): Init file. (line 13) * read_mime_types() (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 113) * READ_RESTRICTED (C macro): Member flags. (line 32) * read_string() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 197) * read_text() (importlib.abc.Traversable method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 560) * read_text() (importlib.resources.abc.Traversable method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 154) * read_text() (in module importlib.resources): Functional API. (line 89) * read_text() (pathlib.Path method): Reading and writing files. (line 18) * read_text() (zipfile.Path method): Path Objects. (line 98) * read_token() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 20) * read_windows_registry() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 93) * read() (asyncio.StreamReader method): StreamReader. (line 20) * read() (codecs.StreamReader method): StreamReader Objects. (line 34) * read() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 148) * read() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 13) * read() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 199) * read() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 732) * read() (io.BufferedIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 273) * read() (io.BufferedReader method): Buffered Streams. (line 82) * read() (io.RawIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 184) * read() (io.TextIOBase method): Text I/O<2>. (line 52) * read() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 77) * read() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 243) * read() (sqlite3.Blob method): Blob objects. (line 45) * read() (ssl.MemoryBIO method): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 148) * read() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 76) * read() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 25) * read() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 245) * read1() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 112) * read1() (io.BufferedIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 297) * read1() (io.BufferedReader method): Buffered Streams. (line 87) * read1() (io.BytesIO method): Buffered Streams. (line 43) * READABLE (in module _tkinter): File Handlers. (line 41) * readable() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 94) * readable() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 78) * readall() (io.RawIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 199) * readbuffer_encode() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 258) * reader() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 8) * ReadError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 204) * readexactly() (asyncio.StreamReader method): StreamReader. (line 46) * readfp() (mimetypes.MimeTypes method): MimeTypes Objects. (line 85) * readframes() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 52) * readinto() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 122) * readinto() (http.client.HTTPResponse method): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 17) * readinto() (io.BufferedIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 309) * readinto() (io.RawIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 204) * readinto1() (io.BufferedIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 322) * readinto1() (io.BytesIO method): Buffered Streams. (line 49) * readline() (asyncio.StreamReader method): StreamReader. (line 35) * readline() (codecs.StreamReader method): StreamReader Objects. (line 60) * readline() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 204) * readline() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 83) * readline() (io.TextIOBase method): Text I/O<2>. (line 58) * readline() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 258) * readlines() (codecs.StreamReader method): StreamReader Objects. (line 71) * readlines() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 92) * readlink() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 671) * readlink() (pathlib.Path method): Expanding and resolving paths. (line 80) * readmodule_ex() (in module pyclbr): pyclbr — Python module browser support. (line 31) * readmodule() (in module pyclbr): pyclbr — Python module browser support. (line 19) * READONLY (C macro): Member flags. (line 37) * ReadOnly (in module typing): Special forms. (line 269) * readonly (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 417) * ReadTransport (class in asyncio): Transports Hierarchy. (line 20) * readuntil() (asyncio.StreamReader method): StreamReader. (line 55) * readv() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 868) * ready() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method): Process Pools. (line 213) * Real (class in numbers): The numeric tower. (line 28) * real (numbers.Complex attribute): The numeric tower. (line 15) * real_max_memuse (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 150) * real_quick_ratio() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 209) * realloc (C function): Overview<4>. (line 33) * realpath() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 354) * REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 103) * reap_children() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 584) * reap_threads() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 17) * reason (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 65) * reason (ssl.SSLError attribute): Exceptions<16>. (line 27) * reason (UnicodeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 449) * reason (urllib.error.HTTPError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 50) * reason (urllib.error.URLError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 22) * reattach() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 237) * rebinding; name: Assignment statements. (line 6) * recent() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 209) * reconfigure() (io.TextIOWrapper method): Text I/O<2>. (line 182) * record_original_stdout() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 308) * RECORDS (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 41) * records (unittest.TestCase attribute): Test cases. (line 435) * RECORDS_RO (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 43) * rect() (in module cmath): Conversions to and from polar coordinates. (line 44) * rectangle() (in module curses.textpad): curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs. (line 15) * RecursionError: Concrete exceptions. (line 243) * recursive_repr() (in module reprlib): reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. (line 61) * recv_bytes_into() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 79) * recv_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 65) * recv_fds() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 476) * recv_into() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 386) * recv() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 24) * recv() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 233) * recvfrom_into() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 376) * recvfrom() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 247) * recvmsg_into() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 337) * recvmsg() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 265) * redirect_request() (urllib.request.HTTPRedirectHandler method): HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 15) * redirect_stderr() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 355) * redirect_stdout() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 315) * redisplay() (in module readline): Line buffer. (line 19) * redrawln() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 462) * redrawwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 468) * reduce() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 396) * reducer_override() (pickle.Pickler method): Module Interface. (line 203) * ref (class in weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 90) * refcount_test() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 543) * reference count: Glossary. (line 1314) * reference counting: Objects values and types. (line 37) * ReferenceError: Concrete exceptions. (line 252) * ReferenceType (in module weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 332) * refold_source (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 388) * refresh() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 473) * REG_BINARY (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 8) * REG_DWORD (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 12) * REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 21) * REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 16) * REG_EXPAND_SZ (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 25) * REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 60) * REG_LINK (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 30) * REG_MULTI_SZ (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 34) * REG_NONE (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 39) * REG_QWORD (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 43) * REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 49) * REG_RESOURCE_LIST (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 56) * REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 64) * REG_SZ (in module winreg): Value Types. (line 68) * RegexFlag (class in re): Flags. (line 9) * register_adapter() (in module sqlite3): Module functions. (line 138) * register_archive_format() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 92) * register_at_fork() (in module os): Process Management. (line 556) * register_callback() (in module sys.monitoring): Registering callback functions. (line 8) * register_converter() (in module sqlite3): Module functions. (line 145) * register_defect() (email.policy.Policy method): email policy Policy Objects. (line 246) * register_dialect() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 70) * register_error() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 101) * register_function() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 9) * register_function() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 10) * register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 26) * register_instance() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 27) * register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 41) * register_introspection_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 55) * register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 46) * register_multicall_functions() (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCServer method): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 60) * register_namespace() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 199) * register_optionflag() (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 154) * register_shape() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 71) * register_unpack_format() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 162) * register() (abc.ABCMeta method): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 69) * register() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Registering custom types or actions. (line 6) * register() (functools.singledispatch method): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 443) * register() (in module atexit): atexit — Exit handlers. (line 25) * register() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 159) * register() (in module faulthandler): Dumping the traceback on a user signal. (line 6) * register() (in module webbrowser): webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 110) * register() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method): Managers. (line 92) * register() (select.devpoll method): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 30) * register() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 81) * register() (select.poll method): Polling Objects. (line 15) * register() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 65) * registerDOMImplementation() (in module xml.dom): Module Contents<4>. (line 8) * registerResult() (in module unittest): Signal Handling. (line 35) * REGTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 278) * regular package: Glossary. (line 1329) * relative_to() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 309) * relative; import: The import statement. (line 99) * relative; URL: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 8) * release() (_thread.lock method): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 170) * release() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 78) * release() (asyncio.Lock method): Lock. (line 49) * release() (asyncio.Semaphore method): Semaphore. (line 54) * release() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 114) * release() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 31) * release() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 239) * release() (multiprocessing.Lock method): Synchronization primitives. (line 92) * release() (multiprocessing.RLock method): Synchronization primitives. (line 148) * release() (pickle.PickleBuffer method): Module Interface. (line 332) * release() (threading.Condition method): Condition objects. (line 91) * release() (threading.Lock method): Lock objects. (line 73) * release() (threading.RLock method): RLock objects. (line 94) * release() (threading.Semaphore method): Semaphore objects. (line 63) * releasebufferproc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 104) * reload() (in module importlib): Functions<12>. (line 55) * relpath() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 410) * remainder_near() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 506) * remainder_near() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 513) * remainder() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 499) * remainder() (in module math): Floating point arithmetic. (line 65) * RemoteDisconnected: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 187) * remove_child_handler() (asyncio.AbstractChildWatcher method): Process Watchers. (line 56) * remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 106) * remove_done_callback() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 111) * remove_flag() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 142) * remove_flag() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 84) * remove_flag() (mailbox.mboxMessage method): mboxMessage objects. (line 85) * remove_flag() (mailbox.MMDFMessage method): MMDFMessage objects. (line 84) * remove_folder() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 80) * remove_folder() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 50) * remove_header() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 100) * remove_history_item() (in module readline): History list. (line 26) * remove_label() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 59) * remove_option() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 306) * remove_option() (optparse.OptionParser method): Querying and manipulating your option parser. (line 47) * remove_reader() (asyncio.loop method): Watching file descriptors. (line 15) * remove_section() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 313) * remove_sequence() (mailbox.MHMessage method): MHMessage objects. (line 46) * remove_signal_handler() (asyncio.loop method): Unix signals. (line 26) * remove_writer() (asyncio.loop method): Watching file descriptors. (line 32) * remove() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 220) * remove() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 97) * remove() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 199) * remove() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 708) * remove() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 76) * remove() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 79) * remove() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * remove() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 170) * removeAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 52) * removeAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 57) * removeAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 62) * removeChild() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 128) * removedirs() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 732) * removeFilter() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 57) * removeFilter() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 329) * removeHandler() (in module unittest): Signal Handling. (line 52) * removeHandler() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 346) * removeprefix() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 52) * removeprefix() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 52) * removeprefix() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 417) * removeResult() (in module unittest): Signal Handling. (line 46) * removesuffix() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 72) * removesuffix() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 72) * removesuffix() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 430) * removexattr() (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 41) * rename() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 325) * rename() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 214) * rename() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 749) * rename() (pathlib.Path method): Renaming and deleting. (line 6) * renames() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 786) * reopenIfNeeded() (logging.handlers.WatchedFileHandler method): WatchedFileHandler. (line 41) * reorganize() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 104) * repeat() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 529) * repeat() (in module timeit): Python Interface. (line 18) * repeat() (timeit.Timer method): Python Interface. (line 110) * repetition; operation: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * REPL: Glossary. (line 1336) * replace_errors() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 154) * replace_header() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 301) * replace_header() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 411) * replace_history_item() (in module readline): History list. (line 32) * replace_whitespace (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 182) * replace; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 15) * replace() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 200) * replace() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 200) * replace() (codeobject method): Methods on code objects. (line 85) * replace() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 39) * replace() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 194) * replace() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 464) * replace() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 149) * replace() (in module copy): copy — Shallow and deep copy operations. (line 26) * replace() (in module dataclasses): Module contents<4>. (line 439) * replace() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 804) * replace() (inspect.Parameter method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 302) * replace() (inspect.Signature method): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 137) * replace() (pathlib.Path method): Renaming and deleting. (line 34) * replace() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 443) * replace() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 166) * replaceChild() (xml.dom.Node method): Node Objects. (line 135) * ReplacePackage() (in module modulefinder): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 21) * REPORT_CDIFF (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 113) * REPORT_ERRMODE (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 35) * report_failure() (doctest.DocTestRunner method): DocTestRunner objects. (line 76) * report_full_closure() (filecmp.dircmp method): The dircmp class. (line 32) * REPORT_NDIFF (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 118) * REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 127) * report_partial_closure() (filecmp.dircmp method): The dircmp class. (line 27) * report_start() (doctest.DocTestRunner method): DocTestRunner objects. (line 54) * report_success() (doctest.DocTestRunner method): DocTestRunner objects. (line 65) * REPORT_UDIFF (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 108) * report_unexpected_exception() (doctest.DocTestRunner method): DocTestRunner objects. (line 87) * report() (filecmp.dircmp method): The dircmp class. (line 22) * report() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder method): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 38) * REPORTING_FLAGS (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 146) * Repr (class in reprlib): reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. (line 17) * repr() (built-in function); __repr__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 114) * repr() (in module reprlib): reprlib — Alternate repr implementation. (line 51) * repr() (reprlib.Repr method): Repr Objects. (line 107) * repr1() (reprlib.Repr method): Repr Objects. (line 112) * ReprEnum (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 591) * reprfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 39) * Request (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 189) * request (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler attribute): Request Handler Objects. (line 42) * request_queue_size (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 101) * request_rate() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 60) * request_uri() (in module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 27) * request_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 104) * request() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 8) * RequestHandlerClass (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 74) * requestline (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 86) * Required (in module typing): Special forms. (line 250) * requires_bz2() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 507) * requires_docstrings() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 519) * requires_freebsd_version() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 475) * requires_gil_enabled() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 490) * requires_gzip() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 503) * requires_IEEE_754() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 495) * requires_limited_api() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 523) * requires_linux_version() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 480) * requires_lzma() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 511) * requires_mac_version() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 485) * requires_resource() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 515) * requires_zlib() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 499) * requires() (in module importlib.metadata): Distribution requirements. (line 6) * requires() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 259) * RERAISE (monitoring event): Events. (line 76) * RERAISE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 449) * reschedule() (asyncio.Timeout method): Timeouts. (line 68) * reserved (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 112) * reserved word: Keywords. (line 6) * RESERVED_FUTURE (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 239) * RESERVED_MICROSOFT (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 235) * RESERVED_NCS (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 227) * reset_mock() (unittest.mock.AsyncMock method): The Mock Class. (line 895) * reset_mock() (unittest.mock.Mock method): The Mock Class. (line 202) * reset_peak() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 38) * reset_prog_mode() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 411) * reset_shell_mode() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 416) * reset_tzpath() (in module zoneinfo): Functions<3>. (line 27) * reset() (asyncio.Barrier method): Barrier. (line 78) * reset() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 159) * reset() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method): IncrementalDecoder Objects. (line 40) * reset() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder method): IncrementalEncoder Objects. (line 35) * reset() (codecs.StreamReader method): StreamReader Objects. (line 83) * reset() (codecs.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter Objects. (line 42) * reset() (contextvars.ContextVar method): Context Variables. (line 58) * reset() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 23) * reset() (in module turtle): More drawing control. (line 6) * reset() (threading.Barrier method): Barrier objects. (line 71) * reset() (xml.dom.pulldom.DOMEventStream method): DOMEventStream Objects. (line 37) * reset() (xml.sax.xmlreader.IncrementalParser method): IncrementalParser Objects. (line 19) * resetbuffer() (code.InteractiveConsole method): Interactive Console Objects. (line 41) * resetscreen() (in module turtle): Window control. (line 59) * resetty() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 421) * resetwarnings() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 129) * resize_term() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 426) * resize() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 492) * resize() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 192) * resize() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 264) * resizemode() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 24) * resizeterm() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 436) * resolution (datetime.date attribute): date Objects. (line 109) * resolution (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 298) * resolution (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 42) * resolution (datetime.timedelta attribute): timedelta Objects. (line 99) * resolve_bases() (in module types): Dynamic Type Creation. (line 58) * resolve_name() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 80) * resolve_name() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 211) * resolve() (pathlib.Path method): Expanding and resolving paths. (line 49) * resolveEntity() (xml.sax.handler.EntityResolver method): EntityResolver Objects. (line 6) * resource_path() (importlib.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 478) * resource_path() (importlib.resources.abc.ResourceReader method): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 55) * ResourceDenied: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 22) * ResourceLoader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 175) * ResourceReader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 433) * ResourceReader (class in importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 12) * ResourceWarning: Warnings. (line 81) * response() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 218) * ResponseNotReady: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 173) * responses (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 179) * responses (in module http.client): http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 208) * restart (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 416) * restart_events() (in module sys.monitoring): Disabling events. (line 21) * restore() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 271) * restore() (test.support.SaveSignals method): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 775) * RESTRICTED (C macro): Member flags. (line 32) * restricted; execution: Builtins and restricted execution. (line 6) * restype (ctypes._CFuncPtr attribute): Foreign functions. (line 32) * result() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 32) * result() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 73) * result() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 37) * results() (trace.Trace method): Programmatic Interface. (line 40) * RESUME (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1227) * resume_reading() (asyncio.ReadTransport method): Read-only Transports. (line 21) * resume_writing() (asyncio.BaseProtocol method): Base Protocol. (line 44) * retr() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 63) * retrbinary() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 175) * retrieve() (urllib.request.URLopener method): Legacy interface. (line 112) * retrlines() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 200) * RETRY (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 149) * RETRYCANCEL (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 176) * Return (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 114) * return (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 222) * return_annotation (inspect.Signature attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 116) * RETURN_CONST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 414) * RETURN_GENERATOR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1252) * return_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 18) * RETURN_VALUE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 410) * return_value (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 344) * returncode (asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 146) * returncode (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 211) * returncode (subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 110) * returncode (subprocess.Popen attribute): Popen Objects. (line 149) * retval (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 435) * reveal_type() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 82) * reverse_order() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 157) * reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 77) * reverse_pointer (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 269) * reverse() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 230) * reverse() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 102) * reverse() (sequence method): Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * Reversible (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 49) * Reversible (class in typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 60) * revert() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 142) * rewind() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 57) * RFC_4122 (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 231) * RFC; RFC 1123: Functions<5>. (line 749) * RFC; RFC 1123 <1>: Functions<5>. (line 760) * RFC; RFC 1123 <2>: Functions<5>. (line 775) * RFC; RFC 1321: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 1422: Certificates. (line 38) * RFC; RFC 1422 <1>: TLS 1 3. (line 41) * RFC; RFC 1521: Security Considerations<2>. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 1521 <1>: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 1521 <2>: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 37) * RFC; RFC 1522: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 86) * RFC; RFC 1522 <1>: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 1522 <2>: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data. (line 39) * RFC; RFC 1730: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 1738: URL Quoting. (line 187) * RFC; RFC 1750: Random generation. (line 34) * RFC; RFC 1808: urllib<2>. (line 23) * RFC; RFC 1808 <1>: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 34) * RFC; RFC 1808 <2>: URL Parsing. (line 42) * RFC; RFC 1808 <3>: URL Quoting. (line 181) * RFC; RFC 1869: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 1869 <1>: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 191) * RFC; RFC 1870: smtpd<4>. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 1939: poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 1939 <1>: poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 2033: New and Improved Modules<2>. (line 568) * RFC; RFC 2045: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 2045 <1>: email message Representing an email message. (line 316) * RFC; RFC 2045 <2>: email message Representing an email message. (line 318) * RFC; RFC 2045 <3>: email message Representing an email message. (line 321) * RFC; RFC 2045 <4>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 239) * RFC; RFC 2045 <5>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 297) * RFC; RFC 2045 <6>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 424) * RFC; RFC 2045 <7>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 428) * RFC; RFC 2045 <8>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 431) * RFC; RFC 2045 <9>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 528) * RFC; RFC 2045 <10>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 2045 <11>: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 24) * RFC; RFC 2045 <12>: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 2045 <13>: Legacy Interface. (line 29) * RFC; RFC 2045 <14>: Legacy Interface. (line 37) * RFC; RFC 2045 Section 6.8: Binary Objects. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 2046: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 2046 <1>: Content Manager Instances. (line 93) * RFC; RFC 2046 <2>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 32) * RFC; RFC 2047: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 2047 <1>: email<6>. (line 27) * RFC; RFC 2047 <2>: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2047 <3>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 364) * RFC; RFC 2047 <4>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 370) * RFC; RFC 2047 <5>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 78) * RFC; RFC 2047 <6>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 123) * RFC; RFC 2047 <7>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 128) * RFC; RFC 2047 <8>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 32) * RFC; RFC 2047 <9>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 55) * RFC; RFC 2047 <10>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 117) * RFC; RFC 2047 <11>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 141) * RFC; RFC 2047 <12>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 78) * RFC; RFC 2060: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 2060 <1>: IMAP4 Objects. (line 317) * RFC; RFC 2068: http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2104: New and Improved Modules<3>. (line 35) * RFC; RFC 2104 <1>: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 10) * RFC; RFC 2109: http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 2109 <1>: http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 36) * RFC; RFC 2109 <2>: http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 67) * RFC; RFC 2109 <3>: Morsel Objects. (line 8) * RFC; RFC 2109 <4>: Morsel Objects. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 2109 <5>: Morsel Objects. (line 95) * RFC; RFC 2109 <6>: Morsel Objects. (line 107) * RFC; RFC 2109 <7>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 2109 <8>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 103) * RFC; RFC 2109 <9>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 115) * RFC; RFC 2109 <10>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 142) * RFC; RFC 2109 <11>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 86) * RFC; RFC 2109 <12>: Cookie Objects<2>. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 2109 <13>: Cookie Objects<2>. (line 23) * RFC; RFC 2109 <14>: Cookie Objects<2>. (line 74) * RFC; RFC 2183: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2183 <1>: email message Representing an email message. (line 460) * RFC; RFC 2183 <2>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 635) * RFC; RFC 2231: Library<3>. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 2231 <1>: Library<14>. (line 135) * RFC; RFC 2231 <2>: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2231 <3>: email message Representing an email message. (line 280) * RFC; RFC 2231 <4>: email message Representing an email message. (line 283) * RFC; RFC 2231 <5>: email message Representing an email message. (line 365) * RFC; RFC 2231 <6>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 387) * RFC; RFC 2231 <7>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 391) * RFC; RFC 2231 <8>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 493) * RFC; RFC 2231 <9>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 501) * RFC; RFC 2231 <10>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 535) * RFC; RFC 2231 <11>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 32) * RFC; RFC 2231 <12>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 189) * RFC; RFC 2231 <13>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 194) * RFC; RFC 2231 <14>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 203) * RFC; RFC 2231 <15>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 210) * RFC; RFC 2231 <16>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 219) * RFC; RFC 2295: HTTP status codes. (line 184) * RFC; RFC 2324: HTTP status codes. (line 133) * RFC; RFC 2342: New and Improved Modules<3>. (line 94) * RFC; RFC 2342 <1>: IMAP4 Objects. (line 164) * RFC; RFC 2368: URL Quoting. (line 177) * RFC; RFC 2373: Address objects. (line 95) * RFC; RFC 2373 <1>: Address objects. (line 161) * RFC; RFC 2373 <2>: Address objects. (line 181) * RFC; RFC 2396: urllib parse<5>. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 2396 <1>: urllib<2>. (line 24) * RFC; RFC 2396 <2>: URL Parsing. (line 257) * RFC; RFC 2396 <3>: URL Quoting. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 2396 <4>: URL Quoting. (line 172) * RFC; RFC 2397: DataHandler Objects. (line 9) * RFC; RFC 2449: POP3 Objects. (line 26) * RFC; RFC 2487: New and Improved Modules<3>. (line 86) * RFC; RFC 2518: HTTP status codes. (line 19) * RFC; RFC 2595: poplib — POP3 protocol client. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 2595 <1>: POP3 Objects. (line 116) * RFC; RFC 2616: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1. (line 20) * RFC; RFC 2616 <1>: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 115) * RFC; RFC 2616 <2>: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. (line 27) * RFC; RFC 2616 <3>: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 8) * RFC; RFC 2616 <4>: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects. (line 28) * RFC; RFC 2616 <5>: Legacy interface. (line 163) * RFC; RFC 2616 <6>: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 45) * RFC; RFC 2616 <7>: Introduction<16>. (line 34) * RFC; RFC 2616 <8>: HTTPError. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 2616 <9>: Error Codes. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 2616 Section 14.23: HTTPConnection Objects. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2: HTTPConnection Objects. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 2616 Section 5.1.2 <1>: HTTPConnection Objects. (line 32) * RFC; RFC 2640: Changes in the Python API<4>. (line 36) * RFC; RFC 2640 <1>: Tests<43>. (line 22) * RFC; RFC 2640 <2>: ftplib — FTP protocol client. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 2640 <3>: FTP objects. (line 64) * RFC; RFC 2640 <4>: FTP_TLS objects. (line 64) * RFC; RFC 2732: urllib parse<6>. (line 10) * RFC; RFC 2732 <1>: New and Improved Modules. (line 643) * RFC; RFC 2732 <2>: URL Quoting. (line 168) * RFC; RFC 2774: HTTP status codes. (line 193) * RFC; RFC 2818: ssl<12>. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2821: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 12) * RFC; RFC 2822: New and Improved Modules<3>. (line 98) * RFC; RFC 2822 <1>: Batteries Included. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2822 <2>: Functions<5>. (line 751) * RFC; RFC 2822 <3>: Functions<5>. (line 762) * RFC; RFC 2822 <4>: Functions<5>. (line 462) * RFC; RFC 2822 <5>: Functions<5>. (line 777) * RFC; RFC 2822 <6>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 277) * RFC; RFC 2822 <7>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 20) * RFC; RFC 2822 <8>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 23) * RFC; RFC 2822 <9>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 2822 <10>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 88) * RFC; RFC 2822 <11>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 116) * RFC; RFC 2822 <12>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 134) * RFC; RFC 2822 <13>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 29) * RFC; RFC 2822 <14>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 109) * RFC; RFC 2822 <15>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 112) * RFC; RFC 2822 <16>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 237) * RFC; RFC 2822 <17>: email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 155) * RFC; RFC 2822 <18>: Message objects. (line 17) * RFC; RFC 2822 <19>: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 114) * RFC; RFC 2822 <20>: http server — HTTP servers. (line 116) * RFC; RFC 2964: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 155) * RFC; RFC 2965: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 233) * RFC; RFC 2965 <1>: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 241) * RFC; RFC 2965 <2>: Request Objects. (line 50) * RFC; RFC 2965 <3>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2965 <4>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 103) * RFC; RFC 2965 <5>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 115) * RFC; RFC 2965 <6>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 144) * RFC; RFC 2965 <7>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 146) * RFC; RFC 2965 <8>: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients. (line 153) * RFC; RFC 2965 <9>: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 2965 <10>: CookiePolicy Objects. (line 74) * RFC; RFC 2965 <11>: CookiePolicy Objects. (line 79) * RFC; RFC 2965 <12>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 8) * RFC; RFC 2965 <13>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 90) * RFC; RFC 2965 <14>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 101) * RFC; RFC 2965 <15>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 105) * RFC; RFC 2965 <16>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 114) * RFC; RFC 2965 <17>: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 151) * RFC; RFC 2965 <18>: Cookie Objects<2>. (line 23) * RFC; RFC 2965 <19>: Examples<29>. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 3056: Address objects. (line 316) * RFC; RFC 3164: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support. (line 7) * RFC; RFC 3171: Address objects. (line 94) * RFC; RFC 3207: New and Improved Modules<2>. (line 573) * RFC; RFC 3229: HTTP status codes. (line 52) * RFC; RFC 3280: SSL Sockets. (line 157) * RFC; RFC 3330: Address objects. (line 180) * RFC; RFC 3339: Displaying the date/time in messages. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 3454: Security<18>. (line 19) * RFC; RFC 3454 <1>: stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 17) * RFC; RFC 3454 <2>: stringprep — Internet String Preparation. (line 26) * RFC; RFC 3490: Text Encodings. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 3490 <1>: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 3490 <2>: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 57) * RFC; RFC 3490 <3>: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 62) * RFC; RFC 3490 Section 3.1: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 27) * RFC; RFC 3491: Security<18>. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 3492: Text Encodings. (line 36) * RFC; RFC 3492 <1>: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 7) * RFC; RFC 3493: Example<7>. (line 227) * RFC; RFC 3501: IMAP4 Objects. (line 328) * RFC; RFC 3542: Library<56>. (line 351) * RFC; RFC 3542 <1>: Other functions<2>. (line 341) * RFC; RFC 3548: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 3548 <1>: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 50) * RFC; RFC 3548 <2>: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 65) * RFC; RFC 3596 Section 2.5: Library<9>. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 3659: FTP objects. (line 289) * RFC; RFC 3879: Address objects. (line 176) * RFC; RFC 3879 <1>: Address objects. (line 294) * RFC; RFC 3927: Address objects. (line 185) * RFC; RFC 3986: urllib parse. (line 17) * RFC; RFC 3986 <1>: urllib parse<3>. (line 7) * RFC; RFC 3986 <2>: urllib parse<4>. (line 7) * RFC; RFC 3986 <3>: urllib parse<5>. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 3986 <4>: urllib<2>. (line 22) * RFC; RFC 3986 <5>: New and Improved Modules. (line 622) * RFC; RFC 3986 <6>: Porting to Python 2 7. (line 80) * RFC; RFC 3986 <7>: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 35) * RFC; RFC 3986 <8>: URL Parsing. (line 142) * RFC; RFC 3986 <9>: URL Parsing. (line 375) * RFC; RFC 3986 <10>: URL parsing security. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 3986 <11>: URL Quoting. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 3986 <12>: URL Quoting. (line 160) * RFC; RFC 3986 <13>: http server — HTTP servers. (line 101) * RFC; RFC 4007: Address objects. (line 237) * RFC; RFC 4007 <1>: Address objects. (line 308) * RFC; RFC 4086: TLS 1 3. (line 45) * RFC; RFC 4122: New Improved and Removed Modules. (line 416) * RFC; RFC 4122 <1>: New Improved and Removed Modules. (line 421) * RFC; RFC 4122 <2>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 4122 <3>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 4122 <4>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 73) * RFC; RFC 4122 <5>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 138) * RFC; RFC 4122 <6>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 167) * RFC; RFC 4122 <7>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 233) * RFC; RFC 4122 <8>: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 246) * RFC; RFC 4180: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 4193: Address objects. (line 296) * RFC; RFC 4217: FTP_TLS objects. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 4291: Library<20>. (line 1075) * RFC; RFC 4291 <1>: Library<36>. (line 653) * RFC; RFC 4291 <2>: Address objects. (line 191) * RFC; RFC 4291 <3>: Address objects. (line 231) * RFC; RFC 4380: Address objects. (line 323) * RFC; RFC 4627: json — JSON encoder and decoder. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 4627 <1>: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 4648: Documentation<31>. (line 32) * RFC; RFC 4648 <1>: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 12) * RFC; RFC 4648 <2>: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 4648 <3>: RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 4648 <4>: RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 87) * RFC; RFC 4648 <5>: RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 102) * RFC; RFC 4648 <6>: RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 109) * RFC; RFC 4648 <7>: Security Considerations<2>. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 4648 <8>: Security Considerations<3>. (line 8) * RFC; RFC 4918: HTTP status codes. (line 46) * RFC; RFC 4918 <1>: HTTP status codes. (line 142) * RFC; RFC 4918 <2>: HTTP status codes. (line 145) * RFC; RFC 4918 <3>: HTTP status codes. (line 187) * RFC; RFC 4954: SMTP Objects. (line 135) * RFC; RFC 4954 <1>: SMTP Objects. (line 158) * RFC; RFC 5161: imaplib<2>. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 5161 <1>: IMAP4 Objects. (line 86) * RFC; RFC 5246: Constants<9>. (line 515) * RFC; RFC 5246 <1>: TLS 1 3. (line 53) * RFC; RFC 5280: ssl. (line 10) * RFC; RFC 5280 <1>: Other Changes. (line 20) * RFC; RFC 5280 <2>: Changes in the Python API<9>. (line 95) * RFC; RFC 5280 <3>: Context creation. (line 40) * RFC; RFC 5280 <4>: Context creation. (line 65) * RFC; RFC 5280 <5>: Certificate handling. (line 22) * RFC; RFC 5280 <6>: TLS 1 3. (line 49) * RFC; RFC 5321: smtpd<4>. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 5321 <1>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 453) * RFC; RFC 5322: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 5322 <1>: email message Representing an email message. (line 20) * RFC; RFC 5322 <2>: email message Representing an email message. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 5322 <3>: Parser API. (line 42) * RFC; RFC 5322 <4>: email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 101) * RFC; RFC 5322 <5>: email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 194) * RFC; RFC 5322 <6>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 149) * RFC; RFC 5322 <7>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 343) * RFC; RFC 5322 <8>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 364) * RFC; RFC 5322 <9>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 370) * RFC; RFC 5322 <10>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 382) * RFC; RFC 5322 <11>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 415) * RFC; RFC 5322 <12>: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 28) * RFC; RFC 5322 <13>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 5322 <14>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 117) * RFC; RFC 5322 <15>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 122) * RFC; RFC 5322 <16>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 123) * RFC; RFC 5322 <17>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 138) * RFC; RFC 5322 <18>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 159) * RFC; RFC 5322 <19>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 416) * RFC; RFC 5322 <20>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 450) * RFC; RFC 5322 <21>: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 484) * RFC; RFC 5322 <22>: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 5322 <23>: SMTP Objects. (line 314) * RFC; RFC 5424: SysLogHandler. (line 71) * RFC; RFC 5424 <1>: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 5424 <2>: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler. (line 19) * RFC; RFC 5424 <3>: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler. (line 43) * RFC; RFC 5424 <4>: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 5424 Section 6: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler. (line 9) * RFC; RFC 5735: Address objects. (line 160) * RFC; RFC 5789: HTTP methods. (line 37) * RFC; RFC 5842: HTTP status codes. (line 49) * RFC; RFC 5842 <1>: HTTP status codes. (line 190) * RFC; RFC 5891: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 5894: Security<18>. (line 20) * RFC; RFC 5895: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 11) * RFC; RFC 5929: SSL Sockets. (line 267) * RFC; RFC 6066: Constants<9>. (line 409) * RFC; RFC 6066 <1>: SSL Contexts. (line 290) * RFC; RFC 6066 <2>: TLS 1 3. (line 57) * RFC; RFC 6152: smtpd<2>. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 6531: email<3>. (line 19) * RFC; RFC 6531 <1>: smtpd<2>. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 6531 <2>: smtplib<2>. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 6531 <3>: email message Representing an email message. (line 103) * RFC; RFC 6531 <4>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 386) * RFC; RFC 6531 <5>: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 68) * RFC; RFC 6532: email<3>. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 6532 <1>: email — An email and MIME handling package. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 6532 <2>: email message Representing an email message. (line 20) * RFC; RFC 6532 <3>: Parser API. (line 43) * RFC; RFC 6532 <4>: email policy Policy Objects. (line 384) * RFC; RFC 6585: HTTP status codes. (line 154) * RFC; RFC 6585 <1>: HTTP status codes. (line 157) * RFC; RFC 6585 <2>: HTTP status codes. (line 160) * RFC; RFC 6585 <3>: HTTP status codes. (line 196) * RFC; RFC 6855: imaplib<2>. (line 12) * RFC; RFC 6855 <1>: imaplib<2>. (line 14) * RFC; RFC 6855 <2>: IMAP4 Objects. (line 88) * RFC; RFC 6855 <3>: IMAP4 Objects. (line 90) * RFC; RFC 6856: poplib<2>. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 6856 <1>: POP3 Objects. (line 109) * RFC; RFC 7159: json — JSON encoder and decoder. (line 10) * RFC; RFC 7159 <1>: Standard Compliance and Interoperability. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 7159 <2>: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values. (line 9) * RFC; RFC 7230: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 204) * RFC; RFC 7230 <1>: HTTPConnection Objects. (line 192) * RFC; RFC 7301: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support. (line 10) * RFC; RFC 7301 <1>: Constants<9>. (line 386) * RFC; RFC 7301 <2>: SSL Contexts. (line 258) * RFC; RFC 7525: TLS 1 3. (line 65) * RFC; RFC 7538: Library<35>. (line 171) * RFC; RFC 7693: BLAKE2. (line 6) * RFC; RFC 7725: HTTP status codes. (line 163) * RFC; RFC 7914: Key derivation. (line 53) * RFC; RFC 8089: Parsing and generating URIs. (line 7) * RFC; RFC 821: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 12) * RFC; RFC 821 <1>: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 186) * RFC; RFC 822: New and Improved Modules<3>. (line 98) * RFC; RFC 822 <1>: Functions<5>. (line 744) * RFC; RFC 822 <2>: Functions<5>. (line 747) * RFC; RFC 822 <3>: Functions<5>. (line 755) * RFC; RFC 822 <4>: Functions<5>. (line 758) * RFC; RFC 822 <5>: Functions<5>. (line 770) * RFC; RFC 822 <6>: Functions<5>. (line 773) * RFC; RFC 822 <7>: email Examples. (line 36) * RFC; RFC 822 <8>: email header Internationalized headers. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 822 <9>: HTTPConnection Objects. (line 179) * RFC; RFC 822 <10>: SMTP Objects. (line 94) * RFC; RFC 822 <11>: SMTP Objects. (line 229) * RFC; RFC 822 <12>: SMTP Objects. (line 230) * RFC; RFC 822 <13>: SMTP Example. (line 10) * RFC; RFC 822 <14>: The GNUTranslations class. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 8297: HTTP status codes. (line 22) * RFC; RFC 8305: Opening network connections. (line 77) * RFC; RFC 8305 <1>: Opening network connections. (line 86) * RFC; RFC 8470: HTTP status codes. (line 148) * RFC; RFC 850: Library<6>. (line 191) * RFC; RFC 9110: Library<6>. (line 191) * RFC; RFC 9110 <1>: HTTP status codes. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 9110 <2>: HTTP status codes. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 9110 <3>: HTTP status codes. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 9110 <4>: HTTP status codes. (line 28) * RFC; RFC 9110 <5>: HTTP status codes. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 9110 <6>: HTTP status codes. (line 34) * RFC; RFC 9110 <7>: HTTP status codes. (line 37) * RFC; RFC 9110 <8>: HTTP status codes. (line 40) * RFC; RFC 9110 <9>: HTTP status codes. (line 43) * RFC; RFC 9110 <10>: HTTP status codes. (line 55) * RFC; RFC 9110 <11>: HTTP status codes. (line 58) * RFC; RFC 9110 <12>: HTTP status codes. (line 61) * RFC; RFC 9110 <13>: HTTP status codes. (line 64) * RFC; RFC 9110 <14>: HTTP status codes. (line 67) * RFC; RFC 9110 <15>: HTTP status codes. (line 70) * RFC; RFC 9110 <16>: HTTP status codes. (line 73) * RFC; RFC 9110 <17>: HTTP status codes. (line 76) * RFC; RFC 9110 <18>: HTTP status codes. (line 79) * RFC; RFC 9110 <19>: HTTP status codes. (line 82) * RFC; RFC 9110 <20>: HTTP status codes. (line 85) * RFC; RFC 9110 <21>: HTTP status codes. (line 88) * RFC; RFC 9110 <22>: HTTP status codes. (line 91) * RFC; RFC 9110 <23>: HTTP status codes. (line 94) * RFC; RFC 9110 <24>: HTTP status codes. (line 97) * RFC; RFC 9110 <25>: HTTP status codes. (line 100) * RFC; RFC 9110 <26>: HTTP status codes. (line 103) * RFC; RFC 9110 <27>: HTTP status codes. (line 106) * RFC; RFC 9110 <28>: HTTP status codes. (line 109) * RFC; RFC 9110 <29>: HTTP status codes. (line 112) * RFC; RFC 9110 <30>: HTTP status codes. (line 115) * RFC; RFC 9110 <31>: HTTP status codes. (line 118) * RFC; RFC 9110 <32>: HTTP status codes. (line 121) * RFC; RFC 9110 <33>: HTTP status codes. (line 124) * RFC; RFC 9110 <34>: HTTP status codes. (line 127) * RFC; RFC 9110 <35>: HTTP status codes. (line 130) * RFC; RFC 9110 <36>: HTTP status codes. (line 136) * RFC; RFC 9110 <37>: HTTP status codes. (line 139) * RFC; RFC 9110 <38>: HTTP status codes. (line 151) * RFC; RFC 9110 <39>: HTTP status codes. (line 166) * RFC; RFC 9110 <40>: HTTP status codes. (line 169) * RFC; RFC 9110 <41>: HTTP status codes. (line 172) * RFC; RFC 9110 <42>: HTTP status codes. (line 175) * RFC; RFC 9110 <43>: HTTP status codes. (line 178) * RFC; RFC 9110 <44>: HTTP status codes. (line 181) * RFC; RFC 9110 <45>: HTTP status category. (line 15) * RFC; RFC 9110 <46>: HTTP status category. (line 18) * RFC; RFC 9110 <47>: HTTP status category. (line 21) * RFC; RFC 9110 <48>: HTTP status category. (line 24) * RFC; RFC 9110 <49>: HTTP status category. (line 27) * RFC; RFC 9110 <50>: HTTP methods. (line 13) * RFC; RFC 9110 <51>: HTTP methods. (line 16) * RFC; RFC 9110 <52>: HTTP methods. (line 19) * RFC; RFC 9110 <53>: HTTP methods. (line 22) * RFC; RFC 9110 <54>: HTTP methods. (line 25) * RFC; RFC 9110 <55>: HTTP methods. (line 28) * RFC; RFC 9110 <56>: HTTP methods. (line 31) * RFC; RFC 9110 <57>: HTTP methods. (line 34) * RFC; RFC 9239: Library<28>. (line 76) * RFC; RFC 9562 Section 6.10-3: Library<2>. (line 105) * RFC; RFC 959: ftplib — FTP protocol client. (line 16) * rfc2109 (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 72) * rfc2109_as_netscape (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 83) * rfc2965 (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy attribute): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 72) * rfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 118) * rfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler attribute): Request Handler Objects. (line 63) * rfind() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 214) * rfind() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 214) * rfind() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 283) * rfind() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 453) * rgb_to_hls() (in module colorsys): colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 36) * rgb_to_hsv() (in module colorsys): colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 44) * rgb_to_yiq() (in module colorsys): colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 28) * rglob() (pathlib.Path method): Reading directories. (line 78) * richcmpfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 83) * right (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 49) * right_list (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 58) * right_only (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 71) * right() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 40) * RIGHTSHIFT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 257) * RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 290) * rindex() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 228) * rindex() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 228) * rindex() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 460) * rjust() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 345) * rjust() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 345) * rjust() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 465) * RLIM_INFINITY (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 20) * RLIMIT_AS (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 148) * RLIMIT_CORE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 91) * RLIMIT_CPU (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 98) * RLIMIT_DATA (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 110) * RLIMIT_FSIZE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 106) * RLIMIT_KQUEUES (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 224) * RLIMIT_MEMLOCK (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 138) * RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 153) * RLIMIT_NICE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 161) * RLIMIT_NOFILE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 129) * RLIMIT_NPROC (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 125) * RLIMIT_NPTS (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 216) * RLIMIT_OFILE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 134) * RLIMIT_RSS (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 120) * RLIMIT_RTPRIO (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 170) * RLIMIT_RTTIME (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 178) * RLIMIT_SBSIZE (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 195) * RLIMIT_SIGPENDING (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 187) * RLIMIT_STACK (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 114) * RLIMIT_SWAP (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 205) * RLIMIT_VMEM (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 142) * RLock (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 102) * RLock (class in threading): RLock objects. (line 32) * RLock() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 203) * rmd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 348) * rmdir() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 825) * rmdir() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 111) * rmdir() (pathlib.Path method): Renaming and deleting. (line 61) * rmtree() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 264) * rmtree() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 118) * RobotFileParser (class in urllib.robotparser): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 16) * robots.txt: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 8) * rollback() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 80) * rollover() (tempfile.SpooledTemporaryFile method): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 162) * ROMAN (in module tkinter.font): tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper. (line 15) * root (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 31) * rotate() (collections.deque method): deque objects. (line 109) * rotate() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 512) * rotate() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 532) * rotate() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler method): BaseRotatingHandler. (line 75) * RotatingFileHandler (class in logging.handlers): RotatingFileHandler. (line 9) * rotation_filename() (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler method): BaseRotatingHandler. (line 58) * rotator (logging.handlers.BaseRotatingHandler attribute): BaseRotatingHandler. (line 49) * ROUND_05UP (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 34) * ROUND_CEILING (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 6) * ROUND_DOWN (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 10) * ROUND_FLOOR (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 14) * ROUND_HALF_DOWN (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 18) * ROUND_HALF_EVEN (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 22) * ROUND_HALF_UP (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 26) * ROUND_UP (in module decimal): Rounding modes. (line 30) * Rounded (class in decimal): Signals. (line 79) * rounding (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 128) * rounds (sys.float_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 675) * Row (class in sqlite3): Row objects. (line 6) * row_factory (sqlite3.Connection attribute): Connection objects. (line 794) * row_factory (sqlite3.Cursor attribute): Cursor objects. (line 226) * rowcount (sqlite3.Cursor attribute): Cursor objects. (line 215) * RPAR (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 179) * rpartition() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 240) * rpartition() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 240) * rpartition() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 472) * rpc_paths (xmlrpc.server.SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler attribute): SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 64) * rpop() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 47) * RS (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 115) * rset() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 75) * RShift (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * rshift() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 152) * rsplit() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 357) * rsplit() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 357) * rsplit() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 480) * RSQB (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 185) * rstrip() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 368) * rstrip() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 368) * rstrip() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 489) * rt() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 40) * RTLD_DEEPBIND (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * RTLD_GLOBAL (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * RTLD_LAZY (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * RTLD_LOCAL (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * RTLD_NODELETE (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * RTLD_NOLOAD (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * RTLD_NOW (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 164) * ruler (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 172) * run (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 416) * Run script: Format menu Editor window only. (line 53) * run_coroutine_threadsafe() (in module asyncio): Scheduling From Other Threads. (line 6) * run_docstring_examples() (in module doctest): Basic API. (line 127) * run_forever() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 16) * run_in_executor() (asyncio.loop method): Executing code in thread or process pools. (line 6) * run_in_subinterp() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 659) * run_module() (in module runpy): runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 27) * run_path() (in module runpy): runpy — Locating and executing Python modules. (line 98) * run_python_until_end() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 30) * run_script() (modulefinder.ModuleFinder method): modulefinder — Find modules used by a script. (line 44) * run_until_complete() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 6) * run_with_locale() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 462) * run_with_tz() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 470) * run() (asyncio.Runner method): Runner context manager. (line 36) * run() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 432) * run() (contextvars.Context method): Manual Context Management. (line 64) * run() (doctest.DocTestRunner method): DocTestRunner objects. (line 101) * run() (in module asyncio): Running an asyncio Program. (line 6) * run() (in module pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 135) * run() (in module profile): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 9) * run() (in module subprocess): Using the subprocess Module. (line 11) * run() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 68) * run() (pdb.Pdb method): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 228) * run() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 108) * run() (sched.scheduler method): Scheduler Objects. (line 51) * run() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 104) * run() (trace.Trace method): Programmatic Interface. (line 22) * run() (unittest.IsolatedAsyncioTestCase method): Test cases. (line 906) * run() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 83) * run() (unittest.TestSuite method): Grouping tests. (line 41) * run() (unittest.TextTestRunner method): Loading and running tests. (line 506) * run() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 99) * runcall() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 449) * runcall() (in module pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 154) * runcall() (pdb.Pdb method): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 228) * runcall() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 117) * runcode() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method): Interactive Interpreter Objects. (line 33) * runctx() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 444) * runctx() (in module profile): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 23) * runctx() (profile.Profile method): profile and cProfile Module Reference. (line 112) * runctx() (trace.Trace method): Programmatic Interface. (line 28) * runeval() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 438) * runeval() (in module pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 147) * runeval() (pdb.Pdb method): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 228) * runfunc() (trace.Trace method): Programmatic Interface. (line 35) * Runner (class in asyncio): Runner context manager. (line 6) * running() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 27) * runsource() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method): Interactive Interpreter Objects. (line 6) * runtime (sys._emscripten_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 355) * runtime_checkable() (in module typing): Other special directives. (line 178) * RuntimeError: Concrete exceptions. (line 260) * RuntimeWarning: Warnings. (line 47) * RUSAGE_BOTH (in module resource): Resource Usage. (line 122) * RUSAGE_CHILDREN (in module resource): Resource Usage. (line 116) * RUSAGE_SELF (in module resource): Resource Usage. (line 110) * RUSAGE_THREAD (in module resource): Resource Usage. (line 128) * RWF_APPEND (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 718) * RWF_DSYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 698) * RWF_HIPRI (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 628) * RWF_NOWAIT (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 613) * RWF_SYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 708) * S (in module re): Flags. (line 108) * S_ENFMT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 317) * S_IEXEC (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 331) * S_IFBLK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 206) * S_IFCHR (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 214) * S_IFDIR (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 210) * S_IFDOOR (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 222) * S_IFIFO (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 218) * S_IFLNK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 198) * S_IFMT() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 78) * S_IFPORT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 228) * S_IFREG (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 202) * S_IFSOCK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 194) * S_IFWHT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 234) * S_IMODE() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 71) * S_IREAD (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 323) * S_IRGRP (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 289) * S_IROTH (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 305) * S_IRUSR (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 273) * S_IRWXG (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 285) * S_IRWXO (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 301) * S_IRWXU (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 269) * S_ISBLK() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 30) * S_ISCHR() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 25) * S_ISDIR() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 21) * S_ISDOOR() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 50) * S_ISFIFO() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 38) * S_ISGID (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 251) * S_ISLNK() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 42) * S_ISPORT() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 56) * S_ISREG() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 34) * S_ISSOCK() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 46) * S_ISUID (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 247) * S_ISVTX (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 262) * S_ISWHT() (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 62) * S_IWGRP (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 293) * S_IWOTH (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 309) * S_IWRITE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 327) * S_IWUSR (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 277) * S_IXGRP (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 297) * S_IXOTH (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 313) * S_IXUSR (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 281) * safe (uuid.SafeUUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 33) * safe_path (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 575) * safe_substitute() (string.Template method): Template strings. (line 50) * SafeChildWatcher (class in asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 126) * saferepr() (in module pprint): Functions<4>. (line 101) * SafeUUID (class in uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 29) * same_files (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 89) * same_quantum() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 516) * same_quantum() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 544) * samefile() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 423) * samefile() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 145) * SameFileError: Directory and files operations. (line 52) * sameopenfile() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 437) * samesite (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * samestat() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 446) * sample() (in module random): Functions for sequences. (line 70) * samples() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 58) * SATURDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * save() (http.cookiejar.FileCookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 106) * save() (test.support.SaveSignals method): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 770) * SaveAs (class in tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 60) * SAVEDCWD (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 15) * SaveFileDialog (class in tkinter.filedialog): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 145) * SaveKey() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 395) * SaveSignals (class in test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 765) * savetty() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 443) * SAX2DOM (class in xml.dom.pulldom): xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees. (line 80) * SAXException: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 85) * SAXNotRecognizedException: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 110) * SAXNotSupportedException: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 117) * SAXParseException: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers. (line 102) * scaleb() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 520) * scaleb() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 554) * scandir() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 842) * scanf (C function): Simulating scanf. (line 6) * SCHED_BATCH (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 19) * SCHED_FIFO (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 32) * sched_get_priority_max() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 63) * sched_get_priority_min() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 58) * sched_getaffinity() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 110) * sched_getparam() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 87) * sched_getscheduler() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 75) * SCHED_IDLE (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 24) * SCHED_OTHER (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 15) * sched_param (class in os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 46) * sched_priority (os.sched_param attribute): Interface to the scheduler. (line 54) * SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 40) * SCHED_RR (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 36) * sched_rr_get_interval() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 93) * sched_setaffinity() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 103) * sched_setparam() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 81) * sched_setscheduler() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 68) * SCHED_SPORADIC (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 28) * sched_yield() (in module os): Interface to the scheduler. (line 98) * scheduler (class in sched): sched — Event scheduler. (line 13) * SCM_CREDS2 (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 321) * scope: Naming and binding. (line 6) * scope <1>: Resolution of names. (line 6) * scope_id (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 306) * Screen (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 30) * screensize() (in module turtle): Window control. (line 63) * script_from_examples() (in module doctest): Debugging. (line 72) * scroll() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 500) * ScrolledCanvas (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 34) * ScrolledText (class in tkinter.scrolledtext): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget. (line 24) * scrollok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 504) * scrypt() (in module hashlib): Key derivation. (line 49) * seal() (in module unittest.mock): Sealing mocks. (line 6) * search_function() (in module encodings): encodings — Encodings package. (line 23) * search() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 223) * search() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 36) * search() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 15) * second (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 326) * second (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 58) * seconds (datetime.timedelta attribute): timedelta Objects. (line 114) * seconds since the epoch: time — Time access and conversions. (line 24) * SECTCRE (configparser.ConfigParser attribute): Customizing Parser Behaviour. (line 301) * sections() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 116) * secure (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 49) * secure (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * secure hash algorithm, SHA1, SHA2, SHA224, SHA256, SHA384, SHA512, SHA3, Shake, Blake2: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests. (line 8) * Secure Sockets Layer: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 8) * security considerations: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data. (line 15) * security_level (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 626) * see() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 241) * seed_bits (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1066) * seed() (in module random): Bookkeeping functions. (line 6) * seed() (random.Random method): Alternative Generator. (line 18) * SEEK_CUR (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 326) * SEEK_DATA (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 350) * SEEK_END (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 326) * SEEK_HOLE (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 350) * SEEK_SET (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 326) * seek() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 106) * seek() (io.TextIOBase method): Text I/O<2>. (line 66) * seek() (io.TextIOWrapper method): Text I/O<2>. (line 205) * seek() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 293) * seek() (sqlite3.Blob method): Blob objects. (line 63) * seekable() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 100) * seekable() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 129) * seekable() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 304) * select() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 240) * select() (in module select): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 115) * select() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 108) * select() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 53) * selected_alpn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 273) * selected_npn_protocol() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 283) * selection_add() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 264) * selection_remove() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 271) * selection_set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 257) * selection_toggle() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 278) * selection() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 249) * selector (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 34) * SelectorEventLoop (class in asyncio): Event Loop Implementations. (line 11) * SelectorKey (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 29) * SelectSelector (class in selectors): Classes<4>. (line 167) * Self (in module typing): Special types. (line 138) * Semaphore (class in asyncio): Semaphore. (line 6) * Semaphore (class in multiprocessing): Synchronization primitives. (line 167) * Semaphore (class in threading): Semaphore objects. (line 19) * Semaphore() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 208) * semaphores, binary: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 6) * SEMI (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 194) * SEND (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1261) * send_bytes() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 54) * send_error() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 216) * send_fds() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 462) * send_header() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 252) * send_message() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 304) * send_response_only() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 265) * send_response() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 236) * send_signal() (asyncio.subprocess.Process method): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 86) * send_signal() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 44) * send_signal() (subprocess.Popen method): Popen Objects. (line 75) * send() (coroutine method): Coroutine Objects. (line 23) * send() (generator method): Generator-iterator methods. (line 27) * send() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 211) * send() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 247) * send() (logging.handlers.DatagramHandler method): DatagramHandler. (line 43) * send() (logging.handlers.SocketHandler method): SocketHandler. (line 63) * send() (multiprocessing.connection.Connection method): Connection Objects. (line 15) * send() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 395) * sendall() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 411) * sendcmd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 157) * sendfile() (asyncio.loop method): Transferring files. (line 6) * sendfile() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 753) * sendfile() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 504) * sendfile() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 281) * SendfileNotAvailableError: Exceptions<13>. (line 37) * sendfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 116) * sendmail() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 226) * sendmsg_afalg() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 493) * sendmsg() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 449) * sendto() (asyncio.DatagramTransport method): Datagram Transports. (line 6) * sendto() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 430) * sentinel (in module unittest.mock): sentinel. (line 6) * sentinel (multiprocessing.Process attribute): Process and exceptions. (line 189) * sep (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 116) * SEPTEMBER (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 490) * sequence: Glossary. (line 1349) * Sequence (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 68) * Sequence (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 98) * sequence; item: Subscriptions. (line 6) * sequence; iteration: Iterator Types. (line 6) * SequenceMatcher (class in difflib): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 8) * serialize() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 676) * serializing; objects: pickle — Python object serialization. (line 8) * serve_forever() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 91) * serve_forever() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 32) * Server (class in asyncio): Server Objects. (line 12) * server (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 76) * server (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler attribute): Request Handler Objects. (line 52) * server_activate() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 167) * server_address (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 79) * server_bind() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 173) * server_close() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 61) * server_hostname (ssl.SSLSocket attribute): SSL Sockets. (line 353) * server_side (ssl.SSLSocket attribute): SSL Sockets. (line 346) * server_software (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 179) * server_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 135) * server_version (http.server.SimpleHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 360) * ServerProxy (class in xmlrpc.client): xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access. (line 29) * service_actions() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 45) * session (ssl.SSLSocket attribute): SSL Sockets. (line 366) * session_reused (ssl.SSLSocket attribute): SSL Sockets. (line 376) * session_stats() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 481) * set (built-in class): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 33) * Set (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 91) * Set (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 92) * Set (class in typing): Aliases to built-in types. (line 30) * Set Breakpoint: Help menu Shell and Editor. (line 30) * set comprehension: Glossary. (line 1370) * SET_ADD (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 372) * set_all(): Reference Count Details. (line 98) * set_allowed_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 70) * set_alpn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 252) * set_app() (wsgiref.simple_server.WSGIServer method): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 64) * set_asyncgen_hooks() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1703) * set_authorizer() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 345) * set_auto_history() (in module readline): History list. (line 43) * set_blocked_domains() (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy method): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 56) * set_blocking() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 814) * set_boundary() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 411) * set_boundary() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 590) * set_break() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 345) * set_charset() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 237) * set_child_watcher() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method): Policy Objects. (line 44) * set_child_watcher() (in module asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 31) * set_children() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 25) * set_ciphers() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 238) * set_completer_delims() (in module readline): Completion. (line 50) * set_completer() (in module readline): Completion. (line 14) * set_completion_display_matches_hook() (in module readline): Completion. (line 59) * set_content() (email.contentmanager.ContentManager method): email contentmanager Managing MIME Content. (line 40) * set_content() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 590) * set_content() (in module email.contentmanager): Content Manager Instances. (line 35) * set_continue() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 330) * set_cookie_if_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 69) * set_cookie() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 73) * set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1728) * set_data() (importlib.abc.SourceLoader method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 389) * set_data() (importlib.machinery.SourceFileLoader method): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 230) * set_date() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 97) * set_debug() (asyncio.loop method): Enabling debug mode. (line 14) * set_debug() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 51) * set_debuglevel() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 74) * set_debuglevel() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 87) * set_debuglevel() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 11) * set_debuglevel() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 8) * set_default_executor() (asyncio.loop method): Executing code in thread or process pools. (line 75) * set_default_type() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 342) * set_default_type() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 452) * set_default_verify_paths() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 229) * set_defaults() (argparse.ArgumentParser method): Parser defaults. (line 6) * set_defaults() (optparse.OptionParser method): Other methods. (line 27) * set_ecdh_curve() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 366) * set_errno() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 200) * set_error_mode() (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 12) * set_escdelay() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 454) * set_event_loop_policy() (in module asyncio): Getting and Setting the Policy. (line 13) * set_event_loop() (asyncio.AbstractEventLoopPolicy method): Policy Objects. (line 23) * set_event_loop() (in module asyncio): Event Loop. (line 63) * set_events() (in module sys.monitoring): Setting events globally. (line 13) * set_exception_handler() (asyncio.loop method): Error Handling API. (line 8) * set_exception() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 56) * set_exception() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 117) * set_executable() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 117) * set_filter() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 127) * set_flags() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 110) * set_flags() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 72) * set_flags() (mailbox.mboxMessage method): mboxMessage objects. (line 72) * set_flags() (mailbox.MMDFMessage method): MMDFMessage objects. (line 71) * set_forkserver_preload() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 132) * set_from() (mailbox.mboxMessage method): mboxMessage objects. (line 53) * set_from() (mailbox.MMDFMessage method): MMDFMessage objects. (line 52) * SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1123) * set_handle_inheritable() (in module os): Inheritance of File Descriptors. (line 40) * set_history_length() (in module readline): History file. (line 30) * set_info() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 172) * set_info() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 108) * set_inheritable() (in module os): Inheritance of File Descriptors. (line 30) * set_inheritable() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 521) * set_int_max_str_digits() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1505) * set_labels() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 51) * set_last_error() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 209) * set_local_events() (in module sys.monitoring): Per code object events. (line 16) * set_memlimit() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 303) * set_name() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 187) * set_next() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 308) * set_nonstandard_attr() (http.cookiejar.Cookie method): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 107) * set_npn_protocols() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 267) * set_ok() (http.cookiejar.CookiePolicy method): CookiePolicy Objects. (line 9) * set_param() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 351) * set_param() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 520) * set_pasv() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 213) * set_payload() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 226) * set_policy() (http.cookiejar.CookieJar method): CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects. (line 57) * set_pre_input_hook() (in module readline): Startup hooks. (line 14) * set_progress_handler() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 378) * set_protocol() (asyncio.BaseTransport method): Base Transport. (line 81) * set_proxy() (urllib.request.Request method): Request Objects. (line 115) * set_psk_client_callback() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 661) * set_psk_server_callback() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 713) * set_quit() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 335) * set_result() (asyncio.Future method): Future Object. (line 49) * set_result() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 105) * set_return() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 312) * set_running_or_notify_cancel() (concurrent.futures.Future method): Future Objects. (line 85) * set_selection() (tkinter.filedialog.FileDialog method): Native Load/Save Dialogs. (line 131) * set_seq1() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 54) * set_seq2() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 59) * set_seqs() (difflib.SequenceMatcher method): SequenceMatcher Objects. (line 44) * set_sequences() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 61) * set_sequences() (mailbox.MHMessage method): MHMessage objects. (line 37) * set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 24) * set_server_documentation() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method): DocXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 24) * set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 18) * set_server_name() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method): DocXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 18) * set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler method): DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler. (line 13) * set_server_title() (xmlrpc.server.DocXMLRPCServer method): DocXMLRPCServer Objects. (line 13) * set_servername_callback (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 338) * set_start_method() (in module multiprocessing): Miscellaneous<3>. (line 149) * set_startup_hook() (in module readline): Startup hooks. (line 6) * set_step() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 304) * set_subdir() (mailbox.MaildirMessage method): MaildirMessage objects. (line 58) * set_tabsize() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 469) * set_task_factory() (asyncio.loop method): Creating Futures and Tasks. (line 51) * set_threshold() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 92) * set_trace_callback() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 396) * set_trace() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 321) * set_trace() (in module bdb): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 482) * set_trace() (in module pdb): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 161) * set_trace() (pdb.Pdb method): pdb — The Python Debugger. (line 228) * set_tunnel() (http.client.HTTPConnection method): HTTPConnection Objects. (line 97) * set_type() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 553) * set_unittest_reportflags() (in module doctest): Unittest API. (line 169) * set_unixfrom() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 146) * set_unixfrom() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 157) * set_until() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 316) * SET_UPDATE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 720) * set_url() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 21) * set_usage() (optparse.OptionParser method): Other methods. (line 8) * set_userptr() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 43) * set_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 68) * set_wakeup_fd() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 443) * set_write_buffer_limits() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 33) * set; comprehensions: Set displays. (line 6) * set; display: Set displays. (line 6) * set() (asyncio.Event method): Event. (line 51) * set() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 285) * set() (configparser.RawConfigParser method): RawConfigParser Objects. (line 48) * set() (contextvars.ContextVar method): Context Variables. (line 46) * set() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 61) * set() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard method): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 66) * set() (threading.Event method): Event objects. (line 30) * set() (tkinter.ttk.Combobox method): ttk Combobox. (line 19) * set() (tkinter.ttk.Spinbox method): ttk Spinbox. (line 12) * set() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 285) * set() (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element method): Element Objects. (line 81) * setacl() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 254) * setannotation() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 259) * setattrfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 48) * setAttribute() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 67) * setAttributeNode() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 71) * setAttributeNodeNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 79) * setAttributeNS() (xml.dom.Element method): Element Objects<2>. (line 87) * setattrofunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 61) * SetBase() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 22) * setblocking() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 528) * setByteStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 36) * setcbreak() (in module tty): tty — Terminal control functions. (line 54) * setCharacterStream() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 55) * SetComp (class in ast): Comprehensions. (line 6) * setcomptype() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 59) * setconfig() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 660) * setContentHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 25) * setcontext() (in module decimal): Context objects. (line 18) * setDaemon() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 215) * setdefault() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 228) * setdefault() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 105) * setdefaulttimeout() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 382) * setdlopenflags() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1492) * setDocumentLocator() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 10) * setDTDHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 34) * setegid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 377) * setEncoding() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 22) * setEntityResolver() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 43) * setErrorHandler() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 54) * seteuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 383) * setFeature() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 76) * setfirstweekday() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 54) * setfirstweekday() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 349) * setFormatter() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 48) * setframerate() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 45) * setgid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 389) * setgroups() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 395) * seth() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 166) * setheading() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 166) * sethostname() (in module socket): Other functions<2>. (line 389) * setinputsizes() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 162) * setitem() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 205) * setitimer() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 414) * setLevel() (logging.Handler method): Handler Objects. (line 35) * setLevel() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 105) * setlimit() (sqlite3.Connection method): Connection objects. (line 614) * setlocale() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 27) * setLocale() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 60) * setLoggerClass() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 323) * setlogmask() (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 98) * setLogRecordFactory() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 334) * setMaxConns() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler method): CacheFTPHandler Objects. (line 13) * setmode() (in module msvcrt): File Operations. (line 38) * setName() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 159) * setnchannels() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 37) * setnframes() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 52) * setns() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 410) * setoutputsize() (sqlite3.Cursor method): Cursor objects. (line 166) * SetParamEntityParsing() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 54) * setparams() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 64) * setpassword() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 240) * setpgid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 457) * setpgrp() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 449) * setpos() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 74) * setpos() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 83) * setposition() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 74) * setpriority() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 465) * setprofile_all_threads() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 142) * setprofile() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1513) * setprofile() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 136) * setProperty() (xml.sax.xmlreader.XMLReader method): XMLReader Objects. (line 90) * setPublicId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 6) * setquota() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 264) * setraw() (in module tty): tty — Terminal control functions. (line 43) * setrecursionlimit() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1570) * setregid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 482) * SetReparseDeferralEnabled() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 82) * setresgid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 488) * setresuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 496) * setreuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 504) * setrlimit() (in module resource): Resource Limits. (line 31) * setsampwidth() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 41) * setscrreg() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 514) * setsid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 517) * setsockopt() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 561) * setstate() (codecs.IncrementalDecoder method): IncrementalDecoder Objects. (line 60) * setstate() (codecs.IncrementalEncoder method): IncrementalEncoder Objects. (line 51) * setstate() (in module random): Bookkeeping functions. (line 38) * setstate() (random.Random method): Alternative Generator. (line 28) * setStream() (logging.StreamHandler method): StreamHandler. (line 32) * setswitchinterval (in module sys): Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock. (line 15) * setswitchinterval() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1588) * setswitchinterval() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 286) * setSystemId() (xml.sax.xmlreader.InputSource method): InputSource Objects. (line 14) * setsyx() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 477) * setTarget() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 68) * setter (C type): Defining Getters and Setters. (line 42) * settimeout() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 545) * setTimeout() (urllib.request.CacheFTPHandler method): CacheFTPHandler Objects. (line 9) * settrace_all_threads() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 120) * settrace() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1601) * settrace() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 114) * setuid() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 524) * setundobuffer() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 61) * SETUP_ANNOTATIONS (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 432) * SETUP_CLEANUP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1404) * setup_environ() (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler method): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 199) * SETUP_FINALLY (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1397) * setup_python() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 153) * setup_scripts() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 161) * setup_testing_defaults() (in module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 70) * SETUP_WITH (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 1412) * setup() (in module turtle): Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen. (line 20) * setup() (socketserver.BaseRequestHandler method): Request Handler Objects. (line 14) * setUp() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 33) * setUpClass() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 55) * setupterm() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 482) * SetValue() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 419) * SetValueEx() (in module winreg): Functions<13>. (line 450) * setworldcoordinates() (in module turtle): Window control. (line 90) * setx() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 138) * setxattr() (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 57) * sety() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 152) * SF_APPEND (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 414) * SF_ARCHIVED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 406) * SF_DATALESS (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 438) * SF_FIRMLINK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 432) * SF_IMMUTABLE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 410) * SF_MNOWAIT (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 793) * SF_NOCACHE (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 804) * SF_NODISKIO (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 793) * SF_NOUNLINK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 424) * SF_RESTRICTED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 418) * SF_SETTABLE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 384) * SF_SNAPSHOT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 428) * SF_SUPPORTED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 390) * SF_SYNC (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 793) * SF_SYNTHETIC (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 398) * sha1() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 22) * sha224() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 24) * sha256() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 26) * sha3_224() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 32) * sha3_256() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 34) * sha3_384() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 36) * sha3_512() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 38) * sha384() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 28) * sha512() (in module hashlib): Constructors. (line 30) * shake_128() (in module hashlib): SHAKE variable length digests. (line 6) * shake_256() (in module hashlib): SHAKE variable length digests. (line 8) * Shape (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 43) * shape (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 451) * shape() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 6) * shapesize() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 52) * shapetransform() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 137) * share() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 595) * ShareableList (class in multiprocessing.shared_memory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 272) * ShareableList() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager method): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 232) * Shared Memory: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 10) * shared_ciphers() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 236) * shared_memory (sys._emscripten_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 364) * SharedMemory (class in multiprocessing.shared_memory): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 33) * SharedMemory() (multiprocessing.managers.SharedMemoryManager method): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 227) * SharedMemoryManager (class in multiprocessing.managers): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 200) * shearfactor() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 83) * Shelf (class in shelve): Restrictions. (line 27) * shield() (in module asyncio): Shielding From Cancellation. (line 6) * shift_path_info() (in module wsgiref.util): wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities. (line 40) * shift() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 525) * shift() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 560) * shifting; operation: Shifting operations. (line 6) * shifting; operations: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types. (line 6) * shlex (class in shlex): shlex — Simple lexical analysis. (line 92) * shm (multiprocessing.shared_memory.ShareableList attribute): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 346) * SHORT_TIMEOUT (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 80) * shortDescription() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 758) * shorten() (in module textwrap): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 49) * shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.BufferingHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 36) * shouldFlush() (logging.handlers.MemoryHandler method): MemoryHandler. (line 72) * shouldRollover() (logging.handlers.RotatingFileHandler method): RotatingFileHandler. (line 52) * shouldRollover() (logging.handlers.TimedRotatingFileHandler method): TimedRotatingFileHandler. (line 120) * shouldStop (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 284) * show_code() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 26) * show_flag_values() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 102) * show() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 49) * show() (tkinter.commondialog.Dialog method): tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates. (line 16) * show() (tkinter.messagebox.Message method): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 82) * showerror() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 105) * showinfo() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 91) * showsyntaxerror() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method): Interactive Interpreter Objects. (line 44) * showtraceback() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method): Interactive Interpreter Objects. (line 53) * showturtle() (in module turtle): Visibility. (line 15) * showwarning() (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 99) * showwarning() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 86) * shuffle() (in module random): Functions for sequences. (line 54) * SHUT_RD (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 375) * SHUT_RDWR (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 375) * SHUT_WR (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 375) * ShutDown: queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 94) * shutdown_asyncgens() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 56) * shutdown_default_executor() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 77) * shutdown() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 84) * shutdown() (concurrent.futures.Executor method): Executor Objects. (line 53) * shutdown() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 269) * shutdown() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 312) * shutdown() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method): Managers. (line 84) * shutdown() (queue.Queue method): Terminating queues. (line 9) * shutdown() (socket.socket method): Socket Objects. (line 586) * shutdown() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 54) * SI (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 70) * side_effect (unittest.mock.Mock attribute): The Mock Class. (line 370) * SIG_BLOCK (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 231) * SIG_DFL (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 45) * SIG_IGN (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 53) * SIG_SETMASK (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 246) * SIG_UNBLOCK (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 238) * SIGABRT (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 58) * SIGALRM (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 62) * SIGBREAK (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 68) * SIGBUS (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 74) * SIGCHLD (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 80) * SIGCLD (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 86) * SIGCONT (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 92) * SIGFPE (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 98) * SIGHUP (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 108) * SIGILL (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 115) * SIGINT (C macro): Signal Handling<2>. (line 7) * SIGINT (C macro) <1>: Signal Handling<2>. (line 34) * SIGINT (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 119) * siginterrupt() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 489) * SIGKILL (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 125) * Sigmasks (class in signal): Module contents<2>. (line 31) * signal() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 504) * Signals (class in signal): Module contents<2>. (line 17) * Signature (class in inspect): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 74) * signature (inspect.BoundArguments attribute): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 364) * signature() (in module inspect): Introspecting callables with the Signature object. (line 12) * sigpending() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 532) * SIGPIPE (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 133) * SIGSEGV (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 141) * SIGSTKFLT (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 145) * SIGTERM (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 157) * sigtimedwait() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 593) * SIGUSR1 (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 161) * SIGUSR2 (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 167) * sigwait() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 547) * sigwaitinfo() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 564) * SIGWINCH (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 173) * SIMPLE (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 15) * Simple Mail Transfer Protocol: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 8) * simple; statement: Simple statements. (line 6) * SimpleCookie (class in http.cookies): http cookies — HTTP state management. (line 49) * simplefilter() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 120) * SimpleHandler (class in wsgiref.handlers): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 70) * SimpleHTTPRequestHandler (class in http.server): http server — HTTP servers. (line 341) * SimpleNamespace (class in types): Additional Utility Classes and Functions. (line 6) * SimpleQueue (class in multiprocessing): Pipes and Queues. (line 220) * SimpleQueue (class in queue): queue — A synchronized queue class. (line 75) * SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler (class in xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers. (line 63) * SimpleXMLRPCServer (class in xmlrpc.server): xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers. (line 24) * sin() (in module cmath): Trigonometric functions<2>. (line 27) * sin() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 35) * single dispatch: Glossary. (line 1378) * SingleAddressHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 217) * singledispatch() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 426) * singledispatchmethod (class in functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 600) * singleton; tuple: Immutable sequences. (line 29) * sinh() (in module cmath): Hyperbolic functions<2>. (line 27) * sinh() (in module math): Hyperbolic functions. (line 25) * SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 247) * SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 247) * SIO_RCVALL (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 247) * site command line option; -user-base: Command Line Interface<4>. (line 18) * site command line option; -user-site: Command Line Interface<4>. (line 22) * site_maps() (urllib.robotparser.RobotFileParser method): urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 71) * site-packages; directory: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 25) * sitecustomize: The Customization Modules. (line 6) * sitecustomize <1>: The Customization Modules. (line 19) * sixtofour (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 313) * size (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory attribute): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 125) * size (struct.Struct attribute): Classes<3>. (line 61) * size (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 65) * size (tracemalloc.Statistic attribute): Statistic. (line 19) * size (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute): StatisticDiff. (line 26) * size (tracemalloc.Trace attribute): Trace. (line 23) * size_diff (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute): StatisticDiff. (line 32) * SIZE_MAX (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 263) * size() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 352) * size() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 311) * Sized (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 15) * Sized (class in typing): Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc. (line 68) * sizeof_digit (sys.int_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1151) * sizeof() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 220) * SKIP (in module doctest): Option Flags. (line 90) * skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 722) * skip_unless_bind_unix_socket() (in module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 59) * skip_unless_symlink() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 126) * skip_unless_xattr() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 131) * skip() (in module unittest): Skipping tests and expected failures. (line 85) * skipIf() (in module unittest): Skipping tests and expected failures. (line 90) * skipinitialspace (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 82) * skipped (doctest.TestResults attribute): TestResults objects. (line 16) * skipped (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 259) * skippedEntity() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 176) * skips (doctest.DocTestRunner attribute): DocTestRunner objects. (line 143) * SkipTest: Skipping tests and expected failures. (line 105) * skipTest() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 97) * skipUnless() (in module unittest): Skipping tests and expected failures. (line 94) * SLASH (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 206) * SLASHEQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 272) * sleep() (in module asyncio): Sleeping. (line 6) * sleep() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 265) * sleeping_retry() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 219) * slice: Slicings. (line 6) * slice <1>: Glossary. (line 1383) * slice (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 1782) * Slice (class in ast): Subscripting. (line 27) * slice; assignment: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * slice; operation: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * slicing: Sequences. (line 14) * slicing <1>: Mutable sequences. (line 6) * slicing <2>: Slicings. (line 6) * slicing; assignment: Assignment statements. (line 125) * slow_callback_duration (asyncio.loop attribute): Enabling debug mode. (line 21) * SMALLEST (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 190) * SMTP (class in smtplib): smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 21) * SMTP (in module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 510) * SMTP_SSL (class in smtplib): smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 75) * SMTP; protocol: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 8) * SMTPAuthenticationError: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 178) * SMTPConnectError: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 163) * SMTPDataError: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 159) * SMTPException: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 124) * SMTPHandler (class in logging.handlers): SMTPHandler. (line 10) * SMTPHeloError: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 168) * SMTPNotSupportedError: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 172) * SMTPRecipientsRefused: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 152) * SMTPResponseException: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 138) * SMTPSenderRefused: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 146) * SMTPServerDisconnected: smtplib — SMTP protocol client. (line 132) * SMTPUTF8 (in module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 516) * Snapshot (class in tracemalloc): Snapshot. (line 6) * SND_ALIAS (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 47) * SND_APPLICATION (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 128) * SND_ASYNC (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 109) * SND_FILENAME (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 42) * SND_LOOP (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 88) * SND_MEMORY (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 94) * SND_NODEFAULT (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 113) * SND_NOSTOP (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 118) * SND_NOWAIT (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 122) * SND_PURGE (in module winsound): winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows. (line 103) * sni_callback (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 285) * sniff() (csv.Sniffer method): Module Contents<3>. (line 232) * Sniffer (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 225) * SO (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 67) * SO_INCOMING_CPU (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 335) * sock_accept() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 107) * SOCK_CLOEXEC (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 38) * sock_connect() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 88) * SOCK_DGRAM (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 27) * SOCK_MAX_SIZE (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 123) * SOCK_NONBLOCK (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 38) * SOCK_RAW (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 27) * SOCK_RDM (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 27) * sock_recv_into() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 26) * sock_recv() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 12) * sock_recvfrom_into() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 48) * sock_recvfrom() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 37) * sock_sendall() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 59) * sock_sendfile() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 130) * sock_sendto() (asyncio.loop method): Working with socket objects directly. (line 77) * SOCK_SEQPACKET (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 27) * SOCK_STREAM (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 27) * socket (class in socket): Creating sockets. (line 8) * socket (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 88) * socket_type (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 111) * socket() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 275) * socket() (in module socket): select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 143) * SocketHandler (class in logging.handlers): SocketHandler. (line 10) * socketpair() (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 64) * sockets (asyncio.Server attribute): Server Objects. (line 128) * SocketType (in module socket): Creating sockets. (line 186) * soft deprecated: Glossary. (line 1391) * soft keyword: Soft Keywords. (line 6) * SOFT_KEYWORD (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 151) * softkwlist (in module keyword): keyword — Testing for Python keywords. (line 30) * SOH (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 22) * SOL_ALG (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 263) * SOL_RDS (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 234) * SOMAXCONN (in module socket): Constants<8>. (line 54) * sort_stats() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 67) * sort() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 279) * sort() (list method): Lists<2>. (line 39) * sortdict() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 267) * sortTestMethodsUsing (unittest.TestLoader attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 195) * source (doctest.Example attribute): Example Objects. (line 17) * source (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 285) * source (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 151) * source character set: Encoding declarations. (line 6) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH: py_compile<3>. (line 7) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <1>: Library<56>. (line 452) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <2>: Build<59>. (line 15) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <3>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 66) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <4>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 82) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <5>: py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 86) * SOURCE_DATE_EPOCH <6>: Command-line use. (line 97) * source_from_cache() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 58) * source_hash() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 160) * SOURCE_SUFFIXES (in module importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 13) * source_to_code() (importlib.abc.InspectLoader static method): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 243) * SourceFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 204) * sourcehook() (shlex.shlex method): shlex Objects. (line 26) * SourcelessFileLoader (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 244) * SourceLoader (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 328) * SP (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 121) * space: Indentation. (line 6) * space; in printf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 69) * space; in printf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 63) * space; in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 74) * span() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 172) * sparse (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 157) * spawn_python() (in module test.support.script_helper): test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests. (line 69) * spawn() (in module pty): pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities. (line 42) * spawnl() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnle() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnlp() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnlpe() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnv() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnve() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnvp() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spawnvpe() (in module os): Process Management. (line 592) * spec_from_file_location() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 148) * spec_from_loader() (in module importlib.util): importlib util – Utility code for importers. (line 137) * special method: Glossary. (line 1402) * special; attribute: The standard type hierarchy. (line 13) * special; method: Glossary. (line 1406) * SpecialFileError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 248) * specified_attributes (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser attribute): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 155) * speed() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 328) * Spinbox (class in tkinter.ttk): ttk Spinbox. (line 6) * SPLICE_F_MORE (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 862) * SPLICE_F_MOVE (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 862) * SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 862) * splice() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 834) * split() (BaseExceptionGroup method): Exception groups. (line 70) * split() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 398) * split() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 398) * split() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 456) * split() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 80) * split() (in module shlex): shlex — Simple lexical analysis. (line 17) * split() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 80) * split() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 511) * splitdrive() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 471) * splitext() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 526) * splitlines() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 641) * splitlines() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 641) * splitlines() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 565) * SplitResult (class in urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results. (line 55) * SplitResultBytes (class in urllib.parse): Structured Parse Results. (line 82) * splitroot() (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 495) * SpooledTemporaryFile (class in tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 152) * sprintf-style formatting: printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * sprintf-style formatting <1>: printf-style Bytes Formatting. (line 6) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 147) * SQLITE_DENY (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 49) * sqlite_errorcode (sqlite3.Error attribute): Exceptions<7>. (line 24) * sqlite_errorname (sqlite3.Error attribute): Exceptions<7>. (line 30) * SQLITE_IGNORE (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 49) * SQLITE_OK (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 49) * sqlite_version (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 78) * sqlite_version_info (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 83) * sqrt() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 529) * sqrt() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 571) * sqrt() (in module cmath): Power and logarithmic functions. (line 22) * sqrt() (in module math): Power exponential and logarithmic functions. (line 90) * ssizeargfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 126) * ssizeobjargproc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 130) * SSL: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 8) * ssl_version (ftplib.FTP_TLS attribute): FTP_TLS objects. (line 83) * SSLCertVerificationError: Exceptions<16>. (line 79) * SSLContext (class in ssl): SSL Contexts. (line 14) * SSLEOFError: Exceptions<16>. (line 71) * SSLError: Exceptions<16>. (line 6) * SSLErrorNumber (class in ssl): Constants<9>. (line 549) * SSLKEYLOGFILE: Context creation. (line 34) * SSLKEYLOGFILE <1>: Context creation. (line 83) * SSLObject (class in ssl): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 30) * sslobject_class (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 472) * SSLSession (class in ssl): SSL session. (line 8) * SSLSocket (class in ssl): SSL Sockets. (line 6) * sslsocket_class (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 446) * SSLSyscallError: Exceptions<16>. (line 62) * SSLv3 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 571) * SSLWantReadError: Exceptions<16>. (line 44) * SSLWantWriteError: Exceptions<16>. (line 53) * SSLZeroReturnError: Exceptions<16>. (line 35) * ST_ATIME (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 163) * st_atime (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1187) * st_atime_ns (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1204) * st_birthtime (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1230) * st_birthtime_ns (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1238) * st_blksize (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1275) * st_blocks (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1270) * st_creator (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1311) * ST_CTIME (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 171) * st_ctime (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1195) * st_ctime_ns (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1218) * ST_DEV (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 142) * st_dev (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1163) * st_file_attributes (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1321) * st_flags (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1285) * st_fstype (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1300) * st_gen (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1293) * ST_GID (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 154) * st_gid (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1175) * ST_INO (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 138) * st_ino (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1154) * ST_MODE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 134) * st_mode (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1150) * ST_MTIME (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 167) * st_mtime (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1191) * st_mtime_ns (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1211) * ST_NLINK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 146) * st_nlink (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1167) * st_rdev (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1281) * st_reparse_tag (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1331) * st_rsize (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1307) * ST_SIZE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 158) * st_size (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1179) * st_type (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1315) * ST_UID (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 150) * st_uid (os.stat_result attribute): Files and Directories. (line 1171) * st() (in module turtle): Visibility. (line 15) * stack (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 75) * stack viewer: Debug menu Shell window only. (line 15) * stack_effect() (in module dis): Analysis functions. (line 187) * stack_size() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 111) * stack_size() (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 158) * stack; trace: Traceback objects. (line 6) * stack() (in module inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 171) * stackable; streams: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 8) * StackSummary (class in traceback): StackSummary Objects. (line 10) * stamp() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 272) * Standard C: String and Bytes literals. (line 74) * standard input: Complete Python programs. (line 25) * standard library: Glossary. (line 1409) * standard_b64decode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 54) * standard_b64encode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 49) * standard; output: Expression statements. (line 17) * standend() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 519) * standout() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 524) * STAR (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 203) * STAREQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 269) * starmap_async() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 163) * starmap() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 551) * starmap() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 152) * Starred (class in ast): Variables. (line 40) * start (range attribute): Ranges. (line 61) * start (slice attribute): Built-in Functions. (line 1795) * start (slice object attribute): Slice objects. (line 10) * start (slice object attribute) <1>: Slicings. (line 26) * start (UnicodeError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 457) * start_color() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 490) * start_new_thread() (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 32) * start_ns() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 76) * start_server() (in module asyncio): Streams. (line 76) * start_serving() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 75) * start_threads() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 22) * start_tls() (asyncio.loop method): TLS Upgrade. (line 6) * start_tls() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 81) * start_unix_server() (in module asyncio): Streams. (line 146) * start() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 68) * start() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method): QueueListener. (line 75) * start() (multiprocessing.managers.BaseManager method): Managers. (line 57) * start() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 91) * start() (re.Match method): Match Objects. (line 147) * start() (threading.Thread method): Thread objects. (line 93) * start() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method): ttk Progressbar. (line 8) * start() (xml.etree.ElementTree.TreeBuilder method): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 43) * StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect: email errors Exception and Defect classes. (line 80) * startCDATA() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler method): LexicalHandler Objects. (line 32) * StartCdataSectionHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 341) * StartDoctypeDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 224) * startDocument() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 32) * startDTD() (xml.sax.handler.LexicalHandler method): LexicalHandler Objects. (line 23) * startElement() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 82) * StartElementHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 262) * startElementNS() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 102) * STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 47) * STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 38) * STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 33) * STARTF_USESTDHANDLES (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 27) * startfile() (in module os): Process Management. (line 706) * StartNamespaceDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 320) * startPrefixMapping() (xml.sax.handler.ContentHandler method): ContentHandler Objects. (line 49) * StartResponse (class in wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 11) * startswith() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 253) * startswith() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 253) * startswith() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 638) * startTest() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 347) * startTestRun() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 356) * starttls() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 297) * starttls() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 185) * STARTUPINFO (class in subprocess): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 9) * stat_result (class in os): Files and Directories. (line 1142) * stat() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1087) * stat() (os.DirEntry method): Files and Directories. (line 1052) * stat() (pathlib.Path method): Querying file type and status. (line 13) * stat() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 52) * state() (tkinter.ttk.Widget method): ttk Widget. (line 25) * statement: Glossary. (line 1421) * statement grouping: Indentation. (line 6) * statement; assert: The assert statement. (line 6) * statement; assert <1>: Concrete exceptions. (line 10) * statement; assignment, annotated: Annotated assignment statements. (line 6) * statement; assignment, augmented: Augmented assignment statements. (line 6) * statement; async def: Coroutines<2>. (line 8) * statement; async for: Coroutine function definition. (line 28) * statement; async with: The async for statement. (line 43) * statement; break: The break statement. (line 6) * statement; break <1>: The while statement. (line 17) * statement; break <2>: The for statement. (line 21) * statement; break <3>: except* clause. (line 57) * statement; break <4>: finally clause. (line 29) * statement; class: Class definitions. (line 6) * statement; continue: The continue statement. (line 6) * statement; continue <1>: The while statement. (line 17) * statement; continue <2>: The for statement. (line 21) * statement; continue <3>: except* clause. (line 56) * statement; continue <4>: finally clause. (line 29) * statement; def: Function definitions. (line 6) * statement; del: Basic customization. (line 55) * statement; del <1>: The del statement<2>. (line 6) * statement; del <2>: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * statement; del <3>: Mapping Types — dict. (line 6) * statement; except: Built-in Exceptions. (line 6) * statement; for: for Statements. (line 6) * statement; for <1>: The break statement. (line 6) * statement; for <2>: The continue statement. (line 6) * statement; for <3>: The for statement. (line 6) * statement; global: The del statement<2>. (line 15) * statement; global <1>: The global statement. (line 6) * statement; if: The if statement. (line 6) * statement; if <1>: Truth Value Testing. (line 6) * statement; import: Modules<3>. (line 6) * statement; import <1>: The import statement. (line 6) * statement; import <2>: Built-in Functions. (line 2184) * statement; import <3>: site — Site-specific configuration hook. (line 52) * statement; match: The match statement. (line 6) * statement; nonlocal: The nonlocal statement. (line 6) * statement; pass: The pass statement. (line 6) * statement; raise: The raise statement. (line 6) * statement; raise <1>: Built-in Exceptions. (line 14) * statement; return: The return statement. (line 6) * statement; return <1>: except* clause. (line 57) * statement; return <2>: finally clause. (line 29) * statement; try: Traceback objects. (line 31) * statement; try <1>: The try statement. (line 6) * statement; try <2>: Built-in Exceptions. (line 6) * statement; type: The type statement. (line 6) * statement; while: The break statement. (line 6) * statement; while <1>: The continue statement. (line 6) * statement; while <2>: The while statement. (line 6) * statement; while <3>: Truth Value Testing. (line 6) * statement; with: With Statement Context Managers. (line 14) * statement; with <1>: The with statement. (line 6) * statement; yield: The yield statement. (line 6) * static type checker: Glossary. (line 1428) * static_order() (graphlib.TopologicalSorter method): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 162) * Statistic (class in tracemalloc): Statistic. (line 6) * StatisticDiff (class in tracemalloc): StatisticDiff. (line 6) * statistics() (tracemalloc.Snapshot method): Snapshot. (line 56) * StatisticsError: Exceptions<5>. (line 8) * Stats (class in pstats): The Stats Class. (line 9) * status (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 61) * status (urllib.response.addinfourl attribute): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 24) * status() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 310) * statvfs() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1383) * STD_ERROR_HANDLE (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 18) * STD_INPUT_HANDLE (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 8) * STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 13) * stderr (asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 126) * stderr (in module sys): I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * stderr (in module sys) <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1807) * stderr (in module sys) <2>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 112) * stderr (in module sys) <3>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 197) * stderr (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 229) * stderr (subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 128) * stderr (subprocess.Popen attribute): Popen Objects. (line 127) * stderr (subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 193) * stdev (statistics.NormalDist attribute): NormalDist objects. (line 35) * stdev() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 435) * stdin (asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 116) * stdin (in module sys): I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * stdin (in module sys) <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1807) * stdin (in module sys) <2>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 112) * stdin (in module sys) <3>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 197) * stdin (subprocess.Popen attribute): Popen Objects. (line 108) * stdio: I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * stdlib: Glossary. (line 1434) * stdlib_module_names (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1897) * stdout (asyncio.subprocess.Process attribute): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 121) * STDOUT (in module subprocess): Using the subprocess Module. (line 156) * stdout (in module sys): I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * stdout (in module sys) <1>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1807) * stdout (in module sys) <2>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 112) * stdout (in module sys) <3>: Sub-interpreter support. (line 197) * stdout (subprocess.CalledProcessError attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 225) * stdout (subprocess.CompletedProcess attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 118) * stdout (subprocess.Popen attribute): Popen Objects. (line 117) * stdout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 189) * stem (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 161) * step (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 196) * step (range attribute): Ranges. (line 70) * step (slice attribute): Built-in Functions. (line 1799) * step (slice object attribute): Slice objects. (line 10) * step (slice object attribute) <1>: Slicings. (line 26) * step() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method): ttk Progressbar. (line 15) * stls() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 114) * stop (range attribute): Ranges. (line 66) * stop (slice attribute): Built-in Functions. (line 1797) * stop (slice object attribute): Slice objects. (line 10) * stop (slice object attribute) <1>: Slicings. (line 26) * stop_here() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 249) * STOP_ITERATION (monitoring event): Events. (line 81) * stop() (asyncio.loop method): Running and stopping the loop. (line 31) * stop() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 98) * stop() (logging.handlers.QueueListener method): QueueListener. (line 85) * stop() (tkinter.ttk.Progressbar method): ttk Progressbar. (line 21) * stop() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 327) * StopAsyncIteration: Concrete exceptions. (line 298) * StopIteration: Concrete exceptions. (line 266) * stopListening() (in module logging.config): Configuration functions. (line 174) * stopTest() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 351) * stopTestRun() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 362) * storbinary() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 218) * Store (class in ast): Variables. (line 11) * STORE_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute): Adding new actions. (line 35) * STORE_ATTR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 604) * STORE_DEREF (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 997) * STORE_FAST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 947) * STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 958) * STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 951) * STORE_GLOBAL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 625) * STORE_NAME (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 562) * STORE_SLICE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 289) * STORE_SUBSCR (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 261) * store() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 314) * storlines() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 247) * str (built-in class): Text Sequence Type — str. (line 45) * str (built-in class); (see also string): Ranges. (line 126) * str_digits_check_threshold (sys.int_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1160) * str() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 483) * strcoll() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 436) * StreamError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 214) * StreamHandler (class in logging): StreamHandler. (line 11) * StreamReader (class in asyncio): StreamReader. (line 6) * StreamReader (class in codecs): StreamReader Objects. (line 10) * streamreader (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 96) * StreamReaderWriter (class in codecs): StreamReaderWriter Objects. (line 12) * StreamRecoder (class in codecs): StreamRecoder Objects. (line 13) * StreamRequestHandler (class in socketserver): Request Handler Objects. (line 56) * streams: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 8) * StreamWriter (class in asyncio): StreamWriter. (line 6) * StreamWriter (class in codecs): StreamWriter Objects. (line 10) * streamwriter (codecs.CodecInfo attribute): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 96) * StrEnum (class in enum): Data Types<2>. (line 393) * strerror (C function): Raising exceptions. (line 60) * strerror (OSError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 188) * strerror() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 530) * strftime() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 300) * strftime() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 755) * strftime() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 221) * strftime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 319) * strict (csv.Dialect attribute): Dialects and Formatting Parameters. (line 87) * STRICT (enum.FlagBoundary attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 671) * strict (in module email.policy): email policy Policy Objects. (line 531) * strict_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 95) * strict_errors() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 141) * strict_ns_domain (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 117) * strict_ns_set_initial_dollar (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 122) * strict_ns_set_path (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 127) * strict_ns_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 112) * strict_rfc2965_unverifiable (http.cookiejar.DefaultCookiePolicy attribute): DefaultCookiePolicy Objects. (line 103) * strict; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 15) * STRIDED (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 37) * STRIDED_RO (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 39) * STRIDES (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 23) * strides (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 459) * STRING (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 54) * string (re.Match attribute): Match Objects. (line 211) * string literal: Literals. (line 8) * string_at() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 225) * string; __format__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 153) * string; __str__() (object method): Basic customization. (line 131) * string; conversion: Basic customization. (line 153) * string; conversion <1>: Expression statements. (line 17) * string; format() (built-in function): Built-in Functions. (line 788) * string; formatted literal: Fancier Output Formatting. (line 93) * string; formatted literal <1>: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * string; formatted literal <2>: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * string; formatting, printf: printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * string; immutable sequences: Immutable sequences. (line 13) * string; interpolated literal: Fancier Output Formatting. (line 93) * string; interpolated literal <1>: String literal concatenation. (line 24) * string; interpolated literal <2>: String Methods<2>. (line 753) * string; interpolation, printf: printf-style String Formatting. (line 6) * string; item: Subscriptions. (line 58) * string; methods: Text Sequence Type — str. (line 85) * string; object representation: Finalization and De-allocation. (line 91) * string; PyObject_Str (C function): Object Protocol. (line 353) * string; str (built-in class): Text Sequence Type — str. (line 45) * string; str() (built-in function): Built-in Functions. (line 1890) * string; text sequence type: Ranges. (line 126) * StringIO (class in io): Text I/O<2>. (line 240) * strings, documentation: Defining Functions. (line 21) * strings, documentation <1>: Documentation Strings. (line 6) * strip_dirs() (pstats.Stats method): The Stats Class. (line 34) * strip() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 444) * strip() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 444) * strip() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 645) * stripspaces (curses.textpad.Textbox attribute): Textbox objects. (line 115) * strong reference: Glossary. (line 1438) * strptime() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 255) * strptime() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 478) * strsignal() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 295) * Struct (class in struct): Classes<3>. (line 8) * struct_time (class in time): Functions<5>. (line 512) * structmember.h: Member types. (line 85) * Structure (class in ctypes): Structured data types. (line 33) * strxfrm() (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 443) * STX (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 25) * Style (class in tkinter.ttk): Ttk Styling. (line 20) * Sub (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 53) * SUB (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 103) * sub() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 157) * sub() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 171) * sub() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 97) * subclassing; immutable types: Basic customization. (line 8) * subdirs (filecmp.dircmp attribute): The dircmp class. (line 104) * SubElement() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 209) * subgroup() (BaseExceptionGroup method): Exception groups. (line 43) * submit() (concurrent.futures.Executor method): Executor Objects. (line 12) * submodule_search_locations (importlib.machinery.ModuleSpec attribute): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 402) * subn() (in module re): Functions<2>. (line 247) * subn() (re.Pattern method): Regular Expression Objects. (line 102) * subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 215) * subnet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 348) * subnets() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 173) * subnets() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 344) * Subnormal (class in decimal): Signals. (line 88) * suboffsets (memoryview attribute): Memory Views. (line 468) * subpad() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 528) * subprocess_exec() (asyncio.loop method): Running Subprocesses. (line 16) * subprocess_shell() (asyncio.loop method): Running Subprocesses. (line 115) * SubprocessError: Using the subprocess Module. (line 162) * SubprocessProtocol (class in asyncio): Base Protocols. (line 24) * SubprocessTransport (class in asyncio): Transports Hierarchy. (line 50) * subscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 338) * Subscript (class in ast): Subscripting. (line 6) * subscript; assignment: Mutable Sequence Types. (line 16) * subscript; operation: Common Sequence Operations. (line 21) * subscription: Sequences. (line 6) * subscription <1>: Mutable sequences. (line 6) * subscription <2>: Mappings. (line 6) * subscription <3>: Subscriptions. (line 6) * subscription; assignment: Assignment statements. (line 101) * subsequent_indent (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 216) * substitute() (string.Template method): Template strings. (line 40) * subTest() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 105) * subtract() (collections.Counter method): Counter objects. (line 89) * subtract() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 533) * subtraction: Binary arithmetic operations. (line 83) * subtype (email.headerregistry.ContentTypeHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 278) * subwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 535) * successful() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method): Process Pools. (line 217) * suffix (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 137) * suffix_map (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 142) * suffix_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute): MimeTypes Objects. (line 23) * suffixes (pathlib.PurePath attribute): Methods and properties. (line 150) * suite: Compound statements. (line 18) * suiteClass (unittest.TestLoader attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 201) * sum_list(): Reference Count Details. (line 143) * sum_sequence(): Reference Count Details. (line 170) * sum_sequence() <1>: Exceptions<21>. (line 65) * summarize_address_range() (in module ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions. (line 27) * summarize() (doctest.DocTestRunner method): DocTestRunner objects. (line 123) * sumprod() (in module math): Summation and product functions. (line 62) * SUNDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * super (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 1921) * super (pyclbr.Class attribute): Class Objects<2>. (line 42) * supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 226) * supernet_of() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 350) * supernet() (ipaddress.IPv4Network method): Network objects. (line 199) * supernet() (ipaddress.IPv6Network method): Network objects. (line 346) * supports_bytes_environ (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 536) * supports_dir_fd (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1426) * supports_effective_ids (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1451) * supports_fd (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1470) * supports_follow_symlinks (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1489) * supports_unicode_filenames (in module os.path): os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 556) * SupportsAbs (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 9) * SupportsBytes (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 14) * SupportsComplex (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 18) * SupportsFloat (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 22) * SupportsIndex (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 26) * SupportsInt (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 32) * SupportsRound (class in typing): Protocols<3>. (line 36) * suppress() (in module contextlib): Utilities. (line 268) * SuppressCrashReport (class in test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 750) * surrogateescape; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 15) * surrogatepass; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 73) * SW_HIDE (in module subprocess): Windows Constants. (line 23) * SWAP (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 169) * swap_attr() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 369) * swap_item() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 386) * swapcase() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 665) * swapcase() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 665) * swapcase() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 669) * Symbol (class in symtable): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 191) * SymbolTable (class in symtable): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 49) * SymbolTableType (class in symtable): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 6) * symlink_to() (pathlib.Path method): Creating files and directories. (line 45) * symlink() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1512) * symmetric_difference_update() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 188) * symmetric_difference() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 116) * symtable() (in module symtable): Generating Symbol Tables. (line 6) * SYMTYPE (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 287) * SYN (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 91) * sync() (dbm.dumb.dumbdbm method): dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation. (line 79) * sync() (dbm.gnu.gdbm method): dbm gnu — GNU database manager. (line 113) * sync() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1557) * sync() (shelve.Shelf method): shelve — Python object persistence. (line 69) * syncdown() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 545) * synchronized() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 88) * SyncManager (class in multiprocessing.managers): Managers. (line 150) * syncok() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 551) * syncup() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 556) * syntax: Notation. (line 6) * SyntaxErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 93) * SyntaxError: Concrete exceptions. (line 305) * SyntaxWarning: Warnings. (line 43) * sys_version (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 142) * sys.exc_info: Traceback objects. (line 6) * sys.exception: Traceback objects. (line 6) * sys.last_traceback: Traceback objects. (line 6) * sys.meta_path: The meta path. (line 6) * sys.modules: The module cache. (line 6) * sys.path: Path entry finders. (line 6) * sys.path_hooks: Path entry finders. (line 6) * sys.path_importer_cache: Path entry finders. (line 6) * sys.stderr: I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * sys.stdin: I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * sys.stdout: I/O objects also known as file objects. (line 6) * sysconf_names (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 87) * sysconf() (in module os): Miscellaneous System Information. (line 77) * syslog() (in module syslog): syslog — Unix syslog library routines. (line 20) * SysLogHandler (class in logging.handlers): SysLogHandler. (line 10) * system_alias() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 129) * system_must_validate_cert() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 457) * system() (in module os): Process Management. (line 761) * system() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 119) * SystemError: Concrete exceptions. (line 367) * SystemError (built-in exception): Module Objects. (line 64) * SystemError (built-in exception) <1>: Module Objects. (line 92) * SystemExit: Concrete exceptions. (line 384) * SystemExit (built-in exception): Exceptions<2>. (line 26) * systemId (xml.dom.DocumentType attribute): DocumentType Objects. (line 22) * SystemRandom (class in random): Alternative Generator. (line 51) * SystemRandom (class in secrets): Random numbers. (line 9) * SystemRoot: Popen Constructor. (line 308) * T_BOOL (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_BYTE (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_CHAR (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_DOUBLE (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_FLOAT (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_FMT (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 204) * T_FMT_AMPM (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 210) * T_INT (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_LONG (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_LONGLONG (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_NONE (C macro): Member types. (line 96) * T_OBJECT (C macro): Member types. (line 90) * T_OBJECT_EX (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_PYSSIZET (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_SHORT (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_STRING (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_STRING_INPLACE (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_UBYTE (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_UINT (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_ULONG (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_ULONGULONG (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * T_USHORT (C macro): Member types. (line 85) * tab: Indentation. (line 6) * TAB (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 46) * tab() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 62) * TabError: Concrete exceptions. (line 362) * tabs() (tkinter.ttk.Notebook method): ttk Notebook. (line 71) * tabsize (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 173) * tag (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute): Element Objects. (line 16) * tag_bind() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 293) * tag_configure() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 299) * tag_has() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 309) * tagName (xml.dom.Element attribute): Element Objects<2>. (line 9) * tail (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute): Element Objects. (line 21) * take_snapshot() (in module tracemalloc): Functions<11>. (line 110) * takewhile() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 567) * tan() (in module cmath): Trigonometric functions<2>. (line 31) * tan() (in module math): Trigonometric functions. (line 39) * tanh() (in module cmath): Hyperbolic functions<2>. (line 31) * tanh() (in module math): Hyperbolic functions. (line 29) * tar_filter() (in module tarfile): Default named filters. (line 15) * TarError: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 200) * TarFile (class in tarfile): TarFile Objects. (line 22) * tarfile command line option; -c: Command-line options<2>. (line 11) * tarfile command line option; -create: Command-line options<2>. (line 11) * tarfile command line option; -e: Command-line options<2>. (line 16) * tarfile command line option; -extract: Command-line options<2>. (line 16) * tarfile command line option; -filter: Command-line options<2>. (line 31) * tarfile command line option; -l: Command-line options<2>. (line 6) * tarfile command line option; -list: Command-line options<2>. (line 6) * tarfile command line option; -t: Command-line options<2>. (line 22) * tarfile command line option; -test: Command-line options<2>. (line 22) * tarfile command line option; -v: Command-line options<2>. (line 27) * tarfile command line option; -verbose: Command-line options<2>. (line 27) * target: Assignment statements. (line 27) * target (xml.dom.ProcessingInstruction attribute): ProcessingInstruction Objects. (line 9) * target; list: Assignment statements. (line 27) * target; list <1>: The for statement. (line 6) * target; list; assignment: Assignment statements. (line 35) * TarInfo (class in tarfile): TarInfo Objects. (line 33) * tarinfo (tarfile.FilterError attribute): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 234) * Task (class in asyncio): Task Object. (line 6) * task_done() (asyncio.Queue method): Queue. (line 118) * task_done() (multiprocessing.JoinableQueue method): Pipes and Queues. (line 256) * task_done() (queue.Queue method): Queue Objects. (line 73) * TaskGroup (class in asyncio): Task Groups. (line 9) * tau (in module cmath): Constants<3>. (line 14) * tau (in module math): Constants<2>. (line 14) * tb_frame (traceback attribute): Traceback objects. (line 31) * tb_frame (traceback attribute) <1>: Traceback objects. (line 33) * tb_lasti (traceback attribute): Traceback objects. (line 31) * tb_lasti (traceback attribute) <1>: Traceback objects. (line 44) * tb_lineno (traceback attribute): Traceback objects. (line 31) * tb_lineno (traceback attribute) <1>: Traceback objects. (line 41) * tb_locals (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 311) * tb_next (traceback attribute): Traceback objects. (line 52) * tb_next (traceback attribute) <1>: Traceback objects. (line 52) * tbreak (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 121) * tcdrain() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 65) * tcflow() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 76) * tcflush() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 70) * tcgetattr() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 28) * tcgetpgrp() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 885) * tcgetwinsize() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 83) * Tcl() (in module tkinter): Tkinter Modules. (line 94) * TCPServer (class in socketserver): socketserver — A framework for network servers. (line 20) * TCSADRAIN (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 50) * TCSAFLUSH (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 54) * TCSANOW (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 46) * tcsendbreak() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 59) * tcsetattr() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 39) * tcsetpgrp() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 892) * tcsetwinsize() (in module termios): termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 91) * tearDown() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 41) * tearDownClass() (unittest.TestCase method): Test cases. (line 69) * tee() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 586) * teleport() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 104) * tell() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 135) * tell() (io.TextIOBase method): Text I/O<2>. (line 88) * tell() (io.TextIOWrapper method): Text I/O<2>. (line 234) * tell() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 316) * tell() (sqlite3.Blob method): Blob objects. (line 59) * tell() (wave.Wave_read method): Wave_read Objects. (line 87) * tell() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 70) * TEMP: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths. (line 7) * TEMP <1>: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 329) * temp_cwd() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 135) * temp_dir() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 150) * temp_umask() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 160) * tempdir (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 376) * Template (class in string): Template strings. (line 35) * template (string.Template attribute): Template strings. (line 85) * temporary (bdb.Breakpoint attribute): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 91) * temporary; file: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 8) * temporary; file name: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 8) * TemporaryDirectory (class in tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 184) * TemporaryFile() (in module tempfile): tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 28) * teredo (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 320) * TERM: Functions<6>. (line 485) * TERM <1>: Functions<6>. (line 512) * termattrs() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 504) * terminal_size (class in os): Querying the size of a terminal. (line 25) * terminate() (asyncio.subprocess.Process method): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 96) * terminate() (asyncio.SubprocessTransport method): Subprocess Transports. (line 49) * terminate() (multiprocessing.pool.Pool method): Process Pools. (line 178) * terminate() (multiprocessing.Process method): Process and exceptions. (line 205) * terminate() (subprocess.Popen method): Popen Objects. (line 86) * termination model: Exceptions<2>. (line 20) * terminator (logging.StreamHandler attribute): StreamHandler. (line 47) * termname() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 510) * ternary; operator: Conditional expressions. (line 6) * ternaryfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 122) * test (doctest.DocTestFailure attribute): Debugging. (line 195) * test (doctest.UnexpectedException attribute): Debugging. (line 216) * TEST_DATA_DIR (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 137) * TEST_HOME_DIR (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 133) * TEST_HTTP_URL (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 171) * TEST_SUPPORT_DIR (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 128) * TestCase (class in unittest): Test cases. (line 6) * TestFailed: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 16) * testfile() (in module doctest): Basic API. (line 12) * TESTFN (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 19) * TESTFN_NONASCII (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 25) * TESTFN_UNDECODABLE (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 39) * TESTFN_UNENCODABLE (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 33) * TESTFN_UNICODE (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 45) * TestLoader (class in unittest): Loading and running tests. (line 6) * testMethodPrefix (unittest.TestLoader attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 187) * testmod() (in module doctest): Basic API. (line 90) * testNamePatterns (unittest.TestLoader attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 209) * TestResult (class in unittest): Loading and running tests. (line 226) * TestResults (class in doctest): TestResults objects. (line 6) * testsource() (in module doctest): Debugging. (line 106) * testsRun (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 289) * TestSuite (class in unittest): Grouping tests. (line 6) * testzip() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 262) * Text (class in typing): Aliases to other concrete types. (line 21) * text (SyntaxError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 332) * text (traceback.TracebackException attribute): TracebackException Objects. (line 106) * text (xml.etree.ElementTree.Element attribute): Element Objects. (line 21) * text encoding: Glossary. (line 1453) * text file: Glossary. (line 1466) * text mode: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * text_encoding() (in module io): High-level Module Interface. (line 38) * text_factory (sqlite3.Connection attribute): Connection objects. (line 806) * Textbox (class in curses.textpad): Textbox objects. (line 8) * TextCalendar (class in calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 150) * textdomain() (in module gettext): GNU gettext API. (line 26) * textdomain() (in module locale): Access to message catalogs. (line 12) * textinput() (in module turtle): Input methods. (line 6) * TextIO (class in typing): ABCs for working with IO. (line 6) * TextIOBase (class in io): Text I/O<2>. (line 6) * TextIOWrapper (class in io): Text I/O<2>. (line 99) * TextTestResult (class in unittest): Loading and running tests. (line 446) * TextTestRunner (class in unittest): Loading and running tests. (line 463) * TextWrapper (class in textwrap): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 140) * TFD_CLOEXEC (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 203) * TFD_NONBLOCK (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 192) * TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 213) * TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 224) * theme_create() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 260) * theme_names() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 308) * theme_settings() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 270) * theme_use() (tkinter.ttk.Style method): Ttk Styling. (line 312) * THOUSEP (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 273) * Thread (class in threading): Thread objects. (line 57) * thread_info (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1916) * thread_time_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 631) * thread_time() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 613) * thread() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 342) * ThreadedChildWatcher (class in asyncio): Process Watchers. (line 90) * threading_cleanup() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 31) * threading_setup() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 37) * ThreadingHTTPServer (class in http.server): http server — HTTP servers. (line 37) * ThreadingMixIn (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 27) * ThreadingMock (class in unittest.mock): The Mock Class. (line 955) * ThreadingTCPServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ThreadingUDPServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ThreadingUnixDatagramServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ThreadingUnixStreamServer (class in socketserver): Server Creation Notes. (line 67) * ThreadPool (class in multiprocessing.pool): The multiprocessing dummy module. (line 16) * ThreadPoolExecutor (class in concurrent.futures): ThreadPoolExecutor. (line 39) * threads; POSIX: _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 16) * threadsafety (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 88) * throw() (coroutine method): Coroutine Objects. (line 33) * throw() (generator method): Generator-iterator methods. (line 38) * THURSDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * ticket_lifetime_hint (ssl.SSLSession attribute): SSL session. (line 18) * tigetflag() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 515) * tigetnum() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 522) * tigetstr() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 529) * TILDE (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 248) * tilt() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 101) * tiltangle() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 117) * time (class in datetime): time Objects. (line 10) * time (ssl.SSLSession attribute): SSL session. (line 14) * time (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 122) * time_hi_version (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 110) * time_low (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 104) * time_mid (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 107) * time_ns() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 606) * time() (asyncio.loop method): Scheduling delayed callbacks. (line 56) * time() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 446) * time() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 570) * Time2Internaldate() (in module imaplib): imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client. (line 127) * timedelta (class in datetime): timedelta Objects. (line 9) * TimedRotatingFileHandler (class in logging.handlers): TimedRotatingFileHandler. (line 10) * timegm() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 418) * timeit command line option; -h: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 44) * timeit command line option; -help: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 44) * timeit command line option; -n: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 13) * timeit command line option; -number: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 13) * timeit command line option; -p: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 25) * timeit command line option; -process: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 25) * timeit command line option; -r: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 17) * timeit command line option; -repeat: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 17) * timeit command line option; -s: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 21) * timeit command line option; -setup: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 21) * timeit command line option; -u: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 33) * timeit command line option; -unit: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 33) * timeit command line option; -v: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 40) * timeit command line option; -verbose: Command-Line Interface<4>. (line 40) * timeit() (in module timeit): Python Interface. (line 8) * timeit() (timeit.Timer method): Python Interface. (line 71) * timeout: Exceptions<15>. (line 40) * Timeout (class in asyncio): Timeouts. (line 50) * timeout (socketserver.BaseServer attribute): Server Objects<2>. (line 117) * timeout (ssl.SSLSession attribute): SSL session. (line 16) * timeout (subprocess.TimeoutExpired attribute): Using the subprocess Module. (line 177) * timeout_at() (in module asyncio): Timeouts. (line 98) * TIMEOUT_MAX (in module _thread): _thread — Low-level threading API. (line 135) * TIMEOUT_MAX (in module threading): Reference<2>. (line 184) * timeout() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 561) * timeout() (in module asyncio): Timeouts. (line 6) * TimeoutError: OS exceptions. (line 112) * TimeoutError <1>: Process and exceptions. (line 277) * TimeoutError <2>: Exception classes. (line 10) * TimeoutError <3>: Exceptions<13>. (line 10) * TimeoutExpired: Using the subprocess Module. (line 168) * Timer (class in threading): Timer objects. (line 25) * Timer (class in timeit): Python Interface. (line 41) * timerfd_create() (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 11) * timerfd_gettime_ns() (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 183) * timerfd_gettime() (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 163) * timerfd_settime_ns() (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 152) * timerfd_settime() (in module os): Timer File Descriptors. (line 84) * TimerHandle (class in asyncio): Callback Handles. (line 29) * times() (in module os): Process Management. (line 798) * TIMESTAMP (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute): py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 102) * timestamp() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 600) * timetuple() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 210) * timetuple() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 554) * timetz() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 455) * timezone (class in datetime): timezone Objects. (line 14) * timezone (in module time): Timezone Constants. (line 17) * title() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 690) * title() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 690) * title() (in module turtle): Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen. (line 49) * title() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 675) * Tk: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk. (line 6) * Tk (class in tkinter): Tkinter Modules. (line 14) * tk (tkinter.Tk attribute): Tkinter Modules. (line 70) * Tk Option Data Types: Tk Option Data Types. (line 6) * Tkinter: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk. (line 6) * TLS: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 8) * TLSv1 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 573) * TLSv1_1 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 575) * TLSv1_2 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 577) * TLSv1_3 (ssl.TLSVersion attribute): Constants<9>. (line 579) * TLSVersion (class in ssl): Constants<9>. (line 555) * tm_gmtoff (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 555) * tm_hour (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 532) * tm_isdst (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 549) * tm_mday (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 529) * tm_min (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 535) * tm_mon (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 526) * tm_sec (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 538) * tm_wday (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 543) * tm_yday (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 546) * tm_year (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 523) * tm_zone (time.struct_time attribute): Functions<5>. (line 552) * TMP: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 331) * TMPDIR: Library<2>. (line 116) * TMPDIR <1>: Tests<25>. (line 68) * TMPDIR <2>: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories. (line 327) * TO_BOOL (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 226) * to_bytes() (int method): Additional Methods on Integer Types. (line 56) * to_eng_string() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 537) * to_eng_string() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 575) * to_integral_exact() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 547) * to_integral_exact() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 594) * to_integral_value() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 602) * to_integral() (decimal.Decimal method): Decimal objects. (line 588) * to_sci_string() (decimal.Context method): Context objects. (line 551) * to_thread() (in module asyncio): Running in Threads. (line 6) * ToASCII() (in module encodings.idna): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 55) * tobuf() (tarfile.TarInfo method): TarInfo Objects. (line 49) * tobytes() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 234) * tobytes() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 163) * today() (datetime.date class method): date Objects. (line 29) * today() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 47) * tofile() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 243) * tok_name (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 25) * token: Lexical analysis. (line 6) * token <1>: Glossary. (line 1478) * Token (class in contextvars): Context Variables. (line 75) * token (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 173) * token_bytes() (in module secrets): Generating tokens. (line 10) * token_hex() (in module secrets): Generating tokens. (line 19) * token_urlsafe() (in module secrets): Generating tokens. (line 28) * TokenError: Tokenizing Input. (line 106) * tokenize command line option; -e: Command-Line Usage<6>. (line 19) * tokenize command line option; -exact: Command-Line Usage<6>. (line 19) * tokenize command line option; -h: Command-Line Usage<6>. (line 15) * tokenize command line option; -help: Command-Line Usage<6>. (line 15) * tokenize() (in module tokenize): Tokenizing Input. (line 8) * tolist() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 248) * tolist() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 204) * TOMLDecodeError: tomllib — Parse TOML files. (line 60) * toordinal() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 225) * toordinal() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 595) * top_panel() (in module curses.panel): Functions<7>. (line 19) * top() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 53) * top() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 87) * TopologicalSorter (class in graphlib): graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures. (line 10) * toprettyxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method): DOM Objects. (line 72) * toreadonly() (memoryview method): Memory Views. (line 220) * tostring() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 222) * tostringlist() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 244) * total_changes (sqlite3.Connection attribute): Connection objects. (line 816) * total_nframe (tracemalloc.Traceback attribute): Traceback. (line 28) * total_ordering() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 271) * total_seconds() (datetime.timedelta method): timedelta Objects. (line 246) * total() (collections.Counter method): Counter objects. (line 104) * touch() (pathlib.Path method): Creating files and directories. (line 6) * touchline() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 571) * touchwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 578) * tounicode() (array.array method): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 252) * ToUnicode() (in module encodings.idna): encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications. (line 60) * towards() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 15) * toxml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method): DOM Objects. (line 52) * tparm() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 536) * Trace (class in trace): Programmatic Interface. (line 6) * Trace (class in tracemalloc): Trace. (line 6) * trace command line option; -c: Main options. (line 12) * trace command line option; -C: Modifiers. (line 11) * trace command line option; -count: Main options. (line 12) * trace command line option; -coverdir: Modifiers. (line 11) * trace command line option; -f: Modifiers. (line 6) * trace command line option; -file: Modifiers. (line 6) * trace command line option; -g: Modifiers. (line 33) * trace command line option; -help: Command-Line Usage<3>. (line 15) * trace command line option; -ignore-dir: Filters. (line 14) * trace command line option; -ignore-module: Filters. (line 8) * trace command line option; -l: Main options. (line 23) * trace command line option; -listfuncs: Main options. (line 23) * trace command line option; -m: Modifiers. (line 17) * trace command line option; -missing: Modifiers. (line 17) * trace command line option; -no-report: Modifiers. (line 27) * trace command line option; -r: Main options. (line 27) * trace command line option; -R: Modifiers. (line 27) * trace command line option; -report: Main options. (line 27) * trace command line option; -s: Modifiers. (line 22) * trace command line option; -summary: Modifiers. (line 22) * trace command line option; -t: Main options. (line 19) * trace command line option; -T: Main options. (line 33) * trace command line option; -timing: Modifiers. (line 33) * trace command line option; -trace: Main options. (line 19) * trace command line option; -trackcalls: Main options. (line 33) * trace command line option; -version: Command-Line Usage<3>. (line 19) * trace function: Reference<2>. (line 116) * trace function <1>: Reference<2>. (line 132) * trace function <2>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 945) * trace function <3>: sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1603) * trace_dispatch() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 165) * trace() (in module inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 184) * Traceback (class in inspect): The interpreter stack. (line 55) * Traceback (class in tracemalloc): Traceback. (line 6) * traceback (tracemalloc.Statistic attribute): Statistic. (line 23) * traceback (tracemalloc.StatisticDiff attribute): StatisticDiff. (line 38) * traceback (tracemalloc.Trace attribute): Trace. (line 27) * traceback_limit (tracemalloc.Snapshot attribute): Snapshot. (line 83) * traceback_limit (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 222) * TracebackException (class in traceback): TracebackException Objects. (line 15) * tracebacklimit (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1952) * TracebackType (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 186) * tracer() (in module turtle): Animation control. (line 23) * traces (tracemalloc.Snapshot attribute): Snapshot. (line 89) * trailing; comma: Expression lists. (line 29) * transfercmd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 257) * transient_internet() (in module test.support.socket_helper): test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests. (line 64) * translate() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 265) * translate() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 265) * translate() (in module fnmatch): fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching. (line 82) * translate() (in module glob): glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion. (line 112) * translate() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 709) * translation() (in module gettext): Class-based API. (line 44) * transport (asyncio.StreamWriter attribute): StreamWriter. (line 57) * Transport (class in asyncio): Transports Hierarchy. (line 29) * Transport Layer Security: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects. (line 8) * traps (decimal.Context attribute): Context objects. (line 133) * Traversable (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 509) * Traversable (class in importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 86) * TraversableResources (class in importlib.abc): importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 564) * TraversableResources (class in importlib.resources.abc): importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources. (line 158) * traverseproc (C type): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 165) * TreeBuilder (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): TreeBuilder Objects. (line 6) * Treeview (class in tkinter.ttk): ttk Treeview. (line 6) * triangular() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 25) * tries (doctest.DocTestRunner attribute): DocTestRunner objects. (line 135) * triple-quoted string: String and Bytes literals. (line 36) * triple-quoted string <1>: Glossary. (line 1488) * True: numbers Integral. (line 27) * true: Truth Value Testing. (line 10) * True <1>: Truth Value Testing. (line 23) * True <2>: Boolean Type - bool. (line 9) * True (built-in variable): Built-in Constants. (line 13) * truediv() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 162) * trunc() (in module math): Numeric Types — int float complex. (line 107) * trunc() (in module math) <1>: Floating point arithmetic. (line 87) * truncate() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1565) * truncate() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 139) * truth; value: Truth Value Testing. (line 6) * truth() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 57) * Try (class in ast): Control flow. (line 130) * TryStar (class in ast): Control flow. (line 173) * ttk: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets. (line 8) * tty; I/O control: termios — POSIX style tty control. (line 6) * ttyname() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 900) * TUESDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * tuple (built-in class): Tuples. (line 12) * Tuple (class in ast): Literals<3>. (line 66) * Tuple (in module typing): Aliases to built-in types. (line 50) * Turtle (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 16) * turtles() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 97) * TurtleScreen (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 22) * turtlesize() (in module turtle): Appearance. (line 52) * type: The standard type hierarchy. (line 6) * type <1>: Glossary. (line 1498) * type (built-in class): Built-in Functions. (line 2013) * Type (class in typing): Aliases to built-in types. (line 61) * type (optparse.Option attribute): Option attributes. (line 27) * type (socket.socket attribute): Socket Objects. (line 619) * type (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 86) * type (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 21) * type alias: Glossary. (line 1505) * type hint: Glossary. (line 1527) * type of an object: Objects values and types. (line 11) * type parameters: Type parameter lists. (line 11) * TYPE_ALIAS (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 31) * type_check_only() (in module typing): Functions and decorators. (line 411) * TYPE_CHECKER (optparse.Option attribute): Adding new types. (line 16) * TYPE_CHECKING (in module typing): Constant. (line 6) * type_comment (ast.arg attribute): Function and class definitions. (line 74) * type_comment (ast.Assign attribute): Statements. (line 15) * type_comment (ast.For attribute): Control flow. (line 54) * type_comment (ast.FunctionDef attribute): Function and class definitions. (line 25) * type_comment (ast.With attribute): Control flow. (line 236) * TYPE_COMMENT (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 145) * TYPE_IGNORE (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 138) * TYPE_PARAMETERS (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 35) * TYPE_VARIABLE (symtable.SymbolTableType attribute): Examining Symbol Tables. (line 40) * type; hierarchy: The standard type hierarchy. (line 6) * typeahead() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 544) * TypeAlias (class in ast): Statements. (line 163) * TypeAlias (in module typing): Special types. (line 198) * TypeAliasType (class in typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 492) * typecode (array.array attribute): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 112) * typecodes (in module array): array — Efficient arrays of numeric values. (line 82) * TYPED_ACTIONS (optparse.Option attribute): Adding new actions. (line 39) * typed_subpart_iterator() (in module email.iterators): email iterators Iterators. (line 26) * TypedDict (class in typing): Other special directives. (line 238) * TypeError: Concrete exceptions. (line 412) * TypeGuard (in module typing): Special forms. (line 527) * TypeIgnore (class in ast): Type annotations. (line 6) * TypeIs (in module typing): Special forms. (line 437) * TYPES (optparse.Option attribute): Adding new types. (line 11) * types_map (in module mimetypes): mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types. (line 154) * types_map (mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute): MimeTypes Objects. (line 39) * types_map_inv (mimetypes.MimeTypes attribute): MimeTypes Objects. (line 47) * types, internal: Internal types. (line 6) * TypeVar (class in ast): Type parameters. (line 9) * TypeVar (class in typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 54) * TypeVarTuple (class in ast): Type parameters. (line 68) * TypeVarTuple (class in typing): Building generic types and type aliases. (line 217) * TZ: Functions<5>. (line 641) * TZ <1>: Functions<5>. (line 642) * TZ <2>: Functions<5>. (line 650) * TZ <3>: Functions<5>. (line 655) * TZ <4>: Functions<5>. (line 657) * TZ <5>: Functions<5>. (line 718) * tzinfo (class in datetime): tzinfo Objects. (line 6) * tzinfo (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 334) * tzinfo (datetime.time attribute): time Objects. (line 66) * tzname (in module time): Timezone Constants. (line 23) * tzname() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 548) * tzname() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 255) * tzname() (datetime.timezone method): timezone Objects. (line 42) * tzname() (datetime.tzinfo method): tzinfo Objects. (line 123) * TZPATH (in module zoneinfo): Globals. (line 6) * tzset() (in module time): Functions<5>. (line 638) * U (in module re): Flags. (line 117) * u'; string literal: Literals. (line 8) * u"; string literal: Literals. (line 8) * UAdd (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 27) * ucd_3_2_0 (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 131) * udata (select.kevent attribute): Kevent Objects. (line 179) * UDPServer (class in socketserver): socketserver — A framework for network servers. (line 30) * UF_APPEND (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 352) * UF_COMPRESSED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 364) * UF_DATAVAULT (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 374) * UF_HIDDEN (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 380) * UF_IMMUTABLE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 348) * UF_NODUMP (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 344) * UF_NOUNLINK (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 360) * UF_OPAQUE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 356) * UF_SETTABLE (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 338) * UF_TRACKED (in module stat): stat — Interpreting stat results. (line 368) * UID (class in plistlib): plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files. (line 141) * uid (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 105) * uid() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 365) * uidl() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 99) * ULONG_MAX (C macro): Integer Objects. (line 251) * ulp() (in module math): Floating point manipulation functions. (line 108) * umask() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 543) * unalias (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 397) * uname (tarfile.TarInfo attribute): TarInfo Objects. (line 121) * uname() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 550) * uname() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 143) * UNARY_INVERT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 210) * UNARY_NEGATIVE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 199) * UNARY_NOT (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 203) * unary; arithmetic; operation: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 6) * unary; bitwise; operation: Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations. (line 6) * unaryfunc (C type): Slot Type typedefs. (line 108) * UnaryOp (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 22) * unbinding; name: The del statement<2>. (line 15) * UnboundLocalError: Resolution of names. (line 16) * UnboundLocalError <1>: Concrete exceptions. (line 430) * unbuffered I/O: Built-in Functions. (line 1470) * UNC paths; and os.makedirs(): Files and Directories. (line 544) * uncancel() (asyncio.Task method): Task Object. (line 271) * UNCHECKED_HASH (py_compile.PycInvalidationMode attribute): py_compile — Compile Python source files. (line 115) * unconsumed_tail (zlib.Decompress attribute): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 243) * unctrl() (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 229) * unctrl() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 556) * Underflow (class in decimal): Signals. (line 95) * undisplay (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 345) * undo() (in module turtle): Turtle motion. (line 317) * undobufferentries() (in module turtle): Special Turtle methods. (line 74) * undoc_header (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 166) * unescape() (in module html): html — HyperText Markup Language support. (line 23) * unescape() (in module xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 28) * UnexpectedException: Debugging. (line 208) * unexpectedSuccesses (unittest.TestResult attribute): Loading and running tests. (line 272) * unfreeze() (in module gc): gc — Garbage Collector interface. (line 223) * unget_wch() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 576) * ungetch() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 563) * ungetch() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 45) * ungetmouse() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 585) * ungetwch() (in module msvcrt): Console I/O. (line 51) * unhexlify() (in module binascii): binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII. (line 144) * Unicode: Immutable sequences. (line 15) * Unicode <1>: unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 6) * Unicode <2>: codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 8) * UNICODE (in module re): Flags. (line 117) * Unicode Consortium: String and Bytes literals. (line 36) * unicode_literals (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 39) * Unicode; database: unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 6) * UnicodeDecodeError: Concrete exceptions. (line 470) * UnicodeEncodeError: Concrete exceptions. (line 465) * UnicodeError: Concrete exceptions. (line 436) * UnicodeTranslateError: Concrete exceptions. (line 475) * UnicodeWarning: Warnings. (line 64) * unidata_version (in module unicodedata): unicodedata — Unicode Database. (line 127) * unified_diff() (in module difflib): difflib — Helpers for computing deltas. (line 293) * uniform() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 16) * UnimplementedFileMode: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 153) * Union (class in ctypes): Structured data types. (line 6) * Union (in module typing): Special forms. (line 9) * union; type: Union Type. (line 6) * union() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 96) * UnionType (class in types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 180) * UNIQUE (enum.EnumCheck attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 613) * unique() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 53) * unittest command line option; -b: Command-line options<3>. (line 8) * unittest command line option; -buffer: Command-line options<3>. (line 8) * unittest command line option; -c: Command-line options<3>. (line 15) * unittest command line option; -catch: Command-line options<3>. (line 15) * unittest command line option; -durations: Command-line options<3>. (line 49) * unittest command line option; -f: Command-line options<3>. (line 24) * unittest command line option; -failfast: Command-line options<3>. (line 24) * unittest command line option; -k: Command-line options<3>. (line 28) * unittest command line option; -locals: Command-line options<3>. (line 45) * unittest-discover command line option; -p: Test Discovery. (line 35) * unittest-discover command line option; -pattern: Test Discovery. (line 35) * unittest-discover command line option; -s: Test Discovery. (line 31) * unittest-discover command line option; -start-directory: Test Discovery. (line 31) * unittest-discover command line option; -t: Test Discovery. (line 39) * unittest-discover command line option; -top-level-directory: Test Discovery. (line 39) * unittest-discover command line option; -v: Test Discovery. (line 27) * unittest-discover command line option; -verbose: Test Discovery. (line 27) * universal newlines: Glossary. (line 1544) * universal newlines; bytearray.splitlines method: Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 641) * universal newlines; bytes.splitlines method: Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 641) * universal newlines; csv.reader function: Module Contents<3>. (line 8) * universal newlines; importlib.abc.InspectLoader.get_source method: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import. (line 218) * universal newlines; io.IncrementalNewlineDecoder class: Text I/O<2>. (line 287) * universal newlines; io.TextIOWrapper class: Text I/O<2>. (line 127) * universal newlines; open() built-in function: Built-in Functions. (line 1408) * universal newlines; str.splitlines method: String Methods<2>. (line 565) * universal newlines; subprocess module: Frequently Used Arguments. (line 33) * universal newlines; What's new: PEP 3116 New I/O Library. (line 42) * universal newlines; What's new <1>: New Improved and Removed Modules. (line 138) * universal newlines; What's new <2>: PEP 324 New subprocess Module. (line 36) * universal newlines; What's new <3>: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT. (line 36) * UNIX: Complete Python programs. (line 25) * unix_dialect (class in csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 216) * unix_shell (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 44) * UNIX; file control: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 6) * UNIX; I/O control: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls. (line 6) * UnixDatagramServer (class in socketserver): socketserver — A framework for network servers. (line 37) * UnixStreamServer (class in socketserver): socketserver — A framework for network servers. (line 37) * unknown (uuid.SafeUUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 42) * unknown_decl() (html.parser.HTMLParser method): HTMLParser Methods. (line 137) * unknown_open() (urllib.request.BaseHandler method): BaseHandler Objects. (line 56) * unknown_open() (urllib.request.UnknownHandler method): UnknownHandler Objects. (line 6) * UnknownHandler (class in urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 443) * UnknownProtocol: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 145) * UnknownTransferEncoding: http client — HTTP protocol client. (line 149) * unlink() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1583) * unlink() (in module test.support.os_helper): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 164) * unlink() (multiprocessing.shared_memory.SharedMemory method): multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes. (line 103) * unlink() (pathlib.Path method): Renaming and deleting. (line 48) * unlink() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method): DOM Objects. (line 10) * unload() (in module test.support.import_helper): test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests. (line 76) * unlock() (mailbox.Babyl method): Babyl objects. (line 59) * unlock() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 265) * unlock() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 209) * unlock() (mailbox.mbox method): mbox objects. (line 57) * unlock() (mailbox.MH method): MH objects. (line 87) * unlock() (mailbox.MMDF method): MMDF objects. (line 47) * unlockpt() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 908) * UNNAMED_SECTION (in module configparser): ConfigParser Objects. (line 340) * Unpack (in module typing): Special forms. (line 584) * unpack_archive() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 125) * UNPACK_EX (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 583) * unpack_from() (in module struct): Functions and Exceptions. (line 34) * unpack_from() (struct.Struct method): Classes<3>. (line 40) * UNPACK_SEQUENCE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 574) * unpack() (in module struct): Functions and Exceptions. (line 26) * unpack() (struct.Struct method): Classes<3>. (line 34) * unpacking; dictionary: Dictionary displays. (line 23) * unpacking; in function calls: Calls. (line 73) * unparse() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 68) * unparsedEntityDecl() (xml.sax.handler.DTDHandler method): DTDHandler Objects. (line 12) * UnparsedEntityDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 290) * Unpickler (class in pickle): Module Interface. (line 230) * UnpicklingError: Module Interface. (line 108) * unquote_plus() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 81) * unquote_to_bytes() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 91) * unquote() (in module email.utils): email utils Miscellaneous utilities. (line 50) * unquote() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 61) * unraisablehook() (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1960) * unreachable object: Objects values and types. (line 37) * unrecognized escape sequence: Escape sequences. (line 107) * unregister_archive_format() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 120) * unregister_dialect() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 79) * unregister_unpack_format() (in module shutil): Archiving operations. (line 186) * unregister() (in module atexit): atexit — Exit handlers. (line 57) * unregister() (in module codecs): codecs — Codec registry and base classes. (line 170) * unregister() (in module faulthandler): Dumping the traceback on a user signal. (line 23) * unregister() (select.devpoll method): /dev/poll Polling Objects. (line 55) * unregister() (select.epoll method): Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects. (line 89) * unregister() (select.poll method): Polling Objects. (line 67) * unregister() (selectors.BaseSelector method): Classes<4>. (line 80) * unsafe (uuid.SafeUUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 38) * unselect() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 376) * unset() (test.support.os_helper.EnvironmentVarGuard method): test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests. (line 71) * unsetenv() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 585) * unshare() (in module os): Process Parameters. (line 604) * UnstructuredHeader (class in email.headerregistry): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 115) * unsubscribe() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 372) * UnsupportedOperation: Exceptions<6>. (line 6) * UnsupportedOperation <1>: High-level Module Interface. (line 72) * until (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 211) * untokenize() (in module tokenize): Tokenizing Input. (line 57) * untouchwin() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 583) * unused_data (bz2.BZ2Decompressor attribute): Incremental de compression. (line 78) * unused_data (lzma.LZMADecompressor attribute): Compressing and decompressing data in memory. (line 169) * unused_data (zlib.Decompress attribute): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 235) * unverifiable (urllib.request.Request attribute): Request Objects. (line 47) * unwrap() (in module inspect): Classes and functions<2>. (line 139) * unwrap() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 403) * unwrap() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 294) * up (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 92) * up() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 12) * update_abstractmethods() (in module abc): abc — Abstract Base Classes. (line 337) * update_authenticated() (urllib.request.HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth method): HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects. (line 24) * update_lines_cols() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 569) * update_panels() (in module curses.panel): Functions<7>. (line 23) * update_visible() (mailbox.BabylMessage method): BabylMessage objects. (line 76) * update_wrapper() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 650) * update() (collections.Counter method): Counter objects. (line 122) * update() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 234) * update() (frozenset method): Set Types — set frozenset. (line 169) * update() (hashlib.hash method): Hash Objects. (line 31) * update() (hmac.HMAC method): hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication. (line 49) * update() (http.cookies.Morsel method): Morsel Objects. (line 91) * update() (in module turtle): Animation control. (line 46) * update() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 235) * update() (mailbox.Maildir method): Maildir objects. (line 193) * update() (trace.CoverageResults method): Programmatic Interface. (line 52) * upgrade_dependencies() (venv.EnvBuilder method): API<2>. (line 166) * upper() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 733) * upper() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 733) * upper() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 727) * urandom() (in module os): Random numbers<2>. (line 29) * URL: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 8) * URL <1>: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 8) * URL <2>: http server — HTTP servers. (line 8) * url (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 51) * url (urllib.error.HTTPError attribute): urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 39) * url (urllib.response.addinfourl attribute): urllib response — Response classes used by urllib. (line 14) * url (xmlrpc.client.ProtocolError attribute): ProtocolError Objects. (line 13) * URL; parsing: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 8) * url2pathname() (in module urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 156) * urlcleanup() (in module urllib.request): Legacy interface. (line 62) * urldefrag() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 377) * urlencode() (in module urllib.parse): URL Quoting. (line 104) * URLError: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request. (line 17) * urljoin() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 340) * urlopen() (in module urllib.request): urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs. (line 33) * URLopener (class in urllib.request): Legacy interface. (line 67) * urlparse() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 9) * urlretrieve() (in module urllib.request): Legacy interface. (line 10) * urlsafe_b64decode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 66) * urlsafe_b64encode() (in module base64): RFC 4648 Encodings. (line 59) * urlsplit() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 250) * urlunparse() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 242) * urlunsplit() (in module urllib.parse): URL Parsing. (line 331) * urn (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 136) * US (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 118) * use_default_colors() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 600) * use_env() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 590) * use_rawinput (cmd.Cmd attribute): Cmd Objects. (line 177) * USE_STACKCHECK (C macro): Operating System Utilities. (line 91) * use_tool_id() (in module sys.monitoring): Registering and using tools. (line 6) * UseForeignDTD() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 63) * USER: getpass — Portable password input. (line 43) * USER_BASE (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 31) * user_call() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 270) * user_exception() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 289) * user_line() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 278) * user_return() (bdb.Bdb method): bdb — Debugger framework. (line 284) * USER_SITE (in module site): Module contents<5>. (line 19) * user-defined; function: User-defined functions. (line 6) * user-defined; function; call: Calls. (line 132) * user-defined; method: Instance methods. (line 6) * user; effective id: Process Parameters. (line 187) * user; id: Process Parameters. (line 335) * user; id, setting: Process Parameters. (line 526) * user() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 31) * usercustomize: The Customization Modules. (line 6) * usercustomize <1>: The Customization Modules. (line 21) * UserDict (class in collections): UserDict objects. (line 12) * UserList (class in collections): UserList objects. (line 16) * USERNAME: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 145) * USERNAME <1>: Process Parameters. (line 239) * USERNAME <2>: getpass — Portable password input. (line 44) * username (email.headerregistry.Address attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 432) * USERPROFILE: os path<5>. (line 14) * USERPROFILE <1>: Changes in the Python API<5>. (line 116) * USERPROFILE <2>: Windows<43>. (line 15) * USERPROFILE <3>: os path — Common pathname manipulations. (line 142) * userptr() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 57) * UserString (class in collections): UserString objects. (line 12) * UserWarning: Warnings. (line 13) * USTAR_FORMAT (in module tarfile): tarfile — Read and write tar archive files. (line 327) * USub (class in ast): Expressions<2>. (line 27) * UTC: time — Time access and conversions. (line 39) * utc (datetime.timezone attribute): timezone Objects. (line 68) * UTC (in module datetime): Constants. (line 18) * utcfromtimestamp() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 131) * utcnow() (datetime.datetime class method): datetime Objects. (line 81) * utcoffset() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 528) * utcoffset() (datetime.time method): time Objects. (line 235) * utcoffset() (datetime.timezone method): timezone Objects. (line 30) * utcoffset() (datetime.tzinfo method): tzinfo Objects. (line 38) * utctimetuple() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 573) * utf8 (email.policy.EmailPolicy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 380) * utf8_enabled (imaplib.IMAP4 attribute): IMAP4 Objects. (line 404) * utf8_mode (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 572) * utf8() (poplib.POP3 method): POP3 Objects. (line 106) * utime() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1597) * UUID (class in uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 47) * uuid command line option; -h: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 15) * uuid command line option; -help: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 15) * uuid command line option; -n: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 25) * uuid command line option; -N: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 33) * uuid command line option; -name: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 33) * uuid command line option; -namespace: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 25) * uuid command line option; -u: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 19) * uuid command line option; -uuid: Command-Line Usage<2>. (line 19) * uuid1() (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 179) * uuid3() (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 187) * uuid4() (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 193) * uuid5() (in module uuid): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 197) * v4_int_to_packed() (in module ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions. (line 8) * v6_int_to_packed() (in module ipaddress): Other Module Level Functions. (line 20) * valid_signals() (in module signal): Module contents<2>. (line 304) * validator() (in module wsgiref.validate): wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker. (line 22) * value: Dictionary displays. (line 6) * value (ctypes._SimpleCData attribute): Fundamental data types<2>. (line 17) * value (enum.Enum attribute): Data Types<2>. (line 131) * value (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 32) * value (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 49) * value (StopIteration attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 272) * value (xml.dom.Attr attribute): Attr Objects. (line 23) * value of an object: Objects values and types. (line 11) * value_decode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method): Cookie Objects. (line 6) * value_encode() (http.cookies.BaseCookie method): Cookie Objects. (line 13) * Value() (in module multiprocessing.sharedctypes): The multiprocessing sharedctypes module. (line 67) * Value() (in module multiprocessing): Shared ctypes Objects. (line 9) * Value() (multiprocessing.managers.SyncManager method): Managers. (line 217) * ValueError: Concrete exceptions. (line 480) * valuerefs() (weakref.WeakValueDictionary method): weakref — Weak references. (line 227) * Values (class in optparse): Defining options. (line 84) * values() (contextvars.Context method): Manual Context Management. (line 137) * values() (dict method): Mapping Types — dict. (line 247) * values() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 236) * values() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 347) * values() (mailbox.Mailbox method): Mailbox objects. (line 128) * values() (types.MappingProxyType method): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 276) * ValuesView (class in collections.abc): Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions. (line 102) * ValuesView (class in typing): Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc. (line 106) * var (contextvars.Token attribute): Context Variables. (line 82) * variable annotation: Glossary. (line 1552) * variance (statistics.NormalDist attribute): NormalDist objects. (line 40) * variance() (in module statistics): Function details. (line 444) * variant (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 140) * VBAR (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 209) * vbar (tkinter.scrolledtext.ScrolledText attribute): tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget. (line 30) * VBAREQUAL (in module token): token — Constants used with Python parse trees. (line 281) * VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN (in module msvcrt): Other Functions. (line 93) * Vec2D (class in turtle): Public classes. (line 86) * vectorcallfunc (C type): The Vectorcall Protocol. (line 41) * venv command line option; -clear: Creating virtual environments. (line 64) * venv command line option; -copies: Creating virtual environments. (line 59) * venv command line option; -prompt: Creating virtual environments. (line 79) * venv command line option; -symlinks: Creating virtual environments. (line 54) * venv command line option; -system-site-packages: Creating virtual environments. (line 49) * venv command line option; -upgrade: Creating virtual environments. (line 69) * venv command line option; -upgrade-deps: Creating virtual environments. (line 83) * venv command line option; -without-pip: Creating virtual environments. (line 74) * venv command line option; -without-scm-ignore-files: Creating virtual environments. (line 87) * venv command line option; ENV_DIR: Creating virtual environments. (line 44) * VERBOSE (in module re): Flags. (line 127) * verbose (in module tabnanny): tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation. (line 26) * verbose (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 30) * verbose (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 556) * VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 98) * verify_client_post_handshake() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 303) * verify_code (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError attribute): Exceptions<16>. (line 86) * VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 84) * VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 73) * VERIFY_DEFAULT (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 65) * verify_flags (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 633) * verify_generated_headers (email.policy.Policy attribute): email policy Policy Objects. (line 204) * verify_message (ssl.SSLCertVerificationError attribute): Exceptions<16>. (line 90) * verify_mode (ssl.SSLContext attribute): SSL Contexts. (line 648) * verify_request() (socketserver.BaseServer method): Server Objects<2>. (line 178) * VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 114) * VERIFY_X509_STRICT (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 91) * VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST (in module ssl): Constants<9>. (line 105) * verify() (in module enum): Utilities and Decorators. (line 72) * verify() (smtplib.SMTP method): SMTP Objects. (line 91) * VerifyFlags (class in ssl): Constants<9>. (line 125) * VerifyMode (class in ssl): Constants<9>. (line 59) * version (email.headerregistry.MIMEVersionHeader attribute): email headerregistry Custom Header Objects. (line 242) * version (http.client.HTTPResponse attribute): HTTPResponse Objects. (line 46) * version (http.cookiejar.Cookie attribute): Cookie Objects<2>. (line 20) * version (http.cookies.Morsel attribute): Morsel Objects. (line 13) * version (in module curses): Constants<6>. (line 18) * version (in module marshal): marshal — Internal Python object serialization. (line 129) * version (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 127) * version (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 2008) * version (in module sys) <1>: Process-wide parameters. (line 164) * version (in module sys) <2>: Process-wide parameters. (line 201) * version (in module sys) <3>: Process-wide parameters. (line 212) * version (ipaddress.IPv4Address attribute): Address objects. (line 45) * version (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 63) * version (ipaddress.IPv6Address attribute): Address objects. (line 271) * version (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 293) * version (sys.thread_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1945) * version (urllib.request.URLopener attribute): Legacy interface. (line 138) * version (uuid.UUID attribute): uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122. (line 147) * version_info (in module sqlite3): Module constants. (line 137) * version_info (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 2023) * version_string() (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler method): http server — HTTP servers. (line 314) * version() (in module ensurepip): Module API. (line 8) * version() (in module importlib.metadata): Distribution versions. (line 6) * version() (in module platform): Cross platform. (line 135) * version() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 325) * vformat() (string.Formatter method): Custom String Formatting. (line 26) * virtual environment: Glossary. (line 1575) * virtual machine: Glossary. (line 1584) * visit_Constant() (ast.NodeVisitor method): ast Helpers. (line 210) * visit() (ast.NodeVisitor method): ast Helpers. (line 194) * visitproc (C type): Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection. (line 153) * vline() (curses.window method): Window Objects. (line 588) * voidcmd() (ftplib.FTP method): FTP objects. (line 165) * volume (zipfile.ZipInfo attribute): ZipInfo Objects. (line 120) * vonmisesvariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 93) * VT (in module curses.ascii): curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters. (line 58) * W_OK (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 107) * wait_closed() (asyncio.Server method): Server Objects. (line 123) * wait_closed() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 114) * wait_for() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 102) * wait_for() (in module asyncio): Timeouts. (line 118) * wait_for() (threading.Condition method): Condition objects. (line 128) * wait_process() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 419) * wait_threads_exit() (in module test.support.threading_helper): test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests. (line 41) * wait_until_any_call_with() (unittest.mock.ThreadingMock method): The Mock Class. (line 985) * wait_until_called() (unittest.mock.ThreadingMock method): The Mock Class. (line 970) * wait() (asyncio.Barrier method): Barrier. (line 52) * wait() (asyncio.Condition method): Condition. (line 85) * wait() (asyncio.Event method): Event. (line 44) * wait() (asyncio.subprocess.Process method): Interacting with Subprocesses. (line 38) * wait() (in module asyncio): Waiting Primitives. (line 6) * wait() (in module concurrent.futures): Module Functions. (line 6) * wait() (in module multiprocessing.connection): Listeners and Clients. (line 113) * wait() (in module os): Process Management. (line 826) * wait() (multiprocessing.pool.AsyncResult method): Process Pools. (line 208) * wait() (subprocess.Popen method): Popen Objects. (line 13) * wait() (threading.Barrier method): Barrier objects. (line 43) * wait() (threading.Condition method): Condition objects. (line 97) * wait() (threading.Event method): Event objects. (line 42) * wait3() (in module os): Process Management. (line 936) * wait4() (in module os): Process Management. (line 950) * waitid() (in module os): Process Management. (line 850) * waitpid() (in module os): Process Management. (line 889) * waitstatus_to_exitcode() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1068) * walk_packages() (in module pkgutil): pkgutil — Package extension utility. (line 146) * walk_stack() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 185) * walk_tb() (in module traceback): Module-Level Functions<2>. (line 194) * walk() (email.message.EmailMessage method): email message Representing an email message. (line 467) * walk() (email.message.Message method): email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API. (line 639) * walk() (in module ast): ast Helpers. (line 177) * walk() (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 1641) * walk() (pathlib.Path method): Reading directories. (line 102) * walrus operator: Boolean operations. (line 38) * walrus operator <1>: Glossary. (line 1590) * want (doctest.Example attribute): Example Objects. (line 23) * warn_default_encoding (sys.flags attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 582) * warn_explicit() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 62) * warn() (in module warnings): Available Functions. (line 6) * Warning: Warnings. (line 9) * Warning <1>: Exceptions<7>. (line 8) * WARNING (in module logging): Logging Levels. (line 33) * WARNING (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 198) * warning() (in module logging): Module-Level Functions. (line 70) * warning() (logging.Logger method): Logger Objects. (line 293) * warning() (xml.sax.handler.ErrorHandler method): ErrorHandler Objects. (line 29) * warnings: warnings — Warning control. (line 8) * WarningsRecorder (class in test.support.warnings_helper): test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests. (line 118) * warnoptions (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 2036) * wasSuccessful() (unittest.TestResult method): Loading and running tests. (line 318) * WatchedFileHandler (class in logging.handlers): WatchedFileHandler. (line 24) * Wave_read (class in wave): Wave_read Objects. (line 6) * Wave_write (class in wave): Wave_write Objects. (line 6) * WCONTINUED (in module os): Process Management. (line 990) * WCOREDUMP() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1108) * WeakKeyDictionary (class in weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 166) * WeakMethod (class in weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 236) * WeakSet (class in weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 231) * WeakValueDictionary (class in weakref): weakref — Weak references. (line 214) * webbrowser command line option; -n: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 46) * webbrowser command line option; -new-tab: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 50) * webbrowser command line option; -new-window: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 46) * webbrowser command line option; -t: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller. (line 50) * WEDNESDAY (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 447) * weekday (calendar.IllegalWeekdayError attribute): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 532) * weekday() (datetime.date method): date Objects. (line 231) * weekday() (datetime.datetime method): datetime Objects. (line 637) * weekday() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 376) * weekheader() (in module calendar): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 381) * weibullvariate() (in module random): Real-valued distributions. (line 105) * WEXITED (in module os): Process Management. (line 999) * WEXITSTATUS() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1154) * wfile (http.server.BaseHTTPRequestHandler attribute): http server — HTTP servers. (line 123) * wfile (socketserver.DatagramRequestHandler attribute): Request Handler Objects. (line 68) * whatis (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 281) * when() (asyncio.Timeout method): Timeouts. (line 63) * when() (asyncio.TimerHandle method): Callback Handles. (line 36) * where (pdb command): Debugger Commands. (line 81) * which() (in module shutil): Directory and files operations. (line 417) * whichdb() (in module dbm): dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”. (line 29) * While (class in ast): Control flow. (line 77) * whitespace (in module string): String constants. (line 52) * whitespace (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 104) * whitespace_split (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 128) * Widget (class in tkinter.ttk): ttk Widget. (line 9) * width (sys.hash_info attribute): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 1037) * width (textwrap.TextWrapper attribute): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 160) * width() (in module turtle): Drawing state. (line 18) * WIFCONTINUED() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1118) * WIFEXITED() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1146) * WIFSIGNALED() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1139) * WIFSTOPPED() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1128) * win32_edition() (in module platform): Windows platform. (line 22) * win32_is_iot() (in module platform): Windows platform. (line 31) * win32_ver() (in module platform): Windows platform. (line 6) * WinDLL (class in ctypes): Loading shared libraries. (line 54) * window manager (widgets): The Window Manager. (line 6) * window_height() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 104) * window_width() (in module turtle): Settings and special methods. (line 111) * window() (curses.panel.Panel method): Panel Objects. (line 62) * Windows: Complete Python programs. (line 25) * Windows ini file: configparser — Configuration file parser. (line 8) * WindowsError: Concrete exceptions. (line 501) * WindowsPath (class in pathlib): Concrete paths. (line 36) * WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio): Policy Objects. (line 78) * WindowsRegistryFinder (class in importlib.machinery): importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks. (line 92) * WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy (class in asyncio): Policy Objects. (line 71) * winerror (OSError attribute): Concrete exceptions. (line 176) * WinError() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 234) * WINFUNCTYPE() (in module ctypes): Function prototypes. (line 25) * WinSock: select — Waiting for I/O completion. (line 151) * winver (in module sys): sys — System-specific parameters and functions. (line 2042) * With (class in ast): Control flow. (line 230) * WITH_EXCEPT_START (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 488) * with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 55) * with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 123) * with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 82) * with_hostmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 325) * with_name() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 354) * with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 46) * with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 118) * with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 80) * with_netmask (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 323) * with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 37) * with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv4Network attribute): Network objects. (line 105) * with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Interface attribute): Interface objects. (line 78) * with_prefixlen (ipaddress.IPv6Network attribute): Network objects. (line 317) * with_pymalloc() (in module test.support): test support — Utilities for the Python test suite. (line 255) * with_segments() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 410) * with_statement (in module __future__): Module Contents<5>. (line 31) * with_stem() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 370) * with_suffix() (pathlib.PurePath method): Methods and properties. (line 393) * with_traceback() (BaseException method): Base classes. (line 25) * withitem (class in ast): Control flow. (line 241) * WNOHANG (in module os): Process Management. (line 1033) * WNOWAIT (in module os): Process Management. (line 1041) * wordchars (shlex.shlex attribute): shlex Objects. (line 91) * World Wide Web: Internet Protocols and Support. (line 6) * World Wide Web <1>: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 8) * World Wide Web <2>: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 8) * wrap_bio() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 455) * wrap_future() (in module asyncio): Future Functions. (line 51) * wrap_socket() (ssl.SSLContext method): SSL Contexts. (line 388) * wrap() (in module textwrap): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 16) * wrap() (textwrap.TextWrapper method): textwrap — Text wrapping and filling. (line 286) * wrapper() (in module curses): Functions<6>. (line 609) * WrapperDescriptorType (in module types): Standard Interpreter Types. (line 88) * wraps() (in module functools): functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects. (line 698) * WRITABLE (in module _tkinter): File Handlers. (line 41) * WRITABLE (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 17) * writable() (bz2.BZ2File method): De compression of files. (line 106) * writable() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 152) * WRITE (inspect.BufferFlags attribute): Buffer flags. (line 51) * write_byte() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 336) * write_bytes() (pathlib.Path method): Reading and writing files. (line 67) * write_docstringdict() (in module turtle): Translation of docstrings into different languages. (line 10) * write_eof() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 52) * write_eof() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 74) * write_eof() (ssl.MemoryBIO method): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 161) * write_history_file() (in module readline): History file. (line 14) * WRITE_RESTRICTED (C macro): Member flags. (line 32) * write_results() (trace.CoverageResults method): Programmatic Interface. (line 57) * write_text() (pathlib.Path method): Reading and writing files. (line 48) * write_through (io.TextIOWrapper attribute): Text I/O<2>. (line 175) * write() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 15) * write() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 60) * write() (code.InteractiveInterpreter method): Interactive Interpreter Objects. (line 63) * write() (codecs.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter Objects. (line 31) * write() (configparser.ConfigParser method): ConfigParser Objects. (line 292) * write() (email.generator.BytesGenerator method): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 117) * write() (email.generator.Generator method): email generator Generating MIME documents. (line 213) * write() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 920) * write() (in module turtle): More drawing control. (line 29) * write() (io.BufferedIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 335) * write() (io.BufferedWriter method): Buffered Streams. (line 128) * write() (io.RawIOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 212) * write() (io.TextIOBase method): Text I/O<2>. (line 94) * write() (mmap.mmap method): mmap — Memory-mapped file support. (line 320) * write() (sqlite3.Blob method): Blob objects. (line 53) * write() (ssl.MemoryBIO method): Memory BIO Support<2>. (line 153) * write() (ssl.SSLSocket method): SSL Sockets. (line 96) * write() (xml.etree.ElementTree.ElementTree method): ElementTree Objects. (line 62) * write() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 272) * writeframes() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 83) * writeframesraw() (wave.Wave_write method): Wave_write Objects. (line 76) * writeheader() (csv.DictWriter method): Writer Objects. (line 39) * writelines() (asyncio.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter. (line 26) * writelines() (asyncio.WriteTransport method): Write-only Transports. (line 67) * writelines() (codecs.StreamWriter method): StreamWriter Objects. (line 35) * writelines() (io.IOBase method): I/O Base Classes. (line 158) * writepy() (zipfile.PyZipFile method): PyZipFile Objects. (line 20) * writer() (in module csv): Module Contents<3>. (line 39) * writerow() (csv.csvwriter method): Writer Objects. (line 16) * writerows() (csv.csvwriter method): Writer Objects. (line 25) * writestr() (zipfile.ZipFile method): ZipFile Objects. (line 308) * WriteTransport (class in asyncio): Transports Hierarchy. (line 11) * writev() (in module os): File Descriptor Operations. (line 939) * writexml() (xml.dom.minidom.Node method): DOM Objects. (line 27) * writing; values: Expression statements. (line 17) * WrongDocumentErr: Exceptions<20>. (line 97) * wsgi_file_wrapper (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 274) * wsgi_multiprocess (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 156) * wsgi_multithread (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 149) * wsgi_run_once (wsgiref.handlers.BaseHandler attribute): wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes. (line 163) * WSGIApplication (in module wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 20) * WSGIEnvironment (in module wsgiref.types): wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking. (line 16) * WSGIRequestHandler (class in wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 78) * WSGIServer (class in wsgiref.simple_server): wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server. (line 48) * wShowWindow (subprocess.STARTUPINFO attribute): Windows Popen Helpers. (line 49) * WSTOPPED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1011) * WSTOPSIG() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1163) * wstring_at() (in module ctypes): Utility functions. (line 247) * WTERMSIG() (in module os): Process Management. (line 1172) * WUNTRACED (in module os): Process Management. (line 1022) * WWW: Internet Protocols and Support. (line 6) * WWW <1>: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components. (line 8) * WWW <2>: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt. (line 8) * WWW; server: http server — HTTP servers. (line 8) * X (in module re): Flags. (line 127) * X_OK (in module os): Files and Directories. (line 107) * X509 certificate: SSL Contexts. (line 761) * xatom() (imaplib.IMAP4 method): IMAP4 Objects. (line 386) * XATTR_CREATE (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 88) * XATTR_REPLACE (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 94) * XATTR_SIZE_MAX (in module os): Linux extended attributes. (line 83) * xcor() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 34) * XHTML: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser. (line 8) * XHTML_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom): Module Contents<4>. (line 53) * XML_ERROR_ABORTED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 180) * XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 215) * XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 29) * XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 31) * XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 37) * XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 42) * XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 135) * XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 47) * XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 126) * XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 116) * XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 128) * XML_ERROR_FINISHED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 184) * XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 152) * XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 51) * XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 207) * XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 53) * XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 59) * XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 64) * XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 211) * XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 69) * XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 74) * XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 118) * XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 175) * XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 78) * XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 82) * XML_ERROR_PUBLICID (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 165) * XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 86) * XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 202) * XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 192) * XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 197) * XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 190) * XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 169) * XML_ERROR_SYNTAX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 91) * XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 95) * XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 160) * XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 142) * XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 112) * XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 99) * XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 147) * XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 104) * XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 124) * XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 108) * XML_ERROR_XML_DECL (in module xml.parsers.expat.errors): Expat error constants. (line 156) * XML_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom): Module Contents<4>. (line 42) * XML() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 270) * xmlcharrefreplace_errors() (in module codecs): Error Handlers. (line 172) * xmlcharrefreplace; error handler's name: Error Handlers. (line 54) * XmlDeclHandler() (xml.parsers.expat.xmlparser method): XMLParser Objects<2>. (line 213) * XMLFilterBase (class in xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 72) * XMLGenerator (class in xml.sax.saxutils): xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities. (line 56) * XMLID() (in module xml.etree.ElementTree): Functions<9>. (line 278) * XMLNS_NAMESPACE (in module xml.dom): Module Contents<4>. (line 47) * XMLParser (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): XMLParser Objects. (line 6) * XMLParserType (in module xml.parsers.expat): xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat. (line 34) * XMLPullParser (class in xml.etree.ElementTree): XMLPullParser Objects. (line 6) * XMLReader (class in xml.sax.xmlreader): xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers. (line 16) * xor() (in module operator): operator — Standard operators as functions. (line 168) * xview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 317) * ycor() (in module turtle): Tell Turtle’s state. (line 46) * year (datetime.date attribute): date Objects. (line 116) * year (datetime.datetime attribute): datetime Objects. (line 305) * Year 2038: time — Time access and conversions. (line 29) * yeardatescalendar() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 128) * yeardays2calendar() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 136) * yeardayscalendar() (calendar.Calendar method): calendar — General calendar-related functions. (line 143) * YES (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 157) * YESEXPR (in module locale): locale — Internationalization services. (line 278) * YESNO (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 181) * YESNOCANCEL (in module tkinter.messagebox): tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts. (line 186) * Yield (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 124) * YIELD_VALUE (opcode): Python Bytecode Instructions. (line 420) * yield; examples: Generator-iterator methods. (line 83) * yield; expression: Yield expressions. (line 6) * yield; yield from (in What's New): PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy. (line 87) * YieldFrom (class in ast): Function and class definitions. (line 124) * yiq_to_rgb() (in module colorsys): colorsys — Conversions between color systems. (line 32) * yview() (tkinter.ttk.Treeview method): ttk Treeview. (line 321) * z; in string formatting: Format Specification Mini-Language. (line 90) * z85decode() (in module base64): Base85 Encodings. (line 100) * z85encode() (in module base64): Base85 Encodings. (line 92) * Zen of Python: Glossary. (line 1595) * ZeroDivisionError: Concrete exceptions. (line 487) * zfill() (bytearray method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 752) * zfill() (bytes method): Bytes and Bytearray Operations. (line 752) * zfill() (str method): String Methods<2>. (line 738) * ZIP_BZIP2 (in module zipfile): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 94) * ZIP_DEFLATED (in module zipfile): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 89) * zip_longest() (in module itertools): Itertool Functions. (line 659) * ZIP_LZMA (in module zipfile): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 101) * ZIP_STORED (in module zipfile): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 85) * zipapp command line option; -c: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 45) * zipapp command line option; -compress: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 45) * zipapp command line option; -h: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 61) * zipapp command line option; -help: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 61) * zipapp command line option; -info: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 55) * zipapp command line option; -m: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 35) * zipapp command line option; -main: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 35) * zipapp command line option; -o: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 18) * zipapp command line option; -output: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 18) * zipapp command line option; -p: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 29) * zipapp command line option; -python: Command-Line Interface<5>. (line 29) * ZipFile (class in zipfile): ZipFile Objects. (line 6) * zipfile command line option; -c: Command-line options. (line 11) * zipfile command line option; -create: Command-line options. (line 11) * zipfile command line option; -e: Command-line options. (line 16) * zipfile command line option; -extract: Command-line options. (line 16) * zipfile command line option; -l: Command-line options. (line 6) * zipfile command line option; -list: Command-line options. (line 6) * zipfile command line option; -metadata-encoding: Command-line options. (line 26) * zipfile command line option; -t: Command-line options. (line 21) * zipfile command line option; -test: Command-line options. (line 21) * zipimporter (class in zipimport): zipimporter Objects. (line 8) * ZipImportError: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives. (line 58) * ZipInfo (class in zipfile): zipfile — Work with ZIP archives. (line 59) * ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 313) * ZLIB_VERSION (in module zlib): zlib — Compression compatible with gzip. (line 306) * ZoneInfo (class in zoneinfo): The ZoneInfo class. (line 6) * ZoneInfoNotFoundError: Exceptions and warnings. (line 6) * zscore() (statistics.NormalDist method): NormalDist objects. (line 120)  Tag Table: Node: Top354 Ref: contents doc565 Ref: 135565 Node: What’s New in Python226816 Ref: whatsnew/index doc226918 Ref: 136226918 Ref: whatsnew/index python-documentation-contents226918 Ref: 137226918 Ref: whatsnew/index what-s-new-in-python226918 Ref: 138226918 Ref: whatsnew/index whatsnew-index226918 Ref: 139226918 Node: What’s New In Python 3 13228491 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 doc228613 Ref: 13a228613 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 what-s-new-in-python-3-13228613 Ref: 13b228613 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 13-Footnote-1229435 Node: Summary – Release Highlights229477 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 summary-release-highlights229592 Ref: 13d229592 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-better-interactive-interpreter229896 Ref: 13e229896 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-free-threaded-cpython229966 Ref: 13f229966 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-jit-compiler230020 Ref: 140230020 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-pep594230494 Ref: 143230494 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-1236423 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-2236465 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-3236507 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-4236549 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-5236591 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-6236633 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-7236675 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-8236705 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-9236745 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-10236787 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-11236830 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-12236873 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-13236916 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-14236959 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-15237002 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-16237052 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-17237095 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-18237145 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights-Footnote-19237195 Node: New Features237238 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 new-features237384 Ref: 167237384 Node: A better interactive interpreter237729 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 a-better-interactive-interpreter237842 Ref: 168237842 Ref: A better interactive interpreter-Footnote-1239160 Ref: A better interactive interpreter-Footnote-2239186 Node: Improved error messages239242 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 improved-error-messages239385 Ref: 170239385 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-improved-error-messages239385 Ref: 147239385 Ref: Improved error messages-Footnote-1241829 Ref: Improved error messages-Footnote-2241859 Ref: Improved error messages-Footnote-3241892 Ref: Improved error messages-Footnote-4241948 Ref: Improved error messages-Footnote-5242003 Node: Free-threaded CPython242059 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 free-threaded-cpython242211 Ref: 171242211 Ref: Free-threaded CPython-Footnote-1245215 Ref: Free-threaded CPython-Footnote-2245257 Node: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler245310 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 an-experimental-just-in-time-jit-compiler245476 Ref: 17a245476 Ref: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler-Footnote-1248112 Ref: An experimental just-in-time JIT compiler-Footnote-2248184 Node: Defined mutation semantics for locals248226 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 defined-mutation-semantics-for-locals248399 Ref: 17d248399 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-locals-semantics248399 Ref: 142248399 Ref: Defined mutation semantics for locals-Footnote-1251012 Ref: Defined mutation semantics for locals-Footnote-2251054 Ref: Defined mutation semantics for locals-Footnote-3251096 Node: Support for mobile platforms251151 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 support-for-mobile-platforms251274 Ref: 185251274 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-platform-support251274 Ref: 165251274 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-1252321 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-2252363 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-3252405 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-4252461 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-5252503 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-6252545 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-7252601 Ref: Support for mobile platforms-Footnote-8252643 Node: Other Language Changes252685 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 other-language-changes252812 Ref: 186252812 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-1257645 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-2257700 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-3257756 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-4257812 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-5257868 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-6257924 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-7257980 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-8258029 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-9258085 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-10258140 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-11258197 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-12258254 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-13258311 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-14258368 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-15258425 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-16258482 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-17258539 Ref: Other Language Changes-Footnote-18258595 Node: New Modules258652 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 new-modules258783 Ref: 19b258783 Ref: New Modules-Footnote-1259007 Node: Improved Modules259063 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 improved-modules259185 Ref: 19c259185 Node: argparse259855 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 argparse259930 Ref: 19d259930 Ref: argparse-Footnote-1260253 Node: array260308 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 array260395 Ref: 19f260395 Ref: array-Footnote-1260831 Ref: array-Footnote-2260886 Node: ast260942 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 ast261028 Ref: 1a3261028 Ref: ast-Footnote-1262588 Ref: ast-Footnote-2262644 Ref: ast-Footnote-3262700 Ref: ast-Footnote-4262756 Node: asyncio262812 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 asyncio262899 Ref: 1a9262899 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-1266661 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-2266716 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-3266772 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-4266828 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-5266884 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-6266940 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-7266995 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-8267051 Ref: asyncio-Footnote-9267107 Node: base64267163 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 base64267257 Ref: 1c1267257 Ref: base64-Footnote-1267552 Ref: base64-Footnote-2267592 Node: compileall267647 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 compileall267752 Ref: 1c3267752 Ref: compileall-Footnote-1268044 Node: concurrent futures268100 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 concurrent-futures268211 Ref: 1c6268211 Ref: concurrent futures-Footnote-1268519 Node: configparser268575 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 configparser268680 Ref: 1c7268680 Ref: configparser-Footnote-1269010 Node: copy269065 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 copy269158 Ref: 1c9269158 Ref: copy-Footnote-1270075 Node: ctypes270131 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 ctypes270215 Ref: 1d3270215 Ref: ctypes-Footnote-1271150 Ref: ctypes-Footnote-2271206 Node: dbm271262 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 dbm271345 Ref: 1d6271345 Ref: dbm-Footnote-1271801 Ref: dbm-Footnote-2271857 Node: dis271913 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 dis271997 Ref: 1d9271997 Ref: dis-Footnote-1272751 Ref: dis-Footnote-2272807 Node: doctest272863 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 doctest272949 Ref: 1dd272949 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-doctest272949 Ref: 149272949 Ref: doctest-Footnote-1273596 Ref: doctest-Footnote-2273626 Ref: doctest-Footnote-3273659 Ref: doctest-Footnote-4273715 Node: email273771 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 email273858 Ref: 1e1273858 Ref: email-Footnote-1274990 Ref: email-Footnote-2275046 Ref: email-Footnote-3275102 Node: enum275158 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 enum275247 Ref: 1e5275247 Node: fractions275380 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 fractions275468 Ref: 1e8275468 Ref: fractions-Footnote-1275786 Node: glob275842 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 glob275935 Ref: 1eb275935 Ref: glob-Footnote-1276184 Node: importlib276239 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 importlib276325 Ref: 1ed276325 Ref: importlib-Footnote-1277226 Ref: importlib-Footnote-2277282 Node: io277338 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 io277429 Ref: 1f6277429 Ref: io-Footnote-1277855 Node: ipaddress277910 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 ipaddress278001 Ref: 1fc278001 Ref: ipaddress-Footnote-1278460 Ref: ipaddress-Footnote-2278516 Node: itertools278572 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 itertools278668 Ref: 202278668 Ref: itertools-Footnote-1278968 Node: marshal279024 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 marshal279115 Ref: 205279115 Ref: marshal-Footnote-1279450 Node: math279506 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 math279597 Ref: 206279597 Ref: math-Footnote-1280092 Node: mimetypes280147 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 mimetypes280235 Ref: 208280235 Ref: mimetypes-Footnote-1280552 Node: mmap280607 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 mmap280706 Ref: 20c280706 Ref: mmap-Footnote-1281519 Ref: mmap-Footnote-2281575 Ref: mmap-Footnote-3281631 Node: multiprocessing281686 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 multiprocessing281778 Ref: 210281778 Ref: multiprocessing-Footnote-1282082 Node: os282138 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 os282233 Ref: 211282233 Ref: os-Footnote-1284701 Ref: os-Footnote-2284757 Ref: os-Footnote-3284813 Ref: os-Footnote-4284867 Ref: os-Footnote-5284923 Ref: os-Footnote-6284978 Ref: os-Footnote-7285034 Ref: os-Footnote-8285089 Ref: os-Footnote-9285145 Ref: os-Footnote-10285201 Node: os path285258 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 os-path285345 Ref: 224285345 Ref: os path-Footnote-1285968 Ref: os path-Footnote-2286023 Ref: os path-Footnote-3286078 Node: pathlib286133 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pathlib286221 Ref: 228286221 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-1287749 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-2287804 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-3287860 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-4287915 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-5287970 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-6288025 Ref: pathlib-Footnote-7288081 Node: pdb288137 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pdb288223 Ref: 235288223 Ref: pdb-Footnote-1289358 Ref: pdb-Footnote-2289414 Ref: pdb-Footnote-3289470 Ref: pdb-Footnote-4289526 Ref: pdb-Footnote-5289582 Node: queue289638 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 queue289723 Ref: 23b289723 Ref: queue-Footnote-1289958 Node: random290014 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 random290098 Ref: 23e290098 Ref: random-Footnote-1290272 Node: re290328 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 re290413 Ref: 23f290413 Node: shutil290572 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 shutil290655 Ref: 241290655 Ref: shutil-Footnote-1290883 Node: site290938 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 site291026 Ref: 243291026 Ref: site-Footnote-1291277 Node: sqlite3291333 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 sqlite3291418 Ref: 245291418 Ref: sqlite3-Footnote-1291859 Ref: sqlite3-Footnote-2291915 Node: ssl291970 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 ssl292061 Ref: 24a292061 Ref: ssl-Footnote-1292750 Ref: ssl-Footnote-2292809 Node: statistics292865 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 statistics292959 Ref: 24b292959 Ref: statistics-Footnote-1293468 Ref: statistics-Footnote-2293524 Node: subprocess293580 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 subprocess293674 Ref: 24e293674 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 whatsnew313-subprocess293674 Ref: 24f293674 Ref: subprocess-Footnote-1294614 Node: sys294670 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 sys294762 Ref: 251294762 Ref: sys-Footnote-1295051 Node: tempfile295106 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 tempfile295192 Ref: 253295192 Ref: tempfile-Footnote-1295537 Ref: tempfile-Footnote-2295592 Node: time295648 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 time295738 Ref: 254295738 Ref: time-Footnote-1296386 Ref: time-Footnote-2296441 Node: tkinter296496 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 tkinter296587 Ref: 257296587 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-1298855 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-2298910 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-3298965 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-4299020 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-5299075 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-6299130 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-7299185 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-8299241 Ref: tkinter-Footnote-9299297 Node: traceback299353 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 traceback299445 Ref: 25c299445 Ref: traceback-Footnote-1300175 Ref: traceback-Footnote-2300231 Node: types300287 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 types300378 Ref: 262300378 Ref: types-Footnote-1300705 Node: typing300761 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 typing300854 Ref: 263300854 Ref: typing-Footnote-1301840 Ref: typing-Footnote-2301882 Ref: typing-Footnote-3301924 Ref: typing-Footnote-4301980 Ref: typing-Footnote-5302036 Ref: typing-Footnote-6302092 Node: unicodedata302147 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 unicodedata302239 Ref: 26a302239 Ref: unicodedata-Footnote-1302427 Ref: unicodedata-Footnote-2302483 Node: venv302539 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 venv302633 Ref: 26b302633 Ref: venv-Footnote-1303127 Node: warnings303183 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 warnings303269 Ref: 26e303269 Ref: warnings-Footnote-1303733 Ref: warnings-Footnote-2303775 Node: xml303831 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 xml303922 Ref: 270303922 Ref: xml-Footnote-1304688 Ref: xml-Footnote-2304744 Ref: xml-Footnote-3304800 Node: zipimport304855 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 zipimport304929 Ref: 276304929 Ref: zipimport-Footnote-1305133 Ref: zipimport-Footnote-2305195 Node: Optimizations305250 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 optimizations305385 Ref: 277305385 Ref: Optimizations-Footnote-1306592 Ref: Optimizations-Footnote-2306648 Ref: Optimizations-Footnote-3306704 Node: Removed Modules And APIs306760 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 removed-modules-and-apis306895 Ref: 279306895 Node: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library307364 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pep-594-remove-dead-batteries-from-the-standard-library307499 Ref: 27a307499 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-1312868 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-2312910 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-3312958 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-4313004 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-5313053 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-6313097 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-7313141 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-8313188 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-9313237 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-10313278 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-11313321 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-12313368 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-13313415 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-14313458 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-15313506 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-16313556 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-17313620 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-18313664 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-19313709 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-20313757 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-21313808 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-22313860 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-23313902 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-24313954 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-25313996 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-26314046 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-27314090 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-28314135 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-29314183 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-30314234 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-31314280 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-32314330 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-33314376 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-34314420 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-35314474 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-36314521 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-37314572 Ref: PEP 594 Remove “dead batteries” from the standard library-Footnote-38314629 Node: 2to3314686 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 to3314838 Ref: 280314838 Ref: 2to3-Footnote-1315065 Node: builtins315121 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 builtins315227 Ref: 281315227 Ref: builtins-Footnote-1315972 Ref: builtins-Footnote-2316027 Ref: builtins-Footnote-3316082 Node: configparser<2>316137 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id3316257 Ref: 283316257 Ref: configparser<2>-Footnote-1316541 Node: importlib metadata316597 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 importlib-metadata316715 Ref: 284316715 Ref: importlib metadata-Footnote-1316972 Node: locale317028 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 locale317137 Ref: 287317137 Ref: locale-Footnote-1317400 Node: opcode317456 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 opcode317555 Ref: 288317555 Ref: opcode-Footnote-1318180 Ref: opcode-Footnote-2318236 Node: optparse318292 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 optparse318395 Ref: 289318395 Ref: optparse-Footnote-1319185 Node: pathlib<2>319241 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id4319343 Ref: 28a319343 Ref: pathlib<2>-Footnote-1319621 Node: re<2>319676 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id5319781 Ref: 28b319781 Ref: re<2>-Footnote-1320047 Node: tkinter tix320103 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 tkinter-tix320204 Ref: 28c320204 Ref: tkinter tix-Footnote-1320479 Node: turtle320534 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 turtle320639 Ref: 28d320639 Ref: turtle-Footnote-1320909 Node: typing<2>320965 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id6321067 Ref: 28e321067 Ref: typing<2>-Footnote-1321553 Ref: typing<2>-Footnote-2321608 Node: unittest321664 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 unittest321766 Ref: 28f321766 Ref: unittest-Footnote-1322468 Ref: unittest-Footnote-2322524 Node: urllib322580 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 urllib322683 Ref: 294322683 Ref: urllib-Footnote-1323290 Node: webbrowser323346 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 webbrowser323432 Ref: 298323432 Ref: webbrowser-Footnote-1323923 Ref: webbrowser-Footnote-2323979 Node: New Deprecations324035 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 new-deprecations324181 Ref: 29a324181 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-1332482 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-2332537 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-3332592 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-4332648 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-5332704 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-6332759 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-7332815 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-8332870 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-9332926 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-10332982 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-11333039 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-12333095 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-13333151 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-14333207 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-15333264 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-16333320 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-17333377 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-18333434 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-19333491 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-20333547 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-21333604 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-22333661 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-23333718 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-24333775 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-25333832 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-26333889 Ref: New Deprecations-Footnote-27333946 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14334003 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pending-removal-in-python-3-14334125 Ref: 2ba334125 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-1338817 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-2338872 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-3338927 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-4338982 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-5339037 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-6339093 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-7339148 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-8339203 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-9339258 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-10339314 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-11339370 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14-Footnote-12339426 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15339482 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pending-removal-in-python-3-15339643 Ref: 2d8339643 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15-Footnote-1343971 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15-Footnote-2344026 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15-Footnote-3344081 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15-Footnote-4344136 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15-Footnote-5344192 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15-Footnote-6344234 Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16344290 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pending-removal-in-python-3-16344455 Ref: 2e5344455 Ref: Pending removal in Python 3 16-Footnote-1346640 Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions346696 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pending-removal-in-future-versions346822 Ref: 2ea346822 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions-Footnote-1353665 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions-Footnote-2353720 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions-Footnote-3353776 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions-Footnote-4353832 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions-Footnote-5353887 Node: CPython Bytecode Changes353942 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 cpython-bytecode-changes354077 Ref: 30d354077 Ref: CPython Bytecode Changes-Footnote-1354518 Node: C API Changes354574 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 c-api-changes354706 Ref: 310354706 Node: New Features<2>354878 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id7354966 Ref: 311354966 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-1365877 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-2365919 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-3365975 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-4366031 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-5366087 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-6366143 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-7366199 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-8366255 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-9366311 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-10366367 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-11366424 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-12366481 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-13366537 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-14366594 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-15366651 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-16366708 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-17366765 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-18366822 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-19366879 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-20366936 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-21366992 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-22367049 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-23367106 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-24367160 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-25367217 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-26367273 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-27367329 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-28367386 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-29367443 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-30367500 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-31367557 Ref: New Features<2>-Footnote-32367614 Node: Changed C APIs367671 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 changed-c-apis367789 Ref: 37d367789 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-1370384 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-2370439 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-3370495 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-4370551 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-5370607 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-6370649 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-7370705 Ref: Changed C APIs-Footnote-8370761 Node: Limited C API Changes370817 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 limited-c-api-changes370934 Ref: 38a370934 Ref: Limited C API Changes-Footnote-1371656 Ref: Limited C API Changes-Footnote-2371711 Ref: Limited C API Changes-Footnote-3371766 Ref: Limited C API Changes-Footnote-4371822 Node: Removed C APIs371878 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 removed-c-apis371998 Ref: 392371998 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-1378336 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-2378392 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-3378447 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-4378503 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-5378545 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-6378601 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-7378657 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-8378713 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-9378766 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-10378822 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-11378865 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-12378922 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-13378979 Ref: Removed C APIs-Footnote-14379036 Node: Deprecated C APIs379093 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 deprecated-c-apis379183 Ref: 3aa379183 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-1381869 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-2381925 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-3381967 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-4382023 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-5382078 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-6382134 Ref: Deprecated C APIs-Footnote-7382187 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>382243 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id8382372 Ref: 3bc382372 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>-Footnote-1385599 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>-Footnote-2385641 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<2>-Footnote-3385697 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<2>385752 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id9385923 Ref: 3e8385923 Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<2>387176 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id10387351 Ref: 3ec387351 Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<2>387474 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id11387607 Ref: 3ed387607 Node: Build Changes389848 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 build-changes389978 Ref: 40b389978 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pythoncapi-compat-project389978 Ref: 40c389978 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-1392556 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-2392598 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-3392654 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-4392696 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-5392752 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-6392794 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-7392850 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-8392892 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-9392948 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-10393003 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-11393060 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-12393117 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-13393165 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-14393222 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-15393279 Ref: Build Changes-Footnote-16393336 Node: Porting to Python 3 13393392 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 porting-to-python-3-13393532 Ref: 146393532 Node: Changes in the Python API393765 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 changes-in-the-python-api393878 Ref: 40f393878 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pep667-porting-notes-py393949 Ref: 183393949 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-1397496 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-2397538 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-3397580 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-4397622 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-5397664 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-6397720 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-7397776 Ref: Changes in the Python API-Footnote-8397831 Node: Changes in the C API397887 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 changes-in-the-c-api398000 Ref: 419398000 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 pep667-porting-notes-c400655 Ref: 184400655 Ref: Changes in the C API-Footnote-1404431 Ref: Changes in the C API-Footnote-2404487 Ref: Changes in the C API-Footnote-3404543 Ref: Changes in the C API-Footnote-4404599 Ref: Changes in the C API-Footnote-5404654 Ref: Changes in the C API-Footnote-6404710 Node: Regression Test Changes404763 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 regression-test-changes404915 Ref: 41f404915 Ref: Regression Test Changes-Footnote-1405356 Node: Notable changes in 3 13 1405412 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 notable-changes-in-3-13-1405567 Ref: 421405567 Node: sys<2>405659 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id12405727 Ref: 422405727 Node: Notable changes in 3 13 4405978 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 notable-changes-in-3-13-4406101 Ref: 424406101 Node: os path<2>406213 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 id13406301 Ref: 425406301 Ref: os path<2>-Footnote-1406708 Node: tarfile406763 Ref: whatsnew/3 13 tarfile406851 Ref: 428406851 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-1407980 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-2408036 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-3408091 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-4408147 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-5408203 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-6408258 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-7408314 Ref: tarfile-Footnote-8408370 Node: What’s New In Python 3 12408425 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 doc408583 Ref: 42e408583 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 what-s-new-in-python-3-12408583 Ref: 42f408583 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 12-Footnote-1409409 Node: Summary – Release highlights409451 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 summary-release-highlights409569 Ref: 430409569 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 improved-error-messages411389 Ref: 439411389 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 unittest-testcase-removed-aliases414210 Ref: 44a414210 Ref: Summary – Release highlights-Footnote-1414249 Ref: Summary – Release highlights-Footnote-2414297 Ref: Summary – Release highlights-Footnote-3414339 Ref: Summary – Release highlights-Footnote-4414381 Ref: Summary – Release highlights-Footnote-5414440 Ref: Summary – Release highlights-Footnote-6414519 Node: New Features<3>414574 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 new-features414735 Ref: 44b414735 Node: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax415310 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-695-type-parameter-syntax415444 Ref: 44c415444 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep695415444 Ref: 432415444 Ref: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax-Footnote-1417977 Ref: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax-Footnote-2418019 Ref: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax-Footnote-3418061 Ref: PEP 695 Type Parameter Syntax-Footnote-4418103 Node: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings418159 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-701-syntactic-formalization-of-f-strings418331 Ref: 454418331 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep701418331 Ref: 436418331 Ref: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings-Footnote-1422633 Ref: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings-Footnote-2422675 Ref: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings-Footnote-3422717 Ref: PEP 701 Syntactic formalization of f-strings-Footnote-4422759 Node: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL422815 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-684-a-per-interpreter-gil422999 Ref: 456422999 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep684422999 Ref: 437422999 Ref: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL-Footnote-1424094 Ref: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL-Footnote-2424136 Ref: PEP 684 A Per-Interpreter GIL-Footnote-3424178 Node: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython424234 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-669-low-impact-monitoring-for-cpython424429 Ref: 458424429 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep669424429 Ref: 438424429 Ref: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython-Footnote-1424988 Ref: PEP 669 Low impact monitoring for CPython-Footnote-2425030 Node: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python425086 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-688-making-the-buffer-protocol-accessible-in-python425282 Ref: 459425282 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep688425282 Ref: 43b425282 Ref: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python-Footnote-1425925 Ref: PEP 688 Making the buffer protocol accessible in Python-Footnote-2425967 Node: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining426023 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-709-comprehension-inlining426201 Ref: 45c426201 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep709426201 Ref: 442426201 Ref: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining-Footnote-1427892 Ref: PEP 709 Comprehension inlining-Footnote-2427934 Node: Improved Error Messages427976 Ref: Improved Error Messages-Footnote-1430448 Ref: Improved Error Messages-Footnote-2430503 Ref: Improved Error Messages-Footnote-3430558 Ref: Improved Error Messages-Footnote-4430613 Node: New Features Related to Type Hints430668 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 new-features-related-to-type-hints430824 Ref: 45d430824 Ref: New Features Related to Type Hints-Footnote-1431261 Node: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing431303 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-692-using-typeddict-for-more-precise-kwargs-typing431483 Ref: 45e431483 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep692431483 Ref: 443431483 Ref: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing-Footnote-1432177 Ref: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing-Footnote-2432219 Ref: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing-Footnote-3432261 Ref: PEP 692 Using TypedDict for more precise **kwargs typing-Footnote-4432303 Node: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing432359 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pep-698-override-decorator-for-static-typing432539 Ref: 45f432539 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep698432539 Ref: 445432539 Ref: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing-Footnote-1433517 Ref: PEP 698 Override Decorator for Static Typing-Footnote-2433559 Node: Other Language Changes<2>433615 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 other-language-changes433770 Ref: 460433770 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-1438462 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-2438517 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-3438572 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-4438627 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-5438669 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-6438725 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-7438767 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-8438822 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-9438878 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-10438933 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-11438989 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-12439045 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-13439102 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-14439159 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-15439215 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-16439258 Ref: Other Language Changes<2>-Footnote-17439314 Node: New Modules<2>439370 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 new-modules439510 Ref: 46e439510 Node: Improved Modules<2>439559 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 improved-modules439690 Ref: 46f439690 Node: array<2>440328 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 array440411 Ref: 470440411 Ref: array<2>-Footnote-1440639 Node: asyncio<2>440694 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 asyncio440794 Ref: 471440794 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-1442779 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-2442834 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-3442890 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-4442946 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-5443002 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-6443057 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-7443112 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-8443167 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-9443223 Ref: asyncio<2>-Footnote-10443279 Node: calendar443335 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 calendar443430 Ref: 47c443430 Ref: calendar-Footnote-1443682 Node: csv443738 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 csv443829 Ref: 47f443829 Node: dis<2>444063 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 dis444158 Ref: 484444158 Ref: dis<2>-Footnote-1444768 Ref: dis<2>-Footnote-2444823 Node: fractions<2>444878 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 fractions444989 Ref: 487444989 Ref: fractions<2>-Footnote-1445211 Node: importlib resources445267 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 importlib-resources445379 Ref: 488445379 Ref: importlib resources-Footnote-1445751 Ref: importlib resources-Footnote-2445806 Node: inspect445862 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 inspect445974 Ref: 48b445974 Ref: inspect-Footnote-1446744 Ref: inspect-Footnote-2446799 Ref: inspect-Footnote-3446854 Node: itertools<2>446910 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 itertools447010 Ref: 491447010 Ref: itertools<2>-Footnote-1447275 Node: math<2>447330 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 math447428 Ref: 492447428 Ref: math<2>-Footnote-1447846 Ref: math<2>-Footnote-2447902 Node: os<2>447957 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 os448053 Ref: 495448053 Ref: os<2>-Footnote-1449398 Ref: os<2>-Footnote-2449453 Ref: os<2>-Footnote-3449508 Ref: os<2>-Footnote-4449564 Node: os path<3>449619 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 os-path449718 Ref: 49e449718 Ref: os path<3>-Footnote-1450083 Ref: os path<3>-Footnote-2450138 Node: pathlib<3>450194 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pathlib450296 Ref: 4a1450296 Ref: pathlib<3>-Footnote-1451593 Ref: pathlib<3>-Footnote-2451648 Ref: pathlib<3>-Footnote-3451703 Node: platform451758 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 platform451856 Ref: 4a9451856 Ref: platform-Footnote-1452201 Node: pdb<2>452256 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 pdb452353 Ref: 4aa452353 Ref: pdb<2>-Footnote-1452626 Node: random<2>452682 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 random452780 Ref: 4ab452780 Ref: random<2>-Footnote-1453085 Ref: random<2>-Footnote-2453140 Node: shutil<2>453196 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 shutil453298 Ref: 4ae453298 Ref: shutil<2>-Footnote-1454728 Ref: shutil<2>-Footnote-2454783 Ref: shutil<2>-Footnote-3454839 Ref: shutil<2>-Footnote-4454895 Ref: shutil<2>-Footnote-5454951 Node: sqlite3<2>455007 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 sqlite3455113 Ref: 4b1455113 Ref: sqlite3<2>-Footnote-1456060 Ref: sqlite3<2>-Footnote-2456115 Ref: sqlite3<2>-Footnote-3456157 Ref: sqlite3<2>-Footnote-4456212 Ref: sqlite3<2>-Footnote-5456268 Node: statistics<2>456324 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 statistics456427 Ref: 4b7456427 Ref: statistics<2>-Footnote-1456707 Node: sys<3>456762 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 sys456866 Ref: 4b9456866 Ref: sys<3>-Footnote-1458416 Ref: sys<3>-Footnote-2458472 Ref: sys<3>-Footnote-3458527 Ref: sys<3>-Footnote-4458583 Node: tempfile<2>458639 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 tempfile458739 Ref: 4c1458739 Ref: tempfile<2>-Footnote-1459131 Node: threading459186 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 threading459290 Ref: 4c3459290 Ref: threading-Footnote-1459639 Node: tkinter<2>459694 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 tkinter459795 Ref: 4c6459795 Ref: tkinter<2>-Footnote-1460291 Node: tokenize460346 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 tokenize460446 Ref: 4c7460446 Ref: tokenize-Footnote-1460803 Ref: tokenize-Footnote-2460845 Node: types<2>460901 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 types461000 Ref: 4c9461000 Ref: types<2>-Footnote-1461296 Node: typing<3>461352 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 typing461457 Ref: 4cc461457 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew-typing-py312461457 Ref: 4cd461457 Ref: typing<3>-Footnote-1464032 Ref: typing<3>-Footnote-2464088 Ref: typing<3>-Footnote-3464143 Ref: typing<3>-Footnote-4464199 Ref: typing<3>-Footnote-5464255 Node: unicodedata<2>464310 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 unicodedata464418 Ref: 4d1464418 Ref: unicodedata<2>-Footnote-1464616 Node: unittest<2>464671 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 unittest464774 Ref: 4d2464774 Ref: unittest<2>-Footnote-1465558 Node: uuid465613 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 uuid465693 Ref: 4d3465693 Ref: uuid-Footnote-1465856 Node: Optimizations<2>465911 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 optimizations466052 Ref: 4d4466052 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-1467505 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-2467547 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-3467602 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-4467657 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-5467713 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-6467768 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-7467824 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-8467866 Ref: Optimizations<2>-Footnote-9467922 Node: CPython bytecode changes467978 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 cpython-bytecode-changes468115 Ref: 4d9468115 Ref: CPython bytecode 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52d526189 Ref: webbrowser<2>-Footnote-1526496 Node: xml etree ElementTree526552 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 xml-etree-elementtree526660 Ref: 52e526660 Ref: xml etree ElementTree-Footnote-1527123 Node: zipimport<2>527178 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 zipimport527279 Ref: 530527279 Ref: zipimport<2>-Footnote-1527616 Ref: zipimport<2>-Footnote-2527658 Node: Others527713 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 others527784 Ref: 531527784 Ref: Others-Footnote-1528792 Ref: Others-Footnote-2528846 Ref: Others-Footnote-3528901 Ref: Others-Footnote-4528956 Ref: Others-Footnote-5529011 Node: Porting to Python 3 12529066 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 porting-to-python-3-12529193 Ref: 532529193 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-porting-to-python312529193 Ref: 4c8529193 Node: Changes in the Python API<2>529430 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 changes-in-the-python-api529517 Ref: 533529517 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-1535824 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-2535879 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-3535934 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-4535977 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-5536032 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-6536087 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-7536142 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-8536198 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-9536240 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-10536282 Ref: Changes in the Python API<2>-Footnote-11536325 Node: Build Changes<2>536382 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 build-changes536518 Ref: 541536518 Ref: Build Changes<2>-Footnote-1538203 Ref: Build Changes<2>-Footnote-2538258 Ref: Build Changes<2>-Footnote-3538313 Ref: Build Changes<2>-Footnote-4538368 Ref: Build Changes<2>-Footnote-5538423 Ref: Build Changes<2>-Footnote-6538478 Node: C API Changes<2>538533 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 c-api-changes538638 Ref: 542538638 Node: New Features<4>538829 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 id4538931 Ref: 543538931 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep697538976 Ref: 440538976 Ref: whatsnew/3 12 whatsnew312-pep683545122 Ref: 441545122 Ref: New 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pep-678-exceptions-can-be-enriched-with-notes578662 Ref: 5b5578662 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep678578662 Ref: 59e578662 Ref: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes-Footnote-1579175 Ref: PEP 678 Exceptions can be enriched with notes-Footnote-2579217 Node: Windows py exe launcher improvements579282 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-windows-launcher579424 Ref: 5b8579424 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 windows-py-exe-launcher-improvements579424 Ref: 5b9579424 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 new-feat-related-type-hints-311580748 Ref: 5bb580748 Ref: Windows py exe launcher improvements-Footnote-1580786 Ref: Windows py exe launcher improvements-Footnote-2580828 Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>580859 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 new-features-related-to-type-hints581018 Ref: 5bc581018 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-typing-features581018 Ref: 5bd581018 Ref: New Features Related to Type Hints<2>-Footnote-1581674 Node: PEP 646 Variadic generics581716 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pep-646-variadic-generics581894 Ref: 5be581894 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep646581894 Ref: 5a3581894 Ref: PEP 646 Variadic generics-Footnote-1582872 Ref: PEP 646 Variadic generics-Footnote-2582914 Ref: PEP 646 Variadic generics-Footnote-3582956 Ref: PEP 646 Variadic generics-Footnote-4582998 Node: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required583063 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pep-655-marking-individual-typeddict-items-as-required-or-not-required583267 Ref: 5bf583267 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep655583267 Ref: 5a4583267 Ref: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required-Footnote-1584487 Ref: PEP 655 Marking individual TypedDict items as required or not-required-Footnote-2584529 Node: PEP 673 Self type584594 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pep-673-self-type584810 Ref: 5c2584810 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep673584810 Ref: 5a5584810 Ref: PEP 673 Self type-Footnote-1585854 Ref: PEP 673 Self type-Footnote-2585935 Ref: PEP 673 Self type-Footnote-3585977 Node: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type586042 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pep-675-arbitrary-literal-string-type586217 Ref: 5c5586217 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep675586217 Ref: 5a6586217 Ref: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type-Footnote-1587611 Ref: PEP 675 Arbitrary literal string type-Footnote-2587653 Node: PEP 681 Data class transforms587718 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pep-681-data-class-transforms587905 Ref: 5c7587905 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep681587905 Ref: 5a7587905 Ref: PEP 681 Data class transforms-Footnote-1588938 Ref: PEP 681 Data class transforms-Footnote-2588980 Node: PEP 563 may not be the future589035 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pep-563-may-not-be-the-future589176 Ref: 5c8589176 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep563-deferred589176 Ref: 5c9589176 Ref: PEP 563 may not be the future-Footnote-1589571 Ref: PEP 563 may not be the future-Footnote-2589613 Node: Other Language Changes<3>589724 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 other-language-changes589904 Ref: 5ca589904 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-other-lang-changes589904 Ref: 5cb589904 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pythonsafepath591713 Ref: 5a2591713 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-1593061 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-2593126 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-3593191 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-4593256 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-5593321 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-6593376 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-7593441 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-8593496 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-9593538 Ref: Other Language Changes<3>-Footnote-10593593 Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes593649 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 other-cpython-implementation-changes593806 Ref: 5e1593806 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-other-implementation-changes593806 Ref: 5e2593806 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-1597060 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-2597125 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-3597167 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-4597232 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-5597297 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-6597362 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-7597427 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes-Footnote-8597492 Node: New Modules<3>597548 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 new-modules597699 Ref: 5f2597699 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-new-modules597699 Ref: 5f3597699 Ref: New Modules<3>-Footnote-1598047 Ref: New Modules<3>-Footnote-2598072 Ref: New Modules<3>-Footnote-3598114 Ref: New Modules<3>-Footnote-4598179 Ref: New Modules<3>-Footnote-5598221 Node: Improved Modules<3>598286 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 improved-modules598417 Ref: 5f4598417 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-improved-modules598417 Ref: 5f5598417 Node: asyncio<3>599150 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 asyncio599235 Ref: 5f6599235 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-asyncio599235 Ref: 5f7599235 Ref: asyncio<3>-Footnote-1601153 Ref: asyncio<3>-Footnote-2601208 Ref: asyncio<3>-Footnote-3601263 Ref: asyncio<3>-Footnote-4601318 Ref: asyncio<3>-Footnote-5601373 Ref: asyncio<3>-Footnote-6601438 Node: contextlib601503 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 contextlib601608 Ref: 606601608 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-contextlib601608 Ref: 607601608 Ref: contextlib-Footnote-1601923 Node: dataclasses601988 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 dataclasses602091 Ref: 60a602091 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-dataclasses602091 Ref: 60b602091 Ref: dataclasses-Footnote-1602433 Node: datetime602498 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 datetime602598 Ref: 60e602598 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-datetime602598 Ref: 60f602598 Ref: datetime-Footnote-1603137 Ref: datetime-Footnote-2603192 Node: enum<3>603247 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 enum603341 Ref: 614603341 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-enum603341 Ref: 615603341 Node: fcntl605987 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 fcntl606085 Ref: 62f606085 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-fcntl606085 Ref: 630606085 Node: fractions<3>606320 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 fractions606420 Ref: 631606420 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-fractions606420 Ref: 632606420 Ref: 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663615095 Ref: os<3>-Footnote-1615344 Node: pathlib<4>615409 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pathlib615503 Ref: 664615503 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pathlib615503 Ref: 665615503 Ref: pathlib<4>-Footnote-1615824 Ref: pathlib<4>-Footnote-2615889 Node: re<3>615954 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 re616052 Ref: 668616052 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-re616052 Ref: 669616052 Ref: re<3>-Footnote-1616354 Node: shutil<3>616420 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 shutil616514 Ref: 66a616514 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-shutil616514 Ref: 66b616514 Ref: shutil<3>-Footnote-1616708 Node: socket616773 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 socket616872 Ref: 66c616872 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-socket616872 Ref: 66d616872 Ref: socket-Footnote-1617285 Ref: socket-Footnote-2617350 Node: sqlite3<4>617415 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 sqlite3617511 Ref: 66f617511 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-sqlite3617511 Ref: 670617511 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-1619855 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-2619920 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-3619985 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-4620050 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-5620115 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-6620180 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-7620245 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-8620310 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-9620375 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-10620440 Ref: sqlite3<4>-Footnote-11620506 Node: string620572 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 string620668 Ref: 67f620668 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-string620668 Ref: 680620668 Ref: string-Footnote-1620993 Node: sys<4>621048 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 sys621143 Ref: 684621143 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-sys621143 Ref: 685621143 Ref: sys<4>-Footnote-1621836 Ref: sys<4>-Footnote-2621901 Ref: sys<4>-Footnote-3621966 Node: sysconfig622021 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 sysconfig622121 Ref: 689622121 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-sysconfig622121 Ref: 68a622121 Ref: sysconfig-Footnote-1622934 Node: tempfile<3>622999 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 tempfile623105 Ref: 68d623105 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-tempfile623105 Ref: 68e623105 Ref: tempfile<3>-Footnote-1623514 Node: threading<2>623569 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 threading623673 Ref: 692623673 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-threading623673 Ref: 693623673 Ref: threading<2>-Footnote-1624178 Node: time<2>624243 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 time624346 Ref: 697624346 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-time624346 Ref: 698624346 Ref: time<2>-Footnote-1625147 Ref: time<2>-Footnote-2625212 Ref: time<2>-Footnote-3625309 Ref: time<2>-Footnote-4625374 Node: tkinter<3>625439 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 tkinter625542 Ref: 69a625542 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-tkinter625542 Ref: 69b625542 Ref: tkinter<3>-Footnote-1625825 Node: traceback<2>625880 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 traceback625985 Ref: 69d625985 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-traceback625985 Ref: 69e625985 Ref: traceback<2>-Footnote-1626477 Ref: traceback<2>-Footnote-2626542 Node: typing<4>626607 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 typing626716 Ref: 6a1626716 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-typing626716 Ref: 6a2626716 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-1630008 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-2630063 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-3630118 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-4630173 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-5630228 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-6630293 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-7630348 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-8630403 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-9630458 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-10630513 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-11630569 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-12630625 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-13630681 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-14630737 Ref: typing<4>-Footnote-15630793 Node: unicodedata<3>630849 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 unicodedata630957 Ref: 6b1630957 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-unicodedata630957 Ref: 6b2630957 Ref: unicodedata<3>-Footnote-1631156 Node: unittest<4>631221 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 unittest631327 Ref: 6b3631327 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-unittest631327 Ref: 6b4631327 Ref: unittest<4>-Footnote-1631729 Node: venv<2>631794 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 venv631897 Ref: 6b9631897 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-venv631897 Ref: 6ba631897 Ref: venv<2>-Footnote-1632520 Node: warnings<2>632585 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 warnings632684 Ref: 6bb632684 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-warnings632684 Ref: 6bc632684 Ref: warnings<2>-Footnote-1633015 Node: 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how-should-i-write-my-code-to-utilize-these-speedups651609 Ref: 6e8651609 Node: Will CPython 3 11 use more memory?651904 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 faster-cpython-faq-memory652095 Ref: 6e9652095 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 will-cpython-3-11-use-more-memory652095 Ref: 6ea652095 Node: I don’t see any speedups in my workload Why?652358 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 faster-cpython-ymmv652520 Ref: 6eb652520 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 i-don-t-see-any-speedups-in-my-workload-why652520 Ref: 6ec652520 Node: Is there a JIT compiler?653110 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 faster-cpython-jit653229 Ref: 6ed653229 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 is-there-a-jit-compiler653229 Ref: 6ee653229 Node: About653349 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 about653417 Ref: 6ef653417 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-faster-cpython-about653417 Ref: 6f0653417 Node: CPython bytecode changes<2>653726 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 cpython-bytecode-changes653862 Ref: 6f2653862 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-bytecode-changes653862 Ref: 6f3653862 Node: New opcodes654409 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 new-opcodes654509 Ref: 6f5654509 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-added-opcodes654509 Ref: 6f6654509 Ref: New opcodes-Footnote-1655291 Node: Replaced opcodes655333 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 replaced-opcodes655465 Ref: 6ff655465 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-replaced-opcodes655465 Ref: 700655465 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-changed-opcodes658180 Ref: 709658180 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-removed-opcodes658180 Ref: 70a658180 Ref: Replaced opcodes-Footnote-1658216 Node: Changed/removed opcodes658434 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 changed-removed-opcodes658546 Ref: 70b658546 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-changed-removed-opcodes658546 Ref: 70c658546 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-deprecated659134 Ref: 70f659134 Ref: Changed/removed opcodes-Footnote-1659171 Node: Deprecated<3>659226 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 deprecated659378 Ref: 710659378 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-python-api-deprecated659378 Ref: 711659378 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-deprecated-language659540 Ref: 713659540 Node: Language/Builtins659606 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 language-builtins659689 Ref: 714659689 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-deprecated-builtins659689 Ref: 715659689 Ref: Language/Builtins-Footnote-1660914 Ref: Language/Builtins-Footnote-2660979 Ref: Language/Builtins-Footnote-3661034 Ref: Language/Builtins-Footnote-4661089 Node: Modules661154 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 modules661262 Ref: 719661262 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-deprecated-modules661262 Ref: 71a661262 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep594661297 Ref: 5a8661297 Ref: Modules-Footnote-1663507 Ref: Modules-Footnote-2663549 Ref: Modules-Footnote-3663614 Ref: Modules-Footnote-4663669 Ref: Modules-Footnote-5663734 Ref: Modules-Footnote-6663776 Ref: Modules-Footnote-7663841 Node: Standard Library663906 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 standard-library663988 Ref: 71b663988 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-deprecated-stdlib663988 Ref: 71c663988 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pending-removal668845 Ref: 721668845 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-1668882 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-2668947 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-3669012 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-4669067 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-5669122 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-6669177 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-7669232 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-8669297 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-9669352 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-10669407 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-11669473 Ref: Standard Library-Footnote-12669538 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12669594 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pending-removal-in-python-3-12669729 Ref: 722669729 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-python-api-pending-removal669729 Ref: 723669729 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-removed675367 Ref: 728675367 Node: Removed<3>675367 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 removed675511 Ref: 729675511 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-python-api-removed675511 Ref: 72a675511 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-porting680178 Ref: 737680178 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-1680215 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-2680280 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-3680345 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-4680410 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-5680475 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-6680540 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-7680605 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-8680670 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-9680735 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-10680800 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-11680866 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-12680932 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-13680998 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-14681064 Ref: Removed<3>-Footnote-15681106 Node: Porting to Python 3 11681160 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 porting-to-python-3-11681290 Ref: 738681290 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-python-api-porting681290 Ref: 739681290 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-1684339 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-2684404 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-3684459 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-4684524 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-5684589 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-6684654 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-7684719 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11-Footnote-8684784 Node: Build Changes<3>684849 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 build-changes684985 Ref: 744684985 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-build-changes684985 Ref: 745684985 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-1689224 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-2689266 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-3689315 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-4689348 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-5689380 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-6689406 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-7689435 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-8689490 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-9689545 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-10689600 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-11689644 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-12689728 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-13689794 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-14689860 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-15689926 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-16689974 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-17690040 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-18690106 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-19690134 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-20690200 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-21690263 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-22690291 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-23690357 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-24690423 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-25690489 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-26690555 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-27690605 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-28690671 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-29690737 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-30690803 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-31690869 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-32690935 Ref: Build Changes<3>-Footnote-33691001 Node: C API Changes<3>691067 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 c-api-changes691206 Ref: 749691206 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-c-api691206 Ref: 74a691206 Node: New Features<6>691466 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 id5691568 Ref: 74b691568 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-c-api-new-features691568 Ref: 74c691568 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-1694422 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-2694487 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-3694552 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-4694617 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-5694682 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-6694747 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-7694812 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-8694877 Ref: New Features<6>-Footnote-9694942 Node: Porting to Python 3 11<2>694997 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 id6695121 Ref: 76f695121 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-c-api-porting695121 Ref: 73a695121 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep670695186 Ref: 5aa695186 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 pyframeobject-3-11-hiding702603 Ref: 783702603 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-1708560 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-2708623 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-3708665 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-4708720 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-5708785 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-6708850 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-7708915 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-8708957 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-9709022 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-10709077 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-11709133 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-12709199 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-13709242 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-14709308 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-15709374 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-16709440 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-17709506 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-18709572 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-19709638 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-20709694 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-21709747 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-22709813 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-23709879 Ref: Porting to Python 3 11<2>-Footnote-24709932 Node: Deprecated<4>709965 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 id7710107 Ref: 78c710107 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-c-api-deprecated710107 Ref: 712710107 Ref: Deprecated<4>-Footnote-1711076 Ref: Deprecated<4>-Footnote-2711118 Ref: Deprecated<4>-Footnote-3711173 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 12<2>711238 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 id8711365 Ref: 78e711365 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-c-api-pending-removal711365 Ref: 724711365 Node: Removed<4>712115 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 id9712220 Ref: 790712220 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-c-api-removed712220 Ref: 72b712220 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 whatsnew311-pep624714480 Ref: 5a9714480 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-1715420 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-2715485 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-3715550 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-4715615 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-5715680 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-6715745 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-7715810 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-8715875 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-9715940 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-10716005 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-11716048 Ref: Removed<4>-Footnote-12716108 Node: Notable changes in 3 11 4716174 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 notable-changes-in-3-11-4716322 Ref: 796716322 Node: tarfile<2>716422 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 tarfile716494 Ref: 797716494 Ref: tarfile<2>-Footnote-1717098 Node: Notable changes in 3 11 5717140 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 notable-changes-in-3-11-5717263 Ref: 798717263 Node: OpenSSL717352 Ref: whatsnew/3 11 openssl717421 Ref: 799717421 Node: What’s New In Python 3 10717540 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 doc717697 Ref: 79a717697 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 what-s-new-in-python-3-10717697 Ref: 79b717697 Node: Summary – Release 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Parenthesized context managers721211 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 parenthesized-context-managers721323 Ref: 79e721323 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 whatsnew310-pep563721323 Ref: 79f721323 Ref: Parenthesized context managers-Footnote-1722567 Ref: Parenthesized context managers-Footnote-2722609 Ref: Parenthesized context managers-Footnote-3722674 Node: Better error messages722739 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 better-error-messages722918 Ref: 7a0722918 Node: SyntaxErrors723063 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 syntaxerrors723159 Ref: 7a1723159 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-1728496 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-2728561 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-3728626 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-4728691 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-5728756 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-6728821 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-7728886 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-8728951 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-9729016 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-10729081 Ref: SyntaxErrors-Footnote-11729147 Node: IndentationErrors729213 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 indentationerrors729333 Ref: 7a2729333 Node: AttributeErrors729750 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 attributeerrors729868 Ref: 7a4729868 Ref: AttributeErrors-Footnote-1730621 Node: NameErrors730686 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 nameerrors730778 Ref: 7a5730778 Ref: NameErrors-Footnote-1731591 Node: PEP 626 Precise line numbers for debugging and other tools731656 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-626-precise-line-numbers-for-debugging-and-other-tools731840 Ref: 7a6731840 Node: PEP 634 Structural Pattern Matching732535 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-634-structural-pattern-matching732751 Ref: 7a8732751 Node: Syntax and operations733538 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 syntax-and-operations733660 Ref: 7a9733660 Node: Declarative approach734726 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 declarative-approach734890 Ref: 7aa734890 Node: Simple pattern match to a literal736069 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 simple-pattern-match-to-a-literal736248 Ref: 7ab736248 Node: Behavior without the wildcard737623 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 behavior-without-the-wildcard737722 Ref: 7ac737722 Node: Patterns with a literal and variable738304 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 patterns-with-a-literal-and-variable738483 Ref: 7ad738483 Node: Patterns and classes739451 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 patterns-and-classes739612 Ref: 7ae739612 Node: Patterns with positional parameters740551 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 patterns-with-positional-parameters740643 Ref: 7af740643 Node: Nested patterns741232 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 nested-patterns741390 Ref: 7b0741390 Node: Complex patterns and the wildcard742029 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 complex-patterns-and-the-wildcard742172 Ref: 7b1742172 Node: Guard742746 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 guard742892 Ref: 7b2742892 Node: Other Key Features743336 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 other-key-features743440 Ref: 7b3743440 Ref: Other Key Features-Footnote-1745612 Ref: Other Key Features-Footnote-2745654 Ref: Other Key Features-Footnote-3745696 Node: Optional EncodingWarning and encoding="locale" option745738 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 optional-encodingwarning-and-encoding-locale-option745887 Ref: 7b4745887 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 whatsnew310-pep597745887 Ref: 7b5745887 Node: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>746787 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 new-feat-related-type-hints746946 Ref: 7b9746946 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 new-features-related-to-type-hints746946 Ref: 7ba746946 Ref: New Features Related to Type Hints<3>-Footnote-1747447 Node: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator747489 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-604-new-type-union-operator747644 Ref: 7bb747644 Ref: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator-Footnote-1748718 Ref: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator-Footnote-2748760 Ref: PEP 604 New Type Union Operator-Footnote-3748825 Node: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables748890 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-612-parameter-specification-variables749071 Ref: 7be749071 Ref: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables-Footnote-1750358 Ref: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables-Footnote-2750400 Ref: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables-Footnote-3750442 Ref: PEP 612 Parameter Specification Variables-Footnote-4750507 Node: PEP 613 TypeAlias750572 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-613-typealias750754 Ref: 7c3750754 Ref: PEP 613 TypeAlias-Footnote-1751582 Ref: PEP 613 TypeAlias-Footnote-2751624 Ref: PEP 613 TypeAlias-Footnote-3751666 Node: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards751731 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-647-user-defined-type-guards751863 Ref: 7c5751863 Ref: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards-Footnote-1752351 Ref: PEP 647 User-Defined Type Guards-Footnote-2752393 Node: Other Language Changes<4>752458 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 other-language-changes752616 Ref: 7c6752616 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-1757300 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-2757365 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-3757430 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-4757472 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-5757537 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-6757602 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-7757667 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-8757732 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-9757797 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-10757839 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-11757905 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-12757971 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-13758037 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-14758103 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-15758169 Ref: Other Language Changes<4>-Footnote-16758235 Node: New Modules<4>758301 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 new-modules758441 Ref: 7d6758441 Node: Improved Modules<4>758490 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 improved-modules758621 Ref: 7d7758621 Node: asyncio<4>759730 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 asyncio759816 Ref: 7d8759816 Ref: asyncio<4>-Footnote-1759988 Node: argparse<2>760053 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 argparse760156 Ref: 7d9760156 Ref: argparse<2>-Footnote-1760446 Node: array<3>760510 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 array760626 Ref: 7da760626 Ref: array<3>-Footnote-1760868 Node: asynchat asyncore smtpd760933 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 asynchat-asyncore-smtpd761047 Ref: 7dc761047 Node: base64<2>761307 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 base64761416 Ref: 7dd761416 Node: bdb761583 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 bdb761675 Ref: 7e0761675 Ref: bdb-Footnote-1761844 Node: bisect761909 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 bisect761998 Ref: 7e1761998 Ref: bisect-Footnote-1762215 Node: codecs762279 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 codecs762380 Ref: 7e2762380 Ref: codecs-Footnote-1762577 Node: collections abc762642 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 collections-abc762750 Ref: 7e4762750 Ref: collections abc-Footnote-1763671 Node: contextlib<2>763736 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 contextlib763844 Ref: 7e7763844 Ref: contextlib<2>-Footnote-1764366 Ref: contextlib<2>-Footnote-2764431 Node: curses764496 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 curses764603 Ref: 7eb764603 Ref: curses-Footnote-1765300 Ref: curses-Footnote-2765365 Node: dataclasses<2>765430 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 dataclasses765536 Ref: 7f1765536 Node: __slots__765627 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 slots765715 Ref: 7f2765715 Ref: __slots__-Footnote-1765917 Node: Keyword-only fields765982 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 keyword-only-fields766070 Ref: 7f3766070 Ref: Keyword-only fields-Footnote-1767543 Node: distutils<2>767608 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 distutils767718 Ref: 7f4767718 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 distutils-deprecated767718 Ref: 725767718 Ref: distutils<2>-Footnote-1768626 Ref: distutils<2>-Footnote-2768668 Node: doctest<2>768733 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 doctest768838 Ref: 7f5768838 Ref: doctest<2>-Footnote-1769042 Node: encodings769107 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 encodings769207 Ref: 7f6769207 Ref: encodings-Footnote-1769403 Node: enum<4>769468 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 enum769567 Ref: 7f8769567 Ref: enum<4>-Footnote-1770040 Ref: enum<4>-Footnote-2770105 Node: fileinput770170 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 fileinput770272 Ref: 7fa770272 Ref: fileinput-Footnote-1770707 Ref: fileinput-Footnote-2770772 Node: faulthandler770836 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 faulthandler770933 Ref: 7fd770933 Ref: faulthandler-Footnote-1771175 Node: gc771240 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 gc771335 Ref: 7fe771335 Ref: gc-Footnote-1771560 Node: glob<2>771625 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 glob771718 Ref: 802771718 Ref: glob<2>-Footnote-1771982 Node: hashlib<3>772047 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 hashlib772142 Ref: 804772142 Ref: hashlib<3>-Footnote-1772685 Ref: hashlib<3>-Footnote-2772727 Ref: hashlib<3>-Footnote-3772792 Ref: hashlib<3>-Footnote-4772857 Node: hmac772922 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 hmac773029 Ref: 805773029 Ref: hmac-Footnote-1773215 Node: IDLE and idlelib<2>773280 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 idle-and-idlelib773398 Ref: 806773398 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-1775488 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-2775553 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-3775618 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-4775683 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-5775748 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-6775813 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-7775878 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<2>-Footnote-8775943 Node: importlib metadata<2>775998 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 importlib-metadata776122 Ref: 80b776122 Ref: importlib metadata<2>-Footnote-1776716 Node: inspect<3>776789 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 inspect776906 Ref: 80e776906 Ref: inspect<3>-Footnote-1778109 Ref: inspect<3>-Footnote-2778174 Node: itertools<3>778239 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 itertools778344 Ref: 810778344 Ref: itertools<3>-Footnote-1778510 Node: linecache778575 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 linecache778675 Ref: 812778675 Ref: linecache-Footnote-1778883 Node: os<4>778948 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 os779046 Ref: 813779046 Ref: os<4>-Footnote-1779785 Ref: os<4>-Footnote-2779850 Ref: os<4>-Footnote-3779915 Ref: os<4>-Footnote-4779980 Node: os path<4>780045 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 os-path780144 Ref: 81a780144 Ref: os path<4>-Footnote-1780455 Node: pathlib<5>780520 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pathlib780625 Ref: 81b780625 Ref: pathlib<5>-Footnote-1781334 Ref: pathlib<5>-Footnote-2781399 Ref: pathlib<5>-Footnote-3781464 Ref: pathlib<5>-Footnote-4781529 Node: platform<2>781594 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 platform781695 Ref: 821781695 Ref: platform<2>-Footnote-1781964 Ref: platform<2>-Footnote-2782037 Node: pprint782102 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pprint782203 Ref: 823782203 Ref: pprint-Footnote-1782537 Ref: pprint-Footnote-2782602 Node: py_compile782667 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 py-compile782763 Ref: 825782763 Ref: py_compile-Footnote-1782971 Node: pyclbr783036 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pyclbr783132 Ref: 826783132 Ref: pyclbr-Footnote-1783476 Node: shelve783541 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 shelve783640 Ref: 829783640 Ref: shelve-Footnote-1783913 Node: statistics<3>783978 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 statistics784078 Ref: 82b784078 Ref: statistics<3>-Footnote-1784333 Node: site<2>784398 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 site784501 Ref: 82e784501 Ref: site<2>-Footnote-1784699 Node: socket<2>784764 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 socket784860 Ref: 82f784860 Ref: socket<2>-Footnote-1785306 Ref: socket<2>-Footnote-2785371 Ref: socket<2>-Footnote-3785436 Node: ssl<3>785501 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 ssl785600 Ref: 832785600 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-1787441 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-2787483 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-3787548 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-4787613 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-5787678 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-6787743 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-7787808 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-8787873 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-9787938 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-10788003 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-11788069 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-12788135 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-13788201 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-14788267 Ref: ssl<3>-Footnote-15788333 Node: sqlite3<5>788399 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 sqlite3788495 Ref: 839788495 Ref: sqlite3<5>-Footnote-1788734 Node: sys<5>788799 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 sys788896 Ref: 83b788896 Ref: sys<5>-Footnote-1789281 Ref: sys<5>-Footnote-2789346 Node: _thread789411 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 thread789510 Ref: 83e789510 Ref: _thread-Footnote-1789766 Node: threading<3>789831 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 threading789936 Ref: 841789936 Ref: threading<3>-Footnote-1790478 Ref: threading<3>-Footnote-2790543 Node: traceback<3>790608 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 traceback790714 Ref: 848790714 Ref: traceback<3>-Footnote-1791042 Node: types<3>791107 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 types791210 Ref: 84c791210 Ref: types<3>-Footnote-1791519 Node: typing<5>791584 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 typing791686 Ref: 850791686 Ref: typing<5>-Footnote-1793906 Ref: typing<5>-Footnote-2793948 Ref: typing<5>-Footnote-3794013 Ref: typing<5>-Footnote-4794078 Ref: typing<5>-Footnote-5794143 Node: unittest<5>794208 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 unittest794314 Ref: 853794314 Ref: unittest<5>-Footnote-1794530 Node: urllib parse794595 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 urllib-parse794698 Ref: 856794698 Ref: urllib parse-Footnote-1795847 Ref: urllib parse-Footnote-2795912 Ref: urllib parse-Footnote-3795971 Node: xml<2>796026 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 xml796130 Ref: 857796130 Ref: xml<2>-Footnote-1796346 Node: zipimport<3>796411 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 zipimport796494 Ref: 859796494 Ref: zipimport<3>-Footnote-1796874 Ref: zipimport<3>-Footnote-2796916 Ref: zipimport<3>-Footnote-3796981 Node: Optimizations<4>797046 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 optimizations797176 Ref: 85d797176 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-1800668 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-2800733 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-3800798 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-4800863 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-5800928 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-6800993 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-7801114 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-8801179 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-9801244 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-10801309 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-11801375 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-12801441 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-13801484 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-14801550 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-15801616 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-16801682 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-17801748 Ref: Optimizations<4>-Footnote-18801814 Node: Deprecated<5>801880 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 deprecated802001 Ref: 864802001 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 whatsnew310-deprecated802001 Ref: 837802001 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-1811416 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-2811481 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-3811546 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-4811611 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-5811676 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-6811741 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-7811806 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-8811871 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-9811936 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-10812001 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-11812067 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-12812133 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-13812199 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-14812265 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-15812324 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-16812390 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-17812446 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-18812512 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-19812578 Ref: Deprecated<5>-Footnote-20812644 Node: Removed<5>812710 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 removed812837 Ref: 872812837 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 whatsnew310-removed812837 Ref: 873812837 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-1816077 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-2816142 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-3816207 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-4816272 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-5816337 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-6816402 Ref: Removed<5>-Footnote-7816467 Node: Porting to Python 3 10816532 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 porting-to-python-3-10816673 Ref: 878816673 Node: Changes in the Python syntax816992 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 changes-in-the-python-syntax817116 Ref: 879817116 Ref: Changes in the Python syntax-Footnote-1817711 Node: Changes in the Python API<3>817776 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 changes-in-the-python-api817932 Ref: 87a817932 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 changes-python-api817932 Ref: 877817932 Ref: Changes in the Python API<3>-Footnote-1820860 Ref: Changes in the Python API<3>-Footnote-2820925 Ref: Changes in the Python API<3>-Footnote-3820990 Ref: Changes in the Python API<3>-Footnote-4821055 Ref: Changes in the Python API<3>-Footnote-5821120 Ref: Changes in the Python API<3>-Footnote-6821185 Node: Changes in the C API<2>821250 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 changes-in-the-c-api821369 Ref: 882821369 Node: CPython bytecode changes<3>823841 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 cpython-bytecode-changes823988 Ref: 888823988 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<3>-Footnote-1824287 Node: Build Changes<4>824352 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 build-changes824493 Ref: 889824493 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-1826957 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-2826999 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-3827064 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-4827129 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-5827194 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-6827259 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-7827324 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-8827389 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-9827454 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-10827519 Ref: Build Changes<4>-Footnote-11827585 Node: C API Changes<4>827651 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 c-api-changes827799 Ref: 88e827799 Node: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI828065 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 pep-652-maintaining-the-stable-abi828176 Ref: 88f828176 Ref: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI-Footnote-1828609 Ref: PEP 652 Maintaining the Stable ABI-Footnote-2828651 Node: New Features<8>828716 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 id1828861 Ref: 890828861 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-1833488 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-2833553 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-3833618 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-4833683 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-5833748 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-6833813 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-7833878 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-8833945 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-9834010 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-10834075 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-11834141 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-12834207 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-13834273 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-14834339 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-15834405 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-16834471 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-17834537 Ref: New Features<8>-Footnote-18834603 Node: Porting to Python 3 10<2>834669 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 id2834793 Ref: 8a5834793 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-1838479 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-2838521 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-3838586 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-4838651 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-5838716 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-6838781 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-7838846 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-8838911 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-9838976 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-10839041 Ref: Porting to Python 3 10<2>-Footnote-11839107 Node: Deprecated<6>839173 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 id3839292 Ref: 8af839292 Ref: Deprecated<6>-Footnote-1839591 Node: Removed<6>839656 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 id4839741 Ref: 8b1839741 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-1844745 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-2844810 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-3844852 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-4844917 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-5844982 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-6845047 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-7845112 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-8845177 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-9845242 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-10845284 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-11845350 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-12845416 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-13845482 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-14845548 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-15845614 Ref: Removed<6>-Footnote-16845680 Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 7845746 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 notable-security-feature-in-3-10-7845912 Ref: 8be845912 Ref: Notable security feature in 3 10 7-Footnote-1846642 Node: Notable security feature in 3 10 8846698 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 notable-security-feature-in-3-10-8846874 Ref: 8bf846874 Ref: Notable security feature in 3 10 8-Footnote-1847296 Node: Notable changes in 3 10 12847351 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 notable-changes-in-3-10-12847484 Ref: 8c0847484 Node: tarfile<3>847586 Ref: whatsnew/3 10 tarfile847659 Ref: 8c1847659 Ref: tarfile<3>-Footnote-1848263 Node: What’s New In Python 3 9848305 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 doc848461 Ref: 8c2848461 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 what-s-new-in-python-3-9848461 Ref: 8c3848461 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 9-Footnote-1849709 Node: Summary – Release highlights<4>849751 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 summary-release-highlights849908 Ref: 8c4849908 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-1851862 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-2851904 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-3851946 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-4851988 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-5852030 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-6852072 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-7852114 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-8852156 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-9852198 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<4>-Footnote-10852240 Node: You should check for DeprecationWarning in your code852283 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 you-should-check-for-deprecationwarning-in-your-code852464 Ref: 8c5852464 Node: New Features<9>854154 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 new-features854327 Ref: 8cb854327 Node: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators854536 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 dictionary-merge-update-operators854682 Ref: 8cc854682 Ref: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators-Footnote-1855437 Ref: Dictionary Merge & Update Operators-Footnote-2855479 Node: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes855544 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 new-string-methods-to-remove-prefixes-and-suffixes855744 Ref: 8cd855744 Ref: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes-Footnote-1856255 Ref: New String Methods to Remove Prefixes and Suffixes-Footnote-2856297 Node: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections856362 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 type-hinting-generics-in-standard-collections856537 Ref: 8d0856537 Ref: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections-Footnote-1857239 Ref: Type Hinting Generics in Standard Collections-Footnote-2857281 Node: New Parser857346 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 new-parser857462 Ref: 8d1857462 Ref: New Parser-Footnote-1858397 Ref: New Parser-Footnote-2858462 Ref: New Parser-Footnote-3858510 Ref: New Parser-Footnote-4858552 Node: Other Language Changes<5>858617 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 other-language-changes858752 Ref: 8d2858752 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-1861858 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-2861923 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-3861988 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-4862053 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-5862118 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-6862160 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-7862225 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-8862290 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-9862355 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-10862420 Ref: Other Language Changes<5>-Footnote-11862486 Node: New Modules<5>862552 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 new-modules862691 Ref: 8dc862691 Node: zoneinfo862764 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 zoneinfo862840 Ref: 8dd862840 Ref: zoneinfo-Footnote-1863948 Ref: zoneinfo-Footnote-2863989 Node: graphlib864031 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 graphlib864107 Ref: 8df864107 Ref: graphlib-Footnote-1864431 Node: Improved Modules<5>864496 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 improved-modules864626 Ref: 8e1864626 Node: ast<2>865441 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 ast865522 Ref: 8e2865522 Ref: ast<2>-Footnote-1866190 Ref: ast<2>-Footnote-2866255 Ref: ast<2>-Footnote-3866320 Node: asyncio<5>866385 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 asyncio866488 Ref: 8e5866488 Ref: asyncio<5>-Footnote-1868215 Ref: asyncio<5>-Footnote-2868280 Ref: asyncio<5>-Footnote-3868345 Ref: asyncio<5>-Footnote-4868410 Ref: asyncio<5>-Footnote-5868475 Ref: asyncio<5>-Footnote-6868540 Node: compileall<2>868605 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 compileall868723 Ref: 8ea868723 Ref: compileall<2>-Footnote-1869313 Ref: compileall<2>-Footnote-2869378 Node: concurrent futures<2>869443 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 concurrent-futures869560 Ref: 8eb869560 Ref: concurrent futures<2>-Footnote-1870439 Ref: concurrent futures<2>-Footnote-2870504 Ref: concurrent futures<2>-Footnote-3870569 Node: curses<2>870634 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 curses870749 Ref: 8ee870749 Ref: curses<2>-Footnote-1871023 Node: datetime<2>871088 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 datetime871194 Ref: 8f3871194 Ref: datetime<2>-Footnote-1871512 Node: distutils<3>871577 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 distutils871682 Ref: 8f6871682 Ref: distutils<3>-Footnote-1871933 Node: fcntl<2>871998 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 fcntl872101 Ref: 8f7872101 Ref: fcntl<2>-Footnote-1872308 Node: ftplib<2>872373 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 ftplib872469 Ref: 8f8872469 Ref: ftplib<2>-Footnote-1872759 Node: gc<2>872824 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 gc872922 Ref: 8fb872922 Ref: gc<2>-Footnote-1873460 Ref: gc<2>-Footnote-2873525 Node: hashlib<4>873590 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 hashlib873683 Ref: 8fd873683 Ref: hashlib<4>-Footnote-1874192 Ref: hashlib<4>-Footnote-2874257 Node: http874322 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 http874429 Ref: 8fe874429 Ref: http-Footnote-1874701 Ref: http-Footnote-2874766 Node: IDLE and idlelib<3>874831 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 idle-and-idlelib874935 Ref: 900874935 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-1876147 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-2876211 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-3876276 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-4876341 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-5876406 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-6876471 Ref: IDLE and idlelib<3>-Footnote-7876536 Node: imaplib876601 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 imaplib876713 Ref: 901876713 Ref: imaplib-Footnote-1877549 Ref: imaplib-Footnote-2877614 Node: importlib<3>877679 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 importlib877782 Ref: 908877782 Ref: importlib<3>-Footnote-1878574 Ref: importlib<3>-Footnote-2878639 Ref: importlib<3>-Footnote-3878704 Node: inspect<4>878769 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 inspect878877 Ref: 90a878877 Ref: inspect<4>-Footnote-1879109 Ref: inspect<4>-Footnote-2879174 Node: ipaddress<2>879239 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 ipaddress879342 Ref: 90c879342 Ref: ipaddress<2>-Footnote-1879907 Ref: ipaddress<2>-Footnote-2879972 Node: math<4>880037 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 math880148 Ref: 90e880148 Ref: math<4>-Footnote-1880864 Ref: math<4>-Footnote-2880929 Ref: math<4>-Footnote-3880994 Ref: math<4>-Footnote-4881059 Ref: math<4>-Footnote-5881124 Node: multiprocessing<2>881189 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 multiprocessing881295 Ref: 912881295 Ref: multiprocessing<2>-Footnote-1881551 Node: nntplib881616 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 nntplib881720 Ref: 915881720 Ref: nntplib-Footnote-1882004 Node: os<5>882069 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 os882165 Ref: 916882165 Ref: os<5>-Footnote-1882921 Ref: os<5>-Footnote-2882986 Ref: os<5>-Footnote-3883051 Ref: os<5>-Footnote-4883116 Ref: os<5>-Footnote-5883181 Ref: os<5>-Footnote-6883246 Node: pathlib<6>883311 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 pathlib883406 Ref: 91d883406 Ref: pathlib<6>-Footnote-1883620 Node: pdb<3>883685 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 pdb883781 Ref: 920883781 Ref: pdb<3>-Footnote-1883969 Node: poplib884034 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 poplib884129 Ref: 922884129 Ref: poplib-Footnote-1884423 Node: pprint<2>884488 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 pprint884582 Ref: 925884582 Ref: pprint<2>-Footnote-1884778 Node: pydoc884843 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 pydoc884940 Ref: 926884940 Ref: pydoc-Footnote-1885207 Node: random<3>885272 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 random885366 Ref: 928885366 Ref: random<3>-Footnote-1885567 Node: signal885632 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 signal885728 Ref: 92a885728 Ref: signal-Footnote-1885958 Node: smtplib886023 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 smtplib886119 Ref: 92c886119 Ref: smtplib-Footnote-1886531 Ref: smtplib-Footnote-2886596 Node: socket<3>886661 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 socket886758 Ref: 930886758 Ref: socket<3>-Footnote-1887344 Ref: socket<3>-Footnote-2887409 Ref: socket<3>-Footnote-3887474 Node: time<3>887539 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 time887635 Ref: 935887635 Ref: time<3>-Footnote-1887965 Node: sys<6>888030 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 sys888128 Ref: 937888128 Ref: sys<6>-Footnote-1888793 Ref: sys<6>-Footnote-2888860 Node: tracemalloc888925 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 tracemalloc889025 Ref: 93a889025 Ref: tracemalloc-Footnote-1889309 Node: typing<6>889374 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 typing889482 Ref: 93c889482 Ref: typing<6>-Footnote-1889838 Node: unicodedata<4>889880 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 unicodedata889984 Ref: 93e889984 Ref: unicodedata<4>-Footnote-1890137 Node: venv<3>890202 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 venv890303 Ref: 93f890303 Ref: venv<3>-Footnote-1890765 Node: xml<3>890830 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 xml890908 Ref: 940890908 Ref: xml<3>-Footnote-1891270 Node: Optimizations<5>891335 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 optimizations891464 Ref: 941891464 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-1897229 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-2897294 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-3897359 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-4897424 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-5897489 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-6897531 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-7897596 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-8897660 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-9897725 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-10897790 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-11897856 Ref: Optimizations<5>-Footnote-12897985 Node: Deprecated<7>898034 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 deprecated898154 Ref: 946898154 Ref: Deprecated<7>-Footnote-1903186 Ref: Deprecated<7>-Footnote-2903251 Ref: Deprecated<7>-Footnote-3903316 Ref: Deprecated<7>-Footnote-4903381 Ref: Deprecated<7>-Footnote-5903446 Ref: Deprecated<7>-Footnote-6903511 Ref: 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Ref: Porting to Python 3 9<2>-Footnote-8932701 Ref: Porting to Python 3 9<2>-Footnote-9932766 Ref: Porting to Python 3 9<2>-Footnote-10932831 Ref: Porting to Python 3 9<2>-Footnote-11932897 Node: Removed<8>932963 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 id3933059 Ref: 98c933059 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-1937000 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-2937065 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-3937130 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-4937195 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-5937260 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-6937325 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-7937390 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-8937455 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-9937520 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-10937585 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-11937651 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-12937694 Ref: Removed<8>-Footnote-13937760 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 1937826 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 notable-changes-in-python-3-9-1937985 Ref: 98f937985 Node: typing<7>938199 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 id4938333 Ref: 990938333 Ref: typing<7>-Footnote-1939525 Ref: typing<7>-Footnote-2939567 Node: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support939632 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 macos-11-0-big-sur-and-apple-silicon-mac-support939766 Ref: 991939766 Ref: macOS 11 0 Big Sur and Apple Silicon Mac support-Footnote-1940576 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 2940641 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 notable-changes-in-python-3-9-2940815 Ref: 992940815 Node: collections abc<2>940976 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 collections-abc941086 Ref: 993941086 Ref: collections abc<2>-Footnote-1942065 Node: urllib parse<2>942130 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 urllib-parse942240 Ref: 994942240 Ref: urllib parse<2>-Footnote-1942924 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3942989 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 notable-changes-in-python-3-9-3943163 Ref: 995943163 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 9 3-Footnote-1943634 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 9 5943689 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 notable-changes-in-python-3-9-5943866 Ref: 996943866 Node: urllib parse<3>943988 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 id5944071 Ref: 997944071 Ref: urllib parse<3>-Footnote-1944600 Ref: urllib parse<3>-Footnote-2944659 Node: Notable security feature in 3 9 14944714 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 notable-security-feature-in-3-9-14944885 Ref: 998944885 Ref: Notable security feature in 3 9 14-Footnote-1945615 Node: Notable changes in 3 9 17945671 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 notable-changes-in-3-9-17945802 Ref: 999945802 Node: tarfile<4>945902 Ref: whatsnew/3 9 tarfile945974 Ref: 99a945974 Ref: tarfile<4>-Footnote-1946578 Node: What’s New In Python 3 8946620 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 doc946775 Ref: 99b946775 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 what-s-new-in-python-3-8946775 Ref: 99c946775 Node: Summary – Release highlights<5>948120 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 summary-release-highlights948241 Ref: 99d948241 Node: New Features<11>948314 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 new-features948469 Ref: 99e948469 Node: Assignment expressions949092 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 assignment-expressions949202 Ref: 99f949202 Ref: Assignment expressions-Footnote-1950708 Ref: Assignment expressions-Footnote-2950805 Ref: Assignment expressions-Footnote-3950847 Node: Positional-only parameters950912 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 positional-only-parameters951084 Ref: 9a0951084 Ref: Positional-only parameters-Footnote-1953766 Ref: Positional-only parameters-Footnote-2953828 Ref: Positional-only parameters-Footnote-3953870 Node: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files953935 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 parallel-filesystem-cache-for-compiled-bytecode-files954131 Ref: 9a2954131 Ref: Parallel filesystem cache for compiled bytecode files-Footnote-1954773 Node: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build954838 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 debug-build-uses-the-same-abi-as-release-build955074 Ref: 9a5955074 Ref: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build-Footnote-1957431 Ref: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build-Footnote-2957496 Ref: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build-Footnote-3957561 Ref: Debug build uses the same ABI as release build-Footnote-4957626 Node: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging957691 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 bpo-36817-whatsnew957908 Ref: 9a7957908 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 f-strings-support-for-self-documenting-expressions-and-debugging957908 Ref: 9a8957908 Ref: f-strings support = for self-documenting expressions and debugging-Footnote-1958997 Node: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks959062 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 pep-578-python-runtime-audit-hooks959276 Ref: 9aa959276 Ref: PEP 578 Python Runtime Audit Hooks-Footnote-1959759 Node: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration959801 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 pep-587-python-initialization-configuration960003 Ref: 9ab960003 Ref: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration-Footnote-1961990 Ref: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration-Footnote-2962032 Ref: PEP 587 Python Initialization Configuration-Footnote-3962074 Node: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython962139 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 pep-590-vectorcall-a-fast-calling-protocol-for-cpython962354 Ref: 9c6962354 Ref: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for CPython-Footnote-1962962 Ref: PEP 590 Vectorcall a fast calling protocol for 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Changes<6>-Footnote-11972293 Ref: Other Language Changes<6>-Footnote-12972361 Ref: Other Language Changes<6>-Footnote-13972427 Ref: Other Language Changes<6>-Footnote-14972497 Ref: Other Language Changes<6>-Footnote-15972557 Ref: Other Language Changes<6>-Footnote-16972623 Ref: Other Language Changes<6>-Footnote-17972689 Node: New Modules<6>972755 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 new-modules972894 Ref: 9d4972894 Ref: New Modules<6>-Footnote-1973972 Node: Improved Modules<6>974037 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 improved-modules974167 Ref: 9d5974167 Node: ast<3>975182 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 ast975263 Ref: 9d6975263 Ref: ast<3>-Footnote-1976295 Ref: ast<3>-Footnote-2976360 Ref: ast<3>-Footnote-3976402 Ref: ast<3>-Footnote-4976444 Ref: ast<3>-Footnote-5976486 Node: asyncio<6>976551 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 asyncio976652 Ref: 9d8976652 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-1979808 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-2979873 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-3979938 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-4980003 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-5980068 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-6980133 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-7980198 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-8980263 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-9980328 Ref: asyncio<6>-Footnote-10980381 Node: builtins<2>980447 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 builtins980553 Ref: 9de980553 Ref: builtins<2>-Footnote-1981052 Node: collections981117 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 collections981221 Ref: 9df981221 Ref: collections-Footnote-1981743 Node: cProfile981808 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 cprofile981907 Ref: 9e1981907 Ref: cProfile-Footnote-1982257 Node: csv<2>982322 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 csv982419 Ref: 9e3982419 Ref: csv<2>-Footnote-1982736 Node: curses<3>982801 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 curses982899 Ref: 9e5982899 Ref: curses<3>-Footnote-1983143 Node: ctypes<2>983208 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 ctypes983311 Ref: 9e7983311 Ref: ctypes<2>-Footnote-1983800 Node: datetime<3>983865 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 datetime983971 Ref: 9ea983971 Ref: datetime<3>-Footnote-1984406 Node: functools<2>984471 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 functools984573 Ref: 9ed984573 Ref: functools<2>-Footnote-1986115 Ref: functools<2>-Footnote-2986180 Ref: 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Ref: whatsnew/3 8 build-and-c-api-changes1024805 Ref: a621024805 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-11030386 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-21030451 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-31030516 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-41030581 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-51030646 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-61030711 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-71030776 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-81030841 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-91030906 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-101030971 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-111031037 Ref: Build and C API Changes-Footnote-121031103 Node: Deprecated<8>1031169 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 deprecated1031310 Ref: a6c1031310 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-11037133 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-21037198 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-31037263 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-41037328 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-51037392 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-61037457 Ref: Deprecated<8>-Footnote-71037522 Ref: 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Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-101054447 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-111054513 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-121054579 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-131054645 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-141054711 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-151054777 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-161054843 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-171054909 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-181054974 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-191055040 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-201055106 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-211055172 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-221055238 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-231055304 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-241055370 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-251055436 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-261055502 Ref: Changes in the Python API<5>-Footnote-271055568 Node: Changes in the C API<4>1055611 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 changes-in-the-c-api1055765 Ref: aa01055765 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-11061607 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-21061672 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-31061737 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-41061802 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-51061867 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-61061932 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-71061997 Ref: Changes in the C API<4>-Footnote-81062062 Node: CPython bytecode changes<5>1062127 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 cpython-bytecode-changes1062271 Ref: aa81062271 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<5>-Footnote-11063596 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<5>-Footnote-21063661 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<5>-Footnote-31063726 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<5>-Footnote-41063768 Node: Demos and Tools<2>1063833 Ref: whatsnew/3 8 demos-and-tools1063945 Ref: aad1063945 Ref: Demos and Tools<2>-Footnote-11067242 Ref: Demos and Tools<2>-Footnote-21067307 Ref: Demos and Tools<2>-Footnote-31067435 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 8 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Postponed Evaluation of Annotations-Footnote-31083957 Node: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion1083999 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-538-legacy-c-locale-coercion1084178 Ref: ad41084178 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5381084178 Ref: ac91084178 Ref: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion-Footnote-11086565 Ref: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion-Footnote-21086607 Ref: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion-Footnote-31086649 Ref: PEP 538 Legacy C Locale Coercion-Footnote-41086691 Node: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode1086733 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-540-forced-utf-8-runtime-mode1086896 Ref: ad71086896 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5401086896 Ref: aca1086896 Ref: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode-Footnote-11088460 Ref: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode-Footnote-21088502 Ref: PEP 540 Forced UTF-8 Runtime Mode-Footnote-31088544 Node: PEP 553 Built-in breakpoint1088586 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-553-built-in-breakpoint1088759 Ref: ad91088759 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5531088759 Ref: ac31088759 Ref: PEP 553 Built-in 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Resolution-Footnote-21093592 Ref: PEP 564 New Time Functions With Nanosecond Resolution-Footnote-31093669 Node: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__1093711 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-565-show-deprecationwarning-in-main1093934 Ref: ae81093934 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5651093934 Ref: acd1093934 Ref: PEP 565 Show DeprecationWarning in __main__-Footnote-11095866 Node: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types1095908 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-560-core-support-for-typing-module-and-generic-types1096106 Ref: ae91096106 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5601096106 Ref: ac51096106 Ref: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types-Footnote-11097056 Ref: PEP 560 Core Support for typing module and Generic Types-Footnote-21097098 Node: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files1097140 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-552-hash-based-pyc-files1097336 Ref: aea1097336 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5521097336 Ref: acb1097336 Ref: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files-Footnote-11099010 Ref: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files-Footnote-21099051 Ref: PEP 552 Hash-based pyc Files-Footnote-31099093 Node: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations1099135 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pep-545-python-documentation-translations1099305 Ref: aeb1099305 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5451099305 Ref: acf1099305 Ref: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations-Footnote-11099889 Ref: PEP 545 Python Documentation Translations-Footnote-21099931 Node: Python Development Mode -X dev1099973 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 python-development-mode-x-dev1100106 Ref: aec1100106 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-devmode1100106 Ref: acc1100106 Node: Other Language Changes<7>1100560 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 other-language-changes1100696 Ref: aee1100696 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-11103088 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-21103153 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-31103218 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-41103283 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-51103348 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-61103413 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-71103478 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-81103543 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-91103608 Ref: Other Language Changes<7>-Footnote-101103673 Node: New Modules<7>1103739 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 new-modules1103878 Ref: af61103878 Node: contextvars1104019 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 contextvars1104104 Ref: af71104104 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5671104104 Ref: ac01104104 Ref: contextvars-Footnote-11104833 Node: dataclasses<3>1104875 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 dataclasses1104991 Ref: af91104991 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-pep5571104991 Ref: ac11104991 Ref: dataclasses<3>-Footnote-11105662 Node: importlib resources<2>1105704 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 importlib-resources1105800 Ref: afc1105800 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-importlib-resources1105800 Ref: ac21105800 Ref: importlib resources<2>-Footnote-11106548 Ref: importlib resources<2>-Footnote-21106613 Node: Improved Modules<7>1106675 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 improved-modules1106805 Ref: afe1106805 Node: argparse<3>1108252 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 argparse1108338 Ref: aff1108338 Ref: argparse<3>-Footnote-11108572 Node: asyncio<7>1108637 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 asyncio1108740 Ref: b011108740 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-asyncio1108740 Ref: ac71108740 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-11115031 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-21115096 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-31115138 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-41115203 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-51115268 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-61115333 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-71115398 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-81115463 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-91115528 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-101115593 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-111115659 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-121115725 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-131115791 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-141115857 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-151115923 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-161115989 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-171116055 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-181116121 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-191116187 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-201116253 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-211116319 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-221116385 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-231116451 Ref: asyncio<7>-Footnote-241116517 Node: binascii1116583 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 binascii1116686 Ref: b201116686 Ref: binascii-Footnote-11116965 Node: calendar<2>1117030 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 calendar1117137 Ref: b221117137 Ref: calendar<2>-Footnote-11117387 Node: collections<2>1117452 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 collections1117564 Ref: b241117564 Ref: collections<2>-Footnote-11117755 Node: compileall<3>1117820 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 compileall1117942 Ref: b251117942 Ref: compileall<3>-Footnote-11118339 Node: concurrent futures<3>1118404 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 concurrent-futures1118525 Ref: b271118525 Ref: concurrent futures<3>-Footnote-11118967 Ref: concurrent futures<3>-Footnote-21119032 Node: contextlib<3>1119097 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 contextlib1119216 Ref: b281119216 Ref: contextlib<3>-Footnote-11119746 Ref: contextlib<3>-Footnote-21119811 Ref: contextlib<3>-Footnote-31119876 Ref: contextlib<3>-Footnote-41119941 Node: cProfile<2>1120006 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 cprofile1120109 Ref: b2d1120109 Ref: cProfile<2>-Footnote-11120335 Node: crypt1120400 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 crypt1120501 Ref: b2e1120501 Ref: crypt-Footnote-11120822 Ref: crypt-Footnote-21120887 Node: datetime<4>1120952 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 datetime1121048 Ref: b2f1121048 Ref: datetime<4>-Footnote-11121459 Ref: datetime<4>-Footnote-21121524 Node: dbm<2>1121588 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 dbm1121686 Ref: b311121686 Node: decimal1121831 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 decimal1121924 Ref: b321121924 Ref: decimal-Footnote-11122145 Node: dis<3>1122210 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 dis1122309 Ref: b331122309 Ref: dis<3>-Footnote-11122712 Node: distutils<4>1122777 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 distutils1122876 Ref: b351122876 Ref: distutils<4>-Footnote-11123124 Node: enum<5>1123189 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 enum1123294 Ref: b361123294 Ref: enum<5>-Footnote-11123962 Ref: enum<5>-Footnote-21124027 Node: functools<3>1124092 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 functools1124190 Ref: b381124190 Ref: functools<3>-Footnote-11124419 Node: gc<4>1124484 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 gc1124582 Ref: b391124582 Ref: gc<4>-Footnote-11125121 Node: hmac<2>1125186 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 hmac1125283 Ref: b3d1125283 Ref: hmac<2>-Footnote-11125541 Node: http client1125606 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 http-client1125709 Ref: b3f1125709 Ref: http client-Footnote-11125966 Node: http server1126031 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 http-server1126143 Ref: b421126143 Ref: http server-Footnote-11127021 Ref: http server-Footnote-21127086 Ref: http server-Footnote-31127151 Node: idlelib and IDLE1127216 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 idlelib-and-idle1127329 Ref: b451127329 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-11130338 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-21130403 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-31130470 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-41130535 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-51130600 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-61130665 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-71130730 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-81130795 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-91130860 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-101130925 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-111130993 Ref: idlelib and IDLE-Footnote-121131058 Ref: 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mimetypes1135641 Ref: b541135641 Ref: mimetypes<2>-Footnote-11135856 Node: msilib1135921 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 msilib1136031 Ref: b551136031 Ref: msilib-Footnote-11136226 Node: multiprocessing<4>1136291 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 multiprocessing1136394 Ref: b561136394 Ref: multiprocessing<4>-Footnote-11137041 Ref: multiprocessing<4>-Footnote-21137106 Ref: multiprocessing<4>-Footnote-31137171 Node: os<7>1137236 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 os1137343 Ref: b5a1137343 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-11138641 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-21138706 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-31138771 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-41138836 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-51138901 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-61138966 Ref: os<7>-Footnote-71139031 Node: pathlib<8>1139096 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pathlib1139191 Ref: b651139191 Ref: pathlib<8>-Footnote-11139451 Node: pdb<4>1139516 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pdb1139619 Ref: b661139619 Ref: pdb<4>-Footnote-11140029 Ref: pdb<4>-Footnote-21140094 Node: py_compile<3>1140159 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 py-compile1140260 Ref: b671140260 Ref: py_compile<3>-Footnote-11140714 Ref: py_compile<3>-Footnote-21140755 Node: pydoc<2>1140820 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 pydoc1140923 Ref: b681140923 Ref: pydoc<2>-Footnote-11141147 Node: queue<2>1141212 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 queue1141307 Ref: b691141307 Ref: queue<2>-Footnote-11141490 Node: re<4>1141555 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 re1141651 Ref: b6b1141651 Ref: re<4>-Footnote-11142733 Ref: re<4>-Footnote-21142798 Ref: re<4>-Footnote-31142863 Ref: re<4>-Footnote-41142928 Ref: re<4>-Footnote-51142993 Node: signal<2>1143058 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 signal1143155 Ref: b6f1143155 Ref: signal<2>-Footnote-11143474 Node: socket<5>1143539 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 socket1143643 Ref: b711143643 Ref: socket<5>-Footnote-11144731 Ref: socket<5>-Footnote-21144796 Ref: socket<5>-Footnote-31144861 Ref: socket<5>-Footnote-41144926 Ref: socket<5>-Footnote-51144991 Ref: socket<5>-Footnote-61145056 Node: socketserver1145121 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 socketserver1145226 Ref: b761145226 Node: sqlite3<6>1145702 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 sqlite31145804 Ref: b791145804 Ref: sqlite3<6>-Footnote-11146246 Ref: sqlite3<6>-Footnote-21146311 Node: ssl<5>1146376 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 ssl1146475 Ref: b7b1146475 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-11149741 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-21149806 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-31149871 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-41149936 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-51150001 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-61150066 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-71150131 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-81150196 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-91150261 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-101150326 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-111150392 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-121150458 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-131150524 Ref: ssl<5>-Footnote-141150590 Node: string<2>1150646 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 string1150748 Ref: b841150748 Ref: string<2>-Footnote-11151025 Node: subprocess<2>1151092 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 subprocess1151194 Ref: b851151194 Ref: subprocess<2>-Footnote-11152516 Ref: subprocess<2>-Footnote-21152581 Ref: subprocess<2>-Footnote-31152646 Ref: subprocess<2>-Footnote-41152711 Node: sys<8>1152776 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 sys1152876 Ref: b891152876 Ref: sys<8>-Footnote-11153616 Ref: sys<8>-Footnote-21153681 Ref: sys<8>-Footnote-31153746 Node: time<5>1153811 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 time1153908 Ref: b8d1153908 Ref: time<5>-Footnote-11155117 Ref: time<5>-Footnote-21155159 Node: tkinter<5>1155224 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 tkinter1155329 Ref: b931155329 Ref: tkinter<5>-Footnote-11155510 Node: tracemalloc<2>1155575 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 tracemalloc1155681 Ref: b951155681 Ref: tracemalloc<2>-Footnote-11156147 Node: types<4>1156212 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 types1156322 Ref: b981156322 Ref: types<4>-Footnote-11156837 Ref: types<4>-Footnote-21156902 Ref: types<4>-Footnote-31156967 Ref: types<4>-Footnote-41157009 Node: unicodedata<6>1157074 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 unicodedata1157181 Ref: b9d1157181 Ref: unicodedata<6>-Footnote-11157384 Node: unittest<7>1157440 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 unittest1157552 Ref: b9e1157552 Ref: unittest<7>-Footnote-11157957 Node: unittest mock1158022 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 unittest-mock1158135 Ref: b9f1158135 Ref: unittest mock-Footnote-11158653 Ref: unittest mock-Footnote-21158718 Node: urllib parse<5>1158783 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 urllib-parse1158887 Ref: ba21158887 Ref: urllib parse<5>-Footnote-11159200 Ref: urllib parse<5>-Footnote-21159259 Ref: urllib parse<5>-Footnote-31159318 Node: uu1159383 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 uu1159481 Ref: ba41159481 Ref: uu-Footnote-11159747 Node: uuid<2>1159812 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 uuid1159906 Ref: ba51159906 Ref: uuid<2>-Footnote-11160546 Ref: uuid<2>-Footnote-21160611 Node: warnings<3>1160676 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 warnings1160774 Ref: ba91160774 Ref: warnings<3>-Footnote-11162199 Ref: warnings<3>-Footnote-21162264 Ref: warnings<3>-Footnote-31162329 Ref: warnings<3>-Footnote-41162394 Node: xml<5>1162459 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 xml1162559 Ref: bab1162559 Ref: xml<5>-Footnote-11162843 Node: xml etree1162898 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 xml-etree1163000 Ref: bac1163000 Ref: xml etree-Footnote-11163341 Node: xmlrpc server1163406 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 xmlrpc-server1163508 Ref: bae1163508 Ref: xmlrpc server-Footnote-11163717 Node: zipapp1163781 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 zipapp1163884 Ref: baf1163884 Ref: zipapp-Footnote-11164408 Ref: zipapp-Footnote-21164473 Node: zipfile<2>1164538 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 zipfile1164619 Ref: bb11164619 Ref: zipfile<2>-Footnote-11164984 Ref: zipfile<2>-Footnote-21165049 Node: C API Changes<6>1165114 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 c-api-changes1165246 Ref: bb21165246 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-11169738 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-21169803 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-31169868 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-41169933 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-51169998 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-61170063 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-71170128 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-81170193 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-91170258 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-101170323 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-111170389 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-121170455 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-131170521 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-141170587 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-151170653 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-161170718 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-171170784 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-181170850 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-191170916 Ref: C API Changes<6>-Footnote-201170982 Node: Build Changes<6>1171048 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 build-changes1171177 Ref: bcb1171177 Ref: Build Changes<6>-Footnote-11172310 Ref: Build Changes<6>-Footnote-21172375 Ref: Build Changes<6>-Footnote-31172440 Node: Optimizations<7>1172505 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 optimizations1172657 Ref: bcc1172657 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-perf1172657 Ref: ad01172657 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-asyncio-perf1173351 Ref: b021173351 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-11177905 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-21177970 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-31178035 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-41178100 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-51178165 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-61178230 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-71178295 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-81178360 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-91178425 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-101178490 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-111178556 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-121178622 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-131178688 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-141178754 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-151178820 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-161178886 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-171178952 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-181179018 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-191179084 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-201179150 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-211179216 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-221179282 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-231179348 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-241179414 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-251179480 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-261179546 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-271179612 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-281179678 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-291179744 Ref: Optimizations<7>-Footnote-301179810 Node: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>1179876 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 other-cpython-implementation-changes1180038 Ref: bda1180038 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>-Footnote-11181445 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>-Footnote-21181510 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>-Footnote-31181575 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>-Footnote-41181640 Ref: Other CPython Implementation Changes<2>-Footnote-51181705 Node: Deprecated Python Behavior1181770 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 deprecated-python-behavior1181963 Ref: bdd1181963 Ref: Deprecated Python Behavior-Footnote-11183072 Ref: Deprecated Python Behavior-Footnote-21183137 Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods1183202 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods1183399 Ref: bdf1183399 Node: aifc1183797 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 aifc1183904 Ref: be01183904 Ref: aifc-Footnote-11184124 Node: asyncio<8>1184189 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id21184319 Ref: be11184319 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 whatsnew37-asyncio-deprecated1184319 Ref: b1f1184319 Ref: asyncio<8>-Footnote-11184844 Ref: asyncio<8>-Footnote-21184909 Node: collections<3>1184974 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id31185106 Ref: be21185106 Ref: collections<3>-Footnote-11185485 Node: dbm<3>1185550 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id41185679 Ref: be31185679 Ref: dbm<3>-Footnote-11186080 Node: enum<6>1186145 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id51186270 Ref: be41186270 Ref: enum<6>-Footnote-11186720 Node: gettext<2>1186785 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 gettext1186916 Ref: be51186916 Ref: gettext<2>-Footnote-11187161 Node: importlib<5>1187226 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id61187359 Ref: be61187359 Ref: importlib<5>-Footnote-11187874 Node: locale<5>1187939 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id71188069 Ref: be81188069 Ref: locale<5>-Footnote-11188272 Node: macpath1188337 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 macpath1188467 Ref: be91188467 Ref: macpath-Footnote-11188657 Node: threading<5>1188721 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 threading1188851 Ref: bea1188851 Ref: threading<5>-Footnote-11189149 Node: socket<6>1189214 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id81189343 Ref: beb1189343 Ref: socket<6>-Footnote-11189688 Node: ssl<6>1189753 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id91189875 Ref: bec1189875 Ref: ssl<6>-Footnote-11190087 Node: sunau1190152 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 sunau1190271 Ref: bed1190271 Ref: sunau-Footnote-11190497 Node: sys<9>1190562 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id101190679 Ref: bee1190679 Ref: sys<9>-Footnote-11190996 Node: wave1191061 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 wave1191164 Ref: bef1191164 Ref: wave-Footnote-11191392 Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API1191457 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api1191653 Ref: bf01191653 Ref: Deprecated functions and types of the C API-Footnote-11192311 Ref: Deprecated functions and types of the C API-Footnote-21192376 Node: Platform Support Removals1192441 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id111192617 Ref: bf11192617 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 platform-support-removals1192617 Ref: b7e1192617 Ref: Platform Support Removals-Footnote-11194029 Ref: Platform Support Removals-Footnote-21194096 Node: API and Feature Removals<2>1194176 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 api-and-feature-removals1194324 Ref: bf21194324 Ref: API and Feature Removals<2>-Footnote-11197231 Ref: API and Feature Removals<2>-Footnote-21197296 Ref: API and Feature Removals<2>-Footnote-31197361 Node: Module Removals1197426 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 module-removals1197569 Ref: bf61197569 Ref: Module Removals-Footnote-11197904 Node: Windows-only Changes1197969 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 windows-only-changes1198106 Ref: bf71198106 Ref: Windows-only Changes-Footnote-11198983 Ref: Windows-only Changes-Footnote-21199048 Node: Porting to Python 3 71199113 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 porting-to-python-3-71199266 Ref: bf81199266 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 porting-to-python-371199266 Ref: ad11199266 Node: Changes in Python Behavior1199728 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 changes-in-python-behavior1199849 Ref: bf91199849 Ref: Changes in Python Behavior-Footnote-11201715 Ref: Changes in Python Behavior-Footnote-21201780 Ref: Changes in Python Behavior-Footnote-31201822 Ref: Changes in Python Behavior-Footnote-41201887 Ref: Changes in Python Behavior-Footnote-51201952 Ref: Changes in Python Behavior-Footnote-61202017 Node: Changes in the Python API<7>1202082 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 changes-in-the-python-api1202235 Ref: bfc1202235 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-11211789 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-21211854 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-31211919 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-41211984 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-51212049 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-61212114 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-71212179 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-81212244 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-91212309 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-101212374 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-111212440 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-121212506 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-131212572 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-141212638 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-151212681 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-161212747 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-171212813 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-181212879 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-191212945 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-201213011 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-211213077 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-221213143 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-231213209 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-241213275 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-251213341 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-261213407 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-271213473 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-281213539 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-291213605 Ref: Changes in the Python API<7>-Footnote-301213671 Node: Changes in the C API<5>1213737 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 changes-in-the-c-api1213891 Ref: c1d1213891 Ref: Changes in the C API<5>-Footnote-11214527 Node: CPython bytecode changes<6>1214592 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 cpython-bytecode-changes1214741 Ref: c1e1214741 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<6>-Footnote-11215087 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<6>-Footnote-21215152 Node: Windows-only Changes<2>1215217 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id121215379 Ref: c201215379 Ref: Windows-only Changes<2>-Footnote-11215700 Node: Other CPython implementation changes1215765 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 id131215891 Ref: c221215891 Ref: Other CPython implementation changes-Footnote-11218221 Ref: Other CPython implementation changes-Footnote-21218263 Ref: Other CPython implementation changes-Footnote-31218328 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11218393 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 notable-changes-in-python-3-7-11218557 Ref: c241218557 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1-Footnote-11219494 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1-Footnote-21219559 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 1-Footnote-31219624 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 21219689 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 notable-changes-in-python-3-7-21219863 Ref: c271219863 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 61220358 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 notable-changes-in-python-3-7-61220533 Ref: c281220533 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 6-Footnote-11221044 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 101221109 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 notable-changes-in-python-3-7-101221285 Ref: c291221285 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 10-Footnote-11222005 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 7 111222070 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 notable-changes-in-python-3-7-111222249 Ref: c2a1222249 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11-Footnote-11223166 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 7 11-Footnote-21223221 Node: Notable security feature in 3 7 141223276 Ref: whatsnew/3 7 notable-security-feature-in-3-7-141223414 Ref: c2b1223414 Ref: Notable security feature in 3 7 14-Footnote-11224144 Node: What’s New In Python 3 61224200 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 doc1224355 Ref: c2c1224355 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 what-s-new-in-python-3-61224355 Ref: c2d1224355 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 6-Footnote-11225700 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 6-Footnote-21225760 Node: Summary – Release highlights<6>1225802 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 summary-release-highlights1225923 Ref: c2e1225923 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<6>-Footnote-11230163 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<6>-Footnote-21230243 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<6>-Footnote-31230333 Node: New Features<13>1230375 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-features1230530 Ref: c421230530 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pypy-dict-implementation1230530 Ref: c431230530 Node: PEP 498 Formatted string literals1231940 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-498-formatted-string-literals1232074 Ref: c441232074 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep4981232074 Ref: c2f1232074 Ref: PEP 498 Formatted string literals-Footnote-11233058 Ref: PEP 498 Formatted string literals-Footnote-21233100 Node: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations1233142 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-526-syntax-for-variable-annotations1233324 Ref: c451233324 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5261233324 Ref: c311233324 Ref: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations-Footnote-11234568 Ref: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations-Footnote-21234610 Ref: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations-Footnote-31234652 Ref: PEP 526 Syntax for variable annotations-Footnote-41234687 Node: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals1234728 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-515-underscores-in-numeric-literals1234908 Ref: c461234908 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5151234908 Ref: c301234908 Ref: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals-Footnote-11235977 Ref: PEP 515 Underscores in Numeric Literals-Footnote-21236019 Node: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators1236061 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-525-asynchronous-generators1236237 Ref: c471236237 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5251236237 Ref: c321236237 Ref: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators-Footnote-11237072 Ref: PEP 525 Asynchronous Generators-Footnote-21237114 Node: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions1237156 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-530-asynchronous-comprehensions1237340 Ref: c481237340 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5301237340 Ref: c331237340 Ref: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions-Footnote-11237898 Ref: PEP 530 Asynchronous Comprehensions-Footnote-21237940 Node: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation1237982 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-487-simpler-customization-of-class-creation1238175 Ref: c491238175 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep4871238175 Ref: c361238175 Ref: PEP 487 Simpler customization of class creation-Footnote-11239267 Node: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements1239309 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-487-descriptor-protocol-enhancements1239509 Ref: c4c1239509 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep487-descriptors1239509 Ref: c4d1239509 Ref: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements-Footnote-11240760 Ref: PEP 487 Descriptor Protocol Enhancements-Footnote-21240802 Node: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol1240844 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-519-adding-a-file-system-path-protocol1241030 Ref: c501241030 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5191241030 Ref: c3b1241030 Ref: PEP 519 Adding a file system path protocol-Footnote-11243857 Node: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation1243899 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-495-local-time-disambiguation1244096 Ref: c561244096 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep4951244096 Ref: c3c1244096 Ref: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation-Footnote-11245509 Ref: PEP 495 Local Time Disambiguation-Footnote-21245551 Node: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-81245593 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-529-change-windows-filesystem-encoding-to-utf-81245796 Ref: c581245796 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5291245796 Ref: c401245796 Ref: PEP 529 Change Windows filesystem encoding to UTF-8-Footnote-11246826 Node: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-81246868 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-528-change-windows-console-encoding-to-utf-81247089 Ref: c5a1247089 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5281247089 Ref: c3f1247089 Ref: PEP 528 Change Windows console encoding to UTF-8-Footnote-11247792 Node: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order1247834 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-520-preserving-class-attribute-definition-order1248045 Ref: c5c1248045 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5201248045 Ref: c371248045 Ref: PEP 520 Preserving Class Attribute Definition Order-Footnote-11248685 Node: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order1248727 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-468-preserving-keyword-argument-order1248913 Ref: c5f1248913 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep4681248913 Ref: c381248913 Ref: PEP 468 Preserving Keyword Argument Order-Footnote-11249274 Node: New dict implementation1249316 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-dict-implementation1249499 Ref: c601249499 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-compactdict1249499 Ref: c351249499 Ref: New dict implementation-Footnote-11250477 Ref: New dict implementation-Footnote-21250557 Ref: New dict implementation-Footnote-31250647 Ref: New dict implementation-Footnote-41250712 Node: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython1250792 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pep-523-adding-a-frame-evaluation-api-to-cpython1250967 Ref: c611250967 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5231250967 Ref: c621250967 Ref: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython-Footnote-11252138 Ref: PEP 523 Adding a frame evaluation API to CPython-Footnote-21252180 Node: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable1252222 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pythonmalloc-environment-variable1252410 Ref: c631252410 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pythonmalloc1252410 Ref: c3a1252410 Ref: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable-Footnote-11255592 Ref: PYTHONMALLOC environment variable-Footnote-21255657 Node: DTrace and SystemTap probing support1255722 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 dtrace-and-systemtap-probing-support1255853 Ref: c6b1255853 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-tracing1255853 Ref: c391255853 Ref: DTrace and SystemTap probing support-Footnote-11256696 Node: Other Language Changes<8>1256761 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 other-language-changes1256897 Ref: c6d1256897 Ref: Other Language Changes<8>-Footnote-11258276 Ref: Other Language Changes<8>-Footnote-21258341 Ref: Other Language Changes<8>-Footnote-31258406 Ref: Other Language Changes<8>-Footnote-41258471 Node: New Modules<8>1258536 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-modules1258675 Ref: c701258675 Node: secrets1258734 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 secrets1258792 Ref: c711258792 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-pep5061258792 Ref: c341258792 Ref: secrets-Footnote-11259475 Node: Improved Modules<8>1259517 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 improved-modules1259647 Ref: c721259647 Node: array<4>1261131 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 array1261210 Ref: c731261210 Ref: array<4>-Footnote-11261503 Node: ast<4>1261568 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 ast1261666 Ref: c741261666 Ref: ast<4>-Footnote-11261915 Node: asyncio<9>1261980 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 asyncio1262081 Ref: c751262081 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-11265421 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-21265486 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-31265531 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-41265596 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-51265661 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-61265726 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-71265791 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-81265856 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-91265921 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-101265986 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-111266052 Ref: asyncio<9>-Footnote-121266118 Node: binascii<2>1266184 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 binascii1266284 Ref: c7e1266284 Ref: binascii<2>-Footnote-11266569 Node: cmath1266634 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 cmath1266738 Ref: c801266738 Ref: cmath-Footnote-11267209 Ref: cmath-Footnote-21267274 Ref: cmath-Footnote-31267316 Node: collections<4>1267381 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 collections1267495 Ref: c871267495 Ref: collections<4>-Footnote-11268596 Ref: collections<4>-Footnote-21268661 Ref: collections<4>-Footnote-31268726 Ref: collections<4>-Footnote-41268791 Ref: collections<4>-Footnote-51268856 Ref: collections<4>-Footnote-61268921 Node: concurrent futures<4>1268986 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 concurrent-futures1269108 Ref: c8b1269108 Ref: concurrent futures<4>-Footnote-11269439 Node: contextlib<4>1269504 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 contextlib1269623 Ref: c8c1269623 Ref: contextlib<4>-Footnote-11270119 Node: datetime<5>1270184 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 datetime1270292 Ref: c8f1270292 Ref: datetime<5>-Footnote-11271309 Ref: datetime<5>-Footnote-21271374 Ref: datetime<5>-Footnote-31271439 Ref: datetime<5>-Footnote-41271504 Node: decimal<2>1271569 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 decimal1271676 Ref: c931271676 Ref: decimal<2>-Footnote-11272089 Node: distutils<5>1272154 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 distutils1272258 Ref: c951272258 Ref: distutils<5>-Footnote-11272632 Node: email<2>1272697 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 email1272803 Ref: c961272803 Ref: email<2>-Footnote-11273719 Ref: email<2>-Footnote-21273784 Ref: email<2>-Footnote-31273849 Node: encodings<2>1273914 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 encodings1274015 Ref: c9a1274015 Ref: encodings<2>-Footnote-11274310 Node: enum<7>1274375 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 enum1274483 Ref: c9b1274483 Ref: enum<7>-Footnote-11275231 Node: faulthandler<2>1275296 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 faulthandler1275404 Ref: c9d1275404 Ref: faulthandler<2>-Footnote-11275667 Node: fileinput<2>1275732 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 fileinput1275843 Ref: c9f1275843 Ref: fileinput<2>-Footnote-11276031 Node: hashlib<5>1276096 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 hashlib1276206 Ref: ca11276206 Ref: hashlib<5>-Footnote-11277255 Ref: hashlib<5>-Footnote-21277320 Ref: hashlib<5>-Footnote-31277385 Ref: hashlib<5>-Footnote-41277450 Node: http client<2>1277515 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 http-client1277632 Ref: ca81277632 Ref: http client<2>-Footnote-11277892 Node: idlelib and IDLE<2>1277957 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 idlelib-and-idle1278076 Ref: cab1278076 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-11281550 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-21281615 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-31281680 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-41281747 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-51281812 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-61281877 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-71281942 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-81282007 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-91282072 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-101282137 Ref: idlelib and IDLE<2>-Footnote-111282203 Node: importlib<6>1282271 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 importlib1282386 Ref: cac1282386 Ref: importlib<6>-Footnote-11283213 Node: inspect<6>1283278 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 inspect1283378 Ref: cb21283378 Ref: inspect<6>-Footnote-11284153 Ref: inspect<6>-Footnote-21284218 Node: json1284283 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 json1284381 Ref: cb31284381 Ref: json-Footnote-11284653 Node: logging<4>1284718 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 logging1284813 Ref: cb51284813 Ref: logging<4>-Footnote-11285077 Node: math<7>1285142 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 math1285251 Ref: cb71285251 Ref: math<7>-Footnote-11285483 Ref: math<7>-Footnote-21285548 Node: multiprocessing<5>1285590 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 multiprocessing1285694 Ref: cb81285694 Ref: multiprocessing<5>-Footnote-11285923 Node: os<8>1285987 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 os1286094 Ref: cbb1286094 Ref: os<8>-Footnote-11287094 Ref: os<8>-Footnote-21287159 Ref: os<8>-Footnote-31287201 Node: pathlib<9>1287243 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pathlib1287338 Ref: cbe1287338 Ref: pathlib<9>-Footnote-11287572 Node: pdb<5>1287637 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pdb1287736 Ref: cbf1287736 Node: pickle<2>1287893 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pickle1287993 Ref: cc01287993 Ref: pickle<2>-Footnote-11288310 Node: pickletools1288375 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pickletools1288477 Ref: cc21288477 Ref: pickletools-Footnote-11288705 Node: pydoc<3>1288770 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 pydoc1288872 Ref: cc41288872 Ref: pydoc<3>-Footnote-11289266 Ref: pydoc<3>-Footnote-21289330 Node: 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Ref: whatsnew/3 6 winsound1309628 Ref: d031309628 Ref: winsound-Footnote-11309827 Node: xmlrpc client1309892 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 xmlrpc-client1309997 Ref: d071309997 Ref: xmlrpc client-Footnote-11310290 Node: zipfile<3>1310355 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 zipfile1310456 Ref: d081310456 Ref: zipfile<3>-Footnote-11310990 Ref: zipfile<3>-Footnote-21311055 Node: zlib1311120 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 zlib1311199 Ref: d0c1311199 Ref: zlib-Footnote-11311455 Ref: zlib-Footnote-21311520 Node: Optimizations<8>1311585 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 optimizations1311727 Ref: d0e1311727 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-11315596 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-21315661 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-31315726 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-41315791 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-51315856 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-61315921 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-71315986 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-81316051 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-91316116 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-101316181 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-111316247 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-121316313 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-131316379 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-141316445 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-151316511 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-161316577 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-171316643 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-181316709 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-191316775 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-201316841 Ref: Optimizations<8>-Footnote-211316907 Node: Build and C API Changes<2>1316973 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 build-and-c-api-changes1317114 Ref: d141317114 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-11319567 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-21319609 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-31319674 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-41319739 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-51319804 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-61319868 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-71319933 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-81319998 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-91320063 Ref: Build and C API Changes<2>-Footnote-101320128 Node: Other Improvements1320194 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 other-improvements1320332 Ref: d1a1320332 Node: Deprecated<9>1320701 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 deprecated1320823 Ref: d1c1320823 Node: New Keywords1321159 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-keywords1321256 Ref: d1d1321256 Ref: New Keywords-Footnote-11321649 Node: Deprecated Python behavior1321691 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 deprecated-python-behavior1321847 Ref: d1e1321847 Ref: Deprecated Python behavior-Footnote-11323048 Ref: Deprecated Python behavior-Footnote-21323113 Ref: Deprecated Python behavior-Footnote-31323178 Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<2>1323243 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods1323393 Ref: d201323393 Node: asynchat1323702 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 asynchat1323814 Ref: d211323814 Ref: asynchat-Footnote-11323998 Node: asyncore1324063 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 asyncore1324190 Ref: d221324190 Ref: asyncore-Footnote-11324374 Node: dbm<4>1324439 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 dbm1324570 Ref: d231324570 Ref: dbm<4>-Footnote-11324930 Node: distutils<6>1324995 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id21325121 Ref: d241325121 Ref: distutils<6>-Footnote-11325451 Node: grp1325516 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 grp1325648 Ref: d251325648 Ref: grp-Footnote-11325846 Node: importlib<7>1325911 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id31326036 Ref: d271326036 Node: os<9>1326690 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id41326817 Ref: d2c1326817 Ref: os<9>-Footnote-11327111 Ref: os<9>-Footnote-21327176 Node: re<6>1327241 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id51327362 Ref: d2e1327362 Ref: re<6>-Footnote-11327688 Node: ssl<8>1327753 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id61327879 Ref: d2f1327879 Ref: ssl<8>-Footnote-11328674 Ref: ssl<8>-Footnote-21328739 Ref: ssl<8>-Footnote-31328804 Node: tkinter<7>1328869 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id71328997 Ref: d301328997 Node: venv<6>1329150 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 id81329263 Ref: d311329263 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 whatsnew36-venv1329263 Ref: d321329263 Ref: venv<6>-Footnote-11329614 Node: xml<6>1329679 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 xml1329849 Ref: d331329849 Ref: xml<6>-Footnote-11330153 Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<2>1330208 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api1330352 Ref: d341330352 Node: Deprecated Build Options1330701 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 deprecated-build-options1330830 Ref: d361330830 Node: Removed<9>1331271 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 removed1331396 Ref: d371331396 Node: API and Feature Removals<3>1331494 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 api-and-feature-removals1331568 Ref: d381331568 Ref: API and Feature Removals<3>-Footnote-11333658 Ref: API and Feature Removals<3>-Footnote-21333723 Node: Porting to Python 3 61333801 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 porting-to-python-3-61333944 Ref: d3b1333944 Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior1334330 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 changes-in-python-command-behavior1334465 Ref: d3c1334465 Ref: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior-Footnote-11334945 Node: Changes in the Python API<8>1335010 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 changes-in-the-python-api1335177 Ref: d3d1335177 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-11345259 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-21345323 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-31345365 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-41345430 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-51345495 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-61345560 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-71345625 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-81345690 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-91345755 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-101345820 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-111345886 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-121345929 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-131345995 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-141346061 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-151346127 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-161346193 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-171346258 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-181346324 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-191346390 Ref: Changes in the Python API<8>-Footnote-201346456 Node: Changes in the C API<6>1346522 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 changes-in-the-c-api1346676 Ref: d4d1346676 Ref: Changes in the C API<6>-Footnote-11347330 Ref: Changes in the C API<6>-Footnote-21347395 Node: CPython bytecode changes<7>1347459 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 cpython-bytecode-changes1347576 Ref: d4f1347576 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-11349202 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-21349267 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-31349332 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-41349397 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-51349462 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-61349527 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-71349592 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-81349657 Ref: CPython bytecode changes<7>-Footnote-91349722 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 21349787 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-21349951 Ref: d561349951 Node: New make regen-all build target1350115 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 new-make-regen-all-build-target1350257 Ref: d571350257 Ref: New make regen-all build target-Footnote-11351046 Ref: New make regen-all build target-Footnote-21351114 Node: Removal of make touch build target1351179 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 removal-of-make-touch-build-target1351321 Ref: d581351321 Ref: Removal of make touch build target-Footnote-11351751 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 41351816 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-41351990 Ref: d591351990 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4-Footnote-11352363 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 4-Footnote-21352428 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 51352493 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-51352667 Ref: d5a1352667 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 5-Footnote-11352970 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 71353035 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-71353210 Ref: d5b1353210 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7-Footnote-11353716 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 7-Footnote-21353771 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 101353836 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-101354012 Ref: d5c1354012 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 10-Footnote-11354525 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 131354590 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-131354767 Ref: d5d1354767 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 13-Footnote-11355487 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 6 141355552 Ref: whatsnew/3 6 notable-changes-in-python-3-6-141355688 Ref: d5e1355688 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14-Footnote-11356605 Ref: Notable changes in Python 3 6 14-Footnote-21356660 Node: What’s New In Python 3 51356715 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 doc1356870 Ref: d5f1356870 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 what-s-new-in-python-3-51356870 Ref: d601356870 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 5-Footnote-11357812 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 5-Footnote-21357872 Node: Summary – Release highlights<7>1357914 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 summary-release-highlights1358035 Ref: d611358035 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-11361763 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-21361827 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-31361892 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-41361957 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-51362022 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-61362087 Ref: Summary – Release highlights<7>-Footnote-71362152 Node: New Features<14>1362217 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 new-features1362372 Ref: d741362372 Node: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax1363468 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-492-coroutines-with-async-and-await-syntax1363640 Ref: d751363640 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4921363640 Ref: d621363640 Ref: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax-Footnote-11366713 Ref: PEP 492 - Coroutines with async and await syntax-Footnote-21366755 Node: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication1366797 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-465-a-dedicated-infix-operator-for-matrix-multiplication1367024 Ref: d7a1367024 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4651367024 Ref: d631367024 Ref: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication-Footnote-11368411 Ref: PEP 465 - A dedicated infix operator for matrix multiplication-Footnote-21368453 Node: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations1368495 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-448-additional-unpacking-generalizations1368734 Ref: d7b1368734 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4481368734 Ref: d641368734 Ref: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations-Footnote-11369827 Ref: PEP 448 - Additional Unpacking Generalizations-Footnote-21369869 Node: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray1369911 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-461-percent-formatting-support-for-bytes-and-bytearray1370108 Ref: d7f1370108 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4611370108 Ref: d671370108 Ref: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray-Footnote-11371644 Ref: PEP 461 - percent formatting support for bytes and bytearray-Footnote-21371686 Node: PEP 484 - Type Hints1371728 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-484-type-hints1371951 Ref: d811371951 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4841371951 Ref: d651371951 Ref: PEP 484 - Type Hints-Footnote-11373598 Ref: PEP 484 - Type Hints-Footnote-21373640 Ref: PEP 484 - Type Hints-Footnote-31373682 Ref: PEP 484 - Type Hints-Footnote-41373712 Ref: PEP 484 - Type Hints-Footnote-51373754 Node: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator1373796 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-471-os-scandir-function-a-better-and-faster-directory-iterator1374004 Ref: d821374004 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4711374004 Ref: d701374004 Ref: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator-Footnote-11375360 Ref: PEP 471 - os scandir function – a better and faster directory iterator-Footnote-21375402 Node: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR1375444 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-475-retry-system-calls-failing-with-eintr1375687 Ref: d841375687 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4751375687 Ref: d851375687 Ref: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR-Footnote-11378751 Ref: PEP 475 Retry system calls failing with EINTR-Footnote-21378793 Node: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators1378835 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-479-change-stopiteration-handling-inside-generators1379057 Ref: dab1379057 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4791379057 Ref: d1f1379057 Ref: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators-Footnote-11380987 Ref: PEP 479 Change StopIteration handling inside generators-Footnote-21381029 Node: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality1381071 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-485-a-function-for-testing-approximate-equality1381310 Ref: dad1381310 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4851381310 Ref: dae1381310 Ref: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality-Footnote-11382493 Ref: PEP 485 A function for testing approximate equality-Footnote-21382535 Node: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments1382577 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-486-make-the-python-launcher-aware-of-virtual-environments1382793 Ref: db11382793 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4861382793 Ref: db21382793 Ref: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments-Footnote-11383367 Ref: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments-Footnote-21383409 Ref: PEP 486 Make the Python Launcher aware of virtual environments-Footnote-31383451 Node: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files1383493 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-488-elimination-of-pyo-files1383709 Ref: db31383709 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4881383709 Ref: d6c1383709 Ref: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files-Footnote-11384575 Ref: PEP 488 Elimination of PYO files-Footnote-21384617 Node: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization1384659 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pep-489-multi-phase-extension-module-initialization1384804 Ref: db61384804 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-pep-4891384804 Ref: d6d1384804 Ref: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization-Footnote-11385567 Ref: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization-Footnote-21385609 Ref: PEP 489 Multi-phase extension module initialization-Footnote-31385651 Node: Other Language Changes<9>1385693 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 other-language-changes1385829 Ref: db71385829 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-11386827 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-21386892 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-31386957 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-41387022 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-51387087 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-61387152 Ref: Other Language Changes<9>-Footnote-71387217 Node: New Modules<9>1387282 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 new-modules1387421 Ref: db91387421 Node: typing<10>1387511 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 typing1387590 Ref: dba1387590 Node: zipapp<2>1387801 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-zipapp1387880 Ref: d661387880 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 zipapp1387880 Ref: dbb1387880 Ref: zipapp<2>-Footnote-11388590 Ref: zipapp<2>-Footnote-21388632 Ref: zipapp<2>-Footnote-31388699 Ref: zipapp<2>-Footnote-41388764 Node: Improved Modules<9>1388806 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 improved-modules1388946 Ref: dbc1388946 Node: argparse<4>1390649 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 argparse1390736 Ref: dbd1390736 Ref: argparse<4>-Footnote-11391059 Node: asyncio<10>1391124 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 asyncio1391223 Ref: dc01391223 Ref: asyncio<10>-Footnote-11394701 Ref: asyncio<10>-Footnote-21394766 Ref: asyncio<10>-Footnote-31394831 Node: bz21394876 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 bz21394967 Ref: dca1394967 Ref: bz2-Footnote-11395222 Node: cgi1395287 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 cgi1395375 Ref: dcc1395375 Ref: cgi-Footnote-11395570 Node: cmath<2>1395635 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 cmath1395724 Ref: dcd1395724 Ref: cmath<2>-Footnote-11395938 Node: code1396003 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 code1396103 Ref: dce1396103 Ref: code-Footnote-11396354 Node: collections<5>1396419 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 collections1396529 Ref: dd01396529 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-ordereddict1396570 Ref: d6e1396570 Ref: collections<5>-Footnote-11397840 Ref: collections<5>-Footnote-21397905 Ref: collections<5>-Footnote-31397970 Ref: collections<5>-Footnote-41398035 Ref: collections<5>-Footnote-51398100 Node: collections abc<3>1398165 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 collections-abc1398284 Ref: dd91398284 Ref: collections abc<3>-Footnote-11398954 Ref: collections abc<3>-Footnote-21399019 Ref: collections abc<3>-Footnote-31399084 Ref: collections abc<3>-Footnote-41399149 Node: compileall<4>1399197 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 compileall1399323 Ref: ddf1399323 Ref: compileall<4>-Footnote-11400198 Ref: compileall<4>-Footnote-21400263 Ref: compileall<4>-Footnote-31400328 Node: concurrent futures<5>1400393 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 concurrent-futures1400516 Ref: de21400516 Ref: concurrent futures<5>-Footnote-11401018 Ref: concurrent futures<5>-Footnote-21401083 Node: configparser<4>1401148 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 configparser1401271 Ref: de41401271 Ref: configparser<4>-Footnote-11402222 Node: contextlib<5>1402287 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 contextlib1402395 Ref: de51402395 Ref: contextlib<5>-Footnote-11403005 Node: csv<3>1403070 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 csv1403172 Ref: de81403172 Ref: csv<3>-Footnote-11403376 Node: curses<4>1403441 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 curses1403536 Ref: dea1403536 Ref: curses<4>-Footnote-11403812 Node: dbm<5>1403876 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 dbm1403972 Ref: dec1403972 Ref: dbm<5>-Footnote-11404175 Node: difflib1404240 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 difflib1404339 Ref: ded1404339 Ref: difflib-Footnote-11404875 Ref: difflib-Footnote-21404939 Node: distutils<7>1405004 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 distutils1405107 Ref: df01405107 Ref: distutils<7>-Footnote-11405558 Ref: distutils<7>-Footnote-21405622 Node: doctest<3>1405687 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 doctest1405791 Ref: df11405791 Ref: doctest<3>-Footnote-11406076 Node: email<3>1406141 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 email1406240 Ref: df41406240 Ref: email<3>-Footnote-11407351 Ref: email<3>-Footnote-21407416 Ref: email<3>-Footnote-31407481 Ref: email<3>-Footnote-41407540 Ref: email<3>-Footnote-51407599 Ref: email<3>-Footnote-61407664 Node: enum<8>1407729 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 enum1407833 Ref: dfa1407833 Ref: enum<8>-Footnote-11408224 Node: faulthandler<3>1408289 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 faulthandler1408397 Ref: dfb1408397 Ref: faulthandler<3>-Footnote-11408709 Node: functools<4>1408774 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 functools1408882 Ref: dff1408882 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-lrucache1408921 Ref: d711408921 Ref: functools<4>-Footnote-11409147 Node: glob<3>1409212 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 glob1409312 Ref: e001409312 Ref: glob<3>-Footnote-11409564 Node: gzip<4>1409629 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 gzip1409722 Ref: e011409722 Ref: gzip<4>-Footnote-11409947 Node: heapq1410012 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 heapq1410105 Ref: e021410105 Ref: heapq-Footnote-11410745 Node: http<2>1410810 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 http1410910 Ref: e051410910 Ref: http<2>-Footnote-11411156 Node: http client<3>1411221 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 http-client1411335 Ref: e061411335 Ref: http client<3>-Footnote-11412079 Node: idlelib and IDLE<3>1412143 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 idlelib-and-idle1412260 Ref: e0a1412260 Node: imaplib<2>1412654 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 imaplib1412763 Ref: e0b1412763 Ref: imaplib<2>-Footnote-11413642 Ref: imaplib<2>-Footnote-21413706 Ref: imaplib<2>-Footnote-31413765 Ref: imaplib<2>-Footnote-41413824 Ref: imaplib<2>-Footnote-51413883 Ref: imaplib<2>-Footnote-61413948 Node: imghdr1414013 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 imghdr1414115 Ref: e0e1414115 Ref: imghdr-Footnote-11414403 Ref: imghdr-Footnote-21414435 Ref: imghdr-Footnote-31414500 Ref: imghdr-Footnote-41414543 Node: importlib<8>1414608 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 importlib1414710 Ref: e0f1414710 Ref: importlib<8>-Footnote-11415545 Ref: importlib<8>-Footnote-21415610 Ref: importlib<8>-Footnote-31415675 Node: inspect<7>1415740 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 inspect1415841 Ref: e131415841 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-11417398 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-21417463 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-31417528 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-41417593 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-51417658 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-61417723 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-71417788 Ref: inspect<7>-Footnote-81417853 Node: io<5>1417918 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 io1418019 Ref: e191418019 Ref: io<5>-Footnote-11418317 Node: ipaddress<4>1418382 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 ipaddress1418480 Ref: e1d1418480 Ref: ipaddress<4>-Footnote-11419508 Ref: ipaddress<4>-Footnote-21419573 Node: json<2>1419638 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 json1419743 Ref: e1e1419743 Ref: json<2>-Footnote-11420243 Ref: json<2>-Footnote-21420308 Node: linecache<2>1420373 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 linecache1420475 Ref: e201420475 Ref: linecache<2>-Footnote-11420885 Node: locale<6>1420950 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 locale1421055 Ref: e231421055 Ref: locale<6>-Footnote-11421620 Node: logging<5>1421685 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 logging1421782 Ref: e251421782 Ref: logging<5>-Footnote-11422752 Ref: logging<5>-Footnote-21422817 Node: lzma1422882 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 lzma1422977 Ref: e2c1422977 Ref: lzma-Footnote-11423239 Node: math<8>1423304 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 math1423407 Ref: e2e1423407 Ref: math<8>-Footnote-11423949 Ref: math<8>-Footnote-21424014 Ref: math<8>-Footnote-31424079 Node: multiprocessing<6>1424144 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 multiprocessing1424254 Ref: e2f1424254 Ref: multiprocessing<6>-Footnote-11424504 Node: operator<2>1424569 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 operator1424678 Ref: e311424678 Ref: operator<2>-Footnote-11425083 Ref: operator<2>-Footnote-21425148 Node: os<10>1425213 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 os1425315 Ref: e361425315 Ref: os<10>-Footnote-11427163 Ref: os<10>-Footnote-21427228 Ref: os<10>-Footnote-31427293 Ref: os<10>-Footnote-41427358 Ref: os<10>-Footnote-51427423 Ref: os<10>-Footnote-61427488 Node: pathlib<10>1427553 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pathlib1427653 Ref: e3e1427653 Ref: pathlib<10>-Footnote-11429124 Ref: pathlib<10>-Footnote-21429189 Ref: pathlib<10>-Footnote-31429254 Ref: pathlib<10>-Footnote-41429319 Ref: pathlib<10>-Footnote-51429384 Node: pickle<3>1429449 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 pickle1429552 Ref: e471429552 Ref: pickle<3>-Footnote-11429868 Node: poplib<2>1429933 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 poplib1430030 Ref: e481430030 Ref: poplib<2>-Footnote-11430272 Ref: poplib<2>-Footnote-21430331 Node: re<7>1430396 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 re1430495 Ref: e4a1430495 Ref: re<7>-Footnote-11431700 Ref: re<7>-Footnote-21431764 Ref: re<7>-Footnote-31431829 Ref: re<7>-Footnote-41431896 Node: readline<2>1431961 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 readline1432060 Ref: e4b1432060 Ref: readline<2>-Footnote-11432323 Node: selectors1432388 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 selectors1432491 Ref: e4d1432491 Ref: selectors-Footnote-11432713 Node: shutil<5>1432778 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 shutil1432879 Ref: e4e1432879 Ref: shutil<5>-Footnote-11433358 Ref: shutil<5>-Footnote-21433423 Node: signal<3>1433487 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 signal1433587 Ref: e4f1433587 Ref: signal<3>-Footnote-11434054 Ref: signal<3>-Footnote-21434119 Node: smtpd<2>1434184 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 smtpd1434285 Ref: e501434285 Ref: smtpd<2>-Footnote-11435921 Ref: smtpd<2>-Footnote-21435986 Ref: smtpd<2>-Footnote-31436045 Ref: smtpd<2>-Footnote-41436110 Ref: smtpd<2>-Footnote-51436169 Ref: smtpd<2>-Footnote-61436234 Node: smtplib<2>1436299 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 smtplib1436397 Ref: e511436397 Ref: smtplib<2>-Footnote-11437018 Ref: smtplib<2>-Footnote-21437083 Ref: smtplib<2>-Footnote-31437148 Ref: smtplib<2>-Footnote-41437207 Node: sndhdr1437272 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 sndhdr1437371 Ref: e561437371 Ref: sndhdr-Footnote-11437574 Node: socket<8>1437639 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 socket1437734 Ref: e571437734 Ref: socket<8>-Footnote-11438705 Ref: socket<8>-Footnote-21438770 Ref: socket<8>-Footnote-31438835 Ref: socket<8>-Footnote-41438900 Node: ssl<9>1438965 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 ssl1439064 Ref: e5b1439064 Node: Memory BIO Support1439193 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 memory-bio-support1439309 Ref: e5c1439309 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-sslmemorybio1439309 Ref: d6f1439309 Ref: Memory BIO Support-Footnote-11440192 Node: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support1440257 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 application-layer-protocol-negotiation-support1440395 Ref: e5e1440395 Ref: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support-Footnote-11441100 Ref: Application-Layer Protocol Negotiation Support-Footnote-21441165 Node: Other Changes1441224 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 other-changes1441335 Ref: e621441335 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-11442921 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-21442986 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-31443051 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-41443116 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-51443175 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-61443240 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-71443305 Ref: Other Changes-Footnote-81443370 Node: sqlite3<8>1443435 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 sqlite31443538 Ref: e6b1443538 Ref: sqlite3<8>-Footnote-11443867 Ref: sqlite3<8>-Footnote-21443932 Node: subprocess<4>1443997 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 subprocess1444101 Ref: e6d1444101 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-subprocess1444101 Ref: d721444101 Ref: subprocess<4>-Footnote-11445115 Node: sys<11>1445180 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 sys1445286 Ref: e6f1445286 Ref: sys<11>-Footnote-11445936 Ref: sys<11>-Footnote-21446001 Node: sysconfig<2>1446066 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 sysconfig1446169 Ref: e701446169 Ref: sysconfig<2>-Footnote-11446402 Node: tarfile<7>1446467 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 tarfile1446575 Ref: e711446575 Ref: tarfile<7>-Footnote-11447486 Ref: tarfile<7>-Footnote-21447551 Ref: tarfile<7>-Footnote-31447616 Node: threading<6>1447681 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 threading1447784 Ref: e751447784 Ref: threading<6>-Footnote-11448036 Node: time<7>1448101 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 time1448203 Ref: e771448203 Ref: time<7>-Footnote-11448380 Node: timeit<2>1448445 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 timeit1448545 Ref: e781448545 Ref: timeit<2>-Footnote-11449010 Ref: timeit<2>-Footnote-21449075 Node: tkinter<8>1449139 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 tkinter1449244 Ref: e7a1449244 Ref: tkinter<8>-Footnote-11449576 Node: traceback<5>1449641 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 traceback1449745 Ref: e7b1449745 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 whatsnew-traceback1449745 Ref: d731449745 Ref: traceback<5>-Footnote-11450338 Ref: traceback<5>-Footnote-21450403 Ref: traceback<5>-Footnote-31450468 Node: types<5>1450533 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 types1450641 Ref: e821450641 Ref: types<5>-Footnote-11451085 Ref: types<5>-Footnote-21451150 Node: unicodedata<8>1451215 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 unicodedata1451322 Ref: e851451322 Ref: unicodedata<8>-Footnote-11451474 Node: unittest<8>1451525 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 unittest1451640 Ref: e861451640 Ref: unittest<8>-Footnote-11452434 Ref: unittest<8>-Footnote-21452499 Ref: unittest<8>-Footnote-31452564 Node: unittest mock<3>1452629 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 unittest-mock1452739 Ref: e881452739 Ref: unittest mock<3>-Footnote-11453664 Ref: unittest mock<3>-Footnote-21453729 Ref: unittest mock<3>-Footnote-31453794 Ref: unittest mock<3>-Footnote-41453859 Ref: unittest mock<3>-Footnote-51453924 Ref: unittest mock<3>-Footnote-61453989 Node: urllib<2>1454054 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 urllib1454160 Ref: e8c1454160 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-11455320 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-21455385 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-31455449 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-41455514 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-51455579 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-61455638 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-71455697 Ref: urllib<2>-Footnote-81455756 Node: wsgiref1455821 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 wsgiref1455920 Ref: e901455920 Ref: wsgiref-Footnote-11456158 Node: xmlrpc<2>1456222 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 xmlrpc1456319 Ref: e921456319 Ref: xmlrpc<2>-Footnote-11456689 Ref: xmlrpc<2>-Footnote-21456754 Node: xml sax1456819 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 xml-sax1456919 Ref: e931456919 Ref: xml sax-Footnote-11457252 Ref: xml sax-Footnote-21457316 Node: zipfile<4>1457381 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 zipfile1457463 Ref: e961457463 Ref: zipfile<4>-Footnote-11457803 Ref: zipfile<4>-Footnote-21457868 Node: Other module-level changes1457933 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 other-module-level-changes1458075 Ref: e971458075 Ref: Other module-level changes-Footnote-11458402 Node: Optimizations<9>1458467 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 optimizations1458616 Ref: e981458616 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-11461673 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-21461738 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-31461803 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-41461868 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-51461933 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-61461998 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-71462063 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-81462128 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-91462193 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-101462258 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-111462324 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-121462390 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-131462456 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-141462522 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-151462588 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-161462654 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-171462720 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-181462786 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-191462852 Ref: Optimizations<9>-Footnote-201462918 Node: Build and C API Changes<3>1462984 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 build-and-c-api-changes1463121 Ref: ea51463121 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-11466677 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-21466742 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-31466807 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-41466872 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-51466937 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-61467002 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-71467044 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-81467109 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-91467174 Ref: Build and C API Changes<3>-Footnote-101467216 Node: Deprecated<10>1467322 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 deprecated1467454 Ref: eb11467454 Node: New Keywords<2>1467731 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 new-keywords1467835 Ref: eb21467835 Ref: New Keywords<2>-Footnote-11468109 Node: Deprecated Python Behavior<2>1468151 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 deprecated-python-behavior1468293 Ref: eb31468293 Node: Unsupported Operating Systems1468708 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 unsupported-operating-systems1468885 Ref: eb41468885 Ref: Unsupported Operating Systems-Footnote-11469126 Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>1469168 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods1469307 Ref: eb51469307 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-11472219 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-21472284 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-31472348 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-41472413 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-51472478 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-61472543 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-71472608 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<3>-Footnote-81472673 Node: Removed<10>1472738 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 removed1472865 Ref: eba1472865 Node: API and Feature Removals<4>1472963 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 api-and-feature-removals1473038 Ref: ebb1473038 Ref: API and Feature Removals<4>-Footnote-11473895 Ref: API and Feature Removals<4>-Footnote-21473959 Node: Porting to Python 3 51474024 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 porting-to-python-3-51474168 Ref: ebc1474168 Node: Changes in Python behavior<2>1474513 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 changes-in-python-behavior1474637 Ref: ebd1474637 Node: Changes in the Python API<9>1475047 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 changes-in-the-python-api1475203 Ref: ebe1475203 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-11482129 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-21482171 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-31482236 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-41482301 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-51482366 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-61482431 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-71482496 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-81482561 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-91482626 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-101482691 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-111482757 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-121482823 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-131482888 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-141482931 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-151482991 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-161483057 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-171483123 Ref: Changes in the Python API<9>-Footnote-181483189 Node: Changes in the C API<7>1483254 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 changes-in-the-c-api1483372 Ref: ec61483372 Ref: Changes in the C API<7>-Footnote-11484676 Ref: Changes in the C API<7>-Footnote-21484741 Ref: Changes in the C API<7>-Footnote-31484806 Node: Notable changes in Python 3 5 41484848 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 notable-changes-in-python-3-5-41484972 Ref: eca1484972 Node: New make regen-all build target<2>1485209 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 new-make-regen-all-build-target1485357 Ref: ecb1485357 Ref: New make regen-all build target<2>-Footnote-11486146 Ref: New make regen-all build target<2>-Footnote-21486214 Node: Removal of make touch build target<2>1486279 Ref: whatsnew/3 5 removal-of-make-touch-build-target1486427 Ref: ecc1486427 Ref: Removal of make touch build target<2>-Footnote-11486857 Node: What’s New In Python 3 41486922 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 doc1487077 Ref: ecd1487077 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 what-s-new-in-python-3-41487077 Ref: ece1487077 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 4-Footnote-11487818 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 4-Footnote-21487878 Node: Summary – Release Highlights<3>1487920 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 summary-release-highlights1488041 Ref: ecf1488041 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-11492332 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-21492374 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-31492416 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-41492481 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-51492523 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-61492588 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-71492630 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-81492672 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-91492714 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-101492756 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-111492799 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-121492842 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-131492885 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-141492928 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-151492971 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-161493036 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-171493102 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-181493145 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-191493188 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-201493254 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-211493300 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-221493343 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-231493386 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-241493452 Ref: Summary – Release Highlights<3>-Footnote-251493495 Node: New Features<15>1493538 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 new-features1493683 Ref: eea1493683 Node: PEP 453 Explicit Bootstrapping of PIP in Python Installations1494176 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-453-explicit-bootstrapping-of-pip-in-python-installations1494357 Ref: eeb1494357 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4531494357 Ref: ed01494357 Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default1494571 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 bootstrapping-pip-by-default1494727 Ref: eec1494727 Ref: Bootstrapping pip By Default-Footnote-11497628 Ref: Bootstrapping pip By Default-Footnote-21497670 Node: Documentation Changes1497757 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 documentation-changes1497913 Ref: eef1497913 Ref: Documentation Changes-Footnote-11498849 Ref: Documentation Changes-Footnote-21498886 Node: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable1498928 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-446-newly-created-file-descriptors-are-non-inheritable1499148 Ref: ef31499148 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4461499148 Ref: ed11499148 Ref: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable-Footnote-11500168 Ref: PEP 446 Newly Created File Descriptors Are Non-Inheritable-Footnote-21500210 Node: Improvements to Codec Handling1500252 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 codec-handling-improvements1500458 Ref: ed31500458 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 improvements-to-codec-handling1500458 Ref: efb1500458 Ref: Improvements to Codec Handling-Footnote-11504666 Ref: Improvements to Codec Handling-Footnote-21504730 Ref: Improvements to Codec Handling-Footnote-31504795 Ref: Improvements to Codec Handling-Footnote-41504860 Node: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System1504925 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-451-a-modulespec-type-for-the-import-system1505099 Ref: f001505099 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4511505099 Ref: ed41505099 Ref: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System-Footnote-11506052 Ref: PEP 451 A ModuleSpec Type for the Import System-Footnote-21506094 Node: Other Language Changes<10>1506174 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 other-language-changes1506309 Ref: f021506309 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-11508953 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-21509018 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-31509083 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-41509148 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-51509215 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-61509280 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-71509345 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-81509410 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-91509475 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-101509540 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-111509606 Ref: Other Language Changes<10>-Footnote-121509649 Node: New Modules<10>1509715 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 new-modules1509847 Ref: f071509847 Node: asyncio<11>1510075 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 asyncio1510159 Ref: f081510159 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-asyncio1510159 Ref: ed61510159 Ref: asyncio<11>-Footnote-11510759 Ref: asyncio<11>-Footnote-21510801 Node: ensurepip<2>1510843 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 ensurepip1510943 Ref: f091510943 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-ensurepip1510943 Ref: ed71510943 Ref: ensurepip<2>-Footnote-11512217 Node: enum<9>1512259 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 enum1512359 Ref: f0a1512359 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-enum1512359 Ref: ed81512359 Ref: enum<9>-Footnote-11512931 Ref: enum<9>-Footnote-21512973 Node: pathlib<11>1513015 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pathlib1513115 Ref: f0b1513115 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pathlib1513115 Ref: ed91513115 Ref: pathlib<11>-Footnote-11513735 Node: selectors<2>1513777 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 selectors1513883 Ref: f0c1513883 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-selectors1513883 Ref: eda1513883 Ref: selectors<2>-Footnote-11514143 Node: statistics<6>1514185 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 statistics1514294 Ref: f0d1514294 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-statistics1514294 Ref: edb1514294 Ref: statistics<6>-Footnote-11514761 Ref: statistics<6>-Footnote-21514803 Node: tracemalloc<4>1514845 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 tracemalloc1514933 Ref: f0e1514933 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-tracemalloc1514933 Ref: edc1514933 Ref: tracemalloc<4>-Footnote-11515599 Ref: tracemalloc<4>-Footnote-21515641 Node: Improved Modules<10>1515683 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 improved-modules1515829 Ref: f0f1515829 Node: abc1517177 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 abc1517253 Ref: f101517253 Ref: abc-Footnote-11517776 Ref: abc-Footnote-21517841 Node: aifc<2>1517906 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 aifc1518002 Ref: f141518002 Ref: aifc<2>-Footnote-11518612 Ref: aifc<2>-Footnote-21518677 Ref: aifc<2>-Footnote-31518742 Node: argparse<5>1518806 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 argparse1518906 Ref: f151518906 Ref: argparse<5>-Footnote-11519154 Node: audioop1519219 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 audioop1519321 Ref: f171519321 Ref: audioop-Footnote-11519847 Ref: audioop-Footnote-21519912 Ref: audioop-Footnote-31519977 Node: base64<3>1520042 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 base641520147 Ref: f181520147 Ref: base64<3>-Footnote-11520980 Ref: base64<3>-Footnote-21521045 Node: collections<6>1521110 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 collections1521216 Ref: f1d1521216 Ref: collections<6>-Footnote-11521548 Node: colorsys1521613 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 colorsys1521723 Ref: f1f1521723 Ref: colorsys-Footnote-11522093 Node: contextlib<6>1522158 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 contextlib1522260 Ref: f201522260 Ref: contextlib<6>-Footnote-11523447 Ref: contextlib<6>-Footnote-21523512 Ref: contextlib<6>-Footnote-31523577 Node: dbm<6>1523642 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 dbm1523742 Ref: f241523742 Ref: dbm<6>-Footnote-11524091 Node: dis<4>1524156 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 dis1524253 Ref: f261524253 Ref: dis<4>-Footnote-11526849 Ref: dis<4>-Footnote-21526914 Ref: dis<4>-Footnote-31526979 Node: doctest<4>1527044 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 doctest1527143 Ref: f2d1527143 Ref: doctest<4>-Footnote-11527913 Ref: doctest<4>-Footnote-21527978 Ref: doctest<4>-Footnote-31528043 Node: email<4>1528107 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 email1528207 Ref: f301528207 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-email-contentmanager1529457 Ref: ee01529457 Ref: email<4>-Footnote-11530386 Ref: email<4>-Footnote-21530451 Ref: email<4>-Footnote-31530516 Ref: email<4>-Footnote-41530581 Node: filecmp1530646 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 filecmp1530748 Ref: f381530748 Ref: filecmp-Footnote-11531496 Ref: filecmp-Footnote-21531561 Node: functools<5>1531626 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 functools1531725 Ref: f3c1531725 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-singledispatch1532174 Ref: edd1532174 Ref: functools<5>-Footnote-11533133 Ref: functools<5>-Footnote-21533197 Ref: functools<5>-Footnote-31533239 Ref: functools<5>-Footnote-41533304 Node: gc<5>1533369 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 gc1533468 Ref: f3e1533468 Ref: gc<5>-Footnote-11533736 Node: glob<4>1533801 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 glob1533898 Ref: f401533898 Ref: glob<4>-Footnote-11534204 Node: hashlib<6>1534268 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 hashlib1534367 Ref: f421534367 Ref: hashlib<6>-Footnote-11535002 Ref: hashlib<6>-Footnote-21535047 Ref: hashlib<6>-Footnote-31535112 Node: hmac<3>1535177 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 hmac1535273 Ref: f441535273 Ref: hmac<3>-Footnote-11536301 Ref: hmac<3>-Footnote-21536366 Ref: hmac<3>-Footnote-31536431 Ref: hmac<3>-Footnote-41536473 Node: html1536538 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 html1536631 Ref: f491536631 Ref: html-Footnote-11537390 Ref: html-Footnote-21537454 Ref: html-Footnote-31537519 Node: http<3>1537584 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 http1537689 Ref: f4a1537689 Ref: http<3>-Footnote-11538332 Ref: http<3>-Footnote-21538397 Node: idlelib and IDLE<4>1538462 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 idlelib-and-idle1538575 Ref: f4d1538575 Node: importlib<9>1538971 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 importlib1539087 Ref: f4e1539087 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-11541071 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-21541136 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-31541201 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-41541266 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-51541331 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-61541396 Ref: importlib<9>-Footnote-71541461 Node: inspect<8>1541526 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 inspect1541635 Ref: f551541635 Ref: inspect<8>-Footnote-11543345 Ref: inspect<8>-Footnote-21543410 Ref: inspect<8>-Footnote-31543475 Ref: inspect<8>-Footnote-41543540 Ref: inspect<8>-Footnote-51543605 Ref: inspect<8>-Footnote-61543670 Node: ipaddress<5>1543735 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 ipaddress1543842 Ref: f591543842 Ref: ipaddress<5>-Footnote-11544370 Node: logging<6>1544435 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 logging1544542 Ref: f5b1544542 Ref: logging<6>-Footnote-11545674 Ref: logging<6>-Footnote-21545738 Ref: logging<6>-Footnote-31545803 Node: marshal<2>1545868 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 marshal1545970 Ref: f611545970 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-marshal-31545970 Ref: ed51545970 Ref: marshal<2>-Footnote-11546651 Ref: marshal<2>-Footnote-21546716 Node: mmap<3>1546781 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 mmap1546891 Ref: f621546891 Ref: mmap<3>-Footnote-11547063 Node: multiprocessing<7>1547127 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 multiprocessing1547238 Ref: f631547238 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-multiprocessing-no-fork1547291 Ref: edf1547291 Ref: multiprocessing<7>-Footnote-11549103 Ref: multiprocessing<7>-Footnote-21549167 Ref: multiprocessing<7>-Footnote-31549232 Ref: multiprocessing<7>-Footnote-41549296 Node: operator<3>1549361 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 operator1549471 Ref: f671549471 Ref: operator<3>-Footnote-11550024 Ref: operator<3>-Footnote-21550066 Ref: operator<3>-Footnote-31550131 Node: os<11>1550196 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 os1550294 Ref: f691550294 Ref: os<11>-Footnote-11551741 Ref: os<11>-Footnote-21551806 Ref: os<11>-Footnote-31551871 Ref: os<11>-Footnote-41551935 Node: pdb<6>1552000 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pdb1552096 Ref: f6f1552096 Ref: pdb<6>-Footnote-11553092 Ref: pdb<6>-Footnote-21553157 Node: pickle<4>1553222 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pickle1553323 Ref: f721553323 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-protocol-41553323 Ref: ede1553323 Ref: pickle<4>-Footnote-11553915 Node: plistlib<2>1553957 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 plistlib1554061 Ref: f731554061 Ref: plistlib<2>-Footnote-11554597 Node: poplib<3>1554662 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 poplib1554766 Ref: f761554766 Ref: poplib<3>-Footnote-11555156 Node: pprint<4>1555220 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pprint1555316 Ref: f791555316 Ref: pprint<4>-Footnote-11555936 Ref: pprint<4>-Footnote-21556001 Node: pty1556066 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pty1556161 Ref: f7c1556161 Node: pydoc<4>1556354 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pydoc1556445 Ref: f7e1556445 Ref: pydoc<4>-Footnote-11557502 Ref: pydoc<4>-Footnote-21557567 Node: re<8>1557632 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 re1557728 Ref: f7f1557728 Ref: re<8>-Footnote-11558471 Ref: re<8>-Footnote-21558536 Ref: re<8>-Footnote-31558601 Node: resource1558666 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 resource1558760 Ref: f831558760 Ref: resource-Footnote-11559613 Ref: resource-Footnote-21559678 Ref: resource-Footnote-31559743 Node: select1559808 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 select1559906 Ref: f8d1559906 Ref: select-Footnote-11560415 Ref: select-Footnote-21560480 Node: shelve<2>1560545 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 shelve1560644 Ref: f941560644 Ref: shelve<2>-Footnote-11560916 Node: shutil<6>1560981 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 shutil1561082 Ref: f961561082 Ref: shutil<6>-Footnote-11561455 Node: smtpd<3>1561522 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 smtpd1561624 Ref: f991561624 Ref: smtpd<3>-Footnote-11561984 Node: smtplib<3>1562049 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 smtplib1562151 Ref: f9a1562151 Ref: smtplib<3>-Footnote-11562513 Node: socket<9>1562577 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 socket1562681 Ref: f9c1562681 Ref: socket<9>-Footnote-11563464 Ref: socket<9>-Footnote-21563529 Node: sqlite3<9>1563593 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 sqlite31563694 Ref: fa01563694 Ref: sqlite3<9>-Footnote-11563985 Ref: sqlite3<9>-Footnote-21564025 Node: ssl<10>1564090 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 ssl1564186 Ref: fa11564186 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-tls-11-121564215 Ref: ee21564215 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew34-sslcontext1564485 Ref: ee51564485 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew34-win-cert-store1567159 Ref: ee31567159 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew34-sni1567413 Ref: ee41567413 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-11567862 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-21567927 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-31567992 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-41568057 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-51568122 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-61568187 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-71568251 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-81568316 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-91568381 Ref: ssl<10>-Footnote-101568445 Node: stat1568511 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 stat1568606 Ref: fb31568606 Ref: stat-Footnote-11569079 Ref: stat-Footnote-21569144 Node: struct<2>1569209 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 struct1569310 Ref: fb81569310 Ref: struct<2>-Footnote-11569642 Node: subprocess<5>1569707 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 subprocess1569812 Ref: fbb1569812 Ref: subprocess<5>-Footnote-11570258 Ref: subprocess<5>-Footnote-21570323 Node: sunau<2>1570388 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 sunau1570491 Ref: fbe1570491 Ref: sunau<2>-Footnote-11571275 Ref: sunau<2>-Footnote-21571340 Ref: sunau<2>-Footnote-31571405 Ref: sunau<2>-Footnote-41571470 Node: sys<12>1571534 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 sys1571634 Ref: fbf1571634 Ref: sys<12>-Footnote-11572923 Ref: sys<12>-Footnote-21572988 Node: tarfile<8>1573052 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 tarfile1573152 Ref: fc51573152 Ref: tarfile<8>-Footnote-11573470 Node: textwrap1573535 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 textwrap1573640 Ref: fc71573640 Ref: textwrap-Footnote-11574341 Ref: textwrap-Footnote-21574406 Node: threading<7>1574471 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 threading1574578 Ref: fcc1574578 Ref: threading<7>-Footnote-11574923 Node: traceback<6>1574988 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 traceback1575095 Ref: fce1575095 Ref: traceback<6>-Footnote-11575410 Node: types<6>1575477 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 types1575581 Ref: fd01575581 Ref: types<6>-Footnote-11576087 Node: urllib<3>1576152 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 urllib1576255 Ref: fd11576255 Ref: urllib<3>-Footnote-11577571 Ref: urllib<3>-Footnote-21577636 Ref: urllib<3>-Footnote-31577701 Ref: urllib<3>-Footnote-41577766 Ref: urllib<3>-Footnote-51577831 Ref: urllib<3>-Footnote-61577896 Node: unittest<9>1577961 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 unittest1578063 Ref: fdb1578063 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-11581219 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-21581284 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-31581349 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-41581414 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-51581479 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-61581544 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-71581609 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-81581674 Ref: unittest<9>-Footnote-91581739 Node: venv<7>1581804 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 venv1581904 Ref: fe21581904 Ref: venv<7>-Footnote-11582462 Ref: venv<7>-Footnote-21582527 Ref: venv<7>-Footnote-31582592 Node: wave<2>1582634 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 wave1582733 Ref: fe31582733 Ref: wave<2>-Footnote-11583370 Ref: wave<2>-Footnote-21583435 Ref: wave<2>-Footnote-31583500 Ref: wave<2>-Footnote-41583564 Node: weakref<2>1583628 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 weakref1583732 Ref: fe71583732 Ref: weakref<2>-Footnote-11584353 Ref: weakref<2>-Footnote-21584418 Ref: weakref<2>-Footnote-31584483 Node: xml etree<2>1584548 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 xml-etree1584655 Ref: feb1584655 Ref: xml etree<2>-Footnote-11585394 Ref: xml etree<2>-Footnote-21585459 Node: zipfile<5>1585524 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 zipfile1585612 Ref: ff11585612 Ref: zipfile<5>-Footnote-11586143 Ref: zipfile<5>-Footnote-21586208 Node: CPython Implementation Changes1586273 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 cpython-implementation-changes1586418 Ref: ff41586418 Node: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators1586950 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-445-customization-of-cpython-memory-allocators1587108 Ref: ff51587108 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4451587108 Ref: ee81587108 Ref: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators-Footnote-11587505 Ref: PEP 445 Customization of CPython Memory Allocators-Footnote-21587547 Node: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization1587589 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-442-safe-object-finalization1587805 Ref: ff61587805 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4421587805 Ref: ee71587805 Ref: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization-Footnote-11588668 Ref: PEP 442 Safe Object Finalization-Footnote-21588710 Node: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm1588752 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-456-secure-and-interchangeable-hash-algorithm1588941 Ref: ff71588941 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4561588941 Ref: ee11588941 Ref: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm-Footnote-11589889 Ref: PEP 456 Secure and Interchangeable Hash Algorithm-Footnote-21589931 Node: PEP 436 Argument Clinic1589996 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-436-argument-clinic1590182 Ref: ff91590182 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-pep-4361590182 Ref: ee91590182 Ref: PEP 436 Argument Clinic-Footnote-11591290 Ref: PEP 436 Argument Clinic-Footnote-21591332 Node: Other Build and C API Changes1591374 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 other-build-and-c-api-changes1591532 Ref: ffa1591532 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-11593612 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-21593677 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-31593742 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-41593809 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-51593873 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-61593938 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-71594011 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-81594075 Ref: Other Build and C API Changes-Footnote-91594140 Node: Other Improvements<2>1594205 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 other-improvements1594365 Ref: ffe1594365 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 other-improvements-3-41594365 Ref: fff1594365 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 whatsnew-isolated-mode1594422 Ref: ed21594422 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-11598546 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-21598611 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-31598675 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-41598740 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-51598805 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-61598870 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-71598935 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-81599030 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-91599081 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-101599146 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-111599212 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-121599278 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-131599321 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-141599387 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-151599453 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-161599519 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-171599585 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-181599628 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-191599694 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-201599760 Ref: Other Improvements<2>-Footnote-211599826 Node: Significant Optimizations1599892 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 significant-optimizations1600014 Ref: 10041600014 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-11602822 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-21602887 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-31602952 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-41603017 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-51603082 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-61603147 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-71603212 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-81603276 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-91603341 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-101603406 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-111603472 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-121603538 Ref: Significant Optimizations-Footnote-131603604 Node: Deprecated<11>1603670 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 deprecated1603806 Ref: 10081603806 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 deprecated-3-41603806 Ref: f011603806 Node: Deprecations in the Python API1604248 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 deprecations-in-the-python-api1604357 Ref: 10091604357 Node: Deprecated Features1608005 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 deprecated-features1608114 Ref: 100d1608114 Ref: Deprecated Features-Footnote-11608528 Ref: Deprecated Features-Footnote-21608593 Node: Removed<11>1608658 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 removed1608785 Ref: 100f1608785 Node: Operating Systems No Longer Supported1608943 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 operating-systems-no-longer-supported1609064 Ref: 10101609064 Ref: Operating Systems No Longer Supported-Footnote-11609479 Ref: Operating Systems No Longer Supported-Footnote-21609544 Ref: Operating Systems No Longer Supported-Footnote-31609609 Node: API and Feature Removals<5>1609674 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 api-and-feature-removals1609817 Ref: 10111609817 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-11612274 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-21612310 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-31612375 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-41612440 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-51612505 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-61612570 Ref: API and Feature Removals<5>-Footnote-71612634 Node: Code Cleanups1612699 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 code-cleanups1612796 Ref: 10131612796 Ref: Code Cleanups-Footnote-11613460 Node: Porting to Python 3 41613525 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 porting-to-python-3-41613654 Ref: 10141613654 Node: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>1614028 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 changes-in-python-command-behavior1614167 Ref: 10151614167 Ref: Changes in ‘python’ Command Behavior<2>-Footnote-11615281 Node: Changes in the Python API<10>1615346 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 changes-in-the-python-api1615517 Ref: 10171615517 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-11628911 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-21628976 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-31629041 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-41629106 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-51629171 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-61629236 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-71629301 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-81629366 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-91629430 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-101629495 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-111629561 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-121629627 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-131629693 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-141629759 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-151629825 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-161629891 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-171629957 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-181630023 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-191630089 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-201630155 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-211630221 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-221630287 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-231630353 Ref: Changes in the Python API<10>-Footnote-241630418 Node: Changes in the C API<8>1630484 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 changes-in-the-c-api1630603 Ref: 10261630603 Ref: Changes in the C API<8>-Footnote-11632370 Ref: Changes in the C API<8>-Footnote-21632435 Node: Changed in 3 4 31632500 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 changed-in-3-4-31632609 Ref: 102c1632609 Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients1632827 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-4761632956 Ref: 102d1632956 Ref: whatsnew/3 4 pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients1632956 Ref: 102e1632956 Node: What’s New In Python 3 31633957 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 doc1634112 Ref: 102f1634112 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 what-s-new-in-python-3-31634112 Ref: 10301634112 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 3-Footnote-11636059 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 3-Footnote-21636119 Node: Summary – Release highlights<8>1636161 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 summary-release-highlights1636294 Ref: 10311636294 Node: PEP 405 Virtual Environments1637634 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-4051637811 Ref: 10331637811 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-405-virtual-environments1637811 Ref: 103b1637811 Ref: PEP 405 Virtual Environments-Footnote-11638801 Node: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages1638843 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-420-implicit-namespace-packages1639059 Ref: 103c1639059 Ref: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages-Footnote-11639572 Ref: PEP 420 Implicit Namespace Packages-Footnote-21639614 Node: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation1639656 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3118-new-memoryview-implementation-and-buffer-protocol-documentation1639882 Ref: 103d1639882 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3118-update1639882 Ref: 103e1639882 Ref: PEP 3118 New memoryview implementation and buffer protocol documentation-Footnote-11641014 Node: Features1641056 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 features1641193 Ref: 103f1641193 Ref: Features-Footnote-11641997 Node: API changes1642062 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 api-changes1642199 Ref: 10401642199 Ref: API changes-Footnote-11643218 Ref: API changes-Footnote-21643283 Node: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation1643325 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3931643551 Ref: 10361643551 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-393-flexible-string-representation1643551 Ref: 10431643551 Ref: PEP 393 Flexible String Representation-Footnote-11644612 Node: Functionality1644654 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 functionality1644781 Ref: 10441644781 Ref: Functionality-Footnote-11646231 Ref: Functionality-Footnote-21646273 Node: Performance and resource usage1646338 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 performance-and-resource-usage1646465 Ref: 10461646465 Ref: Performance and resource usage-Footnote-11647698 Node: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows1647740 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3971647946 Ref: 10471647946 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-397-python-launcher-for-windows1647946 Ref: 10481647946 Ref: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows-Footnote-11649491 Ref: PEP 397 Python Launcher for Windows-Footnote-21649555 Node: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy1649597 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-31511649812 Ref: 10341649812 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3151-reworking-the-os-and-io-exception-hierarchy1649812 Ref: 104a1649812 Ref: PEP 3151 Reworking the OS and IO exception hierarchy-Footnote-11652398 Node: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator1652440 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3801652657 Ref: 10321652657 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-380-syntax-for-delegating-to-a-subgenerator1652657 Ref: 10591652657 Ref: PEP 380 Syntax for Delegating to a Subgenerator-Footnote-11655103 Node: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context1655145 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-409-suppressing-exception-context1655343 Ref: 105b1655343 Ref: PEP 409 Suppressing exception context-Footnote-11657433 Node: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals1657475 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-414-explicit-unicode-literals1657675 Ref: 105c1657675 Ref: PEP 414 Explicit Unicode literals-Footnote-11658390 Node: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions1658432 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-3155-qualified-name-for-classes-and-functions1658625 Ref: 105d1658625 Ref: PEP 3155 Qualified name for classes and functions-Footnote-11660242 Node: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary1660284 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-4121660477 Ref: 10371660477 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-412-key-sharing-dictionary1660477 Ref: 10601660477 Ref: PEP 412 Key-Sharing Dictionary-Footnote-11660998 Node: PEP 362 Function Signature Object1661040 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-362-function-signature-object1661217 Ref: 10611661217 Ref: PEP 362 Function Signature Object-Footnote-11662114 Node: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation1662156 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pep-421-adding-sys-implementation1662350 Ref: 10631662350 Ref: PEP 421 Adding sys implementation-Footnote-11663566 Node: SimpleNamespace1663608 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 simplenamespace1663693 Ref: 10641663693 Ref: SimpleNamespace-Footnote-11664313 Node: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import1664355 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 importlib1664542 Ref: 10351664542 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 using-importlib-as-the-implementation-of-import1664542 Ref: 10651664542 Ref: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import-Footnote-11665822 Ref: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import-Footnote-21665886 Ref: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import-Footnote-31665951 Ref: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import-Footnote-41666016 Ref: Using importlib as the Implementation of Import-Footnote-51666081 Node: New APIs1666123 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 new-apis1666239 Ref: 10681666239 Node: Visible Changes1668084 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 visible-changes1668200 Ref: 106f1668200 Ref: Visible Changes-Footnote-11670055 Ref: Visible Changes-Footnote-21670097 Node: Other Language Changes<11>1670139 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 other-language-changes1670320 Ref: 10701670320 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-11672285 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-21672350 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-31672415 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-41672480 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-51672545 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-61672610 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-71672675 Ref: Other Language Changes<11>-Footnote-81672740 Node: A Finer-Grained Import Lock1672805 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 a-finer-grained-import-lock1672966 Ref: 10731672966 Ref: A Finer-Grained Import Lock-Footnote-11673711 Node: Builtin functions and types1673775 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 builtin-functions-and-types1673925 Ref: 10741673925 Ref: Builtin functions and types-Footnote-11675162 Node: New Modules<11>1675226 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 new-modules1675369 Ref: 10771675369 Node: faulthandler<4>1675497 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 faulthandler1675585 Ref: 10781675585 Node: ipaddress<6>1676513 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 ipaddress1676617 Ref: 107a1676617 Ref: ipaddress<6>-Footnote-11676963 Node: lzma<2>1677005 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 lzma1677085 Ref: 107b1677085 Ref: lzma<2>-Footnote-11677399 Node: Improved Modules<11>1677463 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 improved-modules1677596 Ref: 107c1677596 Node: abc<2>1678931 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 abc1679011 Ref: 107d1679011 Ref: abc<2>-Footnote-11679997 Ref: abc<2>-Footnote-21680062 Node: array<5>1680127 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 array1680225 Ref: 10831680225 Ref: array<5>-Footnote-11680459 Node: base64<4>1680526 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 base641680629 Ref: 10841680629 Ref: base64<4>-Footnote-11680929 Node: binascii<3>1680994 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 binascii1681095 Ref: 10851681095 Ref: binascii<3>-Footnote-11681351 Node: bz2<2>1681416 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 bz21681517 Ref: 10861681517 Ref: bz2<2>-Footnote-11682492 Ref: bz2<2>-Footnote-21682556 Node: codecs<2>1682620 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 codecs1682724 Ref: 10891682724 Ref: codecs<2>-Footnote-11684046 Ref: codecs<2>-Footnote-21684111 Ref: codecs<2>-Footnote-31684176 Node: collections<7>1684241 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 collections1684352 Ref: 108a1684352 Ref: collections<7>-Footnote-11685120 Ref: collections<7>-Footnote-21685185 Ref: collections<7>-Footnote-31685250 Ref: collections<7>-Footnote-41685315 Node: contextlib<7>1685380 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 contextlib1685490 Ref: 108c1685490 Ref: contextlib<7>-Footnote-11686085 Node: crypt<2>1686150 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 crypt1686255 Ref: 108d1686255 Ref: crypt<2>-Footnote-11686459 Node: curses<5>1686524 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 curses1686627 Ref: 108e1686627 Ref: curses<5>-Footnote-11687425 Node: datetime<6>1687489 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 datetime1687594 Ref: 10921687594 Ref: datetime<6>-Footnote-11688255 Node: decimal<3>1688320 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 decimal1688424 Ref: 10941688424 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 new-decimal1688424 Ref: 10381688424 Ref: decimal<3>-Footnote-11690130 Node: Features<2>1690194 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 id11690275 Ref: 10951690275 Node: API changes<2>1690651 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 id21690732 Ref: 10981690732 Node: email<5>1693511 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 email1693613 Ref: 10a71693613 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 new-email1693613 Ref: 10391693613 Node: Policy Framework1693744 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 policy-framework1693852 Ref: 10a81693852 Node: Provisional Policy with New Header API1696770 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 provisional-policy-with-new-header-api1696904 Ref: 10ac1696904 Node: Other API Changes1701486 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 other-api-changes1701595 Ref: 10b01701595 Node: ftplib<3>1702444 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 ftplib1702548 Ref: 10b61702548 Ref: ftplib<3>-Footnote-11703461 Ref: ftplib<3>-Footnote-21703525 Ref: ftplib<3>-Footnote-31703590 Node: functools<6>1703655 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 functools1703756 Ref: 10bb1703756 Ref: functools<6>-Footnote-11704104 Node: gc<6>1704169 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 gc1704268 Ref: 10bc1704268 Node: hmac<4>1704443 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 hmac1704537 Ref: 10be1704537 Ref: hmac<4>-Footnote-11704804 Node: http<4>1704869 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 http1704965 Ref: 10c01704965 Ref: http<4>-Footnote-11705651 Ref: http<4>-Footnote-21705715 Ref: http<4>-Footnote-31705780 Node: html<2>1705845 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 html1705944 Ref: 10c71705944 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-11706945 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-21707010 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-31707075 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-41707140 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-51707205 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-61707270 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-71707337 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-81707403 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-91707468 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-101707533 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-111707601 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-121707668 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-131707734 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-141707800 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-151707865 Ref: html<2>-Footnote-161707931 Node: imaplib<3>1707997 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 imaplib1708099 Ref: 10c91708099 Ref: imaplib<3>-Footnote-11708341 Node: inspect<9>1708405 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 inspect1708505 Ref: 10ca1708505 Ref: inspect<9>-Footnote-11709219 Ref: inspect<9>-Footnote-21709284 Node: io<6>1709349 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 io1709451 Ref: 10cd1709451 Ref: io<6>-Footnote-11710101 Node: itertools<6>1710166 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 itertools1710268 Ref: 10ce1710268 Node: logging<7>1710426 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 logging1710530 Ref: 10cf1710530 Node: math<9>1710983 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 math1711082 Ref: 10d01711082 Ref: math<9>-Footnote-11711308 Node: mmap<4>1711373 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 mmap1711480 Ref: 10d21711480 Ref: mmap<4>-Footnote-11711818 Node: multiprocessing<8>1711883 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 multiprocessing1711993 Ref: 10d41711993 Ref: multiprocessing<8>-Footnote-11713152 Ref: multiprocessing<8>-Footnote-21713217 Ref: multiprocessing<8>-Footnote-31713281 Ref: multiprocessing<8>-Footnote-41713345 Node: nntplib<2>1713410 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 nntplib1713519 Ref: 10dc1713519 Ref: nntplib<2>-Footnote-11714079 Node: os<12>1714143 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 os1714240 Ref: 10dd1714240 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-11721680 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-21721745 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-31721809 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-41721874 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-51721939 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-61722004 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-71722068 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-81722133 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-91722198 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-101722263 Ref: os<12>-Footnote-111722328 Node: pdb<7>1722394 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pdb1722490 Ref: 11141722490 Ref: pdb<7>-Footnote-11722773 Node: pickle<5>1722838 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pickle1722936 Ref: 11151722936 Ref: pickle<5>-Footnote-11723207 Node: pydoc<5>1723272 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 pydoc1723369 Ref: 11171723369 Node: re<9>1723568 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 re1723661 Ref: 11181723661 Ref: re<9>-Footnote-11723857 Node: sched1723921 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 sched1724015 Ref: 11191724015 Ref: sched-Footnote-11725162 Ref: sched-Footnote-21725227 Ref: sched-Footnote-31725291 Ref: sched-Footnote-41725356 Ref: sched-Footnote-51725421 Node: select<2>1725486 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 select1725583 Ref: 111e1725583 Ref: select<2>-Footnote-11725848 Node: shlex<3>1725912 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 shlex1726013 Ref: 111f1726013 Node: shutil<7>1726320 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 shutil1726421 Ref: 11201726421 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-11728297 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-21728362 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-31728427 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-41728492 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-51728557 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-61728622 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-71728687 Ref: shutil<7>-Footnote-81728751 Node: signal<4>1728815 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 signal1728916 Ref: 11231728916 Ref: signal<4>-Footnote-11729989 Node: smtpd<4>1730053 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 smtpd1730155 Ref: 112a1730155 Ref: smtpd<4>-Footnote-11730638 Ref: smtpd<4>-Footnote-21730697 Ref: smtpd<4>-Footnote-31730756 Node: smtplib<4>1730820 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 smtplib1730923 Ref: 112b1730923 Ref: smtplib<4>-Footnote-11731677 Ref: smtplib<4>-Footnote-21731742 Ref: smtplib<4>-Footnote-31731807 Node: socket<10>1731871 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 socket1731981 Ref: 112d1731981 Ref: socket<10>-Footnote-11733223 Ref: socket<10>-Footnote-21733287 Ref: socket<10>-Footnote-31733352 Ref: socket<10>-Footnote-41733441 Ref: socket<10>-Footnote-51733506 Node: socketserver<3>1733571 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 socketserver1733682 Ref: 11301733682 Ref: socketserver<3>-Footnote-11734060 Node: sqlite3<10>1734125 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 sqlite31734233 Ref: 11341734233 Ref: sqlite3<10>-Footnote-11734510 Node: ssl<11>1734575 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 ssl1734675 Ref: 11351734675 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-11736896 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-21736961 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-31737026 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-41737091 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-51737156 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-61737221 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-71737286 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-81737351 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-91737416 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-101737481 Ref: ssl<11>-Footnote-111737547 Node: stat<2>1737613 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 stat1737711 Ref: 113e1737711 Ref: stat<2>-Footnote-11738009 Node: struct<3>1738074 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 struct1738178 Ref: 11401738178 Ref: struct<3>-Footnote-11738427 Node: subprocess<6>1738491 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 subprocess1738595 Ref: 11411738595 Ref: subprocess<6>-Footnote-11738933 Ref: subprocess<6>-Footnote-21738997 Node: sys<13>1739061 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 sys1739166 Ref: 11431739166 Ref: sys<13>-Footnote-11739387 Node: tarfile<9>1739452 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 tarfile1739555 Ref: 11451739555 Ref: tarfile<9>-Footnote-11739764 Node: tempfile<4>1739828 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 tempfile1739935 Ref: 11461739935 Ref: tempfile<4>-Footnote-11740162 Node: textwrap<2>1740226 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 textwrap1740335 Ref: 11471740335 Ref: textwrap<2>-Footnote-11740581 Node: threading<8>1740646 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 threading1740751 Ref: 11481740751 Ref: threading<8>-Footnote-11741690 Ref: threading<8>-Footnote-21741755 Node: time<8>1741819 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 time1741921 Ref: 114f1741921 Ref: time<8>-Footnote-11742893 Ref: time<8>-Footnote-21742935 Node: types<7>1743000 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 types1743102 Ref: 11541743102 Ref: types<7>-Footnote-11743442 Ref: types<7>-Footnote-21743507 Ref: types<7>-Footnote-31743549 Node: unittest<10>1743614 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 unittest1743718 Ref: 11571743718 Ref: unittest<10>-Footnote-11744137 Node: urllib<4>1744202 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 urllib1744311 Ref: 115c1744311 Ref: urllib<4>-Footnote-11744666 Node: webbrowser<3>1744733 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 webbrowser1744854 Ref: 115e1744854 Ref: webbrowser<3>-Footnote-11745398 Ref: webbrowser<3>-Footnote-21745463 Node: xml etree ElementTree<2>1745528 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 xml-etree-elementtree1745647 Ref: 115f1745647 Node: zlib<2>1746168 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 zlib1746265 Ref: 11601746265 Ref: zlib<2>-Footnote-11746741 Ref: zlib<2>-Footnote-21746806 Node: Optimizations<10>1746871 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 optimizations1747015 Ref: 11631747015 Ref: Optimizations<10>-Footnote-11747828 Ref: Optimizations<10>-Footnote-21747870 Ref: Optimizations<10>-Footnote-31747935 Ref: Optimizations<10>-Footnote-41748000 Node: Build and C API Changes<4>1748065 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 build-and-c-api-changes1748203 Ref: 10411748203 Ref: Build and C API Changes<4>-Footnote-11750094 Ref: Build and C API Changes<4>-Footnote-21750136 Ref: Build and C API Changes<4>-Footnote-31750178 Node: Deprecated<12>1750243 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 deprecated1750385 Ref: 11791750385 Node: Unsupported Operating Systems<2>1750724 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 unsupported-operating-systems1750866 Ref: 117a1750866 Node: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>1751222 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 deprecated-python-modules-functions-and-methods1751419 Ref: 117b1751419 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>-Footnote-11753771 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>-Footnote-21753835 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>-Footnote-31753877 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>-Footnote-41753942 Ref: Deprecated Python modules functions and methods<4>-Footnote-51754007 Node: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>1754072 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 deprecated-functions-and-types-of-the-c-api1754256 Ref: 117f1754256 Ref: Deprecated functions and types of the C API<3>-Footnote-11757282 Node: Deprecated features1757324 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 deprecated-features1757449 Ref: 11891757449 Node: Porting to Python 3 31757674 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 porting-to-python-3-31757781 Ref: 118a1757781 Node: Porting Python code1758060 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 porting-python-code1758160 Ref: 10671758160 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 portingpythoncode1758160 Ref: 118b1758160 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-11765192 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-21765257 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-31765322 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-41765387 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-51765429 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-61765471 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-71765535 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-81765602 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-91765667 Ref: Porting Python code-Footnote-101765731 Node: Porting C code1765797 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 porting-c-code1765927 Ref: 10421765927 Ref: Porting C code-Footnote-11767428 Node: Building C extensions1767470 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 building-c-extensions1767608 Ref: 11991767608 Ref: Building C extensions-Footnote-11768208 Node: Command Line Switch Changes1768273 Ref: whatsnew/3 3 command-line-switch-changes1768388 Ref: 119a1768388 Ref: Command Line Switch Changes-Footnote-11768956 Ref: Command Line Switch Changes-Footnote-21769021 Node: What’s New In Python 3 21769086 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 doc1769241 Ref: 119c1769241 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 what-s-new-in-python-3-21769241 Ref: 119d1769241 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 2-Footnote-11770640 Ref: What’s New In Python 3 2-Footnote-21770739 Node: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI1770781 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-384-defining-a-stable-abi1770926 Ref: 119e1770926 Ref: PEP 384 Defining a Stable ABI-Footnote-11772019 Node: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module1772061 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-389-argparse-command-line-parsing-module1772265 Ref: 119f1772265 Ref: PEP 389 Argparse Command Line Parsing Module-Footnote-11776406 Node: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging1776448 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging1776661 Ref: 11a11776661 Ref: PEP 391 Dictionary Based Configuration for Logging-Footnote-11778960 Node: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module1779002 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-3148-the-concurrent-futures-module1779206 Ref: 11a31779206 Ref: PEP 3148 The concurrent futures module-Footnote-11781910 Node: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories1781952 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-3147-pyc-repository-directories1782142 Ref: 11a71782142 Ref: PEP 3147 PYC Repository Directories-Footnote-11785213 Node: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files1785255 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-3149-abi-version-tagged-so-files1785458 Ref: 11a91785458 Ref: PEP 3149 ABI Version Tagged so Files-Footnote-11786718 Node: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 11786760 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pep-3333-python-web-server-gateway-interface-v1-0-11786954 Ref: 11aa1786954 Ref: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1-Footnote-11789320 Ref: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1-Footnote-21789379 Ref: PEP 3333 Python Web Server Gateway Interface v1 0 1-Footnote-31789438 Node: Other Language Changes<12>1789480 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 other-language-changes1789673 Ref: 11ad1789673 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-11799205 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-21799269 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-31799333 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-41799400 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-51799464 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-61799528 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-71799592 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-81799656 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-91799720 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-101799784 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-111799850 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-121799917 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-131799982 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-141800047 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-151800113 Ref: Other Language Changes<12>-Footnote-161800179 Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules1800244 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 new-improved-and-deprecated-modules1800401 Ref: 11b91800401 Node: email<6>1802432 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 email1802532 Ref: 11ba1802532 Ref: email<6>-Footnote-11804515 Ref: email<6>-Footnote-21804574 Ref: email<6>-Footnote-31804638 Node: elementtree1804703 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 elementtree1804824 Ref: 11c21804824 Ref: elementtree-Footnote-11806310 Ref: elementtree-Footnote-21806410 Node: functools<7>1806474 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 functools1806599 Ref: 11c91806599 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-11810071 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-21810154 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-31810233 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-41810298 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-51810363 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-61810427 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-71810491 Ref: functools<7>-Footnote-81810555 Node: itertools<7>1810607 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 itertools1810735 Ref: 11cd1810735 Node: collections<8>1811428 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 collections1811556 Ref: 11cf1811556 Ref: collections<8>-Footnote-11813805 Ref: collections<8>-Footnote-21813865 Node: threading<9>1813912 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 threading1814045 Ref: 11d41814045 Ref: threading<9>-Footnote-11816811 Ref: threading<9>-Footnote-21816872 Ref: threading<9>-Footnote-31816971 Ref: threading<9>-Footnote-41817043 Node: datetime and time1817107 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 datetime-and-time1817234 Ref: 11d81817234 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-11820028 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-21820095 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-31820159 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-41820223 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-51820287 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-61820354 Ref: datetime and time-Footnote-71820418 Node: math<10>1820483 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 math1820604 Ref: 11dc1820604 Ref: math<10>-Footnote-11822487 Node: abc<3>1822540 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 abc1822649 Ref: 11e11822649 Ref: abc<3>-Footnote-11823276 Node: io<7>1823340 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 io1823448 Ref: 11e21823448 Ref: io<7>-Footnote-11824616 Node: reprlib1824680 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 reprlib1824792 Ref: 11e41824792 Ref: reprlib-Footnote-11825777 Ref: reprlib-Footnote-21825841 Node: logging<8>1825905 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 logging1826018 Ref: 11e61826018 Node: csv<4>1827883 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 csv1828002 Ref: 11ee1828002 Ref: csv<4>-Footnote-11828868 Ref: csv<4>-Footnote-21828932 Node: contextlib<8>1828999 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 contextlib1829129 Ref: 11f21829129 Ref: contextlib<8>-Footnote-11831347 Node: decimal and fractions1831411 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 decimal-and-fractions1831538 Ref: 11f51831538 Ref: decimal and fractions-Footnote-11833971 Ref: decimal and fractions-Footnote-21834035 Ref: decimal and fractions-Footnote-31834099 Ref: decimal and fractions-Footnote-41834163 Ref: decimal and fractions-Footnote-51834227 Ref: decimal and fractions-Footnote-61834291 Node: ftp1834355 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 ftp1834474 Ref: 11f91834474 Ref: ftp-Footnote-11835819 Ref: ftp-Footnote-21835883 Ref: ftp-Footnote-31835947 Ref: ftp-Footnote-41836011 Node: popen1836075 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 popen1836182 Ref: 11fa1836182 Ref: popen-Footnote-11836489 Ref: popen-Footnote-21836553 Node: select<3>1836618 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 select1836738 Ref: 11fb1836738 Ref: select<3>-Footnote-11837172 Node: gzip and zipfile1837236 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 gzip-and-zipfile1837362 Ref: 11fd1837362 Ref: gzip and zipfile-Footnote-11838929 Ref: gzip and zipfile-Footnote-21838993 Ref: gzip and zipfile-Footnote-31839057 Ref: gzip and zipfile-Footnote-41839124 Ref: gzip and zipfile-Footnote-51839188 Ref: gzip and zipfile-Footnote-61839252 Node: tarfile<10>1839316 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 tarfile1839443 Ref: 12011839443 Ref: tarfile<10>-Footnote-11841019 Node: hashlib<7>1841083 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 hashlib1841200 Ref: 12041841200 Ref: hashlib<7>-Footnote-11841957 Node: ast<5>1842021 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 ast1842133 Ref: 12051842133 Node: os<13>1843072 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 os1843183 Ref: 12061843183 Node: shutil<8>1843958 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 shutil1844074 Ref: 120a1844074 Node: sqlite3<11>1846244 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 sqlite31846361 Ref: 120c1846361 Ref: sqlite3<11>-Footnote-11847012 Node: html<3>1847076 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 html1847194 Ref: 120d1847194 Node: socket<11>1847483 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 socket1847597 Ref: 120e1847597 Ref: socket<11>-Footnote-11848243 Ref: socket<11>-Footnote-21848307 Node: ssl<12>1848371 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 ssl1848482 Ref: 12101848482 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-11850584 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-21850643 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-31850715 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-41850779 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-51850843 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-61850907 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-71850971 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-81851035 Ref: ssl<12>-Footnote-91851099 Node: nntp1851163 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 nntp1851276 Ref: 12141851276 Ref: nntp-Footnote-11851831 Ref: nntp-Footnote-21851895 Node: certificates1851959 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 certificates1852075 Ref: 12151852075 Ref: certificates-Footnote-11852473 Node: imaplib<4>1852537 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 imaplib1852663 Ref: 12171852663 Ref: imaplib<4>-Footnote-11852937 Node: http client<4>1853001 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 http-client1853127 Ref: 12191853127 Ref: http client<4>-Footnote-11854554 Node: unittest<11>1854619 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 unittest1854744 Ref: 121c1854744 Ref: unittest<11>-Footnote-11859428 Ref: unittest<11>-Footnote-21859493 Ref: unittest<11>-Footnote-31859557 Node: random<5>1859621 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 random1859741 Ref: 12211859741 Ref: random<5>-Footnote-11860407 Node: poplib<4>1860471 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 poplib1860590 Ref: 12241860590 Ref: poplib<4>-Footnote-11860944 Node: asyncore<2>1861008 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 asyncore1861129 Ref: 12251861129 Ref: asyncore<2>-Footnote-11861584 Node: tempfile<5>1861648 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 tempfile1861771 Ref: 12261861771 Ref: tempfile<5>-Footnote-11862180 Node: inspect<10>1862244 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 inspect1862364 Ref: 12281862364 Ref: inspect<10>-Footnote-11863739 Node: pydoc<6>1863804 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pydoc1863919 Ref: 122a1863919 Ref: pydoc<6>-Footnote-11864238 Node: dis<5>1864302 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 dis1864412 Ref: 122b1864412 Ref: dis<5>-Footnote-11866563 Node: dbm<7>1866627 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 dbm1866738 Ref: 122d1866738 Ref: dbm<7>-Footnote-11866927 Node: ctypes<3>1866991 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 ctypes1867103 Ref: 122e1867103 Node: site<4>1867222 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 site1867340 Ref: 12301867340 Ref: site<4>-Footnote-11868574 Node: sysconfig<3>1868638 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 sysconfig1868753 Ref: 12341868753 Node: pdb<8>1870984 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 pdb1871107 Ref: 12381871107 Node: configparser<5>1872018 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 configparser1872144 Ref: 12391872144 Node: urllib parse<6>1875010 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 urllib-parse1875137 Ref: 123a1875137 Ref: urllib parse<6>-Footnote-11877150 Ref: urllib parse<6>-Footnote-21877193 Ref: urllib parse<6>-Footnote-31877252 Ref: urllib parse<6>-Footnote-41877316 Ref: urllib parse<6>-Footnote-51877380 Node: mailbox1877444 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 mailbox1877566 Ref: 123e1877566 Ref: mailbox-Footnote-11879146 Node: turtledemo1879210 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 turtledemo1879308 Ref: 12451879308 Ref: turtledemo-Footnote-11879745 Node: Multi-threading1879810 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 multi-threading1879958 Ref: 12461879958 Ref: Multi-threading-Footnote-11881604 Ref: Multi-threading-Footnote-21881683 Ref: Multi-threading-Footnote-31881747 Ref: Multi-threading-Footnote-41881813 Node: Optimizations<11>1881877 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 optimizations1881997 Ref: 12481881997 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-11885504 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-21885568 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-31885632 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-41885696 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-51885742 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-61885806 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-71885870 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-81885935 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-91885999 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-101886063 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-111886128 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-121886193 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-131886258 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-141886326 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-151886391 Ref: Optimizations<11>-Footnote-161886457 Node: Unicode1886522 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 unicode1886633 Ref: 124d1886633 Ref: Unicode-Footnote-11887185 Ref: Unicode-Footnote-21887236 Ref: Unicode-Footnote-31887280 Node: Codecs1887352 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 codecs1887459 Ref: 124e1887459 Ref: Codecs-Footnote-11888389 Node: Documentation1888456 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 documentation1888560 Ref: 124f1888560 Ref: Documentation-Footnote-11890209 Ref: Documentation-Footnote-21890278 Ref: Documentation-Footnote-31890354 Ref: Documentation-Footnote-41890418 Node: IDLE1890482 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 idle1890595 Ref: 12531890595 Ref: IDLE-Footnote-11890981 Ref: IDLE-Footnote-21891045 Node: Code Repository1891109 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 code-repository1891235 Ref: 12541891235 Ref: Code Repository-Footnote-11891844 Ref: Code Repository-Footnote-21891883 Ref: Code Repository-Footnote-31891925 Ref: Code Repository-Footnote-41891979 Node: Build and C API Changes<5>1892023 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 build-and-c-api-changes1892166 Ref: 12551892166 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-11896314 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-21896379 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-31896443 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-41896507 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-51896571 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-61896635 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-71896699 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-81896763 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-91896827 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-101896891 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-111896956 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-121897021 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-131897086 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-141897151 Ref: Build and C API Changes<5>-Footnote-151897234 Node: Porting to Python 3 21897335 Ref: whatsnew/3 2 porting-to-python-3-21897454 Ref: 125e1897454 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-11904309 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-21904373 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-31904437 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-41904482 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-51904547 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-61904612 Ref: Porting to Python 3 2-Footnote-71904677 Node: What’s New In Python 3 11904741 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 doc1904896 Ref: 126e1904896 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 what-s-new-in-python-3-11904896 Ref: 126f1904896 Node: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries1905569 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 pep-372-ordered-dictionaries1905717 Ref: 12701905717 Ref: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries-Footnote-11908225 Ref: PEP 372 Ordered Dictionaries-Footnote-21908253 Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator1908295 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator1908478 Ref: 12711908478 Ref: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator-Footnote-11909719 Node: Other Language Changes<13>1909761 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 other-language-changes1909954 Ref: 12721909954 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-11914755 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-21914822 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-31914886 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-41914950 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-51915014 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-61915059 Ref: Other Language Changes<13>-Footnote-71915123 Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>1915187 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 new-improved-and-deprecated-modules1915349 Ref: 12731915349 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-11923956 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-21924023 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-31924087 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-41924151 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-51924215 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-61924279 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-71924321 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-81924385 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-91924449 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-101924513 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-111924578 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-121924643 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<2>-Footnote-131924708 Node: Optimizations<12>1924773 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 optimizations1924916 Ref: 12831924916 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-11927095 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-21927137 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-31927201 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-41927265 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-51927329 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-61927355 Ref: Optimizations<12>-Footnote-71927419 Node: IDLE<2>1927483 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 idle1927614 Ref: 12841927614 Ref: IDLE<2>-Footnote-11927831 Node: Build and C API Changes<6>1927895 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 build-and-c-api-changes1928030 Ref: 12851928030 Ref: Build and C API Changes<6>-Footnote-11930297 Ref: Build and C API Changes<6>-Footnote-21930361 Ref: Build and C API Changes<6>-Footnote-31930425 Ref: Build and C API Changes<6>-Footnote-41930489 Ref: Build and C API Changes<6>-Footnote-51930553 Node: Porting to Python 3 11930617 Ref: whatsnew/3 1 porting-to-python-3-11930736 Ref: 12891930736 Node: What’s New In Python 3 01931868 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 doc1932023 Ref: 128a1932023 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 what-s-new-in-python-3-01932023 Ref: 128b1932023 Node: Common Stumbling Blocks1933881 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 common-stumbling-blocks1934002 Ref: 128c1934002 Node: Print Is A Function1934372 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 print-is-a-function1934496 Ref: 128d1934496 Ref: Print Is A Function-Footnote-11936182 Node: Views And Iterators Instead Of Lists1936224 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 views-and-iterators-instead-of-lists1936377 Ref: 128e1936377 Node: Ordering Comparisons1938221 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 ordering-comparisons1938363 Ref: 12911938363 Node: Integers1939815 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 integers1939961 Ref: 12931939961 Ref: Integers-Footnote-11941186 Ref: Integers-Footnote-21941228 Node: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit1941270 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 text-vs-data-instead-of-unicode-vs-8-bit1941387 Ref: 12941941387 Ref: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit-Footnote-11947984 Ref: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit-Footnote-21948026 Ref: Text Vs Data Instead Of Unicode Vs 8-bit-Footnote-31948068 Node: Overview Of Syntax Changes1948110 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 overview-of-syntax-changes1948277 Ref: 12981948277 Node: New Syntax1948489 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 new-syntax1948585 Ref: 12991948585 Ref: New Syntax-Footnote-11951135 Ref: New Syntax-Footnote-21951177 Ref: New Syntax-Footnote-31951219 Ref: New Syntax-Footnote-41951261 Ref: New Syntax-Footnote-51951303 Node: Changed Syntax1951345 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 changed-syntax1951464 Ref: 129c1951464 Ref: Changed Syntax-Footnote-11953143 Ref: Changed Syntax-Footnote-21953185 Ref: Changed Syntax-Footnote-31953227 Ref: Changed Syntax-Footnote-41953269 Node: Removed Syntax1953311 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 removed-syntax1953411 Ref: 129d1953411 Ref: Removed Syntax-Footnote-11954595 Ref: Removed Syntax-Footnote-21954637 Node: Changes Already Present In Python 2 61954679 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 changes-already-present-in-python-2-61954838 Ref: 129f1954838 Node: Library Changes1958709 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 library-changes1958886 Ref: 12b21958886 Ref: Library Changes-Footnote-11965141 Ref: Library Changes-Footnote-21965183 Ref: Library Changes-Footnote-31965225 Ref: Library Changes-Footnote-41965267 Ref: Library Changes-Footnote-51965309 Ref: Library Changes-Footnote-61965351 Node: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting1965393 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 pep-3101-a-new-approach-to-string-formatting1965554 Ref: 12b71965554 Ref: PEP 3101 A New Approach To String Formatting-Footnote-11965946 Node: Changes To Exceptions1965988 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 changes-to-exceptions1966161 Ref: 12b81966161 Ref: Changes To Exceptions-Footnote-11969698 Ref: Changes To Exceptions-Footnote-21969740 Ref: Changes To Exceptions-Footnote-31969782 Ref: Changes To Exceptions-Footnote-41969824 Ref: Changes To Exceptions-Footnote-51969866 Node: Miscellaneous Other Changes1969908 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 miscellaneous-other-changes1970063 Ref: 12bc1970063 Node: Operators And Special Methods1970191 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 operators-and-special-methods1970301 Ref: 12bd1970301 Ref: Operators And Special Methods-Footnote-11971985 Node: Builtins1972027 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 builtins1972137 Ref: 12c91972137 Ref: Builtins-Footnote-11974615 Ref: Builtins-Footnote-21974657 Node: Build and C API Changes<7>1974699 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 build-and-c-api-changes1974844 Ref: 12d01974844 Ref: Build and C API Changes<7>-Footnote-11975880 Ref: Build and C API Changes<7>-Footnote-21975922 Ref: Build and C API Changes<7>-Footnote-31975964 Node: Performance1976006 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 performance1976145 Ref: 12d21976145 Node: Porting To Python 3 01976466 Ref: whatsnew/3 0 porting-to-python-3-01976570 Ref: 12d31976570 Node: What’s New in Python 2 71978078 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 doc1978233 Ref: 12d51978233 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 what-s-new-in-python-2-71978233 Ref: 12d61978233 Node: The Future for Python 2 x1980698 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 the-future-for-python-2-x1980842 Ref: 12d71980842 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 whatsnew27-python311980842 Ref: 12d81980842 Ref: The Future for Python 2 x-Footnote-11984160 Ref: The Future for Python 2 x-Footnote-21984202 Node: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings1984239 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 changes-to-the-handling-of-deprecation-warnings1984411 Ref: 12da1984411 Ref: Changes to the Handling of Deprecation Warnings-Footnote-11985986 Node: Python 3 1 Features1986050 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 python-3-1-features1986248 Ref: 12db1986248 Node: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections1988173 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-03721988375 Ref: 12dc1988375 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-372-adding-an-ordered-dictionary-to-collections1988375 Ref: 12df1988375 Ref: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections-Footnote-11991987 Ref: PEP 372 Adding an Ordered Dictionary to collections-Footnote-21992015 Node: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>1992057 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-03781992293 Ref: 12dd1992293 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-378-format-specifier-for-thousands-separator1992293 Ref: 12e11992293 Ref: PEP 378 Format Specifier for Thousands Separator<2>-Footnote-11993810 Node: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines1993852 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-389-the-argparse-module-for-parsing-command-lines1994087 Ref: 12e21994087 Ref: PEP 389 The argparse Module for Parsing Command Lines-Footnote-11998124 Node: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging1998166 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-391-dictionary-based-configuration-for-logging1998375 Ref: 12e31998375 Ref: PEP 391 Dictionary-Based Configuration For Logging-Footnote-12002272 Node: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views2002314 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-3106-dictionary-views2002500 Ref: 12ea2002500 Ref: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views-Footnote-12004617 Ref: PEP 3106 Dictionary Views-Footnote-22004659 Node: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object2004723 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-3137-the-memoryview-object2004885 Ref: 12eb2004885 Ref: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object-Footnote-12006550 Ref: PEP 3137 The memoryview Object-Footnote-22006592 Node: Other Language Changes<14>2006656 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 other-language-changes2006817 Ref: 12ec2006817 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-12016796 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-22016860 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-32016924 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-42016988 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-52017052 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-62017116 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-72017180 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-82017244 Ref: Other Language Changes<14>-Footnote-92017308 Ref: Other 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Modules-Footnote-472063547 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-482063612 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-492063680 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-502063745 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-512063810 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-522063875 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-532063940 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-542064005 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-552064070 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-562064135 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-572064200 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-582064265 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-592064330 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-602064395 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-612064460 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-622064525 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-632064590 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-642064655 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-652064720 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-662064785 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-672064850 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-682064915 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-692064980 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-702065026 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-712065091 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-722065156 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-732065210 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-742065275 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-752065340 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-762065405 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-772065470 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-782065535 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-792065603 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-802065668 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-812065733 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-822065798 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-832065863 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-842065928 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-852065993 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-862066061 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-872066129 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-882066194 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-892066254 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-902066314 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-912066379 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-922066444 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-932066509 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-942066574 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-952066639 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-962066704 Ref: New and Improved Modules-Footnote-972066769 Node: New module importlib2066834 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 importlib-section2066944 Ref: 12de2066944 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-module-importlib2066944 Ref: 131f2066944 Node: New module sysconfig2068484 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-module-sysconfig2068628 Ref: 13202068628 Node: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk2069957 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 ttk-themed-widgets-for-tk2070104 Ref: 13222070104 Ref: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk-Footnote-12071196 Ref: ttk Themed Widgets for Tk-Footnote-22071260 Node: Updated module unittest2071324 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 unittest-section2071481 Ref: 13232071481 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 updated-module-unittest2071481 Ref: 13242071481 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-12080422 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-22080466 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-32080493 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-42080530 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-52080594 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-62080658 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-72080725 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-82080789 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-92080853 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-102080917 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-112080982 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-122081047 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-132081112 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-142081177 Ref: Updated module unittest-Footnote-152081242 Node: Updated module ElementTree 1 32081307 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 elementtree-section2081430 Ref: 133f2081430 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 updated-module-elementtree-1-32081430 Ref: 13402081430 Ref: Updated module ElementTree 1 3-Footnote-12085457 Node: Build and C API Changes<8>2085521 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 build-and-c-api-changes2085675 Ref: 13432085675 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-12094314 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-22094427 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-32094491 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-42094555 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-52094619 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-62094683 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-72094747 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-82094811 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-92094866 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-102094930 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-112094995 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-122095060 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-132095125 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-142095193 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-152095261 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-162095326 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-172095391 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-182095456 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-192095521 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-202095586 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-212095654 Ref: Build and C API Changes<8>-Footnote-222095719 Node: Capsules2095784 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 capsules2095893 Ref: 13462095893 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 whatsnew27-capsules2095893 Ref: 13472095893 Ref: Capsules-Footnote-12097897 Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows2097961 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 port-specific-changes-windows2098109 Ref: 134a2098109 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows-Footnote-12099905 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows-Footnote-22099969 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows-Footnote-32100033 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows-Footnote-42100097 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows-Footnote-52100164 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows-Footnote-62100228 Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X2100292 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 port-specific-changes-mac-os-x2100461 Ref: 13562100461 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X-Footnote-12101451 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X-Footnote-22101515 Node: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD2101580 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 port-specific-changes-freebsd2101711 Ref: 13572101711 Ref: Port-Specific Changes FreeBSD-Footnote-12102116 Node: Other Changes and Fixes2102180 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 other-changes-and-fixes2102331 Ref: 13582102331 Ref: Other Changes and Fixes-Footnote-12104526 Ref: Other Changes and Fixes-Footnote-22104590 Ref: Other Changes and Fixes-Footnote-32104657 Ref: Other Changes and Fixes-Footnote-42104721 Ref: Other Changes and Fixes-Footnote-52104785 Node: Porting to Python 2 72104849 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 porting-to-python-2-72105027 Ref: 135a2105027 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-12110585 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-22110649 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-32110713 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-42110777 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-52110841 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-62110905 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-72110969 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-82111033 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-92111097 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-102111161 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-112111226 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-122111291 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-132111356 Ref: Porting to Python 2 7-Footnote-142111416 Node: New Features Added to Python 2 7 Maintenance Releases2111481 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-features-added-to-python-2-7-maintenance-releases2111652 Ref: 135b2111652 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 py27-maintenance-enhancements2111652 Ref: 12d92111652 Node: Two new environment variables for debug mode2113117 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 two-new-environment-variables-for-debug-mode2113311 Ref: 135c2113311 Ref: Two new environment variables for debug mode-Footnote-12113992 Ref: Two new environment variables for debug mode-Footnote-22114057 Node: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches2114122 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-434-idle-enhancement-exception-for-all-branches2114377 Ref: 135d2114377 Ref: PEP 434 IDLE Enhancement Exception for All Branches-Footnote-12114897 Node: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 72114939 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-466-network-security-enhancements-for-python-2-72115198 Ref: 135e2115198 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-12117435 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-22117477 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-32117519 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-42117584 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-52117649 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-62117691 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-72117756 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-82117821 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-92117876 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-102117918 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-112117984 Ref: PEP 466 Network Security Enhancements for Python 2 7-Footnote-122118050 Node: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 72118116 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-477-backport-ensurepip-pep-453-to-python-2-72118403 Ref: 13612118403 Ref: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7-Footnote-12118899 Ref: PEP 477 Backport ensurepip PEP 453 to Python 2 7-Footnote-22118941 Node: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>2118983 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 bootstrapping-pip-by-default2119132 Ref: 13622119132 Ref: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>-Footnote-12120800 Ref: Bootstrapping pip By Default<2>-Footnote-22120842 Node: Documentation Changes<2>2120932 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 documentation-changes2121081 Ref: 13632121081 Ref: Documentation Changes<2>-Footnote-12122019 Ref: Documentation Changes<2>-Footnote-22122056 Node: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>2122098 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-476-enabling-certificate-verification-by-default-for-stdlib-http-clients2122390 Ref: 13642122390 Ref: PEP 476 Enabling certificate verification by default for stdlib http clients<2>-Footnote-12123487 Node: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 72123529 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 pep-493-https-verification-migration-tools-for-python-2-72123807 Ref: 13652123807 Ref: PEP 493 HTTPS verification migration tools for Python 2 7-Footnote-12124971 Node: New make regen-all build target<3>2125013 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 new-make-regen-all-build-target2125249 Ref: 13662125249 Ref: New make regen-all build target<3>-Footnote-12126041 Ref: New make regen-all build target<3>-Footnote-22126109 Node: Removal of make touch build target<3>2126174 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 removal-of-make-touch-build-target2126344 Ref: 13672126344 Ref: Removal of make touch build target<3>-Footnote-12126779 Node: Acknowledgements2126844 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 acknowledgements2126985 Ref: 13682126985 Ref: whatsnew/2 7 acks272126985 Ref: 13692126985 Node: What’s New in Python 2 62127258 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 doc2127413 Ref: 136a2127413 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 what-s-new-in-python-2-62127413 Ref: 136b2127413 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 whats-new-in-2-62127413 Ref: 12a02127413 Ref: What’s New in Python 2 6-Footnote-12130477 Node: Python 3 02130519 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 python-3-02130635 Ref: 136c2130635 Ref: Python 3 0-Footnote-12132747 Ref: Python 3 0-Footnote-22132789 Node: Changes to the Development Process2132831 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 changes-to-the-development-process2132988 Ref: 136d2132988 Node: New Issue Tracker Roundup2133506 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-issue-tracker-roundup2133665 Ref: 136e2133665 Ref: New Issue Tracker Roundup-Footnote-12135715 Ref: New Issue Tracker Roundup-Footnote-22135764 Ref: New Issue Tracker Roundup-Footnote-32135795 Ref: New Issue Tracker Roundup-Footnote-42135835 Ref: New Issue Tracker Roundup-Footnote-52135870 Node: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx2135908 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-documentation-format-restructuredtext-using-sphinx2136067 Ref: 136f2136067 Ref: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx-Footnote-12138183 Ref: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx-Footnote-22138242 Ref: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx-Footnote-32138291 Ref: New Documentation Format reStructuredText Using Sphinx-Footnote-42138327 Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement2138367 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03432138566 Ref: 12a12138566 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-343-the-with-statement2138566 Ref: 13702138566 Node: Writing Context Managers2141844 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-26-context-managers2141967 Ref: 12a22141967 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 writing-context-managers2141967 Ref: 13712141967 Node: The contextlib module2146484 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-module-contextlib2146607 Ref: 12a32146607 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-contextlib-module2146607 Ref: 13722146607 Ref: The contextlib module-Footnote-12149110 Node: PEP 366 Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module2149152 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03662149357 Ref: 12a42149357 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-366-explicit-relative-imports-from-a-main-module2149357 Ref: 13732149357 Node: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory2150116 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03702150324 Ref: 12a52150324 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-370-per-user-site-packages-directory2150324 Ref: 13752150324 Ref: PEP 370 Per-user site-packages Directory-Footnote-12151786 Node: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package2151828 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-03712152019 Ref: 12a62152019 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-371-the-multiprocessing-package2152019 Ref: 13792152019 Ref: PEP 371 The multiprocessing Package-Footnote-12157160 Node: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting2157202 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31012157381 Ref: 12a72157381 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3101-advanced-string-formatting2157381 Ref: 137b2157381 Ref: PEP 3101 Advanced String Formatting-Footnote-12163084 Node: PEP 3105 print As a Function2163126 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31052163305 Ref: 12a82163305 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3105-print-as-a-function2163305 Ref: 137d2163305 Ref: PEP 3105 print As a Function-Footnote-12164434 Node: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes2164476 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31102164642 Ref: 12a92164642 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3110-exception-handling-changes2164642 Ref: 137e2164642 Ref: PEP 3110 Exception-Handling Changes-Footnote-12166243 Node: PEP 3112 Byte Literals2166285 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31122166447 Ref: 12aa2166447 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3112-byte-literals2166447 Ref: 137f2166447 Ref: PEP 3112 Byte Literals-Footnote-12169465 Node: PEP 3116 New I/O Library2169507 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31162169666 Ref: 12ab2169666 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3116-new-i-o-library2169666 Ref: 13842169666 Ref: PEP 3116 New I/O Library-Footnote-12173292 Node: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol2173334 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31182173501 Ref: 12ac2173501 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3118-revised-buffer-protocol2173501 Ref: 13852173501 Ref: PEP 3118 Revised Buffer Protocol-Footnote-12175626 Node: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes2175668 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31192175854 Ref: 12ad2175854 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3119-abstract-base-classes2175854 Ref: 13892175854 Ref: PEP 3119 Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-12181212 Node: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax2181254 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31272181433 Ref: 12ae2181433 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3127-integer-literal-support-and-syntax2181433 Ref: 138a2181433 Ref: PEP 3127 Integer Literal Support and Syntax-Footnote-12182800 Node: PEP 3129 Class Decorators2182842 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31292183028 Ref: 12af2183028 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3129-class-decorators2183028 Ref: 138b2183028 Ref: PEP 3129 Class Decorators-Footnote-12183428 Node: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers2183470 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-31412183639 Ref: 12b02183639 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 pep-3141-a-type-hierarchy-for-numbers2183639 Ref: 138c2183639 Ref: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers-Footnote-12185842 Ref: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers-Footnote-22185884 Ref: PEP 3141 A Type Hierarchy for Numbers-Footnote-32185982 Node: The fractions Module2186088 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-fractions-module2186182 Ref: 13902186182 Node: Other Language Changes<15>2187789 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 other-language-changes2187960 Ref: 13912187960 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-12196774 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-22196841 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-32196905 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-42196972 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-52197036 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-62197100 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-72197164 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-82197228 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-92197292 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-102197356 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-112197421 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-122197486 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-132197554 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-142197622 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-152197690 Ref: Other Language Changes<15>-Footnote-162197758 Node: Optimizations<14>2197826 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 optimizations2197937 Ref: 13952197937 Ref: Optimizations<14>-Footnote-12200794 Ref: Optimizations<14>-Footnote-22200861 Ref: Optimizations<14>-Footnote-32200928 Ref: Optimizations<14>-Footnote-42200992 Node: Interpreter Changes<2>2201056 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 interpreter-changes2201167 Ref: 13962201167 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-26-interpreter2201167 Ref: 13972201167 Node: New and Improved Modules<2>2202757 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 new-and-improved-modules2202916 Ref: 139b2202916 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-12245475 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-22245542 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-32245595 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-42245659 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-52245725 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-62245789 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-72245856 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-82245920 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-92245974 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-102246041 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-112246109 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-122246177 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-132246242 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-142246307 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-152246374 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-162246439 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-172246507 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-182246572 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-192246640 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-202246708 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-212246776 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-222246843 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-232246911 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-242246979 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-252247044 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-262247109 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-272247177 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-282247245 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-292247312 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-302247377 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-312247442 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-322247507 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-332247572 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-342247637 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-352247702 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-362247767 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-372247827 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-382247894 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-392247954 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-402248021 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-412248086 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-422248153 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-432248221 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-442248286 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-452248351 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-462248416 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-472248484 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-482248549 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-492248614 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-502248682 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-512248747 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-522248815 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-532248880 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-542248948 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-552249013 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-562249081 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-572249146 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-582249214 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-592249282 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-602249347 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-612249412 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-622249479 Ref: New and Improved Modules<2>-Footnote-632249547 Node: The ast module2249615 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-ast-module2249728 Ref: 13b02249728 Node: The future_builtins module2252389 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-future-builtins-module2252553 Ref: 13b12252553 Node: The json module JavaScript Object Notation2253659 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-json-module-javascript-object-notation2253851 Ref: 13b32253851 Node: The plistlib module A Property-List Parser2254863 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 the-plistlib-module-a-property-list-parser2255048 Ref: 13b42255048 Node: ctypes Enhancements2256419 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 ctypes-enhancements2256582 Ref: 13b52256582 Ref: ctypes Enhancements-Footnote-12258349 Ref: ctypes Enhancements-Footnote-22258416 Node: Improved SSL Support2258480 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 improved-ssl-support2258592 Ref: 13b62258592 Ref: Improved SSL Support-Footnote-12259539 Node: Deprecations and Removals2259572 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 deprecations-and-removals2259731 Ref: 13b72259731 Ref: Deprecations and Removals-Footnote-12261593 Node: Build and C API Changes<9>2261635 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 build-and-c-api-changes2261788 Ref: 13b92261788 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-12269330 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-22269385 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-32269440 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-42269504 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-52269571 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-62269635 Ref: Build and C API Changes<9>-Footnote-72269699 Node: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>2269766 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 port-specific-changes-windows2269903 Ref: 13c02269903 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>-Footnote-12272373 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>-Footnote-22272439 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Windows<2>-Footnote-32272506 Node: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>2272570 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 port-specific-changes-mac-os-x2272742 Ref: 13c52272742 Ref: Port-Specific Changes Mac OS X<2>-Footnote-12274013 Node: Port-Specific Changes IRIX2274080 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 port-specific-changes-irix2274211 Ref: 13c62274211 Node: Porting to Python 2 62274730 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 porting-to-python-2-62274877 Ref: 13c72274877 Ref: Porting to Python 2 6-Footnote-12278701 Ref: Porting to Python 2 6-Footnote-22278768 Ref: Porting to Python 2 6-Footnote-32278835 Node: Acknowledgements<2>2278902 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 acknowledgements2279014 Ref: 13c92279014 Ref: whatsnew/2 6 acks2279014 Ref: 13ca2279014 Node: What’s New in Python 2 52279356 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 doc2279511 Ref: 13cb2279511 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 what-s-new-in-python-2-52279511 Ref: 13cc2279511 Ref: What’s New in Python 2 5-Footnote-12283167 Node: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions2283209 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3082283348 Ref: 13cd2283348 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-308-conditional-expressions2283348 Ref: 13d22283348 Ref: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions-Footnote-12286832 Ref: PEP 308 Conditional Expressions-Footnote-22286874 Node: PEP 309 Partial Function Application2286916 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3092287114 Ref: 13d32287114 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-309-partial-function-application2287114 Ref: 13d42287114 Ref: PEP 309 Partial Function Application-Footnote-12289961 Node: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 12290003 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3142290207 Ref: 13d52290207 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-314-metadata-for-python-software-packages-v1-12290207 Ref: 13d62290207 Ref: PEP 314 Metadata for Python Software Packages v1 1-Footnote-12292041 Node: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports2292083 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3282292287 Ref: 13d02292287 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-328-absolute-and-relative-imports2292287 Ref: 13d72292287 Ref: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports-Footnote-12296099 Ref: PEP 328 Absolute and Relative Imports-Footnote-22296141 Node: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts2296183 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3382296371 Ref: 13d82296371 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-338-executing-modules-as-scripts2296371 Ref: 13d92296371 Ref: PEP 338 Executing Modules as Scripts-Footnote-12297266 Node: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally2297308 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3412297489 Ref: 13d12297489 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-341-unified-try-except-finally2297489 Ref: 13da2297489 Ref: PEP 341 Unified try/except/finally-Footnote-12299256 Node: PEP 342 New Generator Features2299298 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3422299478 Ref: 13cf2299478 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-342-new-generator-features2299478 Ref: 13db2299478 Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-12306143 Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-22306185 Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-32306227 Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-42306269 Ref: PEP 342 New Generator Features-Footnote-52306311 Node: PEP 343 The ‘with’ statement<2>2306353 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3432306538 Ref: 13ce2306538 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-343-the-with-statement2306538 Ref: 13dc2306538 Node: Writing Context Managers<2>2309560 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 new-25-context-managers2309692 Ref: 13dd2309692 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 writing-context-managers2309692 Ref: 13de2309692 Node: The contextlib module<2>2314091 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 contextlibmod2314223 Ref: 13df2314223 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-contextlib-module2314223 Ref: 13e02314223 Ref: The contextlib module<2>-Footnote-12316717 Node: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes2316759 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3522316953 Ref: 13e12316953 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-352-exceptions-as-new-style-classes2316953 Ref: 13e22316953 Ref: PEP 352 Exceptions as New-Style Classes-Footnote-12319442 Node: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type2319484 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3532319677 Ref: 13e32319677 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-353-using-ssize-t-as-the-index-type2319677 Ref: 13e42319677 Ref: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type-Footnote-12322575 Ref: PEP 353 Using ssize_t as the index type-Footnote-22322617 Node: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method2322659 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-3572322839 Ref: 13e62322839 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 pep-357-the-index-method2322839 Ref: 13e72322839 Ref: PEP 357 The ‘__index__’ method-Footnote-12324548 Node: Other Language Changes<16>2324590 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 other-lang2324763 Ref: 13ea2324763 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 other-language-changes2324763 Ref: 13eb2324763 Ref: Other Language Changes<16>-Footnote-12331718 Node: Interactive Interpreter Changes2331760 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 interactive2331880 Ref: 13f12331880 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 interactive-interpreter-changes2331880 Ref: 13f22331880 Node: Optimizations<15>2332657 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 optimizations2332777 Ref: 13f42332777 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 opts2332777 Ref: 13f52332777 Node: New Improved and Removed Modules2336595 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 modules2336761 Ref: 13f62336761 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 new-improved-and-removed-modules2336761 Ref: 13f72336761 Ref: New Improved and Removed Modules-Footnote-12361268 Ref: New Improved and Removed Modules-Footnote-22361310 Ref: New Improved and Removed Modules-Footnote-32361369 Node: The ctypes package2361428 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-ctypes2361547 Ref: 14012361547 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-ctypes-package2361547 Ref: 14022361547 Node: The ElementTree package2364827 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-etree2364974 Ref: 14042364974 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-elementtree-package2364974 Ref: 14052364974 Node: The hashlib package2370272 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-hashlib2370420 Ref: 14062370420 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-hashlib-package2370420 Ref: 14072370420 Node: The sqlite3 package2372005 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-sqlite2372149 Ref: 14082372149 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-sqlite3-package2372149 Ref: 14092372149 Ref: The sqlite3 package-Footnote-12376160 Ref: The sqlite3 package-Footnote-22376202 Node: The wsgiref package2376244 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 module-wsgiref2376360 Ref: 140a2376360 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 the-wsgiref-package2376360 Ref: 140b2376360 Ref: The wsgiref package-Footnote-12377343 Ref: The wsgiref package-Footnote-22377385 Node: Build and C API Changes<10>2377427 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 build-and-c-api-changes2377588 Ref: 140c2377588 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 build-api2377588 Ref: 140d2377588 Ref: Build and C API Changes<10>-Footnote-12384620 Ref: Build and C API Changes<10>-Footnote-22384662 Ref: Build and C API Changes<10>-Footnote-32384704 Node: Port-Specific Changes2384746 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 port-specific-changes2384831 Ref: 14172384831 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 ports2384831 Ref: 14182384831 Ref: Port-Specific Changes-Footnote-12385508 Node: Porting to Python 2 52385572 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 porting2385720 Ref: 14192385720 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 porting-to-python-2-52385720 Ref: 141a2385720 Ref: Porting to Python 2 5-Footnote-12388549 Node: Acknowledgements<3>2388591 Ref: whatsnew/2 5 acknowledgements2388703 Ref: 141b2388703 Node: What’s New in Python 2 42389197 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 doc2389352 Ref: 141c2389352 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 what-s-new-in-python-2-42389352 Ref: 141d2389352 Node: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects2391457 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-218-built-in-set-objects2391600 Ref: 141e2391600 Ref: PEP 218 Built-In Set Objects-Footnote-12393836 Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers2393878 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers2394059 Ref: 141f2394059 Ref: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers-Footnote-12395100 Node: PEP 289 Generator Expressions2395142 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-289-generator-expressions2395331 Ref: 14202395331 Ref: PEP 289 Generator Expressions-Footnote-12397603 Node: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions2397645 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-292-simpler-string-substitutions2397835 Ref: 14212397835 Ref: PEP 292 Simpler String Substitutions-Footnote-12399634 Node: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods2399676 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-318-decorators-for-functions-and-methods2399862 Ref: 14222399862 Ref: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods-Footnote-12404391 Ref: PEP 318 Decorators for Functions and Methods-Footnote-22404433 Node: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration2404475 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-322-reverse-iteration2404654 Ref: 14242404654 Ref: PEP 322 Reverse Iteration-Footnote-12405616 Node: PEP 324 New subprocess Module2405658 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-324-new-subprocess-module2405818 Ref: 14252405818 Ref: PEP 324 New subprocess Module-Footnote-12409601 Node: PEP 327 Decimal Data Type2409643 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-327-decimal-data-type2409804 Ref: 14272409804 Node: Why is Decimal needed?2410376 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 why-is-decimal-needed2410485 Ref: 14282410485 Node: The Decimal type2413069 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 the-decimal-type2413203 Ref: 14292413203 Node: The Context type2416375 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 the-context-type2416478 Ref: 142a2416478 Ref: The Context type-Footnote-12419085 Ref: The Context type-Footnote-22419127 Node: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports2419210 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-328-multi-line-imports2419393 Ref: 142b2419393 Ref: PEP 328 Multi-line Imports-Footnote-12420887 Node: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions2420929 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 pep-331-locale-independent-float-string-conversions2421113 Ref: 142c2421113 Ref: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions-Footnote-12422840 Ref: PEP 331 Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions-Footnote-22422930 Node: Other Language Changes<17>2422972 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 other-language-changes2423168 Ref: 142d2423168 Ref: Other Language Changes<17>-Footnote-12430152 Ref: Other Language Changes<17>-Footnote-22430194 Ref: Other Language Changes<17>-Footnote-32430236 Ref: Other Language Changes<17>-Footnote-42430278 Ref: Other Language Changes<17>-Footnote-52430320 Ref: Other Language Changes<17>-Footnote-62430362 Node: Optimizations<16>2430404 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 optimizations2430484 Ref: 142f2430484 Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>2433232 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 new-improved-and-deprecated-modules2433404 Ref: 14302433404 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<3>-Footnote-12450715 Node: cookielib2450774 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 cookielib2450877 Ref: 14342450877 Node: doctest<5>2451817 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 doctest2451920 Ref: 14352451920 Node: Build and C API Changes<11>2454660 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 build-and-c-api-changes2454827 Ref: 143b2454827 Node: Port-Specific Changes<2>2457449 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 port-specific-changes2457537 Ref: 14412457537 Node: Porting to Python 2 42457716 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 porting-to-python-2-42457864 Ref: 14422457864 Node: Acknowledgements<4>2459832 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 acknowledgements2459944 Ref: 14442459944 Ref: whatsnew/2 4 acks2459944 Ref: 14452459944 Node: What’s New in Python 2 32460277 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 doc2460432 Ref: 14462460432 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 what-s-new-in-python-2-32460432 Ref: 14472460432 Node: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype2463451 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-218-a-standard-set-datatype2463579 Ref: 14492463579 Ref: PEP 218 A Standard Set Datatype-Footnote-12466096 Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators2466138 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-255-simple-generators2466304 Ref: 144e2466304 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-generators2466304 Ref: 144f2466304 Ref: PEP 255 Simple Generators-Footnote-12472488 Ref: PEP 255 Simple Generators-Footnote-22472530 Node: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings2472572 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-263-source-code-encodings2472750 Ref: 14502472750 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-encodings2472750 Ref: 14512472750 Ref: PEP 263 Source Code Encodings-Footnote-12473962 Node: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives2474004 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-273-importing-modules-from-zip-archives2474205 Ref: 14522474205 Ref: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives-Footnote-12476239 Ref: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives-Footnote-22476281 Ref: PEP 273 Importing Modules from ZIP Archives-Footnote-32476323 Node: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT2476365 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-277-unicode-file-name-support-for-windows-nt2476570 Ref: 14542476570 Ref: PEP 277 Unicode file name support for Windows NT-Footnote-12478052 Node: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support2478094 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-278-universal-newline-support2478273 Ref: 14562478273 Ref: PEP 278 Universal Newline Support-Footnote-12479784 Node: PEP 279 enumerate2479826 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-279-enumerate2479984 Ref: 14572479984 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-enumerate2479984 Ref: 14582479984 Ref: PEP 279 enumerate-Footnote-12480842 Node: PEP 282 The logging Package2480884 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-282-the-logging-package2481031 Ref: 14592481031 Ref: PEP 282 The logging Package-Footnote-12485825 Ref: PEP 282 The logging Package-Footnote-22485867 Node: PEP 285 A Boolean Type2485909 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-285-a-boolean-type2486077 Ref: 145f2486077 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-bool2486077 Ref: 14602486077 Ref: PEP 285 A Boolean Type-Footnote-12488526 Ref: PEP 285 A Boolean Type-Footnote-22488568 Node: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks2488610 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-293-codec-error-handling-callbacks2488799 Ref: 14612488799 Ref: PEP 293 Codec Error Handling Callbacks-Footnote-12490352 Node: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils2490394 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-301-package-index-and-metadata-for-distutils2490585 Ref: 14642490585 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3012490585 Ref: 14652490585 Ref: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils-Footnote-12492229 Ref: PEP 301 Package Index and Metadata for Distutils-Footnote-22492265 Node: PEP 302 New Import Hooks2492307 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-302-new-import-hooks2492489 Ref: 14662492489 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3022492489 Ref: 14532492489 Ref: PEP 302 New Import Hooks-Footnote-12495096 Ref: PEP 302 New Import Hooks-Footnote-22495138 Ref: PEP 302 New Import Hooks-Footnote-32495180 Node: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files2495222 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-305-comma-separated-files2495383 Ref: 14672495383 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3052495383 Ref: 14682495383 Ref: PEP 305 Comma-separated Files-Footnote-12496864 Node: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements2496906 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pep-307-pickle-enhancements2497058 Ref: 14692497058 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pep3072497058 Ref: 146a2497058 Ref: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements-Footnote-12499033 Ref: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements-Footnote-22499075 Ref: PEP 307 Pickle Enhancements-Footnote-32499117 Node: Extended Slices2499159 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 extended-slices2499308 Ref: 146f2499308 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-slices2499308 Ref: 14702499308 Node: Other Language Changes<18>2502700 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 other-language-changes2502860 Ref: 14712502860 Ref: Other Language Changes<18>-Footnote-12510652 Node: String Changes2510725 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 string-changes2510828 Ref: 14772510828 Node: Optimizations<17>2513352 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 optimizations2513455 Ref: 147c2513455 Node: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>2514918 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 new-improved-and-deprecated-modules2515102 Ref: 147e2515102 Ref: New Improved and Deprecated Modules<4>-Footnote-12539895 Node: Date/Time Type2539935 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 date-time-type2540052 Ref: 14942540052 Node: The optparse Module2542384 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 the-optparse-module2542501 Ref: 14972542501 Node: Pymalloc A Specialized Object Allocator2544575 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 pymalloc-a-specialized-object-allocator2544760 Ref: 149a2544760 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-pymalloc2544760 Ref: 149b2544760 Node: Build and C API Changes<12>2548662 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 build-and-c-api-changes2548835 Ref: 149d2548835 Node: Port-Specific Changes<3>2552261 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 port-specific-changes2552349 Ref: 14a32552349 Node: Other Changes and Fixes<2>2553584 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 other-changes-and-fixes2553739 Ref: 14a42553739 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 section-other2553739 Ref: 147d2553739 Node: Porting to Python 2 32556244 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 porting-to-python-2-32556391 Ref: 14a72556391 Node: Acknowledgements<5>2559200 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 acknowledgements2559312 Ref: 14a82559312 Ref: whatsnew/2 3 acks2559312 Ref: 14a92559312 Node: What’s New in Python 2 22559933 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 doc2560088 Ref: 14aa2560088 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 what-s-new-in-python-2-22560088 Ref: 14ab2560088 Node: Introduction2560823 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 introduction2560946 Ref: 14ac2560946 Ref: Introduction-Footnote-12561918 Ref: Introduction-Footnote-22561967 Node: PEPs 252 and 253 Type and Class Changes2562016 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 peps-252-and-253-type-and-class-changes2562165 Ref: 14ad2562165 Node: Old and New Classes2565605 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 old-and-new-classes2565720 Ref: 14b02565720 Ref: Old and New Classes-Footnote-12568126 Node: Descriptors2568168 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 descriptors2568329 Ref: 14b12568329 Node: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule2572196 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 multiple-inheritance-the-diamond-rule2572354 Ref: 14b32572354 Ref: Multiple Inheritance The Diamond Rule-Footnote-12575239 Node: Attribute Access2575281 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 attribute-access2575441 Ref: 14b42575441 Node: Related Links2579243 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 related-links2579357 Ref: 14b62579357 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 sect-rellinks2579357 Ref: 14af2579357 Ref: Related Links-Footnote-12580836 Ref: Related Links-Footnote-22580878 Ref: Related Links-Footnote-32580920 Ref: Related Links-Footnote-42580962 Ref: Related Links-Footnote-52581004 Node: PEP 234 Iterators2581046 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-234-iterators2581211 Ref: 14b82581211 Ref: PEP 234 Iterators-Footnote-12586090 Node: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>2586132 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-255-simple-generators2586304 Ref: 14bb2586304 Ref: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>-Footnote-12592363 Ref: PEP 255 Simple Generators<2>-Footnote-22592405 Node: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>2592447 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-237-unifying-long-integers-and-integers2592640 Ref: 14bc2592640 Ref: PEP 237 Unifying Long Integers and Integers<2>-Footnote-12594365 Node: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator2594407 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-238-changing-the-division-operator2594587 Ref: 14bd2594587 Ref: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator-Footnote-12598242 Ref: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator-Footnote-22598284 Ref: PEP 238 Changing the Division Operator-Footnote-32598326 Node: Unicode Changes2598368 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 unicode-changes2598523 Ref: 14c02598523 Ref: Unicode Changes-Footnote-12601155 Ref: Unicode Changes-Footnote-22601197 Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes2601239 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 pep-227-nested-scopes2601383 Ref: 14c12601383 Ref: PEP 227 Nested Scopes-Footnote-12605729 Node: New and Improved Modules<3>2605771 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 new-and-improved-modules2605929 Ref: 14c22605929 Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-12612639 Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-22612698 Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-32612757 Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-42612816 Ref: New and Improved Modules<3>-Footnote-52612875 Node: Interpreter Changes and Fixes2612933 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 interpreter-changes-and-fixes2613096 Ref: 14c72613096 Node: Other Changes and Fixes<3>2617868 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 other-changes-and-fixes2618023 Ref: 14d82618023 Ref: Other Changes and Fixes<3>-Footnote-12624697 Node: Acknowledgements<6>2624739 Ref: whatsnew/2 2 acknowledgements2624856 Ref: 14db2624856 Node: What’s New in Python 2 12625457 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 doc2625612 Ref: 14dc2625612 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 what-s-new-in-python-2-12625612 Ref: 14dd2625612 Node: Introduction<2>2626617 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 introduction2626728 Ref: 14de2626728 Node: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>2627824 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-227-nested-scopes2627973 Ref: 14df2627973 Ref: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>-Footnote-12632339 Ref: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>-Footnote-22632381 Ref: PEP 227 Nested Scopes<2>-Footnote-32632423 Node: PEP 236 __future__ Directives2632465 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-236-future-directives2632623 Ref: 14e02632623 Ref: PEP 236 __future__ Directives-Footnote-12633860 Node: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons2633902 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-207-rich-comparisons2634061 Ref: 14e12634061 Ref: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons-Footnote-12637469 Ref: PEP 207 Rich Comparisons-Footnote-22637511 Node: PEP 230 Warning Framework2637553 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-230-warning-framework2637707 Ref: 14e32637707 Ref: PEP 230 Warning Framework-Footnote-12640988 Ref: PEP 230 Warning Framework-Footnote-22641030 Node: PEP 229 New Build System2641072 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-229-new-build-system2641225 Ref: 14e52641225 Ref: PEP 229 New Build System-Footnote-12643145 Node: PEP 205 Weak References2643187 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-205-weak-references2643342 Ref: 14e62643342 Ref: PEP 205 Weak References-Footnote-12646455 Node: PEP 232 Function Attributes2646497 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-232-function-attributes2646683 Ref: 14e72646683 Ref: PEP 232 Function Attributes-Footnote-12648203 Node: PEP 235 Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms2648245 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-235-importing-modules-on-case-insensitive-platforms2648440 Ref: 14e82648440 Node: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook2649343 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-217-interactive-display-hook2649537 Ref: 14e92649537 Ref: PEP 217 Interactive Display Hook-Footnote-12650466 Node: PEP 208 New Coercion Model2650508 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-208-new-coercion-model2650682 Ref: 14eb2650682 Ref: PEP 208 New Coercion Model-Footnote-12652304 Node: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages2652346 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 pep-241-metadata-in-python-packages2652515 Ref: 14ec2652515 Ref: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages-Footnote-12654632 Ref: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages-Footnote-22654714 Ref: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages-Footnote-32654756 Ref: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages-Footnote-42654798 Ref: PEP 241 Metadata in Python Packages-Footnote-52654840 Node: New and Improved Modules<4>2654882 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 new-and-improved-modules2655051 Ref: 14ed2655051 Node: Other Changes and Fixes<4>2660908 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 other-changes-and-fixes2661061 Ref: 14ee2661061 Node: Acknowledgements<7>2667016 Ref: whatsnew/2 1 acknowledgements2667133 Ref: 14f22667133 Node: What’s New in Python 2 02667424 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 doc2667562 Ref: 14f32667562 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 what-s-new-in-python-2-02667562 Ref: 14f42667562 Node: Introduction<3>2668235 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 introduction2668344 Ref: 14f52668344 Node: What About Python 1 6?2669228 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 what-about-python-1-62669369 Ref: 14f62669369 Node: New Development Process2670610 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 new-development-process2670746 Ref: 14f72670746 Ref: New Development Process-Footnote-12675886 Ref: New Development Process-Footnote-22675928 Ref: New Development Process-Footnote-32675970 Node: Unicode<2>2676012 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 unicode2676145 Ref: 14f82676145 Ref: Unicode<2>-Footnote-12682315 Node: List Comprehensions2682357 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 list-comprehensions2682487 Ref: 14f92682487 Node: Augmented Assignment2686219 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 augmented-assignment2686353 Ref: 14fa2686353 Node: String Methods2687883 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 string-methods2688026 Ref: 14fb2688026 Node: Garbage Collection of Cycles2689879 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 garbage-collection-of-cycles2690020 Ref: 14fc2690020 Node: Other Core Changes2693367 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 other-core-changes2693508 Ref: 14fd2693508 Node: Minor Language Changes2693793 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 minor-language-changes2693908 Ref: 14fe2693908 Node: Changes to Built-in Functions2698993 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 changes-to-built-in-functions2699108 Ref: 15012699108 Node: Porting to 2 02701398 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 porting-to-2-02701538 Ref: 15022701538 Node: Extending/Embedding Changes2706868 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 extending-embedding-changes2707030 Ref: 15052707030 Node: Distutils Making Modules Easy to Install2710882 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 distutils-making-modules-easy-to-install2711041 Ref: 150a2711041 Node: XML Modules2714401 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 xml-modules2714547 Ref: 150b2714547 Node: SAX2 Support2715446 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 sax2-support2715526 Ref: 150c2715526 Node: DOM Support2717186 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 dom-support2717296 Ref: 15102717296 Node: Relationship to PyXML2720124 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 relationship-to-pyxml2720213 Ref: 15112720213 Node: Module changes2721503 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 module-changes2721620 Ref: 15122721620 Node: New modules2724106 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 new-modules2724229 Ref: 15132724229 Node: IDLE Improvements2728231 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 idle-improvements2728370 Ref: 15142728370 Node: Deleted and Deprecated Modules2729505 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 deleted-and-deprecated-modules2729652 Ref: 15152729652 Node: Acknowledgements<8>2730404 Ref: whatsnew/2 0 acknowledgements2730525 Ref: 15162730525 Ref: 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Ref: tutorial/controlflow tut-defaultargs5997649 Ref: 1c235997649 Node: Keyword Arguments5999669 Ref: tutorial/controlflow keyword-arguments5999808 Ref: 1c245999808 Ref: tutorial/controlflow tut-keywordargs5999808 Ref: 1c255999808 Node: Special parameters6003547 Ref: tutorial/controlflow special-parameters6003687 Ref: 1c276003687 Node: Positional-or-Keyword Arguments6004824 Ref: tutorial/controlflow positional-or-keyword-arguments6004945 Ref: 1c286004945 Node: Positional-Only Parameters6005159 Ref: tutorial/controlflow positional-only-parameters6005311 Ref: 1c296005311 Node: Keyword-Only Arguments6005945 Ref: tutorial/controlflow keyword-only-arguments6006083 Ref: 1c2a6006083 Node: Function Examples6006334 Ref: tutorial/controlflow function-examples6006451 Ref: 1c2b6006451 Node: Recap6009521 Ref: tutorial/controlflow recap6009607 Ref: 1c2c6009607 Node: Arbitrary Argument Lists6010468 Ref: tutorial/controlflow arbitrary-argument-lists6010615 Ref: 1c2d6010615 Ref: tutorial/controlflow 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Ref: Intermezzo Coding Style-Footnote-16020030 Node: Data Structures6020072 Ref: tutorial/datastructures doc6020194 Ref: 1c3b6020194 Ref: tutorial/datastructures data-structures6020194 Ref: 1c3c6020194 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-structures6020194 Ref: 1c116020194 Node: More on Lists6020539 Ref: tutorial/datastructures more-on-lists6020630 Ref: 1c3d6020630 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-morelists6020630 Ref: 1c3e6020630 Ref: More on Lists-Footnote-16024344 Node: Using Lists as Stacks6024481 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-lists-as-stacks6024582 Ref: 1c3f6024582 Ref: tutorial/datastructures using-lists-as-stacks6024582 Ref: 1c406024582 Node: Using Lists as Queues6025216 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-lists-as-queues6025348 Ref: 1c416025348 Ref: tutorial/datastructures using-lists-as-queues6025348 Ref: 1c426025348 Node: List Comprehensions<2>6026412 Ref: tutorial/datastructures list-comprehensions6026549 Ref: 1c436026549 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-listcomps6026549 Ref: 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more-on-conditions6043336 Ref: 1c4f6043336 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-conditions6043336 Ref: 1c506043336 Node: Comparing Sequences and Other Types6045411 Ref: tutorial/datastructures comparing-sequences-and-other-types6045525 Ref: 1c526045525 Ref: tutorial/datastructures tut-comparing6045525 Ref: 1c536045525 Node: Modules<2>6047112 Ref: tutorial/modules doc6047227 Ref: 1c546047227 Ref: tutorial/modules modules6047227 Ref: 1c556047227 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-modules6047227 Ref: 1c566047227 Node: More on Modules6049874 Ref: tutorial/modules more-on-modules6049961 Ref: 1c596049961 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-moremodules6049961 Ref: 1c5a6049961 Ref: More on Modules-Footnote-16053130 Node: Executing modules as scripts6053329 Ref: tutorial/modules executing-modules-as-scripts6053440 Ref: 1c5b6053440 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-modulesasscripts6053440 Ref: 1c5c6053440 Node: The Module Search Path6054328 Ref: tutorial/modules the-module-search-path6054475 Ref: 1c5d6054475 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-searchpath6054475 Ref: 1c5e6054475 Node: “Compiled” Python files6056060 Ref: tutorial/modules compiled-python-files6056170 Ref: 1c626056170 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-pycache6056170 Ref: 6d76056170 Ref: “Compiled” Python files-Footnote-16058479 Node: Standard Modules6058521 Ref: tutorial/modules standard-modules6058633 Ref: 1c636058633 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-standardmodules6058633 Ref: 1c616058633 Node: The dir Function6060099 Ref: tutorial/modules the-dir-function6060204 Ref: 1c646060204 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-dir6060204 Ref: 1c656060204 Node: Packages6064727 Ref: tutorial/modules packages6064807 Ref: 1c666064807 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-packages6064807 Ref: 1c676064807 Node: Importing * From a Package6069193 Ref: tutorial/modules importing-from-a-package6069297 Ref: 1c696069297 Ref: tutorial/modules tut-pkg-import-star6069297 Ref: 1c6a6069297 Node: Intra-package References6072699 Ref: tutorial/modules id26072844 Ref: 1c6b6072844 Ref: tutorial/modules intra-package-references6072844 Ref: 1c6c6072844 Node: Packages in Multiple Directories6073855 Ref: tutorial/modules packages-in-multiple-directories6073965 Ref: 1c6d6073965 Node: Input and Output6074522 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput doc6074643 Ref: 1c6f6074643 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput input-and-output6074643 Ref: 1c706074643 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-io6074643 Ref: 1c716074643 Node: Fancier Output Formatting6074952 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput fancier-output-formatting6075064 Ref: 1c726075064 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-formatting6075064 Ref: 1c736075064 Node: Formatted String Literals6079182 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput formatted-string-literals6079302 Ref: 1c766079302 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-f-strings6079302 Ref: 1c756079302 Node: The String format Method6081305 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput the-string-format-method6081458 Ref: 1c776081458 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-string-format6081458 Ref: 1c786081458 Node: Manual String Formatting6084395 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput manual-string-formatting6084544 Ref: 1c796084544 Node: Old string formatting6086073 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput old-string-formatting6086189 Ref: 1c7d6086189 Node: Reading and Writing Files6086770 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput reading-and-writing-files6086882 Ref: 1c7e6086882 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-files6086882 Ref: 1c7f6086882 Node: Methods of File Objects6090134 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput methods-of-file-objects6090260 Ref: 1c806090260 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-filemethods6090260 Ref: 1c816090260 Node: Saving structured data with json6093968 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput saving-structured-data-with-json6094094 Ref: 1c836094094 Ref: tutorial/inputoutput tut-json6094094 Ref: 1c846094094 Ref: Saving structured data with json-Footnote-16096961 Node: Errors and Exceptions6096986 Ref: tutorial/errors doc6097104 Ref: 1c886097104 Ref: tutorial/errors errors-and-exceptions6097104 Ref: 1c896097104 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-errors6097104 Ref: 1c8a6097104 Node: Syntax Errors6097674 Ref: tutorial/errors syntax-errors6097764 Ref: 1c8b6097764 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-syntaxerrors6097764 Ref: 1c8c6097764 Node: Exceptions6098560 Ref: tutorial/errors exceptions6098678 Ref: 1c8d6098678 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-exceptions6098678 Ref: 1c8e6098678 Node: Handling Exceptions6100622 Ref: tutorial/errors handling-exceptions6100745 Ref: 1c8f6100745 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-handling6100745 Ref: 1c176100745 Node: Raising Exceptions6107213 Ref: tutorial/errors raising-exceptions6107344 Ref: 1c906107344 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-raising6107344 Ref: 1c916107344 Node: Exception Chaining6108617 Ref: tutorial/errors exception-chaining6108752 Ref: 1c926108752 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-exception-chaining6108752 Ref: 1c936108752 Node: User-defined Exceptions6110986 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-userexceptions6111128 Ref: 1c946111128 Ref: tutorial/errors user-defined-exceptions6111128 Ref: 1c956111128 Node: Defining Clean-up Actions6111888 Ref: tutorial/errors defining-clean-up-actions6112039 Ref: 1c966112039 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-cleanup6112039 Ref: 1c976112039 Node: Predefined Clean-up Actions6115456 Ref: tutorial/errors predefined-clean-up-actions6115634 Ref: 1c986115634 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-cleanup-with6115634 Ref: 1c996115634 Node: Raising and Handling Multiple Unrelated Exceptions6116753 Ref: tutorial/errors raising-and-handling-multiple-unrelated-exceptions6116937 Ref: 1c9a6116937 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-exception-groups6116937 Ref: 1c9b6116937 Node: Enriching Exceptions with Notes6120526 Ref: tutorial/errors enriching-exceptions-with-notes6120674 Ref: 1c9c6120674 Ref: tutorial/errors tut-exception-notes6120674 Ref: 1c9d6120674 Node: Classes6123553 Ref: tutorial/classes doc6123689 Ref: 1c9e6123689 Ref: tutorial/classes classes6123689 Ref: 1c9f6123689 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-classes6123689 Ref: 1c1f6123689 Node: A Word About Names and Objects6126003 Ref: tutorial/classes a-word-about-names-and-objects6126114 Ref: 1ca16126114 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-object6126114 Ref: 1ca26126114 Node: Python Scopes and Namespaces6127036 Ref: tutorial/classes python-scopes-and-namespaces6127179 Ref: 1ca36127179 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-scopes6127179 Ref: 1c586127179 Ref: Python Scopes and Namespaces-Footnote-16133271 Node: Scopes and Namespaces Example6133655 Ref: tutorial/classes scopes-and-namespaces-example6133749 Ref: 1ca56133749 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-scopeexample6133749 Ref: 1ca66133749 Node: A First Look at Classes6135107 Ref: tutorial/classes a-first-look-at-classes6135234 Ref: 1ca76135234 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-firstclasses6135234 Ref: 1c3a6135234 Node: Class Definition Syntax6135519 Ref: tutorial/classes class-definition-syntax6135624 Ref: 1ca86135624 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-classdefinition6135624 Ref: 1ca96135624 Node: Class Objects6137161 Ref: tutorial/classes class-objects6137291 Ref: 1caa6137291 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-classobjects6137291 Ref: 1cab6137291 Node: Instance Objects6139488 Ref: tutorial/classes instance-objects6139609 Ref: 1cad6139609 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-instanceobjects6139609 Ref: 1cae6139609 Node: Method Objects6140918 Ref: tutorial/classes method-objects6141054 Ref: 1caf6141054 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-methodobjects6141054 Ref: 1cb06141054 Node: Class and Instance Variables6142854 Ref: tutorial/classes class-and-instance-variables6142965 Ref: 1cb16142965 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-class-and-instance-variables6142965 Ref: 1cb26142965 Node: Random Remarks6145009 Ref: tutorial/classes random-remarks6145119 Ref: 1cb36145119 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-remarks6145119 Ref: 1cb46145119 Node: Inheritance6148952 Ref: tutorial/classes inheritance6149056 Ref: 1cb56149056 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-inheritance6149056 Ref: 1cb66149056 Node: Multiple Inheritance6151855 Ref: tutorial/classes multiple-inheritance6151923 Ref: 1cb76151923 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-multiple6151923 Ref: 1cb86151923 Node: Private Variables6153919 Ref: tutorial/classes private-variables6154022 Ref: 1cb96154022 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-private6154022 Ref: 1ca06154022 Node: Odds and Ends6156815 Ref: tutorial/classes odds-and-ends6156916 Ref: 1cbb6156916 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-odds6156916 Ref: 1cbc6156916 Node: Iterators6158052 Ref: tutorial/classes iterators6158146 Ref: 1cbf6158146 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-iterators6158146 Ref: 1cc06158146 Node: Generators6160434 Ref: tutorial/classes generators6160536 Ref: 1cc26160536 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-generators6160536 Ref: 1cc36160536 Node: Generator Expressions6161976 Ref: tutorial/classes generator-expressions6162060 Ref: 1cc66162060 Ref: tutorial/classes tut-genexps6162060 Ref: 1cc76162060 Node: Brief Tour of the Standard Library6163047 Ref: tutorial/stdlib doc6163208 Ref: 1cc86163208 Ref: tutorial/stdlib brief-tour-of-the-standard-library6163208 Ref: 1cc96163208 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-brieftour6163208 Ref: 1cca6163208 Node: Operating System Interface6163605 Ref: tutorial/stdlib operating-system-interface6163725 Ref: 1ccb6163725 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-os-interface6163725 Ref: 1ccc6163725 Node: File Wildcards6164991 Ref: tutorial/stdlib file-wildcards6165142 Ref: 1ccd6165142 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-file-wildcards6165142 Ref: 1cce6165142 Node: Command Line Arguments6165384 Ref: tutorial/stdlib command-line-arguments6165557 Ref: 1ccf6165557 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-command-line-arguments6165557 Ref: 1cd06165557 Node: Error Output Redirection and Program Termination6166723 Ref: tutorial/stdlib error-output-redirection-and-program-termination6166905 Ref: 1cd16166905 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-stderr6166905 Ref: 1cd26166905 Node: String Pattern Matching6167428 Ref: tutorial/stdlib string-pattern-matching6167599 Ref: 1cd36167599 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-string-pattern-matching6167599 Ref: 1cd46167599 Node: Mathematics6168238 Ref: tutorial/stdlib mathematics6168376 Ref: 1cd56168376 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-mathematics6168376 Ref: 1cd66168376 Node: Internet Access6169553 Ref: tutorial/stdlib internet-access6169683 Ref: 1cd76169683 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-internet-access6169683 Ref: 1cd86169683 Node: Dates and Times6170741 Ref: tutorial/stdlib dates-and-times6170876 Ref: 1cd96170876 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-dates-and-times6170876 Ref: 1cda6170876 Node: Data Compression6171697 Ref: tutorial/stdlib data-compression6171840 Ref: 1cdb6171840 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-data-compression6171840 Ref: 1cdc6171840 Node: Performance Measurement6172362 Ref: tutorial/stdlib performance-measurement6172505 Ref: 1cdd6172505 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-performance-measurement6172505 Ref: 1cde6172505 Node: Quality Control6173378 Ref: tutorial/stdlib quality-control6173523 Ref: 1cdf6173523 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-quality-control6173523 Ref: 1ce06173523 Node: Batteries Included6175091 Ref: tutorial/stdlib batteries-included6175204 Ref: 1ce16175204 Ref: tutorial/stdlib tut-batteries-included6175204 Ref: 1ce26175204 Ref: Batteries Included-Footnote-16177019 Node: Brief Tour of the Standard Library — Part II6177078 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 doc6177265 Ref: 1ce36177265 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 brief-tour-of-the-standard-library-part-ii6177265 Ref: 1ce46177265 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-brieftourtwo6177265 Ref: 1ce56177265 Node: Output Formatting6177739 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 output-formatting6177858 Ref: 1ce66177858 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-output-formatting6177858 Ref: 1ce76177858 Node: Templating6179977 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 templating6180144 Ref: 1ce86180144 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-templating6180144 Ref: 1ce96180144 Node: Working with Binary Data Record Layouts6182708 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-binary-formats6182876 Ref: 1cec6182876 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 working-with-binary-data-record-layouts6182876 Ref: 1ced6182876 Node: Multi-threading<2>6184052 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 multi-threading6184217 Ref: 1cee6184217 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-multi-threading6184217 Ref: 1cef6184217 Node: Logging6186160 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 logging6186301 Ref: 1cf06186301 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-logging6186301 Ref: 1cf16186301 Node: Weak References6187499 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-weak-references6187650 Ref: 1cf76187650 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 weak-references6187650 Ref: 1cf86187650 Node: Tools for Working with Lists6189408 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tools-for-working-with-lists6189585 Ref: 1cf96189585 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-list-tools6189585 Ref: 1cfa6189585 Node: Decimal Floating-Point Arithmetic6192035 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 decimal-floating-point-arithmetic6192188 Ref: 1cfb6192188 Ref: tutorial/stdlib2 tut-decimal-fp6192188 Ref: 1cfc6192188 Node: Virtual Environments and Packages6194129 Ref: tutorial/venv doc6194291 Ref: 1cfd6194291 Ref: tutorial/venv tut-venv6194291 Ref: 1cfe6194291 Ref: tutorial/venv virtual-environments-and-packages6194291 Ref: 1cff6194291 Node: Introduction<4>6194478 Ref: tutorial/venv introduction6194601 Ref: 1d006194601 Node: Creating Virtual Environments6195923 Ref: tutorial/venv creating-virtual-environments6196081 Ref: 1d026196081 Node: Managing Packages with pip6198162 Ref: tutorial/venv managing-packages-with-pip6198296 Ref: 1d036198296 Ref: Managing Packages with pip-Footnote-16202268 Ref: Managing Packages with pip-Footnote-26202293 Node: What Now?6202371 Ref: tutorial/whatnow doc6202537 Ref: 1d046202537 Ref: tutorial/whatnow tut-whatnow6202537 Ref: 1d056202537 Ref: tutorial/whatnow what-now6202537 Ref: 1d066202537 Ref: What Now?-Footnote-16205783 Node: Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution6205936 Ref: tutorial/interactive doc6206117 Ref: 1d086206117 Ref: tutorial/interactive interactive-input-editing-and-history-substitution6206117 Ref: 1d096206117 Ref: tutorial/interactive tut-interacting6206117 Ref: 1be76206117 Ref: Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution-Footnote-16206713 Node: Tab Completion and History Editing6206774 Ref: tutorial/interactive tab-completion-and-history-editing6206947 Ref: 1d0a6206947 Ref: tutorial/interactive tut-keybindings6206947 Ref: 1d0b6206947 Node: Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter6207802 Ref: tutorial/interactive alternatives-to-the-interactive-interpreter6207975 Ref: 1d0c6207975 Ref: tutorial/interactive tut-commentary6207975 Ref: 1d0d6207975 Ref: Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter-Footnote-16208882 Ref: Alternatives to the Interactive Interpreter-Footnote-26208911 Node: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations6208952 Ref: tutorial/floatingpoint doc6209132 Ref: 1d0f6209132 Ref: tutorial/floatingpoint floating-point-arithmetic-issues-and-limitations6209132 Ref: 1d106209132 Ref: tutorial/floatingpoint tut-fp-issues6209132 Ref: 1d116209132 Ref: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations-Footnote-16218626 Ref: Floating-Point Arithmetic Issues and Limitations-Footnote-26218704 Node: Representation Error6218755 Ref: tutorial/floatingpoint representation-error6218860 Ref: 1d146218860 Ref: tutorial/floatingpoint tut-fp-error6218860 Ref: 1d156218860 Node: Appendix6222111 Ref: tutorial/appendix doc6222232 Ref: 1d166222232 Ref: tutorial/appendix appendix6222232 Ref: 1d176222232 Ref: tutorial/appendix tut-appendix6222232 Ref: 1d186222232 Node: Interactive Mode<2>6222312 Ref: tutorial/appendix interactive-mode6222376 Ref: 1d196222376 Ref: tutorial/appendix tut-interac6222376 Ref: 16f6222376 Node: Error Handling6223615 Ref: tutorial/appendix error-handling6223719 Ref: 1d1a6223719 Ref: tutorial/appendix tut-error6223719 Ref: 1d1b6223719 Ref: Error Handling-Footnote-16224786 Node: Executable Python Scripts6224852 Ref: tutorial/appendix executable-python-scripts6224993 Ref: 1d1c6224993 Ref: tutorial/appendix tut-scripts6224993 Ref: 1bef6224993 Node: The Interactive Startup File6226073 Ref: tutorial/appendix the-interactive-startup-file6226225 Ref: 1d1d6226225 Ref: tutorial/appendix tut-startup6226225 Ref: 1d1e6226225 Node: The Customization Modules6227661 Ref: tutorial/appendix the-customization-modules6227779 Ref: 1d1f6227779 Ref: tutorial/appendix tut-customize6227779 Ref: 1d206227779 Node: Python Setup and Usage6228659 Ref: using/index doc6228787 Ref: 1d216228787 Ref: using/index python-setup-and-usage6228787 Ref: 1d226228787 Ref: using/index using-index6228787 Ref: 1d236228787 Node: Command line and environment6229276 Ref: using/cmdline doc6229402 Ref: 1d246229402 Ref: using/cmdline command-line-and-environment6229402 Ref: 1d256229402 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-general6229402 Ref: 19be6229402 Node: Command line6229771 Ref: using/cmdline command-line6229878 Ref: 1d276229878 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-cmdline6229878 Ref: 10006229878 Node: Interface options6230296 Ref: using/cmdline interface-options6230386 Ref: 1d286230386 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-interface-options6230386 Ref: 1d296230386 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-c6231856 Ref: 5dc6231856 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-m6232425 Ref: 5dd6232425 Ref: using/cmdline cmdarg-dash6234815 Ref: 1d2a6234815 Ref: using/cmdline cmdarg-script6235235 Ref: 1d2b6235235 Ref: Interface options-Footnote-16237088 Node: Generic options6237130 Ref: using/cmdline generic-options6237250 Ref: 1d2c6237250 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-generic-options6237250 Ref: 1d2d6237250 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-06237299 Ref: 13f36237299 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-h6237314 Ref: 1d2e6237314 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-help6237329 Ref: 5ec6237329 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-help-env6237464 Ref: 5ee6237464 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-help-xoptions6237605 Ref: 5ef6237605 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-help-all6237754 Ref: 5f06237754 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-V6237856 Ref: 1776237856 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-version6237871 Ref: d1b6237871 Node: Miscellaneous options6238213 Ref: using/cmdline miscellaneous-options6238333 Ref: 1d2f6238333 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-misc-options6238333 Ref: 10016238333 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-b6238394 Ref: 5df6238394 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-B6238810 Ref: 13996238810 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-check-hash-based-pycs6238972 Ref: 1d306238972 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-d6239666 Ref: 1d316239666 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-E6239899 Ref: 95d6239899 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-i6240123 Ref: 14a66240123 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-I6240760 Ref: 95e6240760 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-O6241212 Ref: db46241212 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-OO6241600 Ref: db56241600 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-P6241905 Ref: 5a06241905 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-q6242578 Ref: 1d346242578 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-R6242710 Ref: 1a966242710 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-s6243766 Ref: 13776243766 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-S6244003 Ref: 119b6244003 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-u6244320 Ref: 19a36244320 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-v6244596 Ref: 13f06244596 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-warnings6245101 Ref: 1d386245101 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-W6245101 Ref: 8c66245101 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-x6247613 Ref: 1d3a6247613 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-X6247770 Ref: 1766247770 Ref: Miscellaneous options-Footnote-16254361 Ref: Miscellaneous options-Footnote-26254403 Ref: Miscellaneous options-Footnote-36254445 Ref: Miscellaneous options-Footnote-46254487 Ref: Miscellaneous options-Footnote-56254529 Node: Controlling color6254571 Ref: using/cmdline controlling-color6254703 Ref: 1d406254703 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-controlling-color6254703 Ref: 16b6254703 Ref: Controlling color-Footnote-16255761 Ref: Controlling color-Footnote-26255794 Node: Options you shouldn’t use6255824 Ref: using/cmdline no-color6255926 Ref: 1d416255926 Ref: using/cmdline options-you-shouldn-t-use6255926 Ref: 1d426255926 Ref: using/cmdline cmdoption-J6255997 Ref: 13986255997 Ref: Options you shouldn’t use-Footnote-16256086 Node: Environment variables6256118 Ref: using/cmdline environment-variables6256225 Ref: 1d436256225 Ref: using/cmdline using-on-envvars6256225 Ref: 5ed6256225 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONHOME6256518 Ref: 3b86256518 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONPATH6257124 Ref: 10166257124 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONSAFEPATH6258190 Ref: 5a16258190 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONPLATLIBDIR6258425 Ref: 19406258425 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONSTARTUP6258597 Ref: fc36258597 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONOPTIMIZE6259286 Ref: 1d336259286 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONBREAKPOINT6259524 Ref: adb6259524 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONDEBUG6260149 Ref: 1d326260149 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONINSPECT6260494 Ref: 14a56260494 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONUNBUFFERED6261113 Ref: 19a46261113 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONVERBOSE6261264 Ref: 1d376261264 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONCASEOK6261503 Ref: 95c6261503 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONDONTWRITEBYTECODE6261663 Ref: 139a6261663 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONPYCACHEPREFIX6261908 Ref: 9a36261908 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONHASHSEED6262251 Ref: 10766262251 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONINTMAXSTRDIGITS6262937 Ref: 17bd6262937 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONIOENCODING6263177 Ref: 10036263177 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONNOUSERSITE6264000 Ref: 13786264000 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONUSERBASE6264243 Ref: 13766264243 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONEXECUTABLE6264593 Ref: 1d486264593 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONWARNINGS6264803 Ref: baa6264803 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONFAULTHANDLER6265791 Ref: 10796265791 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONTRACEMALLOC6266242 Ref: 1d3c6266242 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONPROFILEIMPORTTIME6266812 Ref: af56266812 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONASYNCIODEBUG6267086 Ref: 1d4e6267086 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONMALLOC6267298 Ref: c646267298 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONMALLOCSTATS6268758 Ref: 1b556268758 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSFSENCODING6269373 Ref: 2b16269373 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONLEGACYWINDOWSSTDIO6269910 Ref: c5b6269910 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONCOERCECLOCALE6270383 Ref: ad56270383 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONDEVMODE6273113 Ref: aed6273113 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONUTF86273460 Ref: ad86273460 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONWARNDEFAULTENCODING6273756 Ref: 7b76273756 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONNODEBUGRANGES6274060 Ref: 5b26274060 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONPERFSUPPORT6274529 Ref: 46a6274529 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_PERF_JIT_SUPPORT6274941 Ref: 1906274941 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_CPU_COUNT6275392 Ref: 2126275392 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_FROZEN_MODULES6275693 Ref: 18e6275693 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_COLORS6276338 Ref: 14a6276338 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_BASIC_REPL6276605 Ref: 16e6276605 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_HISTORY6276936 Ref: 1916276936 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_GIL6277187 Ref: 1756277187 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_JIT6277625 Ref: 17b6277625 Ref: Environment variables-Footnote-16277949 Ref: Environment variables-Footnote-26277991 Ref: Environment variables-Footnote-36278033 Ref: Environment variables-Footnote-46278075 Node: Debug-mode variables6278117 Ref: using/cmdline debug-mode-variables6278195 Ref: 1d566278195 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFS6278254 Ref: 9a66278254 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHONDUMPREFSFILE6278497 Ref: 18926278497 Ref: using/cmdline envvar-PYTHON_PRESITE6278853 Ref: 1d3e6278853 Node: Using Python on Unix platforms6279598 Ref: using/unix doc6279749 Ref: 1d576279749 Ref: using/unix using-on-unix6279749 Ref: 1d586279749 Ref: using/unix using-python-on-unix-platforms6279749 Ref: 1d596279749 Node: Getting and installing the latest version of Python6279978 Ref: using/unix getting-and-installing-the-latest-version-of-python6280120 Ref: 1d5a6280120 Node: On Linux6280287 Ref: using/unix on-linux6280414 Ref: 1d5b6280414 Node: Installing IDLE6281345 Ref: using/unix installing-idle6281405 Ref: 1d5c6281405 Ref: using/unix installing-idle-on-linux6281405 Ref: 1d5d6281405 Node: On FreeBSD and OpenBSD6281849 Ref: using/unix on-freebsd-and-openbsd6281976 Ref: 1d5e6281976 Node: Building Python6282466 Ref: using/unix building-python6282647 Ref: 1d5f6282647 Ref: using/unix building-python-on-unix6282647 Ref: eee6282647 Ref: Building Python-Footnote-16283475 Ref: Building Python-Footnote-26283524 Ref: Building Python-Footnote-36283587 Node: Python-related paths and files6283650 Ref: using/unix python-related-paths-and-files6283793 Ref: 1d616283793 Node: Miscellaneous6285336 Ref: using/unix miscellaneous6285478 Ref: 1d646285478 Node: Custom OpenSSL6286036 Ref: using/unix custom-openssl6286139 Ref: 1d656286139 Ref: using/unix unix-custom-openssl6286139 Ref: 1d666286139 Node: Configure Python6287759 Ref: using/configure doc6287905 Ref: 1d676287905 Ref: using/configure configure-python6287905 Ref: 1d686287905 Node: Build Requirements6288077 Ref: using/configure build-requirements6288172 Ref: 1d696288172 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-16289889 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-26289932 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-36290015 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-46290062 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-56290119 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-66290176 Ref: Build Requirements-Footnote-76290218 Node: Generated 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Ref: using/configure cmdoption-without-freelists6294768 Ref: 7476294768 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-platlibdir6294892 Ref: 1d786294892 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-wheel-pkg-dir6295115 Ref: 88b6295115 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-pkg-config6295538 Ref: 1d796295538 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-pystats6295894 Ref: 17bb6295894 Ref: using/configure free-threading-build6298207 Ref: 1d7a6298207 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-disable-gil6298207 Ref: 1746298207 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-experimental-jit6298560 Ref: 1d7b6298560 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-PKG_CONFIG6299299 Ref: 1d7c6299299 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-PKG_CONFIG_LIBDIR6299363 Ref: 1d7d6299363 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-PKG_CONFIG_PATH6299394 Ref: 1d7e6299394 Ref: General Options-Footnote-16299491 Node: C compiler options6299533 Ref: using/configure c-compiler-options6299652 Ref: 1d7f6299652 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CC6299707 Ref: 1d806299707 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CFLAGS6299749 Ref: 1d816299749 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CPP6299793 Ref: 1d826299793 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CPPFLAGS6299840 Ref: 1d836299840 Node: Linker options6299917 Ref: using/configure linker-options6300057 Ref: 1d846300057 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LDFLAGS6300104 Ref: 1d856300104 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBS6300178 Ref: 1d866300178 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-MACHDEP6300258 Ref: 1d876300258 Node: Options for third-party dependencies6300327 Ref: using/configure options-for-third-party-dependencies6300468 Ref: 1d886300468 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-BZIP2_CFLAGS6300583 Ref: 1d896300583 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-BZIP2_LIBS6300609 Ref: 1d8a6300609 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CURSES_CFLAGS6300764 Ref: 1d8b6300764 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CURSES_LIBS6300791 Ref: 1d8c6300791 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-GDBM_CFLAGS6300961 Ref: 1d8d6300961 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-GDBM_LIBS6300986 Ref: 1d8e6300986 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBB2_CFLAGS6301059 Ref: 1d8f6301059 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBB2_LIBS6301085 Ref: 1d906301085 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBEDIT_CFLAGS6301251 Ref: 1d926301251 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBEDIT_LIBS6301279 Ref: 1d936301279 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBFFI_CFLAGS6301428 Ref: 1d946301428 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBFFI_LIBS6301455 Ref: 1d956301455 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBMPDEC_CFLAGS6301600 Ref: 1d966301600 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBMPDEC_LIBS6301629 Ref: 1d976301629 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBLZMA_CFLAGS6301904 Ref: 1d986301904 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBLZMA_LIBS6301932 Ref: 1d996301932 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBREADLINE_CFLAGS6302077 Ref: 1d9a6302077 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBREADLINE_LIBS6302109 Ref: 1d9b6302109 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBSQLITE3_CFLAGS6302266 Ref: 1d9c6302266 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBSQLITE3_LIBS6302297 Ref: 1d9d6302297 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBUUID_CFLAGS6302451 Ref: 1d9e6302451 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-LIBUUID_LIBS6302479 Ref: 1d9f6302479 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-PANEL_CFLAGS6302625 Ref: 1da06302625 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-PANEL_LIBS6302651 Ref: 1da16302651 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-TCLTK_CFLAGS6302896 Ref: 1da26302896 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-TCLTK_LIBS6302922 Ref: 1da36302922 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-ZLIB_CFLAGS6303020 Ref: 1da46303020 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-ZLIB_LIBS6303045 Ref: 1da56303045 Node: WebAssembly Options6303187 Ref: using/configure webassembly-options6303329 Ref: 1da66303329 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-emscripten-target6303386 Ref: 1da76303386 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-wasm-dynamic-linking6303649 Ref: 182d6303649 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-wasm-pthreads6303924 Ref: 17ff6303924 Node: Install Options6304030 Ref: using/configure install-options6304155 Ref: 1da86304155 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-prefix6304204 Ref: 1d626304204 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-exec-prefix6304522 Ref: 1d636304522 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-disable-test-modules6304734 Ref: 88a6304734 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-ensurepip6304962 Ref: 1da96304962 Node: Performance options6305345 Ref: using/configure performance-options6305469 Ref: 1daa6305469 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-optimizations6305725 Ref: 85e6305725 Ref: using/configure envvar-PROFILE_TASK6306723 Ref: 17106306723 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-lto6307045 Ref: 7466307045 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-bolt6307564 Ref: 1dab6307564 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-BOLT_APPLY_FLAGS6308631 Ref: 1dac6308631 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-BOLT_INSTRUMENT_FLAGS6308767 Ref: 1dad6308767 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-computed-gotos6308895 Ref: 1dae6308895 Ref: using/configure 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1db76313812 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-address-sanitizer6313982 Ref: 1db86313982 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-memory-sanitizer6314352 Ref: 1db96314352 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-undefined-behavior-sanitizer6314506 Ref: 1dba6314506 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-thread-sanitizer6314687 Ref: 1dbb6314687 Node: Linker options<2>6314830 Ref: using/configure id26314949 Ref: 1dbc6314949 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-shared6314998 Ref: 85f6314998 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-without-static-libpython6315112 Ref: 88c6315112 Node: Libraries options6315300 Ref: using/configure libraries-options6315422 Ref: 1dbd6315422 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-libs6315477 Ref: 1dbe6315477 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-system-expat6315570 Ref: 17b26315570 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-system-libmpdec6315701 Ref: 40e6315701 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-readline6316280 Ref: 1dbf6316280 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-without-readline6316526 Ref: 1dc06316526 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-libm6316713 Ref: 1dc16316713 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-libc6316832 Ref: 1dc26316832 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-openssl6316948 Ref: 1dc36316948 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-openssl-rpath6317045 Ref: 88d6317045 Node: Security Options6317385 Ref: using/configure security-options6317503 Ref: 1dc46317503 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-hash-algorithm6317556 Ref: 1dc56317556 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-builtin-hashlib-hashes6317881 Ref: 1dc66317881 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-ssl-default-suites6318182 Ref: 1dc76318182 Node: macOS Options6318664 Ref: using/configure macos-options6318776 Ref: 1dc86318776 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-universalsdk6318847 Ref: 96b6318847 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-06318882 Ref: 1dc96318882 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-enable-framework6319057 Ref: 1dca6319057 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-16319089 Ref: 1dcb6319089 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-universal-archs6319285 Ref: 1dcc6319285 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-framework-name6320086 Ref: 1dcd6320086 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-app-store-compliance6320272 Ref: 15f46320272 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-26320313 Ref: 1dce6320313 Ref: macOS Options-Footnote-16320815 Ref: macOS Options-Footnote-26320882 Node: iOS Options6320980 Ref: using/configure ios-options6321099 Ref: 1dcf6321099 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-36321166 Ref: 1dd06321166 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-46321335 Ref: 1dd16321335 Ref: iOS Options-Footnote-16321482 Node: Cross Compiling Options6321549 Ref: using/configure cross-compiling-options6321646 Ref: 1dd26321646 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-build6321993 Ref: 1dd36321993 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-host6322098 Ref: 1dd46322098 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-with-build-python6322194 Ref: 1dd56322194 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-CONFIG_SITE6322331 Ref: 1dd66322331 Ref: using/configure cmdoption-arg-HOSTRUNNER6322616 Ref: 1dd76322616 Node: Python Build System6322951 Ref: using/configure python-build-system6323083 Ref: 1dd86323083 Node: Main files of the build system6323245 Ref: using/configure main-files-of-the-build-system6323356 Ref: 1dd96323356 Node: Main build steps6323719 Ref: using/configure main-build-steps6323860 Ref: 1dda6323860 Node: Main Makefile targets6324240 Ref: using/configure main-makefile-targets6324363 Ref: 1ddb6324363 Node: make6324588 Ref: using/configure make6324672 Ref: 1ddc6324672 Node: make platform6326081 Ref: using/configure make-platform6326190 Ref: 1ddd6326190 Node: make profile-opt6326508 Ref: using/configure make-profile-opt6326623 Ref: 1dde6326623 Node: make clean6326891 Ref: using/configure make-clean6327007 Ref: 1ddf6327007 Node: make distclean6327067 Ref: using/configure make-distclean6327179 Ref: 1de06327179 Ref: make distclean-Footnote-16327424 Node: make install6327847 Ref: using/configure make-install6327958 Ref: 1de16327958 Node: make test6328049 Ref: 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using/configure envvar-CFLAGS6332699 Ref: 14806332699 Ref: using/configure envvar-CFLAGS_NODIST6332757 Ref: 1ded6332757 Ref: using/configure envvar-COMPILEALL_OPTS6333563 Ref: 1dee6333563 Ref: using/configure envvar-EXTRA_CFLAGS6333771 Ref: 1def6333771 Ref: using/configure envvar-CONFIGURE_CFLAGS6333841 Ref: 1df06333841 Ref: using/configure envvar-CONFIGURE_CFLAGS_NODIST6334002 Ref: 1df16334002 Ref: using/configure envvar-BASECFLAGS6334177 Ref: 1df26334177 Ref: using/configure envvar-OPT6334242 Ref: 1db56334242 Ref: using/configure envvar-CFLAGS_ALIASING6334299 Ref: 1df36334299 Ref: using/configure envvar-CCSHARED6334454 Ref: 1df46334454 Ref: using/configure envvar-CFLAGSFORSHARED6334603 Ref: 1df56334603 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_CFLAGS6334824 Ref: 1df66334824 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_CFLAGS_NODIST6334955 Ref: 1df76334955 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_STDMODULE_CFLAGS6335127 Ref: 1df86335127 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_CORE_CFLAGS6335358 Ref: 1df96335358 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_BUILTIN_MODULE_CFLAGS6335489 Ref: 1dfa6335489 Ref: using/configure envvar-PURIFY6335765 Ref: 1dfb6335765 Ref: Compiler flags-Footnote-16335935 Node: Linker flags6335990 Ref: using/configure linker-flags6336087 Ref: 1dfc6336087 Ref: using/configure envvar-LINKCC6336130 Ref: 1dfd6336130 Ref: using/configure envvar-CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS6336291 Ref: 1dfe6336291 Ref: using/configure envvar-LDFLAGS_NODIST6336638 Ref: 1dff6336638 Ref: using/configure envvar-CONFIGURE_LDFLAGS_NODIST6337235 Ref: 1e006337235 Ref: using/configure envvar-LDFLAGS6337412 Ref: 14816337412 Ref: using/configure envvar-LIBS6337758 Ref: 1e016337758 Ref: using/configure envvar-LDSHARED6337909 Ref: 1e026337909 Ref: using/configure envvar-BLDSHARED6338033 Ref: 1e036338033 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_LDFLAGS6338178 Ref: 1e046338178 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_LDFLAGS_NODIST6338270 Ref: 1e056338270 Ref: using/configure envvar-PY_CORE_LDFLAGS6338411 Ref: 1e066338411 Ref: Linker 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Ref: 1e0e6355543 Ref: using/windows installing-without-downloading6355543 Ref: 1e116355543 Node: Modifying an install6356538 Ref: using/windows modifying-an-install6356694 Ref: 1e126356694 Node: Installing Free-threaded Binaries6357583 Ref: using/windows install-freethreaded-windows6357700 Ref: 1726357700 Ref: using/windows installing-free-threaded-binaries6357700 Ref: 1e136357700 Ref: Installing Free-threaded Binaries-Footnote-16359612 Node: The Microsoft Store package6359654 Ref: using/windows the-microsoft-store-package6359799 Ref: 1e146359799 Ref: using/windows windows-store6359799 Ref: 1be56359799 Node: Known issues6361959 Ref: using/windows known-issues6362035 Ref: 1e156362035 Node: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths6362204 Ref: using/windows redirection-of-local-data-registry-and-temporary-paths6362307 Ref: 1e166362307 Ref: Redirection of local data registry and temporary paths-Footnote-16364532 Node: The nuget org packages6364623 Ref: using/windows 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Ref: 1e1c6372867 Ref: Alternative bundles-Footnote-16373814 Ref: Alternative bundles-Footnote-26373867 Ref: Alternative bundles-Footnote-36373910 Ref: Alternative bundles-Footnote-46373962 Ref: Alternative bundles-Footnote-56374129 Node: Configuring Python6374166 Ref: using/windows configuring-python6374291 Ref: 1e1d6374291 Node: Excursus Setting environment variables6374859 Ref: using/windows excursus-setting-environment-variables6374990 Ref: 1e1e6374990 Ref: using/windows setting-envvars6374990 Ref: 1be66374990 Node: Finding the Python executable6377164 Ref: using/windows finding-the-python-executable6377295 Ref: 1e1f6377295 Ref: using/windows windows-path-mod6377295 Ref: 10496377295 Node: UTF-8 mode6378589 Ref: using/windows utf-8-mode6378722 Ref: 1e206378722 Ref: using/windows win-utf8-mode6378722 Ref: 1e216378722 Ref: UTF-8 mode-Footnote-16380245 Ref: UTF-8 mode-Footnote-26380287 Node: Python Launcher for Windows6380329 Ref: using/windows launcher6380459 Ref: 5ba6380459 Ref: using/windows python-launcher-for-windows6380459 Ref: 1e226380459 Ref: Python Launcher for Windows-Footnote-16381313 Node: Getting started6381355 Ref: using/windows getting-started6381456 Ref: 1e236381456 Node: From the command-line6381611 Ref: using/windows from-the-command-line6381713 Ref: 1e246381713 Ref: From the command-line-Footnote-16384219 Node: Virtual environments6384261 Ref: using/windows virtual-environments6384385 Ref: 1e256384385 Node: From a script6384883 Ref: using/windows from-a-script6385008 Ref: 1e266385008 Node: From file associations6386054 Ref: using/windows from-file-associations6386150 Ref: 1e276386150 Node: Shebang Lines6386727 Ref: using/windows shebang-lines6386863 Ref: 1e286386863 Node: Arguments in shebang lines6390915 Ref: using/windows arguments-in-shebang-lines6391049 Ref: 1e2a6391049 Node: Customization6391339 Ref: using/windows customization6391471 Ref: 1e2b6391471 Node: Customization via INI files6391598 Ref: using/windows 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using/mac installing-free-threaded-binaries6421878 Ref: 1e4b6421878 Ref: Installing Free-threaded Binaries<2>-Footnote-16426867 Node: Installing using the command line6426909 Ref: using/mac installing-using-the-command-line6427080 Ref: 1e4c6427080 Node: Distributing Python Applications6429908 Ref: using/mac distributing-python-applications6430063 Ref: 1e4d6430063 Ref: using/mac distributing-python-applications-on-the-mac6430063 Ref: 1e4e6430063 Ref: Distributing Python Applications-Footnote-16430691 Ref: Distributing Python Applications-Footnote-26430732 Ref: Distributing Python Applications-Footnote-36430773 Ref: Distributing Python Applications-Footnote-46430801 Node: App Store Compliance6430834 Ref: using/mac app-store-compliance6430947 Ref: 1e4f6430947 Ref: App Store Compliance-Footnote-16432057 Node: Other Resources6432151 Ref: using/mac other-resources6432248 Ref: 1e506432248 Ref: Other Resources-Footnote-16432514 Ref: Other Resources-Footnote-26432557 Node: Using Python on Android6432626 Ref: using/android doc6432766 Ref: 1e516432766 Ref: using/android using-android6432766 Ref: 1e526432766 Ref: using/android using-python-on-android6432766 Ref: 1e536432766 Node: Adding Python to an Android app6434001 Ref: using/android adding-python-to-an-android-app6434138 Ref: 1e566434138 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-16435461 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-26435502 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-36435543 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-46435579 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-56435646 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-66435677 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-76435745 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-86435815 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-96435905 Ref: Adding Python to an Android app-Footnote-106436027 Node: Building a Python package for Android6436128 Ref: using/android building-a-python-package-for-android6436265 Ref: 1e576436265 Ref: Building a Python package for Android-Footnote-16436650 Node: Using Python on iOS6436716 Ref: using/ios doc6436851 Ref: 1e586436851 Ref: using/ios using-ios6436851 Ref: 1e596436851 Ref: using/ios using-python-on-ios6436851 Ref: 1e5a6436851 Ref: Using Python on iOS-Footnote-16438384 Ref: Using Python on iOS-Footnote-26438412 Node: Python at runtime on iOS6438437 Ref: using/ios python-at-runtime-on-ios6438550 Ref: 1e5b6438550 Node: iOS version compatibility6438771 Ref: using/ios ios-version-compatibility6438889 Ref: 1e5c6438889 Node: Platform identification6439421 Ref: using/ios platform-identification6439577 Ref: 1e5d6439577 Node: Standard library availability6440219 Ref: using/ios standard-library-availability6440374 Ref: 1e606440374 Node: Binary extension modules6440597 Ref: using/ios binary-extension-modules6440751 Ref: 1e616440751 Node: Compiler stub binaries6443609 Ref: using/ios compiler-stub-binaries6443725 Ref: 1e656443725 Node: Installing Python on iOS6445117 Ref: using/ios installing-python-on-ios6445262 Ref: 1e666445262 Node: Tools for building iOS apps6445432 Ref: using/ios tools-for-building-ios-apps6445560 Ref: 1e676445560 Node: Adding Python to an iOS project6446343 Ref: using/ios adding-ios6446504 Ref: 1e626446504 Ref: using/ios adding-python-to-an-ios-project6446504 Ref: 1e686446504 Ref: Adding Python to an iOS project-Footnote-16455685 Ref: Adding Python to an iOS project-Footnote-26455730 Node: Testing a Python package6455797 Ref: using/ios testing-a-python-package6455922 Ref: 1e6a6455922 Ref: Testing a Python package-Footnote-16457739 Ref: Testing a Python package-Footnote-26457803 Node: App Store Compliance<2>6457870 Ref: using/ios app-store-compliance6457982 Ref: 1e6b6457982 Ref: App Store Compliance<2>-Footnote-16458873 Node: Editors and IDEs6458967 Ref: using/editors doc6459070 Ref: 1e6c6459070 Ref: using/editors editors6459070 Ref: 1e436459070 Ref: using/editors editors-and-ides6459070 Ref: 1e6d6459070 Ref: Editors and 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Ref: Alternate Implementations-Footnote-26465738 Ref: Alternate Implementations-Footnote-36465775 Ref: Alternate Implementations-Footnote-46465807 Node: Notation6465833 Ref: reference/introduction id26465927 Ref: 1e766465927 Ref: reference/introduction notation6465927 Ref: 1e776465927 Ref: reference/introduction grammar-token-notation-name6466114 Ref: 1e786466114 Ref: reference/introduction grammar-token-notation-lc_letter6466188 Ref: 1e796466188 Ref: Notation-Footnote-16468258 Node: Lexical analysis6468321 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis doc6468446 Ref: 1e7a6468446 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis lexical6468446 Ref: 1e7b6468446 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis lexical-analysis6468446 Ref: 1e7c6468446 Ref: Lexical analysis-Footnote-16469133 Node: Line structure6469175 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id16469263 Ref: 1e7e6469263 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis line-structure6469263 Ref: 1e7f6469263 Node: Logical lines6469569 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id26469656 Ref: 1e806469656 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis logical-lines6469656 Ref: 1e816469656 Node: Physical lines6470034 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id36470138 Ref: 1e826470138 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis physical-lines6470138 Ref: 1e836470138 Node: Comments6470909 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis comments6471021 Ref: 1e846471021 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id46471021 Ref: 1e856471021 Node: Encoding declarations6471324 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis encoding-declarations6471443 Ref: 1e866471443 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis encodings6471443 Ref: 1e876471443 Node: Explicit line joining6472567 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis explicit-joining6472699 Ref: 1e886472699 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis explicit-line-joining6472699 Ref: 1e896472699 Node: Implicit line joining6473633 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis implicit-joining6473755 Ref: 1e8a6473755 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis implicit-line-joining6473755 Ref: 1e8b6473755 Node: Blank lines6474591 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis blank-lines6474703 Ref: 1e8c6474703 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id56474703 Ref: 1e8d6474703 Node: Indentation6475178 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id66475294 Ref: 1e8e6475294 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis indentation6475294 Ref: 1e8f6475294 Node: Whitespace between tokens6478680 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis whitespace6478776 Ref: 1e906478776 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis whitespace-between-tokens6478776 Ref: 1e916478776 Node: Other tokens6479178 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id76479299 Ref: 1e926479299 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis other-tokens6479299 Ref: 1e936479299 Node: Identifiers and keywords6479731 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis identifiers6479846 Ref: 1e946479846 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis identifiers-and-keywords6479846 Ref: 1e956479846 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-identifier6480718 Ref: 1e966480718 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-id_start6480790 Ref: 1e996480790 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-id_continue6480939 Ref: 1e9a6480939 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-xid_start6481099 Ref: 1e976481099 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-xid_continue6481219 Ref: 1e986481219 Ref: Identifiers and keywords-Footnote-16482252 Ref: Identifiers and keywords-Footnote-26482294 Ref: Identifiers and keywords-Footnote-36482336 Node: Keywords6482399 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id86482490 Ref: 1e9b6482490 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis keywords6482490 Ref: 1e9c6482490 Node: Soft Keywords6483085 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id96483216 Ref: 1e9d6483216 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis soft-keywords6483216 Ref: 8086483216 Node: Reserved classes of identifiers6483926 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id-classes6484040 Ref: 1e9e6484040 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis reserved-classes-of-identifiers6484040 Ref: 1e9f6484040 Node: Literals6485963 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id106486075 Ref: 1ea16486075 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis literals6486075 Ref: 1ea26486075 Node: String and Bytes literals6486354 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis string-and-bytes-literals6486461 Ref: 1ea36486461 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis strings6486461 Ref: 1ea46486461 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-stringliteral6486599 Ref: 1ea56486599 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-stringprefix6486704 Ref: 1ea66486704 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-shortstring6486844 Ref: 1ea76486844 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-longstring6486947 Ref: 1ea86486947 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-shortstringitem6487056 Ref: 1ea96487056 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-longstringitem6487141 Ref: 1eaa6487141 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-shortstringchar6487225 Ref: 1eab6487225 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-longstringchar6487308 Ref: 1ead6487308 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-stringescapeseq6487367 Ref: 1eac6487367 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-bytesliteral6487420 Ref: 1eae6487420 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-bytesprefix6487519 Ref: 1eaf6487519 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-shortbytes6487609 Ref: 1eb06487609 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-longbytes6487709 Ref: 1eb16487709 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-shortbytesitem6487815 Ref: 1eb26487815 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-longbytesitem6487897 Ref: 1eb36487897 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-shortbyteschar6487978 Ref: 1eb46487978 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-longbyteschar6488059 Ref: 1eb66488059 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-bytesescapeseq6488116 Ref: 1eb56488116 Ref: String and Bytes literals-Footnote-16490656 Node: Escape sequences6490698 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis escape-sequences6490776 Ref: 4556490776 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id116490776 Ref: 1eb76490776 Ref: Escape sequences-Footnote-16497099 Node: String literal concatenation6497171 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis string-concatenation6497296 Ref: 1eb86497296 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis string-literal-concatenation6497296 Ref: 1eb96497296 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis f-strings6498339 Ref: 9a96498339 Node: f-strings6498339 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis formatted-string-literals6498455 Ref: 1eba6498455 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis id136498455 Ref: 1ebb6498455 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-f_string6499036 Ref: 1ebc6499036 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-replacement_field6499139 Ref: 1ebe6499139 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-f_expression6499267 Ref: 1ebf6499267 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-conversion6499525 Ref: 1ec06499525 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-format_spec6499568 Ref: 1ec16499568 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-literal_char6499657 Ref: 1ebd6499657 Ref: f-strings-Footnote-16505187 Node: Numeric literals6505229 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis numbers6505333 Ref: 1ec56505333 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis numeric-literals6505333 Ref: 1ec66505333 Node: Integer literals6505767 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis integer-literals6505885 Ref: 1ec76505885 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis integers6505885 Ref: 1ec86505885 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-integer6506006 Ref: 1ec96506006 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-decinteger6506130 Ref: 1eca6506130 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-bininteger6506226 Ref: 1ecb6506226 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-octinteger6506295 Ref: 1ecc6506295 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-hexinteger6506364 Ref: 1ecd6506364 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-nonzerodigit6506433 Ref: 1ece6506433 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-digit6506465 Ref: 1ecf6506465 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-bindigit6506497 Ref: 1ed06506497 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-octdigit6506529 Ref: 1ed16506529 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-hexdigit6506561 Ref: 1ed26506561 Node: Floating-point literals6507428 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis floating6507548 Ref: 1ed36507548 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis floating-point-literals6507548 Ref: 1ed46507548 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis grammar-token-python-grammar-floatnumber6507690 Ref: 1ed56507690 Ref: reference/lexical_analysis 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Ref: 1ee16509787 Node: Data model6510710 Ref: reference/datamodel doc6510835 Ref: 1ee26510835 Ref: reference/datamodel data-model6510835 Ref: 1ee36510835 Ref: reference/datamodel datamodel6510835 Ref: 19706510835 Node: Objects values and types6511003 Ref: reference/datamodel objects6511110 Ref: 1ee46511110 Ref: reference/datamodel objects-values-and-types6511110 Ref: 1ee56511110 Ref: Objects values and types-Footnote-16516140 Node: The standard type hierarchy6516367 Ref: reference/datamodel the-standard-type-hierarchy6516503 Ref: 1ee66516503 Ref: reference/datamodel types6516503 Ref: 1ee76516503 Node: None6517513 Ref: reference/datamodel none6517604 Ref: 1ee86517604 Node: NotImplemented6517937 Ref: reference/datamodel notimplemented6518045 Ref: 1ee96518045 Node: Ellipsis6518866 Ref: reference/datamodel ellipsis6518984 Ref: 1eeb6518984 Node: numbers Number6519210 Ref: reference/datamodel numbers-number6519323 Ref: 1eec6519323 Node: numbers Integral6520554 Ref: reference/datamodel 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Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_globals6584300 Ref: 1f4c6584300 Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_builtins6584597 Ref: 1f4d6584597 Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_lasti6584900 Ref: 8866584900 Node: Special writable attributes<2>6585231 Ref: reference/datamodel id106585380 Ref: 1f4e6585380 Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_trace6585483 Ref: 1f4f6585483 Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_trace_lines6586026 Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_trace_opcodes6586350 Ref: bdc6586350 Ref: reference/datamodel frame f_lineno6586953 Ref: 7a76586953 Node: Frame object methods6587496 Ref: reference/datamodel frame-object-methods6587605 Ref: 1f506587605 Ref: reference/datamodel frame clear6587701 Ref: 2826587701 Node: Traceback objects6588383 Ref: reference/datamodel id116588495 Ref: 1f516588495 Ref: reference/datamodel traceback-objects6588495 Ref: af46588495 Ref: reference/datamodel traceback tb_frame6589822 Ref: 1f526589822 Ref: reference/datamodel traceback tb_lineno6590465 Ref: 1f536590465 Ref: 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Ref: reference/datamodel object __aiter__6679825 Ref: bfb6679825 Ref: reference/datamodel object __anext__6679915 Ref: 15736679915 Node: Asynchronous Context Managers6680815 Ref: reference/datamodel async-context-managers6680922 Ref: 5f86680922 Ref: reference/datamodel asynchronous-context-managers6680922 Ref: 1fcf6680922 Ref: reference/datamodel object __aenter__6681296 Ref: 1fd06681296 Ref: reference/datamodel object __aexit__6681455 Ref: 162a6681455 Node: Execution model6681933 Ref: reference/executionmodel doc6682059 Ref: 1fd16682059 Ref: reference/executionmodel execmodel6682059 Ref: 1fd26682059 Ref: reference/executionmodel execution-model6682059 Ref: 1fd36682059 Node: Structure of a program6682189 Ref: reference/executionmodel prog-structure6682290 Ref: 1fd46682290 Ref: reference/executionmodel structure-of-a-program6682290 Ref: 1fd56682290 Node: Naming and binding6683332 Ref: reference/executionmodel naming6683455 Ref: 1efa6683455 Ref: reference/executionmodel 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1ffc6721954 Node: Module specs6723186 Ref: reference/import id46723300 Ref: 1ffd6723300 Ref: reference/import module-specs6723300 Ref: 1f196723300 Node: __path__ attributes on modules6724341 Ref: reference/import package-path-rules6724457 Ref: 1f1b6724457 Ref: reference/import path-attributes-on-modules6724457 Ref: 20006724457 Ref: __path__ attributes on modules-Footnote-16725791 Ref: __path__ attributes on modules-Footnote-26725833 Node: Module reprs6725875 Ref: reference/import module-reprs6726007 Ref: 20016726007 Node: Cached bytecode invalidation6727421 Ref: reference/import cached-bytecode-invalidation6727514 Ref: 20026727514 Ref: reference/import pyc-invalidation6727514 Ref: 5e86727514 Node: The Path Based Finder6728863 Ref: reference/import the-path-based-finder6728999 Ref: 20036728999 Node: Path entry finders6731507 Ref: reference/import path-entry-finders6731618 Ref: 20056731618 Node: Path entry finder protocol6736558 Ref: reference/import path-entry-finder-protocol6736669 Ref: 20076736669 Node: Replacing the standard import system6739046 Ref: reference/import replacing-the-standard-import-system6739199 Ref: 20086739199 Node: Package Relative Imports6740202 Ref: reference/import package-relative-imports6740369 Ref: 20096740369 Ref: reference/import relativeimports6740369 Ref: 200a6740369 Node: Special considerations for __main__6741572 Ref: reference/import import-dunder-main6741713 Ref: 200b6741713 Ref: reference/import special-considerations-for-main6741713 Ref: 200c6741713 Node: __main__ __spec__6742316 Ref: reference/import id56742405 Ref: 200d6742405 Ref: reference/import main-spec6742405 Ref: 1fff6742405 Node: References6743802 Ref: reference/import references6743910 Ref: 200e6743910 Ref: References-Footnote-16745141 Ref: References-Footnote-26745193 Ref: References-Footnote-36745235 Ref: References-Footnote-46745277 Ref: References-Footnote-56745319 Ref: References-Footnote-66745361 Ref: References-Footnote-76745403 Ref: References-Footnote-86745445 Ref: References-Footnote-96745487 Ref: References-Footnote-106745529 Node: Expressions6745572 Ref: reference/expressions doc6745701 Ref: 200f6745701 Ref: reference/expressions expressions6745701 Ref: 20106745701 Ref: reference/expressions id16745701 Ref: 20116745701 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-name6745995 Ref: 20126745995 Node: Arithmetic conversions6746561 Ref: reference/expressions arithmetic-conversions6746645 Ref: 20136746645 Ref: reference/expressions conversions6746645 Ref: 20146746645 Node: Atoms6747348 Ref: reference/expressions atoms6747450 Ref: 20156747450 Ref: reference/expressions id26747450 Ref: 20166747450 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-atom6747697 Ref: 20176747697 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-enclosure6747788 Ref: 20196747788 Node: Identifiers Names6748293 Ref: reference/expressions atom-identifiers6748372 Ref: 1ea06748372 Ref: reference/expressions 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20286753305 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comp_for6753385 Ref: 20296753385 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comp_iter6753500 Ref: 202c6753500 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-comp_if6753568 Ref: 202d6753568 Ref: Displays for lists sets and dictionaries-Footnote-16756070 Node: List displays6756112 Ref: reference/expressions list-displays6756237 Ref: 202e6756237 Ref: reference/expressions lists6756237 Ref: 202f6756237 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-list_display6756369 Ref: 201b6756369 Node: Set displays6756853 Ref: reference/expressions set6756957 Ref: 20316756957 Ref: reference/expressions set-displays6756957 Ref: 20326756957 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-set_display6757137 Ref: 201d6757137 Node: Dictionary displays6757707 Ref: reference/expressions dict6757819 Ref: d7e6757819 Ref: reference/expressions dictionary-displays6757819 Ref: 20336757819 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-dict_display6757983 Ref: 201c6757983 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-dict_item_list6758083 Ref: 20346758083 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-dict_item6758170 Ref: 20366758170 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-dict_comprehension6758278 Ref: 20356758278 Ref: Dictionary displays-Footnote-16760123 Ref: Dictionary displays-Footnote-26760165 Node: Generator expressions6760207 Ref: reference/expressions generator-expressions6760324 Ref: 20386760324 Ref: reference/expressions genexpr6760324 Ref: 20396760324 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-generator_expression6760457 Ref: 201e6760457 Node: Yield expressions6762521 Ref: reference/expressions yield-expressions6762610 Ref: 203a6762610 Ref: reference/expressions yieldexpr6762610 Ref: 203b6762610 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_atom6762665 Ref: 201f6762665 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_from6762729 Ref: 203c6762729 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-yield_expression6762794 Ref: 1ec46762794 Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-16767795 Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-26767837 Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-36767879 Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-46767921 Ref: Yield expressions-Footnote-56767963 Node: Generator-iterator methods6768005 Ref: reference/expressions generator-iterator-methods6768102 Ref: 20406768102 Ref: reference/expressions generator-methods6768102 Ref: 1fca6768102 Ref: reference/expressions generator __next__6768444 Ref: 1cc56768444 Ref: reference/expressions generator send6769202 Ref: 1fcc6769202 Ref: reference/expressions generator throw6769784 Ref: 4f46769784 Ref: reference/expressions generator close6771076 Ref: 16f46771076 Node: Examples6772113 Ref: reference/expressions examples6772254 Ref: 20416772254 Node: Asynchronous generator functions<2>6773314 Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-functions6773468 Ref: 203f6773468 Ref: reference/expressions id46773468 Ref: 20426773468 Ref: Asynchronous generator functions<2>-Footnote-16777139 Node: Asynchronous generator-iterator methods6777219 Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-iterator-methods6777356 Ref: 20446777356 Ref: reference/expressions asynchronous-generator-methods6777356 Ref: 20456777356 Ref: reference/expressions agen __anext__6777598 Ref: 20436777598 Ref: reference/expressions agen asend6778520 Ref: 8d86778520 Ref: reference/expressions agen athrow6779379 Ref: 4f56779379 Ref: reference/expressions agen aclose6780257 Ref: 8d76780257 Node: Primaries6781269 Ref: reference/expressions id56781365 Ref: 20466781365 Ref: reference/expressions primaries6781365 Ref: 20476781365 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-primary6781487 Ref: 20486781487 Node: Attribute references6781698 Ref: reference/expressions attribute-references6781786 Ref: 204d6781786 Ref: reference/expressions id66781786 Ref: 204e6781786 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-attributeref6781915 Ref: 20496781915 Node: Subscriptions6782732 Ref: reference/expressions id76782837 Ref: 204f6782837 Ref: reference/expressions subscriptions6782837 Ref: 1f846782837 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-subscription6783108 Ref: 204a6783108 Ref: Subscriptions-Footnote-16785773 Node: Slicings6785815 Ref: reference/expressions id86785905 Ref: 20506785905 Ref: reference/expressions slicings6785905 Ref: 20516785905 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slicing6786154 Ref: 204b6786154 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slice_list6786229 Ref: 20526786229 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-slice_item6786312 Ref: 20536786312 Ref: reference/expressions grammar-token-python-grammar-proper_slice6786386 Ref: 20546786386 Ref: reference/expressions 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Ref: 20906827296 Ref: Operator precedence-Footnote-16831814 Ref: Operator precedence-Footnote-26831963 Node: Simple statements6832057 Ref: reference/simple_stmts doc6832188 Ref: 20916832188 Ref: reference/simple_stmts simple6832188 Ref: 20926832188 Ref: reference/simple_stmts simple-statements6832188 Ref: 20936832188 Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-simple_stmt6832412 Ref: 20946832412 Node: Expression statements6833634 Ref: reference/simple_stmts expression-statements6833739 Ref: 20a66833739 Ref: reference/simple_stmts exprstmts6833739 Ref: 20a76833739 Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-expression_stmt6834129 Ref: 20956834129 Node: Assignment statements6834569 Ref: reference/simple_stmts assignment6834703 Ref: 1fd96834703 Ref: reference/simple_stmts assignment-statements6834703 Ref: 20a86834703 Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-assignment_stmt6834874 Ref: 20976834874 Ref: reference/simple_stmts 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Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-feature6866276 Ref: 20bf6866276 Ref: Future statements-Footnote-16869007 Ref: Future statements-Footnote-26869049 Node: The global statement6869091 Ref: reference/simple_stmts global6869225 Ref: 18a6869225 Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-global-statement6869225 Ref: 20c06869225 Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-global_stmt6869290 Ref: 20a36869290 Node: The nonlocal statement6870380 Ref: reference/simple_stmts nonlocal6870512 Ref: 129a6870512 Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-nonlocal-statement6870512 Ref: 20c16870512 Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-nonlocal_stmt6870581 Ref: 20a46870581 Ref: The nonlocal statement-Footnote-16871793 Node: The type statement6871835 Ref: reference/simple_stmts the-type-statement6871938 Ref: 20c26871938 Ref: reference/simple_stmts type6871938 Ref: 4336871938 Ref: reference/simple_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-type_stmt6871999 Ref: 20a56871999 Ref: The type statement-Footnote-16873329 Node: Compound statements6873371 Ref: reference/compound_stmts doc6873511 Ref: 20c46873511 Ref: reference/compound_stmts compound6873511 Ref: 20c56873511 Ref: reference/compound_stmts compound-statements6873511 Ref: 20c66873511 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-compound_stmt6875280 Ref: 20c76875280 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-suite6875816 Ref: 20d36875816 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-statement6875918 Ref: 20d56875918 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-stmt_list6876001 Ref: 20d46876001 Ref: reference/compound_stmts if6876552 Ref: 2ed6876552 Ref: reference/compound_stmts elif6876552 Ref: 1c0a6876552 Node: The if statement6876800 Ref: reference/compound_stmts else6876900 Ref: 18c6876900 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-if-statement6876900 Ref: 20d66876900 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-if_stmt6877020 Ref: 20c86877020 Node: The while statement6877632 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-while-statement6877758 Ref: 20d76877758 Ref: reference/compound_stmts while6877758 Ref: 1c046877758 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-while_stmt6877918 Ref: 20c96877918 Node: The for statement6878557 Ref: reference/compound_stmts for6878684 Ref: 2ec6878684 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-for-statement6878684 Ref: 20d86878684 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-for_stmt6878883 Ref: 20ca6878883 Node: The try statement6880676 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-try-statement6880802 Ref: 20d96880802 Ref: reference/compound_stmts try6880802 Ref: 6e46880802 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try_stmt6880960 Ref: 20cb6880960 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try1_stmt6881052 Ref: 20da6881052 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try2_stmt6881316 Ref: 20db6881316 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-try3_stmt6881582 Ref: 20dc6881582 Node: except clause6881987 Ref: reference/compound_stmts except6882077 Ref: 18b6882077 Ref: reference/compound_stmts except-clause6882077 Ref: 20dd6882077 Ref: except clause-Footnote-16885327 Node: except* clause6885525 Ref: reference/compound_stmts except-star6885635 Ref: 5b46885635 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id26885635 Ref: 20de6885635 Node: else clause6888058 Ref: reference/compound_stmts else-clause6888169 Ref: 20df6888169 Ref: reference/compound_stmts except-else6888169 Ref: 20e06888169 Node: finally clause6888530 Ref: reference/compound_stmts finally6888618 Ref: 9ca6888618 Ref: reference/compound_stmts finally-clause6888618 Ref: 20e16888618 Ref: reference/compound_stmts with6890377 Ref: 5ce6890377 Node: The with statement6890377 Ref: reference/compound_stmts as6890505 Ref: 20e26890505 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-with-statement6890505 Ref: 20e36890505 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-with_stmt6890874 Ref: 20cc6890874 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-with_stmt_contents6891015 Ref: 20e46891015 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-with_item6891096 Ref: 20e56891096 Ref: The with statement-Footnote-16894332 Node: The match statement6894374 Ref: reference/compound_stmts match6894505 Ref: 8096894505 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-match-statement6894505 Ref: 20e66894505 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-match_stmt6894650 Ref: 20cd6894650 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-subject_expr6894757 Ref: 20e76894757 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-case_block6894870 Ref: 20e86894870 Ref: The match statement-Footnote-16895771 Ref: The match statement-Footnote-26895813 Node: Overview6895855 Ref: reference/compound_stmts overview6895934 Ref: 20eb6895934 Node: Guards6898406 Ref: reference/compound_stmts guards6898517 Ref: 20ed6898517 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-guard6898548 Ref: 20ea6898548 Node: Irrefutable Case Blocks6899679 Ref: reference/compound_stmts irrefutable-case6899790 Ref: 20ee6899790 Ref: reference/compound_stmts irrefutable-case-blocks6899790 Ref: 20ef6899790 Node: Patterns6900495 Ref: reference/compound_stmts patterns6900591 Ref: 20f36900591 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-patterns6900915 Ref: 20e96900915 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-pattern6900997 Ref: 20f56900997 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-closed_pattern6901071 Ref: 20f86901071 Node: OR Patterns6902091 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id36902167 Ref: 21016902167 Ref: reference/compound_stmts or-patterns6902167 Ref: 20f16902167 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-or_pattern6902291 Ref: 20f76902291 Node: AS Patterns6902858 Ref: reference/compound_stmts as-patterns6902959 Ref: 20f06902959 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id46902959 Ref: 21026902959 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-as_pattern6903108 Ref: 20f66903108 Node: Literal Patterns6903490 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id56903596 Ref: 21036903596 Ref: reference/compound_stmts literal-patterns6903596 Ref: 21046903596 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-literal_pattern6903727 Ref: 20f96903727 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-signed_number6904047 Ref: 21056904047 Node: Capture Patterns6904718 Ref: reference/compound_stmts capture-patterns6904830 Ref: 20f26904830 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id66904830 Ref: 21076904830 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-capture_pattern6904944 Ref: 20fa6904944 Ref: Capture Patterns-Footnote-16905687 Node: Wildcard Patterns6905729 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id76905839 Ref: 21086905839 Ref: reference/compound_stmts wildcard-patterns6905839 Ref: 80a6905839 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-wildcard_pattern6905974 Ref: 20fb6905974 Node: Value Patterns6906251 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id86906359 Ref: 21096906359 Ref: reference/compound_stmts value-patterns6906359 Ref: 210a6906359 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-value_pattern6906470 Ref: 20fc6906470 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-attr6906511 Ref: 210b6906511 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-name_or_attr6906569 Ref: 210c6906569 Node: Group Patterns6907195 Ref: reference/compound_stmts group-patterns6907303 Ref: 210d6907303 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id96907303 Ref: 210e6907303 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-group_pattern6907503 Ref: 20fd6907503 Node: Sequence Patterns6907615 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id106907725 Ref: 210f6907725 Ref: reference/compound_stmts sequence-patterns6907725 Ref: 21106907725 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-sequence_pattern6907930 Ref: 20fe6907930 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-open_sequence_pattern6908087 Ref: 20f46908087 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-maybe_sequence_pattern6908193 Ref: 21116908193 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-maybe_star_pattern6908267 Ref: 21126908267 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-star_pattern6908348 Ref: 21136908348 Ref: Sequence Patterns-Footnote-16911365 Node: Mapping Patterns6912082 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id126912192 Ref: 21146912192 Ref: reference/compound_stmts mapping-patterns6912192 Ref: 21156912192 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-mapping_pattern6912374 Ref: 20ff6912374 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-items_pattern6912440 Ref: 21166912440 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-key_value_pattern6912510 Ref: 21176912510 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-double_star_pattern6912688 Ref: 21186912688 Ref: Mapping Patterns-Footnote-16914295 Node: Class Patterns6914769 Ref: reference/compound_stmts class-patterns6914853 Ref: 21196914853 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id146914853 Ref: 211a6914853 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-class_pattern6914998 Ref: 21006914998 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-pattern_arguments6915099 Ref: 211b6915099 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-positional_patterns6915258 Ref: 211c6915258 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-keyword_patterns6915313 Ref: 211d6915313 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-keyword_pattern6915376 Ref: 211e6915376 Ref: reference/compound_stmts function6919421 Ref: 1c366919421 Ref: Class Patterns-Footnote-16919457 Ref: Class Patterns-Footnote-26919499 Node: Function definitions6919541 Ref: reference/compound_stmts def6919671 Ref: 14236919671 Ref: reference/compound_stmts function-definitions6919671 Ref: 211f6919671 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-funcdef6919844 Ref: 20ce6919844 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-decorators6920087 Ref: 21206920087 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-decorator6920146 Ref: 21226920146 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-parameter_list6920228 Ref: 20886920228 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-parameter_list_no_posonly6920453 Ref: 21246920453 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-parameter_list_starargs6920666 Ref: 21256920666 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-parameter_star_kwargs6921000 Ref: 21276921000 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-parameter6921069 Ref: 21286921069 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-star_parameter6921158 Ref: 21266921158 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-defparameter6921253 Ref: 21236921253 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-funcname6921341 Ref: 21216921341 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-16928366 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-26928567 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-36928609 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-46928651 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-56928693 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-66928735 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-76928777 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-86928819 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-96928861 Ref: Function definitions-Footnote-106928903 Node: Class definitions6928946 Ref: reference/compound_stmts class6929070 Ref: 12ca6929070 Ref: reference/compound_stmts class-definitions6929070 Ref: 212a6929070 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-classdef6929218 Ref: 20cf6929218 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-inheritance6929373 Ref: 212c6929373 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-classname6929431 Ref: 212b6929431 Ref: Class definitions-Footnote-16932745 Ref: Class definitions-Footnote-26932936 Ref: Class definitions-Footnote-36932978 Ref: Class definitions-Footnote-46933020 Ref: Class definitions-Footnote-56933062 Node: Coroutines<2>6933104 Ref: reference/compound_stmts async6933228 Ref: 72d6933228 Ref: reference/compound_stmts coroutines6933228 Ref: 212d6933228 Node: Coroutine function definition6933387 Ref: reference/compound_stmts async-def6933498 Ref: 5cd6933498 Ref: reference/compound_stmts coroutine-function-definition6933498 Ref: 212e6933498 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-async_funcdef6933575 Ref: 20d26933575 Node: The async for statement6934552 Ref: reference/compound_stmts async-for6934696 Ref: aab6934696 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-async-for-statement6934696 Ref: 212f6934696 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-async_for_stmt6934769 Ref: 20d16934769 Node: The async with statement6935717 Ref: reference/compound_stmts async-with6935823 Ref: 5d16935823 Ref: reference/compound_stmts the-async-with-statement6935823 Ref: 21306935823 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-async_with_stmt6935898 Ref: 20d06935898 Ref: The async with statement-Footnote-16937042 Node: Type parameter lists6937084 Ref: reference/compound_stmts type-parameter-lists6937182 Ref: 21316937182 Ref: reference/compound_stmts type-params6937182 Ref: 2b56937182 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-type_params6937344 Ref: 20c36937344 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-type_param6937429 Ref: 21326937429 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-typevar6937525 Ref: 21336937525 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-typevartuple6937633 Ref: 21346937633 Ref: reference/compound_stmts grammar-token-python-grammar-paramspec6937714 Ref: 21356937714 Ref: Type parameter lists-Footnote-16942098 Node: Generic functions6942140 Ref: reference/compound_stmts generic-functions6942238 Ref: 44e6942238 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id176942238 Ref: 21376942238 Node: Generic classes6944044 Ref: reference/compound_stmts generic-classes6944171 Ref: 44d6944171 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id186944171 Ref: 21386944171 Node: Generic type aliases6945307 Ref: reference/compound_stmts generic-type-aliases6945408 Ref: 4516945408 Ref: reference/compound_stmts id196945408 Ref: 21396945408 Node: Top-level components6946212 Ref: reference/toplevel_components doc6946361 Ref: 213a6946361 Ref: reference/toplevel_components top-level6946361 Ref: 213b6946361 Ref: reference/toplevel_components top-level-components6946361 Ref: 213c6946361 Node: Complete Python programs6946754 Ref: reference/toplevel_components complete-python-programs6946854 Ref: 213d6946854 Ref: reference/toplevel_components programs6946854 Ref: 1ffe6946854 Node: File input6948236 Ref: reference/toplevel_components file-input6948362 Ref: 213e6948362 Ref: reference/toplevel_components id16948362 Ref: 213f6948362 Ref: reference/toplevel_components grammar-token-python-grammar-file_input6948459 Ref: 21406948459 Node: Interactive input6948748 Ref: reference/toplevel_components interactive6948866 Ref: 21416948866 Ref: reference/toplevel_components interactive-input6948866 Ref: 21426948866 Ref: reference/toplevel_components grammar-token-python-grammar-interactive_input6948981 Ref: 21436948981 Node: Expression input6949240 Ref: reference/toplevel_components expression-input6949339 Ref: 21446949339 Ref: reference/toplevel_components id26949339 Ref: 21456949339 Ref: reference/toplevel_components grammar-token-python-grammar-eval_input6949541 Ref: 21466949541 Node: Full Grammar specification6949600 Ref: reference/grammar doc6949721 Ref: 21066949721 Ref: reference/grammar full-grammar-specification6949721 Ref: 21476949721 Ref: reference/grammar id16949721 Ref: 21486949721 Ref: Full Grammar specification-Footnote-17021854 Ref: Full Grammar specification-Footnote-27021926 Ref: Full Grammar specification-Footnote-37021998 Ref: Full Grammar specification-Footnote-47022063 Node: The Python Standard Library7022105 Ref: library/index doc7022265 Ref: 21497022265 Ref: library/index library-index7022265 Ref: 1447022265 Ref: library/index the-python-standard-library7022265 Ref: 214a7022265 Ref: The Python Standard Library-Footnote-17025100 Node: Introduction<6>7025125 Ref: library/intro doc7025231 Ref: 214b7025231 Ref: library/intro introduction7025231 Ref: 214c7025231 Ref: library/intro library-intro7025231 Ref: 214d7025231 Node: Notes on availability7027915 Ref: library/intro availability7027988 Ref: 1d547027988 Ref: library/intro notes-on-availability7027988 Ref: 214e7027988 Node: WebAssembly platforms7028744 Ref: library/intro wasm-availability7028848 Ref: 17e07028848 Ref: library/intro webassembly-platforms7028848 Ref: 214f7028848 Ref: library/intro 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13ed7038774 Ref: library/functions anext7039087 Ref: 7d17039087 Ref: library/functions any7039775 Ref: 13ec7039775 Ref: library/functions ascii7040099 Ref: 13b27040099 Ref: library/functions bin7040458 Ref: 129b7040458 Ref: library/functions bool7041130 Ref: 4637041130 Ref: library/functions breakpoint7041763 Ref: 2367041763 Ref: library/functions func-bytearray7043007 Ref: 1ab97043007 Ref: library/functions func-bytes7044464 Ref: 1ab87044464 Ref: library/functions callable7045223 Ref: 11b87045223 Ref: library/functions chr7045777 Ref: 16727045777 Ref: library/functions classmethod7046233 Ref: 1667046233 Ref: library/functions compile7047797 Ref: 1927047797 Ref: library/functions complex7051849 Ref: 2f27051849 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-complexvalue7053439 Ref: 21667053439 Ref: library/functions delattr7055037 Ref: 21547055037 Ref: library/functions func-dict7055482 Ref: 21557055482 Ref: library/functions dir7055938 Ref: 62e7055938 Ref: library/functions divmod7058712 Ref: 9a17058712 Ref: library/functions enumerate7059353 Ref: 14487059353 Ref: library/functions func-eval7060246 Ref: 216a7060246 Ref: library/functions eval7060246 Ref: 1807060246 Ref: library/functions exec7063438 Ref: 17f7063438 Ref: library/functions filter7067064 Ref: 8617067064 Ref: library/functions float7067855 Ref: 2f17067855 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-sign7068816 Ref: 21687068816 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-infinity7068854 Ref: 216c7068854 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-nan7068901 Ref: 216d7068901 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-digit7068935 Ref: 216e7068935 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-digitpart7069037 Ref: 216f7069037 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-number7069112 Ref: 21707069112 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-exponent7069223 Ref: 21717069223 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-floatnumber7069306 Ref: 21727069306 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-absfloatvalue7069378 Ref: 21697069378 Ref: library/functions grammar-token-float-floatvalue7069474 Ref: 21677069474 Ref: library/functions format7070633 Ref: 61b7070633 Ref: library/functions func-frozenset7071726 Ref: 21567071726 Ref: library/functions getattr7072205 Ref: bd17072205 Ref: library/functions globals7073043 Ref: 18677073043 Ref: library/functions hasattr7073283 Ref: 4ce7073283 Ref: library/functions hash7073622 Ref: 5e77073622 Ref: library/functions help7074157 Ref: 8d67074157 Ref: library/functions hex7075230 Ref: 12c27075230 Ref: library/functions id7076298 Ref: 13ee7076298 Ref: library/functions input7076756 Ref: 12cb7076756 Ref: library/functions int7077648 Ref: 2597077648 Ref: library/functions isinstance7080886 Ref: 43d7080886 Ref: library/functions issubclass7081703 Ref: 7bc7081703 Ref: library/functions iter7082272 Ref: 7d27082272 Ref: library/functions len7083685 Ref: 62a7083685 Ref: library/functions func-list7084095 Ref: 21577084095 Ref: library/functions locals7084331 Ref: 1417084331 Ref: library/functions map7086934 Ref: 8607086934 Ref: library/functions max7087469 Ref: f047087469 Ref: library/functions func-memoryview7088733 Ref: 21587088733 Ref: library/functions min7088896 Ref: f037088896 Ref: library/functions next7090151 Ref: 7d37090151 Ref: library/functions object7090459 Ref: a8c7090459 Ref: library/functions oct7090931 Ref: 12c17090931 Ref: library/functions open7091715 Ref: 5177091715 Ref: library/functions filemodes7093203 Ref: 21787093203 Ref: library/functions open-newline-parameter7098344 Ref: 73c7098344 Ref: library/functions ord7103250 Ref: 1ef27103250 Ref: library/functions pow7103788 Ref: 9d27103788 Ref: library/functions print7105832 Ref: f707105832 Ref: library/functions property7106983 Ref: 1947106983 Ref: library/functions property getter7108622 Ref: 165a7108622 Ref: library/functions property setter7108650 Ref: 165b7108650 Ref: library/functions property deleter7108678 Ref: 165c7108678 Ref: library/functions property __name__7109888 Ref: 1937109888 Ref: library/functions func-range7110070 Ref: 21597110070 Ref: library/functions repr7110337 Ref: 7f97110337 Ref: library/functions reversed7111350 Ref: 8627111350 Ref: library/functions round7111666 Ref: 12cd7111666 Ref: library/functions func-set7112993 Ref: 215a7112993 Ref: library/functions setattr7113464 Ref: 215b7113464 Ref: library/functions slice7114539 Ref: 4657114539 Ref: library/functions slice start7115065 Ref: 1f567115065 Ref: library/functions slice stop7115092 Ref: 1f577115092 Ref: library/functions slice step7115118 Ref: 1f587115118 Ref: library/functions sorted7115568 Ref: bce7115568 Ref: library/functions staticmethod7117217 Ref: 4127117217 Ref: library/functions func-str7118973 Ref: 215c7118973 Ref: library/functions sum7119310 Ref: 4667119310 Ref: library/functions super7120174 Ref: 4d77120174 Ref: library/functions func-tuple7124434 Ref: 215d7124434 Ref: library/functions type7124677 Ref: d487124677 Ref: library/functions vars7126459 Ref: 1a417126459 Ref: library/functions zip7127419 Ref: 7cb7127419 Ref: library/functions import__7131296 Ref: 8d37131296 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-17134655 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-27134861 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-37134903 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-47134945 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-57134987 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-67135029 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-77135106 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-87135154 Ref: Built-in Functions-Footnote-97135196 Node: Built-in Constants7135238 Ref: library/constants doc7135370 Ref: 21827135370 Ref: library/constants built-in-constants7135370 Ref: 21837135370 Ref: library/constants built-in-consts7135370 Ref: 21847135370 Ref: library/constants False7135489 Ref: b377135489 Ref: library/constants True7135639 Ref: c0d7135639 Ref: library/constants None7135786 Ref: 6717135786 Ref: library/constants NotImplemented7136084 Ref: 7cd7136084 Ref: library/constants Ellipsis7137837 Ref: 21857137837 Ref: library/constants debug__7138119 Ref: 7d57138119 Node: Constants added by the site module7138588 Ref: library/constants constants-added-by-the-site-module7138677 Ref: 21867138677 Ref: library/constants site-consts7138677 Ref: 21877138677 Ref: library/constants quit7139046 Ref: 21887139046 Ref: library/constants exit7139073 Ref: 21897139073 Ref: library/constants copyright7139503 Ref: 218a7139503 Ref: library/constants credits7139523 Ref: 218b7139523 Ref: library/constants license7139644 Ref: 218c7139644 Node: Built-in Types7139871 Ref: library/stdtypes doc7140004 Ref: 218d7140004 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-types7140004 Ref: 218e7140004 Ref: library/stdtypes built-in-types7140004 Ref: 218f7140004 Node: Truth Value Testing7141595 Ref: library/stdtypes truth7141707 Ref: 15487141707 Ref: library/stdtypes truth-value-testing7141707 Ref: 21907141707 Ref: Truth Value Testing-Footnote-17142782 Node: Boolean Operations — and or not7142918 Ref: library/stdtypes boolean7143053 Ref: 21917143053 Ref: library/stdtypes boolean-operations-and-or-not7143053 Ref: 21927143053 Node: Comparisons<2>7144382 Ref: library/stdtypes comparisons7144533 Ref: 21937144533 Ref: library/stdtypes stdcomparisons7144533 Ref: 21947144533 Node: Numeric Types — int float complex7146981 Ref: library/stdtypes numeric-types-int-float-complex7147118 Ref: 21957147118 Ref: library/stdtypes typesnumeric7147118 Ref: 1bf77147118 Ref: Numeric Types — int float complex-Footnote-17155308 Ref: Numeric Types — int float complex-Footnote-27155423 Node: Bitwise Operations on Integer Types7155500 Ref: library/stdtypes bitstring-ops7155651 Ref: 21977155651 Ref: library/stdtypes bitwise-operations-on-integer-types7155651 Ref: 21987155651 Node: Additional Methods on Integer Types7158005 Ref: library/stdtypes additional-methods-on-integer-types7158192 Ref: 21997158192 Ref: library/stdtypes int bit_length7158419 Ref: 219a7158419 Ref: library/stdtypes int bit_count7159336 Ref: 7c77159336 Ref: library/stdtypes int to_bytes7159800 Ref: 188f7159800 Ref: library/stdtypes int from_bytes7161972 Ref: 184f7161972 Ref: library/stdtypes int as_integer_ratio7163903 Ref: 9cb7163903 Ref: library/stdtypes int is_integer7164210 Ref: 177a7164210 Node: Additional Methods on Float7164374 Ref: library/stdtypes additional-methods-on-float7164550 Ref: 219d7164550 Ref: library/stdtypes float as_integer_ratio7164763 Ref: 1d127164763 Ref: library/stdtypes float is_integer7165049 Ref: 219c7165049 Ref: library/stdtypes float hex7165676 Ref: 1d137165676 Ref: library/stdtypes float fromhex7165926 Ref: 219e7165926 Node: Hashing of numeric types7167566 Ref: library/stdtypes hashing-of-numeric-types7167698 Ref: 219f7167698 Ref: library/stdtypes numeric-hash7167698 Ref: 21a07167698 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-boolean-values7171879 Ref: 21a27171879 Node: Boolean Type - bool7171880 Ref: library/stdtypes boolean-type-bool7172017 Ref: 21a37172017 Ref: library/stdtypes typebool7172017 Ref: 215e7172017 Node: Iterator Types7173209 Ref: library/stdtypes iterator-types7173346 Ref: 21a47173346 Ref: library/stdtypes typeiter7173346 Ref: 21757173346 Ref: library/stdtypes container __iter__7173740 Ref: 1cc17173740 Ref: library/stdtypes iterator __iter__7174487 Ref: 1cc47174487 Ref: library/stdtypes iterator __next__7174838 Ref: 12c07174838 Node: Generator Types7175620 Ref: library/stdtypes generator-types7175686 Ref: 21a57175686 Ref: library/stdtypes id37175686 Ref: 21a67175686 Node: Sequence Types — list tuple range7176185 Ref: library/stdtypes sequence-types-list-tuple-range7176329 Ref: 21a77176329 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq7176329 Ref: 1c497176329 Node: Common Sequence Operations7176796 Ref: library/stdtypes common-sequence-operations7176927 Ref: 21a87176927 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq-common7176927 Ref: 21a97176927 Ref: Common Sequence Operations-Footnote-17185759 Node: Immutable Sequence Types7185838 Ref: library/stdtypes immutable-sequence-types7186000 Ref: 21ad7186000 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq-immutable7186000 Ref: 21ae7186000 Node: Mutable Sequence Types7186533 Ref: library/stdtypes mutable-sequence-types7186677 Ref: 21af7186677 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq-mutable7186677 Ref: 215f7186677 Node: Lists<2>7192678 Ref: library/stdtypes lists7192804 Ref: 21b07192804 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq-list7192804 Ref: 21767192804 Ref: library/stdtypes list7192987 Ref: 60d7192987 Ref: library/stdtypes list sort7194174 Ref: bcf7194174 Node: Tuples7196496 Ref: library/stdtypes tuples7196606 Ref: 21b17196606 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq-tuple7196606 Ref: 20ec7196606 Ref: library/stdtypes tuple7196970 Ref: 36b7196970 Node: Ranges7198525 Ref: library/stdtypes ranges7198618 Ref: 21b27198618 Ref: library/stdtypes typesseq-range7198618 Ref: 217c7198618 Ref: library/stdtypes range7198807 Ref: 9437198807 Ref: library/stdtypes range start7200791 Ref: 21b37200791 Ref: library/stdtypes range stop7200921 Ref: 21b47200921 Ref: library/stdtypes range step7200992 Ref: 21b57200992 Ref: Ranges-Footnote-17202985 Node: Text Sequence Type — str7203071 Ref: library/stdtypes text-sequence-type-str7203253 Ref: 21b67203253 Ref: library/stdtypes textseq7203253 Ref: 1bfc7203253 Ref: library/stdtypes str7204930 Ref: 4477204930 Node: String Methods<2>7207137 Ref: library/stdtypes id57207261 Ref: 21b87207261 Ref: library/stdtypes string-methods7207261 Ref: 1bfd7207261 Ref: library/stdtypes str capitalize7208103 Ref: 21bb7208103 Ref: library/stdtypes str casefold7208469 Ref: dd57208469 Ref: library/stdtypes str center7209117 Ref: 1c7c7209117 Ref: library/stdtypes str count7209575 Ref: 16447209575 Ref: library/stdtypes str encode7210262 Ref: 8d47210262 Ref: library/stdtypes str endswith7211514 Ref: ec57211514 Ref: library/stdtypes str expandtabs7212297 Ref: 21bc7212297 Ref: library/stdtypes str find7213526 Ref: ea17213526 Ref: library/stdtypes str format7214075 Ref: 61d7214075 Ref: library/stdtypes str format_map7215588 Ref: dd67215588 Ref: library/stdtypes str index7216104 Ref: 16457216104 Ref: library/stdtypes str isalnum7216250 Ref: 21bd7216250 Ref: library/stdtypes str isalpha7216590 Ref: 21be7216590 Ref: library/stdtypes str isascii7217144 Ref: af17217144 Ref: library/stdtypes str isdecimal7217386 Ref: 21bf7217386 Ref: library/stdtypes str isdigit7217774 Ref: 21c07217774 Ref: library/stdtypes str isidentifier7218282 Ref: 195a7218282 Ref: library/stdtypes str islower7218848 Ref: 21c27218848 Ref: library/stdtypes str isnumeric7219032 Ref: 21c37219032 Ref: library/stdtypes str isprintable7219512 Ref: dd77219512 Ref: library/stdtypes str isspace7220367 Ref: 21c47220367 Ref: library/stdtypes str istitle7220789 Ref: 21c57220789 Ref: library/stdtypes str isupper7221070 Ref: 21c67221070 Ref: library/stdtypes meth-str-join7221445 Ref: 21c77221445 Ref: library/stdtypes str join7221445 Ref: 21ab7221445 Ref: library/stdtypes str ljust7221773 Ref: 1c7b7221773 Ref: library/stdtypes str lower7222060 Ref: 17ec7222060 Ref: library/stdtypes str lstrip7222305 Ref: 14797222305 Ref: library/stdtypes str maketrans7223119 Ref: dd87223119 Ref: library/stdtypes str partition7223848 Ref: ea47223848 Ref: library/stdtypes str removeprefix7224187 Ref: 8ce7224187 Ref: library/stdtypes str removesuffix7224544 Ref: 8cf7224544 Ref: library/stdtypes str replace7224932 Ref: 19a7224932 Ref: library/stdtypes str rfind7225318 Ref: ea27225318 Ref: library/stdtypes str rindex7225615 Ref: 124b7225615 Ref: library/stdtypes str rjust7225770 Ref: 1c7a7225770 Ref: library/stdtypes str rpartition7226058 Ref: 124c7226058 Ref: library/stdtypes str rsplit7226397 Ref: 12497226397 Ref: library/stdtypes str rstrip7226847 Ref: 147a7226847 Ref: library/stdtypes str split7227642 Ref: ea37227642 Ref: library/stdtypes str splitlines7229699 Ref: 124a7229699 Ref: library/stdtypes str startswith7232349 Ref: ec47232349 Ref: library/stdtypes str strip7232686 Ref: 14787232686 Ref: library/stdtypes str swapcase7233694 Ref: 21c97233694 Ref: library/stdtypes str title7233911 Ref: 21ca7233911 Ref: library/stdtypes str translate7235097 Ref: 21c87235097 Ref: library/stdtypes str upper7236003 Ref: 21cd7236003 Ref: library/stdtypes str zfill7236494 Ref: 147b7236494 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-17237015 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-27237079 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-37237143 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-47237315 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-57237487 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-67237659 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-77237723 Ref: String Methods<2>-Footnote-87237895 Node: Formatted String Literals f-strings7237959 Ref: library/stdtypes formatted-string-literals-f-strings7238122 Ref: 21ce7238122 Node: printf-style String Formatting7241836 Ref: library/stdtypes old-string-formatting7241973 Ref: 6c87241973 Ref: library/stdtypes printf-style-string-formatting7241973 Ref: 21cf7241973 Ref: printf-style String Formatting-Footnote-17251297 Ref: printf-style String Formatting-Footnote-27251424 Node: Binary Sequence Types — bytes bytearray memoryview7251466 Ref: library/stdtypes binary-sequence-types-bytes-bytearray-memoryview7251640 Ref: 21d17251640 Ref: library/stdtypes binaryseq7251640 Ref: 21617251640 Node: Bytes Objects7252331 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes-objects7252459 Ref: 21d27252459 Ref: library/stdtypes typebytes7252459 Ref: 21637252459 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes7252799 Ref: 1c27252799 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes fromhex7255053 Ref: aef7255053 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes hex7255660 Ref: d687255660 Node: Bytearray Objects7257303 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray-objects7257470 Ref: 21d37257470 Ref: library/stdtypes typebytearray7257470 Ref: 21627257470 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray7257610 Ref: 53a7257610 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray fromhex7258648 Ref: af07258648 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray hex7259284 Ref: d697259284 Node: Bytes and Bytearray Operations7260337 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes-and-bytearray-operations7260520 Ref: 21d47260520 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes-methods7260520 Ref: 21607260520 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes count7261738 Ref: 21d57261738 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray count7261784 Ref: 21d67261784 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes removeprefix7262381 Ref: 21d77262381 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray removeprefix7262424 Ref: 21d87262424 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes removesuffix7263029 Ref: 21d97263029 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray removesuffix7263072 Ref: 21da7263072 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes decode7263708 Ref: 8d57263708 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray decode7263769 Ref: 21db7263769 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes endswith7265009 Ref: 21dc7265009 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray endswith7265061 Ref: 21dd7265061 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes find7265488 Ref: 183d7265488 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray find7265533 Ref: 21de7265533 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes index7266339 Ref: 21df7266339 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray index7266385 Ref: 21e07266385 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes join7266759 Ref: 21ac7266759 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray join7266793 Ref: 21e17266793 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes maketrans7267229 Ref: 12687267229 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray maketrans7267275 Ref: 12697267275 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes partition7267643 Ref: 21e37267643 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray partition7267677 Ref: 21e47267677 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes replace7268164 Ref: 21e57268164 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray replace7268210 Ref: 21e67268210 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes rfind7268730 Ref: 183e7268730 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray rfind7268776 Ref: 21e77268776 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes rindex7269306 Ref: 21e87269306 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray rindex7269353 Ref: 21e97269353 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes rpartition7269736 Ref: 21ea7269736 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray rpartition7269771 Ref: 21eb7269771 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes startswith7270258 Ref: 21ec7270258 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray startswith7270312 Ref: 21ed7270312 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes translate7270748 Ref: 21e27270748 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray translate7270799 Ref: 12ee7270799 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes center7271821 Ref: 21ee7271821 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray center7271866 Ref: 21ef7271866 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes ljust7272367 Ref: 21f07272367 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray ljust7272411 Ref: 21f17272411 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes lstrip7272917 Ref: 21f27272917 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray lstrip7272952 Ref: 21f37272952 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes rjust7274151 Ref: 21f47274151 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray rjust7274195 Ref: 21f57274195 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes rsplit7274702 Ref: 21f67274702 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray rsplit7274751 Ref: 21f77274751 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes rstrip7275265 Ref: 21f97275265 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray rstrip7275300 Ref: 21fa7275300 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes split7276480 Ref: 21fb7276480 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray split7276528 Ref: 21f87276528 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes strip7278461 Ref: 21fc7278461 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray strip7278495 Ref: 21fd7278495 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes capitalize7279682 Ref: 21fe7279682 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray capitalize7279714 Ref: 21ff7279714 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes expandtabs7280123 Ref: 22007280123 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray expandtabs7280164 Ref: 22017280164 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes isalnum7281506 Ref: 22027281506 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray isalnum7281535 Ref: 22037281535 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes isalpha7282097 Ref: 22047282097 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray isalpha7282126 Ref: 22057282126 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes isascii7282563 Ref: 22067282563 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray isascii7282592 Ref: 22077282592 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes isdigit7282809 Ref: 22087282809 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray isdigit7282838 Ref: 22097282838 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes islower7283210 Ref: 220a7283210 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray islower7283239 Ref: 220b7283239 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes isspace7283777 Ref: 220c7283777 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray isspace7283806 Ref: 220d7283806 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes istitle7284138 Ref: 220e7284138 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray istitle7284167 Ref: 220f7284167 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes isupper7284540 Ref: 22117284540 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray isupper7284569 Ref: 22127284569 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes lower7285123 Ref: 22137285123 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray lower7285150 Ref: 22147285150 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes splitlines7285789 Ref: 22157285789 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray splitlines7285835 Ref: 22167285835 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes swapcase7286784 Ref: 22177286784 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray swapcase7286814 Ref: 22187286814 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes title7287744 Ref: 22107287744 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray title7287771 Ref: 22197287771 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes upper7289396 Ref: 221a7289396 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray upper7289423 Ref: 221b7289423 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes zfill7290062 Ref: 221c7290062 Ref: library/stdtypes bytearray zfill7290094 Ref: 221d7290094 Node: printf-style Bytes Formatting7290804 Ref: library/stdtypes bytes-formatting7290982 Ref: d807290982 Ref: library/stdtypes printf-style-bytes-formatting7290982 Ref: 221e7290982 Ref: printf-style Bytes Formatting-Footnote-17300477 Ref: printf-style Bytes Formatting-Footnote-27300604 Ref: printf-style Bytes Formatting-Footnote-37300646 Node: Memory Views7300688 Ref: library/stdtypes memory-views7300827 Ref: 221f7300827 Ref: library/stdtypes typememoryview7300827 Ref: 21777300827 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview7301024 Ref: 4647301024 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview __eq__7304851 Ref: 22237304851 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview tobytes7306853 Ref: 22247306853 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview hex7307957 Ref: d6a7307957 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview tolist7308480 Ref: 22207308480 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview toreadonly7309042 Ref: 22257309042 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview release7309656 Ref: 11b07309656 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview cast7311025 Ref: 22267311025 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview obj7314086 Ref: 22287314086 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview nbytes7314326 Ref: 22297314326 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview readonly7315454 Ref: 222a7315454 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview format7315546 Ref: 22227315546 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview itemsize7316084 Ref: 22217316084 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview ndim7316460 Ref: 222b7316460 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview shape7316601 Ref: 222c7316601 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview strides7316856 Ref: 222d7316856 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview suboffsets7317146 Ref: 222e7317146 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview c_contiguous7317271 Ref: 222f7317271 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview f_contiguous7317425 Ref: 22307317425 Ref: library/stdtypes memoryview contiguous7317585 Ref: 22317317585 Ref: Memory Views-Footnote-17317771 Node: Set Types — set frozenset7317813 Ref: library/stdtypes set-types-set-frozenset7317983 Ref: 22327317983 Ref: library/stdtypes types-set7317983 Ref: 21737317983 Ref: library/stdtypes set7319533 Ref: 5d57319533 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset7319561 Ref: 5d67319561 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset isdisjoint7320597 Ref: 22337320597 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset issubset7320805 Ref: 22347320805 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset issuperset7321084 Ref: 22357321084 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset union7321367 Ref: 144a7321367 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset intersection7321508 Ref: 144b7321508 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset difference7321671 Ref: 22367321671 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset symmetric_difference7321837 Ref: 22377321837 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset copy7322009 Ref: 22387322009 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset update7324245 Ref: 22397324245 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset intersection_update7324377 Ref: 144c7324377 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset difference_update7324549 Ref: 223a7324549 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset symmetric_difference_update7324694 Ref: 144d7324694 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset add7324876 Ref: 223b7324876 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset remove7324947 Ref: 223c7324947 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset discard7325104 Ref: 223d7325104 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset pop7325201 Ref: 223e7325201 Ref: library/stdtypes frozenset clear7325350 Ref: 223f7325350 Node: Mapping Types — dict7325911 Ref: library/stdtypes mapping-types-dict7326050 Ref: 22407326050 Ref: library/stdtypes typesmapping7326050 Ref: ac67326050 Ref: library/stdtypes dict7326835 Ref: 2587326835 Ref: library/stdtypes dict clear7332465 Ref: 22417332465 Ref: library/stdtypes dict copy7332541 Ref: bd07332541 Ref: library/stdtypes dict fromkeys7332619 Ref: 15517332619 Ref: library/stdtypes dict get7333167 Ref: 22427333167 Ref: library/stdtypes dict items7333428 Ref: 7ca7333428 Ref: library/stdtypes dict keys7333602 Ref: 7c87333602 Ref: library/stdtypes dict pop7333747 Ref: 33e7333747 Ref: library/stdtypes dict popitem7334000 Ref: 14f17334000 Ref: library/stdtypes dict setdefault7334775 Ref: 10727334775 Ref: library/stdtypes dict update7335011 Ref: 142e7335011 Ref: library/stdtypes dict values7335624 Ref: 7c97335624 Node: Dictionary view objects7337317 Ref: library/stdtypes dict-views7337399 Ref: 22437337399 Ref: library/stdtypes dictionary-view-objects7337399 Ref: 22447337399 Node: Context Manager Types7340994 Ref: library/stdtypes context-manager-types7341151 Ref: 22467341151 Ref: library/stdtypes typecontextmanager7341151 Ref: 1fbf7341151 Ref: library/stdtypes contextmanager __enter__7341516 Ref: 22477341516 Ref: library/stdtypes contextmanager __exit__7342516 Ref: 22487342516 Node: Type Annotation Types — Generic Alias Union7344908 Ref: library/stdtypes type-annotation-types-generic-alias-union7345063 Ref: 22497345063 Node: Generic Alias Type7345328 Ref: library/stdtypes generic-alias-type7345447 Ref: 224a7345447 Ref: library/stdtypes types-genericalias7345447 Ref: 6ae7345447 Node: Standard Generic Classes7350252 Ref: library/stdtypes standard-generic-classes7350382 Ref: 224c7350382 Node: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects7352772 Ref: library/stdtypes special-attributes-of-genericalias-objects7352902 Ref: 225a7352902 Ref: library/stdtypes genericalias __origin__7353083 Ref: 225b7353083 Ref: library/stdtypes genericalias __args__7353252 Ref: 224b7353252 Ref: library/stdtypes genericalias __parameters__7353543 Ref: 225c7353543 Ref: library/stdtypes genericalias __unpacked__7354100 Ref: 225d7354100 Ref: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects-Footnote-17354918 Ref: Special Attributes of GenericAlias objects-Footnote-27354960 Node: Union Type7355002 Ref: library/stdtypes types-union7355121 Ref: 7bd7355121 Ref: library/stdtypes union-type7355121 Ref: 225e7355121 Ref: Union Type-Footnote-17358543 Node: Other Built-in Types7358585 Ref: library/stdtypes other-built-in-types7358737 Ref: 225f7358737 Ref: library/stdtypes typesother7358737 Ref: 22607358737 Node: Modules<4>7359123 Ref: library/stdtypes modules7359226 Ref: 22617359226 Ref: library/stdtypes typesmodules7359226 Ref: 22627359226 Node: Classes and Class Instances7360379 Ref: library/stdtypes classes-and-class-instances7360500 Ref: 22637360500 Ref: library/stdtypes typesobjects7360500 Ref: 22647360500 Node: Functions7360665 Ref: library/stdtypes functions7360783 Ref: 22657360783 Ref: library/stdtypes typesfunctions7360783 Ref: 22667360783 Node: Methods7361247 Ref: library/stdtypes methods7361350 Ref: 22677361350 Ref: library/stdtypes typesmethods7361350 Ref: 22687361350 Node: Code Objects7363179 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-code-objects7363285 Ref: 22697363285 Ref: library/stdtypes code-objects7363285 Ref: 226a7363285 Node: Type Objects7364139 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-type-objects7364253 Ref: 21817364253 Ref: library/stdtypes type-objects7364253 Ref: 226b7364253 Node: The Null Object7364604 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-null-object7364725 Ref: 226c7364725 Ref: library/stdtypes the-null-object7364725 Ref: 226d7364725 Node: The Ellipsis Object7365040 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-ellipsis-object7365174 Ref: 226e7365174 Ref: library/stdtypes the-ellipsis-object7365174 Ref: 226f7365174 Node: The NotImplemented Object7365542 Ref: library/stdtypes bltin-notimplemented-object7365677 Ref: 22707365677 Ref: library/stdtypes the-notimplemented-object7365677 Ref: 22717365677 Node: Internal Objects7366086 Ref: library/stdtypes internal-objects7366193 Ref: 22727366193 Ref: library/stdtypes typesinternal7366193 Ref: 22737366193 Node: Special Attributes7366411 Ref: library/stdtypes special-attributes7366561 Ref: 22747366561 Ref: library/stdtypes specialattrs7366561 Ref: 22757366561 Ref: library/stdtypes definition __name__7366800 Ref: 105f7366800 Ref: library/stdtypes definition __qualname__7366923 Ref: 105e7366923 Ref: library/stdtypes definition __module__7367101 Ref: 22767367101 Ref: library/stdtypes definition __doc__7367210 Ref: 9277367210 Ref: library/stdtypes definition __type_params__7367333 Ref: 21367367333 Node: Integer string conversion length limitation7367591 Ref: library/stdtypes int-max-str-digits7367712 Ref: 5f17367712 Ref: library/stdtypes integer-string-conversion-length-limitation7367712 Ref: 22777367712 Ref: Integer string conversion length limitation-Footnote-17370449 Node: Affected APIs7370505 Ref: library/stdtypes affected-apis7370628 Ref: 22787370628 Node: Configuring the limit7371558 Ref: library/stdtypes configuring-the-limit7371715 Ref: 22797371715 Node: Recommended configuration7374184 Ref: library/stdtypes recommended-configuration7374319 Ref: 227c7374319 Node: Built-in Exceptions7375189 Ref: library/exceptions doc7375328 Ref: 227d7375328 Ref: library/exceptions bltin-exceptions7375328 Ref: 18837375328 Ref: library/exceptions built-in-exceptions7375328 Ref: 227e7375328 Node: Exception context7377060 Ref: library/exceptions exception-context7377177 Ref: 227f7377177 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException __context__7377338 Ref: 12ba7377338 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException __cause__7377379 Ref: 12bb7377379 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException __suppress_context__7377418 Ref: 20b87377418 Node: Inheriting from built-in exceptions7379111 Ref: library/exceptions inheriting-from-built-in-exceptions7379249 Ref: 22807379249 Ref: Inheriting from built-in exceptions-Footnote-17380131 Node: Base classes7380204 Ref: library/exceptions base-classes7380344 Ref: 22817380344 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException7380463 Ref: 5b77380463 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException args7380848 Ref: 5697380848 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException with_traceback7381216 Ref: 20b77381216 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException __traceback__7382116 Ref: 12b97382116 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException add_note7382318 Ref: 5b67382318 Ref: library/exceptions BaseException __notes__7382603 Ref: 22827382603 Ref: library/exceptions Exception7382849 Ref: 9d97382849 Ref: library/exceptions ArithmeticError7383033 Ref: 22837383033 Ref: library/exceptions BufferError7383261 Ref: 18247383261 Ref: library/exceptions LookupError7383372 Ref: 21cc7383372 Ref: Base classes-Footnote-17383674 Node: Concrete exceptions7383716 Ref: library/exceptions concrete-exceptions7383829 Ref: 22857383829 Ref: library/exceptions AssertionError7383952 Ref: 6a57383952 Ref: library/exceptions AttributeError7384040 Ref: 3487384040 Ref: library/exceptions AttributeError name7384408 Ref: 22867384408 Ref: library/exceptions AttributeError obj7384506 Ref: 22877384506 Ref: library/exceptions EOFError7384693 Ref: 12cc7384693 Ref: library/exceptions FloatingPointError7384971 Ref: 22847384971 Ref: library/exceptions GeneratorExit7385032 Ref: 13937385032 Ref: library/exceptions ImportError7385355 Ref: 4157385355 Ref: library/exceptions ImportError name7385677 Ref: 22887385677 Ref: library/exceptions ImportError path7385772 Ref: 22897385772 Ref: library/exceptions ModuleNotFoundError7385958 Ref: b477385958 Ref: library/exceptions IndexError7386222 Ref: 14ff7386222 Ref: library/exceptions KeyError7386449 Ref: 33f7386449 Ref: library/exceptions KeyboardInterrupt7386566 Ref: 9d17386566 Ref: library/exceptions MemoryError7387438 Ref: 15767387438 Ref: library/exceptions NameError7388019 Ref: 43a7388019 Ref: library/exceptions NameError name7388309 Ref: 228b7388309 Ref: library/exceptions NotImplementedError7388476 Ref: 22a7388476 Ref: library/exceptions OSError7389352 Ref: 4137389352 Ref: library/exceptions OSError errno7390388 Ref: 228d7390388 Ref: library/exceptions OSError winerror7390480 Ref: 228e7390480 Ref: library/exceptions OSError strerror7391059 Ref: 228f7391059 Ref: library/exceptions OSError filename7391295 Ref: 22907391295 Ref: library/exceptions OSError filename27391324 Ref: 22917391324 Ref: library/exceptions OverflowError7392343 Ref: 87f7392343 Ref: library/exceptions PythonFinalizationError7392836 Ref: 14d7392836 Ref: library/exceptions RecursionError7393421 Ref: d6b7393421 Ref: library/exceptions ReferenceError7393745 Ref: 14d97393745 Ref: library/exceptions RuntimeError7394071 Ref: 1957394071 Ref: library/exceptions StopIteration7394273 Ref: bfa7394273 Ref: library/exceptions StopIteration value7394495 Ref: 1fc97394495 Ref: library/exceptions StopAsyncIteration7395652 Ref: 1a2c7395652 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError7395846 Ref: 18d7395846 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError filename7396368 Ref: 22927396368 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError lineno7396460 Ref: 22937396460 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError offset7396634 Ref: 22947396634 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError text7396820 Ref: 22957396820 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError end_lineno7396901 Ref: 22967396901 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxError end_offset7397093 Ref: 22977397093 Ref: library/exceptions IndentationError7397727 Ref: 7a37397727 Ref: library/exceptions TabError7397880 Ref: 5407397880 Ref: library/exceptions SystemError7398041 Ref: 5727398041 Ref: library/exceptions SystemExit7398951 Ref: d407398951 Ref: library/exceptions SystemExit code7400255 Ref: 22997400255 Ref: library/exceptions TypeError7400397 Ref: 5347400397 Ref: library/exceptions UnboundLocalError7401226 Ref: 15007401226 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError7401444 Ref: 12967401444 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError encoding7401806 Ref: 229a7401806 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError reason7401895 Ref: 229b7401895 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError object7401980 Ref: 229c7401980 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError start7402076 Ref: 15bb7402076 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeError end7402168 Ref: 15bc7402168 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeEncodeError7402264 Ref: 6737402264 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeDecodeError7402417 Ref: a127402417 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeTranslateError7402570 Ref: 229d7402570 Ref: library/exceptions ValueError7402729 Ref: 2047402729 Ref: library/exceptions ZeroDivisionError7402982 Ref: 9457402982 Ref: library/exceptions EnvironmentError7403339 Ref: 104c7403339 Ref: library/exceptions IOError7403372 Ref: 104b7403372 Ref: library/exceptions WindowsError7403396 Ref: 104d7403396 Ref: Concrete exceptions-Footnote-17403522 Ref: Concrete exceptions-Footnote-27403564 Node: OS exceptions7403606 Ref: library/exceptions os-exceptions7403675 Ref: 228c7403675 Ref: library/exceptions BlockingIOError7403836 Ref: 10507403836 Ref: library/exceptions BlockingIOError characters_written7404223 Ref: 22a27404223 Ref: library/exceptions ChildProcessError7404478 Ref: 10517404478 Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionError7404623 Ref: e097404623 Ref: library/exceptions BrokenPipeError7404875 Ref: 10557404875 Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionAbortedError7405187 Ref: 10567405187 Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionRefusedError7405395 Ref: 10577405395 Ref: library/exceptions ConnectionResetError7405603 Ref: 10587405603 Ref: library/exceptions FileExistsError7405797 Ref: 10197405797 Ref: library/exceptions FileNotFoundError7405959 Ref: 4277405959 Ref: library/exceptions InterruptedError7406117 Ref: d877406117 Ref: library/exceptions IsADirectoryError7406523 Ref: 10527406523 Ref: library/exceptions NotADirectoryError7406714 Ref: 10537406714 Ref: library/exceptions PermissionError7407086 Ref: d427407086 Ref: library/exceptions ProcessLookupError7407464 Ref: 10547407464 Ref: library/exceptions TimeoutError7407602 Ref: 8317407602 Ref: OS exceptions-Footnote-17407947 Ref: OS exceptions-Footnote-27407989 Node: Warnings7408031 Ref: library/exceptions warning-categories-as-exceptions7408148 Ref: 22b07408148 Ref: library/exceptions warnings7408148 Ref: 22b17408148 Ref: library/exceptions Warning7408309 Ref: 22b37408309 Ref: library/exceptions UserWarning7408374 Ref: 22b47408374 Ref: library/exceptions DeprecationWarning7408456 Ref: 1a57408456 Ref: library/exceptions PendingDeprecationWarning7408848 Ref: 8c77408848 Ref: library/exceptions SyntaxWarning7409420 Ref: 4617409420 Ref: library/exceptions RuntimeWarning7409502 Ref: 1bd7409502 Ref: library/exceptions FutureWarning7409595 Ref: 4117409595 Ref: library/exceptions ImportWarning7409782 Ref: 4f67409782 Ref: library/exceptions UnicodeWarning7410006 Ref: 13ef7410006 Ref: library/exceptions EncodingWarning7410087 Ref: 1d3d7410087 Ref: library/exceptions BytesWarning7410259 Ref: c237410259 Ref: library/exceptions ResourceWarning7410378 Ref: 2467410378 Ref: Warnings-Footnote-17410652 Ref: Warnings-Footnote-27410694 Ref: Warnings-Footnote-37410736 Node: Exception groups7410778 Ref: library/exceptions exception-groups7410895 Ref: 22b57410895 Ref: library/exceptions lib-exception-groups7410895 Ref: 22b67410895 Ref: library/exceptions ExceptionGroup7411278 Ref: 1b67411278 Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup7411321 Ref: 2617411321 Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup message7412364 Ref: 22b77412364 Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup exceptions7412489 Ref: 22b87412489 Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup subgroup7412653 Ref: 16c17412653 Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup split7413999 Ref: 15897413999 Ref: library/exceptions BaseExceptionGroup derive7414234 Ref: 16c07414234 Node: Exception hierarchy7417284 Ref: library/exceptions exception-hierarchy7417384 Ref: 22b97417384 Ref: library/text stringservices7420260 Ref: 21b77420260 Node: Text Processing Services7420261 Ref: library/text doc7420406 Ref: 22ba7420406 Ref: library/text text-processing-services7420406 Ref: 22bb7420406 Ref: library/text textservices7420406 Ref: 21ba7420406 Node: string — Common string operations7421194 Ref: library/string doc7421335 Ref: 22bd7421335 Ref: library/string module-string7421335 Ref: d37421335 Ref: library/string string-common-string-operations7421335 Ref: 22be7421335 Ref: string — Common string operations-Footnote-17421779 Node: String constants7421845 Ref: library/string string-constants7421966 Ref: 22bf7421966 Ref: library/string string ascii_letters7422060 Ref: 12b67422060 Ref: library/string string ascii_lowercase7422259 Ref: 22c07422259 Ref: library/string string ascii_uppercase7422419 Ref: 22c17422419 Ref: library/string string digits7422579 Ref: 22c27422579 Ref: library/string string hexdigits7422641 Ref: 22c37422641 Ref: library/string string octdigits7422718 Ref: 22c47422718 Ref: library/string string punctuation7422781 Ref: 22c57422781 Ref: library/string string printable7422956 Ref: 15877422956 Ref: library/string string whitespace7423417 Ref: 22c67423417 Ref: String constants-Footnote-17423659 Node: Custom String Formatting7423705 Ref: library/string custom-string-formatting7423855 Ref: 22c77423855 Ref: library/string string-formatting7423855 Ref: 21b97423855 Ref: library/string string Formatter7424302 Ref: eb67424302 Ref: library/string string Formatter format7424403 Ref: c007424403 Ref: library/string string Formatter vformat7424764 Ref: 22c87424764 Ref: library/string string Formatter parse7425475 Ref: 22c97425475 Ref: library/string string Formatter get_field7426231 Ref: 22ca7426231 Ref: library/string string Formatter get_value7426780 Ref: 22cb7426780 Ref: library/string string Formatter check_unused_args7428017 Ref: 22cc7428017 Ref: library/string string Formatter format_field7428621 Ref: 22cd7428621 Ref: library/string string Formatter convert_field7428847 Ref: 22ce7428847 Ref: Custom String Formatting-Footnote-17429222 Ref: Custom String Formatting-Footnote-27429264 Node: Format String Syntax7429306 Ref: library/string format-string-syntax7429456 Ref: 22cf7429456 Ref: library/string formatstrings7429456 Ref: 137c7429456 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-replacement_field7430257 Ref: 22d07430257 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-field_name7430379 Ref: 22d17430379 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-arg_name7430500 Ref: 22d47430500 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-attribute_name7430575 Ref: 22d57430575 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-element_index7430626 Ref: 22d67430626 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-index_string7430701 Ref: 22d77430701 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-conversion7430764 Ref: 22d27430764 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-string-format_spec7430807 Ref: 22d37430807 Node: Format Specification Mini-Language7434918 Ref: library/string format-specification-mini-language7435033 Ref: 22da7435033 Ref: library/string formatspec7435033 Ref: 1ea7435033 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-format_spec7435915 Ref: 22d87435915 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-options7436049 Ref: 22db7436049 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-fill7436144 Ref: 22e07436144 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-align7436181 Ref: 22e17436181 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-sign7436224 Ref: 22e27436224 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-width7436261 Ref: 22dc7436261 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-grouping7436302 Ref: 22dd7436302 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-precision7436333 Ref: 22de7436333 Ref: library/string grammar-token-format-spec-type7436374 Ref: 22df7436374 Ref: Format Specification Mini-Language-Footnote-17451056 Ref: Format Specification Mini-Language-Footnote-27451098 Ref: Format Specification Mini-Language-Footnote-37451140 Node: Format examples7451182 Ref: library/string format-examples7451297 Ref: 22e47451297 Ref: library/string formatexamples7451297 Ref: 22d97451297 Node: Template strings7456036 Ref: library/string id17456178 Ref: 22e57456178 Ref: library/string template-strings7456178 Ref: 21d07456178 Ref: library/string string Template7457639 Ref: 6837457639 Ref: library/string string Template substitute7457759 Ref: 1cea7457759 Ref: library/string string Template safe_substitute7458244 Ref: 1ceb7458244 Ref: library/string string Template is_valid7459199 Ref: 6827459199 Ref: library/string string Template get_identifiers7459429 Ref: 6817459429 Ref: library/string string Template template7459726 Ref: 22e67459726 Ref: Template strings-Footnote-17463647 Ref: Template strings-Footnote-27463689 Node: Helper functions7463741 Ref: library/string helper-functions7463854 Ref: 22e77463854 Ref: library/string string capwords7463905 Ref: 21cb7463905 Node: re — Regular expression operations7464391 Ref: library/re doc7464581 Ref: 22e87464581 Ref: library/re module-re7464581 Ref: b97464581 Ref: library/re re-regular-expression-operations7464581 Ref: 22e97464581 Ref: re — Regular expression operations-Footnote-17467149 Ref: re — Regular expression operations-Footnote-27467209 Node: Regular Expression Syntax7467249 Ref: library/re re-syntax7467371 Ref: 71f7467371 Ref: library/re regular-expression-syntax7467371 Ref: 22ea7467371 Ref: library/re re-conditional-expression7488236 Ref: 17ad7488236 Ref: library/re re-special-sequences7488925 Ref: 22f77488925 Ref: Regular Expression Syntax-Footnote-17495319 Ref: Regular Expression Syntax-Footnote-27495361 Node: Module Contents7495433 Ref: library/re contents-of-module-re7495590 Ref: 22f67495590 Ref: library/re module-contents7495590 Ref: 22f87495590 Node: Flags7495954 Ref: library/re flags7496032 Ref: 22f97496032 Ref: library/re re RegexFlag7496193 Ref: 6297496193 Ref: library/re re A7496361 Ref: 22ef7496361 Ref: library/re re ASCII7496376 Ref: 6287496376 Ref: library/re re DEBUG7497049 Ref: 22fb7497049 Ref: library/re re I7497164 Ref: 22f07497164 Ref: library/re re IGNORECASE7497179 Ref: 17257497179 Ref: library/re re L7498167 Ref: 22f17498167 Ref: library/re re LOCALE7498182 Ref: b6c7498182 Ref: library/re re M7499167 Ref: 22f27499167 Ref: library/re re MULTILINE7499182 Ref: 22ee7499182 Ref: library/re re NOFLAG7499772 Ref: 22fc7499772 Ref: library/re re S7500163 Ref: 22f37500163 Ref: library/re re DOTALL7500178 Ref: 22ed7500178 Ref: library/re re U7500419 Ref: 22f47500419 Ref: library/re re UNICODE7500434 Ref: b6d7500434 Ref: library/re re X7500730 Ref: 22f57500730 Ref: library/re re VERBOSE7500745 Ref: 22fd7500745 Node: Functions<2>7501817 Ref: library/re functions7501917 Ref: 22fe7501917 Ref: library/re re compile7501954 Ref: bd37501954 Ref: library/re re search7503091 Ref: 121f7503091 Ref: library/re re match7503681 Ref: 12207503681 Ref: library/re re fullmatch7504525 Ref: f807504525 Ref: library/re re split7505047 Ref: 2a47505047 Ref: library/re re findall7507326 Ref: 10237507326 Ref: library/re re finditer7508555 Ref: 14c57508555 Ref: library/re re sub7509190 Ref: 2a57509190 Ref: library/re re subn7512963 Ref: 2a67512963 Ref: library/re re escape7513345 Ref: c097513345 Ref: library/re re purge7514833 Ref: 23027514833 Node: Exceptions<3>7514902 Ref: library/re exceptions7514988 Ref: 23037514988 Ref: library/re re PatternError7515027 Ref: 2407515027 Ref: library/re re PatternError msg7515480 Ref: 23047515480 Ref: library/re re PatternError pattern7515547 Ref: 23057515547 Ref: library/re re PatternError pos7515619 Ref: 23067515619 Ref: library/re re PatternError lineno7515734 Ref: 23077515734 Ref: library/re re PatternError colno7515826 Ref: 23087515826 Node: Regular Expression Objects7516126 Ref: library/re re-objects7516271 Ref: f817516271 Ref: library/re regular-expression-objects7516271 Ref: 23097516271 Ref: library/re re Pattern7516342 Ref: 17dd7516342 Ref: library/re re Pattern search7516612 Ref: 23007516612 Ref: library/re re Pattern match7518069 Ref: 22ff7518069 Ref: library/re re Pattern fullmatch7518920 Ref: 18027518920 Ref: library/re re Pattern split7519712 Ref: 230a7519712 Ref: library/re re Pattern findall7519846 Ref: 230b7519846 Ref: library/re re Pattern finditer7520109 Ref: 230c7520109 Ref: library/re re Pattern sub7520374 Ref: 230d7520374 Ref: library/re re Pattern subn7520507 Ref: 230e7520507 Ref: library/re re Pattern flags7520642 Ref: 230f7520642 Ref: library/re re Pattern groups7520915 Ref: 23107520915 Ref: library/re re Pattern groupindex7520999 Ref: 23117520999 Ref: library/re re Pattern pattern7521213 Ref: 23127521213 Node: Match Objects7521472 Ref: library/re id37521629 Ref: 23137521629 Ref: library/re match-objects7521629 Ref: f827521629 Ref: library/re re Match7521981 Ref: cc87521981 Ref: library/re re Match expand7522237 Ref: 23147522237 Ref: library/re re Match group7522833 Ref: 23157522833 Ref: library/re re Match __getitem__7525103 Ref: 23167525103 Ref: library/re re Match groups7525805 Ref: 23177525805 Ref: library/re re Match groupdict7526651 Ref: 23187526651 Ref: library/re re Match start7527118 Ref: 23197527118 Ref: library/re re Match end7527152 Ref: 231a7527152 Ref: library/re re Match span7528200 Ref: 231b7528200 Ref: library/re re Match pos7528453 Ref: 231c7528453 Ref: library/re re Match endpos7528713 Ref: 231d7528713 Ref: library/re re Match lastindex7528967 Ref: 231e7528967 Ref: library/re re Match lastgroup7529366 Ref: 231f7529366 Ref: library/re re Match re7529539 Ref: 23207529539 Ref: library/re re Match string7529706 Ref: 23217529706 Node: Regular Expression Examples7529944 Ref: library/re re-examples7530066 Ref: 12517530066 Ref: library/re regular-expression-examples7530066 Ref: 23227530066 Node: Checking for a Pair7530410 Ref: library/re checking-for-a-pair7530518 Ref: 23237530518 Node: Simulating scanf7532615 Ref: library/re simulating-scanf7532747 Ref: 23247532747 Node: search vs match7534817 Ref: library/re id47534948 Ref: 23257534948 Ref: library/re search-vs-match7534948 Ref: 23017534948 Node: Making a Phonebook7536402 Ref: library/re making-a-phonebook7536529 Ref: 23267536529 Node: Text Munging7538728 Ref: library/re text-munging7538859 Ref: 23277538859 Node: Finding all Adverbs7539692 Ref: library/re finding-all-adverbs7539844 Ref: 23287539844 Node: Finding all Adverbs and their Positions7540304 Ref: library/re finding-all-adverbs-and-their-positions7540463 Ref: 23297540463 Node: Raw String Notation7541167 Ref: library/re raw-string-notation7541326 Ref: 232a7541326 Node: Writing a Tokenizer7542253 Ref: library/re writing-a-tokenizer7542364 Ref: 232b7542364 Ref: library/re frie097545735 Ref: 22eb7545735 Ref: Writing a Tokenizer-Footnote-17546015 Node: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas7546070 Ref: library/difflib doc7546263 Ref: 232c7546263 Ref: library/difflib difflib-helpers-for-computing-deltas7546263 Ref: 232d7546263 Ref: library/difflib module-difflib7546263 Ref: 377546263 Ref: library/difflib difflib Differ7548772 Ref: 232e7548772 Ref: library/difflib difflib HtmlDiff7549949 Ref: 155e7549949 Ref: library/difflib difflib HtmlDiff __init__7550319 Ref: 232f7550319 Ref: library/difflib difflib HtmlDiff make_file7551132 Ref: dee7551132 Ref: library/difflib difflib HtmlDiff make_table7552815 Ref: 23317552815 Ref: library/difflib difflib context_diff7553276 Ref: 23327553276 Ref: library/difflib difflib get_close_matches7555322 Ref: 23367555322 Ref: library/difflib difflib ndiff7556486 Ref: 23307556486 Ref: library/difflib difflib restore7558052 Ref: 23397558052 Ref: library/difflib difflib unified_diff7558795 Ref: 233b7558795 Ref: library/difflib difflib diff_bytes7560720 Ref: def7560720 Ref: library/difflib difflib IS_LINE_JUNK7561614 Ref: 23377561614 Ref: library/difflib difflib IS_CHARACTER_JUNK7561916 Ref: 23387561916 Ref: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas-Footnote-17562586 Ref: difflib — Helpers for computing deltas-Footnote-27562653 Node: SequenceMatcher Objects7562733 Ref: library/difflib sequence-matcher7562866 Ref: 233c7562866 Ref: library/difflib sequencematcher-objects7562866 Ref: 233d7562866 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher7562993 Ref: 10127562993 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher set_seqs7564529 Ref: 233e7564529 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher set_seq17564948 Ref: 23407564948 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher set_seq27565091 Ref: 233f7565091 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher find_longest_match7565234 Ref: 195f7565234 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher get_matching_blocks7567391 Ref: 23417567391 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher get_opcodes7568308 Ref: 23427568308 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher get_grouped_opcodes7570295 Ref: 23437570295 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher ratio7570728 Ref: 23447570728 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher quick_ratio7571751 Ref: 23457571751 Ref: library/difflib difflib SequenceMatcher real_quick_ratio7571871 Ref: 23467571871 Node: SequenceMatcher Examples7572403 Ref: library/difflib id17572559 Ref: 23477572559 Ref: library/difflib sequencematcher-examples7572559 Ref: 23487572559 Ref: SequenceMatcher Examples-Footnote-17574301 Node: Differ Objects7574378 Ref: library/difflib differ-objects7574525 Ref: 23497574525 Ref: library/difflib id27574525 Ref: 234a7574525 Ref: library/difflib difflib Differ compare7575931 Ref: 233a7575931 Node: Differ Example7576455 Ref: library/difflib differ-example7576613 Ref: 234b7576613 Ref: library/difflib differ-examples7576613 Ref: 234c7576613 Node: A command-line interface to difflib7578878 Ref: library/difflib a-command-line-interface-to-difflib7579035 Ref: 234d7579035 Ref: library/difflib difflib-interface7579035 Ref: 23357579035 Node: ndiff example7581674 Ref: library/difflib ndiff-example7581808 Ref: 234e7581808 Node: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling7585458 Ref: library/textwrap doc7585647 Ref: 234f7585647 Ref: library/textwrap module-textwrap7585647 Ref: ec7585647 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap-text-wrapping-and-filling7585647 Ref: 23507585647 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap wrap7586178 Ref: 14907586178 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap fill7586915 Ref: 148f7586915 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap shorten7587547 Ref: fcb7587547 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap dedent7588785 Ref: 23567588785 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap indent7589721 Ref: 2787589721 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper7591059 Ref: fc87591059 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper width7591734 Ref: 23587591734 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper expand_tabs7592056 Ref: 23537592056 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper tabsize7592266 Ref: 23527592266 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper replace_whitespace7592556 Ref: 23557592556 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper drop_whitespace7593519 Ref: 23547593519 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper initial_indent7593933 Ref: 23597593933 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper subsequent_indent7594168 Ref: 235a7594168 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper fix_sentence_endings7594395 Ref: 235b7594395 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper break_long_words7595603 Ref: 23577595603 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper break_on_hyphens7596093 Ref: 235c7596093 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper max_lines7596625 Ref: fc97596625 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper placeholder7596872 Ref: fca7596872 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper wrap7597188 Ref: 23517597188 Ref: library/textwrap textwrap TextWrapper fill7597610 Ref: 235d7597610 Ref: textwrap — Text wrapping and filling-Footnote-17597797 Node: unicodedata — Unicode Database7597865 Ref: library/unicodedata doc7598056 Ref: 235e7598056 Ref: library/unicodedata module-unicodedata7598056 Ref: 1057598056 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata-unicode-database7598056 Ref: 235f7598056 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata lookup7598578 Ref: 10717598578 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata name7598895 Ref: 23607598895 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata decimal7599121 Ref: 23617599121 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata digit7599364 Ref: 23627599364 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata numeric7599602 Ref: 12567599602 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata category7599842 Ref: 23637599842 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata bidirectional7599967 Ref: 23647599967 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata combining7600159 Ref: 23657600159 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata east_asian_width7600346 Ref: 23667600346 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata mirrored7600479 Ref: 23677600479 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata decomposition7600737 Ref: 23687600737 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata normalize7600952 Ref: 6d07600952 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata is_normalized7602814 Ref: a487602814 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata unidata_version7603123 Ref: 23697603123 Ref: library/unicodedata unicodedata ucd_3_2_07603225 Ref: 13ff7603225 Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-17604004 Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-27604054 Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-37604100 Ref: unicodedata — Unicode Database-Footnote-47604172 Node: stringprep — Internet String Preparation7604247 Ref: library/stringprep doc7604435 Ref: 236a7604435 Ref: library/stringprep module-stringprep7604435 Ref: d47604435 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep-internet-string-preparation7604435 Ref: 236b7604435 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_a17606352 Ref: 236c7606352 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_b17606489 Ref: 236d7606489 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep map_table_b27606615 Ref: 236e7606615 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep map_table_b37606772 Ref: 236f7606772 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c117606941 Ref: 23707606941 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c127607061 Ref: 23717607061 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c11_c127607190 Ref: 23727607190 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c217607337 Ref: 23737607337 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c227607464 Ref: 23747607464 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c21_c227607595 Ref: 23757607595 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c37607744 Ref: 23767607744 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c47607850 Ref: 23777607850 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c57607975 Ref: 23787607975 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c67608085 Ref: 23797608085 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c77608213 Ref: 237a7608213 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c87608355 Ref: 237b7608355 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_c97608498 Ref: 237c7608498 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_d17608611 Ref: 237d7608611 Ref: library/stringprep stringprep in_table_d27608769 Ref: 237e7608769 Ref: stringprep — Internet String Preparation-Footnote-17608951 Ref: stringprep — Internet String Preparation-Footnote-27609021 Ref: stringprep — Internet String Preparation-Footnote-37609080 Node: readline — GNU readline interface7609139 Ref: library/readline doc7609347 Ref: 237f7609347 Ref: library/readline module-readline7609347 Ref: ba7609347 Ref: library/readline readline-gnu-readline-interface7609347 Ref: 23807609347 Ref: library/readline readline backend7611429 Ref: 16af7611429 Ref: readline — GNU readline interface-Footnote-17611753 Node: Init file7611838 Ref: library/readline init-file7611939 Ref: 23817611939 Ref: library/readline readline parse_and_bind7612049 Ref: 23827612049 Ref: library/readline readline read_init_file7612230 Ref: 23837612230 Node: Line buffer7612452 Ref: library/readline line-buffer7612574 Ref: 23847612574 Ref: library/readline readline get_line_buffer7612668 Ref: 23857612668 Ref: library/readline readline insert_text7612819 Ref: 23867612819 Ref: library/readline readline redisplay7613029 Ref: 148e7613029 Node: History file7613234 Ref: library/readline history-file7613359 Ref: 23877613359 Ref: library/readline readline read_history_file7613454 Ref: 23887613454 Ref: library/readline readline write_history_file7613692 Ref: 23897613692 Ref: library/readline readline append_history_file7613949 Ref: e4c7613949 Ref: library/readline readline get_history_length7614358 Ref: 238a7614358 Ref: library/readline readline set_history_length7614403 Ref: 15f77614403 Node: History list7614766 Ref: library/readline history-list7614893 Ref: 238b7614893 Ref: library/readline readline clear_history7614995 Ref: 238c7614995 Ref: library/readline readline get_current_history_length7615243 Ref: 148d7615243 Ref: library/readline readline get_history_item7615508 Ref: 148c7615508 Ref: library/readline readline remove_history_item7615718 Ref: 238d7615718 Ref: library/readline readline replace_history_item7615938 Ref: 238e7615938 Ref: library/readline readline add_history7616169 Ref: 238f7616169 Ref: library/readline readline set_auto_history7616353 Ref: cca7616353 Node: Startup hooks7616821 Ref: library/readline startup-hooks7616946 Ref: 23907616946 Ref: library/readline readline set_startup_hook7616991 Ref: 23917616991 Ref: library/readline readline set_pre_input_hook7617395 Ref: 23927617395 Node: Completion7617967 Ref: library/readline completion7618087 Ref: 23937618087 Ref: library/readline readline-completion7618087 Ref: 23947618087 Ref: library/readline readline set_completer7618573 Ref: 23957618573 Ref: library/readline readline get_completer7619364 Ref: 23967619364 Ref: library/readline readline get_completion_type7619497 Ref: 23977619497 Ref: library/readline readline get_begidx7619697 Ref: 18e67619697 Ref: library/readline readline get_endidx7619734 Ref: 18e77619734 Ref: library/readline readline set_completer_delims7620179 Ref: 16b37620179 Ref: library/readline readline get_completer_delims7620232 Ref: 23987620232 Ref: library/readline readline set_completion_display_matches_hook7620553 Ref: 23997620553 Node: Example7621142 Ref: library/readline example7621240 Ref: 239a7621240 Ref: library/readline readline-example7621240 Ref: 239b7621240 Node: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline7623880 Ref: library/rlcompleter doc7624037 Ref: 239d7624037 Ref: library/rlcompleter module-rlcompleter7624037 Ref: bd7624037 Ref: library/rlcompleter rlcompleter-completion-function-for-gnu-readline7624037 Ref: 239e7624037 Ref: library/rlcompleter completer-objects7625525 Ref: 23a07625525 Ref: library/rlcompleter rlcompleter Completer7625525 Ref: 19447625525 Ref: library/rlcompleter rlcompleter Completer complete7625610 Ref: 239f7625610 Ref: rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline-Footnote-17626649 Node: Binary Data Services7626720 Ref: library/binary doc7626856 Ref: 23a17626856 Ref: library/binary binary-data-services7626856 Ref: 23a27626856 Ref: library/binary binaryservices7626856 Ref: 22bc7626856 Node: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data7627622 Ref: library/struct doc7627778 Ref: 23a37627778 Ref: library/struct struct-interpret-bytes-as-packed-binary-data7627778 Ref: 23a47627778 Ref: library/struct module-struct7627895 Ref: d57627895 Ref: struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data-Footnote-17629665 Node: Functions and Exceptions7629731 Ref: library/struct functions-and-exceptions7629863 Ref: 23a77629863 Ref: library/struct struct error7629989 Ref: 13167629989 Ref: library/struct struct pack7630115 Ref: 126a7630115 Ref: library/struct struct pack_into7630357 Ref: 23a87630357 Ref: library/struct struct unpack7630656 Ref: 17c67630656 Ref: library/struct struct unpack_from7631023 Ref: 23a97631023 Ref: library/struct struct iter_unpack7631419 Ref: fb97631419 Ref: library/struct struct calcsize7631941 Ref: 19c37631941 Node: Format Strings7632140 Ref: library/struct format-strings7632293 Ref: 23aa7632293 Ref: library/struct struct-format-strings7632293 Ref: 23a57632293 Node: Byte Order Size and Alignment7632931 Ref: library/struct byte-order-size-and-alignment7633037 Ref: 23ac7633037 Ref: library/struct struct-alignment7633037 Ref: 23a67633037 Ref: Byte Order Size and Alignment-Footnote-17636753 Node: Format Characters7636807 Ref: library/struct format-characters7636933 Ref: 23ab7636933 Ref: library/struct id17636933 Ref: 23ae7636933 Ref: Format Characters-Footnote-17648449 Ref: Format Characters-Footnote-27648510 Node: Examples<2>7648586 Ref: library/struct examples7648674 Ref: 23af7648674 Ref: library/struct struct-examples7648674 Ref: 23ad7648674 Node: Applications7651182 Ref: library/struct applications7651321 Ref: 23b07651321 Ref: library/struct id27651321 Ref: 23b17651321 Node: Native Formats7651822 Ref: library/struct native-formats7651910 Ref: 23b47651910 Ref: library/struct struct-native-formats7651910 Ref: 23b27651910 Node: Standard Formats7653058 Ref: library/struct standard-formats7653146 Ref: 23b57653146 Ref: library/struct struct-standard-formats7653146 Ref: 23b37653146 Node: Classes<3>7654589 Ref: library/struct classes7654705 Ref: 23b67654705 Ref: library/struct struct-objects7654705 Ref: 23b77654705 Ref: library/struct struct Struct7654801 Ref: 16b17654801 Ref: library/struct struct Struct pack7655497 Ref: 23b87655497 Ref: library/struct struct Struct pack_into7655679 Ref: 23ba7655679 Ref: library/struct struct Struct unpack7655837 Ref: 23bb7655837 Ref: library/struct struct Struct unpack_from7656037 Ref: 23bc7656037 Ref: library/struct struct Struct iter_unpack7656295 Ref: fba7656295 Ref: library/struct struct Struct format7656548 Ref: c067656548 Ref: library/struct struct Struct size7656763 Ref: 23b97656763 Node: codecs — Codec registry and base classes7657099 Ref: library/codecs doc7657255 Ref: 23bd7657255 Ref: library/codecs codecs-codec-registry-and-base-classes7657255 Ref: 23be7657255 Ref: library/codecs module-codecs7657255 Ref: 1b7657255 Ref: library/codecs codecs encode7658147 Ref: efc7658147 Ref: library/codecs codecs decode7658642 Ref: efd7658642 Ref: library/codecs codecs charmap_build7659137 Ref: 23c07659137 Ref: library/codecs codecs lookup7659630 Ref: 9637659630 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo7660128 Ref: 16fb7660128 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo name7660424 Ref: 23c17660424 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo encode7660487 Ref: 23c27660487 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo decode7660514 Ref: 23c37660514 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo incrementalencoder7660892 Ref: 23c77660892 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo incrementaldecoder7660931 Ref: 23c87660931 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo streamwriter7661270 Ref: 23cb7661270 Ref: library/codecs codecs CodecInfo streamreader7661303 Ref: 23cc7661303 Ref: library/codecs codecs getencoder7661756 Ref: 23cf7661756 Ref: library/codecs codecs getdecoder7661968 Ref: 23d07661968 Ref: library/codecs codecs getincrementalencoder7662180 Ref: 23d17662180 Ref: library/codecs codecs getincrementaldecoder7662486 Ref: 23d27662486 Ref: library/codecs codecs getreader7662792 Ref: 23d37662792 Ref: library/codecs codecs getwriter7663038 Ref: 23d47663038 Ref: library/codecs codecs register7663367 Ref: 23d57663367 Ref: library/codecs codecs unregister7663842 Ref: 7e37663842 Ref: library/codecs codecs open7664340 Ref: 73b7664340 Ref: library/codecs codecs EncodedFile7665713 Ref: 23d77665713 Ref: library/codecs codecs iterencode7666570 Ref: 23d87666570 Ref: library/codecs codecs iterdecode7667155 Ref: 23d97667155 Ref: library/codecs codecs readbuffer_encode7667814 Ref: 23da7667814 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM7668315 Ref: 23db7668315 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_BE7668336 Ref: 23dc7668336 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_LE7668360 Ref: 23dd7668360 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF87668384 Ref: 23de7668384 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF167668410 Ref: 23df7668410 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF16_BE7668437 Ref: 23e07668437 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF16_LE7668467 Ref: 23e17668467 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF327668497 Ref: 23e27668497 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF32_BE7668524 Ref: 23e37668524 Ref: library/codecs codecs BOM_UTF32_LE7668554 Ref: 23e47668554 Ref: codecs — Codec registry and base classes-Footnote-17669737 Node: Codec Base Classes7669803 Ref: library/codecs codec-base-classes7669930 Ref: 23bf7669930 Ref: library/codecs id17669930 Ref: 23e57669930 Ref: library/codecs surrogateescape7670523 Ref: 23e67670523 Node: Error Handlers7670660 Ref: library/codecs error-handlers7670769 Ref: 17e57670769 Ref: library/codecs id27670769 Ref: 23e77670769 Ref: library/codecs codecs register_error7675689 Ref: 14627675689 Ref: library/codecs codecs lookup_error7677231 Ref: 14637677231 Ref: library/codecs codecs strict_errors7677526 Ref: 23e87677526 Ref: library/codecs codecs ignore_errors7677699 Ref: 23e97677699 Ref: library/codecs codecs replace_errors7677895 Ref: 23ea7677895 Ref: library/codecs codecs backslashreplace_errors7678145 Ref: 23eb7678145 Ref: library/codecs codecs xmlcharrefreplace_errors7678607 Ref: 23ec7678607 Ref: library/codecs codecs namereplace_errors7678971 Ref: 23ed7678971 Ref: Error Handlers-Footnote-17679534 Node: Stateless Encoding and Decoding7679576 Ref: library/codecs codec-objects7679727 Ref: 23c67679727 Ref: library/codecs stateless-encoding-and-decoding7679727 Ref: 23ee7679727 Ref: library/codecs codecs Codec7679945 Ref: 23ef7679945 Ref: library/codecs codecs Codec encode7679970 Ref: 23c47679970 Ref: library/codecs codecs Codec decode7680790 Ref: 23c57680790 Node: Incremental Encoding and Decoding7681820 Ref: library/codecs incremental-encoding-and-decoding7681985 Ref: 23f07681985 Node: IncrementalEncoder Objects7682825 Ref: library/codecs incremental-encoder-objects7682956 Ref: 23f37682956 Ref: library/codecs incrementalencoder-objects7682956 Ref: 23f47682956 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder7683255 Ref: 23c97683255 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder encode7684040 Ref: 23f17684040 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder reset7684337 Ref: 23f57684337 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder getstate7684606 Ref: 23f67684606 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalEncoder setstate7685019 Ref: 23f77685019 Node: IncrementalDecoder Objects7685186 Ref: library/codecs incremental-decoder-objects7685317 Ref: 23f87685317 Ref: library/codecs incrementaldecoder-objects7685317 Ref: 23f97685317 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder7685616 Ref: 23ca7685616 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder decode7686401 Ref: 23f27686401 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder reset7687034 Ref: 23fa7687034 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder getstate7687112 Ref: 23fb7687112 Ref: library/codecs codecs IncrementalDecoder setstate7688059 Ref: 23fc7688059 Node: Stream Encoding and Decoding7688225 Ref: library/codecs stream-encoding-and-decoding7688350 Ref: 23fd7688350 Node: StreamWriter Objects7688777 Ref: library/codecs stream-writer-objects7688891 Ref: 23fe7688891 Ref: library/codecs streamwriter-objects7688891 Ref: 23ff7688891 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamWriter7689153 Ref: 23cd7689153 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamWriter write7690110 Ref: 24007690110 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamWriter writelines7690208 Ref: 24017690208 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamWriter reset7690514 Ref: 24027690514 Node: StreamReader Objects7690983 Ref: library/codecs stream-reader-objects7691132 Ref: 24037691132 Ref: library/codecs streamreader-objects7691132 Ref: 24047691132 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamReader7691394 Ref: 23ce7691394 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamReader read7692465 Ref: 24057692465 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamReader readline7693723 Ref: 24067693723 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamReader readlines7694074 Ref: 24077694074 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamReader reset7694525 Ref: 24087694525 Node: StreamReaderWriter Objects7694928 Ref: library/codecs stream-reader-writer7695078 Ref: 24097695078 Ref: library/codecs streamreaderwriter-objects7695078 Ref: 240a7695078 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamReaderWriter7695413 Ref: 23d67695413 Node: StreamRecoder Objects7696068 Ref: library/codecs stream-recoder-objects7696189 Ref: 240b7696189 Ref: library/codecs streamrecoder-objects7696189 Ref: 240c7696189 Ref: library/codecs codecs StreamRecoder7696539 Ref: 19f07696539 Node: Encodings and Unicode7697693 Ref: library/codecs encodings-and-unicode7697847 Ref: 240d7697847 Ref: library/codecs encodings-overview7697847 Ref: 240e7697847 Ref: Encodings and Unicode-Footnote-17704539 Node: Standard Encodings7704581 Ref: library/codecs id37704742 Ref: 240f7704742 Ref: library/codecs standard-encodings7704742 Ref: db87704742 Ref: Standard Encodings-Footnote-17727048 Node: Python Specific Encodings7727126 Ref: library/codecs python-specific-encodings7727297 Ref: 24107727297 Node: Text Encodings7727916 Ref: library/codecs text-encodings7728018 Ref: 24117728018 Ref: Text Encodings-Footnote-17731563 Ref: Text Encodings-Footnote-27731622 Node: Binary Transforms7731681 Ref: library/codecs binary-transforms7731818 Ref: efe7731818 Ref: library/codecs id47731818 Ref: 24127731818 Ref: Binary Transforms-Footnote-17735504 Node: Standalone Codec Functions7735645 Ref: library/codecs id67735783 Ref: 24187735783 Ref: library/codecs standalone-codec-functions7735783 Ref: 24197735783 Ref: library/codecs codecs codecs escape_encode7736195 Ref: 241a7736195 Ref: library/codecs codecs codecs escape_decode7736567 Ref: 241b7736567 Node: Text Transforms7736890 Ref: library/codecs id77737002 Ref: 241c7737002 Ref: library/codecs text-transforms7737002 Ref: eff7737002 Node: encodings — Encodings package7737748 Ref: library/codecs encodings-encodings-package7737966 Ref: 241d7737966 Ref: library/codecs module-encodings7737966 Ref: 517737966 Ref: library/codecs encodings normalize_encoding7738104 Ref: 7f77738104 Ref: library/codecs encodings search_function7738680 Ref: 241e7738680 Ref: library/codecs encodings CodecRegistryError7739424 Ref: 241f7739424 Node: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications7739523 Ref: library/codecs encodings-idna-internationalized-domain-names-in-applications7739756 Ref: 24207739756 Ref: library/codecs module-encodings idna7739756 Ref: 527739756 Ref: library/codecs encodings idna nameprep7742371 Ref: 24217742371 Ref: library/codecs encodings idna ToASCII7742559 Ref: 24227742559 Ref: library/codecs encodings idna ToUnicode7742719 Ref: 24237742719 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-17742866 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-27742925 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-37742984 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-47743043 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-57743102 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-67743141 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-77743212 Ref: encodings idna — Internationalized Domain Names in Applications-Footnote-87743271 Node: encodings mbcs — Windows ANSI codepage7743330 Ref: library/codecs encodings-mbcs-windows-ansi-codepage7743586 Ref: 24247743586 Ref: library/codecs module-encodings mbcs7743586 Ref: 537743586 Node: encodings utf_8_sig — UTF-8 codec with BOM signature7743979 Ref: library/codecs encodings-utf-8-sig-utf-8-codec-with-bom-signature7744161 Ref: 24257744161 Ref: library/codecs module-encodings utf_8_sig7744161 Ref: 547744161 Node: Data Types7744606 Ref: library/datatypes doc7744750 Ref: 24267744750 Ref: library/datatypes data-types7744750 Ref: 24277744750 Ref: library/datatypes datatypes7744750 Ref: 24287744750 Node: datetime — Basic date and time types7746129 Ref: library/datetime doc7746258 Ref: 24297746258 Ref: library/datetime datetime-basic-date-and-time-types7746258 Ref: 242a7746258 Ref: library/datetime module-datetime7746258 Ref: 307746258 Ref: datetime — Basic date and time types-Footnote-17747566 Ref: datetime — Basic date and time types-Footnote-27747634 Ref: datetime — Basic date and time types-Footnote-37747685 Node: Aware and Naive Objects7747728 Ref: library/datetime aware-and-naive-objects7747844 Ref: 242c7747844 Ref: library/datetime datetime-naive-aware7747844 Ref: 242d7747844 Ref: Aware and Naive Objects-Footnote-17749766 Node: Constants7749823 Ref: library/datetime constants7749963 Ref: 242e7749963 Ref: library/datetime datetime MINYEAR7750060 Ref: 242f7750060 Ref: library/datetime datetime MAXYEAR7750214 Ref: 24307750214 Ref: library/datetime datetime UTC7750370 Ref: 4ea7750370 Node: Available Types7750506 Ref: library/datetime available-types7750640 Ref: 24317750640 Node: Common Properties7752402 Ref: library/datetime common-properties7752522 Ref: 24427752522 Node: Determining if an Object is Aware or Naive7752944 Ref: library/datetime determining-if-an-object-is-aware-or-naive7753064 Ref: 24437753064 Node: timedelta Objects7753815 Ref: library/datetime datetime-timedelta7753952 Ref: 24447753952 Ref: library/datetime timedelta-objects7753952 Ref: 24457753952 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta7754147 Ref: 9cf7754147 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta min7756879 Ref: 24467756879 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta max7756997 Ref: 24477756997 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta resolution7757179 Ref: 24487757179 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta days7757550 Ref: 24497757550 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta seconds7757635 Ref: 244a7757635 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta microseconds7758161 Ref: 244b7758161 Ref: library/datetime datetime timedelta total_seconds7764085 Ref: 12f97764085 Node: Examples of usage timedelta7764609 Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-timedelta7764690 Ref: 244c7764690 Node: date Objects7765631 Ref: library/datetime date-objects7765769 Ref: 244d7765769 Ref: library/datetime datetime-date7765769 Ref: 244e7765769 Ref: library/datetime datetime date7766091 Ref: 1cd7766091 Ref: library/datetime datetime date today7766510 Ref: 14957766510 Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromtimestamp7766653 Ref: 160a7766653 Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromordinal7767591 Ref: 244f7767591 Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromisoformat7767928 Ref: 6117767928 Ref: library/datetime datetime date fromisocalendar7768837 Ref: 9eb7768837 Ref: library/datetime datetime date min7769130 Ref: 24507769130 Ref: library/datetime datetime date max7769221 Ref: 24517769221 Ref: library/datetime datetime date resolution7769312 Ref: 24527769312 Ref: library/datetime datetime date year7769479 Ref: 24327769479 Ref: library/datetime datetime date month7769576 Ref: 24337769576 Ref: library/datetime datetime date day7769637 Ref: 24347769637 Ref: library/datetime datetime date replace7772470 Ref: 167d7772470 Ref: library/datetime datetime date timetuple7772926 Ref: 24537772926 Ref: library/datetime datetime date toordinal7773415 Ref: 24547773415 Ref: library/datetime datetime date weekday7773641 Ref: 24557773641 Ref: library/datetime datetime date isoweekday7773866 Ref: 24567773866 Ref: library/datetime datetime date isocalendar7774125 Ref: 8f47774125 Ref: library/datetime datetime date isoformat7775200 Ref: 24577775200 Ref: library/datetime datetime date __str__7775426 Ref: 24587775426 Ref: library/datetime datetime date ctime7775532 Ref: 24597775532 Ref: library/datetime datetime date strftime7776006 Ref: c917776006 Ref: library/datetime datetime date __format__7776307 Ref: 245b7776307 Ref: date Objects-Footnote-17776758 Ref: date Objects-Footnote-27777067 Node: Examples of Usage date7777283 Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-date7777354 Ref: 245c7777354 Node: datetime Objects7779255 Ref: library/datetime datetime-datetime7779388 Ref: 245d7779388 Ref: library/datetime datetime-objects7779388 Ref: 245e7779388 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime7779837 Ref: 1cc7779837 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime today7780701 Ref: 245f7780701 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime now7781066 Ref: 4e87781066 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcnow7781894 Ref: 2f67781894 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromtimestamp7782737 Ref: 4e97782737 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcfromtimestamp7784452 Ref: 2f77784452 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromordinal7786236 Ref: 24607786236 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime combine7786641 Ref: c927786641 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisoformat7787449 Ref: 6137787449 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fromisocalendar7789549 Ref: 9ec7789549 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strptime7789929 Ref: 160b7789929 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime min7791387 Ref: 17db7791387 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime max7791519 Ref: 24617791519 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime resolution7791671 Ref: 24627791671 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime year7791866 Ref: 243a7791866 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime month7791967 Ref: 243b7791967 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime day7792032 Ref: 243c7792032 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime hour7792143 Ref: 243d7792143 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime minute7792199 Ref: 243e7792199 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime second7792257 Ref: 243f7792257 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime microsecond7792315 Ref: 24407792315 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzinfo7792383 Ref: 24417792383 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime fold7792544 Ref: c577792544 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime date7797561 Ref: 24637797561 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime time7797659 Ref: 24647797659 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetz7797966 Ref: 24657797966 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime replace7798255 Ref: 14967798255 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime astimezone7798909 Ref: 9d07798909 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utcoffset7801262 Ref: 24667801262 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime dst7801656 Ref: 24677801656 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime tzname7802038 Ref: 24697802038 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timetuple7802271 Ref: 246a7802271 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime utctimetuple7803114 Ref: 246c7803114 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime toordinal7804283 Ref: 246d7804283 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime timestamp7804425 Ref: 10937804425 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime weekday7805970 Ref: 246e7805970 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoweekday7806174 Ref: 246f7806174 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isocalendar7806407 Ref: 8f57806407 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime isoformat7806599 Ref: b307806599 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __str__7809588 Ref: 24707809588 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime ctime7809731 Ref: 24717809731 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime strftime7810364 Ref: c907810364 Ref: library/datetime datetime datetime __format__7810604 Ref: 24727810604 Node: Examples of Usage datetime7811042 Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-datetime7811121 Ref: 24737811121 Node: time Objects7815449 Ref: library/datetime datetime-time7815584 Ref: 24747815584 Ref: library/datetime time-objects7815584 Ref: 24757815584 Ref: library/datetime datetime time7815792 Ref: 1ce7815792 Ref: library/datetime datetime time min7816446 Ref: 24767816446 Ref: library/datetime datetime time max7816545 Ref: 24777816545 Ref: library/datetime datetime time resolution7816655 Ref: 24787816655 Ref: library/datetime datetime time hour7816923 Ref: 24357816923 Ref: library/datetime datetime time minute7816975 Ref: 24367816975 Ref: library/datetime datetime time second7817029 Ref: 24377817029 Ref: library/datetime datetime time microsecond7817083 Ref: 24387817083 Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzinfo7817147 Ref: 24397817147 Ref: library/datetime datetime time fold7817298 Ref: 24797817298 Ref: library/datetime datetime time fromisoformat7818894 Ref: 6127818894 Ref: library/datetime datetime time replace7820483 Ref: 167e7820483 Ref: library/datetime datetime time isoformat7821068 Ref: 247a7821068 Ref: library/datetime datetime time __str__7823084 Ref: 247c7823084 Ref: library/datetime datetime time strftime7823190 Ref: 17827823190 Ref: library/datetime datetime time __format__7823414 Ref: 247d7823414 Ref: library/datetime datetime time utcoffset7823769 Ref: 247b7823769 Ref: library/datetime datetime time dst7824159 Ref: 247e7824159 Ref: library/datetime datetime time tzname7824538 Ref: 247f7824538 Ref: time Objects-Footnote-17824867 Node: Examples of Usage time7824932 Ref: library/datetime examples-of-usage-time7825003 Ref: 24807825003 Node: tzinfo Objects7825885 Ref: library/datetime datetime-tzinfo7826020 Ref: 24817826020 Ref: library/datetime tzinfo-objects7826020 Ref: 24827826020 Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo7826077 Ref: 5da7826077 Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo utcoffset7827711 Ref: 24837827711 Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo dst7828941 Ref: 24847828941 Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo tzname7831538 Ref: 24857831538 Ref: library/datetime datetime tzinfo fromutc7833687 Ref: 24687833687 Ref: tzinfo Objects-Footnote-17846229 Node: timezone Objects7846269 Ref: library/datetime datetime-timezone7846422 Ref: 24867846422 Ref: library/datetime timezone-objects7846422 Ref: 24877846422 Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone7846845 Ref: 10b57846845 Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utcoffset7847475 Ref: 24887847475 Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone tzname7847866 Ref: 24897847866 Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone dst7848545 Ref: 248a7848545 Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone fromutc7848609 Ref: 248b7848609 Ref: library/datetime datetime timezone utc7848804 Ref: 6107848804 Node: strftime and strptime Behavior7848888 Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-behavior7849018 Ref: 248c7849018 Ref: library/datetime strftime-strptime-behavior7849018 Ref: 17c97849018 Ref: library/datetime format-codes7851108 Ref: 242b7851108 Node: strftime and strptime Format Codes7851217 Ref: library/datetime strftime-and-strptime-format-codes7851343 Ref: 248d7851343 Ref: strftime and strptime Format Codes-Footnote-17862254 Node: Technical Detail7862302 Ref: library/datetime technical-detail7862428 Ref: 248e7862428 Ref: Technical Detail-Footnote-17869368 Ref: Technical Detail-Footnote-27869468 Node: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support7869523 Ref: library/zoneinfo doc7869708 Ref: 248f7869708 Ref: library/zoneinfo module-zoneinfo7869708 Ref: 1347869708 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-iana-time-zone-support7869708 Ref: 24907869708 Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-17870940 Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-27871005 Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-37871047 Ref: zoneinfo — IANA time zone support-Footnote-47871088 Node: Using ZoneInfo7871129 Ref: library/zoneinfo using-zoneinfo7871236 Ref: 24917871236 Ref: Using ZoneInfo-Footnote-17873184 Node: Data sources7873226 Ref: library/zoneinfo data-sources7873360 Ref: 24927873360 Ref: Data sources-Footnote-17874044 Node: Configuring the data sources7874085 Ref: library/zoneinfo configuring-the-data-sources7874162 Ref: 24937874162 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-configuration7874162 Ref: 24947874162 Node: Compile-time configuration7874915 Ref: library/zoneinfo compile-time-configuration7875040 Ref: 24987875040 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-compile-time-config7875040 Ref: 1d737875040 Node: Environment configuration7875775 Ref: library/zoneinfo environment-configuration7875930 Ref: 24997875930 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-environment-var7875930 Ref: 24957875930 Ref: library/zoneinfo envvar-PYTHONTZPATH7876249 Ref: 249a7876249 Node: Runtime configuration7876910 Ref: library/zoneinfo runtime-configuration7877030 Ref: 249c7877030 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo-data-runtime-config7877030 Ref: 24967877030 Node: The ZoneInfo class7877398 Ref: library/zoneinfo the-zoneinfo-class7877530 Ref: 249d7877530 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo7877593 Ref: 8de7877593 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo from_file7878473 Ref: 249f7878473 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo no_cache7879006 Ref: 24a17879006 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo clear_cache7879728 Ref: 249e7879728 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfo key7880525 Ref: 24a27880525 Node: String representations7881381 Ref: library/zoneinfo string-representations7881487 Ref: 24a47881487 Node: Pickle serialization7882296 Ref: library/zoneinfo pickle-serialization7882402 Ref: 24a57882402 Ref: library/zoneinfo pickling7882402 Ref: 24a07882402 Node: Functions<3>7884812 Ref: library/zoneinfo functions7884939 Ref: 24a67884939 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo available_timezones7884978 Ref: 195c7884978 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo reset_tzpath7885954 Ref: 24977885954 Node: Globals7886650 Ref: library/zoneinfo globals7886782 Ref: 24a77886782 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo TZPATH7886817 Ref: 1d727886817 Node: Exceptions and warnings7887592 Ref: library/zoneinfo exceptions-and-warnings7887703 Ref: 24a87887703 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo ZoneInfoNotFoundError7887770 Ref: 152a7887770 Ref: library/zoneinfo zoneinfo InvalidTZPathWarning7888001 Ref: 249b7888001 Node: calendar — General calendar-related functions7888178 Ref: library/calendar doc7888360 Ref: 24a97888360 Ref: library/calendar calendar-general-calendar-related-functions7888360 Ref: 24aa7888360 Ref: library/calendar module-calendar7888360 Ref: 147888360 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar7889562 Ref: 24ac7889562 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar firstweekday7890115 Ref: 24af7890115 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar getfirstweekday7890357 Ref: 24b17890357 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar setfirstweekday7890542 Ref: 24b07890542 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar iterweekdays7890762 Ref: 24b27890762 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdates7891011 Ref: c197891011 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays7891383 Ref: 24b37891383 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays27891768 Ref: 24b47891768 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays37892118 Ref: c1a7892118 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar itermonthdays47892500 Ref: c1b7892500 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdatescalendar7892902 Ref: 24b57892902 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdays2calendar7893122 Ref: 24b67893122 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar monthdayscalendar7893350 Ref: 24b77893350 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardatescalendar7893537 Ref: 24b87893537 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardays2calendar7893931 Ref: 24b97893931 Ref: library/calendar calendar Calendar yeardayscalendar7894247 Ref: 24ba7894247 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar7894532 Ref: 24bb7894532 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatday7894716 Ref: 24bc7894716 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweek7895024 Ref: 24bd7895024 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekday7895369 Ref: 24be7895369 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatweekheader7895673 Ref: 24bf7895673 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonth7895947 Ref: 24c07895947 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatmonthname7896396 Ref: 24c17896396 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar prmonth7896800 Ref: 24c27896800 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar formatyear7896946 Ref: 24c37896946 Ref: library/calendar calendar TextCalendar pryear7897483 Ref: 24c47897483 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar7897638 Ref: b237897638 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonth7897809 Ref: 24c57897809 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyear7898059 Ref: 24c67898059 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatyearpage7898240 Ref: 24c77898240 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar formatmonthname7898753 Ref: 24c87898753 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses7899127 Ref: 24c97899127 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_noday7899541 Ref: 24ca7899541 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclasses_weekday_head7899702 Ref: 24cb7899702 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month_head7899917 Ref: 24cc7899917 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_month7900120 Ref: 24cd7900120 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year7900329 Ref: 24ce7900329 Ref: library/calendar calendar HTMLCalendar cssclass_year_head7900544 Ref: 24cf7900544 Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleTextCalendar7901453 Ref: 73f7901453 Ref: library/calendar calendar LocaleHTMLCalendar7901694 Ref: 7407901694 Ref: library/calendar calendar setfirstweekday7902278 Ref: 24ab7902278 Ref: library/calendar calendar firstweekday7902752 Ref: 24d57902752 Ref: library/calendar calendar isleap7902862 Ref: 24d67902862 Ref: library/calendar calendar leapdays7902990 Ref: 24d77902990 Ref: library/calendar calendar weekday7903215 Ref: 24d87903215 Ref: library/calendar calendar weekheader7903414 Ref: 24d97903414 Ref: library/calendar calendar monthrange7903574 Ref: 24da7903574 Ref: library/calendar calendar monthcalendar7903743 Ref: 24db7903743 Ref: library/calendar calendar prmonth7904024 Ref: 24dc7904024 Ref: library/calendar calendar month7904156 Ref: 159f7904156 Ref: library/calendar calendar prcal7904356 Ref: 24dd7904356 Ref: library/calendar calendar calendar7904500 Ref: 24de7904500 Ref: library/calendar calendar timegm7904722 Ref: 24df7904722 Ref: library/calendar calendar day_name7905199 Ref: 24e07905199 Ref: library/calendar calendar day_abbr7905498 Ref: 24e17905498 Ref: library/calendar calendar MONDAY7905777 Ref: 24ad7905777 Ref: library/calendar calendar TUESDAY7905803 Ref: 24d07905803 Ref: library/calendar calendar WEDNESDAY7905830 Ref: 24d17905830 Ref: library/calendar calendar THURSDAY7905859 Ref: 24d27905859 Ref: library/calendar calendar FRIDAY7905887 Ref: 24d37905887 Ref: library/calendar calendar SATURDAY7905913 Ref: 24d47905913 Ref: library/calendar calendar SUNDAY7905941 Ref: 24ae7905941 Ref: library/calendar calendar Day7906101 Ref: 47e7906101 Ref: library/calendar calendar month_name7906348 Ref: 24e27906348 Ref: library/calendar calendar month_abbr7906816 Ref: 24e37906816 Ref: library/calendar calendar JANUARY7907258 Ref: 2f37907258 Ref: library/calendar calendar FEBRUARY7907285 Ref: 2f47907285 Ref: library/calendar calendar MARCH7907313 Ref: 24e47907313 Ref: library/calendar calendar APRIL7907338 Ref: 24e57907338 Ref: library/calendar calendar MAY7907363 Ref: 24e67907363 Ref: library/calendar calendar JUNE7907386 Ref: 24e77907386 Ref: library/calendar calendar JULY7907410 Ref: 24e87907410 Ref: library/calendar calendar AUGUST7907434 Ref: 24e97907434 Ref: library/calendar calendar SEPTEMBER7907460 Ref: 24ea7907460 Ref: library/calendar calendar OCTOBER7907489 Ref: 24eb7907489 Ref: library/calendar calendar NOVEMBER7907516 Ref: 24ec7907516 Ref: library/calendar calendar DECEMBER7907544 Ref: 24ed7907544 Ref: library/calendar calendar Month7907712 Ref: 47d7907712 Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError7908031 Ref: 159e7908031 Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalMonthError month7908207 Ref: 24ee7908207 Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError7908271 Ref: 24ef7908271 Ref: library/calendar calendar IllegalWeekdayError weekday7908452 Ref: 24f07908452 Ref: calendar — General calendar-related functions-Footnote-17908814 Node: Command-Line Usage7908882 Ref: library/calendar calendar-cli7908984 Ref: 24f17908984 Ref: library/calendar command-line-usage7908984 Ref: 24f27908984 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-help7911728 Ref: 24f37911728 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-h7911728 Ref: 24f47911728 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-locale7911790 Ref: 24f57911790 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-L7911790 Ref: 24f67911790 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-encoding7911910 Ref: 24f77911910 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-e7911910 Ref: 24f87911910 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-type7912067 Ref: 24f97912067 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-t7912067 Ref: 24fa7912067 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-first-weekday7912189 Ref: 24fb7912189 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-f7912189 Ref: 24fc7912189 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-year7912391 Ref: 24fd7912391 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-arg-month7912482 Ref: 24fe7912482 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-width7912734 Ref: 24ff7912734 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-w7912734 Ref: 25007912734 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-lines7912932 Ref: 25017912932 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-l7912932 Ref: 25027912932 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-spacing7913123 Ref: 25037913123 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-s7913123 Ref: 25047913123 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-months7913266 Ref: 25057913266 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-m7913266 Ref: 25067913266 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-css7913388 Ref: 25077913388 Ref: library/calendar cmdoption-calendar-c7913388 Ref: 25087913388 Node: collections — Container datatypes7913585 Ref: library/collections doc7913788 Ref: 25097913788 Ref: library/collections collections-container-datatypes7913788 Ref: 250a7913788 Ref: library/collections module-collections7913788 Ref: 1d7913788 Ref: collections — Container datatypes-Footnote-17915779 Node: ChainMap objects7915860 Ref: library/collections chainmap-objects7915972 Ref: 250b7915972 Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap7916362 Ref: c1c7916362 Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap maps7917395 Ref: 250c7917395 Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap new_child7917698 Ref: f1e7917698 Ref: library/collections collections ChainMap parents7918512 Ref: 250d7918512 Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-17920475 Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-27920517 Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-37920612 Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-47920659 Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-57920738 Ref: ChainMap objects-Footnote-67920835 Node: ChainMap Examples and Recipes7920888 Ref: library/collections chainmap-examples-and-recipes7920970 Ref: 250e7920970 Node: Counter objects7924084 Ref: library/collections counter-objects7924218 Ref: 250f7924218 Ref: library/collections collections Counter7924932 Ref: 108b7924932 Ref: library/collections collections Counter elements7926925 Ref: 12f77926925 Ref: library/collections collections Counter most_common7927349 Ref: 12f67927349 Ref: library/collections collections Counter subtract7927810 Ref: 11d07927810 Ref: library/collections collections Counter total7928366 Ref: 25107928366 Ref: library/collections collections Counter fromkeys7928703 Ref: 25117928703 Ref: library/collections collections Counter update7928833 Ref: 25127928833 Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-17933946 Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-27934025 Ref: Counter objects-Footnote-37934072 Node: deque objects7934165 Ref: library/collections deque-objects7934302 Ref: 25137934302 Ref: library/collections collections deque7934355 Ref: 5d87934355 Ref: library/collections collections deque append7935804 Ref: 25147935804 Ref: library/collections collections deque appendleft7935884 Ref: 25157935884 Ref: library/collections collections deque clear7935967 Ref: 25167935967 Ref: library/collections collections deque copy7936066 Ref: dd37936066 Ref: library/collections collections deque count7936172 Ref: 11d27936172 Ref: library/collections collections deque extend7936293 Ref: 25177936293 Ref: library/collections collections deque extendleft7936435 Ref: 25187936435 Ref: library/collections collections deque index7936682 Ref: dd17936682 Ref: library/collections collections deque insert7936956 Ref: dd27936956 Ref: library/collections collections deque pop7937204 Ref: 25197937204 Ref: library/collections collections deque popleft7937375 Ref: 251a7937375 Ref: library/collections collections deque remove7937549 Ref: 190b7937549 Ref: library/collections collections deque reverse7937690 Ref: 11d37937690 Ref: library/collections collections deque rotate7937844 Ref: 18d67937844 Ref: library/collections collections deque maxlen7938253 Ref: 12f87938253 Node: deque Recipes7940912 Ref: library/collections deque-recipes7940975 Ref: 251b7940975 Ref: deque Recipes-Footnote-17943439 Node: defaultdict objects7943500 Ref: library/collections defaultdict-objects7943678 Ref: 251c7943678 Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict7943743 Ref: 11af7943743 Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict __missing__7944531 Ref: 251e7944531 Ref: library/collections collections defaultdict default_factory7945738 Ref: 251d7945738 Ref: defaultdict objects-Footnote-17946160 Node: defaultdict Examples7946202 Ref: library/collections defaultdict-examples7946278 Ref: 251f7946278 Node: namedtuple Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields7948953 Ref: library/collections namedtuple-factory-function-for-tuples-with-named-fields7949137 Ref: 25207949137 Ref: library/collections collections namedtuple7949518 Ref: 1ca7949518 Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _make7953557 Ref: 25227953557 Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _asdict7953788 Ref: 9e07953788 Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _replace7954474 Ref: 25237954474 Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _fields7955093 Ref: 25247955093 Ref: library/collections collections somenamedtuple _field_defaults7955589 Ref: 25217955589 Node: OrderedDict objects7958358 Ref: library/collections ordereddict-objects7958539 Ref: 25257958539 Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict7960962 Ref: 5d77960962 Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict popitem7961160 Ref: 12e07961160 Ref: library/collections collections OrderedDict move_to_end7961441 Ref: 11d17961441 Ref: library/collections collections-ordereddict-eq7962160 Ref: 15c87962160 Ref: OrderedDict objects-Footnote-17963090 Ref: OrderedDict objects-Footnote-27963132 Node: OrderedDict Examples and Recipes7963174 Ref: library/collections ordereddict-examples-and-recipes7963262 Ref: 25277963262 Node: UserDict objects7966303 Ref: library/collections userdict-objects7966444 Ref: 25287966444 Ref: library/collections collections UserDict7966810 Ref: 19937966810 Ref: library/collections collections UserDict data7967403 Ref: 25297967403 Node: UserList objects7967531 Ref: library/collections userlist-objects7967671 Ref: 252a7967671 Ref: library/collections collections UserList7968186 Ref: 14ae7968186 Ref: library/collections collections UserList data7968791 Ref: 252b7968791 Node: UserString objects7969585 Ref: library/collections userstring-objects7969700 Ref: 252c7969700 Ref: library/collections collections UserString7970062 Ref: dd47970062 Ref: library/collections collections UserString data7970656 Ref: 252d7970656 Node: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers7970956 Ref: library/collections abc doc7971142 Ref: 252e7971142 Ref: library/collections abc collections-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-containers7971142 Ref: 252f7971142 Ref: library/collections abc module-collections abc7971142 Ref: 1e7971142 Ref: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers-Footnote-17975158 Ref: collections abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers-Footnote-27975235 Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes7975277 Ref: library/collections abc collections-abstract-base-classes7975471 Ref: 8757975471 Ref: library/collections abc id17975471 Ref: 25307975471 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-17985178 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-27985467 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-37985756 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-47986045 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-57986397 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-67986686 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-77986975 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-87987264 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-97987553 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-107987842 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-117988132 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-127988422 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-137988712 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-147989002 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-157989292 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-167989582 Node: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions7989872 Ref: library/collections abc collections-abstract-base-classes-detailed-descriptions7990095 Ref: 25327990095 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Container7990230 Ref: 224f7990230 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Hashable7990348 Ref: 4f17990348 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Sized7990455 Ref: 4f27990455 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Callable7990559 Ref: 7e57990559 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Iterable7990784 Ref: 224d7990784 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Collection7991267 Ref: c887991267 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Iterator7991382 Ref: 224e7991382 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Reversible7991578 Ref: c897991578 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Generator7991739 Ref: dda7991739 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Sequence7992156 Ref: 11b67992156 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MutableSequence7992192 Ref: 1a17992192 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ByteString7992235 Ref: 2c57992235 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Set7993305 Ref: 22457993305 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MutableSet7993336 Ref: 22507993336 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Mapping7993430 Ref: 8c97993430 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MutableMapping7993465 Ref: 10a27993465 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc MappingView7993567 Ref: 22517993567 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ItemsView7993606 Ref: 22537993606 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc KeysView7993643 Ref: 22527993643 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc ValuesView7993679 Ref: 22547993679 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Awaitable7993785 Ref: ddb7993785 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Coroutine7994543 Ref: ddc7994543 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc AsyncIterable7995594 Ref: dde7995594 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc AsyncIterator7995793 Ref: ddd7995793 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc AsyncGenerator7996009 Ref: c8a7996009 Ref: library/collections abc collections abc Buffer7996337 Ref: 2c67996337 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions-Footnote-17996576 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions-Footnote-27996618 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions-Footnote-37996660 Ref: Collections Abstract Base Classes – Detailed Descriptions-Footnote-47996702 Node: Examples and Recipes7996744 Ref: library/collections abc examples-and-recipes7996925 Ref: 25357996925 Ref: Examples and Recipes-Footnote-17999896 Ref: Examples and Recipes-Footnote-27999949 Node: heapq — Heap queue algorithm7999991 Ref: library/heapq doc8000178 Ref: 25368000178 Ref: library/heapq heapq-heap-queue-algorithm8000178 Ref: 25378000178 Ref: library/heapq module-heapq8000178 Ref: 698000178 Ref: library/heapq heapq heappush8001784 Ref: 14858001784 Ref: library/heapq heapq heappop8001909 Ref: 14868001909 Ref: library/heapq heapq heappushpop8002174 Ref: 25398002174 Ref: library/heapq heapq heapify8002447 Ref: 25388002447 Ref: library/heapq heapq heapreplace8002544 Ref: 253a8002544 Ref: library/heapq heapq merge8003392 Ref: e038003392 Ref: library/heapq heapq nlargest8004555 Ref: 253b8004555 Ref: library/heapq heapq nsmallest8004953 Ref: 253c8004953 Ref: heapq — Heap queue algorithm-Footnote-18005822 Node: Basic Examples8005887 Ref: library/heapq basic-examples8006012 Ref: 253d8006012 Ref: Basic Examples-Footnote-18006979 Node: Priority Queue Implementation Notes8007026 Ref: library/heapq priority-queue-implementation-notes8007166 Ref: 253e8007166 Ref: Priority Queue Implementation Notes-Footnote-18010102 Node: Theory8010155 Ref: library/heapq theory8010272 Ref: 253f8010272 Ref: Theory-Footnote-18014438 Node: bisect — Array bisection algorithm8015094 Ref: library/bisect doc8015269 Ref: 25408015269 Ref: library/bisect bisect-array-bisection-algorithm8015269 Ref: 25418015269 Ref: library/bisect module-bisect8015269 Ref: 118015269 Ref: library/bisect bisect-functions8016700 Ref: 25438016700 Ref: library/bisect bisect bisect_left8016739 Ref: 25448016739 Ref: library/bisect bisect bisect_right8017934 Ref: 25458017934 Ref: library/bisect bisect bisect8018005 Ref: 25468018005 Ref: library/bisect bisect insort_left8018539 Ref: 25428018539 Ref: library/bisect bisect insort_right8019179 Ref: 25478019179 Ref: library/bisect bisect insort8019250 Ref: 25488019250 Ref: bisect — Array bisection algorithm-Footnote-18020074 Node: Performance Notes8020140 Ref: library/bisect performance-notes8020261 Ref: 25498020261 Ref: Performance Notes-Footnote-18021638 Ref: Performance Notes-Footnote-28021693 Node: Searching Sorted Lists8021763 Ref: library/bisect searching-sorted-lists8021904 Ref: 254a8021904 Node: Examples<3>8023126 Ref: library/bisect examples8023241 Ref: 254b8023241 Ref: library/bisect bisect-example8023276 Ref: 254c8023276 Node: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values8025803 Ref: library/array doc8025975 Ref: 254d8025975 Ref: library/array array-efficient-arrays-of-numeric-values8025975 Ref: 254e8025975 Ref: library/array module-array8025975 Ref: 78025975 Ref: library/array array typecodes8030914 Ref: 25508030914 Ref: library/array array array8031027 Ref: 1a08031027 Ref: library/array array array typecode8032268 Ref: 25538032268 Ref: library/array array array itemsize8032358 Ref: 254f8032358 Ref: library/array array array append8032479 Ref: 25548032479 Ref: library/array array array buffer_info8032577 Ref: 25558032577 Ref: library/array array array byteswap8033694 Ref: 25568033694 Ref: library/array array array count8034045 Ref: 25578034045 Ref: library/array array array extend8034138 Ref: 25528034138 Ref: library/array array array frombytes8034522 Ref: 12658034522 Ref: library/array array array fromfile8034901 Ref: 12b38034901 Ref: library/array array array fromlist8035241 Ref: 25588035241 Ref: library/array array array fromunicode8035452 Ref: 25518035452 Ref: library/array array array index8035806 Ref: 7db8035806 Ref: library/array array array insert8036253 Ref: 25598036253 Ref: library/array array array pop8036455 Ref: 255a8036455 Ref: library/array array array remove8036684 Ref: 255b8036684 Ref: library/array array array clear8036775 Ref: 1a28036775 Ref: library/array array array reverse8036883 Ref: 255c8036883 Ref: library/array array array tobytes8036968 Ref: 12648036968 Ref: library/array array array tofile8037320 Ref: 12b48037320 Ref: library/array array array tolist8037443 Ref: 255d8037443 Ref: library/array array array tounicode8037541 Ref: 255e8037541 Ref: array — Efficient arrays of numeric values-Footnote-18038789 Node: weakref — Weak references8038816 Ref: library/weakref doc8039012 Ref: 255f8039012 Ref: library/weakref mod-weakref8039012 Ref: f058039012 Ref: library/weakref module-weakref8039012 Ref: 1148039012 Ref: library/weakref weakref-weak-references8039012 Ref: 25608039012 Ref: library/weakref weakref ref8043076 Ref: fe98043076 Ref: library/weakref weakref ref __callback__8044886 Ref: fea8044886 Ref: library/weakref weakref proxy8045251 Ref: a518045251 Ref: library/weakref weakref getweakrefcount8046246 Ref: 25628046246 Ref: library/weakref weakref getweakrefs8046379 Ref: 25638046379 Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakKeyDictionary8046513 Ref: 196d8046513 Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakKeyDictionary keyrefs8048362 Ref: 25648048362 Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakValueDictionary8048465 Ref: 196c8048465 Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakValueDictionary valuerefs8048937 Ref: 25658048937 Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakSet8049046 Ref: 5d98049046 Ref: library/weakref weakref WeakMethod8049230 Ref: fe88049230 Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize8050282 Ref: a7c8050282 Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize __call__8051585 Ref: 25668051585 Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize detach8051796 Ref: 25678051796 Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize peek8051997 Ref: 25688051997 Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize alive8052166 Ref: 25698052166 Ref: library/weakref weakref finalize atexit8052281 Ref: 256a8052281 Ref: library/weakref weakref ReferenceType8052882 Ref: 17d38052882 Ref: library/weakref weakref ProxyType8052966 Ref: 17d48052966 Ref: library/weakref weakref CallableProxyType8053064 Ref: 17d58053064 Ref: library/weakref weakref ProxyTypes8053156 Ref: 256b8053156 Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-18053786 Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-28053853 Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-38053895 Ref: weakref — Weak references-Footnote-48053937 Node: Weak Reference Objects8053979 Ref: library/weakref weak-reference-objects8054084 Ref: 256c8054084 Ref: library/weakref weakref-objects8054084 Ref: 256d8054084 Node: Example<2>8056608 Ref: library/weakref example8056739 Ref: 256e8056739 Ref: library/weakref weakref-example8056739 Ref: 256f8056739 Node: Finalizer Objects8057280 Ref: library/weakref finalize-examples8057430 Ref: 25708057430 Ref: library/weakref finalizer-objects8057430 Ref: 25718057430 Node: Comparing finalizers with __del__ methods8059281 Ref: library/weakref comparing-finalizers-with-del-methods8059412 Ref: 25728059412 Node: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types8062239 Ref: library/types doc8062432 Ref: 25738062432 Ref: library/types module-types8062432 Ref: 1038062432 Ref: library/types types-dynamic-type-creation-and-names-for-built-in-types8062432 Ref: 25748062432 Ref: types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types-Footnote-18063235 Node: Dynamic Type Creation8063300 Ref: library/types dynamic-type-creation8063453 Ref: 25758063453 Ref: library/types types new_class8063516 Ref: 11558063516 Ref: library/types types prepare_class8064232 Ref: 11568064232 Ref: library/types types resolve_bases8065403 Ref: b9c8065403 Ref: library/types types get_original_bases8065974 Ref: 4ca8065974 Ref: Dynamic Type Creation-Footnote-18067536 Ref: Dynamic Type Creation-Footnote-28067578 Ref: Dynamic Type Creation-Footnote-38067620 Ref: Dynamic Type Creation-Footnote-48067662 Node: Standard Interpreter Types8067704 Ref: library/types standard-interpreter-types8067906 Ref: 25768067906 Ref: library/types types NoneType8068462 Ref: 84e8068462 Ref: library/types types FunctionType8068552 Ref: 8818068552 Ref: library/types types LambdaType8068581 Ref: 25778068581 Ref: library/types types GeneratorType8068938 Ref: 16358068938 Ref: library/types types CoroutineType8069065 Ref: e848069065 Ref: library/types types AsyncGeneratorType8069222 Ref: 25788069222 Ref: library/types types CodeType8069408 Ref: 2e38069408 Ref: library/types types CellType8070002 Ref: 25798070002 Ref: library/types types MethodType8070180 Ref: 17f88070180 Ref: library/types types BuiltinFunctionType8070267 Ref: 257a8070267 Ref: library/types types BuiltinMethodType8070303 Ref: 257b8070303 Ref: library/types types WrapperDescriptorType8070527 Ref: b998070527 Ref: library/types types MethodWrapperType8070745 Ref: 6478070745 Ref: library/types types NotImplementedType8070948 Ref: 84f8070948 Ref: library/types types MethodDescriptorType8071058 Ref: b9a8071058 Ref: library/types types ClassMethodDescriptorType8071215 Ref: b9b8071215 Ref: library/types types ModuleType8071402 Ref: e128071402 Ref: library/types types EllipsisType8072182 Ref: 84d8072182 Ref: library/types types GenericAlias8072281 Ref: 7e68072281 Ref: library/types types UnionType8073195 Ref: 6368073195 Ref: library/types types TracebackType8073305 Ref: af28073305 Ref: library/types types FrameType8073633 Ref: 18518073633 Ref: library/types types GetSetDescriptorType8073786 Ref: 257c8073786 Ref: library/types types MemberDescriptorType8074153 Ref: 257d8074153 Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType8074945 Ref: 4698074945 Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType copy8075939 Ref: 257e8075939 Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType get8076025 Ref: 257f8076025 Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType items8076298 Ref: 25808076298 Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType keys8076428 Ref: 25818076428 Ref: library/types types MappingProxyType values8076519 Ref: 25828076519 Ref: library/types types CapsuleType8076889 Ref: 25838076889 Ref: Standard Interpreter Types-Footnote-18077031 Ref: Standard Interpreter Types-Footnote-28077073 Node: Additional Utility Classes and Functions8077115 Ref: library/types additional-utility-classes-and-functions8077323 Ref: 25858077323 Ref: library/types types SimpleNamespace8077424 Ref: 1d18077424 Ref: library/types types DynamicClassAttribute8079450 Ref: 6268079450 Node: Coroutine Utility Functions8080126 Ref: library/types coroutine-utility-functions8080299 Ref: 25868080299 Ref: library/types types coroutine8080374 Ref: e838080374 Node: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations8081202 Ref: library/copy doc8081398 Ref: 25878081398 Ref: library/copy copy-shallow-and-deep-copy-operations8081398 Ref: 25888081398 Ref: library/copy module-copy8081398 Ref: 258081398 Ref: library/copy copy copy8081953 Ref: 52f8081953 Ref: library/copy copy deepcopy8082022 Ref: b6e8082022 Ref: library/copy copy replace8082100 Ref: 1518082100 Ref: library/copy copy Error8082281 Ref: 25898082281 Ref: library/copy shallow-vs-deep-copy8082348 Ref: 1c018082348 Ref: library/copy object __copy__8084388 Ref: 258a8084388 Ref: library/copy object __deepcopy__8084519 Ref: 15468084519 Ref: library/copy object __replace__8085223 Ref: 1528085223 Ref: copy — Shallow and deep copy operations-Footnote-18085600 Node: pprint — Data pretty printer8085664 Ref: library/pprint doc8085841 Ref: 258b8085841 Ref: library/pprint module-pprint8085841 Ref: ae8085841 Ref: library/pprint pprint-data-pretty-printer8085841 Ref: 258c8085841 Ref: pprint — Data pretty printer-Footnote-18087064 Node: Functions<4>8087130 Ref: library/pprint functions8087239 Ref: 258d8087239 Ref: library/pprint pprint-functions8087239 Ref: 258e8087239 Ref: library/pprint pprint pp8087278 Ref: a228087278 Ref: library/pprint pprint pprint8089872 Ref: 8248089872 Ref: library/pprint pprint pformat8090272 Ref: f7b8090272 Ref: library/pprint pprint isreadable8090723 Ref: 25908090723 Ref: library/pprint pprint isrecursive8091031 Ref: 25918091031 Ref: library/pprint pprint saferepr8091332 Ref: 25928091332 Node: PrettyPrinter Objects8091980 Ref: library/pprint id18092108 Ref: 25938092108 Ref: library/pprint prettyprinter-objects8092108 Ref: 25948092108 Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter8092171 Ref: f7a8092171 Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter pformat8093840 Ref: 25958093840 Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter pprint8094039 Ref: 25968094039 Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter isreadable8094426 Ref: 25978094426 Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter isrecursive8094828 Ref: 25988094828 Ref: library/pprint pprint PrettyPrinter format8095144 Ref: 191e8095144 Node: Example<3>8096304 Ref: library/pprint example8096411 Ref: 25998096411 Ref: library/pprint pprint-example8096411 Ref: 259a8096411 Ref: Example<3>-Footnote-18103709 Node: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation8103734 Ref: library/reprlib doc8103903 Ref: 259b8103903 Ref: library/reprlib module-reprlib8103903 Ref: bb8103903 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib-alternate-repr-implementation8103903 Ref: 259c8103903 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr8104394 Ref: 259d8104394 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib aRepr8105388 Ref: 259f8105388 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib repr8105671 Ref: 25a08105671 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib recursive_repr8106073 Ref: 11e58106073 Ref: reprlib — Alternate repr implementation-Footnote-18106871 Node: Repr Objects8106938 Ref: library/reprlib id18107061 Ref: 259e8107061 Ref: library/reprlib repr-objects8107061 Ref: 25a28107061 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr fillvalue8107302 Ref: 25a38107302 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxlevel8107451 Ref: 25a48107451 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxdict8107575 Ref: 25a58107575 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxlist8107603 Ref: 25a68107603 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxtuple8107631 Ref: 25a78107631 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxset8107660 Ref: 25a88107660 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxfrozenset8107687 Ref: 25a98107687 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxdeque8107720 Ref: 25aa8107720 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxarray8107749 Ref: 25ab8107749 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxlong8107977 Ref: 25ac8107977 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxstring8108146 Ref: 25ad8108146 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr maxother8108503 Ref: 25ae8108503 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr indent8108782 Ref: 25af8108782 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr repr8110277 Ref: 25a18110277 Ref: library/reprlib reprlib Repr repr18110417 Ref: 25b08110417 Node: Subclassing Repr Objects8111235 Ref: library/reprlib subclassing-repr-objects8111358 Ref: 25b18111358 Ref: library/reprlib subclassing-reprs8111358 Ref: 25b28111358 Node: enum — Support for enumerations8112055 Ref: library/enum doc8112258 Ref: 25b38112258 Ref: library/enum enum-support-for-enumerations8112258 Ref: 25b48112258 Ref: library/enum module-enum8112258 Ref: 568112258 Ref: enum — Support for enumerations-Footnote-18114152 Node: Module Contents<2>8114216 Ref: library/enum module-contents8114326 Ref: 25b98114326 Node: Data Types<2>8117810 Ref: library/enum data-types8117953 Ref: 25bd8117953 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType8117994 Ref: 1e78117994 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __call__8118617 Ref: 25bf8118617 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __contains__8119834 Ref: 25c08119834 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __dir__8120254 Ref: 25c18120254 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __getitem__8120641 Ref: 25c28120641 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __iter__8120853 Ref: 25c38120853 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __len__8121046 Ref: 25c48121046 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __members__8121176 Ref: 25c58121176 Ref: library/enum enum EnumType __reversed__8121300 Ref: 25c68121300 Ref: library/enum enum Enum8121515 Ref: 62c8121515 Ref: library/enum enum Enum name8121597 Ref: 25c78121597 Ref: library/enum enum Enum value8121739 Ref: 25c88121739 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _name_8122605 Ref: 25ca8122605 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _value_8122664 Ref: 25cb8122664 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _order_8122762 Ref: 25cc8122762 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _ignore_8122912 Ref: 25cd8122912 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __dir__8123279 Ref: 18618123279 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _generate_next_value_8124110 Ref: 25cf8124110 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __init__8125027 Ref: 25d08125027 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __init_subclass__8125479 Ref: 25d18125479 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _missing_8125650 Ref: 25d28125650 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __new__8126511 Ref: 25c98126511 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __repr__8127177 Ref: 17848127177 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __str__8127906 Ref: 61e8127906 Ref: library/enum enum Enum __format__8128534 Ref: 61c8128534 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _add_alias_8129409 Ref: 25d38129409 Ref: library/enum enum Enum _add_value_alias_8129757 Ref: 25d48129757 Ref: library/enum enum IntEnum8130113 Ref: cdf8130113 Ref: library/enum enum StrEnum8131155 Ref: 6168131155 Ref: library/enum enum Flag8132559 Ref: 61f8132559 Ref: library/enum enum Flag __contains__8132842 Ref: 25d58132842 Ref: library/enum enum Flag __or__8134281 Ref: 25d68134281 Ref: library/enum enum Flag __and__8134459 Ref: 25d78134459 Ref: library/enum enum Flag __xor__8134695 Ref: 25d88134695 Ref: library/enum enum Flag _numeric_repr_8135231 Ref: 25d98135231 Ref: library/enum enum IntFlag8135732 Ref: 22fa8135732 Ref: library/enum enum ReprEnum8137356 Ref: 6178137356 Ref: library/enum enum EnumCheck8137871 Ref: 6228137871 Ref: library/enum enum EnumCheck UNIQUE8138075 Ref: 25da8138075 Ref: library/enum enum EnumCheck CONTINUOUS8138562 Ref: 25db8138562 Ref: library/enum enum EnumCheck NAMED_FLAGS8139092 Ref: 25dc8139092 Ref: library/enum enum FlagBoundary8139963 Ref: 6208139963 Ref: library/enum enum FlagBoundary STRICT8140108 Ref: 25dd8140108 Ref: library/enum enum FlagBoundary CONFORM8140757 Ref: 25de8140757 Ref: library/enum enum FlagBoundary EJECT8141226 Ref: 25df8141226 Ref: library/enum enum FlagBoundary KEEP8141666 Ref: 25e08141666 Ref: library/enum enum EnumDict8142193 Ref: 1e68142193 Ref: library/enum enum EnumDict member_names8142915 Ref: 25e18142915 Node: Supported __dunder__ names8143151 Ref: library/enum supported-dunder-names8143260 Ref: 25e28143260 Node: Supported _sunder_ names8143689 Ref: library/enum supported-sunder-names8143798 Ref: 25e38143798 Ref: Supported _sunder_ names-Footnote-18145578 Node: Utilities and Decorators8145665 Ref: library/enum ipython-s-rich-display8145795 Ref: 25e48145795 Ref: library/enum utilities-and-decorators8145795 Ref: 25e58145795 Ref: library/enum enum auto8145864 Ref: c9c8145864 Ref: library/enum enum property8147357 Ref: 6258147357 Ref: library/enum enum unique8147878 Ref: 25bb8147878 Ref: library/enum enum verify8148508 Ref: 6218148508 Ref: library/enum enum member8148764 Ref: 6238148764 Ref: library/enum enum nonmember8148890 Ref: 6248148890 Ref: library/enum enum global_enum8149023 Ref: 6278149023 Ref: library/enum enum show_flag_values8149392 Ref: 25bc8149392 Node: Notes8149617 Ref: library/enum notes8149725 Ref: 25ba8149725 Node: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures8150660 Ref: library/graphlib doc8150813 Ref: 25e68150813 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib-functionality-to-operate-with-graph-like-structures8150813 Ref: 25e78150813 Ref: library/graphlib module-graphlib8150813 Ref: 658150813 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter8151067 Ref: 8e08151067 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter add8154359 Ref: 25e88154359 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter prepare8155136 Ref: 25e98155136 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter is_active8155609 Ref: 25ea8155609 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter done8156502 Ref: 25ec8156502 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter get_ready8157198 Ref: 25eb8157198 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib TopologicalSorter static_order8157754 Ref: 25ed8157754 Ref: graphlib — Functionality to operate with graph-like structures-Footnote-18159296 Node: Exceptions<4>8159364 Ref: library/graphlib exceptions8159478 Ref: 25ef8159478 Ref: library/graphlib graphlib CycleError8159592 Ref: 25ee8159592 Node: Numeric and Mathematical Modules8160265 Ref: library/numeric doc8160419 Ref: 25f08160419 Ref: library/numeric numeric8160419 Ref: 25f18160419 Ref: library/numeric numeric-and-mathematical-modules8160419 Ref: 25f28160419 Node: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes8161324 Ref: library/numbers doc8161474 Ref: 25f38161474 Ref: library/numbers module-numbers8161474 Ref: 9e8161474 Ref: library/numbers numbers-numeric-abstract-base-classes8161474 Ref: 25f48161474 Ref: library/numbers numbers Number8161904 Ref: 25f58161904 Ref: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes-Footnote-18162200 Ref: numbers — Numeric abstract base classes-Footnote-28162267 Node: The numeric tower8162309 Ref: library/numbers the-numeric-tower8162440 Ref: 25f68162440 Ref: library/numbers numbers Complex8162493 Ref: 25f78162493 Ref: library/numbers numbers Complex real8162944 Ref: 25f88162944 Ref: library/numbers numbers Complex imag8163037 Ref: 25f98163037 Ref: library/numbers numbers Complex conjugate8163135 Ref: 25fa8163135 Ref: library/numbers numbers Real8163294 Ref: 21968163294 Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational8163798 Ref: 12b18163798 Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational numerator8164189 Ref: 25fb8164189 Ref: library/numbers numbers Rational denominator8164281 Ref: 25fc8164281 Ref: library/numbers numbers Integral8164377 Ref: 1fbc8164377 Node: Notes for type implementers8164740 Ref: library/numbers notes-for-type-implementers8164871 Ref: 25fd8164871 Node: Adding More Numeric ABCs8165721 Ref: library/numbers adding-more-numeric-abcs8165856 Ref: 25fe8165856 Node: Implementing the arithmetic operations8166202 Ref: library/numbers id18166337 Ref: 25ff8166337 Ref: library/numbers implementing-the-arithmetic-operations8166337 Ref: 1eea8166337 Node: math — Mathematical functions8171010 Ref: library/math doc8171221 Ref: 26008171221 Ref: library/math math-mathematical-functions8171221 Ref: 26018171221 Ref: library/math module-math8171221 Ref: 8e8171221 Ref: math — Mathematical functions-Footnote-18185861 Ref: math — Mathematical functions-Footnote-28185914 Ref: math — Mathematical functions-Footnote-38185967 Ref: math — Mathematical functions-Footnote-48186020 Node: Number-theoretic functions8186073 Ref: library/math number-theoretic-functions8186201 Ref: 26138186201 Ref: library/math math comb8186272 Ref: 6cb8186272 Ref: library/math math factorial8186863 Ref: 9478186863 Ref: library/math math gcd8187057 Ref: 90f8187057 Ref: library/math math isqrt8187592 Ref: a048187592 Ref: library/math math lcm8188112 Ref: 9108188112 Ref: library/math math perm8188514 Ref: 6cc8188514 Node: Floating point arithmetic8189063 Ref: library/math floating-point-arithmetic8189237 Ref: 26148189237 Ref: library/math math ceil8189306 Ref: 138e8189306 Ref: library/math math fabs8189547 Ref: 26028189547 Ref: library/math math floor8189616 Ref: 138d8189616 Ref: library/math math fma8189848 Ref: 2078189848 Ref: library/math math fmod8190532 Ref: 206c8190532 Ref: library/math math modf8191576 Ref: 26038191576 Ref: library/math math remainder8191999 Ref: b538191999 Ref: library/math math trunc8193027 Ref: 138f8193027 Node: Floating point manipulation functions8193795 Ref: library/math floating-point-manipulation-functions8193986 Ref: 26158193986 Ref: library/math math copysign8194079 Ref: 139f8194079 Ref: library/math math frexp8194293 Ref: 26048194293 Ref: library/math math isclose8194942 Ref: daf8194942 Ref: library/math math isfinite8196548 Ref: 11dd8196548 Ref: library/math math isinf8196753 Ref: 139d8196753 Ref: library/math math isnan8196882 Ref: 139e8196882 Ref: library/math math ldexp8197000 Ref: 15448197000 Ref: library/math math nextafter8197135 Ref: 4948197135 Ref: library/math math ulp8197803 Ref: 9118197803 Ref: Floating point manipulation functions-Footnote-18198879 Node: Power exponential and logarithmic functions8198921 Ref: library/math power-exponential-and-logarithmic-functions8199118 Ref: 26168199118 Ref: library/math math cbrt8199225 Ref: 65d8199225 Ref: library/math math exp8199318 Ref: 13078199318 Ref: library/math math exp28199536 Ref: 65c8199536 Ref: library/math math expm18199636 Ref: 11de8199636 Ref: library/math math log8200252 Ref: 14898200252 Ref: library/math math log1p8200487 Ref: 13a48200487 Ref: library/math math log28200650 Ref: 10d18200650 Ref: library/math math log108200992 Ref: 26058200992 Ref: library/math math pow8201124 Ref: 65e8201124 Ref: library/math math sqrt8201991 Ref: a058201991 Ref: Power exponential and logarithmic functions-Footnote-18202093 Node: Summation and product functions8202152 Ref: library/math summation-and-product-functions8202330 Ref: 26178202330 Ref: library/math math dist8202411 Ref: a018202411 Ref: library/math math fsum8202742 Ref: 13a08202742 Ref: library/math math hypot8203416 Ref: a028203416 Ref: library/math math prod8204172 Ref: a038204172 Ref: library/math math sumprod8204550 Ref: 4938204550 Ref: Summation and product functions-Footnote-18205037 Node: Angular conversion8205142 Ref: library/math angular-conversion8205300 Ref: 26188205300 Ref: library/math math degrees8205355 Ref: 26068205355 Ref: library/math math radians8205436 Ref: 26078205436 Node: Trigonometric functions8205517 Ref: library/math trigonometric-functions8205664 Ref: 26198205664 Ref: library/math math acos8205729 Ref: 26088205729 Ref: library/math math asin8205856 Ref: 26098205856 Ref: library/math math atan8205987 Ref: 260a8205987 Ref: library/math math atan28206121 Ref: 260b8206121 Ref: library/math math cos8206633 Ref: 14888206633 Ref: library/math math sin8206701 Ref: 14878206701 Ref: library/math math tan8206767 Ref: 260c8206767 Node: Hyperbolic functions8206836 Ref: library/math hyperbolic-functions8206982 Ref: 261a8206982 Ref: library/math math acosh8207154 Ref: 13a18207154 Ref: library/math math asinh8207235 Ref: 13a28207235 Ref: library/math math atanh8207314 Ref: 13a38207314 Ref: library/math math cosh8207396 Ref: 260d8207396 Ref: library/math math sinh8207468 Ref: 260e8207468 Ref: library/math math tanh8207538 Ref: 260f8207538 Ref: Hyperbolic functions-Footnote-18207647 Node: Special functions8207706 Ref: library/math special-functions8207841 Ref: 261b8207841 Ref: library/math math erf8207894 Ref: bd88207894 Ref: library/math math erfc8208316 Ref: bd98208316 Ref: library/math math gamma8208617 Ref: 11df8208617 Ref: library/math math lgamma8208718 Ref: 11e08208718 Ref: Special functions-Footnote-18208905 Ref: Special functions-Footnote-28208958 Ref: Special functions-Footnote-38209029 Ref: Special functions-Footnote-48209082 Ref: Special functions-Footnote-58209141 Node: Constants<2>8209194 Ref: library/math constants8209300 Ref: 261c8209300 Ref: library/math math pi8209339 Ref: 26108209339 Ref: library/math math e8209434 Ref: 26118209434 Ref: library/math math tau8209527 Ref: 26128209527 Ref: library/math math inf8209907 Ref: c848209907 Ref: library/math math nan8210098 Ref: 65f8210098 Ref: Constants<2>-Footnote-18212055 Ref: Constants<2>-Footnote-28212091 Ref: Constants<2>-Footnote-38212119 Node: cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers8212166 Ref: library/cmath doc8212397 Ref: 261d8212397 Ref: library/cmath cmath-mathematical-functions-for-complex-numbers8212397 Ref: 261e8212397 Ref: library/cmath module-cmath8212397 Ref: 188212397 Node: Conversions to and from polar coordinates8220734 Ref: library/cmath conversions-to-and-from-polar-coordinates8220904 Ref: 26378220904 Ref: library/cmath cmath phase8221709 Ref: 26208221709 Ref: library/cmath cmath polar8222480 Ref: 26218222480 Ref: library/cmath cmath rect8222735 Ref: 26228222735 Node: Power and logarithmic functions8222916 Ref: library/cmath power-and-logarithmic-functions8223121 Ref: 26388223121 Ref: library/cmath cmath exp8223202 Ref: 26238223202 Ref: library/cmath cmath log8223323 Ref: 26248223323 Ref: library/cmath cmath log108223567 Ref: 26258223567 Ref: library/cmath cmath sqrt8223698 Ref: 261f8223698 Node: Trigonometric functions<2>8223822 Ref: library/cmath trigonometric-functions8224009 Ref: 26398224009 Ref: library/cmath cmath acos8224074 Ref: 26268224074 Ref: library/cmath cmath asin8224292 Ref: 26278224292 Ref: library/cmath cmath atan8224415 Ref: 26288224415 Ref: library/cmath cmath cos8224661 Ref: 26298224661 Ref: library/cmath cmath sin8224722 Ref: 262a8224722 Ref: library/cmath cmath tan8224781 Ref: 262b8224781 Node: Hyperbolic functions<2>8224843 Ref: library/cmath hyperbolic-functions8225023 Ref: 263a8225023 Ref: library/cmath cmath acosh8225082 Ref: 262c8225082 Ref: library/cmath cmath asinh8225246 Ref: 262d8225246 Ref: library/cmath cmath atanh8225505 Ref: 262e8225505 Ref: library/cmath cmath cosh8225753 Ref: 262f8225753 Ref: library/cmath cmath sinh8225826 Ref: 26308225826 Ref: library/cmath cmath tanh8225897 Ref: 26318225897 Node: Classification functions8225971 Ref: library/cmath classification-functions8226137 Ref: 263b8226137 Ref: library/cmath cmath isfinite8226204 Ref: 26328226204 Ref: library/cmath cmath isinf8226378 Ref: 26338226378 Ref: library/cmath cmath isnan8226529 Ref: 26348226529 Ref: library/cmath cmath isclose8226674 Ref: db08226674 Ref: Classification functions-Footnote-18228305 Node: Constants<3>8228347 Ref: library/cmath constants8228481 Ref: 263c8228481 Ref: library/cmath cmath pi8228518 Ref: 26358228518 Ref: library/cmath cmath e8228588 Ref: 26368228588 Ref: library/cmath cmath tau8228656 Ref: c818228656 Ref: library/cmath cmath inf8228755 Ref: c828228755 Ref: library/cmath cmath infj8228879 Ref: c858228879 Ref: library/cmath cmath nan8229062 Ref: c838229062 Ref: library/cmath cmath nanj8229206 Ref: c868229206 Node: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic8230619 Ref: library/decimal doc8230849 Ref: 263d8230849 Ref: library/decimal decimal-decimal-fixed-point-and-floating-point-arithmetic8230849 Ref: 263e8230849 Ref: library/decimal module-decimal8230849 Ref: 368230849 Ref: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic-Footnote-18235974 Ref: decimal — Decimal fixed-point and floating-point arithmetic-Footnote-28236041 Node: Quick-start tutorial8236095 Ref: library/decimal decimal-tutorial8236237 Ref: 264e8236237 Ref: library/decimal quick-start-tutorial8236237 Ref: 264f8236237 Node: Decimal objects8243481 Ref: library/decimal decimal-decimal8243647 Ref: 26528243647 Ref: library/decimal decimal-objects8243647 Ref: 26538243647 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal8243696 Ref: 29f8243696 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal adjusted8248986 Ref: 26548248986 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal as_integer_ratio8249337 Ref: c948249337 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal as_tuple8249778 Ref: 26558249778 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal canonical8249936 Ref: 26568249936 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal compare8250175 Ref: 26578250175 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal compare_signal8250608 Ref: 26588250608 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal compare_total8250920 Ref: 26598250920 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal compare_total_mag8252197 Ref: 265a8252197 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal conjugate8252802 Ref: 265b8252802 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal copy_abs8252935 Ref: 265c8252935 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal copy_negate8253149 Ref: 265d8253149 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal copy_sign8253360 Ref: 265e8253360 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal exp8253897 Ref: 10a08253897 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal from_float8254331 Ref: 11f68254331 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal fma8255471 Ref: 265f8255471 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_canonical8255715 Ref: 26608255715 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_finite8255990 Ref: 26618255990 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_infinite8256165 Ref: 26628256165 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_nan8256332 Ref: 26638256332 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_normal8256484 Ref: 26648256484 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_qnan8256708 Ref: 26658256708 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_signed8256847 Ref: 26668256847 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_snan8257050 Ref: 26678257050 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_subnormal8257192 Ref: 26688257192 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal is_zero8257346 Ref: 26698257346 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal ln8257502 Ref: 10a18257502 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal log108257710 Ref: 266a8257710 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal logb8257913 Ref: 266b8257913 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal logical_and8258300 Ref: 266c8258300 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal logical_invert8258565 Ref: 266e8258565 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal logical_or8258744 Ref: 266f8258744 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal logical_xor8259006 Ref: 26708259006 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal max8259274 Ref: 26718259274 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal max_mag8259578 Ref: 26728259578 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal min8259759 Ref: 26738259759 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal min_mag8260063 Ref: 26748260063 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal next_minus8260244 Ref: 26758260244 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal next_plus8260482 Ref: 26768260482 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal next_toward8260719 Ref: 26778260719 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal normalize8261086 Ref: 26788261086 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal number_class8262132 Ref: 26798262132 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal quantize8263302 Ref: 10a68263302 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal radix8264621 Ref: 267b8264621 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal remainder_near8264838 Ref: 267c8264838 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal rotate8265682 Ref: 267d8265682 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal same_quantum8266355 Ref: 267e8266355 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal scaleb8266767 Ref: 267f8266767 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal shift8267018 Ref: 26808267018 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal sqrt8267624 Ref: 26818267624 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal to_eng_string8267731 Ref: 26828267731 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal to_integral8268207 Ref: 26838268207 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal to_integral_exact8268437 Ref: 26858268437 Ref: library/decimal decimal Decimal to_integral_value8268867 Ref: 26848268867 Node: Logical operands8271369 Ref: library/decimal logical-operands8271437 Ref: 26868271437 Ref: library/decimal logical-operands-label8271437 Ref: 266d8271437 Node: Context objects8271810 Ref: library/decimal context-objects8271968 Ref: 26878271968 Ref: library/decimal decimal-context8271968 Ref: 22e38271968 Ref: library/decimal decimal getcontext8272352 Ref: 15d58272352 Ref: library/decimal decimal setcontext8272445 Ref: 26508272445 Ref: library/decimal decimal localcontext8272679 Ref: 18038272679 Ref: library/decimal decimal BasicContext8274298 Ref: 109a8274298 Ref: library/decimal decimal ExtendedContext8274749 Ref: 109b8274749 Ref: library/decimal decimal DefaultContext8275381 Ref: 10998275381 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context8276521 Ref: 10a58276521 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context prec8276907 Ref: 26888276907 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context rounding8277077 Ref: 26898277077 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context traps8277199 Ref: 10a48277199 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context flags8277225 Ref: 10a38277225 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context Emin8277379 Ref: 109d8277379 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context Emax8277404 Ref: 109c8277404 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context capitals8277638 Ref: 268e8277638 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context clamp8277873 Ref: 11918277873 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context clear_flags8279668 Ref: 26518279668 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context clear_traps8279748 Ref: 268f8279748 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context copy8279861 Ref: 26908279861 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context copy_decimal8279933 Ref: 26918279933 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context create_decimal8280024 Ref: 109f8280024 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context create_decimal_from_float8281128 Ref: 26928281128 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context Etiny8281894 Ref: 267a8281894 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context Etop8282124 Ref: 26938282124 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context abs8282630 Ref: 26948282630 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context add8282702 Ref: 26958282702 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context canonical8282773 Ref: 12fa8282773 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context compare8282853 Ref: 26968282853 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context compare_signal8282931 Ref: 26978282931 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context compare_total8283035 Ref: 26988283035 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context compare_total_mag8283144 Ref: 26998283144 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context copy_abs8283282 Ref: 269a8283282 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context copy_negate8283370 Ref: 269b8283370 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context copy_sign8283461 Ref: 269c8283461 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context divide8283540 Ref: 269d8283540 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context divide_int8283610 Ref: 269e8283610 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context divmod8283709 Ref: 269f8283709 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context exp8283826 Ref: 26a08283826 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context fma8283885 Ref: 26a18283885 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_canonical8283969 Ref: 12fb8283969 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_finite8284086 Ref: 26a28284086 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_infinite8284197 Ref: 26a38284197 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_nan8284312 Ref: 26a48284312 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_normal8284438 Ref: 26a58284438 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_qnan8284568 Ref: 26a68284568 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_signed8284692 Ref: 26a78284692 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_snan8284805 Ref: 26a88284805 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_subnormal8284933 Ref: 26a98284933 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context is_zero8285050 Ref: 26aa8285050 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context ln8285159 Ref: 26ab8285159 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context log108285242 Ref: 26ac8285242 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context logb8285319 Ref: 26ad8285319 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context logical_and8285419 Ref: 26ae8285419 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context logical_invert8285546 Ref: 26af8285546 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context logical_or8285624 Ref: 26b08285624 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context logical_xor8285749 Ref: 26b18285749 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context max8285876 Ref: 26b28285876 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context max_mag8285973 Ref: 26b38285973 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context min8286074 Ref: 26b48286074 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context min_mag8286171 Ref: 26b58286171 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context minus8286272 Ref: 26b68286272 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context multiply8286385 Ref: 26b78286385 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context next_minus8286465 Ref: 26b88286465 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context next_plus8286568 Ref: 26b98286568 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context next_toward8286670 Ref: 26ba8286670 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context normalize8286779 Ref: 26bb8286779 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context number_class8286856 Ref: 26bc8286856 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context plus8286945 Ref: 26bd8286945 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context power8287162 Ref: 26be8287162 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context quantize8288972 Ref: 26bf8288972 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context radix8289095 Ref: 26c08289095 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context remainder8289173 Ref: 26c18289173 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context remainder_near8289368 Ref: 26c28289368 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context rotate8289588 Ref: 26c38289588 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context same_quantum8289673 Ref: 26c48289673 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context scaleb8289785 Ref: 26c58289785 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context shift8289903 Ref: 26c68289903 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context sqrt8289987 Ref: 26c78289987 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context subtract8290084 Ref: 26c88290084 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context to_eng_string8290172 Ref: 26c98290172 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context to_integral_exact8290536 Ref: 26ca8290536 Ref: library/decimal decimal Context to_sci_string8290609 Ref: 26cb8290609 Node: Constants<4>8290713 Ref: library/decimal constants8290870 Ref: 26cc8290870 Ref: library/decimal decimal-rounding-modes8290870 Ref: 26cd8290870 Ref: library/decimal decimal MAX_PREC8291307 Ref: 268a8291307 Ref: library/decimal decimal MAX_EMAX8291442 Ref: 268d8291442 Ref: library/decimal decimal MIN_EMIN8291577 Ref: 268c8291577 Ref: library/decimal decimal MIN_ETINY8291713 Ref: 26ce8291713 Ref: library/decimal decimal HAVE_THREADS8291841 Ref: 10978291841 Ref: library/decimal decimal HAVE_CONTEXTVAR8291997 Ref: 1d758291997 Node: Rounding modes8292360 Ref: library/decimal rounding-modes8292509 Ref: 268b8292509 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_CEILING8292556 Ref: 263f8292556 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_DOWN8292625 Ref: 26408292625 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_FLOOR8292681 Ref: 26418292681 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_HALF_DOWN8292749 Ref: 26428292749 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_HALF_EVEN8292837 Ref: 26438292837 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_HALF_UP8292936 Ref: 26448292936 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_UP8293024 Ref: 26458293024 Ref: library/decimal decimal ROUND_05UP8293080 Ref: 26468293080 Node: Signals8293238 Ref: library/decimal decimal-signals8293395 Ref: 26cf8293395 Ref: library/decimal signals8293395 Ref: 26d08293395 Ref: library/decimal decimal Clamped8294112 Ref: 26478294112 Ref: library/decimal decimal DecimalException8294425 Ref: 26d18294425 Ref: library/decimal decimal DivisionByZero8294549 Ref: 26488294549 Ref: library/decimal decimal Inexact8294887 Ref: 26498294887 Ref: library/decimal decimal InvalidOperation8295162 Ref: 109e8295162 Ref: library/decimal decimal Overflow8295603 Ref: 264c8295603 Ref: library/decimal decimal Rounded8296026 Ref: 264a8296026 Ref: library/decimal decimal Subnormal8296364 Ref: 264b8296364 Ref: library/decimal decimal Underflow8296593 Ref: 264d8296593 Ref: library/decimal decimal FloatOperation8296818 Ref: 10968296818 Node: Floating-point notes8298094 Ref: library/decimal decimal-notes8298257 Ref: 26d28298257 Ref: library/decimal floating-point-notes8298257 Ref: 26d38298257 Node: Mitigating round-off error with increased precision8298401 Ref: library/decimal mitigating-round-off-error-with-increased-precision8298532 Ref: 26d48298532 Node: Special values8300221 Ref: library/decimal special-values8300352 Ref: 26d58300352 Node: Working with threads8303489 Ref: library/decimal decimal-threads8303652 Ref: 26d68303652 Ref: library/decimal working-with-threads8303652 Ref: 26d78303652 Node: Recipes8305026 Ref: library/decimal decimal-recipes8305180 Ref: 26d88305180 Ref: library/decimal recipes8305180 Ref: 26d98305180 Node: Decimal FAQ8310025 Ref: library/decimal decimal-faq8310150 Ref: 26da8310150 Ref: library/decimal id18310150 Ref: 26db8310150 Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-18319162 Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-28319229 Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-38319260 Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-48319318 Ref: Decimal FAQ-Footnote-58319421 Node: fractions — Rational numbers8319531 Ref: library/fractions doc8319750 Ref: 26dc8319750 Ref: library/fractions fractions-rational-numbers8319750 Ref: 26dd8319750 Ref: library/fractions module-fractions8319750 Ref: 5d8319750 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction8320130 Ref: 1e98320130 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction numerator8324502 Ref: 26df8324502 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction denominator8324586 Ref: 26e08324586 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction as_integer_ratio8324713 Ref: 26e18324713 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction is_integer8324956 Ref: 26e28324956 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction from_float8325082 Ref: 11f78325082 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction from_decimal8325533 Ref: 11f88325533 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction limit_denominator8325906 Ref: 26de8325906 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __floor__8326780 Ref: 17818326780 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __ceil__8327081 Ref: 17808327081 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __round__8327272 Ref: 177f8327272 Ref: library/fractions fractions Fraction __format__8327743 Ref: 26e38327743 Ref: fractions — Rational numbers-Footnote-18330070 Ref: fractions — Rational numbers-Footnote-28330139 Node: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers8330181 Ref: library/random doc8330387 Ref: 26e48330387 Ref: library/random module-random8330387 Ref: b88330387 Ref: library/random random-generate-pseudo-random-numbers8330387 Ref: 26e58330387 Ref: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers-Footnote-18333671 Ref: random — Generate pseudo-random numbers-Footnote-28333737 Node: Bookkeeping functions8333827 Ref: library/random bookkeeping-functions8333954 Ref: 26e78333954 Ref: library/random random seed8334015 Ref: 12678334015 Ref: library/random random getstate8335098 Ref: 26e88335098 Ref: library/random random setstate8335296 Ref: 26e98335296 Node: Functions for bytes8335574 Ref: library/random functions-for-bytes8335732 Ref: 26ea8335732 Ref: library/random random randbytes8335789 Ref: 15428335789 Node: Functions for integers8336009 Ref: library/random functions-for-integers8336169 Ref: 26ec8336169 Ref: library/random random randrange8336232 Ref: 8688336232 Ref: library/random random randint8337291 Ref: 12228337291 Ref: library/random random getrandbits8337432 Ref: 10068337432 Node: Functions for sequences8337875 Ref: library/random functions-for-sequences8338038 Ref: 26ed8338038 Ref: library/random random choice8338103 Ref: 12238338103 Ref: library/random random choices8338259 Ref: cc68338259 Ref: library/random random shuffle8340312 Ref: 7428340312 Ref: library/random random sample8340973 Ref: 7418340973 Node: Discrete distributions8342510 Ref: library/random discrete-distributions8342676 Ref: 26ee8342676 Ref: library/random random binomialvariate8342798 Ref: 4ac8342798 Ref: Discrete distributions-Footnote-18343360 Node: Real-valued distributions8343424 Ref: library/random id18343588 Ref: 26ef8343588 Ref: library/random real-valued-distributions8343588 Ref: 26f08343588 Ref: library/random random random8343927 Ref: 7438343927 Ref: library/random random uniform8344049 Ref: 26f18344049 Ref: library/random random triangular8344390 Ref: 26f28344390 Ref: library/random random betavariate8344747 Ref: 26f38344747 Ref: library/random random expovariate8344935 Ref: 4ad8344935 Ref: library/random random gammavariate8345390 Ref: 26f48345390 Ref: library/random random gauss8345903 Ref: 18418345903 Ref: library/random random lognormvariate8346652 Ref: 26f58346652 Ref: library/random random normalvariate8346951 Ref: 18428346951 Ref: library/random random vonmisesvariate8347178 Ref: 26f68347178 Ref: library/random random paretovariate8347520 Ref: 26f78347520 Ref: library/random random weibullvariate8347624 Ref: 26f88347624 Node: Alternative Generator8347775 Ref: library/random alternative-generator8347941 Ref: 26f98347941 Ref: library/random random Random8348002 Ref: 18a78348002 Ref: library/random random Random seed8348503 Ref: 19808348503 Ref: library/random random Random getstate8348676 Ref: 26fa8348676 Ref: library/random random Random setstate8348840 Ref: 26fb8348840 Ref: library/random random Random random8349009 Ref: 26fc8349009 Ref: library/random random Random getrandbits8349257 Ref: 26fd8349257 Ref: library/random random Random randbytes8349428 Ref: 9298349428 Ref: library/random random SystemRandom8349595 Ref: 26e68349595 Node: Notes on Reproducibility8350093 Ref: library/random notes-on-reproducibility8350245 Ref: 26fe8350245 Node: Examples<4>8350954 Ref: library/random examples8351095 Ref: 26ff8351095 Ref: library/random random-examples8351095 Ref: 11ce8351095 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-18356344 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-28356409 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-38356490 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-48356536 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-58356588 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-68356643 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-78356711 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-88356747 Ref: Examples<4>-Footnote-98356817 Node: Recipes<2>8356853 Ref: library/random recipes8356988 Ref: 27008356988 Ref: Recipes<2>-Footnote-18360168 Node: Command-line usage8360236 Ref: library/random command-line-usage8360380 Ref: 27018360380 Ref: library/random random-cli8360380 Ref: 1548360380 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-h8360641 Ref: 27028360641 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-help8360641 Ref: 27038360641 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-c8360703 Ref: 27048360703 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-choice8360738 Ref: 27058360738 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-i8360837 Ref: 27068360837 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-integer8360856 Ref: 27078360856 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-f8360973 Ref: 27088360973 Ref: library/random cmdoption-random-float8360992 Ref: 27098360992 Node: Command-line example8361321 Ref: library/random command-line-example8361446 Ref: 270a8361446 Ref: library/random random-cli-example8361446 Ref: 270b8361446 Node: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions8362275 Ref: library/statistics doc8362442 Ref: 270c8362442 Ref: library/statistics module-statistics8362442 Ref: d28362442 Ref: library/statistics statistics-mathematical-statistics-functions8362442 Ref: 270d8362442 Ref: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-18364994 Ref: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-28365064 Ref: statistics — Mathematical statistics functions-Footnote-38365090 Node: Averages and measures of central location8365117 Ref: library/statistics averages-and-measures-of-central-location8365270 Ref: 270e8365270 Node: Measures of spread8367095 Ref: library/statistics measures-of-spread8367300 Ref: 27138367300 Node: Statistics for relations between two inputs8367926 Ref: library/statistics statistics-for-relations-between-two-inputs8368106 Ref: 27168368106 Node: Function details8368674 Ref: library/statistics function-details8368849 Ref: 27178368849 Ref: library/statistics statistics mean8369051 Ref: 6cd8369051 Ref: library/statistics statistics fmean8370600 Ref: a338370600 Ref: library/statistics statistics geometric_mean8371551 Ref: a348371551 Ref: library/statistics statistics harmonic_mean8372240 Ref: ce18372240 Ref: library/statistics statistics kde8373799 Ref: 24c8373799 Ref: library/statistics statistics kde_random8375683 Ref: 24d8375683 Ref: library/statistics statistics median8376738 Ref: 270f8376738 Ref: library/statistics statistics median_low8377733 Ref: 27108377733 Ref: library/statistics statistics median_high8378374 Ref: 27118378374 Ref: library/statistics statistics median_grouped8379012 Ref: 27128379012 Ref: library/statistics statistics mode8380923 Ref: a928380923 Ref: library/statistics statistics multimode8382442 Ref: a358382442 Ref: library/statistics statistics pstdev8382863 Ref: 27148382863 Ref: library/statistics statistics pvariance8383163 Ref: 27158383163 Ref: library/statistics statistics stdev8385438 Ref: 6cf8385438 Ref: library/statistics statistics variance8385729 Ref: 6ce8385729 Ref: library/statistics statistics quantiles8388015 Ref: a368388015 Ref: library/statistics statistics covariance8390999 Ref: 82c8390999 Ref: library/statistics statistics correlation8391620 Ref: 4b88391620 Ref: library/statistics statistics linear_regression8393712 Ref: 82d8393712 Ref: Function details-Footnote-18396297 Ref: Function details-Footnote-28396343 Ref: Function details-Footnote-38396398 Ref: Function details-Footnote-48396494 Ref: Function details-Footnote-58396552 Ref: Function details-Footnote-68396624 Ref: Function details-Footnote-78396675 Ref: Function details-Footnote-88396745 Ref: Function details-Footnote-98396826 Ref: Function details-Footnote-108396898 Ref: Function details-Footnote-118396962 Node: Exceptions<5>8397020 Ref: library/statistics exceptions8397170 Ref: 27198397170 Ref: library/statistics statistics StatisticsError8397241 Ref: 27188397241 Node: NormalDist objects8397365 Ref: library/statistics normaldist-objects8397522 Ref: 271a8397522 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist8397910 Ref: a378397910 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist mean8398175 Ref: 271b8398175 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist median8398296 Ref: 271c8398296 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist mode8398410 Ref: 271d8398410 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist stdev8398510 Ref: 271e8398510 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist variance8398635 Ref: 271f8398635 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist from_samples8398801 Ref: 27208398801 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist samples8399409 Ref: 27218399409 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist pdf8400022 Ref: 27228400022 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist cdf8400623 Ref: 27238400623 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist inv_cdf8400866 Ref: 27248400866 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist overlap8401305 Ref: 27258401305 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist quantiles8401561 Ref: 27268401561 Ref: library/statistics statistics NormalDist zscore8402016 Ref: 27278402016 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-18403441 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-28403505 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-38403565 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-48403619 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-58403676 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-68403730 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-78403775 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-88403831 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-98403888 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-108403935 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-118404003 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-128404075 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-138404132 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-148404267 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-158404314 Ref: NormalDist objects-Footnote-168404392 Node: Examples and Recipes<2>8404477 Ref: library/statistics examples-and-recipes8404612 Ref: 27288404612 Node: Classic probability problems8404824 Ref: library/statistics classic-probability-problems8404955 Ref: 27298404955 Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-18405782 Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-28405853 Ref: Classic probability problems-Footnote-38405900 Node: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations8405945 Ref: library/statistics monte-carlo-inputs-for-simulations8406121 Ref: 272a8406121 Ref: Monte Carlo inputs for simulations-Footnote-18406811 Node: Approximating binomial distributions8406868 Ref: library/statistics approximating-binomial-distributions8407041 Ref: 272b8407041 Ref: Approximating binomial distributions-Footnote-18408473 Node: Naive bayesian classifier8408537 Ref: library/statistics naive-bayesian-classifier8408667 Ref: 272c8408667 Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-18410562 Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-28410646 Ref: Naive bayesian classifier-Footnote-38410702 Node: Functional Programming Modules8410772 Ref: library/functional doc8410941 Ref: 272d8410941 Ref: library/functional functional-programming-modules8410941 Ref: 272e8410941 Node: itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping8411424 Ref: library/itertools doc8411635 Ref: 272f8411635 Ref: library/itertools itertools-functions-creating-iterators-for-efficient-looping8411635 Ref: 27308411635 Ref: library/itertools module-itertools8411635 Ref: 818411635 Node: Itertool Functions8422685 Ref: library/itertools itertool-functions8422830 Ref: 27388422830 Ref: library/itertools itertools-functions8422830 Ref: 27398422830 Ref: library/itertools itertools accumulate8423070 Ref: 9fc8423070 Ref: library/itertools itertools batched8425487 Ref: 2038425487 Ref: library/itertools itertools chain8426819 Ref: 217f8426819 Ref: library/itertools itertools chain from_iterable8427298 Ref: 27338427298 Ref: library/itertools itertools combinations8427708 Ref: 13058427708 Ref: library/itertools itertools combinations_with_replacement8429320 Ref: 12748429320 Ref: library/itertools itertools compress8430904 Ref: 12758430904 Ref: library/itertools itertools count8431401 Ref: 12768431401 Ref: library/itertools itertools cycle8432218 Ref: 27318432218 Ref: library/itertools itertools dropwhile8432921 Ref: 27348432921 Ref: library/itertools itertools filterfalse8433628 Ref: 216b8433628 Ref: library/itertools itertools groupby8434213 Ref: 27358434213 Ref: library/itertools itertools islice8436837 Ref: b4c8436837 Ref: library/itertools itertools pairwise8438605 Ref: 8118438605 Ref: library/itertools itertools permutations8439222 Ref: 191a8439222 Ref: library/itertools itertools product8441291 Ref: 13068441291 Ref: library/itertools itertools repeat8442997 Ref: 27328442997 Ref: library/itertools itertools starmap8443683 Ref: 10d98443683 Ref: library/itertools itertools takewhile8444331 Ref: 27368444331 Ref: library/itertools itertools tee8445134 Ref: 27378445134 Ref: library/itertools itertools zip_longest8447869 Ref: 12908447869 Ref: Itertool Functions-Footnote-18449378 Ref: Itertool Functions-Footnote-28449452 Ref: Itertool Functions-Footnote-38449507 Ref: Itertool Functions-Footnote-48449563 Node: Itertools Recipes8449661 Ref: library/itertools id18449806 Ref: 273b8449806 Ref: library/itertools itertools-recipes8449806 Ref: 12528449806 Ref: Itertools Recipes-Footnote-18463508 Ref: Itertools Recipes-Footnote-28463557 Node: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects8463628 Ref: library/functools doc8463892 Ref: 273c8463892 Ref: library/functools functools-higher-order-functions-and-operations-on-callable-objects8463892 Ref: 273d8463892 Ref: library/functools module-functools8463892 Ref: 5f8463892 Ref: library/functools functools cache8464435 Ref: 151f8464435 Ref: library/functools functools cached_property8465666 Ref: 53e8465666 Ref: library/functools functools cmp_to_key8468974 Ref: 11cc8468974 Ref: library/functools functools lru_cache8470025 Ref: 9ee8470025 Ref: library/functools functools lru_cache cache_info8472554 Ref: 273f8472554 Ref: library/functools functools lru_cache cache_clear8472819 Ref: 27408472819 Ref: library/functools functools total_ordering8475548 Ref: f3d8475548 Ref: library/functools functools partial8477789 Ref: 4108477789 Ref: library/functools functools partialmethod8479172 Ref: a7b8479172 Ref: library/functools functools reduce8480917 Ref: 12cf8480917 Ref: library/functools functools singledispatch8482167 Ref: 6358482167 Ref: library/functools functools singledispatch register8482771 Ref: 27428482771 Ref: library/functools functools singledispatchmethod8488673 Ref: 9ef8488673 Ref: library/functools functools update_wrapper8490388 Ref: 101b8490388 Ref: library/functools functools wraps8492977 Ref: f588492977 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-18494276 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-28494345 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-38494395 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-48494437 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-58494529 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-68494584 Ref: functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects-Footnote-78494642 Node: partial Objects8494707 Ref: library/functools id18494830 Ref: 27448494830 Ref: library/functools partial-objects8494830 Ref: 27418494830 Ref: library/functools functools partial func8495011 Ref: 27458495011 Ref: library/functools functools partial args8495200 Ref: 27468495200 Ref: library/functools functools partial keywords8495372 Ref: 27478495372 Node: operator — Standard operators as functions8495957 Ref: library/operator doc8496148 Ref: 27488496148 Ref: library/operator module-operator8496148 Ref: 9f8496148 Ref: library/operator operator-standard-operators-as-functions8496148 Ref: 27498496148 Ref: library/operator operator lt8497081 Ref: 274a8497081 Ref: library/operator operator le8497114 Ref: 274b8497114 Ref: library/operator operator eq8497147 Ref: 274c8497147 Ref: library/operator operator ne8497180 Ref: 274d8497180 Ref: library/operator operator ge8497213 Ref: 274e8497213 Ref: library/operator operator gt8497246 Ref: 274f8497246 Ref: library/operator operator __lt__8497279 Ref: 27508497279 Ref: library/operator operator __le__8497316 Ref: 27518497316 Ref: library/operator operator __eq__8497353 Ref: 27528497353 Ref: library/operator operator __ne__8497390 Ref: 27538497390 Ref: library/operator operator __ge__8497427 Ref: 27548497427 Ref: library/operator operator __gt__8497464 Ref: 27558497464 Ref: library/operator operator not_8498204 Ref: 27568498204 Ref: library/operator operator __not__8498238 Ref: 27578498238 Ref: library/operator operator truth8498554 Ref: 27588498554 Ref: library/operator operator is_8498744 Ref: 27598498744 Ref: library/operator operator is_not8498830 Ref: 275a8498830 Ref: library/operator operator abs8498987 Ref: 275b8498987 Ref: library/operator operator __abs__8499020 Ref: 275c8499020 Ref: library/operator operator add8499100 Ref: 275d8499100 Ref: library/operator operator __add__8499134 Ref: 275e8499134 Ref: library/operator operator and_8499224 Ref: 275f8499224 Ref: library/operator operator __and__8499259 Ref: 27608499259 Ref: library/operator operator floordiv8499343 Ref: 27618499343 Ref: library/operator operator __floordiv__8499382 Ref: 27628499382 Ref: library/operator operator index8499453 Ref: 190e8499453 Ref: library/operator operator __index__8499486 Ref: 27638499486 Ref: library/operator operator inv8499772 Ref: 27648499772 Ref: library/operator operator invert8499805 Ref: 27658499805 Ref: library/operator operator __inv__8499841 Ref: 27668499841 Ref: library/operator operator __invert__8499878 Ref: 27678499878 Ref: library/operator operator lshift8500013 Ref: 27688500013 Ref: library/operator operator __lshift__8500050 Ref: 27698500050 Ref: library/operator operator mod8500130 Ref: 276a8500130 Ref: library/operator operator __mod__8500164 Ref: 276b8500164 Ref: library/operator operator mul8500229 Ref: 273a8500229 Ref: library/operator operator __mul__8500263 Ref: 276c8500263 Ref: library/operator operator matmul8500353 Ref: e348500353 Ref: library/operator operator __matmul__8500390 Ref: 276d8500390 Ref: library/operator operator neg8500486 Ref: 276e8500486 Ref: library/operator operator __neg__8500519 Ref: 276f8500519 Ref: library/operator operator or_8500598 Ref: 27708500598 Ref: library/operator operator __or__8500632 Ref: 27718500632 Ref: library/operator operator pos8500714 Ref: 27728500714 Ref: library/operator operator __pos__8500747 Ref: 27738500747 Ref: library/operator operator pow8500827 Ref: 27748500827 Ref: library/operator operator __pow__8500861 Ref: 27758500861 Ref: library/operator operator rshift8500952 Ref: 27768500952 Ref: library/operator operator __rshift__8500989 Ref: 27778500989 Ref: library/operator operator sub8501070 Ref: 27788501070 Ref: library/operator operator __sub__8501104 Ref: 27798501104 Ref: library/operator operator truediv8501169 Ref: 277a8501169 Ref: library/operator operator __truediv__8501207 Ref: 277b8501207 Ref: library/operator operator xor8501356 Ref: 277c8501356 Ref: library/operator operator __xor__8501390 Ref: 277d8501390 Ref: library/operator operator concat8501563 Ref: 277e8501563 Ref: library/operator operator __concat__8501600 Ref: 277f8501600 Ref: library/operator operator contains8501694 Ref: 8d98501694 Ref: library/operator operator __contains__8501733 Ref: 27808501733 Ref: library/operator operator countOf8501862 Ref: 8db8501862 Ref: library/operator operator delitem8501955 Ref: 27818501955 Ref: library/operator operator __delitem__8501993 Ref: 27828501993 Ref: library/operator operator getitem8502080 Ref: 27838502080 Ref: library/operator operator __getitem__8502118 Ref: 27848502118 Ref: library/operator operator indexOf8502205 Ref: 8da8502205 Ref: library/operator operator setitem8502309 Ref: 27858502309 Ref: library/operator operator __setitem__8502350 Ref: 27868502350 Ref: library/operator operator length_hint8502444 Ref: f688502444 Ref: library/operator operator call8502780 Ref: 187d8502780 Ref: library/operator operator __call__8502834 Ref: 27878502834 Ref: library/operator operator attrgetter8503250 Ref: e328503250 Ref: library/operator operator itemgetter8504551 Ref: a618504551 Ref: library/operator operator methodcaller8506324 Ref: e338506324 Ref: operator — Standard operators as functions-Footnote-18507123 Node: Mapping Operators to Functions8507191 Ref: library/operator mapping-operators-to-functions8507329 Ref: 27888507329 Ref: library/operator operator-map8507329 Ref: 27898507329 Node: In-place Operators8514753 Ref: library/operator in-place-operators8514891 Ref: 278a8514891 Ref: library/operator operator iadd8516199 Ref: 278c8516199 Ref: library/operator operator __iadd__8516234 Ref: 278d8516234 Ref: library/operator operator iand8516332 Ref: 278e8516332 Ref: library/operator operator __iand__8516367 Ref: 278f8516367 Ref: library/operator operator iconcat8516465 Ref: 27908516465 Ref: library/operator operator __iconcat__8516503 Ref: 27918516503 Ref: library/operator operator ifloordiv8516638 Ref: 27928516638 Ref: library/operator operator __ifloordiv__8516678 Ref: 27938516678 Ref: library/operator operator ilshift8516787 Ref: 27948516787 Ref: library/operator operator __ilshift__8516825 Ref: 27958516825 Ref: library/operator operator imod8516930 Ref: 27968516930 Ref: library/operator operator __imod__8516965 Ref: 27978516965 Ref: library/operator operator imul8517063 Ref: 27988517063 Ref: library/operator operator __imul__8517098 Ref: 27998517098 Ref: library/operator operator imatmul8517196 Ref: e358517196 Ref: library/operator operator __imatmul__8517234 Ref: 279a8517234 Ref: library/operator operator ior8517366 Ref: 279b8517366 Ref: library/operator operator __ior__8517400 Ref: 279c8517400 Ref: library/operator operator ipow8517496 Ref: 279d8517496 Ref: library/operator operator __ipow__8517531 Ref: 279e8517531 Ref: library/operator operator irshift8517630 Ref: 279f8517630 Ref: library/operator operator __irshift__8517668 Ref: 27a08517668 Ref: library/operator operator isub8517773 Ref: 27a18517773 Ref: library/operator operator __isub__8517808 Ref: 27a28517808 Ref: library/operator operator itruediv8517906 Ref: 27a38517906 Ref: library/operator operator __itruediv__8517945 Ref: 27a48517945 Ref: library/operator operator ixor8518051 Ref: 27a58518051 Ref: library/operator operator __ixor__8518086 Ref: 27a68518086 Node: File and Directory Access8518184 Ref: library/filesys doc8518337 Ref: 27a78518337 Ref: library/filesys file-and-directory-access8518337 Ref: 27a88518337 Ref: library/filesys filesys8518337 Ref: 27a98518337 Node: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths8519174 Ref: library/pathlib doc8519330 Ref: 27aa8519330 Ref: library/pathlib module-pathlib8519330 Ref: a48519330 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-object-oriented-filesystem-paths8519330 Ref: 27ab8519330 Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-18521537 Ref: pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths-Footnote-28521602 Node: Basic use8521644 Ref: library/pathlib basic-use8521756 Ref: 27af8521756 Node: Exceptions<6>8522702 Ref: library/pathlib exceptions8522833 Ref: 27b08522833 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib UnsupportedOperation8522874 Ref: 2298522874 Node: Pure paths8523088 Ref: library/pathlib id18523224 Ref: 27b18523224 Ref: library/pathlib pure-paths8523224 Ref: 27ac8523224 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath8523439 Ref: 4a28523439 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePosixPath8525803 Ref: 27b28525803 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PureWindowsPath8526107 Ref: 17048526107 Ref: Pure paths-Footnote-18526868 Node: General properties8526927 Ref: library/pathlib general-properties8527013 Ref: 27b38527013 Node: Operators<2>8527876 Ref: library/pathlib operators8527997 Ref: 27b48527997 Node: Accessing individual parts8529540 Ref: library/pathlib accessing-individual-parts8529665 Ref: 27b58529665 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parts8529828 Ref: 27b68529828 Node: Methods and properties8530231 Ref: library/pathlib methods-and-properties8530335 Ref: 27b78530335 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parser8530458 Ref: 22e8530458 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath drive8530667 Ref: 27b88530667 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath root8531090 Ref: 27b98531090 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath anchor8532137 Ref: 27ba8532137 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parents8532504 Ref: 81c8532504 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath parent8532990 Ref: 172c8532990 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath name8533810 Ref: 27bb8533810 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffix8534203 Ref: 27bc8534203 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath suffixes8534563 Ref: 27bd8534563 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath stem8534901 Ref: 27be8534901 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath as_posix8535200 Ref: 27bf8535200 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_absolute8535465 Ref: 172b8535465 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_relative_to8536057 Ref: 2cc8536057 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath is_reserved8536772 Ref: 2a88536772 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath joinpath8537361 Ref: 27c08537361 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath full_match8537948 Ref: 22d8537948 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath match8538863 Ref: 4a88538863 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath relative_to8539777 Ref: 2cd8539777 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_name8541986 Ref: 16f78541986 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_stem8542700 Ref: 165d8542700 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_suffix8543718 Ref: 16188543718 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PurePath with_segments8544388 Ref: 4a38544388 Ref: Methods and properties-Footnote-18545324 Node: Concrete paths8545416 Ref: library/pathlib concrete-paths8545555 Ref: 27ad8545555 Ref: library/pathlib id28545555 Ref: 27c28545555 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path8545827 Ref: 22b8545827 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib PosixPath8546209 Ref: 27c38546209 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib WindowsPath8546698 Ref: 27ae8546698 Node: Parsing and generating URIs8548224 Ref: library/pathlib parsing-and-generating-uris8548340 Ref: 27c48548340 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path from_uri8548631 Ref: 22c8548631 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path as_uri8549661 Ref: 27c68549661 Ref: Parsing and generating URIs-Footnote-18550217 Node: Expanding and resolving paths8550276 Ref: library/pathlib expanding-and-resolving-paths8550430 Ref: 27c78550430 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path home8550511 Ref: e428550511 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path expanduser8550881 Ref: e418550881 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path cwd8551286 Ref: 172a8551286 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path absolute8551508 Ref: 16ae8551508 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path resolve8551802 Ref: 16fc8551802 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path readlink8552937 Ref: 91e8552937 Node: Querying file type and status8553427 Ref: library/pathlib querying-file-type-and-status8553579 Ref: 27c88553579 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path stat8554024 Ref: 81f8554024 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lstat8554612 Ref: 27c98554612 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path exists8554797 Ref: a158554797 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_file8555343 Ref: 2318555343 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_dir8555852 Ref: 2328555852 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_symlink8556372 Ref: a178556372 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_junction8556621 Ref: 4a78556621 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_mount8556834 Ref: a168556834 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_socket8557537 Ref: a1b8557537 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_fifo8557885 Ref: a1a8557885 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_block_device8558212 Ref: a188558212 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path is_char_device8558568 Ref: a198558568 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path samefile8558931 Ref: e3f8558931 Node: Reading and writing files8559484 Ref: library/pathlib reading-and-writing-files8559626 Ref: 27ca8559626 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path open8559699 Ref: 27cb8559699 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_text8560052 Ref: e448560052 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path read_bytes8560567 Ref: e468560567 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_text8560878 Ref: e438560878 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path write_bytes8561444 Ref: e458561444 Node: Reading directories8561827 Ref: library/pathlib reading-directories8561970 Ref: 27cc8561970 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path iterdir8562031 Ref: 16318562031 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path glob8562886 Ref: 22f8562886 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rglob8564802 Ref: 2308564802 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path walk8565538 Ref: 4a48565538 Node: Creating files and directories8570522 Ref: library/pathlib creating-files-and-directories8570661 Ref: 27ce8570661 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path touch8570744 Ref: 27cf8570744 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path mkdir8571325 Ref: e408571325 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path symlink_to8572387 Ref: 81e8572387 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path hardlink_to8573475 Ref: 81d8573475 Node: Renaming and deleting8573909 Ref: library/pathlib renaming-and-deleting8574054 Ref: 27d08574054 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rename8574119 Ref: 27d18574119 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path replace8575140 Ref: 27d28575140 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path unlink8575678 Ref: 19f18575678 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path rmdir8576173 Ref: 27cd8576173 Node: Permissions and ownership8576259 Ref: library/pathlib permissions-and-ownership8576365 Ref: 27d38576365 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path owner8576438 Ref: 2338576438 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path group8577054 Ref: 2348577054 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path chmod8577672 Ref: 8208577672 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib Path lchmod8578267 Ref: 27d48578267 Node: Pattern language8578450 Ref: library/pathlib pathlib-pattern-language8578608 Ref: 27c18578608 Ref: library/pathlib pattern-language8578608 Ref: 27d58578608 Node: Comparison to the glob module8581114 Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-glob-module8581298 Ref: 27d68581298 Node: Comparison to the os and os path modules8582748 Ref: library/pathlib comparison-to-the-os-and-os-path-modules8582907 Ref: 27d78582907 Node: Corresponding tools8585094 Ref: library/pathlib corresponding-tools8585190 Ref: 27d88585190 Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-18590458 Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-28590772 Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-38590953 Ref: Corresponding tools-Footnote-48591183 Node: os path — Common pathname manipulations8591415 Ref: library/os path doc8591614 Ref: 27dc8591614 Ref: library/os path module-os path8591614 Ref: a28591614 Ref: library/os path os-path-common-pathname-manipulations8591614 Ref: 27dd8591614 Ref: library/os path os path abspath8593622 Ref: 130e8593622 Ref: library/os path os path basename8593949 Ref: 27da8593949 Ref: library/os path os path commonpath8594463 Ref: e3c8594463 Ref: library/os path os path commonprefix8595028 Ref: e3d8595028 Ref: library/os path os path dirname8595679 Ref: 27d98595679 Ref: library/os path os path exists8595954 Ref: a0d8595954 Ref: library/os path os path lexists8596542 Ref: a0e8596542 Ref: library/os path os path expanduser8596834 Ref: a138596834 Ref: library/os path os path expandvars8597911 Ref: 13a58597911 Ref: library/os path os path getatime8598403 Ref: 27df8598403 Ref: library/os path os path getmtime8598706 Ref: 27e08598706 Ref: library/os path os path getctime8599084 Ref: 27e18599084 Ref: library/os path os path getsize8599577 Ref: 27e28599577 Ref: library/os path os path isabs8599810 Ref: 2268599810 Ref: library/os path os path isfile8600257 Ref: a108600257 Ref: library/os path os path isdir8600562 Ref: a0f8600562 Ref: library/os path os path isjunction8600866 Ref: 49f8600866 Ref: library/os path os path islink8601133 Ref: a0b8601133 Ref: library/os path os path ismount8601437 Ref: a118601437 Ref: library/os path os path isdevdrive8602455 Ref: 16488602455 Ref: library/os path os path isreserved8603291 Ref: 2258603291 Ref: library/os path os path join8604182 Ref: 16338604182 Ref: library/os path os path normcase8605316 Ref: 27e38605316 Ref: library/os path os path normpath8605658 Ref: 130d8605658 Ref: library/os path os path realpath8606564 Ref: 2278606564 Ref: library/os path os path ALLOW_MISSING8608806 Ref: 4268608806 Ref: library/os path os path relpath8608952 Ref: 4a68608952 Ref: library/os path os path samefile8609478 Ref: f6c8609478 Ref: library/os path os path sameopenfile8609995 Ref: 27e58609995 Ref: library/os path os path samestat8610257 Ref: f6b8610257 Ref: library/os path os path split8610696 Ref: 27de8610696 Ref: library/os path os path splitdrive8611488 Ref: bf48611488 Ref: library/os path os path splitroot8612324 Ref: 4a08612324 Ref: library/os path os path splitext8613594 Ref: 27db8613594 Ref: library/os path os path supports_unicode_filenames8614559 Ref: 14558614559 Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-18614767 Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-28614838 Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-38614907 Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-48614973 Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-58615028 Ref: os path — Common pathname manipulations-Footnote-68615120 Node: stat — Interpreting stat results8615212 Ref: library/stat doc8615409 Ref: 27e68615409 Ref: library/stat module-stat8615409 Ref: d18615409 Ref: library/stat stat-interpreting-stat-results8615409 Ref: 27e78615409 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDIR8616087 Ref: 27e88616087 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISCHR8616177 Ref: 27e98616177 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISBLK8616292 Ref: 27ea8616292 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISREG8616398 Ref: 27eb8616398 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISFIFO8616491 Ref: 27ec8616491 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISLNK8616590 Ref: 27ed8616590 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISSOCK8616684 Ref: 27ee8616684 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISDOOR8616772 Ref: 19c58616772 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISPORT8616886 Ref: 19c68616886 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISWHT8617007 Ref: 19c78617007 Ref: library/stat stat S_IMODE8617214 Ref: 27ef8617214 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFMT8617481 Ref: 27f08617481 Ref: library/stat stat filemode8619012 Ref: 113f8619012 Ref: library/stat stat ST_MODE8619425 Ref: fb48619425 Ref: library/stat stat ST_INO8619478 Ref: 27f18619478 Ref: library/stat stat ST_DEV8619521 Ref: 27f28619521 Ref: library/stat stat ST_NLINK8619575 Ref: 27f38619575 Ref: library/stat stat ST_UID8619636 Ref: 27f48619636 Ref: library/stat stat ST_GID8619687 Ref: 27f58619687 Ref: library/stat stat ST_SIZE8619739 Ref: 27f68619739 Ref: library/stat stat ST_ATIME8619851 Ref: 27f78619851 Ref: library/stat stat ST_MTIME8619903 Ref: 27f88619903 Ref: library/stat stat ST_CTIME8619961 Ref: 27f98619961 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFSOCK8621003 Ref: 27fa8621003 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFLNK8621042 Ref: 27fb8621042 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFREG8621087 Ref: 27fc8621087 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFBLK8621131 Ref: 27fd8621131 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFDIR8621175 Ref: 27fe8621175 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFCHR8621216 Ref: 27ff8621216 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFIFO8621264 Ref: 28008621264 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFDOOR8621300 Ref: fb58621300 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFPORT8621365 Ref: fb68621365 Ref: library/stat stat S_IFWHT8621436 Ref: fb78621436 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISUID8621756 Ref: 28018621756 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISGID8621799 Ref: 28028621799 Ref: library/stat stat S_ISVTX8622376 Ref: 28058622376 Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXU8622625 Ref: 28068622625 Ref: library/stat stat S_IRUSR8622688 Ref: 28078622688 Ref: library/stat stat S_IWUSR8622745 Ref: 28088622745 Ref: library/stat stat S_IXUSR8622803 Ref: 28098622803 Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXG8622863 Ref: 280a8622863 Ref: library/stat stat S_IRGRP8622921 Ref: 280b8622921 Ref: library/stat stat S_IWGRP8622978 Ref: 280c8622978 Ref: library/stat stat S_IXGRP8623036 Ref: 28038623036 Ref: library/stat stat S_IRWXO8623096 Ref: 280d8623096 Ref: library/stat stat S_IROTH8623174 Ref: 280e8623174 Ref: library/stat stat S_IWOTH8623233 Ref: 280f8623233 Ref: library/stat stat S_IXOTH8623293 Ref: 28108623293 Ref: library/stat stat S_ENFMT8623355 Ref: 28048623355 Ref: library/stat stat S_IREAD8623588 Ref: 28118623588 Ref: library/stat stat S_IWRITE8623659 Ref: 28128623659 Ref: library/stat stat S_IEXEC8623731 Ref: 28138623731 Ref: library/stat stat UF_SETTABLE8623889 Ref: 28148623889 Ref: library/stat stat UF_NODUMP8623977 Ref: 28158623977 Ref: library/stat stat UF_IMMUTABLE8624031 Ref: 28168624031 Ref: library/stat stat UF_APPEND8624095 Ref: 28178624095 Ref: library/stat stat UF_OPAQUE8624161 Ref: 28188624161 Ref: library/stat stat UF_NOUNLINK8624252 Ref: 28198624252 Ref: library/stat stat UF_COMPRESSED8624326 Ref: 281a8624326 Ref: library/stat stat UF_TRACKED8624407 Ref: 281b8624407 Ref: library/stat stat UF_DATAVAULT8624508 Ref: 281c8624508 Ref: library/stat stat UF_HIDDEN8624640 Ref: 281d8624640 Ref: library/stat stat SF_SETTABLE8624729 Ref: 281e8624729 Ref: library/stat stat SF_SUPPORTED8624824 Ref: 281f8624824 Ref: library/stat stat SF_SYNTHETIC8624958 Ref: 28208624958 Ref: library/stat stat SF_ARCHIVED8625102 Ref: 28218625102 Ref: library/stat stat SF_IMMUTABLE8625162 Ref: 28228625162 Ref: library/stat stat SF_APPEND8625226 Ref: 28238625226 Ref: library/stat stat SF_RESTRICTED8625292 Ref: 28248625292 Ref: library/stat stat SF_NOUNLINK8625414 Ref: 28258625414 Ref: library/stat stat SF_SNAPSHOT8625488 Ref: 28268625488 Ref: library/stat stat SF_FIRMLINK8625551 Ref: 28278625551 Ref: library/stat stat SF_DATALESS8625652 Ref: 28288625652 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ARCHIVE8626096 Ref: 28298626096 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_COMPRESSED8626134 Ref: 282a8626134 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DEVICE8626175 Ref: 282b8626175 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_DIRECTORY8626212 Ref: 282c8626212 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_ENCRYPTED8626252 Ref: 282d8626252 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_HIDDEN8626292 Ref: 282e8626292 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_INTEGRITY_STREAM8626329 Ref: 282f8626329 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NORMAL8626376 Ref: 28308626376 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NOT_CONTENT_INDEXED8626413 Ref: 28318626413 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_NO_SCRUB_DATA8626463 Ref: 28328626463 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_OFFLINE8626507 Ref: 28338626507 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_READONLY8626545 Ref: 28348626545 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_REPARSE_POINT8626584 Ref: 28358626584 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SPARSE_FILE8626628 Ref: 28368626628 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_SYSTEM8626670 Ref: 28378626670 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_TEMPORARY8626707 Ref: 28388626707 Ref: library/stat stat FILE_ATTRIBUTE_VIRTUAL8626747 Ref: 28398626747 Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_SYMLINK8627019 Ref: 283a8627019 Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_MOUNT_POINT8627057 Ref: 283b8627057 Ref: library/stat stat IO_REPARSE_TAG_APPEXECLINK8627099 Ref: 283c8627099 Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-18627206 Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-28627270 Ref: stat — Interpreting stat results-Footnote-38627317 Node: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons8627397 Ref: library/filecmp doc8627606 Ref: 283d8627606 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp-file-and-directory-comparisons8627606 Ref: 283e8627606 Ref: library/filecmp module-filecmp8627606 Ref: 5a8627606 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmp8628075 Ref: 165e8628075 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp cmpfiles8628868 Ref: 15ea8628868 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp clear_cache8629813 Ref: f398629813 Ref: filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons-Footnote-18630130 Node: The dircmp class8630197 Ref: library/filecmp dircmp-objects8630292 Ref: 283f8630292 Ref: library/filecmp the-dircmp-class8630292 Ref: 28408630292 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp8630353 Ref: f3b8630353 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report8631024 Ref: 28418631024 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_partial_closure8631141 Ref: 28428631141 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp report_full_closure8631282 Ref: 28438631282 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left8631801 Ref: 28448631801 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right8631857 Ref: 28458631857 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_list8631914 Ref: 28468631914 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_list8632032 Ref: 28478632032 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common8632151 Ref: 28488632151 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp left_only8632236 Ref: 28498632236 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp right_only8632316 Ref: 284a8632316 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_dirs8632397 Ref: 284b8632397 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_files8632477 Ref: 284c8632477 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp common_funny8632549 Ref: 284d8632549 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp same_files8632752 Ref: 284e8632752 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp diff_files8632898 Ref: 284f8632898 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp funny_files8633063 Ref: 28508633063 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp dircmp subdirs8633181 Ref: 191c8633181 Ref: library/filecmp filecmp DEFAULT_IGNORES8633639 Ref: f3a8633639 Node: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories8634320 Ref: library/tempfile doc8634541 Ref: 28518634541 Ref: library/tempfile module-tempfile8634541 Ref: e08634541 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-generate-temporary-files-and-directories8634541 Ref: 28528634541 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryFile8635707 Ref: 28538635707 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile NamedTemporaryFile8637882 Ref: 4c28637882 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile8641682 Ref: 68f8641682 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile SpooledTemporaryFile rollover8642204 Ref: 28578642204 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory8643166 Ref: 12278643166 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory name8643693 Ref: 28588643693 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile TemporaryDirectory cleanup8644048 Ref: 28598644048 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkstemp8645310 Ref: 28548645310 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mkdtemp8648193 Ref: 2218648193 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdir8649428 Ref: 18d98649428 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempdirb8650612 Ref: 18da8650612 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefix8650753 Ref: 285b8650753 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile gettempprefixb8650912 Ref: 285c8650912 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile tempdir8651491 Ref: 18d88651491 Ref: tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories-Footnote-18652606 Node: Examples<5>8652674 Ref: library/tempfile examples8652818 Ref: 285d8652818 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-examples8652818 Ref: 28558652818 Node: Deprecated functions and variables8654213 Ref: library/tempfile deprecated-functions-and-variables8654357 Ref: 285e8654357 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile-mktemp-deprecated8654357 Ref: 285f8654357 Ref: library/tempfile tempfile mktemp8654987 Ref: 188d8654987 Node: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion8656120 Ref: library/glob doc8656341 Ref: 28608656341 Ref: library/glob glob-unix-style-pathname-pattern-expansion8656341 Ref: 28618656341 Ref: library/glob module-glob8656341 Ref: 648656341 Ref: library/glob glob glob8657484 Ref: 2a18657484 Ref: library/glob glob iglob8659818 Ref: 8038659818 Ref: library/glob glob escape8660730 Ref: f418660730 Ref: library/glob glob translate8661153 Ref: 1ec8661153 Ref: glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion-Footnote-18662716 Node: Examples<6>8662780 Ref: library/glob examples8662874 Ref: 28628662874 Node: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching8663983 Ref: library/fnmatch doc8664192 Ref: 28638664192 Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch-unix-filename-pattern-matching8664192 Ref: 28648664192 Ref: library/fnmatch module-fnmatch8664192 Ref: 5c8664192 Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatch8666045 Ref: 189f8666045 Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch fnmatchcase8666722 Ref: 18a08666722 Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch filter8666980 Ref: 18a18666980 Ref: library/fnmatch fnmatch translate8667272 Ref: 1a458667272 Ref: fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching-Footnote-18667907 Node: linecache — Random access to text lines8667974 Ref: library/linecache doc8668174 Ref: 28658668174 Ref: library/linecache linecache-random-access-to-text-lines8668174 Ref: 28668668174 Ref: library/linecache module-linecache8668174 Ref: 858668174 Ref: library/linecache linecache getline8669003 Ref: e228669003 Ref: library/linecache linecache clearcache8669772 Ref: 28698669772 Ref: library/linecache linecache checkcache8669941 Ref: 15848669941 Ref: library/linecache linecache lazycache8670219 Ref: e218670219 Ref: linecache — Random access to text lines-Footnote-18670768 Ref: linecache — Random access to text lines-Footnote-28670837 Node: shutil — High-level file operations8670879 Ref: library/shutil doc8671028 Ref: 286a8671028 Ref: library/shutil module-shutil8671028 Ref: c58671028 Ref: library/shutil shutil-high-level-file-operations8671028 Ref: 286b8671028 Ref: shutil — High-level file operations-Footnote-18672129 Node: Directory and files operations8672195 Ref: library/shutil directory-and-files-operations8672328 Ref: 286c8672328 Ref: library/shutil file-operations8672328 Ref: 286d8672328 Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfileobj8672409 Ref: a5c8672409 Ref: library/shutil shutil copyfile8673006 Ref: a588673006 Ref: library/shutil shutil SameFileError8674620 Ref: f988674620 Ref: library/shutil shutil copymode8674792 Ref: 16ab8674792 Ref: library/shutil shutil copystat8675700 Ref: 11228675700 Ref: library/shutil shutil copy8677841 Ref: a598677841 Ref: library/shutil shutil copy28679348 Ref: a5a8679348 Ref: library/shutil shutil ignore_patterns8680865 Ref: 286f8680865 Ref: library/shutil shutil copytree8681165 Ref: a288681165 Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree8684646 Ref: 2fb8684646 Ref: library/shutil shutil rmtree avoids_symlink_attacks8687423 Ref: 28708687423 Ref: library/shutil shutil move8687765 Ref: a5b8687765 Ref: library/shutil shutil disk_usage8689810 Ref: 11218689810 Ref: library/shutil shutil chown8690509 Ref: 2428690509 Ref: library/shutil shutil which8691132 Ref: 4b08691132 Ref: library/shutil shutil Error8693755 Ref: f978693755 Node: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations8694091 Ref: library/shutil platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8694227 Ref: 28728694227 Ref: library/shutil shutil-platform-dependent-efficient-copy-operations8694227 Ref: a5d8694227 Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-18695349 Ref: Platform-dependent efficient copy operations-Footnote-28695414 Node: copytree example8695462 Ref: library/shutil copytree-example8695621 Ref: 28738695621 Ref: library/shutil shutil-copytree-example8695621 Ref: 28748695621 Node: rmtree example8696281 Ref: library/shutil rmtree-example8696387 Ref: 28758696387 Ref: library/shutil shutil-rmtree-example8696387 Ref: 28718696387 Node: Archiving operations8696928 Ref: library/shutil archiving-operations8697110 Ref: 120b8697110 Ref: library/shutil id18697110 Ref: 28768697110 Ref: library/shutil shutil make_archive8697417 Ref: 4af8697417 Ref: library/shutil shutil get_archive_formats8699854 Ref: 28798699854 Ref: library/shutil shutil register_archive_format8700696 Ref: 28788700696 Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_archive_format8701997 Ref: 287a8701997 Ref: library/shutil shutil unpack_archive8702132 Ref: 4678702132 Ref: library/shutil shutil register_unpack_format8703919 Ref: 287b8703919 Ref: library/shutil shutil unregister_unpack_format8704838 Ref: 287d8704838 Ref: library/shutil shutil get_unpack_formats8704962 Ref: 287c8704962 Ref: Archiving operations-Footnote-18705915 Node: Archiving example8705957 Ref: library/shutil archiving-example8706071 Ref: 287e8706071 Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example8706071 Ref: 287f8706071 Node: Archiving example with base_dir8707162 Ref: library/shutil archiving-example-with-base-dir8707276 Ref: 28808707276 Ref: library/shutil shutil-archiving-example-with-basedir8707276 Ref: 28778707276 Node: Querying the size of the output terminal8708378 Ref: library/shutil querying-the-size-of-the-output-terminal8708521 Ref: 28818708521 Ref: library/shutil shutil get_terminal_size8708622 Ref: 10f78708622 Ref: Querying the size of the output terminal-Footnote-18710284 Node: Data Persistence8710367 Ref: library/persistence doc8710520 Ref: 28848710520 Ref: library/persistence data-persistence8710520 Ref: 28858710520 Ref: library/persistence persistence8710520 Ref: 28868710520 Node: pickle — Python object serialization8711351 Ref: library/pickle doc8711496 Ref: 28878711496 Ref: library/pickle module-pickle8711496 Ref: a68711496 Ref: library/pickle pickle-python-object-serialization8711496 Ref: 28888711496 Ref: pickle — Python object serialization-Footnote-18713331 Ref: pickle — Python object serialization-Footnote-28713397 Node: Relationship to other Python modules8713461 Ref: library/pickle relationship-to-other-python-modules8713599 Ref: 288a8713599 Node: Comparison with marshal8713755 Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-marshal8713880 Ref: 288b8713880 Node: Comparison with json8716108 Ref: library/pickle comparison-with-json8716233 Ref: 28898716233 Ref: library/pickle id28716233 Ref: 288c8716233 Ref: Comparison with json-Footnote-18717398 Node: Data stream format8717423 Ref: library/pickle data-stream-format8717586 Ref: 288e8717586 Ref: library/pickle pickle-protocols8717586 Ref: cc18717586 Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-18720548 Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-28720590 Ref: Data stream format-Footnote-38720632 Node: Module Interface8720674 Ref: library/pickle module-interface8720835 Ref: 28918720835 Ref: library/pickle pickle HIGHEST_PROTOCOL8721288 Ref: 146c8721288 Ref: library/pickle pickle DEFAULT_PROTOCOL8721561 Ref: 82a8721561 Ref: library/pickle pickle dump8722069 Ref: 28928722069 Ref: library/pickle pickle dumps8722568 Ref: 146b8722568 Ref: library/pickle pickle load8723005 Ref: d108723005 Ref: library/pickle pickle loads8723754 Ref: d118723754 Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleError8724482 Ref: 28938724482 Ref: library/pickle pickle PicklingError8724621 Ref: 28948724621 Ref: library/pickle pickle UnpicklingError8724905 Ref: 28968724905 Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler8725419 Ref: a1d8725419 Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler dump8727004 Ref: 1a448727004 Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler persistent_id8727146 Ref: 15a08727146 Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler dispatch_table8727956 Ref: 11168727956 Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler reducer_override8729125 Ref: a1e8729125 Ref: library/pickle pickle Pickler fast8729754 Ref: 289c8729754 Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler8730239 Ref: 16a78730239 Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler load8732362 Ref: 289e8732362 Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler persistent_load8732657 Ref: 15a88732657 Ref: library/pickle pickle Unpickler find_class8733240 Ref: 289f8733240 Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer8733920 Ref: 17f78733920 Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer raw8734539 Ref: 28a18734539 Ref: library/pickle pickle PickleBuffer release8734882 Ref: 28a28734882 Node: What can be pickled and unpickled?8734998 Ref: library/pickle pickle-picklable8735165 Ref: 28958735165 Ref: library/pickle what-can-be-pickled-and-unpickled8735165 Ref: 28a38735165 Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-18737913 Ref: What can be pickled and unpickled?-Footnote-28738046 Node: Pickling Class Instances8738182 Ref: library/pickle pickle-inst8738387 Ref: 288d8738387 Ref: library/pickle pickling-class-instances8738387 Ref: 28a48738387 Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs_ex__8739322 Ref: 28a58739322 Ref: library/pickle object __getnewargs__8740155 Ref: 146e8740155 Ref: library/pickle object __getstate__8740723 Ref: 5d48740723 Ref: library/pickle object __setstate__8742065 Ref: 146d8742065 Ref: library/pickle object __reduce__8743929 Ref: 9d38743929 Ref: library/pickle object __reduce_ex__8746797 Ref: 15ba8746797 Ref: Pickling Class Instances-Footnote-18747458 Node: Persistence of External Objects8747553 Ref: library/pickle persistence-of-external-objects8747669 Ref: 28a78747669 Ref: library/pickle pickle-persistent8747669 Ref: 28988747669 Ref: Persistence of External Objects-Footnote-18752337 Node: Dispatch Tables8752601 Ref: library/pickle dispatch-tables8752751 Ref: 28a88752751 Ref: library/pickle pickle-dispatch8752751 Ref: 289a8752751 Node: Handling Stateful Objects8754039 Ref: library/pickle handling-stateful-objects8754149 Ref: 28a98754149 Ref: library/pickle pickle-state8754149 Ref: 28a68754149 Node: Custom Reduction for Types Functions and Other Objects8756431 Ref: library/pickle custom-reduction-for-types-functions-and-other-objects8756621 Ref: 28aa8756621 Ref: library/pickle reducer-override8756621 Ref: 289b8756621 Node: Out-of-band Buffers8758723 Ref: library/pickle out-of-band-buffers8758908 Ref: 28ab8758908 Ref: library/pickle pickle-oob8758908 Ref: 28978758908 Node: Provider API8759758 Ref: library/pickle provider-api8759847 Ref: 28ac8759847 Node: Consumer API8760454 Ref: library/pickle consumer-api8760562 Ref: 28ad8760562 Node: Example<4>8761865 Ref: library/pickle example8761952 Ref: 28ae8761952 Ref: Example<4>-Footnote-18764336 Node: Restricting Globals8764378 Ref: library/pickle pickle-restrict8764523 Ref: 28a08764523 Ref: library/pickle restricting-globals8764523 Ref: 28af8764523 Node: Performance<2>8767299 Ref: library/pickle performance8767436 Ref: 28b08767436 Node: Examples<7>8767712 Ref: library/pickle examples8767821 Ref: 28b18767821 Ref: library/pickle pickle-example8767821 Ref: 28b28767821 Node: copyreg — Register pickle support functions8769036 Ref: library/copyreg doc8769226 Ref: 28b38769226 Ref: library/copyreg copyreg-register-pickle-support-functions8769226 Ref: 28b48769226 Ref: library/copyreg module-copyreg8769226 Ref: 268769226 Ref: library/copyreg copyreg constructor8769818 Ref: 28b58769818 Ref: library/copyreg copyreg pickle8770021 Ref: 28998770021 Ref: copyreg — Register pickle support functions-Footnote-18770761 Node: Example<5>8770828 Ref: library/copyreg example8770920 Ref: 28b68770920 Node: shelve — Python object persistence8771464 Ref: library/shelve doc8771664 Ref: 28b78771664 Ref: library/shelve module-shelve8771664 Ref: c38771664 Ref: library/shelve shelve-python-object-persistence8771664 Ref: 28b88771664 Ref: library/shelve shelve open8772249 Ref: 17008772249 Ref: library/shelve shelve-security8774291 Ref: 28bc8774291 Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf sync8774790 Ref: 28ba8774790 Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf close8775111 Ref: 28bb8775111 Ref: shelve — Python object persistence-Footnote-18775493 Ref: shelve — Python object persistence-Footnote-28775559 Node: Restrictions8775664 Ref: library/shelve restrictions8775768 Ref: 28bd8775768 Ref: library/shelve shelve Shelf8776957 Ref: f958776957 Ref: library/shelve shelve BsdDbShelf8778354 Ref: 22588778354 Ref: library/shelve shelve DbfilenameShelf8779076 Ref: 22598779076 Ref: Restrictions-Footnote-18779691 Node: Example<6>8779744 Ref: library/shelve example8779848 Ref: 28be8779848 Ref: library/shelve shelve-example8779848 Ref: 28b98779848 Node: marshal — Internal Python object serialization8781527 Ref: library/marshal doc8781724 Ref: 28bf8781724 Ref: library/marshal marshal-internal-python-object-serialization8781724 Ref: 28c08781724 Ref: library/marshal module-marshal8781724 Ref: 8d8781724 Ref: library/marshal marshal dump8784361 Ref: 28c18784361 Ref: library/marshal marshal load8785200 Ref: 1a128785200 Ref: library/marshal marshal dumps8786203 Ref: e9e8786203 Ref: library/marshal marshal loads8786894 Ref: 28c28786894 Ref: library/marshal marshal version8787661 Ref: 28c38787661 Ref: marshal — Internal Python object serialization-Footnote-18788015 Node: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”8788395 Ref: library/dbm doc8788609 Ref: 28c48788609 Ref: library/dbm dbm-interfaces-to-unix-databases8788609 Ref: 28c58788609 Ref: library/dbm module-dbm8788609 Ref: 318788609 Ref: library/dbm dbm error8789155 Ref: 28c68789155 Ref: library/dbm dbm whichdb8789427 Ref: 28c78789427 Ref: library/dbm dbm open8790130 Ref: f258790130 Ref: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”-Footnote-18793763 Ref: dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases”-Footnote-28793835 Node: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm8793888 Ref: library/dbm dbm-sqlite3-sqlite-backend-for-dbm8794046 Ref: 28c88794046 Ref: library/dbm module-dbm sqlite38794046 Ref: 358794046 Ref: library/dbm dbm sqlite3 open8794708 Ref: 28c98794708 Ref: dbm sqlite3 — SQLite backend for dbm-Footnote-18795726 Node: dbm gnu — GNU database manager8795797 Ref: library/dbm dbm-gnu-gnu-database-manager8795997 Ref: 28ca8795997 Ref: library/dbm module-dbm gnu8795997 Ref: 338795997 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu error8796676 Ref: a9a8796676 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu open8796880 Ref: 1a3e8796880 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu open_flags8798463 Ref: 28cb8798463 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm firstkey8798777 Ref: 28cc8798777 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm nextkey8799115 Ref: 28cd8799115 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm reorganize8799500 Ref: 28ce8799500 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm sync8799937 Ref: 28cf8799937 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm close8800102 Ref: 28d08800102 Ref: library/dbm dbm gnu gdbm clear8800170 Ref: 1d78800170 Ref: dbm gnu — GNU database manager-Footnote-18800324 Node: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager8800391 Ref: library/dbm dbm-ndbm-new-database-manager8800593 Ref: 28d18800593 Ref: library/dbm module-dbm ndbm8800593 Ref: 348800593 Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm error8801589 Ref: a9b8801589 Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm library8801795 Ref: 28d28801795 Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm open8801875 Ref: 1a3f8801875 Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm ndbm close8803045 Ref: 28d38803045 Ref: library/dbm dbm ndbm ndbm clear8803113 Ref: 1d88803113 Ref: dbm ndbm — New Database Manager-Footnote-18803267 Node: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation8803335 Ref: library/dbm dbm-dumb-portable-dbm-implementation8803496 Ref: 28d48803496 Ref: library/dbm module-dbm dumb8803496 Ref: 328803496 Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb error8804275 Ref: a998804275 Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb open8804481 Ref: a968804481 Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb dumbdbm sync8806306 Ref: 28d58806306 Ref: library/dbm dbm dumb dumbdbm close8806482 Ref: 28d68806482 Ref: dbm dumb — Portable DBM implementation-Footnote-18806584 Node: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases8806652 Ref: library/sqlite3 doc8806809 Ref: 28d78806809 Ref: library/sqlite3 module-sqlite38806809 Ref: cf8806809 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-db-api-2-0-interface-for-sqlite-databases8806809 Ref: 28d88806809 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-intro8806970 Ref: 28d98806970 Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-18808415 Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-28808480 Ref: sqlite3 — DB-API 2 0 interface for SQLite databases-Footnote-38808522 Node: Tutorial8808564 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-tutorial8808680 Ref: 28da8808680 Ref: library/sqlite3 tutorial8808680 Ref: 28de8808680 Ref: Tutorial-Footnote-18814643 Ref: Tutorial-Footnote-28814700 Ref: Tutorial-Footnote-38814759 Ref: Tutorial-Footnote-48814808 Ref: Tutorial-Footnote-58814854 Node: Reference8814906 Ref: library/sqlite3 reference8815044 Ref: 28e88815044 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-reference8815044 Ref: 28db8815044 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-contents8815083 Ref: 28e98815083 Node: Module functions8815414 Ref: library/sqlite3 module-functions8815501 Ref: 28ea8815501 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-functions8815501 Ref: 28eb8815501 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 connect8815554 Ref: 2aa8815554 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 complete_statement8820289 Ref: 28f48820289 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 enable_callback_tracebacks8821106 Ref: 28f58821106 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 register_adapter8821770 Ref: 28f68821770 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 register_converter8822108 Ref: 28ed8822108 Ref: Module functions-Footnote-18822757 Ref: Module functions-Footnote-28822800 Ref: Module functions-Footnote-38822842 Node: Module constants8822919 Ref: library/sqlite3 module-constants8823033 Ref: 28f88823033 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-module-constants8823033 Ref: 28f98823033 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 LEGACY_TRANSACTION_CONTROL8823086 Ref: 28f28823086 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PARSE_DECLTYPES8823360 Ref: 28ee8823360 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PARSE_COLNAMES8824341 Ref: 28ef8824341 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_OK8824936 Ref: 28fa8824936 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DENY8824964 Ref: 28fb8824964 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_IGNORE8824994 Ref: 28fc8824994 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 apilevel8825428 Ref: 28fd8825428 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 paramstyle8825571 Ref: 28fe8825571 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 sqlite_version8825848 Ref: 28ff8825848 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 sqlite_version_info8825962 Ref: 29008825962 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 threadsafety8826104 Ref: 6788826104 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 version8828435 Ref: 2d28828435 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 version_info8828861 Ref: 2d38828861 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-dbconfig-constants8829315 Ref: 29018829315 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DEFENSIVE8829315 Ref: 29028829315 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DDL8829359 Ref: 29038829359 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_DQS_DML8829401 Ref: 29048829401 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FKEY8829443 Ref: 29058829443 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_FTS3_TOKENIZER8829489 Ref: 29068829489 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_LOAD_EXTENSION8829545 Ref: 29078829545 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_QPSG8829601 Ref: 29088829601 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_TRIGGER8829647 Ref: 29098829647 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_ENABLE_VIEW8829696 Ref: 290a8829696 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_ALTER_TABLE8829742 Ref: 290b8829742 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_LEGACY_FILE_FORMAT8829795 Ref: 290c8829795 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_NO_CKPT_ON_CLOSE8829848 Ref: 290d8829848 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_RESET_DATABASE8829899 Ref: 290e8829899 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRIGGER_EQP8829948 Ref: 290f8829948 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_TRUSTED_SCHEMA8829994 Ref: 29108829994 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 SQLITE_DBCONFIG_WRITABLE_SCHEMA8830043 Ref: 29118830043 Ref: Module constants-Footnote-18830552 Ref: Module constants-Footnote-28830595 Ref: Module constants-Footnote-38830650 Node: Connection objects8830701 Ref: library/sqlite3 connection-objects8830813 Ref: 29128830813 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-objects8830813 Ref: 29138830813 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection8830870 Ref: 2478830870 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection cursor8831549 Ref: 28df8831549 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection blobopen8831861 Ref: 67d8831861 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection commit8833135 Ref: 28e38833135 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection rollback8833494 Ref: 29158833494 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection close8833860 Ref: 2488833860 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection execute8834279 Ref: 29168834279 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection executemany8834506 Ref: 29178834506 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection executescript8834739 Ref: 29188834739 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_function8834961 Ref: 2ab8834961 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_aggregate8836643 Ref: 2ac8836643 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_window_function8838581 Ref: 67c8838581 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection create_collation8841785 Ref: 6728841785 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection interrupt8843217 Ref: 291c8843217 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection set_authorizer8843445 Ref: 2ad8843445 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection set_progress_handler8845085 Ref: 2ae8845085 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection set_trace_callback8845935 Ref: 2af8845935 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection enable_load_extension8847236 Ref: 83a8847236 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection load_extension8849576 Ref: 4b48849576 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection iterdump8850553 Ref: 2498850553 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection backup8851573 Ref: b7a8851573 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection getlimit8853945 Ref: 6778853945 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection setlimit8854581 Ref: 6768854581 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection getconfig8855679 Ref: 4b58855679 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection setconfig8855952 Ref: 4b68855952 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection serialize8856403 Ref: 67a8856403 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection deserialize8857157 Ref: 67b8857157 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection autocommit8858324 Ref: 4b28858324 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection in_transaction8859753 Ref: 291f8859753 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection isolation_level8860039 Ref: 28f08860039 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection row_factory8860978 Ref: 162e8860978 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection text_factory8861474 Ref: 29218861474 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Connection total_changes8861880 Ref: 29228861880 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-18862111 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-28862157 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-38862222 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-48862281 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-58862340 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-68862382 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-78862424 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-88862516 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-98862558 Ref: Connection objects-Footnote-108862650 Node: Cursor objects8862751 Ref: library/sqlite3 cursor-objects8862858 Ref: 29238862858 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cursor-objects8862858 Ref: 29248862858 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor8863468 Ref: 28e08863468 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor execute8863579 Ref: 2d48863579 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor executemany8865077 Ref: 2d58865077 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor executescript8866580 Ref: 29198866580 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchone8867426 Ref: 28e18867426 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchmany8867706 Ref: 29258867706 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor fetchall8868545 Ref: 28e48868545 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor close8868826 Ref: 29278868826 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor setinputsizes8869130 Ref: 29288869130 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor setoutputsize8869239 Ref: 29298869239 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor arraysize8869360 Ref: 29268869360 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor connection8869589 Ref: 292a8869589 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor description8870091 Ref: 15638870091 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor lastrowid8870467 Ref: cd18870467 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor rowcount8871160 Ref: 17d68871160 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Cursor row_factory8871718 Ref: 29208871718 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-columns-by-name8872503 Ref: 292b8872503 Ref: Cursor objects-Footnote-18872539 Ref: Cursor objects-Footnote-28872596 Node: Row objects8872647 Ref: library/sqlite3 row-objects8872748 Ref: 292c8872748 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-row-objects8872748 Ref: 292d8872748 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Row8872791 Ref: e6c8872791 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Row keys8873242 Ref: 292e8873242 Node: Blob objects8873520 Ref: library/sqlite3 blob-objects8873630 Ref: 292f8873630 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-blob-objects8873630 Ref: 29308873630 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob8873675 Ref: 67e8873675 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob close8874845 Ref: 29318874845 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob read8875095 Ref: 29328875095 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob write8875451 Ref: 29338875451 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob tell8875680 Ref: 29348875680 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Blob seek8875765 Ref: 29358875765 Node: PrepareProtocol objects8876189 Ref: library/sqlite3 prepareprotocol-objects8876301 Ref: 29368876301 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 PrepareProtocol8876368 Ref: 17e18876368 Ref: PrepareProtocol objects-Footnote-18876637 Node: Exceptions<7>8876679 Ref: library/sqlite3 exceptions8876802 Ref: 29388876802 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-exceptions8876802 Ref: 29398876802 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Warning8876914 Ref: 18258876914 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error8877215 Ref: 18808877215 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorcode8877571 Ref: 6748877571 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 Error sqlite_errorname8877700 Ref: 6758877700 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InterfaceError8877860 Ref: 6798877860 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DatabaseError8878139 Ref: 291d8878139 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 DataError8878454 Ref: 189c8878454 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 OperationalError8878703 Ref: 189d8878703 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 IntegrityError8879057 Ref: 293a8879057 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 InternalError8879269 Ref: 293b8879269 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 ProgrammingError8879545 Ref: 4ee8879545 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3 NotSupportedError8879853 Ref: 291b8879853 Ref: Exceptions<7>-Footnote-18880286 Ref: Exceptions<7>-Footnote-28880328 Ref: Exceptions<7>-Footnote-38880368 Node: SQLite and Python types8880408 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite-and-python-types8880550 Ref: 293c8880550 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-types8880550 Ref: 28ec8880550 Node: Default adapters and converters deprecated8882462 Ref: library/sqlite3 default-adapters-and-converters-deprecated8882613 Ref: 293d8882613 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-default-converters8882613 Ref: 4eb8882613 Ref: Default adapters and converters deprecated-Footnote-18883840 Node: Command-line interface8883887 Ref: library/sqlite3 command-line-interface8884006 Ref: 293e8884006 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-cli8884006 Ref: 43c8884006 Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-h8884356 Ref: 293f8884356 Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-help8884356 Ref: 29408884356 Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-v8884402 Ref: 29418884402 Ref: library/sqlite3 cmdoption-python-m-sqlite3-h-v-filename-sql-version8884402 Ref: 29428884402 Node: How-to guides8884500 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-guides8884641 Ref: 29438884641 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howtos8884641 Ref: 28dc8884641 Node: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries8885107 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-placeholders-to-bind-values-in-sql-queries8885268 Ref: 29448885268 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-placeholders8885268 Ref: 2d68885268 Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-18887521 Ref: How to use placeholders to bind values in SQL queries-Footnote-28887573 Node: How to adapt custom Python types to SQLite values8887615 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-adapt-custom-python-types-to-sqlite-values8887836 Ref: 29458887836 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapters8887836 Ref: 28e58887836 Node: How to write adaptable objects8888625 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-write-adaptable-objects8888783 Ref: 29468888783 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-conform8888783 Ref: 29378888783 Node: How to register adapter callables8889694 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-register-adapter-callables8889852 Ref: 29478889852 Node: How to convert SQLite values to custom Python types8890496 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-convert-sqlite-values-to-custom-python-types8890693 Ref: 29488890693 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-converters8890693 Ref: 28e68890693 Node: Adapter and converter recipes8893264 Ref: library/sqlite3 adapter-and-converter-recipes8893450 Ref: 29498893450 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-adapter-converter-recipes8893450 Ref: 4ec8893450 Node: How to use connection shortcut methods8894907 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-connection-shortcut-methods8895083 Ref: 294a8895083 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-shortcuts8895083 Ref: 29148895083 Node: How to use the connection context manager8896367 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-use-the-connection-context-manager8896542 Ref: 294b8896542 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-connection-context-manager8896542 Ref: 17e28896542 Node: How to work with SQLite URIs8898293 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-work-with-sqlite-uris8898465 Ref: 294d8898465 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-uri-tricks8898465 Ref: 28f38898465 Ref: How to work with SQLite URIs-Footnote-18899768 Node: How to create and use row factories8899808 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-create-and-use-row-factories8899977 Ref: 294e8899977 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-row-factory8899977 Ref: 28e78899977 Node: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings8902837 Ref: library/sqlite3 how-to-handle-non-utf-8-text-encodings8902969 Ref: 294f8902969 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-howto-encoding8902969 Ref: 291e8902969 Ref: How to handle non-UTF-8 text encodings-Footnote-18904309 Node: Explanation8904358 Ref: library/sqlite3 explanation8904481 Ref: 29508904481 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-explanation8904481 Ref: 28dd8904481 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control8904526 Ref: 29518904526 Node: Transaction control8904560 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-controlling-transactions8904627 Ref: 28e28904627 Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control8904627 Ref: 29528904627 Node: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute8905120 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-autocommit8905286 Ref: 4b38905286 Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-autocommit-attribute8905286 Ref: 29538905286 Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-18907045 Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-28907087 Ref: Transaction control via the autocommit attribute-Footnote-38907179 Node: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute8907221 Ref: library/sqlite3 sqlite3-transaction-control-isolation-level8907387 Ref: 28f18907387 Ref: library/sqlite3 transaction-control-via-the-isolation-level-attribute8907387 Ref: 29548907387 Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-18909468 Ref: Transaction control via the isolation_level attribute-Footnote-28909568 Node: Data Compression and Archiving8909660 Ref: library/archiving doc8909800 Ref: 288f8909800 Ref: library/archiving archiving8909800 Ref: 29558909800 Ref: library/archiving data-compression-and-archiving8909800 Ref: 29568909800 Node: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip8910393 Ref: library/zlib doc8910541 Ref: 29578910541 Ref: library/zlib module-zlib8910541 Ref: 1338910541 Ref: library/zlib zlib-compression-compatible-with-gzip8910541 Ref: 29588910541 Ref: library/zlib zlib error8911510 Ref: 29598911510 Ref: library/zlib zlib adler328911601 Ref: 18298911601 Ref: library/zlib zlib compress8912385 Ref: 63b8912385 Ref: library/zlib compress-wbits8913027 Ref: 295a8913027 Ref: library/zlib zlib compressobj8914256 Ref: 295b8914256 Ref: library/zlib zlib crc328916255 Ref: 16958916255 Ref: library/zlib zlib decompress8916956 Ref: d0d8916956 Ref: library/zlib decompress-wbits8917389 Ref: 295c8917389 Ref: library/zlib zlib decompressobj8919124 Ref: 295d8919124 Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress compress8920123 Ref: 295e8920123 Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress flush8920481 Ref: 295f8920481 Ref: library/zlib zlib Compress copy8921236 Ref: 29608921236 Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unused_data8921604 Ref: 29618921604 Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress unconsumed_tail8921950 Ref: 29628921950 Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress eof8922404 Ref: 11618922404 Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress decompress8922689 Ref: 29638922689 Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress flush8923716 Ref: 29648923716 Ref: library/zlib zlib Decompress copy8924121 Ref: 29658924121 Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_VERSION8924599 Ref: 29668924599 Ref: library/zlib zlib ZLIB_RUNTIME_VERSION8924854 Ref: 11628924854 Ref: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-18925460 Ref: zlib — Compression compatible with gzip-Footnote-28925505 Node: gzip — Support for gzip files8925558 Ref: library/gzip doc8925752 Ref: 29678925752 Ref: library/gzip gzip-support-for-gzip-files8925752 Ref: 29688925752 Ref: library/gzip module-gzip8925752 Ref: 678925752 Ref: library/gzip gzip open8926749 Ref: 29698926749 Ref: library/gzip gzip BadGzipFile8928281 Ref: 9f68928281 Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile8928534 Ref: 4168928534 Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile peek8931593 Ref: 11fe8931593 Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mode8932131 Ref: 296c8932131 Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile mtime8932324 Ref: 296a8932324 Ref: library/gzip gzip GzipFile name8932664 Ref: 5088932664 Ref: library/gzip gzip compress8933900 Ref: 63a8933900 Ref: library/gzip gzip decompress8934845 Ref: 11ff8934845 Ref: gzip — Support for gzip files-Footnote-18935504 Node: Examples of usage8935568 Ref: library/gzip examples-of-usage8935684 Ref: 296e8935684 Ref: library/gzip gzip-usage-examples8935684 Ref: 296f8935684 Ref: Examples of usage-Footnote-18936768 Node: Command Line Interface8936821 Ref: library/gzip command-line-interface8936937 Ref: 29708936937 Ref: library/gzip gzip-cli8936937 Ref: 29718936937 Node: Command line options8937357 Ref: library/gzip command-line-options8937436 Ref: 29728937436 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-arg-file8937497 Ref: 29738937497 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-fast8937581 Ref: 29748937581 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-best8937668 Ref: 29758937668 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-d8937755 Ref: 29768937755 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-decompress8937755 Ref: 29778937755 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-h8937818 Ref: 29788937818 Ref: library/gzip cmdoption-gzip-help8937818 Ref: 29798937818 Node: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression8937871 Ref: library/bz2 doc8938069 Ref: 297a8938069 Ref: library/bz2 bz2-support-for-bzip2-compression8938069 Ref: 297b8938069 Ref: library/bz2 module-bz28938069 Ref: 138938069 Ref: bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression-Footnote-18939030 Node: De compression of files8939093 Ref: library/bz2 de-compression-of-files8939225 Ref: 297c8939225 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 open8939294 Ref: 10878939294 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File8940735 Ref: 8638940735 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File peek8942208 Ref: 297e8942208 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File fileno8942796 Ref: 297f8942796 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readable8942920 Ref: 29808942920 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File seekable8943042 Ref: 29818943042 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File writable8943158 Ref: 29828943158 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File read18943280 Ref: 29838943280 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File readinto8943601 Ref: 29848943601 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File mode8943754 Ref: 29858943754 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2File name8943876 Ref: 29868943876 Node: Incremental de compression8945116 Ref: library/bz2 incremental-de-compression8945280 Ref: 29888945280 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor8945355 Ref: 175d8945355 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor compress8945695 Ref: 29898945695 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Compressor flush8946043 Ref: 298a8946043 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor8946272 Ref: 175b8946272 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor decompress8946825 Ref: dcb8946825 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor eof8948192 Ref: 298d8948192 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor unused_data8948318 Ref: 298c8948318 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 BZ2Decompressor needs_input8948540 Ref: 298b8948540 Node: One-shot de compression8948764 Ref: library/bz2 one-shot-de-compression8948925 Ref: 298e8948925 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 compress8948994 Ref: 24138948994 Ref: library/bz2 bz2 decompress8949293 Ref: 10888949293 Node: Examples of usage<2>8949651 Ref: library/bz2 bz2-usage-examples8949777 Ref: 298f8949777 Ref: library/bz2 examples-of-usage8949777 Ref: 29908949777 Node: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm8952712 Ref: library/lzma doc8952913 Ref: 29918952913 Ref: library/lzma lzma-compression-using-the-lzma-algorithm8952913 Ref: 29928952913 Ref: library/lzma module-lzma8952913 Ref: 8a8952913 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAError8953747 Ref: 29938953747 Ref: lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm-Footnote-18954166 Node: Reading and writing compressed files8954230 Ref: library/lzma reading-and-writing-compressed-files8954401 Ref: 29948954401 Ref: library/lzma lzma open8954494 Ref: 29958954494 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile8956264 Ref: 10058956264 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile peek8958185 Ref: 29968958185 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile mode8958805 Ref: 29978958805 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMAFile name8958927 Ref: 29988958927 Node: Compressing and decompressing data in memory8959381 Ref: library/lzma compressing-and-decompressing-data-in-memory8959577 Ref: 29998959577 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor8959686 Ref: 175c8959686 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor compress8962764 Ref: 299c8962764 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMACompressor flush8963237 Ref: 299d8963237 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor8963517 Ref: 175a8963517 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor decompress8965046 Ref: e2d8965046 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor check8966413 Ref: 29a18966413 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor eof8966646 Ref: 29a28966646 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor unused_data8966739 Ref: 29a08966739 Ref: library/lzma lzma LZMADecompressor needs_input8966910 Ref: 299f8966910 Ref: library/lzma lzma compress8967134 Ref: 299a8967134 Ref: library/lzma lzma decompress8967480 Ref: 299e8967480 Node: Miscellaneous<2>8967987 Ref: library/lzma miscellaneous8968178 Ref: 29a38968178 Ref: library/lzma lzma is_check_supported8968225 Ref: 29a48968225 Node: Specifying custom filter chains8968587 Ref: library/lzma filter-chain-specs8968745 Ref: 299b8968745 Ref: library/lzma specifying-custom-filter-chains8968745 Ref: 29a58968745 Node: Examples<8>8971430 Ref: library/lzma examples8971563 Ref: 29a68971563 Node: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives8972931 Ref: library/zipfile doc8973139 Ref: 29a78973139 Ref: library/zipfile module-zipfile8973139 Ref: 1318973139 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-work-with-zip-archives8973139 Ref: 29a88973139 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipFile8974000 Ref: 17de8974000 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile BadZipfile8974105 Ref: 29a98974105 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile LargeZipFile8974266 Ref: 29aa8974266 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo8974892 Ref: d0a8974892 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile is_zipfile8975833 Ref: 131d8975833 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_STORED8976126 Ref: 29af8976126 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_DEFLATED8976219 Ref: 29b08976219 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_BZIP28976365 Ref: 29b18976365 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZIP_LZMA8976530 Ref: 29b28976530 Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-18977538 Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-28977603 Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-38977671 Ref: zipfile — Work with ZIP archives-Footnote-48977739 Node: ZipFile Objects8977780 Ref: library/zipfile id18977887 Ref: 29b38977887 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-objects8977887 Ref: 29ab8977887 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile8977938 Ref: 6c08977938 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile close8982949 Ref: 29b48982949 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile getinfo8983120 Ref: 29ac8983120 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile infolist8983379 Ref: 29ad8983379 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile namelist8983637 Ref: 29b58983637 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile open8983718 Ref: 4178983718 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile extract8986605 Ref: 29b98986605 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile extractall8987994 Ref: 29ba8987994 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile printdir8989042 Ref: 29bb8989042 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile setpassword8989144 Ref: 29bc8989144 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile read8989281 Ref: 29b88989281 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile testzip8990208 Ref: 29bd8990208 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile write8990578 Ref: d4c8990578 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile writestr8992383 Ref: 131e8992383 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile mkdir8993973 Ref: 6c18993973 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile filename8994496 Ref: 29be8994496 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile debug8994557 Ref: 29bf8994557 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipFile comment8994777 Ref: 29c08994777 Node: Path Objects8995100 Ref: library/zipfile id28995233 Ref: 29c18995233 Ref: library/zipfile path-objects8995233 Ref: 29c28995233 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path8995278 Ref: 6c58995278 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path name8996458 Ref: 29c38996458 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path open8996516 Ref: 15998996516 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path iterdir8997413 Ref: 29c48997413 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path is_dir8997497 Ref: 29c58997497 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path is_file8997596 Ref: 29c68997596 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path is_symlink8997691 Ref: 29c78997691 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path exists8997934 Ref: 29c88997934 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path suffix8998062 Ref: 6c38998062 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path stem8998272 Ref: 6c28998272 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path suffixes8998412 Ref: 6c48998412 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path read_text8998580 Ref: 176d8998580 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path read_bytes8999156 Ref: 29c98999156 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile Path joinpath8999226 Ref: 29ca8999226 Ref: Path Objects-Footnote-18999876 Node: PyZipFile Objects8999915 Ref: library/zipfile id39000048 Ref: 29cb9000048 Ref: library/zipfile pyzipfile-objects9000048 Ref: 29cc9000048 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile PyZipFile9000250 Ref: ff39000250 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile PyZipFile writepy9000584 Ref: ff29000584 Node: ZipInfo Objects9003440 Ref: library/zipfile id49003583 Ref: 29cd9003583 Ref: library/zipfile zipinfo-objects9003583 Ref: 29ae9003583 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo from_file9003951 Ref: d099003951 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo is_dir9005037 Ref: d0b9005037 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo filename9005239 Ref: 29ce9005239 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo date_time9005311 Ref: 29cf9005311 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo compress_type9006093 Ref: 29d09006093 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo comment9006181 Ref: 29d19006181 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo extra9006297 Ref: 29d29006297 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo create_system9006501 Ref: 29d39006501 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo create_version9006579 Ref: 29d49006579 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo extract_version9006665 Ref: 29d59006665 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo reserved9006752 Ref: 29d69006752 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo flag_bits9006805 Ref: 29d79006805 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo volume9006860 Ref: 29d89006860 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo internal_attr9006927 Ref: 29d99006927 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo external_attr9006992 Ref: 29da9006992 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo header_offset9007062 Ref: 29db9007062 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo CRC9007138 Ref: 29dc9007138 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo compress_size9007205 Ref: 29dd9007205 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile ZipInfo file_size9007278 Ref: 29b79007278 Ref: ZipInfo Objects-Footnote-19007385 Node: Command-Line Interface9007453 Ref: library/zipfile command-line-interface9007601 Ref: 29de9007601 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-commandline9007601 Ref: 29df9007601 Node: Command-line options9008374 Ref: library/zipfile command-line-options9008453 Ref: 29e39008453 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-l9008514 Ref: 29e29008514 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-list9008539 Ref: 29e49008539 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-c9008600 Ref: 29e09008600 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-create9008649 Ref: 29e59008649 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-e9008745 Ref: 29e19008745 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-extract9008783 Ref: 29e69008783 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-t9008874 Ref: 29e79008874 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-test9008899 Ref: 29e89008899 Ref: library/zipfile cmdoption-zipfile-metadata-encoding9008977 Ref: 29e99008977 Node: Decompression pitfalls9009150 Ref: library/zipfile decompression-pitfalls9009274 Ref: 29ea9009274 Node: From file itself9009557 Ref: library/zipfile from-file-itself9009664 Ref: 29eb9009664 Node: File System limitations9009843 Ref: library/zipfile file-system-limitations9009980 Ref: 29ec9009980 Node: Resources limitations9010282 Ref: library/zipfile resources-limitations9010415 Ref: 29ed9010415 Ref: library/zipfile zipfile-resources-limitations9010415 Ref: 29ee9010415 Ref: Resources limitations-Footnote-19010702 Node: Interruption9010749 Ref: library/zipfile interruption9010890 Ref: 29ef9010890 Node: Default behaviors of extraction9011096 Ref: library/zipfile default-behaviors-of-extraction9011207 Ref: 29f09011207 Node: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files9011472 Ref: library/tarfile doc9011626 Ref: 29f19011626 Ref: library/tarfile module-tarfile9011626 Ref: de9011626 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-read-and-write-tar-archive-files9011626 Ref: 29f29011626 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile open9013219 Ref: e729013219 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile is_tarfile9019840 Ref: 18449019840 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarError9020194 Ref: 29f79020194 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile ReadError9020283 Ref: 189a9020283 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile CompressionError9020454 Ref: 29f49020454 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile StreamError9020604 Ref: 29f89020604 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile ExtractError9020744 Ref: 29f99020744 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile HeaderError9020925 Ref: 29fa9020925 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile FilterError9021050 Ref: 29fc9021050 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile FilterError tarinfo9021148 Ref: 29fe9021148 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile AbsolutePathError9021287 Ref: 2a009021287 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile OutsideDestinationError9021395 Ref: 2a019021395 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile SpecialFileError9021526 Ref: 2a029021526 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile AbsoluteLinkError9021647 Ref: 2a039021647 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile LinkOutsideDestinationError9021762 Ref: 2a049021762 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile LinkFallbackError9021913 Ref: 42c9021913 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile ENCODING9022330 Ref: 2a059022330 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile REGTYPE9022500 Ref: 2a069022500 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile AREGTYPE9022526 Ref: 2a079022526 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile LNKTYPE9022593 Ref: 2a099022593 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile SYMTYPE9022668 Ref: 2a0a9022668 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile CHRTYPE9022735 Ref: 2a0b9022735 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile BLKTYPE9022813 Ref: 2a0c9022813 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile DIRTYPE9022887 Ref: 2a0d9022887 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile FIFOTYPE9022950 Ref: 2a0e9022950 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile CONTTYPE9023024 Ref: 2a0f9023024 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNUTYPE_LONGNAME9023094 Ref: 2a109023094 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNUTYPE_LONGLINK9023173 Ref: 2a119023173 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNUTYPE_SPARSE9023252 Ref: 2a129023252 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile USTAR_FORMAT9023509 Ref: 2a149023509 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile GNU_FORMAT9023576 Ref: 2a159023576 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile PAX_FORMAT9023628 Ref: 2a169023628 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile DEFAULT_FORMAT9023691 Ref: 2a179023691 Ref: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files-Footnote-19024565 Ref: tarfile — Read and write tar archive files-Footnote-29024632 Node: TarFile Objects9024704 Ref: library/tarfile id19024824 Ref: 2a189024824 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-objects9024824 Ref: 29f39024824 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile9025697 Ref: 12029025697 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile open9029038 Ref: 18459029038 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile getmember9029203 Ref: 18539029203 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile getmembers9029527 Ref: e749029527 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile getnames9029715 Ref: 2a1a9029715 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile list9029876 Ref: e739029876 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile next9030326 Ref: 2a1b9030326 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extractall9030548 Ref: 42a9030548 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extract9032361 Ref: 42b9032361 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extractfile9033708 Ref: 2a1c9033708 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile errorlevel9034373 Ref: 42d9034373 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile extraction_filter9035304 Ref: 2a1d9035304 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile add9036613 Ref: bf39036613 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile addfile9037522 Ref: 16309037522 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile gettarinfo9038042 Ref: 2a1f9038042 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile close9039186 Ref: 2a229039186 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarFile pax_headers9039329 Ref: 2a239039329 Node: TarInfo Objects9039452 Ref: library/tarfile id29039599 Ref: 2a249039599 Ref: library/tarfile tarinfo-objects9039599 Ref: 29ff9039599 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo9040808 Ref: 12039040808 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo frombuf9040890 Ref: 29fb9040890 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo fromtarfile9041104 Ref: 2a269041104 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo tobuf9041286 Ref: 2a279041286 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo name9041727 Ref: 2a219041727 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo size9041807 Ref: 2a209041807 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo mtime9041874 Ref: 2a289041874 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo mode9042234 Ref: 2a2b9042234 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo type9042506 Ref: 2a089042506 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo linkname9042950 Ref: 2a2c9042950 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo uid9043362 Ref: 2a2d9043362 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo gid9043641 Ref: 2a2e9043641 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo uname9043921 Ref: 2a2f9043921 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo gname9044158 Ref: 2a309044158 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo chksum9044396 Ref: 2a319044396 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo devmajor9044467 Ref: 2a329044467 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo devminor9044544 Ref: 2a339044544 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo offset9044621 Ref: 2a349044621 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo offset_data9044703 Ref: 2a359044703 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo sparse9044793 Ref: 2a369044793 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo pax_headers9044857 Ref: 2a379044857 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo replace9045000 Ref: 2a259045000 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isfile9045689 Ref: 2a389045689 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isreg9045809 Ref: 2a399045809 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isdir9045875 Ref: 2a3a9045875 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo issym9045957 Ref: 2a3b9045957 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo islnk9046043 Ref: 2a3c9046043 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo ischr9046125 Ref: 2a3d9046125 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isblk9046214 Ref: 2a3e9046214 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isfifo9046299 Ref: 2a3f9046299 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile TarInfo isdev9046377 Ref: 2a409046377 Node: Extraction filters9046498 Ref: library/tarfile extraction-filters9046655 Ref: 2a419046655 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-extraction-filter9046655 Ref: 4689046655 Ref: Extraction filters-Footnote-19049749 Node: Default named filters9049791 Ref: library/tarfile default-named-filters9049889 Ref: 2a439049889 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile fully_trusted_filter9050053 Ref: 2a1e9050053 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile tar_filter9050201 Ref: 2a429050201 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile data_filter9051008 Ref: 4299051008 Node: Filter errors9052711 Ref: library/tarfile filter-errors9052848 Ref: 2a449052848 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-extraction-refuse9052848 Ref: 29fd9052848 Node: Hints for further verification9053208 Ref: library/tarfile hints-for-further-verification9053356 Ref: 2a459053356 Node: Supporting older Python versions9055085 Ref: library/tarfile supporting-older-python-versions9055254 Ref: 2a469055254 Node: Stateful extraction filter example9056804 Ref: library/tarfile stateful-extraction-filter-example9056934 Ref: 2a479056934 Node: Command-Line Interface<2>9057729 Ref: library/tarfile command-line-interface9057882 Ref: 2a489057882 Ref: library/tarfile tarfile-commandline9057882 Ref: fc69057882 Node: Command-line options<2>9058837 Ref: library/tarfile command-line-options9058922 Ref: 2a4c9058922 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-l9058985 Ref: 2a4b9058985 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-list9059010 Ref: 2a4d9059010 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-c9059071 Ref: 2a499059071 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-create9059120 Ref: 2a4e9059120 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-e9059216 Ref: 2a4a9059216 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-extract9059256 Ref: 2a4f9059256 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-t9059392 Ref: 2a509059392 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-test9059417 Ref: 2a519059417 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-v9059495 Ref: 2a529059495 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-verbose9059495 Ref: 2a539059495 Ref: library/tarfile cmdoption-tarfile-filter9059544 Ref: 2a549059544 Node: Examples<9>9059779 Ref: library/tarfile examples9059935 Ref: 2a559059935 Ref: library/tarfile tar-examples9059935 Ref: 29f69059935 Node: Reading examples9060026 Ref: library/tarfile reading-examples9060115 Ref: 2a569060115 Node: Writing examples9061233 Ref: library/tarfile writing-examples9061322 Ref: 2a579061322 Node: Supported tar formats9062494 Ref: library/tarfile supported-tar-formats9062639 Ref: 2a589062639 Ref: library/tarfile tar-formats9062639 Ref: 2a139062639 Node: Unicode issues9064861 Ref: library/tarfile tar-unicode9064986 Ref: 2a199064986 Ref: library/tarfile unicode-issues9064986 Ref: 2a599064986 Node: File Formats9066961 Ref: library/fileformats doc9067107 Ref: 2a5b9067107 Ref: library/fileformats file-formats9067107 Ref: 2a5c9067107 Ref: library/fileformats fileformats9067107 Ref: 2a5d9067107 Node: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing9067558 Ref: library/csv doc9067694 Ref: 2a5e9067694 Ref: library/csv csv-csv-file-reading-and-writing9067694 Ref: 2a5f9067694 Ref: library/csv module-csv9067694 Ref: 299067694 Ref: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing-Footnote-19069605 Ref: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing-Footnote-29069668 Ref: csv — CSV File Reading and Writing-Footnote-39069727 Node: Module Contents<3>9069769 Ref: library/csv csv-contents9069903 Ref: 2a609069903 Ref: library/csv module-contents9069903 Ref: 2a619069903 Ref: library/csv csv reader9070014 Ref: 4829070014 Ref: library/csv csv writer9071626 Ref: 4839071626 Ref: library/csv csv register_dialect9073403 Ref: 2a649073403 Ref: library/csv csv unregister_dialect9073873 Ref: 18079073873 Ref: library/csv csv get_dialect9074080 Ref: 18069074080 Ref: library/csv csv list_dialects9074311 Ref: 18089074311 Ref: library/csv csv field_size_limit9074398 Ref: 18059074398 Ref: library/csv csv DictReader9074633 Ref: 9e49074633 Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter9076491 Ref: 11f09076491 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect9078274 Ref: 167b9078274 Ref: library/csv csv excel9079097 Ref: 2a669079097 Ref: library/csv csv excel_tab9079280 Ref: 2a679079280 Ref: library/csv csv unix_dialect9079485 Ref: 11ef9079485 Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer9079789 Ref: 2a689079789 Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer sniff9079958 Ref: 2a699079958 Ref: library/csv csv Sniffer has_header9080280 Ref: 18a29080280 Ref: library/csv csv-constants9081426 Ref: 2a6a9081426 Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_ALL9081486 Ref: 2a6b9081486 Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_MINIMAL9081575 Ref: 2a6c9081575 Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NONNUMERIC9081820 Ref: 15ed9081820 Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NONE9082355 Ref: 2a6d9082355 Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_NOTNULL9082964 Ref: 4809082964 Ref: library/csv csv QUOTE_STRINGS9083402 Ref: 4819083402 Ref: library/csv csv Error9083930 Ref: 2a659083930 Ref: Module Contents<3>-Footnote-19084056 Ref: Module Contents<3>-Footnote-29084397 Node: Dialects and Formatting Parameters9084738 Ref: library/csv csv-fmt-params9084895 Ref: 2a639084895 Ref: library/csv dialects-and-formatting-parameters9084895 Ref: 2a6e9084895 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect delimiter9085685 Ref: 2a6f9085685 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect doublequote9085805 Ref: 2a709085805 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect escapechar9086277 Ref: 2a719086277 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect lineterminator9086986 Ref: 2a729086986 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect quotechar9087341 Ref: 2a739087341 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect quoting9087831 Ref: 2a749087831 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect skipinitialspace9088143 Ref: 2a759088143 Ref: library/csv csv Dialect strict9088309 Ref: 2a769088309 Node: Reader Objects9088449 Ref: library/csv id39088602 Ref: 2a779088602 Ref: library/csv reader-objects9088602 Ref: 2a629088602 Ref: library/csv csv csvreader __next__9088795 Ref: 2a789088795 Ref: library/csv csv csvreader dialect9089191 Ref: 2a799089191 Ref: library/csv csv csvreader line_num9089292 Ref: 2a7a9089292 Ref: library/csv csv DictReader fieldnames9089544 Ref: 2a7b9089544 Node: Writer Objects9089749 Ref: library/csv writer-objects9089880 Ref: 2a7c9089880 Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter writerow9090496 Ref: de99090496 Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter writerows9090826 Ref: 2a7d9090826 Ref: library/csv csv csvwriter dialect9091089 Ref: 2a7e9091089 Ref: library/csv csv DictWriter writeheader9091244 Ref: 11f19091244 Node: Examples<10>9091731 Ref: library/csv csv-examples9091839 Ref: 2a7f9091839 Ref: library/csv examples9091839 Ref: 2a809091839 Node: configparser — Configuration file parser9093830 Ref: library/configparser doc9094003 Ref: 2a819094003 Ref: library/configparser configparser-configuration-file-parser9094003 Ref: 2a829094003 Ref: library/configparser module-configparser9094003 Ref: 229094003 Ref: configparser — Configuration file parser-Footnote-19095514 Node: Quick Start9095586 Ref: library/configparser quick-start9095704 Ref: 2a839095704 Ref: Quick Start-Footnote-19099448 Ref: Quick Start-Footnote-29099650 Node: Supported Datatypes9099852 Ref: library/configparser supported-datatypes9099994 Ref: 2a879099994 Ref: Supported Datatypes-Footnote-19101316 Ref: Supported Datatypes-Footnote-29101518 Node: Fallback Values9101720 Ref: library/configparser fallback-values9101879 Ref: 2a8b9101879 Node: Supported INI File Structure9103395 Ref: library/configparser supported-ini-file-structure9103551 Ref: 2a849103551 Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-19106270 Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-29106472 Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-39106674 Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-49106876 Ref: Supported INI File Structure-Footnote-59107078 Node: Unnamed Sections9107280 Ref: library/configparser id109107444 Ref: 2a8e9107444 Ref: library/configparser unnamed-sections9107444 Ref: 2a8f9107444 Node: Interpolation of values9107924 Ref: library/configparser interpolation-of-values9108083 Ref: 2a909108083 Ref: library/configparser configparser BasicInterpolation9108319 Ref: 71d9108319 Ref: library/configparser configparser ExtendedInterpolation9109608 Ref: 71e9109608 Ref: Interpolation of values-Footnote-19111099 Node: Mapping Protocol Access9111301 Ref: library/configparser mapping-protocol-access9111472 Ref: 2a859111472 Ref: Mapping Protocol Access-Footnote-19114364 Node: Customizing Parser Behaviour9114566 Ref: library/configparser customizing-parser-behaviour9114733 Ref: 2a869114733 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser BOOLEAN_STATES9125501 Ref: 2a949125501 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser SECTCRE9127687 Ref: 2a8c9127687 Node: Legacy API Examples9128929 Ref: library/configparser legacy-api-examples9129093 Ref: 2a959129093 Node: ConfigParser Objects9132911 Ref: library/configparser configparser-objects9133070 Ref: 2a969133070 Ref: library/configparser id139133070 Ref: 2a979133070 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser9133133 Ref: 1c89133133 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser defaults9138564 Ref: 2a9a9138564 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser sections9138664 Ref: 2a9b9138664 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser add_section9138807 Ref: 12619138807 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser has_section9139297 Ref: 2a9c9139297 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser options9139473 Ref: 2a9d9139473 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser has_option9139583 Ref: 2a9e9139583 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read9139883 Ref: 14319139883 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_file9141624 Ref: 5019141624 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_string9142101 Ref: 2a939142101 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser read_dict9142450 Ref: 2a919142450 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser get9143147 Ref: 125f9143147 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getint9144103 Ref: 2a899144103 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getfloat9144392 Ref: 2a8a9144392 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser getboolean9144696 Ref: 2a889144696 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser items9145427 Ref: 2a9f9145427 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser set9146066 Ref: 12609146066 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser write9146351 Ref: 2a929146351 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_option9147048 Ref: 2aa19147048 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser remove_section9147362 Ref: 2aa29147362 Ref: library/configparser configparser ConfigParser optionxform9147574 Ref: 2a989147574 Ref: library/configparser configparser UNNAMED_SECTION9148547 Ref: 2a8d9148547 Ref: library/configparser configparser MAX_INTERPOLATION_DEPTH9148718 Ref: 2aa39148718 Node: RawConfigParser Objects9148951 Ref: library/configparser id159149104 Ref: 2aa49149104 Ref: library/configparser rawconfigparser-objects9149104 Ref: 2aa59149104 Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser9149173 Ref: f5f9149173 Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser add_section9150566 Ref: 2aa69150566 Ref: library/configparser configparser RawConfigParser set9151041 Ref: 2aa79151041 Node: Exceptions<8>9151868 Ref: library/configparser exceptions9151992 Ref: 2aa89151992 Ref: library/configparser configparser Error9152035 Ref: 2aa99152035 Ref: library/configparser configparser NoSectionError9152137 Ref: 2aa09152137 Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateSectionError9152243 Ref: 12629152243 Ref: library/configparser configparser DuplicateOptionError9152652 Ref: 12639152652 Ref: library/configparser configparser NoOptionError9153012 Ref: 2aaa9153012 Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationError9153146 Ref: 2aab9153146 Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationDepthError9153291 Ref: 2aac9153291 Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationMissingOptionError9153551 Ref: 2aad9153551 Ref: library/configparser configparser InterpolationSyntaxError9153740 Ref: 2aae9153740 Ref: library/configparser configparser MissingSectionHeaderError9153968 Ref: 2aaf9153968 Ref: library/configparser configparser ParsingError9154113 Ref: 5009154113 Ref: library/configparser configparser MultilineContinuationError9154415 Ref: 2a999154415 Node: tomllib — Parse TOML files9154605 Ref: library/tomllib doc9154773 Ref: 2ab09154773 Ref: library/tomllib module-tomllib9154773 Ref: fc9154773 Ref: library/tomllib tomllib-parse-toml-files9154773 Ref: 2ab19154773 Ref: library/tomllib tomllib load9155609 Ref: 2ab29155609 Ref: library/tomllib tomllib loads9156334 Ref: 2ab59156334 Ref: library/tomllib tomllib TOMLDecodeError9156753 Ref: 2ab49156753 Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-19156927 Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-29156991 Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-39157019 Ref: tomllib — Parse TOML files-Footnote-49157061 Node: Examples<11>9157103 Ref: library/tomllib examples9157205 Ref: 2ab69157205 Node: Conversion Table9157545 Ref: library/tomllib conversion-table9157647 Ref: 2ab79157647 Ref: library/tomllib toml-to-py-table9157700 Ref: 2ab39157700 Node: netrc — netrc file processing9159058 Ref: library/netrc doc9159233 Ref: 2ab89159233 Ref: library/netrc module-netrc9159233 Ref: 9b9159233 Ref: library/netrc netrc-netrc-file-processing9159233 Ref: 2ab99159233 Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc9159552 Ref: 18c19159552 Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError9161367 Ref: 2aba9161367 Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError msg9161593 Ref: 2abb9161593 Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError filename9161663 Ref: 2abc9161663 Ref: library/netrc netrc NetrcParseError lineno9161733 Ref: 2abd9161733 Ref: netrc — netrc file processing-Footnote-19161882 Node: netrc Objects9161947 Ref: library/netrc id19162028 Ref: 2abe9162028 Ref: library/netrc netrc-objects9162028 Ref: 2abf9162028 Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc authenticators9162133 Ref: 2ac09162133 Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc __repr__9162479 Ref: 2ac19162479 Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc hosts9162703 Ref: 2ac29162703 Ref: library/netrc netrc netrc macros9162901 Ref: 2ac39162901 Node: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files9162984 Ref: library/plistlib doc9163122 Ref: 2ac49163122 Ref: library/plistlib module-plistlib9163122 Ref: ab9163122 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib-generate-and-parse-apple-plist-files9163122 Ref: 2ac59163122 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib load9164560 Ref: 94f9164560 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib loads9165806 Ref: 9509165806 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dump9166153 Ref: 9519166153 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib dumps9167555 Ref: 9529167555 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID9167913 Ref: a209167913 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib UID data9168093 Ref: 2ac69168093 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_XML9168279 Ref: f749168279 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib FMT_BINARY9168373 Ref: f759168373 Ref: library/plistlib plistlib InvalidFileException9168518 Ref: 192f9168518 Ref: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-19168707 Ref: plistlib — Generate and parse Apple plist files-Footnote-29168775 Node: Examples<12>9168874 Ref: library/plistlib examples9168972 Ref: 2ac79168972 Node: Cryptographic Services9169827 Ref: library/crypto doc9169976 Ref: 2ac89169976 Ref: library/crypto crypto9169976 Ref: 2ac99169976 Ref: library/crypto cryptographic-services9169976 Ref: 2aca9169976 Node: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests9170392 Ref: library/hashlib doc9170554 Ref: 2acb9170554 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-secure-hashes-and-message-digests9170554 Ref: 2acc9170554 Ref: library/hashlib module-hashlib9170554 Ref: 689170554 Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-19171466 Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-29171533 Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-39171590 Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-49171640 Ref: hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests-Footnote-59171710 Node: Hash algorithms9171769 Ref: library/hashlib hash-algorithms9171880 Ref: 2acd9171880 Ref: library/hashlib id19171880 Ref: 2ace9171880 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-usedforsecurity9174010 Ref: 2ad79174010 Ref: Hash algorithms-Footnote-19174695 Ref: Hash algorithms-Footnote-29174803 Node: Usage9174850 Ref: library/hashlib usage9174982 Ref: 2ad89174982 Node: Constructors9175634 Ref: library/hashlib constructors9175761 Ref: 2ad99175761 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib new9175806 Ref: 19479175806 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib md59176368 Ref: 153f9176368 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha19176429 Ref: 2ad29176429 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha2249176491 Ref: 2ad39176491 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha2569176555 Ref: 15649176555 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3849176619 Ref: 2ad49176619 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha5129176683 Ref: 2ad59176683 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_2249176747 Ref: ca29176747 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_2569176813 Ref: ca39176813 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_3849176879 Ref: ca49176879 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib sha3_5129176945 Ref: ca59176945 Node: Attributes9177109 Ref: library/hashlib attributes9177243 Ref: 2ada9177243 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_guaranteed9177344 Ref: 135f9177344 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib algorithms_available9177679 Ref: 13609177679 Node: Hash Objects9178110 Ref: library/hashlib hash-objects9178261 Ref: 2adb9178261 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest_size9178414 Ref: 2adc9178414 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash block_size9178489 Ref: 2add9178489 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash name9178623 Ref: f439178623 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash update9179044 Ref: 2acf9179044 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash digest9179320 Ref: 2ad09179320 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash hexdigest9179560 Ref: 2ad19179560 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib hash copy9179831 Ref: 2ade9179831 Node: SHAKE variable length digests9180018 Ref: library/hashlib shake-variable-length-digests9180171 Ref: 2adf9180171 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_1289180250 Ref: ca69180250 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake_2569180317 Ref: ca79180317 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake digest9180645 Ref: 1a389180645 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib shake hexdigest9180876 Ref: 1a399180876 Node: File hashing9181310 Ref: library/hashlib file-hashing9181465 Ref: 2ae09181465 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib file_digest9181610 Ref: 6409181610 Node: Key derivation9183313 Ref: library/hashlib key-derivation9183445 Ref: 2ae19183445 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib pbkdf2_hmac9183756 Ref: 50a9183756 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib scrypt9185508 Ref: c3e9185508 Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-19186246 Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-29186308 Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-39186395 Ref: Key derivation-Footnote-49186506 Node: BLAKE29186565 Ref: library/hashlib blake29186676 Ref: 2ae29186676 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-blake29186676 Ref: 1d919186676 Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-19187399 Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-29187430 Ref: BLAKE2-Footnote-39187489 Node: Creating hash objects9187567 Ref: library/hashlib creating-hash-objects9187652 Ref: 2ae39187652 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b9187781 Ref: 63e9187781 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s9188017 Ref: 63f9188017 Ref: Creating hash objects-Footnote-19191061 Node: Constants<5>9191112 Ref: library/hashlib constants9191218 Ref: 2ae49191218 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b SALT_SIZE9191259 Ref: 2ae59191259 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s SALT_SIZE9191288 Ref: 2ae69191288 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b PERSON_SIZE9191373 Ref: 2ae79191373 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s PERSON_SIZE9191404 Ref: 2ae89191404 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_KEY_SIZE9191509 Ref: 2ae99191509 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_KEY_SIZE9191541 Ref: 2aea9191541 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2b MAX_DIGEST_SIZE9191592 Ref: 2aeb9191592 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib blake2s MAX_DIGEST_SIZE9191627 Ref: 2aec9191627 Node: Examples<13>9191718 Ref: library/hashlib examples9191810 Ref: 2aed9191810 Node: Simple hashing9191986 Ref: library/hashlib simple-hashing9192086 Ref: 2aee9192086 Node: Using different digest sizes9193540 Ref: library/hashlib using-different-digest-sizes9193662 Ref: 2aef9193662 Node: Keyed hashing9194805 Ref: library/hashlib keyed-hashing9194931 Ref: 2af09194931 Ref: Keyed hashing-Footnote-19196942 Node: Randomized hashing9196985 Ref: library/hashlib randomized-hashing9197098 Ref: 2af19197098 Ref: Randomized hashing-Footnote-19199702 Ref: Randomized hashing-Footnote-29199754 Node: Personalization9199789 Ref: library/hashlib personalization9199898 Ref: 2af29199898 Ref: Personalization-Footnote-19201893 Node: Tree mode9201963 Ref: library/hashlib tree-mode9202045 Ref: 2af39202045 Node: Credits9203296 Ref: library/hashlib credits9203367 Ref: 2af49203367 Ref: library/hashlib hashlib-seealso9204798 Ref: 2ad69204798 Ref: Credits-Footnote-19205784 Ref: Credits-Footnote-29205815 Ref: Credits-Footnote-39205876 Ref: Credits-Footnote-49205954 Ref: Credits-Footnote-59205991 Ref: Credits-Footnote-69206034 Node: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication9206077 Ref: library/hmac doc9206311 Ref: 2af59206311 Ref: library/hmac hmac-keyed-hashing-for-message-authentication9206311 Ref: 2af69206311 Ref: library/hmac module-hmac9206311 Ref: 6a9206311 Ref: library/hmac hmac new9206778 Ref: a9f9206778 Ref: library/hmac hmac digest9207606 Ref: b3e9207606 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC update9208249 Ref: f459208249 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest9208597 Ref: 2af79208597 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC hexdigest9209207 Ref: 2af89209207 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC copy9209796 Ref: 2af99209796 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC digest_size9210034 Ref: f489210034 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC block_size9210121 Ref: f469210121 Ref: library/hmac hmac HMAC name9210243 Ref: f479210243 Ref: library/hmac hmac compare_digest9210564 Ref: 10bf9210564 Ref: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-19211503 Ref: hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication-Footnote-29211567 Node: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets9211626 Ref: library/secrets doc9211806 Ref: 2afa9211806 Ref: library/secrets module-secrets9211806 Ref: c09211806 Ref: library/secrets secrets-generate-secure-random-numbers-for-managing-secrets9211806 Ref: 2afb9211806 Ref: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-19212672 Ref: secrets — Generate secure random numbers for managing secrets-Footnote-29212739 Node: Random numbers9212781 Ref: library/secrets random-numbers9212921 Ref: 2afc9212921 Ref: library/secrets secrets SystemRandom9213094 Ref: 2afd9213094 Ref: library/secrets secrets choice9213311 Ref: 2afe9213311 Ref: library/secrets secrets randbelow9213413 Ref: 2aff9213413 Ref: library/secrets secrets randbits9213539 Ref: 2b009213539 Node: Generating tokens9213629 Ref: library/secrets generating-tokens9213793 Ref: 2b019213793 Ref: library/secrets secrets token_bytes9214012 Ref: 26eb9214012 Ref: library/secrets secrets token_hex9214305 Ref: 17ab9214305 Ref: library/secrets secrets token_urlsafe9214641 Ref: 2b029214641 Node: How many bytes should tokens use?9215071 Ref: library/secrets how-many-bytes-should-tokens-use9215158 Ref: 2b039215158 Ref: How many bytes should tokens use?-Footnote-19216185 Node: Other functions9216242 Ref: library/secrets other-functions9216418 Ref: 2b049216418 Ref: library/secrets secrets compare_digest9216469 Ref: 2b059216469 Ref: Other functions-Footnote-19216821 Node: Recipes and best practices9216878 Ref: library/secrets recipes-and-best-practices9217028 Ref: 2b069217028 Ref: Recipes and best practices-Footnote-19218767 Ref: Recipes and best practices-Footnote-29218823 Node: Generic Operating System Services9218853 Ref: library/allos doc9219022 Ref: 2b079219022 Ref: library/allos allos9219022 Ref: 2b089219022 Ref: library/allos generic-operating-system-services9219022 Ref: 2b099219022 Node: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces9219942 Ref: library/os doc9220111 Ref: 2b0a9220111 Ref: library/os module-os9220111 Ref: a19220111 Ref: library/os os-miscellaneous-operating-system-interfaces9220111 Ref: 2b0b9220111 Ref: library/os os error9222398 Ref: 2b0d9222398 Ref: library/os os name9222486 Ref: 2b0e9222486 Ref: library/os os-filenames9222930 Ref: 2a5a9222930 Ref: os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces-Footnote-19223357 Node: File Names Command Line Arguments and Environment Variables9223419 Ref: library/os file-names-command-line-arguments-and-environment-variables9223589 Ref: 2b0f9223589 Ref: library/os filesystem-encoding9223589 Ref: 27c59223589 Node: Python UTF-8 Mode9224924 Ref: library/os python-utf-8-mode9225121 Ref: 2b109225121 Ref: library/os utf8-mode9225121 Ref: 6529225121 Ref: Python UTF-8 Mode-Footnote-19227974 Ref: Python UTF-8 Mode-Footnote-29228016 Node: Process Parameters9228058 Ref: library/os os-procinfo9228216 Ref: 2b119228216 Ref: library/os process-parameters9228216 Ref: 2b129228216 Ref: library/os os ctermid9228370 Ref: 2b139228370 Ref: library/os os environ9228537 Ref: 11ac9228537 Ref: library/os os environb9230521 Ref: 12099230521 Ref: library/os os fsencode9231292 Ref: c559231292 Ref: library/os os fsdecode9231681 Ref: c549231681 Ref: library/os os fspath9232074 Ref: c539232074 Ref: library/os os PathLike9232487 Ref: c519232487 Ref: library/os os PathLike __fspath__9232666 Ref: c529232666 Ref: library/os os getenv9232936 Ref: 2b159232936 Ref: library/os os getenvb9233615 Ref: 12089233615 Ref: library/os os get_exec_path9234198 Ref: 2b169234198 Ref: library/os os getegid9234580 Ref: 2b179234580 Ref: library/os os geteuid9234821 Ref: 17e89234821 Ref: library/os os getgid9234955 Ref: 2b189234955 Ref: library/os os getgrouplist9235181 Ref: 11089235181 Ref: library/os os getgroups9235576 Ref: 2b199235576 Ref: library/os os getlogin9236810 Ref: 152c9236810 Ref: library/os os getpgid9237301 Ref: 2b1b9237301 Ref: library/os os getpgrp9237536 Ref: 2b1c9237536 Ref: library/os os getpid9237664 Ref: 2b0c9237664 Ref: library/os os getppid9237833 Ref: 16529237833 Ref: library/os os getpriority9238213 Ref: 10f39238213 Ref: library/os os PRIO_PROCESS9238857 Ref: 2b1d9238857 Ref: library/os os PRIO_PGRP9238883 Ref: 2b1e9238883 Ref: library/os os PRIO_USER9238906 Ref: 2b1f9238906 Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_THREAD9239106 Ref: 2b209239106 Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_PROCESS9239138 Ref: 2b219239138 Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_BG9239171 Ref: 2b229239171 Ref: library/os os PRIO_DARWIN_NONUI9239199 Ref: 2b239239199 Ref: library/os os getresuid9239398 Ref: 13099239398 Ref: library/os os getresgid9239621 Ref: 13089239621 Ref: library/os os getuid9239845 Ref: 152b9239845 Ref: library/os os initgroups9240067 Ref: 130c9240067 Ref: library/os os putenv9240383 Ref: 91b9240383 Ref: library/os os setegid9241518 Ref: 2b259241518 Ref: library/os os seteuid9241670 Ref: 2b269241670 Ref: library/os os setgid9241821 Ref: 2b279241821 Ref: library/os os setgroups9241960 Ref: 2b1a9241960 Ref: library/os os setns9242618 Ref: 17c09242618 Ref: library/os os setpgrp9244140 Ref: 2b299244140 Ref: library/os os setpgid9244386 Ref: 2b2a9244386 Ref: library/os os setpriority9244663 Ref: 10f49244663 Ref: library/os os setregid9245452 Ref: 2b2b9245452 Ref: library/os os setresgid9245621 Ref: 130a9245621 Ref: library/os os setresuid9245833 Ref: 130b9245833 Ref: library/os os setreuid9246044 Ref: 2b2c9246044 Ref: library/os os getsid9246212 Ref: 2b2d9246212 Ref: library/os os setsid9246383 Ref: 19d49246383 Ref: library/os os setuid9246548 Ref: 2b2e9246548 Ref: library/os os strerror9246687 Ref: 2b2f9246687 Ref: library/os os supports_bytes_environ9246933 Ref: 12079246933 Ref: library/os os umask9247100 Ref: 2b309247100 Ref: library/os os uname9247305 Ref: 110a9247305 Ref: library/os os unsetenv9248616 Ref: 91a9248616 Ref: library/os os unshare9249386 Ref: 17c19249386 Ref: library/os os-unshare-clone-flags9250100 Ref: 2b289250100 Ref: library/os os CLONE_FILES9250270 Ref: 2b329250270 Ref: library/os os CLONE_FS9250295 Ref: 2b339250295 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWCGROUP9250317 Ref: 2b349250317 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWIPC9250346 Ref: 2b359250346 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNET9250372 Ref: 2b369250372 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWNS9250398 Ref: 2b379250398 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWPID9250423 Ref: 2b389250423 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWTIME9250449 Ref: 2b399250449 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUSER9250476 Ref: 2b3a9250476 Ref: library/os os CLONE_NEWUTS9250503 Ref: 2b3b9250503 Ref: library/os os CLONE_SIGHAND9250529 Ref: 2b3c9250529 Ref: library/os os CLONE_SYSVSEM9250556 Ref: 2b3d9250556 Ref: library/os os CLONE_THREAD9250583 Ref: 2b3e9250583 Ref: library/os os CLONE_VM9250609 Ref: 2b3f9250609 Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-19250668 Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-29250710 Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-39250752 Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-49250797 Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-59250847 Ref: Process Parameters-Footnote-69250894 Node: File Object Creation9250941 Ref: library/os file-object-creation9251108 Ref: 2b409251108 Ref: library/os os-newstreams9251108 Ref: 2b419251108 Ref: library/os os fdopen9251284 Ref: 1f329251284 Node: File Descriptor Operations9251611 Ref: library/os file-descriptor-operations9251781 Ref: 2b429251781 Ref: library/os os-fd-ops9251781 Ref: 2b439251781 Ref: library/os os close9252623 Ref: b749252623 Ref: library/os os closerange9253068 Ref: 2b449253068 Ref: library/os os copy_file_range9253417 Ref: 2b459253417 Ref: library/os os device_encoding9255095 Ref: 18919255095 Ref: library/os os dup9255507 Ref: 19dc9255507 Ref: library/os os dup29255922 Ref: b639255922 Ref: library/os os fchmod9256424 Ref: 21e9256424 Ref: library/os os fchown9257002 Ref: d899257002 Ref: library/os os fdatasync9257569 Ref: d8a9257569 Ref: library/os os fpathconf9257800 Ref: 2b479257800 Ref: library/os os fstat9258833 Ref: d8b9258833 Ref: library/os os fstatvfs9259093 Ref: d8c9259093 Ref: library/os os fsync9259371 Ref: d8d9259371 Ref: library/os os ftruncate9259857 Ref: d8e9259857 Ref: library/os os get_blocking9260302 Ref: e389260302 Ref: library/os os grantpt9260881 Ref: 16839260881 Ref: library/os os isatty9261265 Ref: 18909261265 Ref: library/os os lockf9261419 Ref: 11079261419 Ref: library/os os F_LOCK9261941 Ref: 2b499261941 Ref: library/os os F_TLOCK9261961 Ref: 2b4a9261961 Ref: library/os os F_ULOCK9261982 Ref: 2b4b9261982 Ref: library/os os F_TEST9262003 Ref: 2b4c9262003 Ref: library/os os login_tty9262160 Ref: 17599262160 Ref: library/os os lseek9262519 Ref: 110b9262519 Ref: library/os os SEEK_SET9263376 Ref: 12809263376 Ref: library/os os SEEK_CUR9263398 Ref: 12819263398 Ref: library/os os SEEK_END9263420 Ref: 12829263420 Ref: library/os os SEEK_HOLE9263999 Ref: 2b4d9263999 Ref: library/os os SEEK_DATA9264022 Ref: 2b4e9264022 Ref: library/os os open9264747 Ref: d919264747 Ref: library/os os O_RDONLY9266829 Ref: 2b4f9266829 Ref: library/os os O_WRONLY9266851 Ref: 2b509266851 Ref: library/os os O_RDWR9266873 Ref: 2b529266873 Ref: library/os os O_APPEND9266893 Ref: 2b539266893 Ref: library/os os O_CREAT9266915 Ref: 2b549266915 Ref: library/os os O_EXCL9266936 Ref: 285a9266936 Ref: library/os os O_TRUNC9266956 Ref: 2b559266956 Ref: library/os os O_DSYNC9267039 Ref: 2b569267039 Ref: library/os os O_RSYNC9267060 Ref: 2b579267060 Ref: library/os os O_SYNC9267081 Ref: 2b589267081 Ref: library/os os O_NDELAY9267101 Ref: 2b599267101 Ref: library/os os O_NONBLOCK9267123 Ref: e3a9267123 Ref: library/os os O_NOCTTY9267147 Ref: 2b5a9267147 Ref: library/os os O_CLOEXEC9267169 Ref: 10759267169 Ref: library/os os O_BINARY9267314 Ref: 2b519267314 Ref: library/os os O_NOINHERIT9267336 Ref: 2b5b9267336 Ref: library/os os O_SHORT_LIVED9267361 Ref: 2b5c9267361 Ref: library/os os O_TEMPORARY9267388 Ref: 2b5d9267388 Ref: library/os os O_RANDOM9267413 Ref: 2b5e9267413 Ref: library/os os O_SEQUENTIAL9267435 Ref: 2b5f9267435 Ref: library/os os O_TEXT9267461 Ref: 2b609267461 Ref: library/os os O_EVTONLY9267539 Ref: 8169267539 Ref: library/os os O_FSYNC9267562 Ref: 8179267562 Ref: library/os os O_SYMLINK9267583 Ref: 8189267583 Ref: library/os os O_NOFOLLOW_ANY9267606 Ref: 8199267606 Ref: library/os os O_ASYNC9267841 Ref: 2b619267841 Ref: library/os os O_DIRECT9267862 Ref: 2b629267862 Ref: library/os os O_DIRECTORY9267884 Ref: 2b639267884 Ref: library/os os O_NOFOLLOW9267909 Ref: 2b649267909 Ref: library/os os O_NOATIME9267933 Ref: 2b659267933 Ref: library/os os O_PATH9267956 Ref: f6d9267956 Ref: library/os os O_TMPFILE9267976 Ref: f6e9267976 Ref: library/os os O_SHLOCK9267999 Ref: 13fa9267999 Ref: library/os os O_EXLOCK9268021 Ref: 13fb9268021 Ref: library/os os openpty9268312 Ref: 2b669268312 Ref: library/os os pipe9268756 Ref: 17da9268756 Ref: library/os os pipe29269096 Ref: 10de9269096 Ref: library/os os posix_fallocate9269487 Ref: d939269487 Ref: library/os os posix_fadvise9269750 Ref: d929269750 Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_NORMAL9270357 Ref: 2b679270357 Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_SEQUENTIAL9270388 Ref: 2b689270388 Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_RANDOM9270423 Ref: 2b699270423 Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_NOREUSE9270454 Ref: 2b6a9270454 Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_WILLNEED9270486 Ref: 2b6b9270486 Ref: library/os os POSIX_FADV_DONTNEED9270519 Ref: 2b6c9270519 Ref: library/os os pread9270756 Ref: b5f9270756 Ref: library/os os posix_openpt9271148 Ref: 16829271148 Ref: library/os os preadv9271745 Ref: b5d9271745 Ref: library/os os RWF_NOWAIT9272790 Ref: 2b6e9272790 Ref: library/os os RWF_HIPRI9273294 Ref: 2b6d9273294 Ref: library/os os ptsname9273687 Ref: 16859273687 Ref: library/os os pwrite9274229 Ref: b629274229 Ref: library/os os pwritev9274518 Ref: b609274518 Ref: library/os os RWF_DSYNC9275562 Ref: 2b6f9275562 Ref: library/os os RWF_SYNC9275841 Ref: 2b709275841 Ref: library/os os RWF_APPEND9276118 Ref: 19469276118 Ref: library/os os read9276675 Ref: d949276675 Ref: library/os os sendfile9277619 Ref: b0f9277619 Ref: library/os os SF_NODISKIO9279126 Ref: 2b719279126 Ref: library/os os SF_MNOWAIT9279151 Ref: 2b729279151 Ref: library/os os SF_SYNC9279175 Ref: 2b739279175 Ref: library/os os SF_NOCACHE9279373 Ref: 2b749279373 Ref: library/os os set_blocking9279657 Ref: e399279657 Ref: library/os os splice9280262 Ref: 8159280262 Ref: library/os os SPLICE_F_MOVE9281682 Ref: 2b759281682 Ref: library/os os SPLICE_F_NONBLOCK9281709 Ref: 2b769281709 Ref: library/os os SPLICE_F_MORE9281740 Ref: 2b779281740 Ref: library/os os readv9281797 Ref: b5e9281797 Ref: library/os os tcgetpgrp9282418 Ref: 2b789282418 Ref: library/os os tcsetpgrp9282646 Ref: 2b799282646 Ref: library/os os ttyname9282888 Ref: 2b7a9282888 Ref: library/os os unlockpt9283142 Ref: 16849283142 Ref: library/os os write9283518 Ref: d9a9283518 Ref: library/os os writev9284369 Ref: b619284369 Ref: File Descriptor Operations-Footnote-19285068 Ref: File Descriptor Operations-Footnote-29285110 Ref: File Descriptor Operations-Footnote-39285154 Ref: File Descriptor Operations-Footnote-49285217 Ref: File Descriptor Operations-Footnote-59285259 Node: Querying the size of a terminal9285301 Ref: library/os querying-the-size-of-a-terminal9285435 Ref: 2b7b9285435 Ref: library/os terminal-size9285435 Ref: 2b7c9285435 Ref: library/os os get_terminal_size9285541 Ref: 10f69285541 Ref: library/os os terminal_size9286182 Ref: 28839286182 Ref: library/os os terminal_size columns9286303 Ref: 2b7d9286303 Ref: library/os os terminal_size lines9286387 Ref: 2b7e9286387 Node: Inheritance of File Descriptors9286470 Ref: library/os fd-inheritance9286604 Ref: ef49286604 Ref: library/os inheritance-of-file-descriptors9286604 Ref: 2b7f9286604 Ref: library/os os get_inheritable9287636 Ref: ef59287636 Ref: library/os os set_inheritable9287766 Ref: ef69287766 Ref: library/os os get_handle_inheritable9287892 Ref: ef79287892 Ref: library/os os set_handle_inheritable9288061 Ref: ef89288061 Node: Files and Directories9288231 Ref: library/os files-and-directories9288399 Ref: 2b809288399 Ref: library/os os-file-dir9288399 Ref: 2b149288399 Ref: library/os path-fd9288548 Ref: b5c9288548 Ref: library/os dir-fd9289493 Ref: 10df9289493 Ref: library/os follow-symlinks9290209 Ref: 10e09290209 Ref: library/os os access9290793 Ref: 10e19290793 Ref: library/os os F_OK9293355 Ref: 2b819293355 Ref: library/os os R_OK9293373 Ref: 2b829293373 Ref: library/os os W_OK9293391 Ref: 2b839293391 Ref: library/os os X_OK9293409 Ref: 2b849293409 Ref: library/os os chdir9293599 Ref: 6099293599 Ref: library/os os chflags9294277 Ref: 10e29294277 Ref: library/os os chmod9295366 Ref: 21d9295366 Ref: library/os os chown9297444 Ref: 10e39297444 Ref: library/os os chroot9298454 Ref: 19929298454 Ref: library/os os fchdir9298683 Ref: d889298683 Ref: library/os os getcwd9299088 Ref: 159b9299088 Ref: library/os os getcwdb9299182 Ref: a919299182 Ref: library/os os lchflags9299490 Ref: 2b869299490 Ref: library/os os lchmod9299981 Ref: 21c9299981 Ref: library/os os lchown9300815 Ref: 2b879300815 Ref: library/os os link9301328 Ref: 10e49301328 Ref: library/os os listdir9302115 Ref: 10ee9302115 Ref: library/os os listdrives9303596 Ref: 4999303596 Ref: library/os os listmounts9304229 Ref: 49b9304229 Ref: library/os os listvolumes9305070 Ref: 49a9305070 Ref: library/os os lstat9305790 Ref: 49d9305790 Ref: library/os os mkdir9306901 Ref: 21f9306901 Ref: library/os mkdir-modebits9307203 Ref: 2b889307203 Ref: library/os os makedirs9308365 Ref: 2209308365 Ref: library/os os mkfifo9310095 Ref: d8f9310095 Ref: library/os os mknod9311004 Ref: d909311004 Ref: library/os os major9311897 Ref: 161a9311897 Ref: library/os os minor9312068 Ref: 161b9312068 Ref: library/os os makedev9312239 Ref: 161c9312239 Ref: library/os os pathconf9312363 Ref: 10ef9312363 Ref: library/os os pathconf_names9313461 Ref: 2b8a9313461 Ref: library/os os readlink9313785 Ref: 91f9313785 Ref: library/os os remove9315267 Ref: 10e59315267 Ref: library/os os removedirs9316202 Ref: 2b8b9316202 Ref: library/os os rename9317046 Ref: 10e69317046 Ref: library/os os renames9318716 Ref: 2b8c9318716 Ref: library/os os replace9319505 Ref: 10e79319505 Ref: library/os os rmdir9320387 Ref: 10e89320387 Ref: library/os os scandir9321033 Ref: a5e9321033 Ref: library/os os scandir close9322811 Ref: cbc9322811 Ref: library/os os DirEntry9324348 Ref: 4979324348 Ref: library/os os DirEntry name9325533 Ref: 2b8e9325533 Ref: library/os os DirEntry path9325904 Ref: 167c9325904 Ref: library/os os DirEntry inode9326639 Ref: 16d99326639 Ref: library/os os DirEntry is_dir9326998 Ref: 2b8d9326998 Ref: library/os os DirEntry is_file9328433 Ref: d839328433 Ref: library/os os DirEntry is_symlink9329156 Ref: 2b8f9329156 Ref: library/os os DirEntry is_junction9330007 Ref: 4989330007 Ref: library/os os DirEntry stat9330442 Ref: 16fa9330442 Ref: library/os os stat9332184 Ref: 49c9332184 Ref: library/os os stat_result9334772 Ref: 148a9334772 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_mode9335022 Ref: 2b909335022 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_ino9335117 Ref: 2b919335117 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_dev9335366 Ref: 2b929335366 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_nlink9335458 Ref: 2b939335458 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_uid9335521 Ref: 2b949335521 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_gid9335595 Ref: 2b959335595 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_size9335670 Ref: 2b969335670 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_atime9335924 Ref: 2b979335924 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_mtime9336014 Ref: 2a2a9336014 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_ctime9336118 Ref: 2b989336118 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_atime_ns9336488 Ref: 2b999336488 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_mtime_ns9336642 Ref: 2b9a9336642 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_ctime_ns9336810 Ref: 2b9b9336810 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_birthtime9337250 Ref: 2b9c9337250 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_birthtime_ns9337525 Ref: 2b9d9337525 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_blocks9339111 Ref: 2b9e9339111 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_blksize9339285 Ref: 2b9f9339285 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_rdev9339487 Ref: 2ba09339487 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_flags9339562 Ref: 2ba19339562 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_gen9339787 Ref: 2ba29339787 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_fstype9339937 Ref: b649339937 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_rsize9340144 Ref: 2ba39340144 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_creator9340208 Ref: 2ba49340208 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_type9340272 Ref: 2ba59340272 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_file_attributes9340394 Ref: e379340394 Ref: library/os os stat_result st_reparse_tag9340774 Ref: 2ba69340774 Ref: library/os os statvfs9343153 Ref: 10f09343153 Ref: library/os os supports_dir_fd9345198 Ref: 10ec9345198 Ref: library/os os supports_effective_ids9346359 Ref: 10f29346359 Ref: library/os os supports_fd9347102 Ref: 10f19347102 Ref: library/os os supports_follow_symlinks9347926 Ref: 286e9347926 Ref: library/os os symlink9349062 Ref: 10e99349062 Ref: library/os os sync9350827 Ref: 11069350827 Ref: library/os os truncate9350961 Ref: e3b9350961 Ref: library/os os unlink9351485 Ref: 10ea9351485 Ref: library/os os utime9352022 Ref: 10eb9352022 Ref: library/os os walk9353906 Ref: 4a59353906 Ref: library/os os fwalk9359195 Ref: b5b9359195 Ref: library/os os memfd_create9361831 Ref: a0a9361831 Ref: library/os os MFD_CLOEXEC9362690 Ref: 2ba79362690 Ref: library/os os MFD_ALLOW_SEALING9362715 Ref: 2ba89362715 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGETLB9362746 Ref: 2ba99362746 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_SHIFT9362771 Ref: 2baa9362771 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_MASK9362799 Ref: 2bab9362799 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_64KB9362826 Ref: 2bac9362826 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_512KB9362853 Ref: 2bad9362853 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_1MB9362881 Ref: 2bae9362881 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_2MB9362907 Ref: 2baf9362907 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_8MB9362933 Ref: 2bb09362933 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_16MB9362959 Ref: 2bb19362959 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_32MB9362986 Ref: 2bb29362986 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_256MB9363013 Ref: 2bb39363013 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_512MB9363041 Ref: 2bb49363041 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_1GB9363069 Ref: 2bb59363069 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_2GB9363095 Ref: 2bb69363095 Ref: library/os os MFD_HUGE_16GB9363121 Ref: 2bb79363121 Ref: library/os os eventfd9363374 Ref: 8149363374 Ref: library/os os eventfd_read9365387 Ref: 2bb99365387 Ref: library/os os eventfd_write9365676 Ref: 2bba9365676 Ref: library/os os EFD_CLOEXEC9365977 Ref: 17ce9365977 Ref: library/os os EFD_NONBLOCK9366162 Ref: 17cf9366162 Ref: library/os os EFD_SEMAPHORE9366364 Ref: 17d09366364 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-19366732 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-29366778 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-39366820 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-49366885 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-59366965 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-69367047 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-79367136 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-89367225 Ref: Files and Directories-Footnote-99367283 Node: Timer File Descriptors9367330 Ref: library/os os-timerfd9367444 Ref: 1539367444 Ref: library/os timer-file-descriptors9367444 Ref: 2bbb9367444 Ref: library/os os timerfd_create9367658 Ref: 2139367658 Ref: library/os os timerfd_settime9370346 Ref: 2149370346 Ref: library/os os timerfd_settime_ns9373058 Ref: 2159373058 Ref: library/os os timerfd_gettime9373411 Ref: 2169373411 Ref: library/os os timerfd_gettime_ns9374003 Ref: 2179374003 Ref: library/os os TFD_NONBLOCK9374228 Ref: 2189374228 Ref: library/os os TFD_CLOEXEC9374589 Ref: 2199374589 Ref: library/os os TFD_TIMER_ABSTIME9374874 Ref: 21a9374874 Ref: library/os os TFD_TIMER_CANCEL_ON_SET9375261 Ref: 21b9375261 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-19375672 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-29375726 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-39375780 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-49375835 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-59375887 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-69375940 Ref: Timer File Descriptors-Footnote-79375984 Node: Linux extended attributes9376039 Ref: library/os linux-extended-attributes9376153 Ref: 2bbd9376153 Ref: library/os os getxattr9376299 Ref: 10f89376299 Ref: library/os os listxattr9376960 Ref: 10f99376960 Ref: library/os os removexattr9377570 Ref: 10fa9377570 Ref: library/os os setxattr9378262 Ref: 10fb9378262 Ref: library/os os XATTR_SIZE_MAX9379508 Ref: 2bc09379508 Ref: library/os os XATTR_CREATE9379644 Ref: 2bbf9379644 Ref: library/os os XATTR_REPLACE9379816 Ref: 2bbe9379816 Node: Process Management9379999 Ref: library/os os-process9380167 Ref: 2bc19380167 Ref: library/os process-management9380167 Ref: 2bc29380167 Ref: library/os os abort9380782 Ref: 2bc49380782 Ref: library/os os add_dll_directory9381158 Ref: 9e99381158 Ref: library/os os execl9382322 Ref: 2bc39382322 Ref: library/os os execle9382369 Ref: 2bc59382369 Ref: library/os os execlp9382422 Ref: 2bc69382422 Ref: library/os os execlpe9382470 Ref: 2bc79382470 Ref: library/os os execv9382524 Ref: 2b249382524 Ref: library/os os execve9382560 Ref: 10ed9382560 Ref: library/os os execvp9382602 Ref: 2bc89382602 Ref: library/os os execvpe9382639 Ref: 2bc99382639 Ref: library/os os _exit9386019 Ref: 22989386019 Ref: library/os os EX_OK9386765 Ref: 2bca9386765 Ref: library/os os EX_USAGE9386999 Ref: 2bcb9386999 Ref: library/os os EX_DATAERR9387191 Ref: 2bcc9387191 Ref: library/os os EX_NOINPUT9387322 Ref: 2bcd9387322 Ref: library/os os EX_NOUSER9387477 Ref: 2bce9387477 Ref: library/os os EX_NOHOST9387609 Ref: 2bcf9387609 Ref: library/os os EX_UNAVAILABLE9387741 Ref: 2bd09387741 Ref: library/os os EX_SOFTWARE9387886 Ref: 2bd19387886 Ref: library/os os EX_OSERR9388029 Ref: 2bd29388029 Ref: library/os os EX_OSFILE9388221 Ref: 2bd39388221 Ref: library/os os EX_CANTCREAT9388412 Ref: 2bd49388412 Ref: library/os os EX_IOERR9388571 Ref: 2bd59388571 Ref: library/os os EX_TEMPFAIL9388728 Ref: 2bd69388728 Ref: library/os os EX_PROTOCOL9389012 Ref: 2bd79389012 Ref: library/os os EX_NOPERM9389185 Ref: 2bd89389185 Ref: library/os os EX_CONFIG9389401 Ref: 2bd99389401 Ref: library/os os EX_NOTFOUND9389554 Ref: 2bda9389554 Ref: library/os os fork9389701 Ref: 1979389701 Ref: library/os os forkpty9391707 Ref: 1989391707 Ref: library/os os kill9392854 Ref: 13539392854 Ref: library/os os killpg9393729 Ref: 19d59393729 Ref: library/os os nice9393987 Ref: 10f59393987 Ref: library/os os pidfd_open9394162 Ref: 4769394162 Ref: library/os os PIDFD_NONBLOCK9394573 Ref: 4969394573 Ref: library/os os plock9395024 Ref: 2bdb9395024 Ref: library/os os popen9395249 Ref: a879395249 Ref: library/os os posix_spawn9397189 Ref: 2229397189 Ref: library/os os POSIX_SPAWN_OPEN9398291 Ref: 2bdc9398291 Ref: library/os os POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSE9398464 Ref: 2bdd9398464 Ref: library/os os POSIX_SPAWN_DUP29398587 Ref: 2bde9398587 Ref: library/os os POSIX_SPAWN_CLOSEFROM9398725 Ref: 2239398725 Ref: library/os os posix_spawnp9401631 Ref: 1a2e9401631 Ref: library/os os register_at_fork9402390 Ref: 2fa9402390 Ref: library/os os spawnl9403839 Ref: 17319403839 Ref: library/os os spawnle9403881 Ref: 2bdf9403881 Ref: library/os os spawnlp9403929 Ref: 2be09403929 Ref: library/os os spawnlpe9403972 Ref: 2be19403972 Ref: library/os os spawnv9404021 Ref: 2be29404021 Ref: library/os os spawnve9404064 Ref: 2be39404064 Ref: library/os os spawnvp9404113 Ref: 2be49404113 Ref: library/os os spawnvpe9404157 Ref: 2be59404157 Ref: library/os os P_NOWAIT9408071 Ref: 2be69408071 Ref: library/os os P_NOWAITO9408093 Ref: 2be89408093 Ref: library/os os P_WAIT9408444 Ref: 2be79408444 Ref: library/os os P_DETACH9408866 Ref: 2be99408866 Ref: library/os os P_OVERLAY9408888 Ref: 2bea9408888 Ref: library/os os startfile9409380 Ref: 18cb9409380 Ref: library/os os system9411971 Ref: 14269411971 Ref: library/os os times9413726 Ref: 11099413726 Ref: library/os os wait9414734 Ref: d979414734 Ref: library/os os waitid9415644 Ref: d989415644 Ref: library/os os waitpid9417081 Ref: d999417081 Ref: library/os os wait39419447 Ref: d959419447 Ref: library/os os wait49420075 Ref: d969420075 Ref: library/os os P_PID9420666 Ref: 2beb9420666 Ref: library/os os P_PGID9420685 Ref: 2bec9420685 Ref: library/os os P_ALL9420705 Ref: 2bed9420705 Ref: library/os os P_PIDFD9420724 Ref: 9199420724 Ref: library/os os WCONTINUED9421457 Ref: 2bf09421457 Ref: library/os os WEXITED9421806 Ref: 2bee9421806 Ref: library/os os WSTOPPED9422173 Ref: 2bef9422173 Ref: library/os os WUNTRACED9422513 Ref: 2bf59422513 Ref: library/os os WNOHANG9422919 Ref: 2bf19422919 Ref: library/os os WNOWAIT9423216 Ref: 2bf29423216 Ref: library/os os CLD_EXITED9423580 Ref: 2bf49423580 Ref: library/os os CLD_KILLED9423604 Ref: 9179423604 Ref: library/os os CLD_DUMPED9423628 Ref: 2bf69423628 Ref: library/os os CLD_TRAPPED9423652 Ref: 2bf79423652 Ref: library/os os CLD_STOPPED9423677 Ref: 9189423677 Ref: library/os os CLD_CONTINUED9423702 Ref: 2bf89423702 Ref: library/os os waitstatus_to_exitcode9424035 Ref: 91c9424035 Ref: library/os os WCOREDUMP9425541 Ref: 2bff9425541 Ref: library/os os WIFCONTINUED9425845 Ref: 2c009425845 Ref: library/os os WIFSTOPPED9426195 Ref: 2bfd9426195 Ref: library/os os WIFSIGNALED9426622 Ref: 2bfb9426622 Ref: library/os os WIFEXITED9426834 Ref: 2bf99426834 Ref: library/os os WEXITSTATUS9427135 Ref: 2bfa9427135 Ref: library/os os WSTOPSIG9427369 Ref: 2bfe9427369 Ref: library/os os WTERMSIG9427621 Ref: 2bfc9427621 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-19427933 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-29428005 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-39428048 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-49428098 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-59428144 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-69428189 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-79428241 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-89428350 Ref: Process Management-Footnote-99428392 Node: Interface to the scheduler9428438 Ref: library/os interface-to-the-scheduler9428617 Ref: 2c029428617 Ref: library/os os-scheduling-policy9429004 Ref: 2c039429004 Ref: library/os os SCHED_OTHER9429004 Ref: 2c049429004 Ref: library/os os SCHED_BATCH9429067 Ref: 2c059429067 Ref: library/os os SCHED_IDLE9429216 Ref: 2c069429216 Ref: library/os os SCHED_SPORADIC9429310 Ref: 2c079429310 Ref: library/os os SCHED_FIFO9429393 Ref: 2c089429393 Ref: library/os os SCHED_RR9429464 Ref: 2c099429464 Ref: library/os os SCHED_RESET_ON_FORK9429526 Ref: 2c0a9429526 Ref: library/os os sched_param9429748 Ref: 15a39429748 Ref: library/os os sched_param sched_priority9430043 Ref: 2c0b9430043 Ref: library/os os sched_get_priority_min9430139 Ref: 10fd9430139 Ref: library/os os sched_get_priority_max9430304 Ref: 10fc9430304 Ref: library/os os sched_setscheduler9430469 Ref: 11049430469 Ref: library/os os sched_getscheduler9430758 Ref: 11009430758 Ref: library/os os sched_setparam9430983 Ref: 11039430983 Ref: library/os os sched_getparam9431200 Ref: 10ff9431200 Ref: library/os os sched_rr_get_interval9431403 Ref: 11019431403 Ref: library/os os sched_yield9431578 Ref: 11059431578 Ref: library/os os sched_setaffinity9431695 Ref: 11029431695 Ref: library/os os sched_getaffinity9431961 Ref: 10fe9431961 Ref: Interface to the scheduler-Footnote-19432289 Node: Miscellaneous System Information9432340 Ref: library/os miscellaneous-system-information9432518 Ref: 2c0c9432518 Ref: library/os os-path9432518 Ref: 2c0d9432518 Ref: library/os os confstr9432605 Ref: 156a9432605 Ref: library/os os confstr_names9433644 Ref: 2c0e9433644 Ref: library/os os cpu_count9433937 Ref: 1c59433937 Ref: library/os os getloadavg9434433 Ref: 15e79434433 Ref: library/os os process_cpu_count9434687 Ref: 1c49434687 Ref: library/os os sysconf9435302 Ref: 156b9435302 Ref: library/os os sysconf_names9435726 Ref: 2c0f9435726 Ref: library/os os curdir9436282 Ref: 27e49436282 Ref: library/os os pardir9436483 Ref: 2b899436483 Ref: library/os os sep9436684 Ref: 6669436684 Ref: library/os os altsep9437096 Ref: 6679437096 Ref: library/os os extsep9437395 Ref: 2c109437395 Ref: library/os os pathsep9437582 Ref: 1d449437582 Ref: library/os os defpath9437826 Ref: 1a019437826 Ref: library/os os linesep9438035 Ref: 217b9438035 Ref: library/os os devnull9438448 Ref: 1a329438448 Ref: library/os os RTLD_LAZY9438622 Ref: 110c9438622 Ref: library/os os RTLD_NOW9438645 Ref: 110d9438645 Ref: library/os os RTLD_GLOBAL9438667 Ref: 110e9438667 Ref: library/os os RTLD_LOCAL9438692 Ref: 110f9438692 Ref: library/os os RTLD_NODELETE9438716 Ref: 11109438716 Ref: library/os os RTLD_NOLOAD9438743 Ref: 11119438743 Ref: library/os os RTLD_DEEPBIND9438768 Ref: 11129438768 Ref: Miscellaneous System Information-Footnote-19439054 Node: Random numbers<2>9439100 Ref: library/os random-numbers9439243 Ref: 2c119439243 Ref: library/os os getrandom9439294 Ref: cbd9439294 Ref: library/os os urandom9440124 Ref: 51e9440124 Ref: library/os os GRND_NONBLOCK9442189 Ref: 2c139442189 Ref: library/os os GRND_RANDOM9442665 Ref: 2c129442665 Ref: Random numbers<2>-Footnote-19442886 Ref: Random numbers<2>-Footnote-29442949 Node: io — Core tools for working with streams9442991 Ref: library/io doc9443205 Ref: 2c149443205 Ref: library/io io-core-tools-for-working-with-streams9443205 Ref: 2c159443205 Ref: library/io module-io9443205 Ref: 7f9443205 Ref: io — Core tools for working with streams-Footnote-19443581 Node: Overview<2>9443643 Ref: library/io io-overview9443755 Ref: 21799443755 Ref: library/io overview9443755 Ref: 2c169443755 Node: Text I/O9445016 Ref: library/io text-i-o9445091 Ref: 2c179445091 Node: Binary I/O9445782 Ref: library/io binary-i-o9445873 Ref: 2c189445873 Node: Raw I/O9446743 Ref: library/io raw-i-o9446817 Ref: 2c199446817 Node: Text Encoding9447271 Ref: library/io io-text-encoding9447419 Ref: 7b89447419 Ref: library/io text-encoding9447419 Ref: 2c1a9447419 Ref: Text Encoding-Footnote-19448592 Node: Opt-in EncodingWarning9448634 Ref: library/io io-encoding-warning9448706 Ref: 1d559448706 Ref: library/io opt-in-encodingwarning9448706 Ref: 2c1b9448706 Ref: Opt-in EncodingWarning-Footnote-19449524 Node: High-level Module Interface9449566 Ref: library/io high-level-module-interface9449718 Ref: 2c1c9449718 Ref: library/io io DEFAULT_BUFFER_SIZE9449793 Ref: 16c79449793 Ref: library/io io open9450028 Ref: 5189450028 Ref: library/io io open_code9450449 Ref: 17279450449 Ref: library/io io text_encoding9451112 Ref: 16c69451112 Ref: library/io io BlockingIOError9452246 Ref: 2c1d9452246 Ref: library/io io UnsupportedOperation9452378 Ref: 19959452378 Node: Class hierarchy9452725 Ref: library/io class-hierarchy9452878 Ref: 2c1e9452878 Node: I/O Base Classes9457579 Ref: library/io i-o-base-classes9457668 Ref: 2c209457668 Ref: library/io io IOBase9457721 Ref: 1f79457721 Ref: library/io io IOBase close9459568 Ref: 1f89459568 Ref: library/io io IOBase closed9459978 Ref: 1a2b9459978 Ref: library/io io IOBase fileno9460053 Ref: 28569460053 Ref: library/io io IOBase flush9460274 Ref: 2c219460274 Ref: library/io io IOBase isatty9460434 Ref: 1c829460434 Ref: library/io io IOBase readable9460574 Ref: 2c229460574 Ref: library/io io IOBase readline9460736 Ref: 131c9460736 Ref: library/io io IOBase readlines9461108 Ref: 23339461108 Ref: library/io io IOBase seek9461672 Ref: 127f9461672 Ref: library/io io IOBase seekable9462652 Ref: 2c239462652 Ref: library/io io IOBase tell9462885 Ref: 29b69462885 Ref: library/io io IOBase truncate9462958 Ref: 13049462958 Ref: library/io io IOBase writable9463536 Ref: 2c249463536 Ref: library/io io IOBase writelines9463737 Ref: 23349463737 Ref: library/io io IOBase __del__9463960 Ref: 2c259463960 Ref: library/io io RawIOBase9464177 Ref: 10c69464177 Ref: library/io io RawIOBase read9464683 Ref: e1b9464683 Ref: library/io io RawIOBase readall9465367 Ref: 2c269465367 Ref: library/io io RawIOBase readinto9465523 Ref: e1c9465523 Ref: library/io io RawIOBase write9465864 Ref: 29f59465864 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase9466503 Ref: 6909466503 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase raw9467718 Ref: 2c289467718 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase detach9467989 Ref: 297d9467989 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase read9468425 Ref: 131b9468425 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase read19469710 Ref: 296d9469710 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase readinto9470298 Ref: 2c279470298 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase readinto19470833 Ref: e1a9470833 Ref: library/io io BufferedIOBase write9471331 Ref: cdb9471331 Ref: I/O Base Classes-Footnote-19472188 Ref: I/O Base Classes-Footnote-29472230 Node: Raw File I/O9472272 Ref: library/io raw-file-i-o9472386 Ref: 2c299472386 Ref: library/io io FileIO9472433 Ref: 13039472433 Ref: library/io io FileIO mode9474751 Ref: 2c2a9474751 Ref: library/io io FileIO name9474826 Ref: 29879474826 Node: Buffered Streams9474971 Ref: library/io buffered-streams9475080 Ref: 2c2b9475080 Ref: library/io io BytesIO9475226 Ref: e9d9475226 Ref: library/io io BytesIO getbuffer9475707 Ref: 11e39475707 Ref: library/io io BytesIO getvalue9476276 Ref: 296b9476276 Ref: library/io io BytesIO read19476398 Ref: 2c2c9476398 Ref: library/io io BytesIO readinto19476581 Ref: 2c2d9476581 Ref: library/io io BufferedReader9476737 Ref: 12009476737 Ref: library/io io BufferedReader peek9477577 Ref: 2c2e9477577 Ref: library/io io BufferedReader read9477877 Ref: 2c2f9477877 Ref: library/io io BufferedReader read19478023 Ref: 2c309478023 Ref: library/io io BufferedWriter9478243 Ref: 15499478243 Ref: library/io io BufferedWriter flush9479363 Ref: 2c319479363 Ref: library/io io BufferedWriter write9479548 Ref: 2c329479548 Ref: library/io io BufferedRandom9479906 Ref: 154a9479906 Ref: library/io io BufferedRWPair9480608 Ref: 2c1f9480608 Node: Text I/O<2>9481548 Ref: library/io id19481636 Ref: 2c339481636 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase9481675 Ref: 6919481675 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase encoding9481991 Ref: 2c349481991 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase errors9482151 Ref: 13029482151 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase newlines9482235 Ref: 2c359482235 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase buffer9482479 Ref: 12959482479 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase detach9482778 Ref: 2c369482778 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase read9483295 Ref: 1c859483295 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase readline9483503 Ref: 1cbd9483503 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase seek9483773 Ref: 2c379483773 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase tell9484746 Ref: 2c389484746 Ref: library/io io TextIOBase write9484950 Ref: 1c749484950 Ref: library/io io TextIOWrapper9485082 Ref: 7b69485082 Ref: library/io io TextIOWrapper line_buffering9488940 Ref: 2c399488940 Ref: library/io io TextIOWrapper write_through9489022 Ref: 2c3a9489022 Ref: library/io io TextIOWrapper reconfigure9489182 Ref: b499489182 Ref: library/io io TextIOWrapper seek9490072 Ref: 2c3b9490072 Ref: library/io io TextIOWrapper tell9490993 Ref: 2c3c9490993 Ref: library/io io StringIO9491216 Ref: f229491216 Ref: library/io io StringIO getvalue9492381 Ref: 2c3d9492381 Ref: library/io io IncrementalNewlineDecoder9493036 Ref: 16c89493036 Node: Performance<3>9493223 Ref: library/io performance9493340 Ref: 2c3e9493340 Node: Binary I/O<2>9493589 Ref: library/io id29493673 Ref: 2c3f9493673 Node: Text I/O<3>9494325 Ref: library/io id39494436 Ref: 2c409494436 Node: Multi-threading<3>9494999 Ref: library/io multi-threading9495107 Ref: 2c419495107 Ref: Multi-threading<3>-Footnote-19495681 Node: Reentrancy9495725 Ref: library/io reentrancy9495813 Ref: 2c429495813 Node: time — Time access and conversions9496606 Ref: library/time doc9496811 Ref: 2c439496811 Ref: library/time module-time9496811 Ref: ee9496811 Ref: library/time time-time-access-and-conversions9496811 Ref: 2c449496811 Ref: library/time epoch9497513 Ref: 2a299497513 Ref: time — Time access and conversions-Footnote-19501988 Ref: time — Time access and conversions-Footnote-29502038 Ref: time — Time access and conversions-Footnote-39502103 Node: Functions<5>9502161 Ref: library/time functions9502273 Ref: 2c479502273 Ref: library/time time-functions9502273 Ref: 2c489502273 Ref: library/time time asctime9502312 Ref: 11d99502312 Ref: library/time time pthread_getcpuclockid9502983 Ref: b929502983 Ref: library/time time clock_getres9503600 Ref: 11519503600 Ref: library/time time clock_gettime9503877 Ref: 11529503877 Ref: library/time time clock_gettime_ns9504259 Ref: ae29504259 Ref: library/time time clock_settime9504462 Ref: 11539504462 Ref: library/time time clock_settime_ns9504856 Ref: ae39504856 Ref: library/time time ctime9505084 Ref: 245a9505084 Ref: library/time time get_clock_info9505664 Ref: 11509505664 Ref: library/time time gmtime9506797 Ref: 11b29506797 Ref: library/time time localtime9507289 Ref: 14c49507289 Ref: library/time time mktime9507934 Ref: 11da9507934 Ref: library/time time monotonic9508644 Ref: 2559508644 Ref: library/time time monotonic_ns9509734 Ref: ae49509734 Ref: library/time time perf_counter9509878 Ref: a889509878 Ref: library/time time perf_counter_ns9510813 Ref: ae59510813 Ref: library/time time process_time9510968 Ref: a899510968 Ref: library/time time process_time_ns9511497 Ref: ae69511497 Ref: library/time time sleep9511652 Ref: 6999511652 Ref: library/time time strftime9513752 Ref: 11db9513752 Ref: library/time leap-second9521206 Ref: 2c4a9521206 Ref: library/time time strptime9522410 Ref: 13f89522410 Ref: library/time time struct_time9524113 Ref: cea9524113 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_year9524757 Ref: 14c39524757 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_mon9525021 Ref: 2c4b9525021 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_mday9525281 Ref: 2c4c9525281 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_hour9525540 Ref: 2c4d9525540 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_min9525798 Ref: 2c4e9525798 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_sec9526057 Ref: 2c4f9526057 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_wday9526533 Ref: 2c509526533 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_yday9526804 Ref: 2c519526804 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_isdst9527065 Ref: 246b9527065 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_zone9527331 Ref: 2c469527331 Ref: library/time time struct_time tm_gmtoff9527608 Ref: 2c459527608 Ref: library/time time time9528285 Ref: 2569528285 Ref: library/time time time_ns9529858 Ref: ae79529858 Ref: library/time time thread_time9530047 Ref: 9369530047 Ref: library/time time thread_time_ns9530716 Ref: b919530716 Ref: library/time time tzset9530869 Ref: 2c529530869 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-19534782 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-29534843 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-39534935 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-49534977 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-59535662 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-69536347 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-79536397 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-89536456 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-99537141 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-109537189 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-119537240 Ref: Functions<5>-Footnote-129537289 Node: Clock ID Constants9537336 Ref: library/time clock-id-constants9537475 Ref: 2c539537475 Ref: library/time time-clock-id-constants9537475 Ref: 2bbc9537475 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_BOOTTIME9537637 Ref: b8e9537637 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_HIGHRES9538115 Ref: 2c549538115 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_MONOTONIC9538443 Ref: 6959538443 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW9538647 Ref: 2c559538647 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_MONOTONIC_RAW_APPROX9538916 Ref: 2c569538916 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_PROCESS_CPUTIME_ID9539178 Ref: 2c579539178 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_PROF9539340 Ref: b8f9539340 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_TAI9539513 Ref: 196b9539513 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_THREAD_CPUTIME_ID9539808 Ref: 2c589539808 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_UPTIME9539953 Ref: b909539953 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW9540236 Ref: a429540236 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_UPTIME_RAW_APPROX9540535 Ref: 2c599540535 Ref: library/time time CLOCK_REALTIME9540884 Ref: 6969540884 Ref: Clock ID Constants-Footnote-19541141 Node: Timezone Constants9541268 Ref: library/time time-timezone-constants9541386 Ref: 2c5a9541386 Ref: library/time timezone-constants9541386 Ref: 2c5b9541386 Ref: library/time time altzone9541443 Ref: 2c5c9541443 Ref: library/time time daylight9541731 Ref: 2c5d9541731 Ref: library/time time timezone9541817 Ref: 2c5e9541817 Ref: library/time time tzname9542015 Ref: 2c5f9542015 Node: logging — Logging facility for Python9543217 Ref: library/logging doc9543420 Ref: 2c609543420 Ref: library/logging logging-logging-facility-for-python9543420 Ref: 2c619543420 Ref: library/logging module-logging9543420 Ref: 879543420 Ref: logging — Logging facility for Python-Footnote-19546912 Node: Logger Objects9546989 Ref: library/logging logger9547102 Ref: 2c629547102 Ref: library/logging logger-objects9547102 Ref: 2c639547102 Ref: library/logging logging Logger9548256 Ref: b4f9548256 Ref: library/logging logging Logger name9548283 Ref: 2c649548283 Ref: library/logging logging Logger level9548510 Ref: 2c659548510 Ref: library/logging logging Logger parent9548803 Ref: 2c669548803 Ref: library/logging logging Logger propagate9549064 Ref: 145c9549064 Ref: library/logging logging Logger handlers9551133 Ref: 2c679551133 Ref: library/logging logging Logger disabled9551510 Ref: 2c6a9551510 Ref: library/logging logging Logger setLevel9551782 Ref: 145a9551782 Ref: library/logging logging Logger isEnabledFor9553761 Ref: 12e99553761 Ref: library/logging logging Logger getEffectiveLevel9554104 Ref: 2c6c9554104 Ref: library/logging logging Logger getChild9554612 Ref: 12e79554612 Ref: library/logging logging Logger getChildren9555113 Ref: 17c79555113 Ref: library/logging logging Logger debug9555683 Ref: e299555683 Ref: library/logging logging Logger info9561142 Ref: 2c6e9561142 Ref: library/logging logging Logger warning9561327 Ref: 17039561327 Ref: library/logging logging Logger error9561739 Ref: 2c709561739 Ref: library/logging logging Logger critical9561926 Ref: e289561926 Ref: library/logging logging Logger log9562130 Ref: e269562130 Ref: library/logging logging Logger exception9562326 Ref: e279562326 Ref: library/logging logging Logger addFilter9562647 Ref: 2c719562647 Ref: library/logging logging Logger removeFilter9562746 Ref: 2c729562746 Ref: library/logging logging Logger filter9562853 Ref: 2c739562853 Ref: library/logging logging Logger addHandler9563290 Ref: 2c689563290 Ref: library/logging logging Logger removeHandler9563387 Ref: 2c699563387 Ref: library/logging logging Logger findCaller9563492 Ref: 2c749563492 Ref: library/logging logging Logger handle9564294 Ref: 2c759564294 Ref: library/logging logging Logger makeRecord9564693 Ref: 2c769564693 Ref: library/logging logging Logger hasHandlers9564955 Ref: 2c779564955 Node: Logging Levels9565576 Ref: library/logging levels9565713 Ref: 6569565713 Ref: library/logging logging-levels9565713 Ref: 2c789565713 Ref: library/logging logging NOTSET9566386 Ref: 2c6b9566386 Ref: library/logging logging DEBUG9566996 Ref: 1cf29566996 Ref: library/logging logging INFO9567331 Ref: 1cf39567331 Ref: library/logging logging WARNING9567578 Ref: 1cf49567578 Ref: library/logging logging ERROR9568087 Ref: 1cf59568087 Ref: library/logging logging CRITICAL9568403 Ref: 1cf69568403 Node: Handler Objects9568675 Ref: library/logging handler9568815 Ref: 2c799568815 Ref: library/logging handler-objects9568815 Ref: 2c7a9568815 Ref: library/logging logging Handler9569135 Ref: 145d9569135 Ref: library/logging logging Handler __init__9569163 Ref: 2c7b9569163 Ref: library/logging logging Handler createLock9569458 Ref: 2c7c9569458 Ref: library/logging logging Handler acquire9569646 Ref: 2c7d9569646 Ref: library/logging logging Handler release9569760 Ref: 2c7e9569760 Ref: library/logging logging Handler setLevel9569862 Ref: 2c7f9569862 Ref: library/logging logging Handler setFormatter9570446 Ref: 2c809570446 Ref: library/logging logging Handler addFilter9570627 Ref: 2c819570627 Ref: library/logging logging Handler removeFilter9570727 Ref: 2c829570727 Ref: library/logging logging Handler filter9570835 Ref: 2c839570835 Ref: library/logging logging Handler flush9571234 Ref: 2c849571234 Ref: library/logging logging Handler close9571402 Ref: 2c859571402 Ref: library/logging logging Handler handle9571746 Ref: 2c869571746 Ref: library/logging logging Handler handleError9572024 Ref: 2c879572024 Ref: library/logging logging Handler format9572826 Ref: 2c899572826 Ref: library/logging logging Handler emit9572994 Ref: 2c889572994 Node: Formatter Objects9574526 Ref: library/logging formatter-objects9574666 Ref: 2c8a9574666 Ref: library/logging id19574666 Ref: 2c8b9574666 Ref: library/logging logging Formatter9574721 Ref: 145e9574721 Ref: library/logging logging Formatter format9576927 Ref: 2c8e9576927 Ref: library/logging logging Formatter formatTime9578404 Ref: 2c8c9578404 Ref: library/logging logging Formatter formatException9580798 Ref: 2c8f9580798 Ref: library/logging logging Formatter formatStack9581136 Ref: 2c909581136 Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter9581428 Ref: 2c919581428 Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter formatHeader9581846 Ref: 2c929581846 Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter formatFooter9582160 Ref: 2c939582160 Ref: library/logging logging BufferingFormatter format9582465 Ref: 2c949582465 Node: Filter Objects9582796 Ref: library/logging filter9582938 Ref: 2c959582938 Ref: library/logging filter-objects9582938 Ref: 2c969582938 Ref: library/logging logging Filter9583452 Ref: 11ed9583452 Ref: library/logging logging Filter filter9583743 Ref: 2c979583743 Node: LogRecord Objects9586147 Ref: library/logging log-record9586292 Ref: 2c9a9586292 Ref: library/logging logrecord-objects9586292 Ref: 2c9b9586292 Ref: library/logging logging LogRecord9586585 Ref: fe19586585 Ref: library/logging logging LogRecord getMessage9589146 Ref: 2c9e9589146 Node: LogRecord attributes9590644 Ref: library/logging id29590796 Ref: 2ca19590796 Ref: library/logging logrecord-attributes9590796 Ref: 2c6d9590796 Node: LoggerAdapter Objects9599194 Ref: library/logging logger-adapter9599342 Ref: 2ca29599342 Ref: library/logging loggeradapter-objects9599342 Ref: 2ca39599342 Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter9599623 Ref: 12e89599623 Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter process9600173 Ref: 2ca59600173 Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter manager9600628 Ref: 2ca69600628 Ref: library/logging logging LoggerAdapter _log9600723 Ref: 2ca79600723 Node: Thread Safety9601883 Ref: library/logging thread-safety9602033 Ref: 2ca89602033 Node: Module-Level Functions9602691 Ref: library/logging module-level-functions9602843 Ref: 2ca99602843 Ref: library/logging logging getLogger9603001 Ref: 9609603001 Ref: library/logging logging getLoggerClass9603732 Ref: 2caa9603732 Ref: library/logging logging getLogRecordFactory9604210 Ref: 2c9f9604210 Ref: library/logging logging debug9604671 Ref: 2c6f9604671 Ref: library/logging logging info9605563 Ref: 2c989605563 Ref: library/logging logging warning9605772 Ref: 2f99605772 Ref: library/logging logging error9606195 Ref: 2cac9606195 Ref: library/logging logging critical9606406 Ref: 2cad9606406 Ref: library/logging logging exception9606623 Ref: 145b9606623 Ref: library/logging logging log9606955 Ref: 2cae9606955 Ref: library/logging logging disable9607161 Ref: 2caf9607161 Ref: library/logging logging addLevelName9608377 Ref: 2cb09608377 Ref: library/logging logging getLevelNamesMapping9609035 Ref: 6559609035 Ref: library/logging logging getLevelName9609364 Ref: 2cb29609364 Ref: library/logging logging getHandlerByName9611004 Ref: 17d89611004 Ref: library/logging logging getHandlerNames9611189 Ref: 16fd9611189 Ref: library/logging logging makeLogRecord9611319 Ref: 2c9c9611319 Ref: library/logging logging basicConfig9611684 Ref: 9ff9611684 Ref: library/logging logging shutdown9617100 Ref: 2cb39617100 Ref: library/logging logging setLoggerClass9617542 Ref: 2cab9617542 Ref: library/logging logging setLogRecordFactory9618158 Ref: 2ca09618158 Ref: Module-Level Functions-Footnote-19619493 Node: Module-Level Attributes9619558 Ref: library/logging module-level-attributes9619733 Ref: 2cb49619733 Ref: library/logging logging lastResort9619802 Ref: 11ec9619802 Ref: library/logging logging raiseExceptions9620409 Ref: 11eb9620409 Node: Integration with the warnings module9620806 Ref: library/logging integration-with-the-warnings-module9620950 Ref: 2cb59620950 Ref: library/logging logging captureWarnings9621172 Ref: 2cb69621172 Ref: Integration with the warnings module-Footnote-19622563 Ref: Integration with the warnings module-Footnote-29622605 Node: logging config — Logging configuration9622658 Ref: library/logging config doc9622862 Ref: 2cb79622862 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-logging-configuration9622862 Ref: 2cb89622862 Ref: library/logging config module-logging config9622862 Ref: 889622862 Ref: logging config — Logging configuration-Footnote-19623513 Node: Configuration functions9623587 Ref: library/logging config configuration-functions9623719 Ref: 2cb99623719 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-api9623719 Ref: 12e49623719 Ref: library/logging config logging config dictConfig9624161 Ref: 11a29624161 Ref: library/logging config logging config fileConfig9626278 Ref: b519626278 Ref: library/logging config logging config listen9628996 Ref: f609628996 Ref: library/logging config logging-eval-security9630650 Ref: 2cbe9630650 Ref: library/logging config logging config stopListening9632335 Ref: 2cbd9632335 Node: Security considerations9632579 Ref: library/logging config security-considerations9632751 Ref: 2cbf9632751 Node: Configuration dictionary schema9633469 Ref: library/logging config configuration-dictionary-schema9633643 Ref: 2cc19633643 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dictschema9633643 Ref: 2cba9633643 Node: Dictionary Schema Details9634660 Ref: library/logging config dictionary-schema-details9634787 Ref: 2cc39634787 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dictschema-formatters9635594 Ref: 2cc49635594 Node: Incremental Configuration9640466 Ref: library/logging config incremental-configuration9640620 Ref: 2cc69640620 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-incremental9640620 Ref: 2cc59640620 Node: Object connections9642065 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-connections9642214 Ref: 2cc29642214 Ref: library/logging config object-connections9642214 Ref: 2cc79642214 Node: User-defined objects9644609 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-userdef9644760 Ref: 2cc09644760 Ref: library/logging config user-defined-objects9644760 Ref: 2cc89644760 Node: Handler configuration order9649355 Ref: library/logging config handler-config-dict-order9649514 Ref: 2cc99649514 Ref: library/logging config handler-configuration-order9649514 Ref: 2cca9649514 Node: Access to external objects9650827 Ref: library/logging config access-to-external-objects9650992 Ref: 2ccb9650992 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-externalobj9650992 Ref: 2ccc9650992 Node: Access to internal objects9652291 Ref: library/logging config access-to-internal-objects9652467 Ref: 2ccd9652467 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-dict-internalobj9652467 Ref: 2cce9652467 Node: Import resolution and custom importers9655905 Ref: library/logging config import-resolution-and-custom-importers9656097 Ref: 2cd09656097 Ref: library/logging config logging-import-resolution9656097 Ref: 2cd19656097 Node: Configuring QueueHandler and QueueListener9657077 Ref: library/logging config configure-queue9657234 Ref: 15dc9657234 Ref: library/logging config configuring-queuehandler-and-queuelistener9657234 Ref: 2cd29657234 Node: Configuration file format9660441 Ref: library/logging config configuration-file-format9660583 Ref: 2cd79660583 Ref: library/logging config logging-config-fileformat9660583 Ref: 2cbb9660583 Node: logging handlers — Logging handlers9667948 Ref: library/logging handlers doc9668176 Ref: 2cd89668176 Ref: library/logging handlers logging-handlers-logging-handlers9668176 Ref: 2cd99668176 Ref: library/logging handlers module-logging handlers9668176 Ref: 899668176 Ref: logging handlers — Logging handlers-Footnote-19669245 Node: StreamHandler9669322 Ref: library/logging handlers stream-handler9669429 Ref: 2cda9669429 Ref: library/logging handlers streamhandler9669429 Ref: 2cdb9669429 Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler9669743 Ref: 11ea9669743 Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler emit9669981 Ref: 2cdc9669981 Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler flush9670331 Ref: 2cde9670331 Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler setStream9670624 Ref: b509670624 Ref: library/logging handlers logging StreamHandler terminator9671040 Ref: 2cdd9671040 Node: FileHandler9671456 Ref: library/logging handlers file-handler9671583 Ref: 2cdf9671583 Ref: library/logging handlers filehandler9671583 Ref: 2ce09671583 Ref: library/logging handlers logging FileHandler9671818 Ref: 189e9671818 Ref: library/logging handlers logging FileHandler close9672640 Ref: 2ce29672640 Ref: library/logging handlers logging FileHandler emit9672695 Ref: 2ce19672695 Ref: FileHandler-Footnote-19672983 Node: NullHandler9673048 Ref: library/logging handlers null-handler9673180 Ref: 2ce39673180 Ref: library/logging handlers nullhandler9673180 Ref: 2ce49673180 Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler9673441 Ref: 12779673441 Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler emit9673541 Ref: 2ce59673541 Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler handle9673610 Ref: 2ce69673610 Ref: library/logging handlers logging NullHandler createLock9673681 Ref: 2ce79673681 Node: WatchedFileHandler9673964 Ref: library/logging handlers watched-file-handler9674104 Ref: 2ce99674104 Ref: library/logging handlers watchedfilehandler9674104 Ref: 2cea9674104 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers WatchedFileHandler9675119 Ref: 2ceb9675119 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers WatchedFileHandler reopenIfNeeded9675951 Ref: cb69675951 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers WatchedFileHandler emit9676244 Ref: 2cec9676244 Node: BaseRotatingHandler9676412 Ref: library/logging handlers base-rotating-handler9676560 Ref: 2ced9676560 Ref: library/logging handlers baserotatinghandler9676560 Ref: 2cee9676560 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler9676947 Ref: 2cef9676947 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler namer9677136 Ref: 2cf09677136 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler rotator9678873 Ref: 2cf39678873 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler rotation_filename9679158 Ref: 2cf19679158 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BaseRotatingHandler rotate9679729 Ref: 2cf49679729 Node: RotatingFileHandler9681041 Ref: library/logging handlers rotating-file-handler9681195 Ref: 2cf69681195 Ref: library/logging handlers rotatingfilehandler9681195 Ref: 2cf79681195 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler9681387 Ref: 15d99681387 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler doRollover9683358 Ref: 2cf99683358 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler emit9683438 Ref: 2cf89683438 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers RotatingFileHandler shouldRollover9683570 Ref: 2cfa9683570 Node: TimedRotatingFileHandler9683718 Ref: library/logging handlers timed-rotating-file-handler9683866 Ref: 2cfb9683866 Ref: library/logging handlers timedrotatingfilehandler9683866 Ref: 2cfc9683866 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler9684099 Ref: f5c9684099 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler doRollover9689251 Ref: 2cfe9689251 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler emit9689331 Ref: 2cfd9689331 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler getFilesToDelete9689458 Ref: 2cf29689458 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers TimedRotatingFileHandler shouldRollover9689597 Ref: 2cff9689597 Node: SocketHandler9689761 Ref: library/logging handlers socket-handler9689905 Ref: 2d009689905 Ref: library/logging handlers sockethandler9689905 Ref: 2d019689905 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler9690117 Ref: f5d9690117 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler close9690524 Ref: 2d029690524 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler emit9690581 Ref: 2d039690581 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler handleError9691016 Ref: 2d049691016 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler makeSocket9691246 Ref: 2d059691246 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler makePickle9691490 Ref: 2d069691490 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler send9692300 Ref: 2d079692300 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SocketHandler createSocket9692621 Ref: 6599692621 Node: DatagramHandler9693821 Ref: library/logging handlers datagram-handler9693954 Ref: 2d089693954 Ref: library/logging handlers datagramhandler9693954 Ref: 2d099693954 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler9694190 Ref: f5e9694190 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler emit9695104 Ref: 2d0a9695104 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler makeSocket9695458 Ref: 2d0b9695458 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers DatagramHandler send9695645 Ref: 2d0c9695645 Node: SysLogHandler9695860 Ref: library/logging handlers syslog-handler9695997 Ref: 2d0d9695997 Ref: library/logging handlers sysloghandler9695997 Ref: 2d0e9695997 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler9696203 Ref: 6589696203 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler close9698168 Ref: 2d0f9698168 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler createSocket9698244 Ref: 6579698244 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler emit9698699 Ref: 2d109698699 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler encodePriority9700581 Ref: 2d119700581 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SysLogHandler mapPriority9704605 Ref: 2d129704605 Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-19705095 Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-29705150 Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-39705215 Ref: SysLogHandler-Footnote-49705274 Node: NTEventLogHandler9705339 Ref: library/logging handlers nt-eventlog-handler9705472 Ref: 2d139705472 Ref: library/logging handlers nteventloghandler9705472 Ref: 2d149705472 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler9705807 Ref: 2d159705807 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler close9706868 Ref: 2d169706868 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler emit9707270 Ref: 2d179707270 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler getEventCategory9707428 Ref: 2d189707428 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler getEventType9707630 Ref: 2d199707630 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers NTEventLogHandler getMessageID9708217 Ref: 2d1a9708217 Node: SMTPHandler9708647 Ref: library/logging handlers smtp-handler9708780 Ref: 2d1b9708780 Ref: library/logging handlers smtphandler9708780 Ref: 2d1c9708780 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SMTPHandler9708977 Ref: 15689708977 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SMTPHandler emit9710232 Ref: 2d1d9710232 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers SMTPHandler getSubject9710336 Ref: 2d1e9710336 Node: MemoryHandler9710482 Ref: library/logging handlers memory-handler9710609 Ref: 2d1f9710609 Ref: library/logging handlers memoryhandler9710609 Ref: 2d209710609 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler9711312 Ref: 2d219711312 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler emit9711508 Ref: 2d229711508 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler flush9711698 Ref: 2d249711698 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers BufferingHandler shouldFlush9711935 Ref: 2d239711935 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler9712118 Ref: 2ccf9712118 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler close9712933 Ref: 2d269712933 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler flush9713061 Ref: 2d279713061 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler setTarget9713368 Ref: 2d259713368 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers MemoryHandler shouldFlush9713458 Ref: 2d289713458 Node: HTTPHandler9713584 Ref: library/logging handlers http-handler9713712 Ref: 2d299713712 Ref: library/logging handlers httphandler9713712 Ref: 2d2a9713712 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers HTTPHandler9713943 Ref: e2a9713943 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers HTTPHandler mapLogRecord9714903 Ref: 2d2b9714903 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers HTTPHandler emit9715359 Ref: 2d2c9715359 Node: QueueHandler9716093 Ref: library/logging handlers queue-handler9716221 Ref: 2d2d9716221 Ref: library/logging handlers queuehandler9716221 Ref: 2d2e9716221 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler9716962 Ref: 17d79716962 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler emit9718104 Ref: 2d319718104 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler prepare9718607 Ref: 2d329718607 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler enqueue9720546 Ref: 2d2f9720546 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueHandler listener9720792 Ref: 2cd39720792 Node: QueueListener9721087 Ref: library/logging handlers queue-listener9721195 Ref: 2d339721195 Ref: library/logging handlers queuelistener9721195 Ref: 2d349721195 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener9722217 Ref: e2b9722217 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener dequeue9723448 Ref: 2d359723448 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener prepare9723729 Ref: 2d369723729 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener handle9724046 Ref: 2d379724046 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener start9724308 Ref: 15479724308 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener stop9724598 Ref: 2d389724598 Ref: library/logging handlers logging handlers QueueListener enqueue_sentinel9724909 Ref: 2d399724909 Node: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data9725408 Ref: library/platform doc9725635 Ref: 2d3a9725635 Ref: library/platform module-platform9725635 Ref: aa9725635 Ref: library/platform platform-access-to-underlying-platform-s-identifying-data9725635 Ref: 2d3b9725635 Ref: platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data-Footnote-19726230 Node: Cross platform9726298 Ref: library/platform cross-platform9726434 Ref: 2d3c9726434 Ref: library/platform platform architecture9726483 Ref: 168b9726483 Ref: library/platform platform machine9727812 Ref: 2d3d9727812 Ref: library/platform platform node9727969 Ref: 2d3e9727969 Ref: library/platform platform platform9728144 Ref: 17559728144 Ref: library/platform platform processor9729087 Ref: 2d409729087 Ref: library/platform platform python_build9729408 Ref: 2d419729408 Ref: library/platform platform python_compiler9729555 Ref: 2d429729555 Ref: library/platform platform python_branch9729678 Ref: 2d439729678 Ref: library/platform platform python_implementation9729792 Ref: 2d449729792 Ref: library/platform platform python_revision9729996 Ref: 2d459729996 Ref: library/platform platform python_version9730119 Ref: 2d469730119 Ref: library/platform platform python_version_tuple9730368 Ref: 2d479730368 Ref: library/platform platform release9730648 Ref: 2d489730648 Ref: library/platform platform system9730825 Ref: 1e5f9730825 Ref: library/platform platform system_alias9731254 Ref: 2d3f9731254 Ref: library/platform platform version9731537 Ref: 2d499731537 Ref: library/platform platform uname9731856 Ref: 1a319731856 Node: Java platform9732612 Ref: library/platform java-platform9732773 Ref: 2d4a9732773 Ref: library/platform platform java_ver9732820 Ref: 2a99732820 Node: Windows platform9733457 Ref: library/platform windows-platform9733618 Ref: 2d4b9733618 Ref: library/platform platform win32_ver9733671 Ref: 195e9733671 Ref: library/platform platform win32_edition9734499 Ref: 2d4c9734499 Ref: library/platform platform win32_is_iot9734829 Ref: 2d4d9734829 Node: macOS platform9735023 Ref: library/platform macos-platform9735183 Ref: 2d4e9735183 Ref: library/platform platform mac_ver9735232 Ref: 1a339735232 Node: iOS platform9735613 Ref: library/platform ios-platform9735771 Ref: 2d4f9735771 Ref: library/platform platform ios_ver9735816 Ref: 1e5e9735816 Node: Unix platforms9736591 Ref: library/platform unix-platforms9736750 Ref: 2d509736750 Ref: library/platform platform libc_ver9736799 Ref: 1a309736799 Node: Linux platforms9737416 Ref: library/platform linux-platforms9737579 Ref: 2d519737579 Ref: library/platform platform freedesktop_os_release9737630 Ref: 8229737630 Ref: Linux platforms-Footnote-19739096 Node: Android platform9739169 Ref: library/platform android-platform9739339 Ref: 2d529739339 Ref: library/platform platform android_ver9739392 Ref: 164c9739392 Ref: Android platform-Footnote-19740530 Ref: Android platform-Footnote-29740609 Ref: Android platform-Footnote-39740680 Ref: Android platform-Footnote-49740752 Node: Command-line usage<2>9740826 Ref: library/platform command-line-usage9740972 Ref: 2d539740972 Ref: library/platform platform-cli9740972 Ref: 2d549740972 Ref: library/platform cmdoption-platform-terse9741243 Ref: 2d559741243 Ref: library/platform cmdoption-platform-nonaliased9741433 Ref: 2d569741433 Node: errno — Standard errno system symbols9741827 Ref: library/errno doc9742065 Ref: 2d579742065 Ref: library/errno errno-standard-errno-system-symbols9742065 Ref: 2d589742065 Ref: library/errno module-errno9742065 Ref: 579742065 Ref: library/errno errno errorcode9742468 Ref: 2d599742468 Ref: library/errno errno EPERM9742989 Ref: 17cc9742989 Ref: library/errno errno ENOENT9743115 Ref: 22aa9743115 Ref: library/errno errno ESRCH9743246 Ref: 22ae9743246 Ref: library/errno errno EINTR9743368 Ref: d869743368 Ref: library/errno errno EIO9743495 Ref: 2d5a9743495 Ref: library/errno errno ENXIO9743532 Ref: 2d5b9743532 Ref: library/errno errno E2BIG9743587 Ref: 2d5c9743587 Ref: library/errno errno ENOEXEC9743634 Ref: 2d5d9743634 Ref: library/errno errno EBADF9743683 Ref: 95b9743683 Ref: library/errno errno ECHILD9743728 Ref: 22a39743728 Ref: library/errno errno EAGAIN9743853 Ref: 229e9743853 Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEM9743967 Ref: 2d5e9743967 Ref: library/errno errno EACCES9744011 Ref: 22ad9744011 Ref: library/errno errno EFAULT9744132 Ref: 2d5f9744132 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTBLK9744174 Ref: 2d609744174 Ref: library/errno errno EBUSY9744227 Ref: 2d619744227 Ref: library/errno errno EEXIST9744280 Ref: 22a99744280 Ref: library/errno errno EXDEV9744396 Ref: 2b469744396 Ref: library/errno errno ENODEV9744443 Ref: 2d629744443 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTDIR9744488 Ref: 22ac9744488 Ref: library/errno errno EISDIR9744612 Ref: 22ab9744612 Ref: library/errno errno EINVAL9744733 Ref: 19ee9744733 Ref: library/errno errno ENFILE9744780 Ref: 2d639744780 Ref: library/errno errno EMFILE9744830 Ref: 2d649744830 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTTY9744880 Ref: 2d659744880 Ref: library/errno errno ETXTBSY9744927 Ref: 2d669744927 Ref: library/errno errno EFBIG9744973 Ref: 2d679744973 Ref: library/errno errno ENOSPC9745017 Ref: 2d689745017 Ref: library/errno errno ESPIPE9745071 Ref: 2d699745071 Ref: library/errno errno EROFS9745114 Ref: 2d6a9745114 Ref: library/errno errno EMLINK9745165 Ref: 2d6b9745165 Ref: library/errno errno EPIPE9745210 Ref: 22a49745210 Ref: library/errno errno EDOM9745325 Ref: 2d6c9745325 Ref: library/errno errno ERANGE9745389 Ref: 2d6d9745389 Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLK9745449 Ref: 2d6e9745449 Ref: library/errno errno ENAMETOOLONG9745510 Ref: 2d6f9745510 Ref: library/errno errno ENOLCK9745565 Ref: 2d709745565 Ref: library/errno errno ENOSYS9745621 Ref: 17cd9745621 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTEMPTY9745676 Ref: 2d719745676 Ref: library/errno errno ELOOP9745729 Ref: 2d729745729 Ref: library/errno errno EWOULDBLOCK9745794 Ref: 22a09745794 Ref: library/errno errno ENOMSG9745925 Ref: 2d739745925 Ref: library/errno errno EIDRM9745982 Ref: 2d749745982 Ref: library/errno errno ECHRNG9746030 Ref: 2d759746030 Ref: library/errno errno EL2NSYNC9746088 Ref: 2d769746088 Ref: library/errno errno EL3HLT9746145 Ref: 2d779746145 Ref: library/errno errno EL3RST9746190 Ref: 2d789746190 Ref: library/errno errno ELNRNG9746234 Ref: 2d799746234 Ref: library/errno errno EUNATCH9746289 Ref: 2d7a9746289 Ref: library/errno errno ENOCSI9746349 Ref: 2d7b9746349 Ref: library/errno errno EL2HLT9746406 Ref: 2d7c9746406 Ref: library/errno errno EBADE9746451 Ref: 2d7d9746451 Ref: library/errno errno EBADR9746497 Ref: 2d7e9746497 Ref: library/errno errno EXFULL9746553 Ref: 2d7f9746553 Ref: library/errno errno ENOANO9746597 Ref: 2d809746597 Ref: library/errno errno EBADRQC9746636 Ref: 2d819746636 Ref: library/errno errno EBADSLT9746688 Ref: 2d829746688 Ref: library/errno errno EDEADLOCK9746732 Ref: 2d839746732 Ref: library/errno errno EBFONT9746793 Ref: 2d849746793 Ref: library/errno errno ENOSTR9746844 Ref: 2d859746844 Ref: library/errno errno ENODATA9746894 Ref: 2d869746894 Ref: library/errno errno ETIME9746943 Ref: 2d879746943 Ref: library/errno errno ENOSR9746986 Ref: 2d889746986 Ref: library/errno errno ENONET9747040 Ref: 2d899747040 Ref: library/errno errno ENOPKG9747100 Ref: 2d8a9747100 Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTE9747152 Ref: 2d8b9747152 Ref: library/errno errno ENOLINK9747200 Ref: 2d8c9747200 Ref: library/errno errno EADV9747253 Ref: 2d8d9747253 Ref: library/errno errno ESRMNT9747297 Ref: 2d8e9747297 Ref: library/errno errno ECOMM9747341 Ref: 2d8f9747341 Ref: library/errno errno EPROTO9747398 Ref: 2d909747398 Ref: library/errno errno EMULTIHOP9747443 Ref: 2d919747443 Ref: library/errno errno EDOTDOT9747495 Ref: 2d929747495 Ref: library/errno errno EBADMSG9747545 Ref: 2d939747545 Ref: library/errno errno EOVERFLOW9747595 Ref: 2d949747595 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTUNIQ9747666 Ref: 2d959747666 Ref: library/errno errno EBADFD9747725 Ref: 2d969747725 Ref: library/errno errno EREMCHG9747784 Ref: 2d979747784 Ref: library/errno errno ELIBACC9747838 Ref: 2d989747838 Ref: library/errno errno ELIBBAD9747908 Ref: 2d999747908 Ref: library/errno errno ELIBSCN9747976 Ref: 2d9a9747976 Ref: library/errno errno ELIBMAX9748039 Ref: 2d9b9748039 Ref: library/errno errno ELIBEXEC9748118 Ref: 2d9c9748118 Ref: library/errno errno EILSEQ9748188 Ref: 2d9d9748188 Ref: library/errno errno ERESTART9748240 Ref: 2d9e9748240 Ref: library/errno errno ESTRPIPE9748316 Ref: 2d9f9748316 Ref: library/errno errno EUSERS9748367 Ref: 2da09748367 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSOCK9748412 Ref: 2da19748412 Ref: library/errno errno EDESTADDRREQ9748475 Ref: 2da29748475 Ref: library/errno errno EMSGSIZE9748540 Ref: 2da39748540 Ref: library/errno errno EPROTOTYPE9748589 Ref: 2da49748589 Ref: library/errno errno ENOPROTOOPT9748654 Ref: 2da59748654 Ref: library/errno errno EPROTONOSUPPORT9748712 Ref: 2da69748712 Ref: library/errno errno ESOCKTNOSUPPORT9748774 Ref: 2da79748774 Ref: library/errno errno EOPNOTSUPP9748839 Ref: 2da89748839 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTSUP9748919 Ref: 2da99748919 Ref: library/errno errno EPFNOSUPPORT9749002 Ref: 2daa9749002 Ref: library/errno errno EAFNOSUPPORT9749068 Ref: 2dab9749068 Ref: library/errno errno EADDRINUSE9749145 Ref: 2dac9749145 Ref: library/errno errno EADDRNOTAVAIL9749202 Ref: 2dad9749202 Ref: library/errno errno ENETDOWN9749271 Ref: 2dae9749271 Ref: library/errno errno ENETUNREACH9749319 Ref: 1a069749319 Ref: library/errno errno ENETRESET9749377 Ref: 2daf9749377 Ref: library/errno errno ECONNABORTED9749454 Ref: 22a69749454 Ref: library/errno errno ECONNRESET9749604 Ref: 22a89749604 Ref: library/errno errno ENOBUFS9749742 Ref: 17e79749742 Ref: library/errno errno EISCONN9749799 Ref: 2db09749799 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCONN9749870 Ref: 2db19749870 Ref: library/errno errno ESHUTDOWN9749938 Ref: 22a59749938 Ref: library/errno errno ETOOMANYREFS9750091 Ref: 2db29750091 Ref: library/errno errno ETIMEDOUT9750162 Ref: 22af9750162 Ref: library/errno errno ECONNREFUSED9750286 Ref: 22a79750286 Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTDOWN9750422 Ref: 2db39750422 Ref: library/errno errno EHOSTUNREACH9750468 Ref: 2db49750468 Ref: library/errno errno EALREADY9750521 Ref: 229f9750521 Ref: library/errno errno EINPROGRESS9750657 Ref: 22a19750657 Ref: library/errno errno ESTALE9750792 Ref: 2db59750792 Ref: library/errno errno EUCLEAN9750844 Ref: 2db69750844 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTNAM9750900 Ref: 2db79750900 Ref: library/errno errno ENAVAIL9750959 Ref: 2db89750959 Ref: library/errno errno EISNAM9751020 Ref: 2db99751020 Ref: library/errno errno EREMOTEIO9751071 Ref: 2dba9751071 Ref: library/errno errno EDQUOT9751121 Ref: 2dbb9751121 Ref: library/errno errno EQFULL9751166 Ref: 2dbc9751166 Ref: library/errno errno ENOMEDIUM9751256 Ref: 2dbd9751256 Ref: library/errno errno EMEDIUMTYPE9751305 Ref: 2dbe9751305 Ref: library/errno errno ENOKEY9751358 Ref: 2dbf9751358 Ref: library/errno errno EKEYEXPIRED9751415 Ref: 2dc09751415 Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREVOKED9751466 Ref: 2dc19751466 Ref: library/errno errno EKEYREJECTED9751522 Ref: 2dc29751522 Ref: library/errno errno ERFKILL9751586 Ref: 2dc39751586 Ref: library/errno errno ELOCKUNMAPPED9751655 Ref: 2dc49751655 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTACTIVE9751717 Ref: 2dc59751717 Ref: library/errno errno EAUTH9751774 Ref: 2dc69751774 Ref: library/errno errno EBADARCH9751852 Ref: 2dc79751852 Ref: library/errno errno EBADEXEC9751939 Ref: 2dc89751939 Ref: library/errno errno EBADMACHO9752034 Ref: 2dc99752034 Ref: library/errno errno EDEVERR9752117 Ref: 2dca9752117 Ref: library/errno errno EFTYPE9752189 Ref: 2dcb9752189 Ref: library/errno errno ENEEDAUTH9752281 Ref: 2dcc9752281 Ref: library/errno errno ENOATTR9752361 Ref: 2dcd9752361 Ref: library/errno errno ENOPOLICY9752440 Ref: 2dce9752440 Ref: library/errno errno EPROCLIM9752518 Ref: 2dcf9752518 Ref: library/errno errno EPROCUNAVAIL9752597 Ref: 2dd09752597 Ref: library/errno errno EPROGMISMATCH9752687 Ref: 2dd19752687 Ref: library/errno errno EPROGUNAVAIL9752774 Ref: 2dd29752774 Ref: library/errno errno EPWROFF9752859 Ref: 2dd39752859 Ref: library/errno errno EBADRPC9752938 Ref: 2dd49752938 Ref: library/errno errno ERPCMISMATCH9753015 Ref: 2dd59753015 Ref: library/errno errno ESHLIBVERS9753097 Ref: 2dd69753097 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTCAPABLE9753191 Ref: 17bf9753191 Ref: library/errno errno ECANCELED9753403 Ref: 2dd79753403 Ref: library/errno errno EOWNERDEAD9753483 Ref: 2dd89753483 Ref: library/errno errno ENOTRECOVERABLE9753556 Ref: 2dd99753556 Node: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python9753645 Ref: library/ctypes doc9753811 Ref: 2dda9753811 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-a-foreign-function-library-for-python9753811 Ref: 2ddb9753811 Ref: library/ctypes module-ctypes9753811 Ref: 2a9753811 Ref: ctypes — A foreign function library for Python-Footnote-19754328 Node: ctypes tutorial9754391 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-tutorial9754516 Ref: 2ddc9754516 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-tutorial9754516 Ref: 2ddd9754516 Node: Loading dynamic link libraries9755911 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-dynamic-link-libraries9756038 Ref: 2de09756038 Ref: library/ctypes loading-dynamic-link-libraries9756038 Ref: 2de19756038 Node: Accessing functions from loaded dlls9758096 Ref: library/ctypes accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls9758249 Ref: 2de39758249 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-functions-from-loaded-dlls9758249 Ref: 2de49758249 Node: Calling functions9760471 Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions9760616 Ref: 2de59760616 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions9760616 Ref: 2de69760616 Node: Fundamental data types9763052 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types9763188 Ref: 2de79763188 Ref: library/ctypes fundamental-data-types9763188 Ref: 2de89763188 Node: Calling functions continued9773171 Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-continued9773316 Ref: 2dfd9773316 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-continued9773316 Ref: 2dfe9773316 Node: Calling variadic functions9774394 Ref: library/ctypes calling-variadic-functions9774566 Ref: 2dff9774566 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-variadic-functions9774566 Ref: 2e009774566 Node: Calling functions with your own custom data types9775261 Ref: library/ctypes calling-functions-with-your-own-custom-data-types9775464 Ref: 2e029775464 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-calling-functions-with-own-custom-data-types9775464 Ref: 2e039775464 Node: Specifying the required argument types function prototypes9776381 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-specifying-required-argument-types9776570 Ref: 2e049776570 Ref: library/ctypes specifying-the-required-argument-types-function-prototypes9776570 Ref: 2e059776570 Node: Return types9778471 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-return-types9778662 Ref: 2e079778662 Ref: library/ctypes return-types9778662 Ref: 2e089778662 Node: Passing pointers or passing parameters by reference9781785 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-passing-pointers9781939 Ref: 2e0c9781939 Ref: library/ctypes passing-pointers-or-passing-parameters-by-reference9781939 Ref: 2e0d9781939 Node: Structures and unions9783031 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structures-unions9783213 Ref: 2e0f9783213 Ref: library/ctypes structures-and-unions9783213 Ref: 2e109783213 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structureunion-alignment-byte-order9785304 Ref: 2e129785304 Node: Structure/union alignment and byte order9785632 Ref: library/ctypes structure-union-alignment-and-byte-order9785798 Ref: 2e139785798 Node: Bit fields in structures and unions9786835 Ref: library/ctypes bit-fields-in-structures-and-unions9786986 Ref: 2e179786986 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-bit-fields-in-structures-unions9786986 Ref: 2e189786986 Node: Arrays9787578 Ref: library/ctypes arrays9787697 Ref: 2e199787697 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays9787697 Ref: 2e1a9787697 Node: Pointers9788984 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-pointers9789084 Ref: 2e1b9789084 Ref: library/ctypes pointers9789084 Ref: 2e1c9789084 Node: Type conversions9791745 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-type-conversions9791855 Ref: 2e1e9791855 Ref: library/ctypes type-conversions9791855 Ref: 2e1f9791855 Node: Incomplete Types9794469 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-incomplete-types9794589 Ref: 2e219794589 Ref: library/ctypes incomplete-types9794589 Ref: 2e229794589 Node: Callback functions9796203 Ref: library/ctypes callback-functions9796342 Ref: 2e239796342 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-callback-functions9796342 Ref: 2e249796342 Node: Accessing values exported from dlls9800214 Ref: library/ctypes accessing-values-exported-from-dlls9800346 Ref: 2e279800346 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-accessing-values-exported-from-dlls9800346 Ref: 2e289800346 Node: Surprises9803005 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-surprises9803144 Ref: 2e2b9803144 Ref: library/ctypes surprises9803144 Ref: 2e2c9803144 Node: Variable-sized data types9805317 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-variable-sized-data-types9805412 Ref: 2e2d9805412 Ref: library/ctypes variable-sized-data-types9805412 Ref: 2e2e9805412 Node: ctypes reference9806813 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-ctypes-reference9806938 Ref: 2e309806938 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-reference9806938 Ref: 2e319806938 Node: Finding shared libraries9807247 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-finding-shared-libraries9807357 Ref: 2e329807357 Ref: library/ctypes finding-shared-libraries9807357 Ref: 2e339807357 Node: Loading shared libraries9809927 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-loading-shared-libraries9810063 Ref: 2e349810063 Ref: library/ctypes loading-shared-libraries9810063 Ref: 2e359810063 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CDLL9810264 Ref: 9e89810264 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes OleDLL9811397 Ref: 17719811397 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinDLL9812262 Ref: 17729812262 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL9812862 Ref: 17739812862 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _handle9816699 Ref: 2e3b9816699 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PyDLL _name9816781 Ref: 2e3c9816781 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader9817130 Ref: 2e3d9817130 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LibraryLoader LoadLibrary9817588 Ref: 2de29817588 Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-19819212 Ref: Loading shared libraries-Footnote-29819278 Node: Foreign functions9819324 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-foreign-functions9819455 Ref: 2e3e9819455 Ref: library/ctypes foreign-functions9819455 Ref: 2e3f9819455 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr9820151 Ref: 2e409820151 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr restype9820453 Ref: 2e099820453 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr argtypes9821130 Ref: 2e019821130 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CFuncPtr errcheck9822393 Ref: 2e0b9822393 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ArgumentError9823379 Ref: 2e419823379 Node: Function prototypes9824019 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-function-prototypes9824143 Ref: 2e429824143 Ref: library/ctypes function-prototypes9824143 Ref: 2e439824143 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes CFUNCTYPE9824724 Ref: 2e259824724 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WINFUNCTYPE9825235 Ref: 2e269825235 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes PYFUNCTYPE9825616 Ref: 2e449825616 Node: Utility functions9831084 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-utility-functions9831201 Ref: 2e459831201 Ref: library/ctypes utility-functions9831201 Ref: 2e469831201 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes addressof9831258 Ref: 2e479831258 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes alignment9831502 Ref: 2e489831502 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes byref9831662 Ref: 2e0e9831662 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes cast9832176 Ref: 2e209832176 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_string_buffer9832470 Ref: 2dfc9832470 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes create_unicode_buffer9833967 Ref: 19ce9833967 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllCanUnloadNow9834498 Ref: 2e499834498 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes DllGetClassObject9834770 Ref: 2e4a9834770 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_library9835052 Ref: d499835052 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes util find_msvcrt9835444 Ref: 2e4b9835444 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes FormatError9835928 Ref: 2e4c9835928 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes GetLastError9836194 Ref: 2e0a9836194 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_errno9836489 Ref: 2e379836489 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes get_last_error9836742 Ref: 2e399836742 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memmove9837045 Ref: 2e4d9837045 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes memset9837289 Ref: 2e4e9837289 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes POINTER9837542 Ref: 16e59837542 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes pointer9837769 Ref: 16e49837769 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes resize9838078 Ref: 2e2f9838078 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_errno9838416 Ref: 2e389838416 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes set_last_error9838724 Ref: 2e3a9838724 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes sizeof9839083 Ref: 2e4f9839083 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes string_at9839254 Ref: 2e509839254 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes WinError9839566 Ref: 2e519839566 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes wstring_at9840131 Ref: 2e529840131 Node: Data types9840489 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-data-types9840612 Ref: 2e539840612 Ref: library/ctypes data-types9840612 Ref: 2e549840612 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData9840655 Ref: 2e559840655 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer9841290 Ref: 2e579841290 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_buffer_copy9841877 Ref: 2e589841877 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_address9842422 Ref: 2e599842422 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData from_param9842768 Ref: 2e069842768 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData in_dll9843329 Ref: 2e299843329 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_base_9843625 Ref: 2e5a9843625 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _b_needsfree_9843930 Ref: 2e5b9843930 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _CData _objects9844104 Ref: 2e569844104 Node: Fundamental data types<2>9844416 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-fundamental-data-types-29844543 Ref: 2e5c9844543 Ref: library/ctypes id19844543 Ref: 2e5d9844543 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData9844610 Ref: 2e5e9844610 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _SimpleCData value9845083 Ref: 2e5f9845083 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_byte9846445 Ref: 176f9846445 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char9846657 Ref: 2dea9846657 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_char_p9846897 Ref: 16e69846897 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_double9847191 Ref: 18fa9847191 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longdouble9847320 Ref: 18fb9847320 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_float9847567 Ref: 2dfb9847567 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int9847694 Ref: 2dde9847694 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int89847958 Ref: 2dee9847958 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int169848079 Ref: 2def9848079 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int329848205 Ref: 2df09848205 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_int649848329 Ref: 2df19848329 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_long9848458 Ref: 2ddf9848458 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_longlong9848622 Ref: 2df89848622 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_short9848800 Ref: 2dec9848800 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_size_t9848966 Ref: 2dfa9848966 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ssize_t9849040 Ref: 122f9849040 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_time_t9849144 Ref: 17d99849144 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ubyte9849247 Ref: 17709849247 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint9849461 Ref: 2df29849461 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint89849730 Ref: 2df39849730 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint169849855 Ref: 2df49849855 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint329849985 Ref: 2df59849985 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_uint649850113 Ref: 2df69850113 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ulong9850246 Ref: 2df79850246 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ulonglong9850413 Ref: 2df99850413 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_ushort9850594 Ref: 2ded9850594 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_void_p9850763 Ref: 16e89850763 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_wchar9850926 Ref: 2deb9850926 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_wchar_p9851191 Ref: 16e79851191 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes c_bool9851398 Ref: 2de99851398 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes HRESULT9851612 Ref: 2e369851612 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes py_object9851800 Ref: 14039851800 Node: Structured data types9852189 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-structured-data-types9852325 Ref: 2e609852325 Ref: library/ctypes structured-data-types9852325 Ref: 2e619852325 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Union9852390 Ref: 16819852390 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes BigEndianUnion9852488 Ref: 18269852488 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LittleEndianUnion9852630 Ref: 18279852630 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes BigEndianStructure9852778 Ref: 2e159852778 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes LittleEndianStructure9852899 Ref: 2e169852899 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure9853168 Ref: 1d49853168 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _fields_9853592 Ref: 2e119853592 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _pack_9855186 Ref: 2e149855186 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _align_9855551 Ref: 1d59855551 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Structure _anonymous_9855847 Ref: 2e629855847 Node: Arrays and pointers9858203 Ref: library/ctypes arrays-and-pointers9858305 Ref: 2e639858305 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes-arrays-pointers9858305 Ref: 2e649858305 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array9858366 Ref: 1a299858366 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array _length_9858880 Ref: 2e659858880 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes Array _type_9859109 Ref: 2e669859109 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes ARRAY9859307 Ref: 29e9859307 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer9859603 Ref: 2e679859603 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer _type_9860261 Ref: 15439860261 Ref: library/ctypes ctypes _Pointer contents9860331 Ref: 2e1d9860331 Node: Command Line Interface Libraries9860521 Ref: library/cmdlinelibs doc9860688 Ref: 2e689860688 Ref: library/cmdlinelibs cmdlinelibs9860688 Ref: 2e699860688 Ref: library/cmdlinelibs command-line-interface-libraries9860688 Ref: 2e6a9860688 Node: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands9861605 Ref: library/argparse doc9861797 Ref: 2e6b9861797 Ref: library/argparse argparse-parser-for-command-line-options-arguments-and-subcommands9861797 Ref: 2e6c9861797 Ref: library/argparse module-argparse9861797 Ref: 69861797 Ref: argparse — Parser for command-line options arguments and subcommands-Footnote-19864865 Node: ArgumentParser objects9864933 Ref: library/argparse argumentparser-objects9865094 Ref: 2e719865094 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser9865159 Ref: 5359865159 Node: prog9867925 Ref: library/argparse id19868002 Ref: 2e7e9868002 Ref: library/argparse prog9868002 Ref: 2e729868002 Node: usage9869503 Ref: library/argparse usage9869600 Ref: 2e739869600 Node: description9870333 Ref: library/argparse description9870432 Ref: 2e749870432 Ref: library/argparse id29870432 Ref: 2e7f9870432 Node: epilog9870965 Ref: library/argparse epilog9871066 Ref: 2e759871066 Node: parents9871834 Ref: library/argparse parents9871939 Ref: 2e769871939 Node: formatter_class9873391 Ref: library/argparse formatter-class9873502 Ref: 2e779873502 Ref: library/argparse id39873502 Ref: 2e809873502 Ref: library/argparse argparse RawDescriptionHelpFormatter9873718 Ref: 2e819873718 Ref: library/argparse argparse RawTextHelpFormatter9873766 Ref: 2e829873766 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentDefaultsHelpFormatter9873807 Ref: 189b9873807 Ref: library/argparse argparse MetavarTypeHelpFormatter9873857 Ref: 2e839873857 Node: prefix_chars9877323 Ref: library/argparse prefix-chars9877448 Ref: 2e789877448 Node: fromfile_prefix_chars9878196 Ref: library/argparse fromfile-prefix-chars9878322 Ref: 2e799878322 Node: argument_default9880300 Ref: library/argparse argument-default9880426 Ref: 2e7a9880426 Node: allow_abbrev9881312 Ref: library/argparse allow-abbrev9881433 Ref: dbf9881433 Ref: library/argparse id49881433 Ref: 2e889881433 Node: conflict_handler9882086 Ref: library/argparse conflict-handler9882199 Ref: 2e7b9882199 Node: add_help9883746 Ref: library/argparse add-help9883860 Ref: 2e7c9883860 Node: exit_on_error9885023 Ref: library/argparse exit-on-error9885112 Ref: 2e7d9885112 Node: The add_argument method9885994 Ref: library/argparse the-add-argument-method9886185 Ref: 2e899886185 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_argument9886258 Ref: 19e9886258 Node: name or flags9888238 Ref: library/argparse id59888326 Ref: 2e929888326 Ref: library/argparse name-or-flags9888326 Ref: 2e8a9888326 Node: action9889473 Ref: library/argparse action9889575 Ref: 2e8b9889575 Ref: library/argparse id69889575 Ref: 2e939889575 Node: nargs9895957 Ref: library/argparse id79896051 Ref: 2e959896051 Ref: library/argparse nargs9896051 Ref: 15ad9896051 Node: const9900257 Ref: library/argparse const9900352 Ref: 2e8c9900352 Ref: library/argparse id89900352 Ref: 2e979900352 Node: default9901645 Ref: library/argparse default9901739 Ref: 2e8d9901739 Ref: library/argparse id99901739 Ref: 2e989901739 Node: type9904183 Ref: library/argparse argparse-type9904279 Ref: 2e999904279 Ref: library/argparse type9904279 Ref: 2e849904279 Node: choices9907273 Ref: library/argparse choices9907370 Ref: 15aa9907370 Ref: library/argparse id109907370 Ref: 2e9b9907370 Node: required9908947 Ref: library/argparse id119909044 Ref: 2e9c9909044 Ref: library/argparse required9909044 Ref: 2e8e9909044 Node: help9909999 Ref: library/argparse help9910096 Ref: 2e8f9910096 Ref: library/argparse id129910096 Ref: 2e9d9910096 Node: metavar9911605 Ref: library/argparse id139911698 Ref: 2e9e9911698 Ref: library/argparse metavar9911698 Ref: 2e909911698 Node: dest9913913 Ref: library/argparse dest9914012 Ref: 2e859914012 Ref: library/argparse id149914012 Ref: 2e9f9914012 Node: deprecated9915645 Ref: library/argparse deprecated9915751 Ref: 2e919915751 Ref: library/argparse id159915751 Ref: 2ea09915751 Node: Action classes9916665 Ref: library/argparse action-classes9916758 Ref: 2ea19916758 Ref: library/argparse argparse Action9917051 Ref: 17fe9917051 Ref: library/argparse argparse Action __call__9917945 Ref: 2ea29917945 Ref: library/argparse argparse Action format_usage9919239 Ref: 2ea39919239 Ref: library/argparse argparse BooleanOptionalAction9919547 Ref: 18559919547 Node: The parse_args method9920137 Ref: library/argparse the-parse-args-method9920321 Ref: 2ea49920321 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_args9920390 Ref: 2e6f9920390 Node: Option value syntax9921259 Ref: library/argparse option-value-syntax9921362 Ref: 2ea79921362 Node: Invalid arguments9922759 Ref: library/argparse invalid-arguments9922893 Ref: 2ea89922893 Node: Arguments containing -9923878 Ref: library/argparse arguments-containing9924031 Ref: 2ea99924031 Node: Argument abbreviations prefix matching9926119 Ref: library/argparse argument-abbreviations-prefix-matching9926270 Ref: 2eaa9926270 Ref: library/argparse prefix-matching9926270 Ref: dbe9926270 Node: Beyond sys argv9927198 Ref: library/argparse args9927347 Ref: 2ea59927347 Ref: library/argparse beyond-sys-argv9927347 Ref: 2eab9927347 Node: The Namespace object9928309 Ref: library/argparse namespace9928411 Ref: 2ea69928411 Ref: library/argparse the-namespace-object9928411 Ref: 2eac9928411 Ref: library/argparse argparse Namespace9928474 Ref: 2e709928474 Node: Other utilities9929609 Ref: library/argparse other-utilities9929783 Ref: 2ead9929783 Node: Sub-commands9930095 Ref: library/argparse sub-commands9930184 Ref: 2eae9930184 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_subparsers9930231 Ref: c179930231 Node: FileType objects9939618 Ref: library/argparse filetype-objects9939731 Ref: 2eaf9939731 Ref: library/argparse argparse FileType9939786 Ref: f169939786 Node: Argument groups9941255 Ref: library/argparse argument-groups9941372 Ref: 2eb09941372 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_argument_group9941425 Ref: 2eb19941425 Node: Mutual exclusion9944215 Ref: library/argparse mutual-exclusion9944331 Ref: 2eb29944331 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser add_mutually_exclusive_group9944386 Ref: 2eb39944386 Node: Parser defaults9947107 Ref: library/argparse parser-defaults9947221 Ref: 2eb49947221 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser set_defaults9947274 Ref: 2e879947274 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser get_default9948398 Ref: 2eb59948398 Node: Printing help9948754 Ref: library/argparse printing-help9948867 Ref: 2eb69948867 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser print_usage9949096 Ref: 2eb79949096 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser print_help9949328 Ref: 2eb89949328 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser format_usage9949682 Ref: 19ca9949682 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser format_help9949861 Ref: 2eb99949861 Node: Partial parsing9950074 Ref: library/argparse partial-parsing9950196 Ref: 2eba9950196 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_known_args9950249 Ref: 2ebb9950249 Node: Customizing file parsing9951413 Ref: library/argparse customizing-file-parsing9951537 Ref: 2ebc9951537 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser convert_arg_line_to_args9951608 Ref: 2e869951608 Node: Exiting methods9952513 Ref: library/argparse exiting-methods9952640 Ref: 2ebd9952640 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser exit9952693 Ref: 2ebe9952693 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser error9953256 Ref: 2ebf9953256 Node: Intermixed parsing9953455 Ref: library/argparse intermixed-parsing9953593 Ref: 2ec09953593 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_intermixed_args9953652 Ref: b009953652 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser parse_known_intermixed_args9953740 Ref: 2ec19953740 Node: Registering custom types or actions9955385 Ref: library/argparse registering-custom-types-or-actions9955499 Ref: 2ec29955499 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentParser register9955592 Ref: 2e949955592 Node: Exceptions<9>9957060 Ref: library/argparse exceptions9957204 Ref: 2ec39957204 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentError9957247 Ref: 2ec49957247 Ref: library/argparse argparse ArgumentTypeError9957491 Ref: 2e9a9957491 Node: Argparse Tutorial9957737 Ref: howto/argparse doc9957848 Ref: 2ec59957848 Ref: howto/argparse argparse-tutorial9957848 Ref: 2e6e9957848 Ref: howto/argparse id19957848 Ref: 2ec69957848 Node: Concepts9959111 Ref: howto/argparse concepts9959192 Ref: 2ec79959192 Node: The basics9961286 Ref: howto/argparse the-basics9961408 Ref: 2ec89961408 Node: Introducing Positional arguments9962573 Ref: howto/argparse introducing-positional-arguments9962717 Ref: 2ec99962717 Node: Introducing Optional arguments9965997 Ref: howto/argparse introducing-optional-arguments9966174 Ref: 2eca9966174 Node: Short options9969158 Ref: howto/argparse short-options9969238 Ref: 2ecb9969238 Node: Combining Positional and Optional arguments9970031 Ref: howto/argparse combining-positional-and-optional-arguments9970206 Ref: 2ecc9970206 Node: Getting a little more advanced9978284 Ref: howto/argparse getting-a-little-more-advanced9978465 Ref: 2ecd9978465 Node: Specifying ambiguous arguments9980471 Ref: howto/argparse id29980596 Ref: 2ece9980596 Ref: howto/argparse specifying-ambiguous-arguments9980596 Ref: 2e969980596 Node: Conflicting options9981552 Ref: howto/argparse conflicting-options9981677 Ref: 2ecf9981677 Node: How to translate the argparse output9984778 Ref: howto/argparse how-to-translate-the-argparse-output9984938 Ref: 2ed09984938 Ref: How to translate the argparse output-Footnote-19986708 Node: Custom type converters9986741 Ref: howto/argparse custom-type-converters9986881 Ref: 2ed29986881 Node: Conclusion9988647 Ref: howto/argparse conclusion9988742 Ref: 2ed39988742 Ref: howto/argparse-optparse upgrading-optparse-code9989009 Ref: 11a09989009 Node: Migrating optparse code to argparse9989011 Ref: howto/argparse-optparse doc9989122 Ref: 2ed49989122 Ref: howto/argparse-optparse migrating-optparse-code9989122 Ref: 2ed59989122 Ref: howto/argparse-optparse migrating-optparse-code-to-argparse9989122 Ref: 2ed69989122 Node: optparse — Parser for command line options9992141 Ref: library/optparse doc9992377 Ref: 2edc9992377 Ref: library/optparse module-optparse9992377 Ref: a09992377 Ref: library/optparse optparse-parser-for-command-line-options9992377 Ref: 2edd9992377 Ref: optparse — Parser for command line options-Footnote-19992845 Node: Choosing an argument parsing library9992913 Ref: library/optparse choosing-an-argument-parser9993054 Ref: 2e6d9993054 Ref: library/optparse choosing-an-argument-parsing-library9993054 Ref: 2ede9993054 Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-19998690 Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-29998730 Ref: Choosing an argument parsing library-Footnote-39998770 Node: Introduction<7>9998818 Ref: library/optparse introduction9998978 Ref: 2edf9998978 Node: Background10001409 Ref: library/optparse background10001544 Ref: 2ee010001544 Ref: library/optparse optparse-background10001544 Ref: 2ee110001544 Node: Terminology10002141 Ref: library/optparse optparse-terminology10002229 Ref: 2ee210002229 Ref: library/optparse terminology10002229 Ref: 2ee310002229 Node: What are options for?10006090 Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-options-for10006221 Ref: 2ee410006221 Ref: library/optparse what-are-options-for10006221 Ref: 2ee510006221 Node: What are positional arguments for?10007906 Ref: library/optparse optparse-what-positional-arguments-for10008017 Ref: 2ee610008017 Ref: library/optparse what-are-positional-arguments-for10008017 Ref: 2ee710008017 Node: Tutorial<2>10009352 Ref: library/optparse optparse-tutorial10009487 Ref: 2ee810009487 Ref: library/optparse tutorial10009487 Ref: 2ee910009487 Node: Understanding option actions10012106 Ref: library/optparse optparse-understanding-option-actions10012207 Ref: 2eee10012207 Ref: library/optparse understanding-option-actions10012207 Ref: 2eef10012207 Node: The store action10012798 Ref: library/optparse optparse-store-action10012937 Ref: 2ef110012937 Ref: library/optparse the-store-action10012937 Ref: 2ef210012937 Node: Handling boolean flag options10015133 Ref: library/optparse handling-boolean-flag-options10015257 Ref: 2ef310015257 Ref: library/optparse optparse-handling-boolean-options10015257 Ref: 2ef410015257 Node: Other actions10016142 Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-actions10016264 Ref: 2ef510016264 Ref: library/optparse other-actions10016264 Ref: 2ef610016264 Node: Default values10016723 Ref: library/optparse default-values10016831 Ref: 2efa10016831 Ref: library/optparse optparse-default-values10016831 Ref: 2efb10016831 Node: Generating help10018726 Ref: library/optparse generating-help10018846 Ref: 2efc10018846 Ref: library/optparse optparse-generating-help10018846 Ref: 2efd10018846 Node: Grouping Options10023020 Ref: library/optparse grouping-options10023088 Ref: 2efe10023088 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionGroup10023419 Ref: 2eff10023419 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option_group10026917 Ref: 2f0010026917 Node: Printing a version string10027187 Ref: library/optparse optparse-printing-version-string10027320 Ref: 2f0110027320 Ref: library/optparse printing-a-version-string10027320 Ref: 2f0210027320 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_version10028204 Ref: 2f0310028204 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_version10028578 Ref: 2f0510028578 Node: How optparse handles errors10028722 Ref: library/optparse how-optparse-handles-errors10028863 Ref: 2f0610028863 Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-optparse-handles-errors10028863 Ref: 2f0710028863 Node: Putting it all together10030953 Ref: library/optparse optparse-putting-it-all-together10031060 Ref: 2f0810031060 Ref: library/optparse putting-it-all-together10031060 Ref: 2f0910031060 Node: Reference Guide10031978 Ref: library/optparse optparse-reference-guide10032119 Ref: 2ef810032119 Ref: library/optparse reference-guide10032119 Ref: 2f0a10032119 Node: Creating the parser10032460 Ref: library/optparse creating-the-parser10032561 Ref: 2f0b10032561 Ref: library/optparse optparse-creating-parser10032561 Ref: 2f0c10032561 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser10032706 Ref: 149810032706 Node: Populating the parser10035712 Ref: library/optparse optparse-populating-parser10035838 Ref: 2f0e10035838 Ref: library/optparse populating-the-parser10035838 Ref: 2f0f10035838 Node: Defining options10037124 Ref: library/optparse defining-options10037248 Ref: 2f1010037248 Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-options10037248 Ref: 2f1110037248 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser add_option10037664 Ref: 2ed710037664 Ref: library/optparse optparse Values10039755 Ref: 2ed910039755 Node: Option attributes10041001 Ref: library/optparse option-attributes10041127 Ref: 2f1510041127 Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-attributes10041127 Ref: 2f1610041127 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option10041184 Ref: 2f1210041184 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option action10041802 Ref: 2eea10041802 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option type10042025 Ref: 2eeb10042025 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option dest10042242 Ref: 2eec10042242 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option default10042587 Ref: 2f1810042587 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option nargs10042781 Ref: 2f1a10042781 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option const10043014 Ref: 2ef710043014 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option choices10043124 Ref: 2f1b10043124 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback10043248 Ref: 2f1c10043248 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_args10043480 Ref: 2f1d10043480 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option callback_kwargs10043516 Ref: 2f1e10043516 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option help10043680 Ref: 2eed10043680 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option metavar10044028 Ref: 2f1f10044028 Node: Standard option actions10044233 Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-actions10044364 Ref: 2f1310044364 Ref: library/optparse standard-option-actions10044364 Ref: 2f2010044364 Node: Standard option types10052451 Ref: library/optparse optparse-standard-option-types10052582 Ref: 2f1710052582 Ref: library/optparse standard-option-types10052582 Ref: 2f2110052582 Node: Parsing arguments10054060 Ref: library/optparse optparse-parsing-arguments10054212 Ref: 2f1410054212 Ref: library/optparse parsing-arguments10054212 Ref: 2f2210054212 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser parse_args10054378 Ref: 149910054378 Node: Querying and manipulating your option parser10055765 Ref: library/optparse optparse-querying-manipulating-option-parser10055921 Ref: 2f2310055921 Ref: library/optparse querying-and-manipulating-your-option-parser10055921 Ref: 2f2410055921 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser disable_interspersed_args10056230 Ref: 2ed810056230 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser enable_interspersed_args10057020 Ref: 2f2510057020 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_option10057226 Ref: 2f2610057226 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser has_option10057399 Ref: 2f2710057399 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser remove_option10057575 Ref: 2f2810057575 Node: Conflicts between options10057961 Ref: library/optparse conflicts-between-options10058107 Ref: 2f2910058107 Ref: library/optparse optparse-conflicts-between-options10058107 Ref: 2f0d10058107 Node: Cleanup10060578 Ref: library/optparse cleanup10060693 Ref: 2f2b10060693 Ref: library/optparse optparse-cleanup10060693 Ref: 2f2c10060693 Node: Other methods10061106 Ref: library/optparse optparse-other-methods10061187 Ref: 2f2d10061187 Ref: library/optparse other-methods10061187 Ref: 2f2e10061187 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_usage10061289 Ref: 2f2f10061289 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser print_usage10061578 Ref: 2f0410061578 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser get_usage10061914 Ref: 2f3010061914 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionParser set_defaults10062052 Ref: 2f1910062052 Node: Option Callbacks10063220 Ref: library/optparse option-callbacks10063368 Ref: 2f3110063368 Ref: library/optparse optparse-option-callbacks10063368 Ref: 2ef910063368 Node: Defining a callback option10064585 Ref: library/optparse defining-a-callback-option10064697 Ref: 2f3210064697 Ref: library/optparse optparse-defining-callback-option10064697 Ref: 2f3310064697 Node: How callbacks are called10066922 Ref: library/optparse how-callbacks-are-called10067071 Ref: 2f3410067071 Ref: library/optparse optparse-how-callbacks-called10067071 Ref: 2f3510067071 Node: Raising errors in a callback10069687 Ref: library/optparse optparse-raising-errors-in-callback10069845 Ref: 2f3610069845 Ref: library/optparse raising-errors-in-a-callback10069845 Ref: 2f3710069845 Node: Callback example 1 trivial callback10070323 Ref: library/optparse callback-example-1-trivial-callback10070494 Ref: 2f3810070494 Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-110070494 Ref: 2f3910070494 Node: Callback example 2 check option order10070942 Ref: library/optparse callback-example-2-check-option-order10071134 Ref: 2f3a10071134 Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-210071134 Ref: 2f3b10071134 Node: Callback example 3 check option order generalized10071692 Ref: library/optparse callback-example-3-check-option-order-generalized10071893 Ref: 2f3c10071893 Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-310071893 Ref: 2f3d10071893 Node: Callback example 4 check arbitrary condition10072666 Ref: library/optparse callback-example-4-check-arbitrary-condition10072864 Ref: 2f3e10072864 Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-410072864 Ref: 2f3f10072864 Node: Callback example 5 fixed arguments10073659 Ref: library/optparse callback-example-5-fixed-arguments10073845 Ref: 2f4010073845 Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-510073845 Ref: 2f4110073845 Node: Callback example 6 variable arguments10074919 Ref: library/optparse callback-example-6-variable-arguments10075052 Ref: 2f4210075052 Ref: library/optparse optparse-callback-example-610075052 Ref: 2f4310075052 Node: Extending optparse10077157 Ref: library/optparse extending-optparse10077304 Ref: 2f4410077304 Ref: library/optparse optparse-extending-optparse10077304 Ref: 2ef010077304 Node: Adding new types10077641 Ref: library/optparse adding-new-types10077739 Ref: 2f4510077739 Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-types10077739 Ref: 2f4610077739 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPES10078035 Ref: 2f4710078035 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPE_CHECKER10078194 Ref: 2f4810078194 Node: Adding new actions10081233 Ref: library/optparse adding-new-actions10081331 Ref: 2f4910081331 Ref: library/optparse optparse-adding-new-actions10081331 Ref: 2f4a10081331 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ACTIONS10082434 Ref: 2f4b10082434 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option STORE_ACTIONS10082510 Ref: 2f4c10082510 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option TYPED_ACTIONS10082603 Ref: 2f4d10082603 Ref: library/optparse optparse Option ALWAYS_TYPED_ACTIONS10082696 Ref: 2f4e10082696 Node: Exceptions<10>10086001 Ref: library/optparse exceptions10086123 Ref: 2f4f10086123 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionError10086166 Ref: 2eda10086166 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionConflictError10086307 Ref: 2f2a10086307 Ref: library/optparse optparse OptionValueError10086435 Ref: 2edb10086435 Ref: library/optparse optparse BadOptionError10086558 Ref: 2f5010086558 Ref: library/optparse optparse AmbiguousOptionError10086663 Ref: 2f5110086663 Node: getpass — Portable password input10086776 Ref: library/getpass doc10087002 Ref: 2f5210087002 Ref: library/getpass getpass-portable-password-input10087002 Ref: 2f5310087002 Ref: library/getpass module-getpass10087002 Ref: 6210087002 Ref: library/getpass getpass getpass10087415 Ref: 2f5410087415 Ref: library/getpass getpass GetPassWarning10088264 Ref: 2f5510088264 Ref: library/getpass getpass getuser10088392 Ref: 41410088392 Ref: getpass — Portable password input-Footnote-110089101 Node: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams10089168 Ref: library/fileinput doc10089406 Ref: 2f5610089406 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput-iterate-over-lines-from-multiple-input-streams10089406 Ref: 2f5710089406 Ref: library/fileinput module-fileinput10089406 Ref: 5b10089406 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput input10091726 Ref: 7fb10091726 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filename10092972 Ref: 2f5810092972 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput fileno10093128 Ref: 13f910093128 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput lineno10093327 Ref: 2f5910093327 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput filelineno10093600 Ref: 2f5a10093600 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isfirstline10093866 Ref: 2f5b10093866 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput isstdin10094018 Ref: 2f5c10094018 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput nextfile10094161 Ref: 2f5d10094161 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput close10094701 Ref: 2f5e10094701 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput FileInput10094872 Ref: 73210094872 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_compressed10097589 Ref: 7fc10097589 Ref: library/fileinput fileinput hook_encoded10098390 Ref: ca010098390 Ref: fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams-Footnote-110098992 Node: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays10099061 Ref: library/curses doc10099320 Ref: 2f5f10099320 Ref: library/curses curses-terminal-handling-for-character-cell-displays10099320 Ref: 2f6010099320 Ref: library/curses module-curses10099320 Ref: 2b10099320 Ref: curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays-Footnote-110101028 Node: Functions<6>10101091 Ref: library/curses curses-functions10101219 Ref: 2f6210101219 Ref: library/curses functions10101219 Ref: 2f6310101219 Ref: library/curses curses error10101321 Ref: 2f6410101321 Ref: library/curses curses baudrate10101689 Ref: 2f6610101689 Ref: library/curses curses beep10102041 Ref: 2f6710102041 Ref: library/curses curses can_change_color10102107 Ref: 2f6810102107 Ref: library/curses curses cbreak10102279 Ref: 2f6910102279 Ref: library/curses curses color_content10102757 Ref: 7ec10102757 Ref: library/curses curses color_pair10103140 Ref: 2f6b10103140 Ref: library/curses curses curs_set10103527 Ref: 2f6f10103527 Ref: library/curses curses def_prog_mode10103955 Ref: 2f7010103955 Ref: library/curses curses def_shell_mode10104283 Ref: 2f7210104283 Ref: library/curses curses delay_output10104629 Ref: 2f7410104629 Ref: library/curses curses doupdate10104719 Ref: 2f7510104719 Ref: library/curses curses echo10105544 Ref: 2f7910105544 Ref: library/curses curses endwin10105680 Ref: 2f7a10105680 Ref: library/curses curses erasechar10105783 Ref: 2f7b10105783 Ref: library/curses curses filter10106051 Ref: 2f7c10106051 Ref: library/curses curses flash10106662 Ref: 2f7d10106662 Ref: library/curses curses flushinp10106925 Ref: 2f7e10106925 Ref: library/curses curses getmouse10107111 Ref: 2f7f10107111 Ref: library/curses curses getsyx10108112 Ref: 2f8910108112 Ref: library/curses curses getwin10108323 Ref: 2f8b10108323 Ref: library/curses curses has_colors10108578 Ref: 2f8d10108578 Ref: library/curses curses has_extended_color_support10108710 Ref: 7f010108710 Ref: library/curses curses has_ic10109096 Ref: 2f8e10109096 Ref: library/curses curses has_il10109352 Ref: 2f8f10109352 Ref: library/curses curses has_key10109649 Ref: 2f9010109649 Ref: library/curses curses halfdelay10109803 Ref: 2f9110109803 Ref: library/curses curses init_color10110241 Ref: 7ed10110241 Ref: library/curses curses init_pair10110897 Ref: 7ee10110897 Ref: library/curses curses initscr10111618 Ref: 15a210111618 Ref: library/curses curses is_term_resized10111893 Ref: 2f9510111893 Ref: library/curses curses isendwin10112064 Ref: 2f9610112064 Ref: library/curses curses keyname10112222 Ref: 2f9710112222 Ref: library/curses curses killchar10112753 Ref: 2f9810112753 Ref: library/curses curses longname10113024 Ref: 2f9910113024 Ref: library/curses curses meta10113299 Ref: 2f9a10113299 Ref: library/curses curses mouseinterval10113456 Ref: 2f9b10113456 Ref: library/curses curses mousemask10113763 Ref: 2f9c10113763 Ref: library/curses curses napms10114183 Ref: 15a110114183 Ref: library/curses curses newpad10114251 Ref: 2f9d10114251 Ref: library/curses curses newwin10115339 Ref: 2f9e10115339 Ref: library/curses curses nl10115706 Ref: 2f9f10115706 Ref: library/curses curses nocbreak10115921 Ref: 2f9210115921 Ref: library/curses curses noecho10116042 Ref: 2fa010116042 Ref: library/curses curses nonl10116141 Ref: 2fa110116141 Ref: library/curses curses noqiflush10116634 Ref: 2fa210116634 Ref: library/curses curses noraw10117024 Ref: 2fa310117024 Ref: library/curses curses pair_content10117139 Ref: 7ef10117139 Ref: library/curses curses pair_number10117365 Ref: 2f6e10117365 Ref: library/curses curses putp10117557 Ref: 2fa410117557 Ref: library/curses curses qiflush10117803 Ref: 2fa510117803 Ref: library/curses curses raw10118069 Ref: 2f6a10118069 Ref: library/curses curses reset_prog_mode10118311 Ref: 2f7110118311 Ref: library/curses curses reset_shell_mode10118459 Ref: 2f7310118459 Ref: library/curses curses resetty10118607 Ref: 2fa610118607 Ref: library/curses curses resize_term10118749 Ref: 15ac10118749 Ref: library/curses curses resizeterm10119288 Ref: 15ab10119288 Ref: library/curses curses savetty10119561 Ref: 2fa710119561 Ref: library/curses curses get_escdelay10119696 Ref: 8ef10119696 Ref: library/curses curses set_escdelay10119822 Ref: 8f010119822 Ref: library/curses curses get_tabsize10120120 Ref: 8f110120120 Ref: library/curses curses set_tabsize10120244 Ref: 8f210120244 Ref: library/curses curses setsyx10120457 Ref: 2fa810120457 Ref: library/curses curses setupterm10120627 Ref: 2fa910120627 Ref: library/curses curses start_color10121044 Ref: 2faa10121044 Ref: library/curses curses termattrs10121737 Ref: 2fad10121737 Ref: library/curses curses termname10121967 Ref: 2fae10121967 Ref: library/curses curses tigetflag10122116 Ref: 2faf10122116 Ref: library/curses curses tigetnum10122432 Ref: 2fb010122432 Ref: library/curses curses tigetstr10122748 Ref: 2fb110122748 Ref: library/curses curses tparm10123058 Ref: 2fb210123058 Ref: library/curses curses typeahead10123395 Ref: 2fb310123395 Ref: library/curses curses unctrl10123988 Ref: 2fb410123988 Ref: library/curses curses ungetch10124269 Ref: 2fb510124269 Ref: library/curses curses update_lines_cols10124446 Ref: deb10124446 Ref: library/curses curses unget_wch10124642 Ref: 109110124642 Ref: library/curses curses ungetmouse10124863 Ref: 2fb610124863 Ref: library/curses curses use_env10125029 Ref: 2fb710125029 Ref: library/curses curses use_default_colors10125539 Ref: 2f9310125539 Ref: library/curses curses wrapper10125972 Ref: a8010125972 Node: Window Objects10126798 Ref: library/curses curses-window-objects10126947 Ref: 2f9410126947 Ref: library/curses window-objects10126947 Ref: 2fb810126947 Ref: library/curses curses window addch10127127 Ref: 2fb910127127 Ref: library/curses curses window addnstr10127730 Ref: 2fba10127730 Ref: library/curses curses window addstr10127989 Ref: 2f7710127989 Ref: library/curses curses window attroff10128989 Ref: 2fbb10128989 Ref: library/curses curses window attron10129134 Ref: 2fbc10129134 Ref: library/curses curses window attrset10129275 Ref: 2fbd10129275 Ref: library/curses curses window bkgd10129423 Ref: 2fbe10129423 Ref: library/curses curses window bkgdset10129868 Ref: 2fbf10129868 Ref: library/curses curses window border10130434 Ref: 2fc010130434 Ref: library/curses curses window box10132442 Ref: 2fc710132442 Ref: library/curses curses window chgat10132670 Ref: 2fc810132670 Ref: library/curses curses window clear10133294 Ref: 2fca10133294 Ref: library/curses curses window clearok10133449 Ref: 2fcc10133449 Ref: library/curses curses window clrtobot10133594 Ref: 2fcd10133594 Ref: library/curses curses window clrtoeol10133791 Ref: 2fce10133791 Ref: library/curses curses window cursyncup10133871 Ref: 2fcf10133871 Ref: library/curses curses window delch10134039 Ref: 2fd010134039 Ref: library/curses curses window deleteln10134118 Ref: 2fd110134118 Ref: library/curses curses window derwin10134242 Ref: 2fd210134242 Ref: library/curses curses window echochar10134652 Ref: 2fd410134652 Ref: library/curses curses window enclose10134806 Ref: 18d710134806 Ref: library/curses curses window encoding10135226 Ref: 108f10135226 Ref: library/curses curses window erase10135607 Ref: 2fcb10135607 Ref: library/curses curses window getbegyx10135660 Ref: 2fd510135660 Ref: library/curses curses window getbkgd10135763 Ref: 2fd610135763 Ref: library/curses curses window getch10135878 Ref: 154010135878 Ref: library/curses curses window get_wch10136198 Ref: 109010136198 Ref: library/curses curses window getkey10136466 Ref: 2fd710136466 Ref: library/curses curses window getmaxyx10136774 Ref: 2fd810136774 Ref: library/curses curses window getparyx10136879 Ref: 2fd910136879 Ref: library/curses curses window getstr10137083 Ref: 2fda10137083 Ref: library/curses curses window getyx10137299 Ref: 2fdb10137299 Ref: library/curses curses window hline10137440 Ref: 2fdc10137440 Ref: library/curses curses window idcok10137626 Ref: 2fdd10137626 Ref: library/curses curses window idlok10137972 Ref: 2fde10137972 Ref: library/curses curses window immedok10138165 Ref: 2fdf10138165 Ref: library/curses curses window inch10138514 Ref: 2fe010138514 Ref: library/curses curses window insch10138702 Ref: 2fe110138702 Ref: library/curses curses window insdelln10138916 Ref: 2fe210138916 Ref: library/curses curses window insertln10139295 Ref: 2fe310139295 Ref: library/curses curses window insnstr10139425 Ref: 2fe410139425 Ref: library/curses curses window insstr10139938 Ref: 2fe510139938 Ref: library/curses curses window instr10140357 Ref: 2fe610140357 Ref: library/curses curses window is_linetouched10140753 Ref: 2fe710140753 Ref: library/curses curses window is_wintouched10141036 Ref: 2fe810141036 Ref: library/curses curses window keypad10141216 Ref: 2fe910141216 Ref: library/curses curses window leaveok10141484 Ref: 2f8a10141484 Ref: library/curses curses window move10141835 Ref: 2fea10141835 Ref: library/curses curses window mvderwin10141918 Ref: 2feb10141918 Ref: library/curses curses window mvwin10142195 Ref: 2fec10142195 Ref: library/curses curses window nodelay10142311 Ref: 2fed10142311 Ref: library/curses curses window notimeout10142420 Ref: 2fee10142420 Ref: library/curses curses window noutrefresh10142684 Ref: 2f7610142684 Ref: library/curses curses window overlay10142958 Ref: 2fef10142958 Ref: library/curses curses window overwrite10143607 Ref: 2ff010143607 Ref: library/curses curses window putwin10144259 Ref: 2f8c10144259 Ref: library/curses curses window redrawln10144465 Ref: 2ff110144465 Ref: library/curses curses window redrawwin10144671 Ref: 2ff210144671 Ref: library/curses curses window refresh10144817 Ref: 2f7810144817 Ref: library/curses curses window resize10145838 Ref: 2ff310145838 Ref: library/curses curses window scroll10146190 Ref: 2ff410146190 Ref: library/curses curses window scrollok10146298 Ref: 2ff510146298 Ref: library/curses curses window setscrreg10146834 Ref: 2ff610146834 Ref: library/curses curses window standend10147003 Ref: 2ff710147003 Ref: library/curses curses window standout10147154 Ref: 2ff810147154 Ref: library/curses curses window subpad10147224 Ref: 2ff910147224 Ref: library/curses curses window subwin10147463 Ref: 2fd310147463 Ref: library/curses curses window syncdown10147821 Ref: 2ffa10147821 Ref: library/curses curses window syncok10148067 Ref: 2ffb10148067 Ref: library/curses curses window syncup10148230 Ref: 2ffc10148230 Ref: library/curses curses window timeout10148356 Ref: 2ffd10148356 Ref: library/curses curses window touchline10148859 Ref: 2fc910148859 Ref: library/curses curses window touchwin10149167 Ref: 2ffe10149167 Ref: library/curses curses window untouchwin10149292 Ref: 2fff10149292 Ref: library/curses curses window vline10149425 Ref: 178810149425 Ref: Window Objects-Footnote-110149684 Node: Constants<6>10149727 Ref: library/curses constants10149855 Ref: 300010149855 Ref: library/curses curses ERR10149960 Ref: 300110149960 Ref: library/curses curses OK10150105 Ref: 300210150105 Ref: library/curses curses version10150248 Ref: 300310150248 Ref: library/curses curses __version__10150274 Ref: 300410150274 Ref: library/curses curses ncurses_version10150373 Ref: 9e610150373 Ref: library/curses curses COLORS10150792 Ref: 2fab10150792 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_PAIRS10150948 Ref: 2fac10150948 Ref: library/curses curses COLS10151114 Ref: 170c10151114 Ref: library/curses curses LINES10151374 Ref: 170b10151374 Ref: library/curses curses A_ALTCHARSET10151927 Ref: 300510151927 Ref: library/curses curses A_BLINK10152031 Ref: 300610152031 Ref: library/curses curses A_BOLD10152130 Ref: 300710152130 Ref: library/curses curses A_DIM10152228 Ref: 300810152228 Ref: library/curses curses A_INVIS10152328 Ref: 300910152328 Ref: library/curses curses A_ITALIC10152442 Ref: 300a10152442 Ref: library/curses curses A_NORMAL10152543 Ref: 2f6510152543 Ref: library/curses curses A_PROTECT10152650 Ref: 300b10152650 Ref: library/curses curses A_REVERSE10152754 Ref: 2f6d10152754 Ref: library/curses curses A_STANDOUT10152896 Ref: 2f6c10152896 Ref: library/curses curses A_UNDERLINE10152970 Ref: 300c10152970 Ref: library/curses curses A_HORIZONTAL10153045 Ref: 300d10153045 Ref: library/curses curses A_LEFT10153140 Ref: 300e10153140 Ref: library/curses curses A_LOW10153243 Ref: 300f10153243 Ref: library/curses curses A_RIGHT10153348 Ref: 301010153348 Ref: library/curses curses A_TOP10153451 Ref: 301110153451 Ref: library/curses curses A_VERTICAL10153541 Ref: 301210153541 Ref: library/curses curses A_ATTRIBUTES10153931 Ref: 301310153931 Ref: library/curses curses A_CHARTEXT10154042 Ref: 301410154042 Ref: library/curses curses A_COLOR10154163 Ref: 301510154163 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MIN10154611 Ref: 301610154611 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BREAK10154723 Ref: 301710154723 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DOWN10154837 Ref: 301810154837 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UP10154938 Ref: 301910154938 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LEFT10155041 Ref: 301a10155041 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RIGHT10155145 Ref: 301b10155145 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HOME10155248 Ref: 301c10155248 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BACKSPACE10155353 Ref: 301d10155353 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_F010155452 Ref: 301e10155452 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_Fn10155628 Ref: 301f10155628 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DL10155746 Ref: 302010155746 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IL10155850 Ref: 302110155850 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_DC10155954 Ref: 302210155954 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_IC10156063 Ref: 302310156063 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EIC10156189 Ref: 302410156189 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLEAR10156305 Ref: 302510156305 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOS10156408 Ref: 302610156408 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EOL10156523 Ref: 302710156523 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SF10156635 Ref: 302810156635 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SR10156749 Ref: 302910156749 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NPAGE10156877 Ref: 302a10156877 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PPAGE10156979 Ref: 302b10156979 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_STAB10157084 Ref: 302c10157084 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CTAB10157184 Ref: 302d10157184 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CATAB10157287 Ref: 302e10157287 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_ENTER10157394 Ref: 302f10157394 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRESET10157514 Ref: 303010157514 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESET10157639 Ref: 303110157639 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PRINT10157764 Ref: 303210157764 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_LL10157859 Ref: 303310157859 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A110157984 Ref: 303410157984 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_A310158097 Ref: 303510158097 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_B210158211 Ref: 303610158211 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C110158320 Ref: 303710158320 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_C310158433 Ref: 303810158433 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BTAB10158549 Ref: 303910158549 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_BEG10158649 Ref: 303a10158649 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CANCEL10158760 Ref: 303b10158760 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CLOSE10158858 Ref: 303c10158858 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COMMAND10158939 Ref: 303d10158939 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_COPY10159031 Ref: 303e10159031 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_CREATE10159130 Ref: 303f10159130 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_END10159226 Ref: 304010159226 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_EXIT10159323 Ref: 304110159323 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_FIND10159420 Ref: 304210159420 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_HELP10159517 Ref: 304310159517 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MARK10159614 Ref: 304410159614 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MESSAGE10159695 Ref: 304510159695 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOVE10159781 Ref: 304610159781 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_NEXT10159878 Ref: 304710159878 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPEN10159975 Ref: 304810159975 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_OPTIONS10160056 Ref: 304910160056 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_PREVIOUS10160126 Ref: 304a10160126 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REDO10160220 Ref: 304b10160220 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFERENCE10160301 Ref: 304c10160301 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REFRESH10160379 Ref: 304d10160379 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_REPLACE10160449 Ref: 304e10160449 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESTART10160519 Ref: 304f10160519 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESUME10160607 Ref: 305010160607 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SAVE10160704 Ref: 305110160704 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SBEG10160801 Ref: 305210160801 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCANCEL10160901 Ref: 305310160901 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOMMAND10160978 Ref: 305410160978 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCOPY10161073 Ref: 305510161073 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SCREATE10161161 Ref: 305610161161 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDC10161253 Ref: 305710161253 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SDL10161365 Ref: 305810161365 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SELECT10161480 Ref: 305910161480 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEND10161577 Ref: 305a10161577 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEOL10161681 Ref: 305b10161681 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SEXIT10161793 Ref: 305c10161793 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SFIND10161898 Ref: 305d10161898 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHELP10162003 Ref: 305e10162003 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SHOME10162108 Ref: 305f10162108 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SIC10162211 Ref: 306010162211 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SLEFT10162319 Ref: 306110162319 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMESSAGE10162413 Ref: 306210162413 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SMOVE10162508 Ref: 306310162508 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SNEXT10162613 Ref: 306410162613 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SOPTIONS10162701 Ref: 306510162701 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPREVIOUS10162779 Ref: 306610162779 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SPRINT10162872 Ref: 306710162872 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREDO10162977 Ref: 306810162977 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SREPLACE10163065 Ref: 306910163065 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRIGHT10163161 Ref: 306a10163161 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SRSUME10163273 Ref: 306b10163273 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSAVE10163379 Ref: 306c10163379 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SSUSPEND10163467 Ref: 306d10163467 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUNDO10163562 Ref: 306e10163562 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_SUSPEND10163650 Ref: 306f10163650 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_UNDO10163736 Ref: 307010163736 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MOUSE10163834 Ref: 2f8010163834 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_RESIZE10163952 Ref: 307110163952 Ref: library/curses curses KEY_MAX10164063 Ref: 307210164063 Ref: library/curses curses-acs-codes10165266 Ref: 307310165266 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BBSS10165843 Ref: 307410165843 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BLOCK10165971 Ref: 307510165971 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BOARD10166079 Ref: 307610166079 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSBS10166184 Ref: 307710166184 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSB10166308 Ref: 307810166308 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BSSS10166434 Ref: 307910166434 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BTEE10166550 Ref: 307a10166550 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_BULLET10166634 Ref: 307b10166634 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_CKBOARD10166701 Ref: 307c10166701 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DARROW10166785 Ref: 307d10166785 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DEGREE10166865 Ref: 307e10166865 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_DIAMOND10166939 Ref: 307f10166939 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_GEQUAL10167007 Ref: 308010167007 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_HLINE10167109 Ref: 2fc210167109 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LANTERN10167197 Ref: 308110167197 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LARROW10167272 Ref: 308210167272 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LEQUAL10167343 Ref: 308310167343 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LLCORNER10167425 Ref: 2fc510167425 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LRCORNER10167508 Ref: 2fc610167508 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_LTEE10167608 Ref: 308410167608 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_NEQUAL10167690 Ref: 308510167690 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PI10167779 Ref: 308610167779 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLMINUS10167864 Ref: 308710167864 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_PLUS10167959 Ref: 308810167959 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RARROW10168046 Ref: 308910168046 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_RTEE10168134 Ref: 308a10168134 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S110168231 Ref: 308b10168231 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S310168332 Ref: 308c10168332 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S710168433 Ref: 308d10168433 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_S910168534 Ref: 308e10168534 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBBS10168637 Ref: 308f10168637 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSB10168764 Ref: 309010168764 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SBSS10168886 Ref: 309110168886 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBB10169004 Ref: 309210169004 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSBS10169130 Ref: 309310169130 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSB10169249 Ref: 309410169249 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_SSSS10169366 Ref: 309510169366 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_STERLING10169480 Ref: 309610169480 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_TTEE10169571 Ref: 309710169571 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_UARROW10169652 Ref: 309810169652 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_ULCORNER10169721 Ref: 2fc310169721 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_URCORNER10169799 Ref: 2fc410169799 Ref: library/curses curses ACS_VLINE10169895 Ref: 2fc110169895 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_PRESSED10170275 Ref: 2f8110170275 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_RELEASED10170420 Ref: 2f8210170420 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_CLICKED10170564 Ref: 2f8310170564 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_DOUBLE_CLICKED10170685 Ref: 2f8410170685 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTONn_TRIPLE_CLICKED10170797 Ref: 2f8510170797 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_SHIFT10170929 Ref: 2f8610170929 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_CTRL10171089 Ref: 2f8710171089 Ref: library/curses curses BUTTON_ALT10171251 Ref: 2f8810171251 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLACK10171696 Ref: 309910171696 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_BLUE10171782 Ref: 309a10171782 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_CYAN10171879 Ref: 309b10171879 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_GREEN10171980 Ref: 309c10171980 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_MAGENTA10172048 Ref: 309d10172048 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_RED10172150 Ref: 309e10172150 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_WHITE10172229 Ref: 309f10172229 Ref: library/curses curses COLOR_YELLOW10172297 Ref: 30a010172297 Node: curses textpad — Text input widget for curses programs10172357 Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-text-input-widget-for-curses-programs10172603 Ref: 30a110172603 Ref: library/curses module-curses textpad10172603 Ref: 2e10172603 Ref: library/curses curses textpad rectangle10173191 Ref: 30a310173191 Node: Textbox objects10173914 Ref: library/curses curses-textpad-objects10174022 Ref: 30a410174022 Ref: library/curses textbox-objects10174022 Ref: 30a510174022 Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox10174136 Ref: 30a210174136 Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox edit10174615 Ref: 30a710174615 Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox do_command10175186 Ref: 30a810175186 Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox gather10178916 Ref: 30a910178916 Ref: library/curses curses textpad Textbox stripspaces10179109 Ref: 30a610179109 Node: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters10179520 Ref: library/curses ascii doc10179761 Ref: 30aa10179761 Ref: library/curses ascii curses-ascii-utilities-for-ascii-characters10179761 Ref: 30ab10179761 Ref: library/curses ascii module-curses ascii10179761 Ref: 2c10179761 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NUL10180355 Ref: 30ac10180355 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SOH10180393 Ref: 30ad10180393 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii STX10180477 Ref: 30ae10180477 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETX10180539 Ref: 30af10180539 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EOT10180599 Ref: 30b010180599 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ENQ10180667 Ref: 30b110180667 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ACK10180764 Ref: 30b210180764 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BEL10180828 Ref: 30b310180828 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii BS10180881 Ref: 30b410180881 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii TAB10180938 Ref: 30b510180938 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii HT10180990 Ref: 30b610180990 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii LF10181086 Ref: 30b710181086 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NL10181143 Ref: 30b810181143 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii VT10181232 Ref: 30b910181232 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FF10181292 Ref: 30ba10181292 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CR10181349 Ref: 30bb10181349 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SO10181412 Ref: 30bc10181412 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SI10181500 Ref: 30bd10181500 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DLE10181586 Ref: 30be10181586 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC110181651 Ref: 30bf10181651 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC210181721 Ref: 30c010181721 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC310181811 Ref: 30c110181811 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DC410181882 Ref: 30c210181882 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii NAK10181947 Ref: 30c310181947 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SYN10182020 Ref: 30c410182020 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ETB10182085 Ref: 30c510182085 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii CAN10182156 Ref: 30c610182156 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii EM10182211 Ref: 30c710182211 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SUB10182272 Ref: 30c810182272 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ESC10182331 Ref: 30c910182331 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii FS10182386 Ref: 30ca10182386 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii GS10182448 Ref: 30cb10182448 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii RS10182511 Ref: 30cc10182511 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii US10182598 Ref: 30cd10182598 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii SP10182660 Ref: 30ce10182660 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii DEL10182713 Ref: 30cf10182713 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalnum10183011 Ref: 30d010183011 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isalpha10183158 Ref: 30d110183158 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isascii10183303 Ref: 30d210183303 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isblank10183412 Ref: 30d310183412 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii iscntrl10183525 Ref: 30d410183525 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isdigit10183651 Ref: 30d510183651 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isgraph10183815 Ref: 30d610183815 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii islower10183916 Ref: 30d710183916 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isprint10184004 Ref: 30d810184004 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ispunct10184108 Ref: 30d910184108 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isspace10184251 Ref: 30da10184251 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isupper10184419 Ref: 30db10184419 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isxdigit10184503 Ref: 30dc10184503 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii isctrl10184646 Ref: 30dd10184646 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ismeta10184755 Ref: 30de10184755 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ascii10185355 Ref: 30df10185355 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii ctrl10185462 Ref: 30e010185462 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii alt10185630 Ref: 30e110185630 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii unctrl10185902 Ref: 30e210185902 Ref: library/curses ascii curses ascii controlnames10186457 Ref: 30e310186457 Ref: curses ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters-Footnote-110186739 Node: curses panel — A panel stack extension for curses10186811 Ref: library/curses panel doc10186987 Ref: 30e410186987 Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-a-panel-stack-extension-for-curses10186987 Ref: 30e510186987 Ref: library/curses panel module-curses panel10186987 Ref: 2d10186987 Node: Functions<7>10187463 Ref: library/curses panel cursespanel-functions10187585 Ref: 30e610187585 Ref: library/curses panel functions10187585 Ref: 30e710187585 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel bottom_panel10187693 Ref: 30e810187693 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel new_panel10187788 Ref: 30e910187788 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel top_panel10188090 Ref: 30ea10188090 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel update_panels10188179 Ref: 30eb10188179 Node: Panel Objects10188390 Ref: library/curses panel curses-panel-objects10188512 Ref: 30ec10188512 Ref: library/curses panel panel-objects10188512 Ref: 30ed10188512 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel above10188866 Ref: 30ee10188866 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel below10188943 Ref: 30ef10188943 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel bottom10189020 Ref: 30f010189020 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hidden10189098 Ref: 30f110189098 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel hide10189218 Ref: 30f210189218 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel move10189352 Ref: 30f310189352 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel replace10189444 Ref: 30f410189444 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel set_userptr10189548 Ref: 30f510189548 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel show10189742 Ref: 30f610189742 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel top10189825 Ref: 30f710189825 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel userptr10189893 Ref: 30f810189893 Ref: library/curses panel curses panel Panel window10190008 Ref: 30f910190008 Node: Concurrent Execution10190096 Ref: library/concurrency doc10190271 Ref: 30fa10190271 Ref: library/concurrency concurrency10190271 Ref: 30fb10190271 Ref: library/concurrency concurrent-execution10190271 Ref: 30fc10190271 Node: threading — Thread-based parallelism10191224 Ref: library/threading doc10191373 Ref: 30fd10191373 Ref: library/threading module-threading10191373 Ref: ed10191373 Ref: library/threading threading-thread-based-parallelism10191373 Ref: 30fe10191373 Ref: threading — Thread-based parallelism-Footnote-110192120 Node: Introduction<8>10192189 Ref: library/threading introduction10192322 Ref: 30ff10192322 Ref: Introduction<8>-Footnote-110195204 Node: GIL and performance considerations10195261 Ref: library/threading gil-and-performance-considerations10195415 Ref: 310010195415 Ref: GIL and performance considerations-Footnote-110196220 Node: Reference<2>10196262 Ref: library/threading reference10196460 Ref: 310110196460 Ref: library/threading threading active_count10196545 Ref: 30410196545 Ref: library/threading threading current_thread10196836 Ref: 30310196836 Ref: library/threading threading excepthook10197233 Ref: 84710197233 Ref: library/threading threading __excepthook__10198569 Ref: 84610198569 Ref: library/threading threading get_ident10198841 Ref: 114e10198841 Ref: library/threading threading get_native_id10199237 Ref: a3d10199237 Ref: library/threading threading enumerate10199791 Ref: 18a510199791 Ref: library/threading threading main_thread10200175 Ref: fcd10200175 Ref: library/threading threading settrace10200402 Ref: 84410200402 Ref: library/threading threading settrace_all_threads10200659 Ref: 4c410200659 Ref: library/threading threading gettrace10201014 Ref: 84210201014 Ref: library/threading threading setprofile10201142 Ref: 84510201142 Ref: library/threading threading setprofile_all_threads10201405 Ref: 4c510201405 Ref: library/threading threading getprofile10201766 Ref: 84310201766 Ref: library/threading threading stack_size10201901 Ref: 310210201901 Ref: library/threading threading TIMEOUT_MAX10203227 Ref: 310310203227 Node: Thread-local data10204446 Ref: library/threading thread-local-data10204535 Ref: 310410204535 Ref: library/threading threading local10207649 Ref: 154e10207649 Node: Thread objects10207726 Ref: library/threading id110207836 Ref: 310510207836 Ref: library/threading thread-objects10207836 Ref: 310610207836 Ref: library/threading threading Thread10210514 Ref: 94c10210514 Ref: library/threading threading Thread start10211964 Ref: 2cbc10211964 Ref: library/threading threading Thread run10212341 Ref: a3c10212341 Ref: library/threading meth-thread-join10213153 Ref: 310710213153 Ref: library/threading threading Thread join10213153 Ref: 11d610213153 Ref: library/threading threading Thread name10214424 Ref: 30210214424 Ref: library/threading threading Thread getName10214642 Ref: 310810214642 Ref: library/threading threading Thread setName10214670 Ref: 30110214670 Ref: library/threading threading Thread ident10214852 Ref: 2c4910214852 Ref: library/threading threading Thread native_id10215244 Ref: a3e10215244 Ref: library/threading threading Thread is_alive10216057 Ref: 94d10216057 Ref: library/threading threading Thread daemon10216395 Ref: 30010216395 Ref: library/threading threading Thread isDaemon10216989 Ref: 310910216989 Ref: library/threading threading Thread setDaemon10217018 Ref: 2ff10217018 Node: Lock objects10217204 Ref: library/threading id210217310 Ref: 310a10217310 Ref: library/threading lock-objects10217310 Ref: 310b10217310 Ref: library/threading threading Lock10218727 Ref: 167710218727 Ref: library/threading threading Lock acquire10219130 Ref: 69410219130 Ref: library/threading threading Lock release10220467 Ref: 12b510220467 Ref: library/threading threading Lock locked10220952 Ref: 310d10220952 Node: RLock objects10221034 Ref: library/threading id310221143 Ref: 310e10221143 Ref: library/threading rlock-objects10221143 Ref: 310f10221143 Ref: library/threading threading RLock10222512 Ref: 2e210222512 Ref: library/threading threading RLock acquire10223034 Ref: e7610223034 Ref: library/threading threading RLock release10225021 Ref: 311010225021 Node: Condition objects10225718 Ref: library/threading condition-objects10225832 Ref: 311110225832 Ref: library/threading id410225832 Ref: 311210225832 Ref: library/threading threading Condition10228951 Ref: 114910228951 Ref: library/threading threading Condition acquire10229494 Ref: 311310229494 Ref: library/threading threading Condition release10229706 Ref: 311410229706 Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait10229889 Ref: 18b110229889 Ref: library/threading threading Condition wait_for10231419 Ref: 311510231419 Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify10232393 Ref: 17dc10232393 Ref: library/threading threading Condition notify_all10233295 Ref: 2fd10233295 Node: Semaphore objects10233711 Ref: library/threading id510233829 Ref: 311610233829 Ref: library/threading semaphore-objects10233829 Ref: 311710233829 Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore10234528 Ref: 114a10234528 Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore acquire10235219 Ref: 124710235219 Ref: library/threading threading Semaphore release10236514 Ref: 311810236514 Ref: library/threading threading BoundedSemaphore10236891 Ref: 114b10236891 Node: Semaphore example10237422 Ref: library/threading semaphore-example10237536 Ref: 311910237536 Ref: library/threading semaphore-examples10237536 Ref: 311a10237536 Node: Event objects10238407 Ref: library/threading event-objects10238517 Ref: 311b10238517 Ref: library/threading id610238517 Ref: 311c10238517 Ref: library/threading threading Event10238921 Ref: 114c10238921 Ref: library/threading threading Event is_set10239317 Ref: 2fe10239317 Ref: library/threading threading Event set10239489 Ref: 311d10239489 Ref: library/threading threading Event clear10239717 Ref: 311e10239717 Ref: library/threading threading Event wait10239946 Ref: 131910239946 Node: Timer objects10240676 Ref: library/threading id710240784 Ref: 311f10240784 Ref: library/threading timer-objects10240784 Ref: 312010240784 Ref: library/threading threading Timer10241548 Ref: 114d10241548 Ref: library/threading threading Timer cancel10241997 Ref: 312110241997 Node: Barrier objects10242187 Ref: library/threading barrier-objects10242273 Ref: 312210242273 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier10243230 Ref: 11d510243230 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier wait10243574 Ref: 312310243574 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier reset10244722 Ref: 312410244722 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier abort10245159 Ref: 312510245159 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier parties10245649 Ref: 312610245649 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier n_waiting10245741 Ref: 312710245741 Ref: library/threading threading Barrier broken10245839 Ref: 312810245839 Ref: library/threading threading BrokenBarrierError10245956 Ref: 11d710245956 Node: Using locks conditions and semaphores in the with statement10246134 Ref: library/threading using-locks-conditions-and-semaphores-in-the-with-statement10246289 Ref: 312910246289 Ref: library/threading with-locks10246289 Ref: 310c10246289 Node: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism10247130 Ref: library/multiprocessing doc10247370 Ref: 312a10247370 Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing10247370 Ref: 9410247370 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-process-based-parallelism10247370 Ref: 312b10247370 Ref: multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism-Footnote-110247911 Node: Introduction<9>10247984 Ref: library/multiprocessing introduction10248102 Ref: 312c10248102 Node: The Process class10250044 Ref: library/multiprocessing the-process-class10250148 Ref: 312d10250148 Node: Contexts and start methods10251622 Ref: library/multiprocessing contexts-and-start-methods10251771 Ref: 313010251771 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-start-methods10251771 Ref: 2cb10251771 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-start-method-spawn10251966 Ref: 313110251966 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-start-method-fork10252528 Ref: 313310252528 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-start-method-forkserver10253613 Ref: 313410253613 Ref: Contexts and start methods-Footnote-110257416 Node: Exchanging objects between processes10257481 Ref: library/multiprocessing exchanging-objects-between-processes10257646 Ref: 313510257646 Node: Synchronization between processes10259543 Ref: library/multiprocessing synchronization-between-processes10259713 Ref: 313710259713 Node: Sharing state between processes10260433 Ref: library/multiprocessing sharing-state-between-processes10260590 Ref: 313810260590 Node: Using a pool of workers10263688 Ref: library/multiprocessing using-a-pool-of-workers10263803 Ref: 314010263803 Node: Reference<3>10267093 Ref: library/multiprocessing reference10267242 Ref: 314110267242 Node: Process and exceptions10267748 Ref: library/multiprocessing process-and-exceptions10267844 Ref: 314210267844 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process10267917 Ref: b5910267917 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process run10271065 Ref: 313210271065 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process start10271874 Ref: 312e10271874 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process join10272123 Ref: 314610272123 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process name10272845 Ref: 314310272845 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process is_alive10273310 Ref: 314810273310 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process daemon10273546 Ref: 314410273546 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process pid10274427 Ref: 314910274427 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process exitcode10274552 Ref: 314710274552 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process authkey10275154 Ref: 314a10275154 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process sentinel10275682 Ref: 10d610275682 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process terminate10276323 Ref: 314c10276323 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process kill10277134 Ref: b5810277134 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Process close10277292 Ref: b5710277292 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing ProcessError10278587 Ref: 314d10278587 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BufferTooShort10278699 Ref: 314e10278699 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing AuthenticationError10279008 Ref: 314f10279008 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing TimeoutError10279112 Ref: 315010279112 Ref: Process and exceptions-Footnote-110279258 Node: Pipes and Queues10279314 Ref: library/multiprocessing pipes-and-queues10279435 Ref: 315110279435 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Pipe10283143 Ref: 313610283143 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue10283690 Ref: 17fb10283690 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue qsize10284289 Ref: 315c10284289 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue empty10284631 Ref: 15fc10284631 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue full10284918 Ref: 315d10284918 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put10285113 Ref: 1a3b10285113 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue put_nowait10285940 Ref: 315e10285940 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get10286023 Ref: 1a3c10286023 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue get_nowait10286811 Ref: 315910286811 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue close10287058 Ref: 17fc10287058 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue join_thread10287517 Ref: 315f10287517 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Queue cancel_join_thread10288068 Ref: 315a10288068 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue10289216 Ref: 91310289216 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue close10289352 Ref: 91410289352 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue empty10289663 Ref: 15fd10289663 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue get10289853 Ref: 316010289853 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing SimpleQueue put10289931 Ref: 316110289931 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue10289998 Ref: 315210289998 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue task_done10290218 Ref: 315510290218 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing JoinableQueue join10290906 Ref: 316210290906 Ref: Pipes and Queues-Footnote-110291410 Node: Miscellaneous<3>10291474 Ref: library/multiprocessing miscellaneous10291591 Ref: 316310291591 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing active_children10291640 Ref: 316410291640 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing cpu_count10291857 Ref: f6a10291857 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing current_process10292599 Ref: 316510292599 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing parent_process10292796 Ref: 316610292796 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing freeze_support10293065 Ref: 154110293065 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_all_start_methods10294059 Ref: f6410294059 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_context10294414 Ref: 2c910294414 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_start_method10295002 Ref: f6510295002 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_executable10295784 Ref: 180410295784 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_forkserver_preload10296328 Ref: 159a10296328 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing set_start_method10297039 Ref: 2ca10297039 Ref: Miscellaneous<3>-Footnote-110298143 Node: Connection Objects10298208 Ref: library/multiprocessing connection-objects10298335 Ref: 316710298335 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection10298654 Ref: 16aa10298654 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send10298704 Ref: 316910298704 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv10299031 Ref: 316a10299031 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection fileno10299324 Ref: 316b10299324 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection close10299424 Ref: 316c10299424 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection poll10299576 Ref: 316d10299576 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection send_bytes10300063 Ref: 316e10300063 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes10300522 Ref: 316f10300522 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Connection recv_bytes_into10301164 Ref: 317010301164 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-recv-pickle-security10302978 Ref: 317110302978 Node: Synchronization primitives10303664 Ref: library/multiprocessing synchronization-primitives10303796 Ref: 317210303796 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Barrier10304166 Ref: 313f10304166 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing BoundedSemaphore10304327 Ref: 313d10304327 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Condition10304826 Ref: 313e10304826 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Event10305161 Ref: 186310305161 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock10305241 Ref: 159c10305241 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock acquire10306084 Ref: 317310306084 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Lock release10307610 Ref: 317410307610 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock10307979 Ref: 159d10307979 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock acquire10308710 Ref: 317510308710 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing RLock release10310359 Ref: 317610310359 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Semaphore10311336 Ref: 313c10311336 Ref: Synchronization primitives-Footnote-110312200 Node: Shared ctypes Objects10312264 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared-ctypes-objects10312386 Ref: 317710312386 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Value10312563 Ref: 313910312563 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Array10313992 Ref: 313a10313992 Node: The multiprocessing sharedctypes module10315435 Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing sharedctypes10315532 Ref: 9a10315532 Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-sharedctypes-module10315532 Ref: 317810315532 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawArray10316163 Ref: 317910316163 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes RawValue10316992 Ref: 317b10316992 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Array10317776 Ref: 317a10317776 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes Value10318543 Ref: 317c10318543 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes copy10319294 Ref: 317d10319294 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing sharedctypes synchronized10319456 Ref: e3010319456 Node: Managers10322471 Ref: library/multiprocessing managers10322580 Ref: 317e10322580 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-managers10322580 Ref: 315610322580 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing Manager10322930 Ref: cba10322930 Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing managers10323251 Ref: 9710323251 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager10323440 Ref: 318010323440 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager start10324878 Ref: 318110324878 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager get_server10325113 Ref: 318310325113 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager connect10325657 Ref: 318510325657 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager shutdown10325938 Ref: 318210325938 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager register10326174 Ref: 318610326174 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseManager address10328489 Ref: 318410328489 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager10329020 Ref: 317f10329020 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Barrier10329460 Ref: 318910329460 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager BoundedSemaphore10329652 Ref: 318a10329652 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Condition10329808 Ref: 318b10329808 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Event10330182 Ref: 318c10330182 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Lock10330309 Ref: 318d10330309 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Namespace10330434 Ref: 318e10330434 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Queue10330559 Ref: 2cd610330559 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager RLock10330691 Ref: 318f10330691 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Semaphore10330817 Ref: 319010330817 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Array10330959 Ref: 319110330959 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager Value10331058 Ref: 319210331058 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager dict10331203 Ref: 319310331203 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers SyncManager list10331384 Ref: 319410331384 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers Namespace10331790 Ref: 313b10331790 Node: Customized managers10332630 Ref: library/multiprocessing customized-managers10332725 Ref: 319510332725 Node: Using a remote manager10333497 Ref: library/multiprocessing using-a-remote-manager10333592 Ref: 319610333592 Node: Proxy Objects10335733 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-proxy-objects10335834 Ref: cb910335834 Ref: library/multiprocessing proxy-objects10335834 Ref: 319710335834 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy10339118 Ref: 318710339118 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _callmethod10339239 Ref: 318810339239 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy _getvalue10340820 Ref: 319810340820 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __repr__10340980 Ref: 319910340980 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing managers BaseProxy __str__10341066 Ref: 319a10341066 Node: Cleanup<2>10341182 Ref: library/multiprocessing cleanup10341242 Ref: 319b10341242 Node: Process Pools10341531 Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing pool10341645 Ref: 9810341645 Ref: library/multiprocessing process-pools10341645 Ref: 319c10341645 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool10341806 Ref: f6610341806 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool apply10344620 Ref: 319f10344620 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool apply_async10344991 Ref: 31a010344991 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool map10345843 Ref: 10da10345843 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool map_async10346628 Ref: 10db10346628 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool imap10347483 Ref: 31a210347483 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool imap_unordered10348195 Ref: 31a310348195 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool starmap10348521 Ref: 10d710348521 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool starmap_async10348876 Ref: 10d810348876 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool close10349231 Ref: 319d10349231 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool terminate10349418 Ref: 319e10349418 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool Pool join10349652 Ref: 31a410349652 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult10350100 Ref: 31a110350100 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult get10350258 Ref: 31a510350258 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult wait10350623 Ref: 31a610350623 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult ready10350747 Ref: 31a710350747 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool AsyncResult successful10350824 Ref: 31a810350824 Node: Listeners and Clients10352117 Ref: library/multiprocessing listeners-and-clients10352237 Ref: 31a910352237 Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing connection10352237 Ref: 9510352237 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-listeners-clients10352237 Ref: 316810352237 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection deliver_challenge10352773 Ref: 31aa10352773 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection answer_challenge10353179 Ref: 31ab10353179 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Client10353493 Ref: 31ac10353493 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener10354257 Ref: 16a910354257 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener accept10356027 Ref: 166010356027 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener close10356309 Ref: 31ae10356309 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener address10356609 Ref: 31af10356609 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection Listener last_accepted10356705 Ref: 31b010356705 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing connection wait10357125 Ref: 10d510357125 Node: Address Formats10361154 Ref: library/multiprocessing address-formats10361227 Ref: 31b110361227 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-address-formats10361227 Ref: 31ad10361227 Node: Authentication keys10361941 Ref: library/multiprocessing authentication-keys10362058 Ref: 31b210362058 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-auth-keys10362058 Ref: 314b10362058 Node: Logging<2>10363242 Ref: library/multiprocessing logging10363370 Ref: 31b310363370 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing get_logger10363638 Ref: 2d3010363638 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing log_to_stderr10364157 Ref: 31b410364157 Node: The multiprocessing dummy module10365264 Ref: library/multiprocessing module-multiprocessing dummy10365364 Ref: 9610365364 Ref: library/multiprocessing the-multiprocessing-dummy-module10365364 Ref: 31b510365364 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing pool ThreadPool10365888 Ref: 191010365888 Node: Programming guidelines10367647 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-programming10367793 Ref: 312f10367793 Ref: library/multiprocessing programming-guidelines10367793 Ref: 31b610367793 Node: All start methods10368041 Ref: library/multiprocessing all-start-methods10368164 Ref: 31b710368164 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-programming-spawn10374224 Ref: 314510374224 Ref: All start methods-Footnote-110374261 Ref: All start methods-Footnote-210374325 Ref: All start methods-Footnote-310374389 Node: The spawn and forkserver start methods10374453 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-programming-forkserver10374576 Ref: 31b810374576 Ref: library/multiprocessing the-spawn-and-forkserver-start-methods10374576 Ref: 31b910374576 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-safe-main-import10375382 Ref: 31ba10375382 Node: Examples<14>10376657 Ref: library/multiprocessing examples10376782 Ref: 31bb10376782 Ref: library/multiprocessing multiprocessing-examples10376782 Ref: 315b10376782 Node: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes10385693 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory doc10385917 Ref: 31bc10385917 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory module-multiprocessing shared_memory10385917 Ref: 9910385917 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing-shared-memory-shared-memory-for-direct-access-across-processes10385917 Ref: 31bd10385917 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory10387475 Ref: 165910387475 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory close10390783 Ref: 31bf10390783 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory unlink10391260 Ref: 31c010391260 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory buf10391880 Ref: 31c110391880 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory name10391969 Ref: 31c210391969 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory SharedMemory size10392080 Ref: 31c310392080 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager10395170 Ref: 31be10395170 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager SharedMemory10396572 Ref: 31c410396572 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing managers SharedMemoryManager ShareableList10396724 Ref: 31c510396724 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList10398581 Ref: 196e10398581 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList count10401077 Ref: 31c610401077 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList index10401165 Ref: 31c710401165 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList format10401315 Ref: 31c810401315 Ref: library/multiprocessing shared_memory multiprocessing shared_memory ShareableList shm10401469 Ref: 31c910401469 Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-110404061 Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-210404151 Ref: multiprocessing shared_memory — Shared memory for direct access across processes-Footnote-310404178 Node: The concurrent package10404234 Ref: library/concurrent doc10404460 Ref: 31ca10404460 Ref: library/concurrent the-concurrent-package10404460 Ref: 31cb10404460 Node: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks10404648 Ref: library/concurrent futures doc10404828 Ref: 31cc10404828 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent-futures-launching-parallel-tasks10404828 Ref: 31cd10404828 Ref: library/concurrent futures module-concurrent futures10404828 Ref: 2110404828 Ref: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks-Footnote-110405837 Ref: concurrent futures — Launching parallel tasks-Footnote-210405923 Node: Executor Objects10406010 Ref: library/concurrent futures executor-objects10406137 Ref: 31cf10406137 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor10406190 Ref: 31ce10406190 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor submit10406389 Ref: a8210406389 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor map10406799 Ref: de310406799 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Executor shutdown10408252 Ref: 8ec10408252 Node: ThreadPoolExecutor10410355 Ref: library/concurrent futures threadpoolexecutor10410510 Ref: 31d010410510 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ThreadPoolExecutor10411580 Ref: 73d10411580 Node: ThreadPoolExecutor Example10413955 Ref: library/concurrent futures id110414036 Ref: 31d210414036 Ref: library/concurrent futures threadpoolexecutor-example10414036 Ref: 11a510414036 Node: ProcessPoolExecutor10415244 Ref: library/concurrent futures processpoolexecutor10415397 Ref: 31d310415397 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor10416422 Ref: 8ed10416422 Node: ProcessPoolExecutor Example10420012 Ref: library/concurrent futures id210420095 Ref: 31d510420095 Ref: library/concurrent futures processpoolexecutor-example10420095 Ref: 11a610420095 Node: Future Objects10421001 Ref: library/concurrent futures future-objects10421152 Ref: 31d610421152 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future10421363 Ref: 11a410421363 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future cancel10421603 Ref: 31d710421603 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future cancelled10421902 Ref: 31d810421902 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future running10422002 Ref: 31d910422002 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future done10422135 Ref: 31da10422135 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future result10422260 Ref: 31db10422260 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future exception10422917 Ref: 31dc10422917 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future add_done_callback10423557 Ref: 31dd10423557 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_running_or_notify_cancel10424395 Ref: 31de10424395 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_result10425382 Ref: 31df10425382 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures Future set_exception10425800 Ref: 31e010425800 Node: Module Functions10426253 Ref: library/concurrent futures module-functions10426402 Ref: 31e110426402 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures wait10426455 Ref: 186210426455 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures FIRST_COMPLETED10427776 Ref: 31e210427776 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures FIRST_EXCEPTION10428085 Ref: 31e310428085 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures ALL_COMPLETED10428606 Ref: 31e410428606 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures as_completed10428808 Ref: 164d10428808 Ref: Module Functions-Footnote-110429842 Node: Exception classes10429884 Ref: library/concurrent futures exception-classes10430010 Ref: 31e510430010 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures CancelledError10430065 Ref: 9da10430065 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures TimeoutError10430156 Ref: 31e610430156 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures BrokenExecutor10430413 Ref: 31e710430413 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures InvalidStateError10430671 Ref: 160c10430671 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures thread BrokenThreadPool10430855 Ref: 31d110430855 Ref: library/concurrent futures concurrent futures process BrokenProcessPool10431115 Ref: 31d410431115 Node: subprocess — Subprocess management10431483 Ref: library/subprocess doc10431666 Ref: 31e810431666 Ref: library/subprocess module-subprocess10431666 Ref: d610431666 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-subprocess-management10431666 Ref: 31e910431666 Ref: subprocess — Subprocess management-Footnote-110432777 Ref: subprocess — Subprocess management-Footnote-210432847 Node: Using the subprocess Module10432889 Ref: library/subprocess using-the-subprocess-module10433021 Ref: 31ea10433021 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess run10433324 Ref: b8610433324 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess10437900 Ref: e6e10437900 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess args10438033 Ref: 31ee10438033 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess returncode10438155 Ref: 31ef10438155 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess stdout10438429 Ref: 31f010438429 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess stderr10438860 Ref: 31f110438860 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CompletedProcess check_returncode10439102 Ref: 31f210439102 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DEVNULL10439269 Ref: 114210439269 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess PIPE10439515 Ref: b8710439515 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STDOUT10439779 Ref: 31ec10439779 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SubprocessError10439986 Ref: 31f310439986 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired10440117 Ref: 154510440117 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired cmd10440276 Ref: 31f410440276 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired timeout10440362 Ref: 31f510440362 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired output10440422 Ref: 31f610440422 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stdout10440805 Ref: 31f710440805 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess TimeoutExpired stderr10440900 Ref: 31f810440900 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError10441367 Ref: 131710441367 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError returncode10441629 Ref: 31fa10441629 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError cmd10441797 Ref: 31fb10441797 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError output10441883 Ref: 31fc10441883 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stdout10442054 Ref: 31fd10442054 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CalledProcessError stderr10442149 Ref: 31fe10442149 Node: Frequently Used Arguments10442458 Ref: library/subprocess frequently-used-arguments10442573 Ref: 31eb10442573 Ref: library/subprocess id110442573 Ref: 31ff10442573 Node: Popen Constructor10446743 Ref: library/subprocess popen-constructor10446881 Ref: 320410446881 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen10447176 Ref: 19910447176 Ref: Popen Constructor-Footnote-110464822 Node: Exceptions<11>10464882 Ref: library/subprocess exceptions10464986 Ref: 321510464986 Node: Security Considerations10466244 Ref: library/subprocess security-considerations10466398 Ref: 320310466398 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-security10466398 Ref: 321610466398 Ref: Security Considerations-Footnote-110467514 Ref: Security Considerations-Footnote-210467584 Node: Popen Objects10467640 Ref: library/subprocess popen-objects10467788 Ref: 321810467788 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen poll10467905 Ref: 321910467905 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen wait10468065 Ref: ce410468065 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen communicate10469072 Ref: 31ed10469072 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen send_signal10470823 Ref: 13aa10470823 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen terminate10471208 Ref: 13a810471208 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen kill10471427 Ref: 13a910471427 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen args10471733 Ref: 321a10471733 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdin10471918 Ref: 320010471918 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stdout10472359 Ref: 320110472359 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen stderr10472872 Ref: 320210472872 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen pid10473647 Ref: 321b10473647 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess Popen returncode10473829 Ref: 19a710473829 Node: Windows Popen Helpers10474329 Ref: library/subprocess windows-popen-helpers10474474 Ref: 321c10474474 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO10474628 Ref: 320810474628 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO dwFlags10475047 Ref: 321d10475047 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdInput10475361 Ref: 321e10475361 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdOutput10475683 Ref: 322010475683 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO hStdError10475994 Ref: 322110475994 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO wShowWindow10476302 Ref: 322210476302 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTUPINFO lpAttributeList10476794 Ref: c0e10476794 Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-110478050 Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-210478122 Ref: Windows Popen Helpers-Footnote-310478194 Node: Windows Constants10478283 Ref: library/subprocess windows-constants10478358 Ref: 322510478358 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_INPUT_HANDLE10478480 Ref: 322610478480 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_OUTPUT_HANDLE10478617 Ref: 322710478617 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STD_ERROR_HANDLE10478765 Ref: 322810478765 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess SW_HIDE10478911 Ref: 322410478911 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESTDHANDLES10479000 Ref: 321f10479000 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_USESHOWWINDOW10479231 Ref: 322310479231 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEONFEEDBACK10479384 Ref: 322910479384 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess STARTF_FORCEOFFFEEDBACK10479678 Ref: 322a10479678 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_CONSOLE10479888 Ref: 320910479888 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NEW_PROCESS_GROUP10480035 Ref: 320a10480035 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess ABOVE_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10480358 Ref: 320b10480358 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess BELOW_NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10480564 Ref: 320c10480564 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess HIGH_PRIORITY_CLASS10480769 Ref: 320d10480769 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess IDLE_PRIORITY_CLASS10480957 Ref: 320e10480957 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess NORMAL_PRIORITY_CLASS10481155 Ref: 320f10481155 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess REALTIME_PRIORITY_CLASS10481358 Ref: 321010481358 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_NO_WINDOW10481894 Ref: 321110481894 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess DETACHED_PROCESS10482078 Ref: 321210482078 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_DEFAULT_ERROR_MODE10482334 Ref: 321310482334 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess CREATE_BREAKAWAY_FROM_JOB10482736 Ref: 321410482736 Node: Older high-level API10482935 Ref: library/subprocess call-function-trio10483119 Ref: 322b10483119 Ref: library/subprocess older-high-level-api10483119 Ref: 322c10483119 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess call10483367 Ref: b8810483367 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_call10484755 Ref: 31f910484755 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess check_output10486423 Ref: fbc10486423 Node: Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module10488988 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-older-functions-with-the-subprocess-module10489184 Ref: 322d10489184 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-replacements10489184 Ref: 117c10489184 Node: Replacing /bin/sh shell command substitution10490352 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-bin-sh-shell-command-substitution10490518 Ref: 322e10490518 Node: Replacing shell pipeline10490723 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-shell-pipeline10490917 Ref: 322f10490917 Node: Replacing os system10491568 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-system10491747 Ref: 323010491747 Node: Replacing the os spawn family10492695 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-the-os-spawn-family10492888 Ref: 323110492888 Node: Replacing os popen os popen2 os popen310493519 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-os-popen-os-popen2-os-popen310493735 Ref: 323210493735 Node: Replacing functions from the popen2 module10495030 Ref: library/subprocess replacing-functions-from-the-popen2-module10495208 Ref: 323310495208 Node: Legacy Shell Invocation Functions10496522 Ref: library/subprocess legacy-shell-invocation-functions10496706 Ref: 323410496706 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getstatusoutput10497070 Ref: fbd10497070 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess getoutput10498392 Ref: 17fa10498392 Node: Notes<2>10498950 Ref: library/subprocess notes10499073 Ref: 323510499073 Node: Timeout Behavior10499280 Ref: library/subprocess subprocess-timeout-behavior10499404 Ref: 323610499404 Ref: library/subprocess timeout-behavior10499404 Ref: 323710499404 Node: Converting an argument sequence to a string on Windows10500191 Ref: library/subprocess converting-an-argument-sequence-to-a-string-on-windows10500361 Ref: 323810500361 Ref: library/subprocess converting-argument-sequence10500361 Ref: 320510500361 Ref: library/subprocess disable-vfork10501521 Ref: 323910501521 Node: Disabling use of vfork or posix_spawn10501521 Ref: library/subprocess disable-posix-spawn10501666 Ref: 323a10501666 Ref: library/subprocess disabling-use-of-vfork-or-posix-spawn10501666 Ref: 323b10501666 Node: sched — Event scheduler10503081 Ref: library/sched doc10503253 Ref: 323c10503253 Ref: library/sched module-sched10503253 Ref: bf10503253 Ref: library/sched sched-event-scheduler10503253 Ref: 323d10503253 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler10503523 Ref: 111b10503523 Ref: sched — Event scheduler-Footnote-110505594 Node: Scheduler Objects10505659 Ref: library/sched id110505738 Ref: 323e10505738 Ref: library/sched scheduler-objects10505738 Ref: 323f10505738 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enterabs10505870 Ref: 111d10505870 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler enter10506754 Ref: 111c10506754 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler cancel10507164 Ref: 193010507164 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler empty10507351 Ref: 324010507351 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler run10507436 Ref: 111a10507436 Ref: library/sched sched scheduler queue10508478 Ref: 324110508478 Node: queue — A synchronized queue class10508737 Ref: library/queue doc10508906 Ref: 324210508906 Ref: library/queue module-queue10508906 Ref: b610508906 Ref: library/queue queue-a-synchronized-queue-class10508906 Ref: 324310508906 Ref: library/queue queue Queue10510230 Ref: 137a10510230 Ref: library/queue queue LifoQueue10510594 Ref: 225610510594 Ref: library/queue queue PriorityQueue10510962 Ref: 225710510962 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue10511959 Ref: b6a10511959 Ref: library/queue queue Empty10512135 Ref: 315710512135 Ref: library/queue queue Full10512321 Ref: 315810512321 Ref: library/queue queue ShutDown10512505 Ref: 23d10512505 Ref: queue — A synchronized queue class-Footnote-110512794 Node: Queue Objects10512859 Ref: library/queue queue-objects10512973 Ref: 324610512973 Ref: library/queue queueobjects10512973 Ref: 324710512973 Ref: library/queue queue Queue qsize10513153 Ref: 324810513153 Ref: library/queue queue Queue empty10513382 Ref: 324910513382 Ref: library/queue queue Queue full10513711 Ref: 324a10513711 Ref: library/queue queue Queue put10514036 Ref: 324510514036 Ref: library/queue queue Queue put_nowait10514695 Ref: 2cd410514695 Ref: library/queue queue Queue get10514782 Ref: 2cd510514782 Ref: library/queue queue Queue get_nowait10515819 Ref: 324410515819 Ref: library/queue queue Queue task_done10516012 Ref: 315310516012 Ref: library/queue queue Queue join10516658 Ref: 315410516658 Node: Waiting for task completion10517160 Ref: library/queue waiting-for-task-completion10517264 Ref: 324b10517264 Node: Terminating queues10517918 Ref: library/queue terminating-queues10518022 Ref: 324c10518022 Ref: library/queue queue Queue shutdown10518208 Ref: 23c10518208 Node: SimpleQueue Objects10519626 Ref: library/queue simplequeue-objects10519740 Ref: 324d10519740 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue qsize10519876 Ref: 324e10519876 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue empty10520042 Ref: 324f10520042 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put10520259 Ref: 325010520259 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue put_nowait10521024 Ref: 325110521024 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get10521186 Ref: 325210521186 Ref: library/queue queue SimpleQueue get_nowait10521768 Ref: 325310521768 Node: contextvars — Context Variables10522216 Ref: library/contextvars doc10522395 Ref: 325410522395 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars-context-variables10522395 Ref: 325510522395 Ref: library/contextvars module-contextvars10522395 Ref: 2410522395 Ref: contextvars — Context Variables-Footnote-110523254 Node: Context Variables10523296 Ref: library/contextvars context-variables10523417 Ref: 325710523417 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar10523472 Ref: 155d10523472 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar name10524179 Ref: 325910524179 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar get10524308 Ref: 325810524308 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar set10524795 Ref: 325a10524795 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars ContextVar reset10525191 Ref: 325c10525191 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token10525712 Ref: 325b10525712 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token var10525986 Ref: 325d10525986 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token old_value10526124 Ref: 325e10526124 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Token MISSING10526416 Ref: 325f10526416 Node: Manual Context Management10526509 Ref: library/contextvars manual-context-management10526654 Ref: 326010526654 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars copy_context10526725 Ref: 325610526725 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context10527203 Ref: 15a910527203 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context run10529151 Ref: 160710529151 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context copy10530481 Ref: 326110530481 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context get10530924 Ref: 326210530924 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context keys10531366 Ref: 326310531366 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context values10531457 Ref: 326410531457 Ref: library/contextvars contextvars Context items10531560 Ref: 326510531560 Node: asyncio support10531699 Ref: library/contextvars asyncio-support10531818 Ref: 326610531818 Node: _thread — Low-level threading API10533513 Ref: library/_thread doc10533647 Ref: 326710533647 Ref: library/_thread module-_thread10533647 Ref: 210533647 Ref: library/_thread thread-low-level-threading-api10533647 Ref: 326810533647 Ref: library/_thread thread error10534363 Ref: 326910534363 Ref: library/_thread thread LockType10534531 Ref: 326a10534531 Ref: library/_thread thread start_new_thread10534599 Ref: 19610534599 Ref: library/_thread thread interrupt_main10535628 Ref: 83f10535628 Ref: library/_thread thread exit10536547 Ref: 326b10536547 Ref: library/_thread thread allocate_lock10536696 Ref: 326c10536696 Ref: library/_thread thread get_ident10536844 Ref: 326d10536844 Ref: library/_thread thread get_native_id10537210 Ref: 326e10537210 Ref: library/_thread thread stack_size10537762 Ref: 326f10537762 Ref: library/_thread thread TIMEOUT_MAX10539036 Ref: 327010539036 Ref: library/_thread thread lock acquire10539321 Ref: 327110539321 Ref: library/_thread thread lock release10540398 Ref: 327210540398 Ref: library/_thread thread lock locked10540540 Ref: 327310540540 Node: Networking and Interprocess Communication10541777 Ref: library/ipc doc10541942 Ref: 327410541942 Ref: library/ipc ipc10541942 Ref: 327510541942 Ref: library/ipc networking-and-interprocess-communication10541942 Ref: 327610541942 Node: asyncio — Asynchronous I/O10542739 Ref: library/asyncio doc10542895 Ref: 327710542895 Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-asynchronous-i-o10542895 Ref: 327810542895 Ref: library/asyncio module-asyncio10542895 Ref: a10542895 Ref: library/asyncio asyncio-cli10544635 Ref: 328410544635 Node: Runners10545668 Ref: library/asyncio-runner doc10545769 Ref: 328510545769 Ref: library/asyncio-runner runners10545769 Ref: 328610545769 Ref: Runners-Footnote-110546187 Node: Running an asyncio Program10546263 Ref: library/asyncio-runner running-an-asyncio-program10546364 Ref: 328710546364 Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio run10546437 Ref: 47810546437 Node: Runner context manager10548175 Ref: library/asyncio-runner runner-context-manager10548315 Ref: 328910548315 Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner10548380 Ref: 5fc10548380 Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner run10549530 Ref: 16ad10549530 Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner close10550042 Ref: 328a10550042 Ref: library/asyncio-runner asyncio Runner get_loop10550265 Ref: 328b10550265 Node: Handling Keyboard Interruption10550707 Ref: library/asyncio-runner handling-keyboard-interruption10550812 Ref: 328c10550812 Node: Coroutines and Tasks10552322 Ref: library/asyncio-task doc10552439 Ref: 328d10552439 Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines-and-tasks10552439 Ref: 328e10552439 Node: Coroutines<3>10552919 Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutine10553008 Ref: 327a10553008 Ref: library/asyncio-task coroutines10553008 Ref: 328f10553008 Ref: Coroutines<3>-Footnote-110556313 Node: Awaitables10556392 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-awaitables10556504 Ref: 329010556504 Ref: library/asyncio-task awaitables10556504 Ref: 329110556504 Node: Creating Tasks10559103 Ref: library/asyncio-task creating-tasks10559219 Ref: 329210559219 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_task10559376 Ref: 1bf10559376 Ref: Creating Tasks-Footnote-110561413 Node: Task Cancellation10561486 Ref: library/asyncio-task task-cancellation10561603 Ref: 329310561603 Node: Task Groups10562673 Ref: library/asyncio-task task-groups10562784 Ref: 329410562784 Ref: library/asyncio-task taskgroups10562784 Ref: 329510562784 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup10562951 Ref: 1b510562951 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio TaskGroup create_task10563216 Ref: 1bc10563216 Node: Terminating a Task Group10567214 Ref: library/asyncio-task terminating-a-task-group10567286 Ref: 329610567286 Node: Sleeping10568615 Ref: library/asyncio-task sleeping10568735 Ref: 329710568735 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio sleep10568774 Ref: a6f10568774 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-sleep10569261 Ref: 329810569261 Node: Running Tasks Concurrently10569923 Ref: library/asyncio-task running-tasks-concurrently10570050 Ref: 329910570050 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio gather10570125 Ref: 5f910570125 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-gather10571850 Ref: 329a10571850 Node: Eager Task Factory10573966 Ref: library/asyncio-task eager-task-factory10574112 Ref: 329b10574112 Ref: library/asyncio-task id110574112 Ref: 329c10574112 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio eager_task_factory10574171 Ref: 47310574171 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio create_eager_task_factory10575317 Ref: 47410575317 Node: Shielding From Cancellation10575997 Ref: library/asyncio-task shielding-from-cancellation10576125 Ref: 329d10576125 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio shield10576202 Ref: a7010576202 Node: Timeouts10577880 Ref: library/asyncio-task timeouts10578008 Ref: 329e10578008 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout10578047 Ref: 5fa10578047 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout10579790 Ref: 16ca10579790 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout when10580271 Ref: 32a010580271 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout reschedule10580443 Ref: 329f10580443 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Timeout expired10580548 Ref: 32a110580548 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio timeout_at10581388 Ref: 182110581388 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait_for10582003 Ref: 5fb10582003 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-waitfor10582799 Ref: 32a210582799 Node: Waiting Primitives10583639 Ref: library/asyncio-task waiting-primitives10583758 Ref: 32a310583758 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio wait10583817 Ref: 47b10583817 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_COMPLETED10585018 Ref: 32a410585018 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio FIRST_EXCEPTION10585327 Ref: 32a510585327 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio ALL_COMPLETED10585848 Ref: 32a610585848 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio as_completed10586409 Ref: 1aa10586409 Node: Running in Threads10589265 Ref: library/asyncio-task running-in-threads10589405 Ref: 32a710589405 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio to_thread10589464 Ref: 8e710589464 Node: Scheduling From Other Threads10591674 Ref: library/asyncio-task scheduling-from-other-threads10591809 Ref: 32a810591809 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio run_coroutine_threadsafe10591890 Ref: 88010591890 Node: Introspection10593318 Ref: library/asyncio-task introspection10593446 Ref: 32aa10593446 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio current_task10593495 Ref: 47910593495 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio all_tasks10593774 Ref: 95610593774 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio iscoroutine10594034 Ref: 47a10594034 Node: Task Object10594159 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-task-obj10594249 Ref: 32ab10594249 Ref: library/asyncio-task task-object10594249 Ref: 32ac10594249 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task10594294 Ref: 1be10594294 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task done10597075 Ref: 32b010597075 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task result10597291 Ref: 32b110597291 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task exception10597780 Ref: 32b310597780 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task add_done_callback10598267 Ref: 32b410598267 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task remove_done_callback10598582 Ref: 32b510598582 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_stack10598880 Ref: 32b610598880 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task print_stack10599876 Ref: 175f10599876 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_coro10600368 Ref: 9db10600368 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_context10600782 Ref: 32b710600782 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task get_name10600947 Ref: 9dd10600947 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task set_name10601221 Ref: 9dc10601221 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancel10601557 Ref: 1b710601557 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio-example-task-cancel10602766 Ref: 32b810602766 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelled10604021 Ref: 32ad10604021 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task uncancel10604320 Ref: 1bb10604320 Ref: library/asyncio-task asyncio Task cancelling10606630 Ref: 1ba10606630 Node: Streams10607440 Ref: library/asyncio-stream doc10607576 Ref: 32b910607576 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-streams10607576 Ref: 327b10607576 Ref: library/asyncio-stream streams10607576 Ref: 32ba10607576 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-example-stream10607913 Ref: 32bb10607913 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio open_connection10608659 Ref: b1810608659 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio start_server10609964 Ref: b1910609964 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio open_unix_connection10611571 Ref: 32bf10611571 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio start_unix_server10612545 Ref: 32c110612545 Ref: Streams-Footnote-110613904 Node: StreamReader10613980 Ref: library/asyncio-stream streamreader10614057 Ref: 32c210614057 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader10614104 Ref: 18c510614104 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader feed_eof10614490 Ref: 32c310614490 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader read10614552 Ref: 32c410614552 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readline10615181 Ref: 32c510615181 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readexactly10615533 Ref: c7b10615533 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader readuntil10615825 Ref: 1b410615825 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamReader at_eof10617117 Ref: 32c810617117 Node: StreamWriter10617247 Ref: library/asyncio-stream streamwriter10617345 Ref: 32c910617345 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter10617392 Ref: 16ff10617392 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter write10617674 Ref: 32ca10617674 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter writelines10618044 Ref: 32cb10618044 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter close10618437 Ref: 32bd10618437 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter can_write_eof10618717 Ref: 32cc10618717 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter write_eof10618888 Ref: 32cd10618888 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter transport10619016 Ref: 32ce10619016 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter get_extra_info10619099 Ref: 32cf10619099 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter drain10619273 Ref: 17ae10619273 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter start_tls10619862 Ref: 60010619862 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter is_closing10620875 Ref: b0d10620875 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio StreamWriter wait_closed10621038 Ref: b0c10621038 Node: Examples<15>10621354 Ref: library/asyncio-stream examples10621431 Ref: 32bc10621431 Node: TCP echo client using streams10621628 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-tcp-echo-client-streams10621744 Ref: 32d010621744 Ref: library/asyncio-stream tcp-echo-client-using-streams10621744 Ref: 32d110621744 Node: TCP echo server using streams10622532 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-tcp-echo-server-streams10622673 Ref: 32d310622673 Ref: library/asyncio-stream tcp-echo-server-using-streams10622673 Ref: 32d410622673 Node: Get HTTP headers10623715 Ref: library/asyncio-stream get-http-headers10623881 Ref: 32d610623881 Node: Register an open socket to wait for data using streams10625152 Ref: library/asyncio-stream asyncio-example-create-connection-streams10625280 Ref: 32d710625280 Ref: library/asyncio-stream register-an-open-socket-to-wait-for-data-using-streams10625280 Ref: 32d810625280 Node: Synchronization Primitives10626705 Ref: library/asyncio-sync doc10626833 Ref: 32dc10626833 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio-sync10626833 Ref: 327e10626833 Ref: library/asyncio-sync synchronization-primitives10626833 Ref: 32dd10626833 Ref: Synchronization Primitives-Footnote-110627910 Node: Lock10627983 Ref: library/asyncio-sync lock10628064 Ref: 32de10628064 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock10628095 Ref: a7110628095 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock acquire10628757 Ref: 32df10628757 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock release10629247 Ref: 32e010629247 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Lock locked10629464 Ref: 32e110629464 Node: Event10629546 Ref: library/asyncio-sync event10629645 Ref: 32e210629645 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event10629678 Ref: a7210629678 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio-example-sync-event10630207 Ref: 32e610630207 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event wait10630836 Ref: 32e510630836 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event set10631042 Ref: 32e310631042 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event clear10631182 Ref: 32e410631182 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Event is_set10631372 Ref: 32e710631372 Node: Condition10631450 Ref: library/asyncio-sync condition10631554 Ref: 32e810631554 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition10631595 Ref: a7310631595 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition acquire10632827 Ref: 32e910632827 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition notify10633026 Ref: 167a10633026 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition locked10633390 Ref: 32ea10633390 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition notify_all10633483 Ref: 32eb10633483 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition release10633861 Ref: 32ec10633861 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition wait10634023 Ref: 16a510634023 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Condition wait_for10634763 Ref: 32ed10634763 Node: Semaphore10635111 Ref: library/asyncio-sync semaphore10635226 Ref: 32ee10635226 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore10635267 Ref: a7410635267 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore acquire10636379 Ref: 16a610636379 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore locked10636663 Ref: 32f010636663 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Semaphore release10636767 Ref: 32ef10636767 Node: BoundedSemaphore10637081 Ref: library/asyncio-sync boundedsemaphore10637194 Ref: 32f110637194 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio BoundedSemaphore10637249 Ref: a7510637249 Node: Barrier10637608 Ref: library/asyncio-sync barrier10637703 Ref: 32f210637703 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier10637740 Ref: 5fd10637740 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio-example-barrier10638335 Ref: 32f410638335 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier wait10639203 Ref: 32f310639203 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier reset10640280 Ref: 32f510640280 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier abort10640576 Ref: 32f610640576 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier parties10640889 Ref: 32f710640889 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier n_waiting10640979 Ref: 32f810640979 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio Barrier broken10641099 Ref: 32f910641099 Ref: library/asyncio-sync asyncio BrokenBarrierError10641216 Ref: 5fe10641216 Node: Subprocesses10641686 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess doc10641813 Ref: 32fa10641813 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio-subprocess10641813 Ref: 327c10641813 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess subprocesses10641813 Ref: 32fb10641813 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio-example-subprocess-shell10642101 Ref: 32fc10642101 Ref: Subprocesses-Footnote-110643397 Ref: Subprocesses-Footnote-210643476 Node: Creating Subprocesses10643560 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess creating-subprocesses10643651 Ref: 32fe10643651 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio create_subprocess_exec10643716 Ref: a7710643716 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio create_subprocess_shell10644311 Ref: a7810644311 Ref: Creating Subprocesses-Footnote-110645852 Node: Constants<7>10645922 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess constants10646051 Ref: 330910646051 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess PIPE10646092 Ref: 330a10646092 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess STDOUT10646538 Ref: 330c10646538 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess DEVNULL10646724 Ref: 330d10646724 Node: Interacting with Subprocesses10647005 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess interacting-with-subprocesses10647104 Ref: 330e10647104 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process10647435 Ref: 330110647435 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process wait10648413 Ref: 330f10648413 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process communicate10648918 Ref: 172e10648918 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process send_signal10650277 Ref: 15f910650277 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process terminate10650691 Ref: 331210650691 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process kill10650973 Ref: 331310650973 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process stdin10651218 Ref: 330b10651218 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process stdout10651380 Ref: 32ff10651380 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process stderr10651545 Ref: 330010651545 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process pid10652050 Ref: 331510652050 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio subprocess Process returncode10652289 Ref: 331110652289 Node: Subprocess and Threads10652647 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio-subprocess-threads10652756 Ref: 331010652756 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess subprocess-and-threads10652756 Ref: 331610652756 Node: Examples<16>10653624 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess examples10653733 Ref: 32fd10653733 Ref: library/asyncio-subprocess asyncio-example-create-subprocess-exec10653917 Ref: 331810653917 Node: Queues10654720 Ref: library/asyncio-queue doc10654835 Ref: 331a10654835 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio-queues10654835 Ref: 327d10654835 Ref: library/asyncio-queue queues10654835 Ref: 331b10654835 Ref: Queues-Footnote-110655527 Node: Queue10655601 Ref: library/asyncio-queue queue10655672 Ref: 331d10655672 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue10655705 Ref: a7610655705 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue maxsize10656314 Ref: 332010656314 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue empty10656392 Ref: 332110656392 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue full10656494 Ref: 332210656494 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue get10656750 Ref: 331e10656750 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue get_nowait10657055 Ref: 332310657055 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue join10657191 Ref: dc710657191 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue put10657685 Ref: 332510657685 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue put_nowait10657939 Ref: 332610657939 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue qsize10658123 Ref: 331f10658123 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue shutdown10658202 Ref: 1b010658202 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio Queue task_done10659762 Ref: dc810659762 Node: Priority Queue10660470 Ref: library/asyncio-queue priority-queue10660560 Ref: 332810660560 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio PriorityQueue10660611 Ref: 332910660611 Node: LIFO Queue10660818 Ref: library/asyncio-queue lifo-queue10660917 Ref: 332a10660917 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio LifoQueue10660960 Ref: 332b10660960 Node: Exceptions<12>10661103 Ref: library/asyncio-queue exceptions10661200 Ref: 332c10661200 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio QueueEmpty10661243 Ref: 332410661243 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio QueueFull10661385 Ref: 332710661385 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio QueueShutDown10661542 Ref: 1b110661542 Node: Examples<17>10661730 Ref: library/asyncio-queue examples10661808 Ref: 331c10661808 Ref: library/asyncio-queue asyncio-example-queue-dist10661847 Ref: 332d10661847 Node: Exceptions<13>10663605 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions doc10663718 Ref: 332e10663718 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio-exceptions10663718 Ref: 332f10663718 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions exceptions10663718 Ref: 333010663718 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio TimeoutError10663874 Ref: 174310663874 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio CancelledError10664121 Ref: 1b810664121 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio InvalidStateError10664515 Ref: 32b210664515 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio SendfileNotAvailableError10664754 Ref: 333110664754 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio IncompleteReadError10664939 Ref: 191f10664939 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio IncompleteReadError expected10665155 Ref: 333210665155 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio IncompleteReadError partial10665250 Ref: 32c610665250 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio LimitOverrunError10665373 Ref: 32c710665373 Ref: library/asyncio-exceptions asyncio LimitOverrunError consumed10665535 Ref: 333310665535 Ref: Exceptions<13>-Footnote-110665654 Node: Event Loop10665733 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop doc10665847 Ref: 333410665847 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-event-loop10665847 Ref: d7810665847 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop event-loop10665847 Ref: 333510665847 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio get_running_loop10666677 Ref: b0b10666677 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio get_event_loop10666955 Ref: 2c410666955 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio set_event_loop10667953 Ref: 17ca10667953 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio new_event_loop10668068 Ref: 328810668068 Ref: Event Loop-Footnote-110669347 Ref: Event Loop-Footnote-210669421 Node: Event Loop Methods10669501 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-event-loop-methods10669591 Ref: 333c10669591 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop event-loop-methods10669591 Ref: 333710669591 Node: Running and stopping the loop10670174 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop running-and-stopping-the-loop10670287 Ref: 333d10670287 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop run_until_complete10670368 Ref: c7710670368 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop run_forever10670684 Ref: 333e10670684 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop stop10671404 Ref: c7c10671404 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop is_running10671457 Ref: 333f10671457 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop is_closed10671553 Ref: dc310671553 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop close10671638 Ref: 334010671638 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop shutdown_asyncgens10672043 Ref: c7d10672043 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop shutdown_default_executor10672724 Ref: 8e610672724 Node: Scheduling callbacks10673736 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop scheduling-callbacks10673886 Ref: 334110673886 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop call_soon10673949 Ref: b0410673949 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop call_soon_threadsafe10674662 Ref: b0510674662 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-pass-keywords10675485 Ref: 334210675485 Ref: Scheduling callbacks-Footnote-110675980 Node: Scheduling delayed callbacks10676022 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-delayed-calls10676169 Ref: 334310676169 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop scheduling-delayed-callbacks10676169 Ref: 334410676169 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop call_later10676402 Ref: b0610676402 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop call_at10677573 Ref: b0710677573 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop time10678333 Ref: 334510678333 Ref: Scheduling delayed callbacks-Footnote-110678768 Ref: Scheduling delayed callbacks-Footnote-210678810 Node: Creating Futures and Tasks10678852 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop creating-futures-and-tasks10679006 Ref: 334610679006 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_future10679081 Ref: c7910679081 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_task10679439 Ref: 1c010679439 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop set_task_factory10680908 Ref: dc510680908 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop get_task_factory10681683 Ref: dc610681683 Node: Opening network connections10681793 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop opening-network-connections10681943 Ref: 334710681943 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_connection10682020 Ref: 5ff10682020 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_datagram_endpoint10688938 Ref: 72e10688938 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_unix_connection10692799 Ref: 32c010692799 Ref: Opening network connections-Footnote-110693854 Ref: Opening network connections-Footnote-210693913 Node: Creating network servers10693972 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop creating-network-servers10694114 Ref: 335010694114 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop loop-create-server10694185 Ref: 327f10694185 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_server10694185 Ref: b1310694185 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop create_unix_server10698886 Ref: 1ae10698886 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop connect_accepted_socket10700142 Ref: b1a10700142 Node: Transferring files10701702 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop transferring-files10701828 Ref: 335210701828 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sendfile10701887 Ref: 335310701887 Node: TLS Upgrade10702943 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop tls-upgrade10703070 Ref: 335410703070 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop start_tls10703115 Ref: b0910703115 Node: Watching file descriptors10705055 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop watching-file-descriptors10705200 Ref: 335510705200 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop add_reader10705273 Ref: 32db10705273 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop remove_reader10705588 Ref: 335610705588 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop add_writer10705769 Ref: 335710705769 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop remove_writer10706186 Ref: 335810706186 Node: Working with socket objects directly10706456 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop working-with-socket-objects-directly10706593 Ref: 335a10706593 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_recv10707044 Ref: c1110707044 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_recv_into10707509 Ref: b0a10707509 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_recvfrom10707815 Ref: 60210707815 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_recvfrom_into10708116 Ref: 60310708116 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_sendall10708454 Ref: c1210708454 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_sendto10709206 Ref: 60110709206 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_connect10709482 Ref: dc910709482 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_accept10710099 Ref: c1310710099 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop sock_sendfile10710919 Ref: b0e10710919 Node: DNS10712119 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop dns10712249 Ref: 335b10712249 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop getaddrinfo10712278 Ref: c1410712278 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop getnameinfo10712440 Ref: c1510712440 Node: Working with pipes10713278 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop working-with-pipes10713384 Ref: 335c10713384 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop connect_read_pipe10713443 Ref: 330510713443 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop connect_write_pipe10714014 Ref: 330610714014 Node: Unix signals10714847 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop unix-signals10714991 Ref: 335f10714991 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop loop-add-signal-handler10715038 Ref: 328110715038 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop add_signal_handler10715038 Ref: 336010715038 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop remove_signal_handler10715828 Ref: 336110715828 Node: Executing code in thread or process pools10716133 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop executing-code-in-thread-or-process-pools10716277 Ref: 336210716277 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop run_in_executor10716382 Ref: 8e810716382 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop set_default_executor10719067 Ref: 73e10719067 Node: Error Handling API10719377 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop error-handling-api10719528 Ref: 336310719528 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop set_exception_handler10719653 Ref: 336410719653 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop get_exception_handler10720509 Ref: c7a10720509 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop default_exception_handler10720685 Ref: 336610720685 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop call_exception_handler10721060 Ref: 336510721060 Node: Enabling debug mode10722265 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop enabling-debug-mode10722395 Ref: 336710722395 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop get_debug10722456 Ref: dc210722456 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop set_debug10722711 Ref: dc110722711 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop slow_callback_duration10722925 Ref: 336810722925 Node: Running Subprocesses10723254 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop running-subprocesses10723357 Ref: 336910723357 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop loop-subprocess-exec10723883 Ref: 328010723883 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop subprocess_exec10723883 Ref: 330210723883 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio loop subprocess_shell10727818 Ref: 330310727818 Ref: Running Subprocesses-Footnote-110729134 Node: Callback Handles10729204 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop callback-handles10729317 Ref: 333810729317 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Handle10729372 Ref: 1aa210729372 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Handle get_context10729517 Ref: 336c10729517 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Handle cancel10729684 Ref: 336d10729684 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Handle cancelled10729837 Ref: b1b10729837 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio TimerHandle10729961 Ref: 176c10729961 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio TimerHandle when10730157 Ref: b1710730157 Node: Server Objects10730404 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop server-objects10730525 Ref: 333910730525 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server10730812 Ref: b1210730812 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server close10731502 Ref: 32be10731502 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server close_clients10731931 Ref: 1b210731931 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server abort_clients10732299 Ref: 1b310732299 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server get_loop10732741 Ref: b1110732741 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server start_serving10732872 Ref: b1410732872 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server serve_forever10733488 Ref: b1510733488 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server is_serving10734383 Ref: b1610734383 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server wait_closed10734521 Ref: 16c910734521 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio Server sockets10734676 Ref: c1610734676 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-event-loops10735023 Ref: 336f10735023 Node: Event Loop Implementations10735023 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-event-loop-implementations10735140 Ref: 337010735140 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop event-loop-implementations10735140 Ref: 333a10735140 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio SelectorEventLoop10735405 Ref: 60410735405 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio ProactorEventLoop10736079 Ref: 60510736079 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio EventLoop10736353 Ref: 16f610736353 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio AbstractEventLoop10736663 Ref: 95f10736663 Ref: Event Loop Implementations-Footnote-110736959 Node: Examples<18>10737038 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop examples10737132 Ref: 333b10737132 Node: Hello World with call_soon10737731 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-example-lowlevel-helloworld10737855 Ref: 337110737855 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop hello-world-with-call-soon10737855 Ref: 337210737855 Node: Display the current date with call_later10738629 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-example-call-later10738801 Ref: 337310738801 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop display-the-current-date-with-call-later10738801 Ref: 337410738801 Node: Watch a file descriptor for read events10739793 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-example-watch-fd10739981 Ref: 32da10739981 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop watch-a-file-descriptor-for-read-events10739981 Ref: 337510739981 Node: Set signal handlers for SIGINT and SIGTERM10741301 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop asyncio-example-unix-signals10741440 Ref: 337610741440 Ref: library/asyncio-eventloop set-signal-handlers-for-sigint-and-sigterm10741440 Ref: 337710741440 Node: Futures10742368 Ref: library/asyncio-future doc10742492 Ref: 337810742492 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio-futures10742492 Ref: 328310742492 Ref: library/asyncio-future futures10742492 Ref: 337910742492 Ref: Futures-Footnote-110742859 Ref: Futures-Footnote-210742935 Node: Future Functions10743016 Ref: library/asyncio-future future-functions10743098 Ref: 337a10743098 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio isfuture10743153 Ref: 337b10743153 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio ensure_future10743461 Ref: c7610743461 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio wrap_future10744694 Ref: 18c410744694 Node: Future Object10745038 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio-future-obj10745120 Ref: 337c10745120 Ref: library/asyncio-future future-object10745120 Ref: 337d10745120 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future10745169 Ref: bcd10745169 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future result10746296 Ref: 337e10746296 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future set_result10746912 Ref: 32ae10746912 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future set_exception10747108 Ref: 32af10747108 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future done10747312 Ref: 337f10747312 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future cancelled10747576 Ref: 338010747576 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future add_done_callback10747881 Ref: b0810747881 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future remove_done_callback10748870 Ref: 15a510748870 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future cancel10749102 Ref: 181910749102 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future exception10749455 Ref: 338110749455 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio Future get_loop10749899 Ref: b1010749899 Ref: library/asyncio-future asyncio-example-future10750026 Ref: 338210750026 Ref: Future Object-Footnote-110752235 Node: Transports and Protocols10752277 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol doc10752399 Ref: 338310752399 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-transports-protocols10752399 Ref: 328210752399 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol transports-and-protocols10752399 Ref: 338410752399 Node: Transports10754766 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-transport10754855 Ref: 334910754855 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol transports10754855 Ref: 338510754855 Ref: Transports-Footnote-110755597 Node: Transports Hierarchy10755676 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol transports-hierarchy10755766 Ref: 338c10755766 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseTransport10755829 Ref: 338710755829 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport10755958 Ref: 335e10755958 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio ReadTransport10756289 Ref: 335d10756289 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio Transport10756616 Ref: 338810756616 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio DatagramTransport10757219 Ref: 17ac10757219 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport10757462 Ref: 336b10757462 Node: Base Transport10757788 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol base-transport10757907 Ref: 338d10757907 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseTransport close10757958 Ref: 334c10757958 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseTransport is_closing10758387 Ref: c7810758387 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseTransport get_extra_info10758494 Ref: a9c10758494 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseTransport set_protocol10760652 Ref: 339210760652 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseTransport get_protocol10760837 Ref: 339310760837 Node: Read-only Transports10760915 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol read-only-transports10761035 Ref: 339410761035 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio ReadTransport is_reading10761098 Ref: b1c10761098 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio ReadTransport pause_reading10761231 Ref: b1e10761231 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio ReadTransport resume_reading10761600 Ref: b1d10761600 Node: Write-only Transports10761938 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol write-only-transports10762063 Ref: 339510762063 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport abort10762128 Ref: 336e10762128 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport can_write_eof10762467 Ref: 339610762467 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport get_write_buffer_size10762624 Ref: 339810762624 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport get_write_buffer_limits10762751 Ref: dc410762751 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport set_write_buffer_limits10763067 Ref: 339910763067 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport write10764479 Ref: 339c10764479 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport writelines10764678 Ref: 158010764678 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio WriteTransport write_eof10764962 Ref: 339710764962 Node: Datagram Transports10765251 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol datagram-transports10765377 Ref: 339d10765377 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio DatagramTransport sendto10765438 Ref: 1af10765438 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio DatagramTransport abort10766050 Ref: 339e10766050 Node: Subprocess Transports10766392 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-subprocess-transports10766488 Ref: 330710766488 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol subprocess-transports10766488 Ref: 339f10766488 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport get_pid10766553 Ref: 33a010766553 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport get_pipe_transport10766651 Ref: 33a110766651 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport get_returncode10767397 Ref: 33a210767397 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport kill10767633 Ref: 33a310767633 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport send_signal10767894 Ref: 33a510767894 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport terminate10768053 Ref: 33a410768053 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessTransport close10768372 Ref: 33a610768372 Node: Protocols10768598 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-protocol10768708 Ref: 334810768708 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol protocols10768708 Ref: 338610768708 Ref: Protocols-Footnote-110769501 Node: Base Protocols10769579 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol base-protocols10769661 Ref: 33a710769661 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseProtocol10769712 Ref: 338910769712 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio Protocol10769804 Ref: 338a10769804 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BufferedProtocol10769937 Ref: a9d10769937 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio DatagramProtocol10770093 Ref: 6ca10770093 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessProtocol10770209 Ref: 336a10770209 Node: Base Protocol10770375 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol base-protocol10770485 Ref: 33a810770485 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseProtocol connection_made10770808 Ref: 334a10770808 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseProtocol connection_lost10771062 Ref: 338e10771062 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseProtocol pause_writing10771605 Ref: 339a10771605 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BaseProtocol resume_writing10771721 Ref: 339b10771721 Node: Streaming Protocols10772185 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol streaming-protocols10772309 Ref: 33a910772309 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio Protocol data_received10772719 Ref: 178c10772719 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio Protocol eof_received10773400 Ref: 33aa10773400 Node: Buffered Streaming Protocols10774264 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol buffered-streaming-protocols10774393 Ref: 33ab10774393 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BufferedProtocol get_buffer10775086 Ref: 33ac10775086 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BufferedProtocol buffer_updated10775559 Ref: 33ad10775559 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio BufferedProtocol eof_received10775760 Ref: 33ae10775760 Node: Datagram Protocols10776332 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol datagram-protocols10776462 Ref: 33af10776462 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio DatagramProtocol datagram_received10776660 Ref: 33b010776660 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio DatagramProtocol error_received10776925 Ref: 33b110776925 Node: Subprocess Protocols10777860 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-subprocess-protocols10777953 Ref: 330810777953 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol subprocess-protocols10777953 Ref: 33b210777953 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessProtocol pipe_data_received10778191 Ref: 17c410778191 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessProtocol pipe_connection_lost10778464 Ref: 33b310778464 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio SubprocessProtocol process_exited10778674 Ref: 17c310778674 Node: Examples<19>10778890 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol examples10778981 Ref: 338b10778981 Node: TCP Echo Server10779236 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-example-tcp-echo-server-protocol10779324 Ref: 32d510779324 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol tcp-echo-server10779324 Ref: 33b410779324 Node: TCP Echo Client10780598 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-example-tcp-echo-client-protocol10780710 Ref: 32d210780710 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol tcp-echo-client10780710 Ref: 33b510780710 Node: UDP Echo Server10782268 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-udp-echo-server-protocol10782380 Ref: 334f10782380 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol udp-echo-server10782380 Ref: 33b610782380 Node: UDP Echo Client10783516 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-udp-echo-client-protocol10783640 Ref: 334e10783640 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol udp-echo-client10783640 Ref: 33b710783640 Node: Connecting Existing Sockets10785172 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-example-create-connection10785324 Ref: 32d910785324 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol connecting-existing-sockets10785324 Ref: 33b810785324 Node: loop subprocess_exec and SubprocessProtocol10787238 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol asyncio-example-subprocess-proto10787366 Ref: 331910787366 Ref: library/asyncio-protocol loop-subprocess-exec-and-subprocessprotocol10787366 Ref: 33b910787366 Node: Policies10789677 Ref: library/asyncio-policy doc10789808 Ref: 33ba10789808 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio-policies10789808 Ref: 333610789808 Ref: library/asyncio-policy policies10789808 Ref: 33bb10789808 Node: Getting and Setting the Policy10790739 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio-policy-get-set10790837 Ref: 33bc10790837 Ref: library/asyncio-policy getting-and-setting-the-policy10790837 Ref: 33c110790837 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio get_event_loop_policy10791010 Ref: 33c210791010 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio set_event_loop_policy10791104 Ref: 33c310791104 Node: Policy Objects10791285 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio-policy-objects10791408 Ref: 33bf10791408 Ref: library/asyncio-policy policy-objects10791408 Ref: 33c410791408 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractEventLoopPolicy10791527 Ref: 33c010791527 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractEventLoopPolicy get_event_loop10791622 Ref: 33c510791622 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractEventLoopPolicy set_event_loop10791910 Ref: 33c610791910 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractEventLoopPolicy new_event_loop10792015 Ref: 33c710792015 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractEventLoopPolicy get_child_watcher10792160 Ref: 2c310792160 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractEventLoopPolicy set_child_watcher10792437 Ref: 2c210792437 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio-policy-builtin10792631 Ref: 33bd10792631 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio DefaultEventLoopPolicy10792684 Ref: 33c810792684 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio WindowsSelectorEventLoopPolicy10793385 Ref: 33c910793385 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio WindowsProactorEventLoopPolicy10793593 Ref: 33ca10793593 Node: Process Watchers10793801 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio-watchers10793909 Ref: 331710793909 Ref: library/asyncio-policy process-watchers10793909 Ref: 33cb10793909 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio get_child_watcher10794777 Ref: 2c110794777 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio set_child_watcher10794921 Ref: 2c010794921 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractChildWatcher10795388 Ref: 2be10795388 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractChildWatcher add_child_handler10795429 Ref: 33cc10795429 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractChildWatcher remove_child_handler10795822 Ref: 33cd10795822 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractChildWatcher attach_loop10796073 Ref: 17cb10796073 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractChildWatcher is_active10796337 Ref: 33ce10796337 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio AbstractChildWatcher close10796575 Ref: 33cf10796575 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio ThreadedChildWatcher10796771 Ref: 47710796771 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio MultiLoopChildWatcher10797243 Ref: 2bc10797243 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio SafeChildWatcher10797943 Ref: 2bf10797943 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio FastChildWatcher10798570 Ref: 2bd10798570 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio PidfdChildWatcher10799074 Ref: 47510799074 Node: Custom Policies10799673 Ref: library/asyncio-policy asyncio-custom-policies10799758 Ref: 33be10799758 Ref: library/asyncio-policy custom-policies10799758 Ref: 33d010799758 Node: Platform Support10800367 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms doc10800483 Ref: 33d110800483 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms asyncio-platform-support10800483 Ref: 335910800483 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms platform-support10800483 Ref: 33d210800483 Node: All Platforms10800795 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms all-platforms10800881 Ref: 33d310800881 Node: Windows<79>10801045 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms windows10801149 Ref: 33d410801149 Ref: Windows<79>-Footnote-110802994 Ref: Windows<79>-Footnote-210803078 Ref: Windows<79>-Footnote-310803161 Ref: Windows<79>-Footnote-410803243 Node: Subprocess Support on Windows10803308 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms asyncio-windows-subprocess10803385 Ref: 330410803385 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms subprocess-support-on-windows10803385 Ref: 33d610803385 Node: macOS<50>10803766 Ref: library/asyncio-platforms macos10803848 Ref: 33d710803848 Node: Extending10804479 Ref: library/asyncio-extending doc10804607 Ref: 33d910804607 Ref: library/asyncio-extending extending10804607 Ref: 33da10804607 Node: Writing a Custom Event Loop10805087 Ref: library/asyncio-extending writing-a-custom-event-loop10805205 Ref: 33db10805205 Node: Future and Task private constructors10805924 Ref: library/asyncio-extending future-and-task-private-constructors10806072 Ref: 33dc10806072 Ref: library/asyncio-extending asyncio Future __init__10806636 Ref: 33dd10806636 Ref: library/asyncio-extending asyncio Task __init__10806770 Ref: 33de10806770 Node: Task lifetime support10807080 Ref: library/asyncio-extending task-lifetime-support10807192 Ref: 33df10807192 Ref: library/asyncio-extending asyncio _register_task10807428 Ref: 33e010807428 Ref: library/asyncio-extending asyncio _unregister_task10807575 Ref: 33e110807575 Ref: library/asyncio-extending asyncio _enter_task10807752 Ref: 33e210807752 Ref: library/asyncio-extending asyncio _leave_task10808010 Ref: 33e310808010 Node: High-level API Index10808234 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index doc10808365 Ref: 87610808365 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index high-level-api-index10808365 Ref: 33e410808365 Node: Tasks10808643 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index tasks10808723 Ref: 33e510808723 Node: Queues<2>10812863 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index queues10812967 Ref: 33e610812967 Node: Subprocesses<2>10813786 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index subprocesses10813895 Ref: 33e710813895 Node: Streams<2>10814457 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index streams10814572 Ref: 33e810814572 Node: Synchronization10816007 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index synchronization10816121 Ref: 33e910816121 Node: Exceptions<14>10817484 Ref: library/asyncio-api-index exceptions10817579 Ref: 33ea10817579 Node: Low-level API Index10818329 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index doc10818474 Ref: 33eb10818474 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index low-level-api-index10818474 Ref: 33ec10818474 Node: Obtaining the Event Loop10818746 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index obtaining-the-event-loop10818856 Ref: 33ed10818856 Node: Event Loop Methods<2>10819985 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index event-loop-methods10820117 Ref: 33ee10820117 Node: Transports<2>10832445 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index transports10832565 Ref: 33ef10832565 Node: Protocols<2>10838610 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index protocols10838728 Ref: 33f010838728 Node: Event Loop Policies10842469 Ref: library/asyncio-llapi-index event-loop-policies10842565 Ref: 33f110842565 Node: Developing with asyncio10843394 Ref: library/asyncio-dev doc10843510 Ref: 33f210843510 Ref: library/asyncio-dev asyncio-dev10843510 Ref: 33f310843510 Ref: library/asyncio-dev developing-with-asyncio10843510 Ref: 33f410843510 Node: Debug Mode10843921 Ref: library/asyncio-dev asyncio-debug-mode10844030 Ref: 1d4f10844030 Ref: library/asyncio-dev debug-mode10844030 Ref: 33f510844030 Node: Concurrency and Multithreading10845528 Ref: library/asyncio-dev asyncio-multithreading10845667 Ref: 32a910845667 Ref: library/asyncio-dev concurrency-and-multithreading10845667 Ref: 33f710845667 Node: Running Blocking Code10847950 Ref: library/asyncio-dev asyncio-handle-blocking10848089 Ref: 33f810848089 Ref: library/asyncio-dev running-blocking-code10848089 Ref: 33f910848089 Node: Logging<3>10848583 Ref: library/asyncio-dev asyncio-logger10848723 Ref: 33f610848723 Ref: library/asyncio-dev logging10848723 Ref: 33fa10848723 Node: Detect never-awaited coroutines10849202 Ref: library/asyncio-dev asyncio-coroutine-not-scheduled10849354 Ref: 33fc10849354 Ref: library/asyncio-dev detect-never-awaited-coroutines10849354 Ref: 33fd10849354 Node: Detect never-retrieved exceptions10850363 Ref: library/asyncio-dev detect-never-retrieved-exceptions10850496 Ref: 33fe10850496 Ref: Detect never-retrieved exceptions-Footnote-110852106 Node: socket — Low-level networking interface10852171 Ref: library/socket doc10852378 Ref: 33ff10852378 Ref: library/socket module-socket10852378 Ref: cc10852378 Ref: library/socket socket-low-level-networking-interface10852378 Ref: 340010852378 Ref: socket — Low-level networking interface-Footnote-110853856 Node: Socket families10853922 Ref: library/socket socket-families10854039 Ref: 340110854039 Ref: library/socket host-port10855235 Ref: 340210855235 Ref: Socket families-Footnote-110865776 Ref: Socket families-Footnote-210865818 Node: Module contents10865863 Ref: library/socket module-contents10866003 Ref: 340910866003 Node: Exceptions<15>10866210 Ref: library/socket exceptions10866297 Ref: 340a10866297 Ref: library/socket socket error10866338 Ref: 104e10866338 Ref: library/socket socket herror10866525 Ref: 340b10866525 Ref: library/socket socket gaierror10867150 Ref: 175310867150 Ref: library/socket socket timeout10867755 Ref: 83010867755 Ref: Exceptions<15>-Footnote-110868396 Node: Constants<8>10868438 Ref: library/socket constants10868546 Ref: 340d10868546 Ref: library/socket socket AF_UNIX10868721 Ref: 181e10868721 Ref: library/socket socket AF_INET10868746 Ref: 181c10868746 Ref: library/socket socket AF_INET610868771 Ref: 181d10868771 Ref: library/socket socket AF_UNSPEC10869085 Ref: 335110869085 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_STREAM10869296 Ref: 12e610869296 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_DGRAM10869325 Ref: 12e510869325 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_RAW10869353 Ref: 340e10869353 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_RDM10869379 Ref: 340f10869379 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_SEQPACKET10869405 Ref: 341010869405 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_CLOEXEC10869706 Ref: c0b10869706 Ref: library/socket socket SOCK_NONBLOCK10869736 Ref: c0a10869736 Ref: library/socket socket-unix-constants10870153 Ref: 334d10870153 Ref: library/socket socket SOMAXCONN10870168 Ref: e5a10870168 Ref: library/socket socket AF_CAN10872783 Ref: 340310872783 Ref: library/socket socket PF_CAN10872807 Ref: 341110872807 Ref: library/socket socket CAN_BCM10873228 Ref: f9d10873228 Ref: library/socket socket CAN_RAW_FD_FRAMES10873653 Ref: ec310873653 Ref: library/socket socket CAN_RAW_JOIN_FILTERS10874069 Ref: 93110874069 Ref: library/socket socket CAN_ISOTP10874371 Ref: 340410874371 Ref: library/socket socket CAN_J193910874623 Ref: 93210874623 Ref: library/socket socket AF_DIVERT10874859 Ref: 341210874859 Ref: library/socket socket PF_DIVERT10874886 Ref: 341310874886 Ref: library/socket socket AF_PACKET10875113 Ref: 340510875113 Ref: library/socket socket PF_PACKET10875140 Ref: 341410875140 Ref: library/socket socket ETH_P_ALL10875355 Ref: 17a810875355 Ref: library/socket socket AF_RDS10875705 Ref: 341510875705 Ref: library/socket socket PF_RDS10875729 Ref: 341610875729 Ref: library/socket socket SOL_RDS10875753 Ref: 341710875753 Ref: library/socket socket SIO_RCVALL10875994 Ref: 341810875994 Ref: library/socket socket SIO_KEEPALIVE_VALS10876022 Ref: 341910876022 Ref: library/socket socket SIO_LOOPBACK_FAST_PATH10876058 Ref: cd410876058 Ref: library/socket socket AF_ALG10876477 Ref: cd710876477 Ref: library/socket socket SOL_ALG10876501 Ref: 341a10876501 Ref: library/socket socket AF_VSOCK10876669 Ref: b7510876669 Ref: library/socket socket IOCTL_VM_SOCKETS_GET_LOCAL_CID10876695 Ref: 341b10876695 Ref: library/socket socket AF_LINK10876908 Ref: f9e10876908 Ref: library/socket socket has_ipv610877007 Ref: 341c10877007 Ref: library/socket socket BDADDR_ANY10877139 Ref: 341d10877139 Ref: library/socket socket BDADDR_LOCAL10877167 Ref: 341e10877167 Ref: library/socket socket HCI_FILTER10877436 Ref: 341f10877436 Ref: library/socket socket HCI_TIME_STAMP10877464 Ref: 342010877464 Ref: library/socket socket HCI_DATA_DIR10877496 Ref: 342110877496 Ref: library/socket socket AF_QIPCRTR10877706 Ref: 340610877706 Ref: library/socket socket SCM_CREDS210877902 Ref: 342210877902 Ref: library/socket socket LOCAL_CREDS10877930 Ref: 342310877930 Ref: library/socket socket LOCAL_CREDS_PERSISTENT10877959 Ref: 342410877959 Ref: library/socket socket SO_INCOMING_CPU10878397 Ref: 342510878397 Ref: library/socket socket AF_HYPERV10878603 Ref: 340710878603 Ref: library/socket socket HV_PROTOCOL_RAW10878630 Ref: 342610878630 Ref: library/socket socket HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT10878663 Ref: 342710878663 Ref: library/socket socket HVSOCKET_CONNECT_TIMEOUT_MAX10878705 Ref: 342810878705 Ref: library/socket socket HVSOCKET_CONNECTED_SUSPEND10878751 Ref: 342910878751 Ref: library/socket socket HVSOCKET_ADDRESS_FLAG_PASSTHRU10878795 Ref: 342a10878795 Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_ZERO10878843 Ref: 342b10878843 Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_WILDCARD10878873 Ref: 342c10878873 Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_BROADCAST10878907 Ref: 342d10878907 Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_CHILDREN10878942 Ref: 342e10878942 Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_LOOPBACK10878976 Ref: 342f10878976 Ref: library/socket socket HV_GUID_PARENT10879010 Ref: 343010879010 Ref: library/socket socket-ethernet-types10879194 Ref: 17a910879194 Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_ARP10879194 Ref: 343110879194 Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_IP10879225 Ref: 343210879225 Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_IPV610879255 Ref: 343310879255 Ref: library/socket socket ETHERTYPE_VLAN10879287 Ref: 343410879287 Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_RD10879454 Ref: 343510879454 Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_WR10879479 Ref: 343610879479 Ref: library/socket socket SHUT_RDWR10879504 Ref: 343710879504 Ref: Constants<8>-Footnote-110879704 Ref: Constants<8>-Footnote-210879756 Ref: Constants<8>-Footnote-310879802 Node: Functions<8>10879882 Ref: library/socket functions10879967 Ref: 343910879967 Node: Creating sockets10880076 Ref: library/socket creating-sockets10880168 Ref: 343a10880168 Ref: library/socket socket socket10880285 Ref: da010880285 Ref: library/socket socket socketpair10882863 Ref: bf510882863 Ref: library/socket socket create_connection10883600 Ref: 66e10883600 Ref: library/socket socket create_server10885108 Ref: a2a10885108 Ref: library/socket socket has_dualstack_ipv610886937 Ref: a2b10886937 Ref: library/socket socket fromfd10887134 Ref: 343c10887134 Ref: library/socket socket fromshare10888023 Ref: c0710888023 Ref: library/socket socket SocketType10888279 Ref: 343e10888279 Node: Other functions<2>10888432 Ref: library/socket other-functions10888524 Ref: 343f10888524 Ref: library/socket socket close10888651 Ref: b7310888651 Ref: library/socket socket getaddrinfo10888925 Ref: 175210888925 Ref: library/socket socket getfqdn10893020 Ref: 177b10893020 Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyname10893637 Ref: 344010893637 Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyname_ex10894281 Ref: 18cd10894281 Ref: library/socket socket gethostname10895071 Ref: 2b3110895071 Ref: library/socket socket gethostbyaddr10895501 Ref: 18cc10895501 Ref: library/socket socket getnameinfo10896242 Ref: 16c310896242 Ref: library/socket socket getprotobyname10897014 Ref: 344110897014 Ref: library/socket socket getservbyname10897511 Ref: 344210897511 Ref: library/socket socket getservbyport10897966 Ref: 344310897966 Ref: library/socket socket ntohl10898407 Ref: 344410898407 Ref: library/socket socket ntohs10898664 Ref: 87e10898664 Ref: library/socket socket htonl10899040 Ref: 344510899040 Ref: library/socket socket htons10899297 Ref: 87d10899297 Ref: library/socket socket inet_aton10899673 Ref: 96110899673 Ref: library/socket socket inet_ntoa10900604 Ref: 344610900604 Ref: library/socket socket inet_pton10901426 Ref: 96210901426 Ref: library/socket socket inet_ntop10902215 Ref: f9f10902215 Ref: library/socket socket CMSG_LEN10903199 Ref: 1a3610903199 Ref: library/socket socket CMSG_SPACE10903881 Ref: 1a3510903881 Ref: library/socket socket getdefaulttimeout10904782 Ref: 343d10904782 Ref: library/socket socket setdefaulttimeout10905060 Ref: 340c10905060 Ref: library/socket socket sethostname10905348 Ref: 112f10905348 Ref: library/socket socket if_nameindex10905695 Ref: a2c10905695 Ref: library/socket socket if_nametoindex10906497 Ref: a2d10906497 Ref: library/socket socket if_indextoname10906959 Ref: a2e10906959 Ref: library/socket socket send_fds10907423 Ref: 93310907423 Ref: library/socket socket recv_fds10907898 Ref: 93410907898 Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-110908483 Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-210908536 Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-310908587 Ref: Other functions<2>-Footnote-410908631 Node: Socket Objects10908690 Ref: library/socket id110908839 Ref: 344710908839 Ref: library/socket socket-objects10908839 Ref: 343b10908839 Ref: library/socket socket socket accept10909192 Ref: da110909192 Ref: library/socket socket socket bind10909958 Ref: 150410909958 Ref: library/socket socket socket close10910302 Ref: d4310910302 Ref: library/socket socket socket connect10911298 Ref: da210911298 Ref: library/socket socket socket connect_ex10912412 Ref: 150310912412 Ref: library/socket socket socket detach10913035 Ref: 120f10913035 Ref: library/socket socket socket dup10913278 Ref: 344810913278 Ref: library/socket socket socket fileno10913503 Ref: 344910913503 Ref: library/socket socket socket get_inheritable10913864 Ref: ef910913864 Ref: library/socket socket socket getpeername10914128 Ref: 338f10914128 Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockname10914467 Ref: 339010914467 Ref: library/socket socket socket getsockopt10914716 Ref: cd510914716 Ref: library/socket socket socket getblocking10915469 Ref: b7210915469 Ref: library/socket socket socket gettimeout10915693 Ref: 344a10915693 Ref: library/socket socket socket ioctl10915940 Ref: cd310915940 Ref: library/socket socket socket listen10916578 Ref: e5910916578 Ref: library/socket socket socket makefile10917047 Ref: 119210917047 Ref: library/socket socket socket recv10918195 Ref: da310918195 Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom10918902 Ref: da410918902 Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg10919844 Ref: da510919844 Ref: library/socket socket socket recvmsg_into10923763 Ref: 112e10923763 Ref: library/socket socket socket recvfrom_into10925403 Ref: 131110925403 Ref: library/socket socket socket recv_into10925941 Ref: 131010925941 Ref: library/socket socket socket send10926392 Ref: da610926392 Ref: library/socket socket socket sendall10927206 Ref: da710927206 Ref: library/socket socket socket sendto10928183 Ref: da810928183 Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg10929015 Ref: 47210929015 Ref: library/socket socket socket sendmsg_afalg10931189 Ref: cd810931189 Ref: library/socket socket socket sendfile10931529 Ref: e5810931529 Ref: library/socket socket socket set_inheritable10932436 Ref: efa10932436 Ref: library/socket socket socket setblocking10932618 Ref: 2b4810932618 Ref: library/socket socket socket settimeout10933190 Ref: 340810933190 Ref: library/socket socket socket setsockopt10933926 Ref: cd610933926 Ref: library/socket socket socket shutdown10935053 Ref: 343810935053 Ref: library/socket socket socket share10935410 Ref: c0810935410 Ref: library/socket socket socket family10936278 Ref: 344e10936278 Ref: library/socket socket socket type10936333 Ref: c0c10936333 Ref: library/socket socket socket proto10936384 Ref: 344f10936384 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-110936476 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-210936518 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-310936560 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-410936610 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-510936684 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-610936728 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-710936770 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-810936814 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-910936856 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1010936898 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1110936943 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1210936988 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1310937031 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1410937074 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1510937117 Ref: Socket Objects-Footnote-1610937160 Node: Notes on socket timeouts10937211 Ref: library/socket notes-on-socket-timeouts10937355 Ref: 345010937355 Ref: library/socket socket-timeouts10937355 Ref: 344d10937355 Node: Timeouts and the connect method10938724 Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-connect-method10938855 Ref: 345110938855 Node: Timeouts and the accept method10939330 Ref: library/socket timeouts-and-the-accept-method10939461 Ref: 345210939461 Node: Example<7>10940202 Ref: library/socket example10940323 Ref: 345310940323 Ref: library/socket socket-example10940323 Ref: 345410940323 Ref: Example<7>-Footnote-110948058 Node: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects10948117 Ref: library/ssl doc10948333 Ref: 345510948333 Ref: library/ssl module-ssl10948333 Ref: d010948333 Ref: library/ssl ssl-tls-ssl-wrapper-for-socket-objects10948333 Ref: 345610948333 Ref: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-110951368 Ref: ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects-Footnote-210951431 Node: Functions Constants and Exceptions10951473 Ref: library/ssl functions-constants-and-exceptions10951606 Ref: 345710951606 Node: Socket creation10951854 Ref: library/ssl socket-creation10951965 Ref: 345810951965 Node: Context creation10953493 Ref: library/ssl context-creation10953627 Ref: 345910953627 Ref: library/ssl ssl create_default_context10953769 Ref: 15510953769 Ref: Context creation-Footnote-110957777 Ref: Context creation-Footnote-210957836 Ref: Context creation-Footnote-310957881 Node: Exceptions<16>10957940 Ref: library/ssl exceptions10958076 Ref: 345e10958076 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError10958117 Ref: 126d10958117 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError library10958692 Ref: 113b10958692 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLError reason10958972 Ref: 113c10958972 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLZeroReturnError10959233 Ref: 345f10959233 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantReadError10959530 Ref: e6410959530 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLWantWriteError10959840 Ref: e6510959840 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSyscallError10960147 Ref: 346110960147 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLEOFError10960439 Ref: 174710960439 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError10960710 Ref: b7c10960710 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_code10960877 Ref: 346210960877 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLCertVerificationError verify_message10960981 Ref: 346310960981 Ref: library/ssl ssl CertificateError10961079 Ref: 346410961079 Node: Random generation10961278 Ref: library/ssl random-generation10961418 Ref: 346510961418 Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_bytes10961473 Ref: 51f10961473 Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_status10962155 Ref: 18c610962155 Ref: library/ssl ssl RAND_add10962475 Ref: 346610962475 Ref: Random generation-Footnote-110962917 Ref: Random generation-Footnote-210963011 Node: Certificate handling10963070 Ref: library/ssl certificate-handling10963208 Ref: 346710963208 Ref: library/ssl ssl cert_time_to_seconds10963269 Ref: e6610963269 Ref: library/ssl ssl get_server_certificate10964179 Ref: 83810964179 Ref: library/ssl ssl DER_cert_to_PEM_cert10965352 Ref: 346910965352 Ref: library/ssl ssl PEM_cert_to_DER_cert10965534 Ref: 346a10965534 Ref: library/ssl ssl get_default_verify_paths10965714 Ref: fa410965714 Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_certificates10966591 Ref: faf10966591 Ref: library/ssl ssl enum_crls10967470 Ref: fb010967470 Ref: Certificate handling-Footnote-110968039 Node: Constants<9>10968098 Ref: library/ssl constants10968210 Ref: 346b10968210 Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_NONE10968377 Ref: 346c10968377 Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_OPTIONAL10968926 Ref: 346d10968926 Ref: library/ssl ssl CERT_REQUIRED10969676 Ref: 345b10969676 Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyMode10970646 Ref: 346f10970646 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_DEFAULT10970764 Ref: fa910970764 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_LEAF10971019 Ref: faa10971019 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_CRL_CHECK_CHAIN10971466 Ref: fab10971466 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_STRICT10971674 Ref: 15710971674 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_ALLOW_PROXY_CERTS10971856 Ref: 18db10971856 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_TRUSTED_FIRST10972034 Ref: 347010972034 Ref: library/ssl ssl VERIFY_X509_PARTIAL_CHAIN10972325 Ref: 15610972325 Ref: library/ssl ssl VerifyFlags10972759 Ref: 347110972759 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS10972881 Ref: 345d10972881 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_CLIENT10973379 Ref: 86f10973379 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLS_SERVER10973692 Ref: 87010973692 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv2310973907 Ref: 347210973907 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_SSLv310974060 Ref: 346810974060 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv110974639 Ref: 347310974639 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_110974831 Ref: fa210974831 Ref: library/ssl ssl PROTOCOL_TLSv1_210975102 Ref: fa310975102 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ALL10975373 Ref: 347410975373 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv210975632 Ref: 83510975632 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_SSLv310975935 Ref: 83610975935 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv110976238 Ref: 347510976238 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_110976679 Ref: 347610976679 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_210977068 Ref: 347710977068 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TLSv1_310977457 Ref: 18a610977457 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_RENEGOTIATION10978045 Ref: 347810978045 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_CIPHER_SERVER_PREFERENCE10978328 Ref: 113d10978328 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_DH_USE10978561 Ref: 347910978561 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_SINGLE_ECDH_USE10978816 Ref: 347a10978816 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_MIDDLEBOX_COMPAT10979075 Ref: 347b10979075 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_COMPRESSION10979354 Ref: 113a10979354 Ref: library/ssl ssl Options10979547 Ref: 347c10979547 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_NO_TICKET10979633 Ref: 347d10979633 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_IGNORE_UNEXPECTED_EOF10979749 Ref: 83310979749 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_ENABLE_KTLS10979937 Ref: 179710979937 Ref: library/ssl ssl OP_LEGACY_SERVER_CONNECT10980647 Ref: 177c10980647 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ALPN10980807 Ref: e6110980807 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NEVER_CHECK_COMMON_NAME10981016 Ref: 347e10981016 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_ECDH10981254 Ref: 347f10981254 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SNI10981513 Ref: 348010981513 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_NPN10981696 Ref: 348110981696 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv210982049 Ref: 348210982049 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_SSLv310982188 Ref: 348310982188 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv110982327 Ref: 348410982327 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_110982466 Ref: b8310982466 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_210982607 Ref: 348510982607 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_TLSv1_310982748 Ref: 348610982748 Ref: library/ssl ssl HAS_PSK10982889 Ref: 348710982889 Ref: library/ssl ssl CHANNEL_BINDING_TYPES10983009 Ref: 348810983009 Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION10983230 Ref: 121110983230 Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_INFO10983444 Ref: 121210983444 Ref: library/ssl ssl OPENSSL_VERSION_NUMBER10983672 Ref: 121310983672 Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_HANDSHAKE_FAILURE10983943 Ref: 348910983943 Ref: library/ssl ssl ALERT_DESCRIPTION_INTERNAL_ERROR10983993 Ref: 348a10983993 Ref: library/ssl ssl AlertDescription10984387 Ref: 348b10984387 Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose SERVER_AUTH10984529 Ref: fad10984529 Ref: library/ssl ssl Purpose CLIENT_AUTH10984844 Ref: fae10984844 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLErrorNumber10985159 Ref: 348c10985159 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion10985286 Ref: 348d10985286 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MINIMUM_SUPPORTED10985503 Ref: 348e10985503 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion MAXIMUM_SUPPORTED10985548 Ref: 348f10985548 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion SSLv310985771 Ref: 349010985771 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv110985804 Ref: 349110985804 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_110985837 Ref: 349210985837 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_210985872 Ref: 349310985872 Ref: library/ssl ssl TLSVersion TLSv1_310985907 Ref: 349410985907 Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-110986178 Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-210986237 Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-310986296 Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-410986374 Ref: Constants<9>-Footnote-510986433 Node: SSL Sockets10986526 Ref: library/ssl ssl-sockets10986680 Ref: 349510986680 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket10986723 Ref: 8e910986723 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket read10989161 Ref: e6910989161 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket write10989984 Ref: e6a10989984 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket do_handshake10991217 Ref: e6810991217 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket getpeercert10991972 Ref: fb210991972 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_verified_chain10995503 Ref: 15dd10995503 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_unverified_chain10995812 Ref: 15de10995812 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket cipher10996006 Ref: 339110996006 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket shared_ciphers10996290 Ref: e6710996290 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket compression10996769 Ref: 113910996769 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket get_channel_binding10997117 Ref: 113810997117 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_alpn_protocol10997752 Ref: e6010997752 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket selected_npn_protocol10998165 Ref: 87110998165 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket unwrap10998590 Ref: 349610998590 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket verify_client_post_handshake10999013 Ref: a3110999013 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket version10999894 Ref: e6310999894 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket pending11000307 Ref: 349811000307 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket context11000445 Ref: 349711000445 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_side11000575 Ref: 349911000575 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket server_hostname11000747 Ref: b7f11000747 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session11001252 Ref: 15ae11001252 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSocket session_reused11001610 Ref: 349a11001610 Ref: SSL Sockets-Footnote-111001715 Ref: SSL Sockets-Footnote-211001774 Node: SSL Contexts11001833 Ref: library/ssl ssl-contexts11001965 Ref: 349b11001965 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext11002311 Ref: 29611002311 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext cert_store_stats11007277 Ref: fa611007277 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_cert_chain11007683 Ref: 29711007683 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_default_certs11009307 Ref: fac11009307 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_verify_locations11010131 Ref: ee611010131 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ca_certs11011461 Ref: fa711011461 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext get_ciphers11012098 Ref: cde11012098 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_default_verify_paths11013401 Ref: fa511013401 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ciphers11013870 Ref: 349d11013870 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_alpn_protocols11014470 Ref: e5f11014470 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_npn_protocols11015108 Ref: 2fc11015108 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sni_callback11015847 Ref: 18d511015847 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_servername_callback11018487 Ref: fb111018487 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext load_dh_params11019164 Ref: 113611019164 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_ecdh_curve11019709 Ref: 113711019709 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_socket11020438 Ref: 52011020438 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslsocket_class11023342 Ref: 349e11023342 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext wrap_bio11023640 Ref: b8211023640 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext sslobject_class11024379 Ref: 349f11024379 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext session_stats11024674 Ref: 34a011024674 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext check_hostname11025139 Ref: 346e11025139 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext keylog_filename11026666 Ref: 345c11026666 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext maximum_version11027112 Ref: 86e11027112 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext minimum_version11027970 Ref: 86d11027970 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext num_tickets11028183 Ref: 34a111028183 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext options11028416 Ref: 83411028416 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext post_handshake_auth11029147 Ref: a3011029147 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext protocol11029964 Ref: 34a211029964 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext hostname_checks_common_name11030100 Ref: b7d11030100 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext security_level11030535 Ref: 34a311030535 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_flags11030710 Ref: fa811030710 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext verify_mode11031246 Ref: 345a11031246 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_client_callback11031716 Ref: 34a411031716 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLContext set_psk_server_callback11033717 Ref: 34a511033717 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-111035601 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-211035755 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-311035842 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-411035929 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-511036083 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-611036170 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-711036257 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-811036334 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-911036388 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1011036447 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1111036526 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1211036586 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1311036663 Ref: SSL Contexts-Footnote-1411036729 Node: Certificates11036803 Ref: library/ssl certificates11036936 Ref: 34a611036936 Ref: library/ssl ssl-certificates11036936 Ref: 349c11036936 Ref: Certificates-Footnote-111039285 Node: Certificate chains11039344 Ref: library/ssl certificate-chains11039435 Ref: 34a711039435 Node: CA certificates11040706 Ref: library/ssl ca-certificates11040834 Ref: 34a811040834 Node: Combined key and certificate11041424 Ref: library/ssl combined-key-and-certificate11041558 Ref: 34a911041558 Node: Self-signed certificates11042174 Ref: library/ssl self-signed-certificates11042284 Ref: 34aa11042284 Node: Examples<20>11043982 Ref: library/ssl examples11044132 Ref: 34ab11044132 Node: Testing for SSL support11044261 Ref: library/ssl testing-for-ssl-support11044363 Ref: 34ac11044363 Node: Client-side operation11044677 Ref: library/ssl client-side-operation11044809 Ref: 34ad11044809 Node: Server-side operation11049550 Ref: library/ssl server-side-operation11049650 Ref: 34ae11049650 Node: Notes on non-blocking sockets11051659 Ref: library/ssl notes-on-non-blocking-sockets11051818 Ref: 34af11051818 Ref: library/ssl ssl-nonblocking11051818 Ref: 346011051818 Node: Memory BIO Support<2>11054729 Ref: library/ssl memory-bio-support11054887 Ref: 34b011054887 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLObject11056005 Ref: b8111056005 Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO11059665 Ref: e5d11059665 Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO pending11059793 Ref: 34b111059793 Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO eof11059892 Ref: 34b211059892 Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO read11060022 Ref: 34b311060022 Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write11060180 Ref: 34b411060180 Ref: library/ssl ssl MemoryBIO write_eof11060462 Ref: 34b511060462 Node: SSL session11060754 Ref: library/ssl ssl-session11060909 Ref: 34b611060909 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession11060977 Ref: cdd11060977 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession id11061054 Ref: 34b711061054 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession time11061078 Ref: 34b811061078 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession timeout11061104 Ref: 34b911061104 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession ticket_lifetime_hint11061133 Ref: 34ba11061133 Ref: library/ssl ssl SSLSession has_ticket11061175 Ref: 34bb11061175 Node: Security considerations<2>11061207 Ref: library/ssl security-considerations11061348 Ref: 34bc11061348 Ref: library/ssl ssl-security11061348 Ref: 334b11061348 Node: Best defaults11061486 Ref: library/ssl best-defaults11061586 Ref: 34bd11061586 Node: Manual settings11062747 Ref: library/ssl manual-settings11062872 Ref: 34be11062872 Node: Verifying certificates11063005 Ref: library/ssl verifying-certificates11063105 Ref: 34bf11063105 Node: Protocol versions11064298 Ref: library/ssl protocol-versions11064423 Ref: 34c011064423 Node: Cipher selection11065247 Ref: library/ssl cipher-selection11065341 Ref: 34c111065341 Ref: Cipher selection-Footnote-111065997 Node: Multi-processing11066069 Ref: library/ssl multi-processing11066172 Ref: 34c211066172 Node: TLS 1 311066695 Ref: library/ssl ssl-tlsv1-311066816 Ref: b8011066816 Ref: library/ssl tls-1-311066816 Ref: 34c311066816 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-111068930 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-211068996 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-311069055 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-411069114 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-511069173 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-611069232 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-711069291 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-811069367 Ref: TLS 1 3-Footnote-911069426 Node: select — Waiting for I/O completion11069484 Ref: library/select doc11069700 Ref: 34c411069700 Ref: library/select module-select11069700 Ref: c111069700 Ref: library/select select-waiting-for-i-o-completion11069700 Ref: 34c511069700 Ref: library/select select error11070871 Ref: 104f11070871 Ref: library/select select devpoll11071058 Ref: f9011071058 Ref: library/select select epoll11071780 Ref: f8e11071780 Ref: library/select select poll11073266 Ref: 2bb811073266 Ref: library/select select kqueue11073585 Ref: 16cd11073585 Ref: library/select select kevent11073924 Ref: 34ca11073924 Ref: library/select select select11074201 Ref: d9f11074201 Ref: library/select select PIPE_BUF11076471 Ref: 11fc11076471 Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-111077156 Ref: select — Waiting for I/O completion-Footnote-211077198 Node: /dev/poll Polling Objects11077240 Ref: library/select dev-poll-polling-objects11077392 Ref: 34cc11077392 Ref: library/select devpoll-objects11077392 Ref: 34c611077392 Ref: library/select select devpoll close11077758 Ref: f9211077758 Ref: library/select select devpoll closed11077871 Ref: f9311077871 Ref: library/select select devpoll fileno11077980 Ref: f9111077980 Ref: library/select select devpoll register11078102 Ref: 34cd11078102 Ref: library/select select devpoll modify11079086 Ref: 34ce11079086 Ref: library/select select devpoll unregister11079294 Ref: 34cf11079294 Ref: library/select select devpoll poll11079651 Ref: d9b11079651 Ref: /dev/poll Polling Objects-Footnote-111080794 Node: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects11080836 Ref: library/select edge-and-level-trigger-polling-epoll-objects11081012 Ref: 34d011081012 Ref: library/select epoll-objects11081012 Ref: 34c711081012 Ref: library/select select epoll close11083882 Ref: f8f11083882 Ref: library/select select epoll closed11083971 Ref: 34d111083971 Ref: library/select select epoll fileno11084048 Ref: 34d211084048 Ref: library/select select epoll fromfd11084136 Ref: 34d311084136 Ref: library/select select epoll register11084226 Ref: 34d411084226 Ref: library/select select epoll modify11084326 Ref: 34d511084326 Ref: library/select select epoll unregister11084411 Ref: 95a11084411 Ref: library/select select epoll poll11084604 Ref: d9c11084604 Ref: Edge and Level Trigger Polling epoll Objects-Footnote-111085006 Node: Polling Objects11085048 Ref: library/select poll-objects11085213 Ref: 34c811085213 Ref: library/select polling-objects11085213 Ref: 34d611085213 Ref: library/select select poll register11085788 Ref: 34d711085788 Ref: library/select select poll modify11087765 Ref: 34d811087765 Ref: library/select select poll unregister11088066 Ref: 34d911088066 Ref: library/select select poll poll11088455 Ref: d9e11088455 Ref: Polling Objects-Footnote-111089601 Node: Kqueue Objects11089643 Ref: library/select id111089778 Ref: 34da11089778 Ref: library/select kqueue-objects11089778 Ref: 34c911089778 Ref: library/select select kqueue close11089827 Ref: 34db11089827 Ref: library/select select kqueue closed11089918 Ref: 34dc11089918 Ref: library/select select kqueue fileno11089997 Ref: 34dd11089997 Ref: library/select select kqueue fromfd11090086 Ref: 34de11090086 Ref: library/select select kqueue control11090177 Ref: d9d11090177 Ref: Kqueue Objects-Footnote-111090828 Node: Kevent Objects11090870 Ref: library/select id211090981 Ref: 34df11090981 Ref: library/select kevent-objects11090981 Ref: 34cb11090981 Ref: library/select select kevent ident11091096 Ref: 34e011091096 Ref: library/select select kevent filter11091398 Ref: 34e111091398 Ref: library/select select kevent flags11093177 Ref: 34e211093177 Ref: library/select select kevent fflags11094838 Ref: 34e311094838 Ref: library/select select kevent data11098580 Ref: 34e411098580 Ref: library/select select kevent udata11098636 Ref: 34e511098636 Node: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing11098691 Ref: library/selectors doc11098912 Ref: 34e611098912 Ref: library/selectors module-selectors11098912 Ref: c211098912 Ref: library/selectors selectors-high-level-i-o-multiplexing11098912 Ref: 34e711098912 Ref: selectors — High-level I/O multiplexing-Footnote-111099273 Node: Introduction<10>11099342 Ref: library/selectors introduction11099455 Ref: 34e811099455 Node: Classes<4>11100794 Ref: library/selectors classes11100928 Ref: 34eb11100928 Ref: library/selectors selectors EVENT_READ11101505 Ref: 34ec11101505 Ref: library/selectors selectors EVENT_WRITE11101594 Ref: 34ed11101594 Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey11101671 Ref: 34ee11101671 Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fileobj11101949 Ref: 34ef11101949 Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey fd11102013 Ref: 34f011102013 Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey events11102076 Ref: 34f111102076 Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectorKey data11102167 Ref: 34f211102167 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector11102333 Ref: 34e911102333 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector register11103009 Ref: 34f311103009 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector unregister11103663 Ref: 34f411103663 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector modify11104283 Ref: bd411104283 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector select11104879 Ref: 34f511104879 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector close11106178 Ref: 34f611106178 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector get_key11106396 Ref: 34f711106396 Ref: library/selectors selectors BaseSelector get_map11106683 Ref: 34f811106683 Ref: library/selectors selectors DefaultSelector11106951 Ref: 34ea11106951 Ref: library/selectors selectors SelectSelector11107159 Ref: 33d511107159 Ref: library/selectors selectors PollSelector11107246 Ref: bd611107246 Ref: library/selectors selectors EpollSelector11107330 Ref: bd511107330 Ref: library/selectors selectors EpollSelector fileno11107415 Ref: 34f911107415 Ref: library/selectors selectors DevpollSelector11107555 Ref: bd711107555 Ref: library/selectors selectors DevpollSelector fileno11107644 Ref: 34fa11107644 Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector11107814 Ref: 33d811107814 Ref: library/selectors selectors KqueueSelector fileno11107902 Ref: 34fb11107902 Ref: Classes<4>-Footnote-111108080 Node: Examples<21>11108122 Ref: library/selectors examples11108231 Ref: 34fc11108231 Node: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events11109258 Ref: library/signal doc11109477 Ref: 34fd11109477 Ref: library/signal module-signal11109477 Ref: c611109477 Ref: library/signal signal-set-handlers-for-asynchronous-events11109477 Ref: 34fe11109477 Ref: signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events-Footnote-111109954 Node: General rules11110020 Ref: library/signal general-rules11110144 Ref: 34ff11110144 Node: Execution of Python signal handlers11111111 Ref: library/signal execution-of-python-signal-handlers11111224 Ref: 350111111224 Node: Signals and threads11112546 Ref: library/signal id111112659 Ref: 350311112659 Ref: library/signal signals-and-threads11112659 Ref: 350411112659 Node: Module contents<2>11113131 Ref: library/signal module-contents11113276 Ref: 350511113276 Ref: library/signal signal Signals11113890 Ref: 350911113890 Ref: library/signal signal Handlers11114036 Ref: 350a11114036 Ref: library/signal signal Sigmasks11114199 Ref: 350b11114199 Ref: library/signal signal SIG_DFL11114601 Ref: 182011114601 Ref: library/signal signal SIG_IGN11114933 Ref: 181f11114933 Ref: library/signal signal SIGABRT11115054 Ref: 1d4b11115054 Ref: library/signal signal SIGALRM11115123 Ref: 350c11115123 Ref: library/signal signal SIGBREAK11115231 Ref: 350d11115231 Ref: library/signal signal SIGBUS11115346 Ref: 1d4c11115346 Ref: library/signal signal SIGCHLD11115447 Ref: 2bf311115447 Ref: library/signal signal SIGCLD11115555 Ref: 350e11115555 Ref: library/signal signal SIGCONT11115660 Ref: 2c0111115660 Ref: library/signal signal SIGFPE11115779 Ref: 1d4a11115779 Ref: library/signal signal SIGHUP11116016 Ref: 350f11116016 Ref: library/signal signal SIGILL11116164 Ref: 1d4d11116164 Ref: library/signal signal SIGINT11116216 Ref: 84011116216 Ref: library/signal signal SIGKILL11116346 Ref: 331411116346 Ref: library/signal signal SIGPIPE11116478 Ref: 350011116478 Ref: library/signal signal SIGSEGV11116639 Ref: 1d4911116639 Ref: library/signal signal SIGSTKFLT11116717 Ref: 186411116717 Ref: library/signal signal SIGTERM11117057 Ref: 13ab11117057 Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR111117109 Ref: 351011117109 Ref: library/signal signal SIGUSR211117203 Ref: 351111117203 Ref: library/signal signal SIGWINCH11117297 Ref: 351211117297 Ref: library/signal signal CTRL_C_EVENT11117960 Ref: 135411117960 Ref: library/signal signal CTRL_BREAK_EVENT11118198 Ref: 135511118198 Ref: library/signal signal NSIG11118443 Ref: 17fd11118443 Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_REAL11118595 Ref: 351411118595 Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_VIRTUAL11118727 Ref: 351511118727 Ref: library/signal signal ITIMER_PROF11118873 Ref: 351611118873 Ref: library/signal signal SIG_BLOCK11119212 Ref: 350611119212 Ref: library/signal signal SIG_UNBLOCK11119397 Ref: 350711119397 Ref: library/signal signal SIG_SETMASK11119591 Ref: 350811119591 Ref: library/signal signal ItimerError11119844 Ref: 351711119844 Ref: library/signal signal alarm11120370 Ref: 351a11120370 Ref: library/signal signal getsignal11121017 Ref: 16ac11121017 Ref: library/signal signal strsignal11121589 Ref: 1a3d11121589 Ref: library/signal signal valid_signals11121895 Ref: 351311121895 Ref: library/signal signal pause11122140 Ref: 351b11122140 Ref: library/signal signal raise_signal11122532 Ref: 180111122532 Ref: library/signal signal pidfd_send_signal11122667 Ref: 92b11122667 Ref: library/signal signal pthread_kill11123228 Ref: 112511123228 Ref: library/signal signal pthread_sigmask11124461 Ref: 112411124461 Ref: library/signal signal setitimer11125897 Ref: 351811125897 Ref: library/signal signal getitimer11126916 Ref: 351911126916 Ref: library/signal signal set_wakeup_fd11127076 Ref: b7011127076 Ref: library/signal signal siginterrupt11129464 Ref: 112911129464 Ref: library/signal signal signal11130072 Ref: 112811130072 Ref: library/signal signal sigpending11131578 Ref: 112611131578 Ref: library/signal signal sigwait11132045 Ref: 112711132045 Ref: library/signal signal sigwaitinfo11132631 Ref: daa11132631 Ref: library/signal signal sigtimedwait11133903 Ref: da911133903 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-111134680 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-211134731 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-311134786 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-411134831 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-511134876 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-611134922 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-711134968 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-811135014 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-911135059 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1011135105 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1111135163 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1211135216 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1311135268 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1411135324 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1511135377 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1611135424 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1711135475 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1811135523 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-1911135575 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-2011135618 Ref: Module contents<2>-Footnote-2111135671 Node: Examples<22>11135714 Ref: library/signal examples11135861 Ref: 351c11135861 Ref: library/signal signal-example11135861 Ref: 351d11135861 Node: Note on SIGPIPE11136823 Ref: library/signal note-on-sigpipe11136990 Ref: 351e11136990 Ref: Note on SIGPIPE-Footnote-111138439 Node: Note on Signal Handlers and Exceptions11138483 Ref: library/signal handlers-and-exceptions11138629 Ref: 228a11138629 Ref: library/signal note-on-signal-handlers-and-exceptions11138629 Ref: 351f11138629 Node: mmap — Memory-mapped file support11141236 Ref: library/mmap doc11141405 Ref: 352011141405 Ref: library/mmap mmap-memory-mapped-file-support11141405 Ref: 352111141405 Ref: library/mmap module-mmap11141405 Ref: 9011141405 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap11144012 Ref: 20d11144012 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap close11149623 Ref: 352711149623 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap closed11149834 Ref: 352811149834 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap find11149940 Ref: 352911149940 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap flush11150370 Ref: a9811150370 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap madvise11151258 Ref: a0711151258 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap move11151826 Ref: 352b11151826 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read11152104 Ref: 10d311152104 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap read_byte11152556 Ref: 352c11152556 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap readline11152704 Ref: 352d11152704 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap resize11152929 Ref: 352611152929 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap rfind11153788 Ref: 352e11153788 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seek11154220 Ref: 20f11154220 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap seekable11154708 Ref: 20e11154708 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap size11154878 Ref: 352511154878 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap tell11155017 Ref: 352f11155017 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write11155104 Ref: 353011155104 Ref: library/mmap mmap mmap write_byte11155811 Ref: 353111155811 Node: MADV_* Constants11156177 Ref: library/mmap madv-constants11156289 Ref: 353211156289 Ref: library/mmap madvise-constants11156289 Ref: 352a11156289 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NORMAL11156342 Ref: 353311156342 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_RANDOM11156369 Ref: 353411156369 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SEQUENTIAL11156396 Ref: 353511156396 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_WILLNEED11156427 Ref: 353611156427 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTNEED11156456 Ref: 353711156456 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_REMOVE11156485 Ref: 353811156485 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTFORK11156512 Ref: 353911156512 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DOFORK11156541 Ref: 353a11156541 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HWPOISON11156568 Ref: 353b11156568 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_MERGEABLE11156597 Ref: 353c11156597 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_UNMERGEABLE11156627 Ref: 353d11156627 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_SOFT_OFFLINE11156659 Ref: 353e11156659 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_HUGEPAGE11156692 Ref: 353f11156692 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOHUGEPAGE11156721 Ref: 354011156721 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DONTDUMP11156752 Ref: 354111156752 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_DODUMP11156781 Ref: 354211156781 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE11156808 Ref: 354311156808 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOSYNC11156833 Ref: 354411156833 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_AUTOSYNC11156860 Ref: 354511156860 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_NOCORE11156889 Ref: 354611156889 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_CORE11156916 Ref: 354711156916 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_PROTECT11156941 Ref: 354811156941 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSABLE11156969 Ref: 354911156969 Ref: library/mmap mmap MADV_FREE_REUSE11157003 Ref: 354a11157003 Node: MAP_* Constants11157243 Ref: library/mmap id111157355 Ref: 354b11157355 Ref: library/mmap map-constants11157355 Ref: 352411157355 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_SHARED11157406 Ref: 352311157406 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_PRIVATE11157432 Ref: 352211157432 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_32BIT11157459 Ref: 16a111157459 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ALIGNED_SUPER11157484 Ref: 175611157484 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANON11157517 Ref: 354c11157517 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_ANONYMOUS11157541 Ref: 354d11157541 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_CONCEAL11157570 Ref: 175711157570 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_DENYWRITE11157597 Ref: 354e11157597 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_EXECUTABLE11157626 Ref: 354f11157626 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_HASSEMAPHORE11157656 Ref: 169c11157656 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_JIT11157688 Ref: 169e11157688 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NOCACHE11157711 Ref: 169d11157711 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NOEXTEND11157738 Ref: 169b11157738 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_NORESERVE11157766 Ref: 169a11157766 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_POPULATE11157795 Ref: 194811157795 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_RESILIENT_CODESIGN11157823 Ref: 169f11157823 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_RESILIENT_MEDIA11157861 Ref: 16a011157861 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_STACK11157896 Ref: 355011157896 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TPRO11157921 Ref: 16a411157921 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_TRANSLATED_ALLOW_EXECUTE11157945 Ref: 16a211157945 Ref: library/mmap mmap MAP_UNIX0311157989 Ref: 16a311157989 Node: Internet Data Handling11158933 Ref: library/netdata doc11159112 Ref: 355111159112 Ref: library/netdata internet-data-handling11159112 Ref: 355211159112 Ref: library/netdata netdata11159112 Ref: 355311159112 Node: email — An email and MIME handling package11159692 Ref: library/email doc11159837 Ref: 355411159837 Ref: library/email email-an-email-and-mime-handling-package11159837 Ref: 355511159837 Ref: library/email module-email11159837 Ref: 3b11159837 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-111166575 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-211166649 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-311166708 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-411166767 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-511166826 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-611166885 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-711166944 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-811167003 Ref: email — An email and MIME handling package-Footnote-911167062 Node: email message Representing an email message11167121 Ref: library/email message doc11167289 Ref: 355611167289 Ref: library/email message email-message-representing-an-email-message11167289 Ref: 355711167289 Ref: library/email message module-email message11167289 Ref: 4411167289 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage11169762 Ref: 27d11169762 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_string11170243 Ref: 355a11170243 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __str__11172096 Ref: 355c11172096 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage as_bytes11172565 Ref: 355d11172565 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __bytes__11173729 Ref: 355e11173729 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_multipart11173905 Ref: 355f11173905 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_unixfrom11174590 Ref: 356011174590 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_unixfrom11174812 Ref: 356211174812 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __len__11175944 Ref: 356411175944 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __contains__11176042 Ref: 356511176042 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __getitem__11176432 Ref: 356611176432 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __setitem__11177149 Ref: 356911177149 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage __delitem__11178187 Ref: 356a11178187 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage keys11178413 Ref: 356311178413 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage values11178507 Ref: 356b11178507 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage items11178597 Ref: 356c11178597 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get11178728 Ref: 356d11178728 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_all11179076 Ref: 356711179076 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_header11179313 Ref: 356e11179313 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage replace_header11181277 Ref: 356f11181277 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_type11181583 Ref: 357011181583 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_maintype11182467 Ref: 357211182467 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_subtype11182673 Ref: 357311182673 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_default_type11182866 Ref: 357111182866 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_default_type11183186 Ref: 357411183186 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_param11183628 Ref: 357511183628 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage del_param11185249 Ref: 357711185249 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_filename11185685 Ref: 357811185685 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_boundary11186224 Ref: 357a11186224 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_boundary11186588 Ref: 357b11186588 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_charset11187256 Ref: 357d11187256 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_charsets11187558 Ref: 357e11187558 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage is_attachment11188251 Ref: 357f11188251 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content_disposition11188618 Ref: 358111188618 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage walk11189095 Ref: 358211189095 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_body11191108 Ref: 358311191108 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_attachments11193227 Ref: 358411193227 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage iter_parts11194201 Ref: 358511194201 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage get_content11194414 Ref: 358611194414 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage set_content11194824 Ref: 18a811194824 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_related11195234 Ref: 358911195234 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_alternative11195722 Ref: 358a11195722 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage make_mixed11196241 Ref: 358b11196241 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_related11196780 Ref: 358c11196780 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_alternative11197537 Ref: 358e11197537 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage add_attachment11198227 Ref: 358f11198227 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear11199212 Ref: 359011199212 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage clear_content11199293 Ref: 359111199293 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage preamble11199554 Ref: 359211199554 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage epilogue11200818 Ref: 359311200818 Ref: library/email message email message EmailMessage defects11201164 Ref: 359411201164 Ref: library/email message email message MIMEPart11201406 Ref: f3511201406 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-111201772 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-211201845 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-311202042 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-411202101 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-511202160 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-611202219 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-711202278 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-811202337 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-911202396 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1011202455 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1111202515 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1211202575 Ref: email message Representing an email message-Footnote-1311202635 Node: email parser Parsing email messages11202695 Ref: library/email parser doc11202913 Ref: 359511202913 Ref: library/email parser email-parser-parsing-email-messages11202913 Ref: 359611202913 Ref: library/email parser module-email parser11202913 Ref: 4e11202913 Ref: email parser Parsing email messages-Footnote-111205307 Node: FeedParser API11205379 Ref: library/email parser feedparser-api11205484 Ref: 359811205484 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser11206783 Ref: 11bd11206783 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser feed11207986 Ref: 359911207986 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesFeedParser close11208421 Ref: 359a11208421 Ref: library/email parser email parser FeedParser11208661 Ref: 359711208661 Node: Parser API11209126 Ref: library/email parser parser-api11209256 Ref: 359b11209256 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser11209990 Ref: 11be11209990 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parse11210659 Ref: 359c11210659 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesParser parsebytes11211704 Ref: 359d11211704 Ref: library/email parser email parser BytesHeaderParser11212212 Ref: 10b111212212 Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser11212433 Ref: 119011212433 Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parse11212779 Ref: 359e11212779 Ref: library/email parser email parser Parser parsestr11213217 Ref: 359f11213217 Ref: library/email parser email parser HeaderParser11213646 Ref: 10b211213646 Ref: library/email parser email message_from_bytes11214044 Ref: 11bb11214044 Ref: library/email parser email message_from_binary_file11214514 Ref: 11bc11214514 Ref: library/email parser email message_from_string11214992 Ref: 35a011214992 Ref: library/email parser email message_from_file11215388 Ref: 35a111215388 Ref: Parser API-Footnote-111216120 Ref: Parser API-Footnote-211216179 Node: Additional notes11216238 Ref: library/email parser additional-notes11216345 Ref: 35a211216345 Node: email generator Generating MIME documents11217899 Ref: library/email generator doc11218101 Ref: 35a411218101 Ref: library/email generator email-generator-generating-mime-documents11218101 Ref: 35a511218101 Ref: library/email generator module-email generator11218101 Ref: 4011218101 Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator11220193 Ref: 11c111220193 Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator flatten11222102 Ref: 35a711222102 Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator clone11223925 Ref: 35aa11223925 Ref: library/email generator email generator BytesGenerator write11224124 Ref: 35a811224124 Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator11225180 Ref: 11c011225180 Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator flatten11227027 Ref: 35ab11227027 Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator clone11228788 Ref: 35ad11228788 Ref: library/email generator email generator Generator write11228974 Ref: 35ac11228974 Ref: library/email generator email generator DecodedGenerator11229886 Ref: c9711229886 Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-111231305 Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-211231381 Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-311231888 Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-411231940 Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-511231999 Ref: email generator Generating MIME documents-Footnote-611232051 Node: email policy Policy Objects11232110 Ref: library/email policy doc11232318 Ref: 35ae11232318 Ref: library/email policy email-policy-policy-objects11232318 Ref: 35af11232318 Ref: library/email policy module-email policy11232318 Ref: 4f11232318 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy11238296 Ref: 10a911238296 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy max_line_length11239119 Ref: 355b11239119 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy linesep11239425 Ref: 35b011239425 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy cte_type11239694 Ref: 35a911239694 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy raise_on_defect11240805 Ref: 35b211240805 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy mangle_from_11241049 Ref: df511241049 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy message_factory11241378 Ref: c9811241378 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy verify_generated_headers11241655 Ref: 1e211241655 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy clone11242503 Ref: 10ab11242503 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy handle_defect11242989 Ref: 35b511242989 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy register_defect11243481 Ref: 35b311243481 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_max_count11244187 Ref: 35b711244187 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_source_parse11245249 Ref: 35b811245249 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_store_parse11246262 Ref: 35b911246262 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy header_fetch_parse11247023 Ref: 35ba11247023 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold11247846 Ref: 35bb11247846 Ref: library/email policy email policy Policy fold_binary11248562 Ref: 35b111248562 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy11248896 Ref: 10ad11248896 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy utf811249729 Ref: df711249729 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy refold_source11250125 Ref: 35a611250125 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_factory11250920 Ref: 35bc11250920 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy content_manager11251531 Ref: f3611251531 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_max_count11252243 Ref: 35be11252243 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_source_parse11252449 Ref: 15a611252449 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_store_parse11252834 Ref: 35c011252834 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy header_fetch_parse11253315 Ref: 35c111253315 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold11253741 Ref: 167511253741 Ref: library/email policy email policy EmailPolicy fold_binary11254904 Ref: 35c211254904 Ref: library/email policy email policy default11255724 Ref: 355911255724 Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTP11255934 Ref: 35c311255934 Ref: library/email policy email policy SMTPUTF811256136 Ref: 35c411256136 Ref: library/email policy email policy HTTP11256550 Ref: 35c511256550 Ref: library/email policy email policy strict11256742 Ref: 35c611256742 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat3211258120 Ref: 10aa11258120 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 mangle_from_11258653 Ref: 35c711258653 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_source_parse11258842 Ref: 15a711258842 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_store_parse11259227 Ref: 35c811259227 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 header_fetch_parse11259333 Ref: 35c911259333 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold11259575 Ref: 35ca11259575 Ref: library/email policy email policy Compat32 fold_binary11259918 Ref: 35cb11259918 Ref: library/email policy email policy compat3211260448 Ref: c9911260448 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-111260652 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-211260724 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-311260783 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-411260842 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-511260901 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-611260960 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-711261019 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-811261078 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-911261148 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1011261207 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1111261267 Ref: email policy Policy Objects-Footnote-1211261327 Node: email errors Exception and Defect classes11261387 Ref: library/email errors doc11261596 Ref: 35cc11261596 Ref: library/email errors email-errors-exception-and-defect-classes11261596 Ref: 35cd11261596 Ref: library/email errors module-email errors11261596 Ref: 3f11261596 Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageError11261900 Ref: 35ce11261900 Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageParseError11262141 Ref: 35cf11262141 Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderParseError11262418 Ref: 357c11262418 Ref: library/email errors email errors BoundaryError11263061 Ref: 35d011263061 Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartConversionError11263141 Ref: 35d111263141 Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderWriteError11263502 Ref: 35b411263502 Ref: library/email errors email errors MessageDefect11263634 Ref: 35b611263634 Ref: library/email errors email errors HeaderDefect11263805 Ref: 35d411263805 Ref: library/email errors email errors NoBoundaryInMultipartDefect11264418 Ref: 35d511264418 Ref: library/email errors email errors StartBoundaryNotFoundDefect11264560 Ref: 35d611264560 Ref: library/email errors email errors CloseBoundaryNotFoundDefect11264705 Ref: 35d711264705 Ref: library/email errors email errors FirstHeaderLineIsContinuationDefect11264881 Ref: 35d811264881 Ref: library/email errors email errors MisplacedEnvelopeHeaderDefect11265014 Ref: 35d911265014 Ref: library/email errors email errors MissingHeaderBodySeparatorDefect11265147 Ref: 35da11265147 Ref: library/email errors email errors MalformedHeaderDefect11265431 Ref: 35db11265431 Ref: library/email errors email errors MultipartInvariantViolationDefect11265666 Ref: 35a311265666 Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64PaddingDefect11265984 Ref: 35dc11265984 Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64CharactersDefect11266228 Ref: 35dd11266228 Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidBase64LengthDefect11266484 Ref: 35de11266484 Ref: library/email errors email errors InvalidDateDefect11266724 Ref: 35df11266724 Ref: email errors Exception and Defect classes-Footnote-111266904 Ref: email errors Exception and Defect classes-Footnote-211266976 Node: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects11267035 Ref: library/email headerregistry doc11267259 Ref: 35e011267259 Ref: library/email headerregistry email-headerregistry-custom-header-objects11267259 Ref: 35e111267259 Ref: library/email headerregistry module-email headerregistry11267259 Ref: 4211267259 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader11269028 Ref: 356811269028 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader name11269341 Ref: 35e411269341 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader defects11269592 Ref: 35e511269592 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader max_count11269951 Ref: 35bf11269951 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry BaseHeader fold11270468 Ref: 35e611270468 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry UnstructuredHeader11272659 Ref: 35e311272659 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader11273738 Ref: 35e711273738 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry DateHeader datetime11274101 Ref: 35e811274101 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader11275670 Ref: 35e911275670 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader groups11275954 Ref: 35ea11275954 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry AddressHeader addresses11276269 Ref: 35ed11276269 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader11277431 Ref: 35ef11277431 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry SingleAddressHeader address11277572 Ref: 35f011277572 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader11278104 Ref: 35f111278104 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader version11278496 Ref: 35f211278496 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader major11278623 Ref: 35f311278623 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry MIMEVersionHeader minor11278700 Ref: 35f411278700 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader11278777 Ref: 35f511278777 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ParameterizedMIMEHeader params11279160 Ref: 357611279160 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader11279257 Ref: 35f611279257 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader content_type11279408 Ref: 35f711279408 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader maintype11279514 Ref: 35f811279514 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTypeHeader subtype11279544 Ref: 35f911279544 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader11279573 Ref: 35fa11279573 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentDispositionHeader content_disposition11279738 Ref: 35fb11279738 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding11279875 Ref: 35fc11279875 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry ContentTransferEncoding cte11279990 Ref: 35fd11279990 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry11280159 Ref: 35e211280159 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry map_to_type11281892 Ref: 35fe11281892 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __getitem__11282227 Ref: 35ff11282227 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry HeaderRegistry __call__11282350 Ref: 360011282350 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address11282992 Ref: 35ee11282992 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address display_name11283831 Ref: 360111283831 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address username11284057 Ref: 360211284057 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address domain11284177 Ref: 360311284177 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address addr_spec11284257 Ref: 360411284257 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Address __str__11284475 Ref: 360511284475 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group11284914 Ref: 35eb11284914 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group display_name11285463 Ref: 35ec11285463 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group addresses11285718 Ref: 360611285718 Ref: library/email headerregistry email headerregistry Group __str__11285866 Ref: 360711285866 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-111286306 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-211286387 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-311286456 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-411286515 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-511286574 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-611286633 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-711286692 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-811286751 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-911286810 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1011286869 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1111286929 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1211286989 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1311287049 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1411287109 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1511287169 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1611287229 Ref: email headerregistry Custom Header Objects-Footnote-1711287289 Node: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content11287349 Ref: library/email contentmanager doc11287546 Ref: 360811287546 Ref: library/email contentmanager email-contentmanager-managing-mime-content11287546 Ref: 360911287546 Ref: library/email contentmanager module-email contentmanager11287546 Ref: 3d11287546 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager11287805 Ref: 360a11287805 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager get_content11288094 Ref: 358711288094 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager set_content11288928 Ref: 358811288928 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_get_handler11290560 Ref: 360c11290560 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager ContentManager add_set_handler11290752 Ref: 360e11290752 Ref: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content-Footnote-111291117 Ref: email contentmanager Managing MIME Content-Footnote-211291198 Node: Content Manager Instances11291267 Ref: library/email contentmanager content-manager-instances11291371 Ref: 361011291371 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager raw_data_manager11291712 Ref: 35bd11291712 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager get_content11292442 Ref: 360d11292442 Ref: library/email contentmanager email contentmanager set_content11293041 Ref: 360f11293041 Ref: Content Manager Instances-Footnote-111297825 Node: email Examples11297884 Ref: library/email examples doc11298113 Ref: 361111298113 Ref: library/email examples email-examples11298113 Ref: f3711298113 Ref: library/email examples id111298113 Ref: 361211298113 Ref: email Examples-Footnote-111312739 Ref: email Examples-Footnote-211312797 Node: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API11312879 Ref: library/email compat32-message doc11313121 Ref: 361311313121 Ref: library/email compat32-message compat32-message11313121 Ref: 355811313121 Ref: library/email compat32-message email-message-message-representing-an-email-message-using-the-compat32-api11313121 Ref: 361411313121 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message11315679 Ref: 27e11315679 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_string11316212 Ref: f3111316212 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __str__11318362 Ref: 361511318362 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message as_bytes11318527 Ref: f3211318527 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __bytes__11320085 Ref: f3311320085 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message is_multipart11320292 Ref: 358011320292 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_unixfrom11320968 Ref: 361611320968 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_unixfrom11321108 Ref: 361711321108 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message attach11321265 Ref: 358d11321265 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_payload11321889 Ref: 11bf11321889 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_payload11324571 Ref: 361811324571 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_charset11325055 Ref: 361911325055 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charset11326832 Ref: 361a11326832 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __len__11328290 Ref: 361c11328290 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __contains__11328388 Ref: 177e11328388 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __getitem__11328758 Ref: 361d11328758 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __setitem__11329293 Ref: 361f11329293 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message __delitem__11329850 Ref: 362011329850 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message keys11330076 Ref: 361b11330076 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message values11330170 Ref: 362111330170 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message items11330260 Ref: 362211330260 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get11330391 Ref: 362311330391 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_all11330704 Ref: 361e11330704 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message add_header11330941 Ref: 362411330941 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message replace_header11332907 Ref: 362511332907 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_type11333196 Ref: 362611333196 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_maintype11334054 Ref: 362811334054 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_subtype11334260 Ref: 362911334260 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_default_type11334453 Ref: 362711334453 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_default_type11334773 Ref: 362a11334773 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_params11335060 Ref: 362b11335060 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_param11336122 Ref: 362c11336122 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_param11338130 Ref: f3411338130 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message del_param11339397 Ref: 362e11339397 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_type11339838 Ref: 362f11339838 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_filename11340727 Ref: 363011340727 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_boundary11341266 Ref: 363111341266 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message set_boundary11341630 Ref: 363211341630 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_charset11342445 Ref: 363311342445 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_charsets11342933 Ref: 363411342933 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message get_content_disposition11343635 Ref: df611343635 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message walk11344000 Ref: 363511344000 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message preamble11346120 Ref: 363611346120 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message epilogue11347384 Ref: 363711347384 Ref: library/email compat32-message email message Message defects11347783 Ref: 363811347783 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-111348061 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-211348120 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-311348179 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-411348238 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-511348297 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-611348356 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-711348415 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-811348474 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-911348533 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1011348592 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1111348652 Ref: email message Message Representing an email message using the compat32 API-Footnote-1211348712 Node: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch11348772 Ref: library/email mime doc11349038 Ref: 363911349038 Ref: library/email mime email-mime-creating-email-and-mime-objects-from-scratch11349038 Ref: 363a11349038 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime11349038 Ref: 4511349038 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime base11350274 Ref: 4811350274 Ref: library/email mime email mime base MIMEBase11350274 Ref: 363b11350274 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime nonmultipart11351423 Ref: 4c11351423 Ref: library/email mime email mime nonmultipart MIMENonMultipart11351423 Ref: 35d211351423 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime multipart11351920 Ref: 4b11351920 Ref: library/email mime email mime multipart MIMEMultipart11351920 Ref: 363c11351920 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime application11353239 Ref: 4611353239 Ref: library/email mime email mime application MIMEApplication11353239 Ref: 363d11353239 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime audio11354595 Ref: 4711354595 Ref: library/email mime email mime audio MIMEAudio11354595 Ref: 363e11354595 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime image11356163 Ref: 4911356163 Ref: library/email mime email mime image MIMEImage11356163 Ref: 35d311356163 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime message11357811 Ref: 4a11357811 Ref: library/email mime email mime message MIMEMessage11357811 Ref: 363f11357811 Ref: library/email mime module-email mime text11358501 Ref: 4d11358501 Ref: library/email mime email mime text MIMEText11358501 Ref: df811358501 Ref: email mime Creating email and MIME objects from scratch-Footnote-111360145 Node: email header Internationalized headers11360213 Ref: library/email header doc11360446 Ref: 364011360446 Ref: library/email header email-header-internationalized-headers11360446 Ref: 364111360446 Ref: library/email header module-email header11360446 Ref: 4111360446 Ref: library/email header email header Header11363143 Ref: 18a911363143 Ref: library/email header email header Header append11365015 Ref: 364211365015 Ref: library/email header email header Header encode11366350 Ref: 364311366350 Ref: library/email header email header Header __str__11367989 Ref: 364411367989 Ref: library/email header email header Header __eq__11368488 Ref: 364511368488 Ref: library/email header email header Header __ne__11368624 Ref: 364611368624 Ref: library/email header email header decode_header11368848 Ref: 10ae11368848 Ref: library/email header email header make_header11370314 Ref: 10af11370314 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-111371139 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-211371211 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-311371270 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-411371328 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-511371387 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-611371446 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-711371505 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-811371564 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-911371623 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1011371682 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1111371742 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1211371802 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1311371862 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1411371922 Ref: email header Internationalized headers-Footnote-1511371982 Node: email charset Representing character sets11372042 Ref: library/email charset doc11372243 Ref: 364711372243 Ref: library/email charset email-charset-representing-character-sets11372243 Ref: 364811372243 Ref: library/email charset module-email charset11372243 Ref: 3c11372243 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset11373054 Ref: df911373054 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_charset11374579 Ref: 364911374579 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encoding11374835 Ref: 364a11374835 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encoding11375221 Ref: 364b11375221 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_charset11375498 Ref: 364c11375498 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset input_codec11375837 Ref: 364d11375837 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset output_codec11376051 Ref: 364e11376051 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_body_encoding11376363 Ref: 364f11376363 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset get_output_charset11377080 Ref: 365011377080 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode11377284 Ref: 365111377284 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset header_encode_lines11377492 Ref: 365211377492 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset body_encode11377925 Ref: 365311377925 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __str__11378257 Ref: 365411378257 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __eq__11378416 Ref: 365511378416 Ref: library/email charset email charset Charset __ne__11378552 Ref: 365611378552 Ref: library/email charset email charset add_charset11378846 Ref: 365711378846 Ref: library/email charset email charset add_alias11380171 Ref: 365911380171 Ref: library/email charset email charset add_codec11380497 Ref: 365811380497 Ref: email charset Representing character sets-Footnote-111380891 Node: email encoders Encoders11380964 Ref: library/email encoders doc11381162 Ref: 365a11381162 Ref: library/email encoders email-encoders-encoders11381162 Ref: 365b11381162 Ref: library/email encoders module-email encoders11381162 Ref: 3e11381162 Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_quopri11382854 Ref: 365c11382854 Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_base6411383182 Ref: 365d11383182 Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_7or8bit11383578 Ref: 365e11383578 Ref: library/email encoders email encoders encode_noop11383838 Ref: 365f11383838 Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-111384018 Ref: email encoders Encoders-Footnote-211384092 Node: email utils Miscellaneous utilities11384209 Ref: library/email utils doc11384391 Ref: 366011384391 Ref: library/email utils email-utils-miscellaneous-utilities11384391 Ref: 366111384391 Ref: library/email utils module-email utils11384391 Ref: 5011384391 Ref: library/email utils email utils localtime11384687 Ref: 2c711384687 Ref: library/email utils email utils make_msgid11385274 Ref: 366211385274 Ref: library/email utils email utils quote11386171 Ref: 366311386171 Ref: library/email utils email utils unquote11386350 Ref: 357911386350 Ref: library/email utils email utils parseaddr11386620 Ref: 1e411386620 Ref: library/email utils email utils formataddr11387187 Ref: 118d11387187 Ref: library/email utils email utils getaddresses11387867 Ref: 1e311387867 Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate11388713 Ref: 366411388713 Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_tz11389343 Ref: 187e11389343 Ref: library/email utils email utils parsedate_to_datetime11389923 Ref: 10b411389923 Ref: library/email utils email utils mktime_tz11390805 Ref: 366511390805 Ref: library/email utils email utils formatdate11391042 Ref: 143311391042 Ref: library/email utils email utils format_datetime11391989 Ref: 10b311391989 Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_rfc223111392679 Ref: 366611392679 Ref: library/email utils email utils encode_rfc223111392779 Ref: 366711392779 Ref: library/email utils email utils collapse_rfc2231_value11393187 Ref: 362d11393187 Ref: library/email utils email utils decode_params11394041 Ref: 153511394041 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-111394297 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-211394368 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-311394427 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-411394486 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-511394545 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-611394604 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-711394877 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-811394936 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-911394995 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1011395054 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1111395114 Ref: email utils Miscellaneous utilities-Footnote-1211395174 Node: email iterators Iterators11395234 Ref: library/email iterators doc11395384 Ref: 366811395384 Ref: library/email iterators email-iterators-iterators11395384 Ref: 366911395384 Ref: library/email iterators module-email iterators11395384 Ref: 4311395384 Ref: library/email iterators email iterators body_line_iterator11395784 Ref: 366a11395784 Ref: library/email iterators email iterators typed_subpart_iterator11396362 Ref: 366b11396362 Ref: library/email iterators email iterators _structure11397080 Ref: 366c11397080 Ref: email iterators Iterators-Footnote-111398501 Node: json — JSON encoder and decoder11398577 Ref: library/json doc11398782 Ref: 366d11398782 Ref: library/json json-json-encoder-and-decoder11398782 Ref: 366e11398782 Ref: library/json module-json11398782 Ref: 8211398782 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-111403435 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-211403508 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-311403533 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-411403592 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-511403651 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-611403738 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-711403787 Ref: json — JSON encoder and decoder-Footnote-811404049 Node: Basic Usage11404075 Ref: library/json basic-usage11404186 Ref: 367011404186 Ref: library/json json dump11404229 Ref: d4411404229 Ref: library/json json dumps11408441 Ref: d4511408441 Ref: library/json json load11409266 Ref: cb411409266 Ref: library/json json loads11412917 Ref: 95511412917 Ref: Basic Usage-Footnote-111413628 Node: Encoders and Decoders11413660 Ref: library/json encoders-and-decoders11413794 Ref: 367411413794 Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder11413857 Ref: d4711413857 Ref: library/json json-to-py-table11414111 Ref: 367311414111 Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder decode11417094 Ref: 367511417094 Ref: library/json json JSONDecoder raw_decode11417346 Ref: 367611417346 Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder11417710 Ref: d4611417710 Ref: library/json py-to-json-table11418011 Ref: 367111418011 Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder default11422339 Ref: 367211422339 Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder encode11423028 Ref: 367711423028 Ref: library/json json JSONEncoder iterencode11423273 Ref: 367811423273 Ref: Encoders and Decoders-Footnote-111423570 Node: Exceptions<17>11423602 Ref: library/json exceptions11423765 Ref: 367911423765 Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError11423806 Ref: e1f11423806 Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError msg11423947 Ref: 367a11423947 Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError doc11424014 Ref: 367b11424014 Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError pos11424082 Ref: 367c11424082 Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError lineno11424165 Ref: 367d11424165 Ref: library/json json JSONDecodeError colno11424237 Ref: 367e11424237 Node: Standard Compliance and Interoperability11424338 Ref: library/json standard-compliance-and-interoperability11424505 Ref: 367f11424505 Ref: Standard Compliance and Interoperability-Footnote-111425655 Ref: Standard Compliance and Interoperability-Footnote-211425714 Node: Character Encodings11425801 Ref: library/json character-encodings11425936 Ref: 368011425936 Node: Infinite and NaN Number Values11427267 Ref: library/json infinite-and-nan-number-values11427442 Ref: 368111427442 Node: Repeated Names Within an Object11428230 Ref: library/json repeated-names-within-an-object11428423 Ref: 368211428423 Node: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values11428946 Ref: library/json top-level-non-object-non-array-values11429135 Ref: 368311429135 Ref: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values-Footnote-111429789 Ref: Top-level Non-Object Non-Array Values-Footnote-211429848 Node: Implementation Limitations11429907 Ref: library/json implementation-limitations11430056 Ref: 368411430056 Node: Command Line Interface<2>11431006 Ref: library/json command-line-interface11431150 Ref: 368511431150 Ref: library/json json-commandline11431150 Ref: 366f11431150 Ref: library/json module-json tool11431150 Ref: 8311431150 Ref: Command Line Interface<2>-Footnote-111432076 Node: Command line options<2>11432145 Ref: library/json command-line-options11432230 Ref: 368711432230 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-infile11432293 Ref: 368811432293 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-arg-outfile11432769 Ref: 368911432769 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-sort-keys11432904 Ref: 368611432904 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-ensure-ascii11433018 Ref: 368a11433018 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-json-lines11433181 Ref: 368b11433181 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-indent11433289 Ref: 368c11433289 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-tab11433289 Ref: 368d11433289 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-no-indent11433289 Ref: 368e11433289 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-compact11433289 Ref: 368f11433289 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-h11433427 Ref: 369011433427 Ref: library/json cmdoption-json tool-help11433427 Ref: 369111433427 Node: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats11433480 Ref: library/mailbox doc11433682 Ref: 369211433682 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-manipulate-mailboxes-in-various-formats11433682 Ref: 369311433682 Ref: library/mailbox module-mailbox11433682 Ref: 8b11433682 Ref: mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats-Footnote-111434564 Node: Mailbox objects11434631 Ref: library/mailbox id111434758 Ref: 369411434758 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-objects11434758 Ref: 369511434758 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox11434817 Ref: 124011434817 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox add11437606 Ref: 123f11437606 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox remove11438399 Ref: 369611438399 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __delitem__11438429 Ref: 369a11438429 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox discard11438464 Ref: 369711438464 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __setitem__11439009 Ref: 369b11439009 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iterkeys11439895 Ref: 369c11439895 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox keys11439981 Ref: 369d11439981 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox itervalues11440143 Ref: 369e11440143 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __iter__11440174 Ref: 369f11440174 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox values11440661 Ref: 36a011440661 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox iteritems11440827 Ref: 36a111440827 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox items11441248 Ref: 36a211441248 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get11441441 Ref: 36a311441441 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __getitem__11441482 Ref: 36a411441482 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_message11442057 Ref: 36a511442057 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_bytes11442346 Ref: 124211442346 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_string11442581 Ref: 124311442581 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox get_file11442920 Ref: 124111442920 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __contains__11443951 Ref: 36a611443951 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox __len__11444085 Ref: 36a711444085 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox clear11444168 Ref: 36a811444168 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox pop11444244 Ref: 36a911444244 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox popitem11444682 Ref: 36aa11444682 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox update11445198 Ref: 36ab11445198 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox flush11445900 Ref: 36ac11445900 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox lock11446185 Ref: 369811446185 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox unlock11446604 Ref: 369911446604 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Mailbox close11446684 Ref: 36ae11446684 Node: Maildir objects11446970 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildir11447058 Ref: 36af11447058 Ref: library/mailbox maildir-objects11447058 Ref: 36b011447058 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir11447117 Ref: 41811447117 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir colon11449248 Ref: 36b211449248 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir list_folders11450062 Ref: 36b311450062 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_folder11450150 Ref: 36b411450150 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_folder11450384 Ref: 36b611450384 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_folder11450535 Ref: 36b711450535 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir clean11450777 Ref: 36b911450777 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_flags11451013 Ref: 16d111451013 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir set_flags11451818 Ref: 16d211451818 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add_flag11452569 Ref: 16d311452569 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir remove_flag11453081 Ref: 16d411453081 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_info11453604 Ref: 16cf11453604 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir set_info11454334 Ref: 16d011454334 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir add11455132 Ref: 36c111455132 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir __setitem__11455163 Ref: 36be11455163 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir update11455207 Ref: 36c211455207 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir flush11455620 Ref: 36c311455620 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir lock11455755 Ref: 36c411455755 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir unlock11455780 Ref: 36c511455780 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir close11455913 Ref: 36c611455913 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Maildir get_file11456104 Ref: 36c711456104 Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-111456640 Ref: Maildir objects-Footnote-211456689 Node: mbox objects11456733 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mbox11456840 Ref: 36c811456840 Ref: library/mailbox mbox-objects11456840 Ref: 36c911456840 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox11456893 Ref: 167f11456893 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_bytes11458312 Ref: 36ca11458312 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_file11458609 Ref: 36cb11458609 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox get_string11459092 Ref: 36cc11459092 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox lock11459390 Ref: 36cd11459390 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mbox unlock11459415 Ref: 36ce11459415 Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-111459992 Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-211460052 Ref: mbox objects-Footnote-311460104 Node: MH objects11460182 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mh11460287 Ref: 36cf11460287 Ref: library/mailbox mh-objects11460287 Ref: 36d011460287 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH11460336 Ref: 16b611460336 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH list_folders11461873 Ref: 36d211461873 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_folder11461961 Ref: 36d311461961 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH add_folder11462191 Ref: 36d411462191 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove_folder11462338 Ref: 36d511462338 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_sequences11462580 Ref: 36d611462580 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH set_sequences11462757 Ref: 36d711462757 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH pack11462995 Ref: 36d811462995 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH remove11463410 Ref: 36d911463410 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH __delitem__11463440 Ref: 36da11463440 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH discard11463475 Ref: 36db11463475 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH lock11463684 Ref: 36dc11463684 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH unlock11463709 Ref: 36dd11463709 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH get_file11464084 Ref: 36de11464084 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH flush11464276 Ref: 36df11464276 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MH close11464406 Ref: 36e011464406 Ref: MH objects-Footnote-111464866 Ref: MH objects-Footnote-211464902 Node: Babyl objects11464947 Ref: library/mailbox babyl-objects11465052 Ref: 36e111465052 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-babyl11465052 Ref: 36e211465052 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl11465107 Ref: 36e311465107 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_labels11466671 Ref: 36e511466671 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl get_file11467198 Ref: 36e611467198 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl lock11467718 Ref: 36e711467718 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Babyl unlock11467743 Ref: 36e811467743 Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-111468137 Ref: Babyl objects-Footnote-211468181 Node: MMDF objects11468259 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mmdf11468345 Ref: 36e911468345 Ref: library/mailbox mmdf-objects11468345 Ref: 36ea11468345 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF11468398 Ref: 168011468398 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_bytes11469656 Ref: 36ec11469656 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF get_file11469953 Ref: 36ed11469953 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF lock11470436 Ref: 36ee11470436 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDF unlock11470461 Ref: 36ef11470461 Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-111470898 Ref: MMDF objects-Footnote-211470958 Node: Message objects11471001 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-message-objects11471151 Ref: 36f011471151 Ref: library/mailbox message-objects11471151 Ref: 36f111471151 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Message11471210 Ref: 124411471210 Ref: Message objects-Footnote-111473255 Node: MaildirMessage objects11473314 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-maildirmessage11473416 Ref: 36f211473416 Ref: library/mailbox maildirmessage-objects11473416 Ref: 36f311473416 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage11473489 Ref: 36b111473489 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_subdir11475339 Ref: 36f411475339 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_subdir11475853 Ref: 36f511475853 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_flags11476024 Ref: 36ba11476024 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_flags11476496 Ref: 36bb11476496 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage add_flag11476600 Ref: 36bc11476600 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage remove_flag11476950 Ref: 36bd11476950 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_date11477305 Ref: 36f611477305 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_date11477461 Ref: 36f711477461 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage get_info11477626 Ref: 36bf11477626 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MaildirMessage set_info11477849 Ref: 36c011477849 Node: mboxMessage objects11480646 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mboxmessage11480774 Ref: 36f811480774 Ref: library/mailbox mboxmessage-objects11480774 Ref: 36f911480774 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage11480841 Ref: 356111480841 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage get_from11482637 Ref: 36fa11482637 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage set_from11482868 Ref: 36fb11482868 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage get_flags11483406 Ref: 36fc11483406 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage set_flags11483754 Ref: 36fd11483754 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage add_flag11484045 Ref: 36fe11484045 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox mboxMessage remove_flag11484265 Ref: 36ff11484265 Node: MHMessage objects11487243 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mhmessage11487369 Ref: 370011487369 Ref: library/mailbox mhmessage-objects11487369 Ref: 370111487369 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage11487434 Ref: 36d111487434 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage get_sequences11488394 Ref: 370211488394 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage set_sequences11488517 Ref: 370311488517 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage add_sequence11488625 Ref: 370411488625 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MHMessage remove_sequence11488755 Ref: 370511488755 Node: BabylMessage objects11490620 Ref: library/mailbox babylmessage-objects11490746 Ref: 370611490746 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-babylmessage11490746 Ref: 370711490746 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage11490817 Ref: 36e411490817 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage get_labels11492172 Ref: 370811492172 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage set_labels11492255 Ref: 370911492255 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage add_label11492355 Ref: 370a11492355 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage remove_label11492452 Ref: 370b11492452 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage get_visible11492557 Ref: 370c11492557 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage set_visible11492725 Ref: 370d11492725 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox BabylMessage update_visible11493076 Ref: 370e11493076 Node: MMDFMessage objects11495516 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-mmdfmessage11495616 Ref: 370f11495616 Ref: library/mailbox mmdfmessage-objects11495616 Ref: 371011495616 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage11495685 Ref: 36eb11495685 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage get_from11497365 Ref: 371111497365 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage set_from11497596 Ref: 371211497596 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage get_flags11498134 Ref: 371311498134 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage set_flags11498482 Ref: 371411498482 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage add_flag11498773 Ref: 371511498773 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox MMDFMessage remove_flag11498993 Ref: 371611498993 Node: Exceptions<18>11501972 Ref: library/mailbox exceptions11502119 Ref: 371711502119 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox Error11502236 Ref: 371811502236 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NoSuchMailboxError11502330 Ref: 36b511502330 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox NotEmptyError11502637 Ref: 36b811502637 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox ExternalClashError11502799 Ref: 36ad11502799 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox FormatError11503112 Ref: 371911503112 Node: Examples<23>11503309 Ref: library/mailbox examples11503432 Ref: 371a11503432 Ref: library/mailbox mailbox-examples11503432 Ref: 371b11503432 Node: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types11505710 Ref: library/mimetypes doc11505932 Ref: 371c11505932 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-map-filenames-to-mime-types11505932 Ref: 371d11505932 Ref: library/mimetypes module-mimetypes11505932 Ref: 8f11505932 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_type11506819 Ref: 20a11506819 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_file_type11508306 Ref: 20911508306 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_all_extensions11508637 Ref: 189511508637 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes guess_extension11509234 Ref: 371f11509234 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes init11509975 Ref: 371e11509975 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes read_mime_types11510951 Ref: 194311510951 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes add_type11511328 Ref: 372111511328 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes inited11511785 Ref: 372211511785 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes knownfiles11511955 Ref: 372011511955 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes suffix_map11512165 Ref: 372311512165 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes encodings_map11512515 Ref: 372411512515 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes types_map11512614 Ref: 372511512614 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes common_types11512705 Ref: 372611512705 Ref: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-111513247 Ref: mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types-Footnote-211513316 Node: MimeTypes Objects11513387 Ref: library/mimetypes id111513482 Ref: 372711513482 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes-objects11513482 Ref: 372811513482 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes11513731 Ref: 14c611513731 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes suffix_map11514417 Ref: 372b11514417 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes encodings_map11514899 Ref: 372c11514899 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map11515112 Ref: 372d11515112 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes types_map_inv11515448 Ref: 372e11515448 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_extension11515798 Ref: 372f11515798 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_type11515976 Ref: 1a3711515976 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_file_type11516142 Ref: 373011516142 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes guess_all_extensions11516356 Ref: 373111516356 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read11516544 Ref: 372911516544 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes readfp11516857 Ref: 372a11516857 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes read_windows_registry11517188 Ref: 373211517188 Ref: library/mimetypes mimetypes MimeTypes add_type11517532 Ref: 373311517532 Node: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings11518023 Ref: library/base64 doc11518239 Ref: 373411518239 Ref: library/base64 base64-base16-base32-base64-base85-data-encodings11518239 Ref: 373511518239 Ref: library/base64 module-base6411518239 Ref: e11518239 Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-111519952 Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-211520018 Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-311520077 Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-411520136 Ref: base64 — Base16 Base32 Base64 Base85 Data Encodings-Footnote-511520195 Node: RFC 4648 Encodings11520254 Ref: library/base64 base64-rfc-464811520387 Ref: 373611520387 Ref: library/base64 rfc-4648-encodings11520387 Ref: 373911520387 Ref: library/base64 base64 b64encode11520617 Ref: 373a11520617 Ref: library/base64 base64 b64decode11521301 Ref: 19a611521301 Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64encode11522293 Ref: 373b11522293 Ref: library/base64 base64 standard_b64decode11522466 Ref: 373c11522466 Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64encode11522655 Ref: 373d11522655 Ref: library/base64 base64 urlsafe_b64decode11522995 Ref: 373e11522995 Ref: library/base64 base64 b32encode11523312 Ref: 373f11523312 Ref: library/base64 base64 b32decode11523458 Ref: 101e11523458 Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexencode11524454 Ref: 7de11524454 Ref: library/base64 base64 b32hexdecode11524632 Ref: 7df11524632 Ref: library/base64 base64 b16encode11525081 Ref: 374011525081 Ref: library/base64 base64 b16decode11525227 Ref: 374111525227 Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-111525752 Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-211525811 Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-311525870 Ref: RFC 4648 Encodings-Footnote-411525929 Node: Base85 Encodings11525988 Ref: library/base64 base64-base-8511526146 Ref: 373711526146 Ref: library/base64 base85-encodings11526146 Ref: 374211526146 Ref: library/base64 base64 a85encode11526921 Ref: f1911526921 Ref: library/base64 base64 a85decode11527923 Ref: f1a11527923 Ref: library/base64 base64 b85encode11528790 Ref: f1b11528790 Ref: library/base64 base64 b85decode11529144 Ref: f1c11529144 Ref: library/base64 base64 z85encode11529387 Ref: 14f11529387 Ref: library/base64 base64 z85decode11529632 Ref: 15011529632 Ref: Base85 Encodings-Footnote-111529911 Ref: Base85 Encodings-Footnote-211529951 Node: Legacy Interface11529991 Ref: library/base64 base64-legacy11530157 Ref: 373811530157 Ref: library/base64 legacy-interface11530157 Ref: 374311530157 Ref: library/base64 base64 decode11530210 Ref: 374411530210 Ref: library/base64 base64 decodebytes11530519 Ref: 95411530519 Ref: library/base64 base64 encode11530749 Ref: 374511530749 Ref: library/base64 base64 encodebytes11531269 Ref: 95311531269 Ref: Legacy Interface-Footnote-111531941 Ref: Legacy Interface-Footnote-211532000 Node: Security Considerations<2>11532059 Ref: library/base64 base64-security11532200 Ref: 374611532200 Ref: library/base64 security-considerations11532200 Ref: 374711532200 Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-111532862 Ref: Security Considerations<2>-Footnote-211532921 Node: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII11532980 Ref: library/binascii doc11533210 Ref: 374811533210 Ref: library/binascii binascii-convert-between-binary-and-ascii11533210 Ref: 374911533210 Ref: library/binascii module-binascii11533210 Ref: 1011533210 Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_uu11534212 Ref: 374a11534212 Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_uu11534462 Ref: b2111534462 Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_base6411534841 Ref: 162d11534841 Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_base6411535507 Ref: c7f11535507 Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_qp11535857 Ref: 374b11535857 Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_qp11536154 Ref: 374c11536154 Ref: library/binascii binascii crc_hqx11536922 Ref: 72f11536922 Ref: library/binascii binascii crc3211537227 Ref: 169611537227 Ref: library/binascii binascii b2a_hex11537902 Ref: 241411537902 Ref: library/binascii binascii hexlify11537966 Ref: 374d11537966 Ref: library/binascii binascii a2b_hex11539163 Ref: 241511539163 Ref: library/binascii binascii unhexlify11539203 Ref: 1a4611539203 Ref: library/binascii binascii Error11539732 Ref: 101f11539732 Ref: library/binascii binascii Incomplete11539836 Ref: 374e11539836 Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-111540301 Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-211540360 Ref: binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII-Footnote-311540419 Node: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data11540478 Ref: library/quopri doc11540646 Ref: 374f11540646 Ref: library/quopri module-quopri11540646 Ref: b711540646 Ref: library/quopri quopri-encode-and-decode-mime-quoted-printable-data11540646 Ref: 375011540646 Ref: library/quopri quopri decode11541381 Ref: 241711541381 Ref: library/quopri quopri encode11541921 Ref: 241611541921 Ref: library/quopri quopri decodestring11542578 Ref: 375111542578 Ref: library/quopri quopri encodestring11542775 Ref: 375211542775 Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-111543225 Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-211543291 Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-311543350 Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-411543409 Ref: quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data-Footnote-511543468 Node: Structured Markup Processing Tools11543527 Ref: library/markup doc11543695 Ref: 375311543695 Ref: library/markup markup11543695 Ref: 375411543695 Ref: library/markup structured-markup-processing-tools11543695 Ref: 375511543695 Node: html — HyperText Markup Language support11545238 Ref: library/html doc11545404 Ref: 375611545404 Ref: library/html html-hypertext-markup-language-support11545404 Ref: 375711545404 Ref: library/html module-html11545404 Ref: 6b11545404 Ref: library/html html escape11545670 Ref: 100711545670 Ref: library/html html unescape11546143 Ref: 95711546143 Ref: html — HyperText Markup Language support-Footnote-111546847 Node: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser11546920 Ref: library/html parser doc11547149 Ref: 375811547149 Ref: library/html parser html-parser-simple-html-and-xhtml-parser11547149 Ref: 375911547149 Ref: library/html parser module-html parser11547149 Ref: 6d11547149 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser11547525 Ref: 87411547525 Ref: html parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser-Footnote-111548643 Node: Example HTML Parser Application11548714 Ref: library/html parser example-html-parser-application11548853 Ref: 375a11548853 Node: HTMLParser Methods11550059 Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-methods11550219 Ref: 375b11550219 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser feed11550346 Ref: 375c11550346 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser close11550613 Ref: 154b11550613 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser reset11550974 Ref: 375d11550974 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser getpos11551117 Ref: 375e11551117 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser get_starttag_text11551196 Ref: 375f11551196 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_starttag11551767 Ref: 376111551767 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_endtag11552571 Ref: 376211552571 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_startendtag11552778 Ref: 376011552778 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_data11553191 Ref: 376311553191 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_entityref11553393 Ref: 376411553393 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_charref11553697 Ref: 376511553697 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_comment11554143 Ref: 376611554143 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_decl11554669 Ref: 376711554669 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser handle_pi11554953 Ref: 376811554953 Ref: library/html parser html parser HTMLParser unknown_decl11555643 Ref: 376911555643 Node: Examples<24>11556005 Ref: library/html parser examples11556125 Ref: 376a11556125 Ref: library/html parser htmlparser-examples11556125 Ref: 376b11556125 Node: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities11559681 Ref: library/html entities doc11559890 Ref: 376c11559890 Ref: library/html entities html-entities-definitions-of-html-general-entities11559890 Ref: 376d11559890 Ref: library/html entities module-html entities11559890 Ref: 6c11559890 Ref: library/html entities html entities html511560272 Ref: 10c811560272 Ref: library/html entities html entities entitydefs11560759 Ref: 377011560759 Ref: library/html entities html entities name2codepoint11560898 Ref: 376e11560898 Ref: library/html entities html entities codepoint2name11561019 Ref: 376f11561019 Ref: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities-Footnote-111561167 Ref: html entities — Definitions of HTML general entities-Footnote-211561240 Node: XML Processing Modules11561346 Ref: library/xml doc11561560 Ref: 377111561560 Ref: library/xml module-xml11561560 Ref: 12011561560 Ref: library/xml xml11561560 Ref: 377211561560 Ref: library/xml xml-processing-modules11561560 Ref: 377311561560 Ref: library/xml xml-security11562766 Ref: 377411562766 Ref: XML Processing Modules-Footnote-111562829 Node: XML security11562890 Ref: library/xml id111562961 Ref: 377511562961 Ref: library/xml xml-vulnerabilities11562961 Ref: 377611562961 Ref: XML security-Footnote-111564944 Ref: XML security-Footnote-211564997 Ref: XML security-Footnote-311565050 Ref: XML security-Footnote-411565097 Node: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API11565153 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree doc11565354 Ref: 377711565354 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree module-xml etree ElementTree11565354 Ref: 12511565354 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml-etree-elementtree-the-elementtree-xml-api11565354 Ref: 377811565354 Ref: xml etree ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API-Footnote-111566151 Node: Tutorial<3>11566233 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree tutorial11566352 Ref: 377911566352 Node: XML tree and elements11566778 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml-tree-and-elements11566867 Ref: 377a11566867 Node: Parsing XML11567445 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-parsing-xml11567576 Ref: 377b11567576 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree parsing-xml11567576 Ref: 377c11567576 Node: Pull API for non-blocking parsing11570053 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-pull-parsing11570191 Ref: fed11570191 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree pull-api-for-non-blocking-parsing11570191 Ref: 377e11570191 Node: Finding interesting elements11572304 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree finding-interesting-elements11572452 Ref: 378111572452 Node: Modifying an XML File11573694 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree modifying-an-xml-file11573831 Ref: 378411573831 Node: Building XML documents11576775 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree building-xml-documents11576911 Ref: 378711576911 Node: Parsing XML with Namespaces11577280 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree parsing-xml-with-namespaces11577386 Ref: 378911577386 Ref: Parsing XML with Namespaces-Footnote-111579701 Ref: Parsing XML with Namespaces-Footnote-211579753 Node: XPath support11579805 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-xpath11579945 Ref: bad11579945 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xpath-support11579945 Ref: 378a11579945 Ref: XPath support-Footnote-111580306 Node: Example<8>11580342 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree example11580433 Ref: 378b11580433 Node: Supported XPath syntax11581452 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree supported-xpath-syntax11581543 Ref: 378c11581543 Node: Reference<4>11586526 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree reference11586671 Ref: 378d11586671 Node: Functions<9>11586749 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-functions11586810 Ref: 378e11586810 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree functions11586810 Ref: 378f11586810 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree canonicalize11586851 Ref: 379011586851 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Comment11589235 Ref: 379111589235 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree dump11589920 Ref: 379211589920 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree fromstring11590394 Ref: 377d11590394 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree fromstringlist11590753 Ref: 11c311590753 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree indent11591173 Ref: 379411591173 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree iselement11591701 Ref: 379511591701 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree iterparse11591915 Ref: 27511591915 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree parse11594078 Ref: 379611594078 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ProcessingInstruction11594422 Ref: 379711594422 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree register_namespace11595150 Ref: 11c411595150 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree SubElement11595581 Ref: 378811595581 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree tostring11596151 Ref: fee11596151 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree tostringlist11597250 Ref: fef11597250 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XML11598521 Ref: 379311598521 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLID11598915 Ref: 379811598915 Ref: Functions<9>-Footnote-111599390 Ref: Functions<9>-Footnote-211599431 Ref: Functions<9>-Footnote-311599740 Node: XInclude support11600049 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-xinclude11600193 Ref: 379911600193 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xinclude-support11600193 Ref: 379a11600193 Ref: XInclude support-Footnote-111600558 Node: Example<9>11600598 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree id311600661 Ref: 379b11600661 Node: Reference<5>11602475 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree id411602598 Ref: 379c11602598 Node: Functions<10>11602841 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementinclude-functions11602927 Ref: 379d11602927 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree id511602927 Ref: 379e11602927 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree module-xml etree ElementInclude11602968 Ref: 12411602968 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementInclude default_loader11602968 Ref: 379f11602968 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementInclude include11603563 Ref: 37a011603563 Node: Element Objects11604447 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree element-objects11604561 Ref: 37a111604561 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-element-objects11604561 Ref: 37a211604561 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element11604614 Ref: 30a11604614 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element tag11605096 Ref: 134111605096 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element text11605241 Ref: 378211605241 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element tail11605266 Ref: 37a311605266 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element attrib11606382 Ref: 37a411606382 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element clear11606926 Ref: 37a511606926 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element get11607119 Ref: 378311607119 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element items11607307 Ref: 37a611607307 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element keys11607476 Ref: 37a711607476 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element set11607618 Ref: 378511607618 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element append11607791 Ref: 378611607791 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element extend11608027 Ref: 11c511608027 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element find11608258 Ref: 156511608258 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element findall11608680 Ref: 156711608680 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element findtext11609099 Ref: 156611609099 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element insert11609703 Ref: 37a811609703 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element iter11609914 Ref: 134211609914 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element iterfind11610406 Ref: 11c611610406 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element itertext11610740 Ref: 11c711610740 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element makeelement11610965 Ref: 37a911610965 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree Element remove11611188 Ref: 156911611188 Ref: Element Objects-Footnote-111613940 Node: ElementTree Objects11613983 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-elementtree-objects11614097 Ref: 37aa11614097 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-objects11614097 Ref: 37ab11614097 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree11614158 Ref: 94e11614158 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree _setroot11614510 Ref: 37ac11614510 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree find11614759 Ref: 37ad11614759 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree findall11614898 Ref: 37ae11614898 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree findtext11615043 Ref: 37af11615043 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree getroot11615204 Ref: 37b011615204 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree iter11615284 Ref: 37b111615284 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree iterfind11615554 Ref: 37b211615554 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree parse11615734 Ref: 37b311615734 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ElementTree write11616080 Ref: ff011616080 Ref: ElementTree Objects-Footnote-111618880 Node: QName Objects11619189 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-qname-objects11619307 Ref: 37b411619307 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree qname-objects11619307 Ref: 37b511619307 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree QName11619356 Ref: 37b611619356 Node: TreeBuilder Objects11619869 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-treebuilder-objects11619985 Ref: 37b711619985 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree treebuilder-objects11619985 Ref: 37b811619985 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder11620046 Ref: a5411620046 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder close11621164 Ref: 37b911621164 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder data11621326 Ref: 37ba11621326 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder end11621490 Ref: 11c811621490 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder start11621623 Ref: 198211621623 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder comment11621825 Ref: 37bb11621825 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder pi11622023 Ref: 37bc11622023 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder doctype11622358 Ref: a9711622358 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder start_ns11622684 Ref: 37bd11622684 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree TreeBuilder end_ns11623080 Ref: 37be11623080 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree C14NWriterTarget11623329 Ref: 37bf11623329 Ref: TreeBuilder Objects-Footnote-111623879 Node: XMLParser Objects11623920 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-xmlparser-objects11624044 Ref: 37c011624044 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xmlparser-objects11624044 Ref: 37c111624044 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLParser11624101 Ref: a5311624101 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLParser close11624816 Ref: 37c311624816 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLParser feed11625072 Ref: 37c211625072 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLParser flush11625164 Ref: 27111625164 Ref: XMLParser Objects-Footnote-111627802 Node: XMLPullParser Objects11628111 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree elementtree-xmlpullparser-objects11628230 Ref: 37c411628230 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xmlpullparser-objects11628230 Ref: 37c511628230 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLPullParser11628295 Ref: fec11628295 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLPullParser feed11628987 Ref: 377f11628987 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLPullParser flush11629069 Ref: 27211629069 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLPullParser close11629928 Ref: 37c611629928 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree XMLPullParser read_events11630239 Ref: 378011630239 Node: Exceptions<19>11631975 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree exceptions11632068 Ref: 37c711632068 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ParseError11632111 Ref: 126b11632111 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ParseError code11632439 Ref: 37c811632439 Ref: library/xml etree elementtree xml etree ElementTree ParseError position11632644 Ref: 37c911632644 Node: xml dom — The Document Object Model API11632769 Ref: library/xml dom doc11632994 Ref: 37ca11632994 Ref: library/xml dom module-xml dom11632994 Ref: 12111632994 Ref: library/xml dom xml-dom-the-document-object-model-api11632994 Ref: 37cb11632994 Ref: xml dom — The Document Object Model API-Footnote-111636468 Ref: xml dom — The Document Object Model API-Footnote-211636545 Ref: xml dom — The Document Object Model API-Footnote-311636611 Ref: xml dom — The Document Object Model API-Footnote-411636658 Node: Module Contents<4>11636704 Ref: library/xml dom module-contents11636827 Ref: 37ce11636827 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom registerDOMImplementation11636937 Ref: 37cf11636937 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom getDOMImplementation11637385 Ref: 37cc11637385 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom EMPTY_NAMESPACE11638294 Ref: 37d011638294 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom XML_NAMESPACE11638567 Ref: 37d111638567 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom XMLNS_NAMESPACE11638724 Ref: 37d211638724 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom XHTML_NAMESPACE11638910 Ref: 37d311638910 Ref: Module Contents<4>-Footnote-111639645 Ref: Module Contents<4>-Footnote-211639690 Ref: Module Contents<4>-Footnote-311639747 Node: Objects in the DOM11639785 Ref: library/xml dom dom-objects11639928 Ref: 37d411639928 Ref: library/xml dom objects-in-the-dom11639928 Ref: 37d511639928 Node: DOMImplementation Objects11644463 Ref: library/xml dom dom-implementation-objects11644564 Ref: 37d611644564 Ref: library/xml dom domimplementation-objects11644564 Ref: 37e011644564 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DOMImplementation hasFeature11644920 Ref: 37e111644920 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DOMImplementation createDocument11645099 Ref: 37e211645099 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DOMImplementation createDocumentType11645619 Ref: 37e311645619 Node: Node Objects11645927 Ref: library/xml dom dom-node-objects11646053 Ref: 37d711646053 Ref: library/xml dom node-objects11646053 Ref: 37e411646053 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node nodeType11646170 Ref: 37e511646170 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node parentNode11646593 Ref: 37e611646593 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node attributes11647002 Ref: 37e711647002 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node previousSibling11647215 Ref: 37e811647215 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node nextSibling11647701 Ref: 37e911647701 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node childNodes11647967 Ref: 37ea11647967 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node firstChild11648086 Ref: 37eb11648086 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node lastChild11648223 Ref: 37ec11648223 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node localName11648358 Ref: 37ed11648358 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node prefix11648522 Ref: 37ee11648522 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node namespaceURI11648690 Ref: 37ef11648690 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node nodeName11648853 Ref: 37f011648853 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node nodeValue11649290 Ref: 37f111649290 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node hasAttributes11649524 Ref: 37f211649524 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node hasChildNodes11649615 Ref: 37f311649615 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node isSameNode11649707 Ref: 37f411649707 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node appendChild11650336 Ref: 37f511650336 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node insertBefore11650544 Ref: 37f611650544 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node removeChild11650885 Ref: 37f711650885 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node replaceChild11651173 Ref: 37f811651173 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node normalize11651387 Ref: 37f911651387 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Node cloneNode11651604 Ref: 37fa11651604 Node: NodeList Objects11651748 Ref: library/xml dom dom-nodelist-objects11651869 Ref: 37d811651869 Ref: library/xml dom nodelist-objects11651869 Ref: 37fb11651869 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NodeList item11652350 Ref: 37fc11652350 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NodeList length11652580 Ref: 37fd11652580 Node: DocumentType Objects11653250 Ref: library/xml dom documenttype-objects11653375 Ref: 37fe11653375 Ref: library/xml dom dom-documenttype-objects11653375 Ref: 37d911653375 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType publicId11654008 Ref: 37ff11654008 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType systemId11654174 Ref: 380011654174 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType internalSubset11654350 Ref: 380111654350 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType name11654603 Ref: 380211654603 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType entities11654732 Ref: 380311654732 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DocumentType notations11655115 Ref: 380411655115 Node: Document Objects11655494 Ref: library/xml dom document-objects11655621 Ref: 380511655621 Ref: library/xml dom dom-document-objects11655621 Ref: 37da11655621 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document documentElement11655868 Ref: 380611655868 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createElement11655962 Ref: 380711655962 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createElementNS11656251 Ref: 380811656251 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createTextNode11656602 Ref: 380911656602 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createComment11656821 Ref: 380a11656821 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createProcessingInstruction11657042 Ref: 380b11657042 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createAttribute11657314 Ref: 380c11657314 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document createAttributeNS11657621 Ref: 380d11657621 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document getElementsByTagName11658009 Ref: 380e11658009 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Document getElementsByTagNameNS11658185 Ref: 380f11658185 Node: Element Objects<2>11658456 Ref: library/xml dom dom-element-objects11658575 Ref: 37db11658575 Ref: library/xml dom element-objects11658575 Ref: 381011658575 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element tagName11658716 Ref: 381111658716 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getElementsByTagName11658863 Ref: 381211658863 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getElementsByTagNameNS11658976 Ref: 381311658976 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element hasAttribute11659107 Ref: 381411659107 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element hasAttributeNS11659221 Ref: 381511659221 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getAttribute11659385 Ref: 381611659385 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getAttributeNode11659598 Ref: 381711659598 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getAttributeNS11659719 Ref: 381811659719 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element getAttributeNodeNS11659977 Ref: 381911659977 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element removeAttribute11660131 Ref: 381a11660131 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element removeAttributeNode11660289 Ref: 381c11660289 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element removeAttributeNS11660481 Ref: 381d11660481 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element setAttribute11660690 Ref: 381e11660690 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element setAttributeNode11660782 Ref: 381f11660782 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element setAttributeNodeNS11661126 Ref: 382111661126 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Element setAttributeNS11661499 Ref: 382211661499 Node: Attr Objects11661735 Ref: library/xml dom attr-objects11661858 Ref: 382311661858 Ref: library/xml dom dom-attr-objects11661858 Ref: 37dc11661858 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Attr name11661973 Ref: 382411661973 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Attr localName11662085 Ref: 382511662085 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Attr prefix11662239 Ref: 382611662239 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Attr value11662359 Ref: 382711662359 Node: NamedNodeMap Objects11662484 Ref: library/xml dom dom-attributelist-objects11662604 Ref: 382811662604 Ref: library/xml dom namednodemap-objects11662604 Ref: 382911662604 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NamedNodeMap length11662723 Ref: 382a11662723 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NamedNodeMap item11662799 Ref: 382b11662799 Node: Comment Objects11663280 Ref: library/xml dom comment-objects11663417 Ref: 382c11663417 Ref: library/xml dom dom-comment-objects11663417 Ref: 37dd11663417 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Comment data11663589 Ref: 382d11663589 Node: Text and CDATASection Objects11663807 Ref: library/xml dom dom-text-objects11663953 Ref: 37de11663953 Ref: library/xml dom text-and-cdatasection-objects11663953 Ref: 382e11663953 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom Text data11664449 Ref: 382f11664449 Node: ProcessingInstruction Objects11664942 Ref: library/xml dom dom-pi-objects11665087 Ref: 37df11665087 Ref: library/xml dom processinginstruction-objects11665087 Ref: 383011665087 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom ProcessingInstruction target11665299 Ref: 383111665299 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom ProcessingInstruction data11665467 Ref: 383211665467 Node: Exceptions<20>11665605 Ref: library/xml dom dom-exceptions11665712 Ref: 383311665712 Ref: library/xml dom exceptions11665712 Ref: 383411665712 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DOMException11666391 Ref: 383511666391 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom DomstringSizeErr11666553 Ref: 383611666553 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom HierarchyRequestErr11666808 Ref: 383711666808 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom IndexSizeErr11666947 Ref: 383811666947 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InuseAttributeErr11667089 Ref: 382011667089 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidAccessErr11667253 Ref: 383911667253 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidCharacterErr11667386 Ref: 383a11667386 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidModificationErr11667746 Ref: 383b11667746 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom InvalidStateErr11667860 Ref: 383c11667860 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NamespaceErr11668003 Ref: 383d11668003 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NotFoundErr11668212 Ref: 381b11668212 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NotSupportedErr11668443 Ref: 383e11668443 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NoDataAllowedErr11668585 Ref: 383f11668585 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom NoModificationAllowedErr11668713 Ref: 384011668713 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom SyntaxErr11668879 Ref: 384111668879 Ref: library/xml dom xml dom WrongDocumentErr11668974 Ref: 384211668974 Ref: Exceptions<20>-Footnote-111672015 Node: Conformance11672060 Ref: library/xml dom conformance11672176 Ref: 384311672176 Ref: library/xml dom dom-conformance11672176 Ref: 37cd11672176 Node: Type Mapping11672433 Ref: library/xml dom dom-type-mapping11672518 Ref: 384411672518 Ref: library/xml dom type-mapping11672518 Ref: 384511672518 Node: Accessor Methods11673343 Ref: library/xml dom accessor-methods11673428 Ref: 384611673428 Ref: library/xml dom dom-accessor-methods11673428 Ref: 384711673428 Node: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation11675304 Ref: library/xml dom minidom doc11675538 Ref: 384811675538 Ref: library/xml dom minidom module-xml dom minidom11675538 Ref: 12211675538 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml-dom-minidom-minimal-dom-implementation11675538 Ref: 384911675538 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom parse11676770 Ref: 384a11676770 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom parseString11677339 Ref: 384b11677339 Ref: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation-Footnote-111679913 Ref: xml dom minidom — Minimal DOM implementation-Footnote-211679989 Node: DOM Objects11680036 Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-objects11680150 Ref: 384c11680150 Ref: library/xml dom minidom minidom-objects11680150 Ref: 384d11680150 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node unlink11680385 Ref: 384e11680385 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node writexml11681161 Ref: 384f11681161 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node toxml11682401 Ref: 149211682401 Ref: library/xml dom minidom xml dom minidom Node toprettyxml11683210 Ref: 149311683210 Ref: DOM Objects-Footnote-111683951 Node: DOM Example11684354 Ref: library/xml dom minidom dom-example11684505 Ref: 385011684505 Ref: library/xml dom minidom id211684505 Ref: 385111684505 Node: minidom and the DOM standard11686537 Ref: library/xml dom minidom minidom-and-dom11686668 Ref: 385211686668 Ref: library/xml dom minidom minidom-and-the-dom-standard11686668 Ref: 385311686668 Node: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees11689309 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom doc11689538 Ref: 385411689538 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom module-xml dom pulldom11689538 Ref: 12311689538 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml-dom-pulldom-support-for-building-partial-dom-trees11689538 Ref: 385511689538 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom PullDom11692182 Ref: 385711692182 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom SAX2DOM11692303 Ref: 385911692303 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom parse11692424 Ref: 385a11692424 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom parseString11693016 Ref: 385c11693016 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom default_bufsize11693168 Ref: 385d11693168 Ref: xml dom pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees-Footnote-111693481 Node: DOMEventStream Objects11693557 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom domeventstream-objects11693674 Ref: 385e11693674 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom id111693674 Ref: 385f11693674 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream11693739 Ref: 73011693739 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream getEvent11693907 Ref: 386011693907 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream expandNode11694399 Ref: 385611694399 Ref: library/xml dom pulldom xml dom pulldom DOMEventStream reset11695113 Ref: 386111695113 Node: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers11695140 Ref: library/xml sax doc11695372 Ref: 386211695372 Ref: library/xml sax module-xml sax11695372 Ref: 12911695372 Ref: library/xml sax xml-sax-support-for-sax2-parsers11695372 Ref: 386311695372 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax make_parser11696365 Ref: 1a3a11696365 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax parse11696863 Ref: 1a0311696863 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax parseString11697458 Ref: e9511697458 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException11699383 Ref: 386911699383 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXParseException11700255 Ref: 386711700255 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXNotRecognizedException11700666 Ref: 386a11700666 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXNotSupportedException11700968 Ref: 386b11700968 Ref: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers-Footnote-111701982 Ref: xml sax — Support for SAX2 parsers-Footnote-211702059 Node: SAXException Objects11702094 Ref: library/xml sax sax-exception-objects11702187 Ref: 386c11702187 Ref: library/xml sax saxexception-objects11702187 Ref: 386d11702187 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getMessage11702327 Ref: 386e11702327 Ref: library/xml sax xml sax SAXException getException11702437 Ref: 386f11702437 Node: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers11702541 Ref: library/xml sax handler doc11702749 Ref: 387011702749 Ref: library/xml sax handler module-xml sax handler11702749 Ref: 12a11702749 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml-sax-handler-base-classes-for-sax-handlers11702749 Ref: 387111702749 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler11703452 Ref: 385811703452 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler11703692 Ref: 387211703692 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver11703877 Ref: 387311703877 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler11704159 Ref: 386611704159 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler11704433 Ref: 85811704433 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespaces11704724 Ref: 387411704724 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_namespace_prefixes11705048 Ref: 387511705048 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_string_interning11705477 Ref: 387611705477 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_validation11705892 Ref: 387711705892 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_ges11706231 Ref: 386511706231 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler feature_external_pes11706544 Ref: 387811706544 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_features11706925 Ref: 387911706925 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_lexical_handler11706993 Ref: 387a11706993 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_declaration_handler11707313 Ref: 387b11707313 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_dom_node11707671 Ref: 387c11707671 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler property_xml_string11708061 Ref: 387d11708061 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler all_properties11708329 Ref: 387e11708329 Ref: xml sax handler — Base classes for SAX handlers-Footnote-111708586 Node: ContentHandler Objects11708662 Ref: library/xml sax handler content-handler-objects11708797 Ref: 387f11708797 Ref: library/xml sax handler contenthandler-objects11708797 Ref: 388011708797 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler setDocumentLocator11709051 Ref: 388111709051 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startDocument11710126 Ref: 388211710126 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endDocument11710404 Ref: 388311710404 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startPrefixMapping11710772 Ref: 388411710772 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endPrefixMapping11711974 Ref: 388511711974 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElement11712317 Ref: 150d11712317 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElement11712958 Ref: 150e11712958 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler startElementNS11713186 Ref: 388711713186 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler endElementNS11714174 Ref: 388911714174 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler characters11714447 Ref: 150f11714447 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler ignorableWhitespace11715474 Ref: 388a11715474 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler processingInstruction11716141 Ref: 388b11716141 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ContentHandler skippedEntity11716601 Ref: 388c11716601 Node: DTDHandler Objects11717101 Ref: library/xml sax handler dtd-handler-objects11717267 Ref: 388d11717267 Ref: library/xml sax handler dtdhandler-objects11717267 Ref: 388e11717267 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler notationDecl11717392 Ref: 388f11717392 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler DTDHandler unparsedEntityDecl11717499 Ref: 389011717499 Node: EntityResolver Objects11717637 Ref: library/xml sax handler entity-resolver-objects11717801 Ref: 389111717801 Ref: library/xml sax handler entityresolver-objects11717801 Ref: 389211717801 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler EntityResolver resolveEntity11717868 Ref: 389311717868 Node: ErrorHandler Objects11718136 Ref: library/xml sax handler errorhandler-objects11718304 Ref: 389411718304 Ref: library/xml sax handler sax-error-handler11718304 Ref: 389511718304 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler error11718959 Ref: 389611718959 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler fatalError11719328 Ref: 389711719328 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler ErrorHandler warning11719514 Ref: 389811719514 Node: LexicalHandler Objects11719859 Ref: library/xml sax handler lexical-handler-objects11719996 Ref: 389911719996 Ref: library/xml sax handler lexicalhandler-objects11719996 Ref: 389a11719996 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler comment11720601 Ref: 389b11720601 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startDTD11720755 Ref: 389c11720755 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endDTD11720913 Ref: 389d11720913 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler startCDATA11720993 Ref: 389e11720993 Ref: library/xml sax handler xml sax handler LexicalHandler endCDATA11721187 Ref: 389f11721187 Node: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities11721276 Ref: library/xml sax utils doc11721495 Ref: 38a011721495 Ref: library/xml sax utils module-xml sax saxutils11721495 Ref: 12b11721495 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml-sax-saxutils-sax-utilities11721495 Ref: 38a111721495 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils escape11721882 Ref: 38a211721882 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils unescape11722533 Ref: 38a311722533 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils quoteattr11723000 Ref: 38a411723000 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLGenerator11723909 Ref: 38a511723909 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils XMLFilterBase11724772 Ref: 38a611724772 Ref: library/xml sax utils xml sax saxutils prepare_input_source11725194 Ref: 38a711725194 Ref: xml sax saxutils — SAX Utilities-Footnote-111725690 Node: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers11725767 Ref: library/xml sax reader doc11725987 Ref: 38a911725987 Ref: library/xml sax reader module-xml sax xmlreader11725987 Ref: 12c11725987 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml-sax-xmlreader-interface-for-xml-parsers11725987 Ref: 38aa11725987 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader11726487 Ref: 385b11726487 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser11726583 Ref: 38ab11726583 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator11727710 Ref: 386811727710 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource11728043 Ref: e9411728043 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesImpl11728811 Ref: 38ac11728811 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNSImpl11729410 Ref: 38ad11729410 Ref: xml sax xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers-Footnote-111730167 Node: XMLReader Objects11730245 Ref: library/xml sax reader id111730380 Ref: 38ae11730380 Ref: library/xml sax reader xmlreader-objects11730380 Ref: 38af11730380 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader parse11730507 Ref: 38a811730507 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getContentHandler11731096 Ref: 38b011731096 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setContentHandler11731193 Ref: 38b111731193 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getDTDHandler11731376 Ref: 38b211731376 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setDTDHandler11731465 Ref: 38b311731465 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getEntityResolver11731632 Ref: 38b411731632 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setEntityResolver11731729 Ref: 38b511731729 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getErrorHandler11732021 Ref: 38b611732021 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setErrorHandler11732114 Ref: 38b711732114 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setLocale11732318 Ref: 38b811732318 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getFeature11732684 Ref: 38b911732684 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setFeature11732966 Ref: 386411732966 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader getProperty11733255 Ref: 38ba11733255 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader XMLReader setProperty11733546 Ref: 38bb11733546 Node: IncrementalParser Objects11733840 Ref: library/xml sax reader incremental-parser-objects11733999 Ref: 38bc11733999 Ref: library/xml sax reader incrementalparser-objects11733999 Ref: 38bd11733999 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser feed11734157 Ref: 38be11734157 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser close11734233 Ref: 38bf11734233 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader IncrementalParser reset11734472 Ref: 38c011734472 Node: Locator Objects11734734 Ref: library/xml sax reader id211734895 Ref: 38c111734895 Ref: library/xml sax reader locator-objects11734895 Ref: 38c211734895 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getColumnNumber11735006 Ref: 38c311735006 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getLineNumber11735109 Ref: 38c411735109 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getPublicId11735208 Ref: 38c511735208 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Locator getSystemId11735302 Ref: 38c611735302 Node: InputSource Objects11735396 Ref: library/xml sax reader input-source-objects11735556 Ref: 38c711735556 Ref: library/xml sax reader inputsource-objects11735556 Ref: 38c811735556 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setPublicId11735617 Ref: 38c911735617 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getPublicId11735724 Ref: 38ca11735724 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setSystemId11735832 Ref: 38cb11735832 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getSystemId11735939 Ref: 38cc11735939 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setEncoding11736047 Ref: 38cd11736047 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getEncoding11736433 Ref: 38ce11736433 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setByteStream11736527 Ref: 38cf11736527 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getByteStream11736960 Ref: 38d011736960 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource setCharacterStream11737168 Ref: 38d111737168 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader InputSource getCharacterStream11737482 Ref: 38d211737482 Node: The Attributes Interface11737583 Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-objects11737754 Ref: 388611737754 Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributes-interface11737754 Ref: 38d311737754 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getLength11738084 Ref: 38d411738084 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getNames11738160 Ref: 38d511738160 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getType11738238 Ref: 38d611738238 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader Attributes getValue11738363 Ref: 38d711738363 Node: The AttributesNS Interface11738447 Ref: library/xml sax reader attributes-ns-objects11738590 Ref: 388811738590 Ref: library/xml sax reader the-attributesns-interface11738590 Ref: 38d811738590 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getValueByQName11738923 Ref: 38d911738923 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getNameByQName11739017 Ref: 38da11739017 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNameByName11739140 Ref: 38db11739140 Ref: library/xml sax reader xml sax xmlreader AttributesNS getQNames11739261 Ref: 38dc11739261 Node: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat11739352 Ref: library/pyexpat doc11739529 Ref: 38dd11739529 Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat11739529 Ref: 12611739529 Ref: library/pyexpat xml-parsers-expat-fast-xml-parsing-using-expat11739529 Ref: 38de11739529 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError11740491 Ref: 126c11740491 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat error11740701 Ref: 38e011740701 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat XMLParserType11740781 Ref: 38e111740781 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ErrorString11740978 Ref: 38e311740978 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ParserCreate11741101 Ref: 38e211741101 Ref: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat-Footnote-111743537 Ref: xml parsers expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat-Footnote-211743846 Node: XMLParser Objects<2>11743879 Ref: library/pyexpat id211744016 Ref: 38e411744016 Ref: library/pyexpat xmlparser-objects11744016 Ref: 38e511744016 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser Parse11744126 Ref: 38e611744126 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ParseFile11744504 Ref: 38e711744504 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetBase11744724 Ref: 38e811744724 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetBase11745140 Ref: 38ec11745140 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetInputContext11745338 Ref: 38ed11745338 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityParserCreate11745621 Ref: 38ee11745621 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetParamEntityParsing11746138 Ref: 38f111746138 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UseForeignDTD11746503 Ref: 38f211746503 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser SetReparseDeferralEnabled11747490 Ref: 27411747490 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser GetReparseDeferralEnabled11749003 Ref: 27311749003 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_size11749242 Ref: 38f511749242 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_text11749504 Ref: 148b11749504 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser buffer_used11750050 Ref: 38f711750050 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ordered_attributes11750323 Ref: 38ef11750323 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser specified_attributes11750815 Ref: 38f011750815 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorByteIndex11751622 Ref: 38f811751622 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorCode11751708 Ref: 38f911751708 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorColumnNumber11751939 Ref: 38fa11751939 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ErrorLineNumber11752031 Ref: 38fb11752031 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentByteIndex11752524 Ref: 38fc11752524 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentColumnNumber11752613 Ref: 38fd11752613 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CurrentLineNumber11752708 Ref: 38fe11752708 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser XmlDeclHandler11753121 Ref: 38ff11753121 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartDoctypeDeclHandler11753734 Ref: 38f311753734 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndDoctypeDeclHandler11754287 Ref: 38f411754287 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ElementDeclHandler11754453 Ref: 390011754453 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser AttlistDeclHandler11754667 Ref: 390111754667 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartElementHandler11755570 Ref: 390211755570 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndElementHandler11755967 Ref: 390311755967 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ProcessingInstructionHandler11756058 Ref: 390411756058 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CharacterDataHandler11756172 Ref: 38f611756172 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser UnparsedEntityDeclHandler11756837 Ref: 38eb11756837 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EntityDeclHandler11757230 Ref: 390711757230 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotationDeclHandler11757975 Ref: 38ea11757975 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartNamespaceDeclHandler11758266 Ref: 390811758266 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndNamespaceDeclHandler11758544 Ref: 390911758544 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser CommentHandler11759067 Ref: 390a11759067 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser StartCdataSectionHandler11759253 Ref: 390511759253 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser EndCdataSectionHandler11759490 Ref: 390611759490 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandler11759583 Ref: 390b11759583 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser DefaultHandlerExpand11759868 Ref: 390c11759868 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser NotStandaloneHandler11760108 Ref: 390d11760108 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat xmlparser ExternalEntityRefHandler11760630 Ref: 38e911760630 Node: ExpatError Exceptions11761686 Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-exceptions11761843 Ref: 390e11761843 Ref: library/pyexpat expaterror-objects11761843 Ref: 38df11761843 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError code11761985 Ref: 390f11761985 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError lineno11762634 Ref: 391211762634 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat ExpatError offset11762761 Ref: 391311762761 Node: Example<10>11762902 Ref: library/pyexpat example11763065 Ref: 391411763065 Ref: library/pyexpat expat-example11763065 Ref: 391511763065 Node: Content Model Descriptions11764163 Ref: library/pyexpat content-model-descriptions11764326 Ref: 391611764326 Ref: library/pyexpat expat-content-models11764326 Ref: 391711764326 Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat model11764326 Ref: 12811764326 Node: Expat error constants11766169 Ref: library/pyexpat expat-error-constants11766312 Ref: 391811766312 Ref: library/pyexpat expat-errors11766312 Ref: 391911766312 Ref: library/pyexpat module-xml parsers expat errors11766312 Ref: 12711766312 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors codes11766902 Ref: 391111766902 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors messages11767041 Ref: 391011767041 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ASYNC_ENTITY11767196 Ref: 391a11767196 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ATTRIBUTE_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_REF11767255 Ref: 391b11767255 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BAD_CHAR_REF11767456 Ref: 391c11767456 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_BINARY_ENTITY_REF11767651 Ref: 391d11767651 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_DUPLICATE_ATTRIBUTE11767825 Ref: 391e11767825 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCORRECT_ENCODING11767950 Ref: 391f11767950 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_TOKEN11768015 Ref: 392011768015 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_JUNK_AFTER_DOC_ELEMENT11768229 Ref: 392111768229 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_MISPLACED_XML_PI11768378 Ref: 392211768378 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_ELEMENTS11768531 Ref: 392311768531 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_MEMORY11768706 Ref: 392411768706 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARAM_ENTITY_REF11768818 Ref: 392511768818 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PARTIAL_CHAR11768952 Ref: 392611768952 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RECURSIVE_ENTITY_REF11769065 Ref: 392711769065 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SYNTAX11769267 Ref: 392811769267 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TAG_MISMATCH11769373 Ref: 392911769373 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_TOKEN11769493 Ref: 392a11769493 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDEFINED_ENTITY11769677 Ref: 392b11769677 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNKNOWN_ENCODING11769803 Ref: 392c11769803 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNCLOSED_CDATA_SECTION11769921 Ref: 392d11769921 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_EXTERNAL_ENTITY_HANDLING11770035 Ref: 392e11770035 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_STANDALONE11770106 Ref: 392f11770106 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNEXPECTED_STATE11770369 Ref: 393011770369 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ENTITY_DECLARED_IN_PE11770432 Ref: 393111770432 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FEATURE_REQUIRES_XML_DTD11770500 Ref: 393211770500 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_CANT_CHANGE_FEATURE_ONCE_PARSING11770806 Ref: 393311770806 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNBOUND_PREFIX11771079 Ref: 393411771079 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_UNDECLARING_PREFIX11771221 Ref: 393511771221 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INCOMPLETE_PE11771382 Ref: 393611771382 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_XML_DECL11771496 Ref: 393711771496 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_TEXT_DECL11771608 Ref: 393811771608 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_PUBLICID11771744 Ref: 393911771744 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPENDED11771866 Ref: 393a11771866 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NOT_SUSPENDED11772090 Ref: 393b11772090 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_ABORTED11772242 Ref: 393c11772242 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_FINISHED11772354 Ref: 393d11772354 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_SUSPEND_PE11772600 Ref: 393e11772600 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XML11772657 Ref: 393f11772657 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_PREFIX_XMLNS11772843 Ref: 394011772843 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_RESERVED_NAMESPACE_URI11773005 Ref: 394111773005 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_INVALID_ARGUMENT11773215 Ref: 394211773215 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_NO_BUFFER11773336 Ref: 394311773336 Ref: library/pyexpat xml parsers expat errors XML_ERROR_AMPLIFICATION_LIMIT_BREACH11773450 Ref: 394411773450 Node: Internet Protocols and Support11773617 Ref: library/internet doc11773782 Ref: 394511773782 Ref: library/internet internet11773782 Ref: 394611773782 Ref: library/internet internet-protocols-and-support11773782 Ref: 394711773782 Node: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller11775725 Ref: library/webbrowser doc11775904 Ref: 394811775904 Ref: library/webbrowser module-webbrowser11775904 Ref: 11511775904 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser-convenient-web-browser-controller11775904 Ref: 394911775904 Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-n11778047 Ref: 394b11778047 Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-window11778047 Ref: 394c11778047 Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-t11778135 Ref: 394d11778135 Ref: library/webbrowser cmdoption-webbrowser-new-tab11778135 Ref: 394e11778135 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser Error11778412 Ref: 394f11778412 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open11778543 Ref: 394a11778543 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new11779444 Ref: 395011779444 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser open_new_tab11779703 Ref: 395111779703 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser get11779974 Ref: 395211779974 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser register11780202 Ref: 395311780202 Ref: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-111786627 Ref: webbrowser — Convenient web-browser controller-Footnote-211786697 Node: Browser Controller Objects11786830 Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controller-objects11786941 Ref: 395411786941 Ref: library/webbrowser browser-controllers11786941 Ref: 395511786941 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller name11787158 Ref: 29911787158 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open11787235 Ref: 395611787235 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new11787499 Ref: 395711787499 Ref: library/webbrowser webbrowser controller open_new_tab11787718 Ref: 395811787718 Node: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation11787918 Ref: library/wsgiref doc11788137 Ref: 395911788137 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref11788137 Ref: 11811788137 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-wsgi-utilities-and-reference-implementation11788137 Ref: 395a11788137 Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-111790157 Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-211790221 Ref: wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation-Footnote-311790263 Node: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities11790300 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref util11790490 Ref: 11d11790490 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-util-wsgi-environment-utilities11790490 Ref: 395b11790490 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util guess_scheme11791034 Ref: 395d11791034 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util request_uri11791686 Ref: 395e11791686 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util application_uri11792012 Ref: 395f11792012 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util shift_path_info11792278 Ref: 396011792278 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util setup_testing_defaults11793946 Ref: 396111793946 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util is_hop_by_hop11795690 Ref: 16c411795690 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref util FileWrapper11795863 Ref: 73111795863 Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-111797106 Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-211797148 Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-311797190 Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-411797232 Ref: wsgiref util – WSGI environment utilities-Footnote-511797274 Node: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools11797333 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref headers11797583 Ref: 11a11797583 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-headers-wsgi-response-header-tools11797583 Ref: 396411797583 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers11797845 Ref: e9111797845 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers get_all11800125 Ref: 396511800125 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref headers Headers add_header11800562 Ref: 396611800562 Ref: wsgiref headers – WSGI response header tools-Footnote-111801699 Node: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server11801741 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref simple_server11801993 Ref: 11b11801993 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-simple-server-a-simple-wsgi-http-server11801993 Ref: 396711801993 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server make_server11802587 Ref: 396811802587 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server demo_app11803427 Ref: 396211803427 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer11803963 Ref: 396a11803963 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer set_app11804717 Ref: 396c11804717 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIServer get_app11804862 Ref: 396d11804862 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler11805205 Ref: 396e11805205 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_environ11805821 Ref: 396f11805821 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler get_stderr11806323 Ref: 397011806323 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref simple_server WSGIRequestHandler handle11806506 Ref: 397111806506 Ref: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-111806777 Ref: wsgiref simple_server – a simple WSGI HTTP server-Footnote-211806819 Node: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker11806861 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref validate11807115 Ref: 11e11807115 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-validate-wsgi-conformance-checker11807115 Ref: 397211807115 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref validate validator11808022 Ref: 397311808022 Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-111810235 Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-211810277 Ref: wsgiref validate — WSGI conformance checker-Footnote-311810336 Node: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes11810378 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref handlers11810634 Ref: 11911810634 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-handlers-server-gateway-base-classes11810634 Ref: 397411810634 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers CGIHandler11811025 Ref: 397511811025 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers IISCGIHandler11811674 Ref: 397711811674 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseCGIHandler11813051 Ref: 397611813051 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers SimpleHandler11813918 Ref: 397811813918 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler11814867 Ref: 19ef11814867 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler run11815226 Ref: 397e11815226 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _write11815565 Ref: 397c11815565 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler _flush11815911 Ref: 397d11815911 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stdin11816120 Ref: 397911816120 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_stderr11816323 Ref: 397a11816323 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler add_cgi_vars11816528 Ref: 397b11816528 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multithread11817080 Ref: 398111817080 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_multiprocess11817371 Ref: 398211817371 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_run_once11817664 Ref: 398311817664 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler os_environ11817907 Ref: 398411817907 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler server_software11818413 Ref: 398511818413 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler get_scheme11819009 Ref: 398711819009 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler setup_environ11819370 Ref: 398811819370 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler log_exception11820030 Ref: 398a11820030 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler traceback_limit11820530 Ref: 398b11820530 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_output11820752 Ref: 398c11820752 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_status11821934 Ref: 398d11821934 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_headers11822139 Ref: 398e11822139 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler error_body11822431 Ref: 398f11822431 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler wsgi_file_wrapper11822777 Ref: 398911822777 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler sendfile11823050 Ref: 399011823050 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler origin_server11823626 Ref: 398611823626 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers BaseHandler http_version11824153 Ref: 399111824153 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref handlers read_environ11824375 Ref: 11ab11824375 Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-111825291 Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-211825333 Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-311825375 Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-411825417 Ref: wsgiref handlers – server/gateway base classes-Footnote-511825459 Node: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking11825501 Ref: library/wsgiref module-wsgiref types11825724 Ref: 11c11825724 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref-types-wsgi-types-for-static-type-checking11825724 Ref: 399211825724 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types StartResponse11825971 Ref: 396911825971 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIEnvironment11826109 Ref: 395c11826109 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types WSGIApplication11826211 Ref: 399311826211 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types InputStream11826311 Ref: 397f11826311 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types ErrorStream11826420 Ref: 398011826420 Ref: library/wsgiref wsgiref types FileWrapper11826529 Ref: 396311826529 Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-111826769 Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-211826811 Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-311826881 Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-411826923 Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-511826989 Ref: wsgiref types – WSGI types for static type checking-Footnote-611827055 Node: Examples<25>11827139 Ref: library/wsgiref examples11827305 Ref: 399411827305 Node: urllib — URL handling modules11830137 Ref: library/urllib doc11830362 Ref: 399511830362 Ref: library/urllib module-urllib11830362 Ref: 10811830362 Ref: library/urllib urllib-url-handling-modules11830362 Ref: 399611830362 Ref: urllib — URL handling modules-Footnote-111830943 Node: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs11831007 Ref: library/urllib request doc11831228 Ref: 399711831228 Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib request11831228 Ref: 10b11831228 Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-extensible-library-for-opening-urls11831228 Ref: 399811831228 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlopen11832333 Ref: 29511832333 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request install_opener11835944 Ref: 399f11835944 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request build_opener11836397 Ref: 39a011836397 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request pathname2url11837516 Ref: 159511837516 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request url2pathname11838019 Ref: 159611838019 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request getproxies11838529 Ref: 399911838529 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request11839672 Ref: fd311839672 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector11844174 Ref: 399d11844174 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler11844393 Ref: 39a111844393 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDefaultErrorHandler11844553 Ref: 39a311844553 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler11844745 Ref: 39a411844745 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor11844830 Ref: 39a911844830 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyHandler11844932 Ref: 19cf11844932 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr11846021 Ref: 39aa11846021 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithDefaultRealm11846138 Ref: 39ab11846138 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth11846379 Ref: e8d11846379 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler11846767 Ref: 18bb11846767 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler11848111 Ref: 39ae11848111 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler11848575 Ref: 39af11848575 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler11848915 Ref: 198111848915 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler11849325 Ref: 39b011849325 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler11850187 Ref: 39b111850187 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler11850528 Ref: 39a211850528 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler11850613 Ref: 121611850613 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler11850943 Ref: 39a611850943 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler11851006 Ref: fd211851006 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler11851095 Ref: 39a511851095 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler11851154 Ref: 172811851154 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler11851283 Ref: 399e11851283 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor11851373 Ref: 39a711851373 Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-111852254 Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-211852328 Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-311852379 Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-411852438 Ref: urllib request — Extensible library for opening URLs-Footnote-511852497 Node: Request Objects11852556 Ref: library/urllib request id111852693 Ref: 39b211852693 Ref: library/urllib request request-objects11852693 Ref: 39b311852693 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request full_url11852964 Ref: fd511852964 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request type11853259 Ref: 39b411853259 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request host11853310 Ref: 39b511853310 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request origin_req_host11853437 Ref: 39b611853437 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request selector11853532 Ref: 39b711853532 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request data11853696 Ref: fd611853696 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request unverifiable11853959 Ref: 39b811853959 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request method11854089 Ref: fd411854089 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_method11854799 Ref: 115d11854799 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_header11855221 Ref: 39a811855221 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request add_unredirected_header11855901 Ref: 39b911855901 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request has_header11856027 Ref: 39ba11856027 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request remove_header11856168 Ref: fd811856168 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_full_url11856343 Ref: 39bb11856343 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request set_proxy11856500 Ref: 39bc11856500 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request get_header11856753 Ref: 39bd11856753 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request Request header_items11856919 Ref: 39be11856919 Ref: Request Objects-Footnote-111857278 Node: OpenerDirector Objects11857337 Ref: library/urllib request opener-director-objects11857502 Ref: 39bf11857502 Ref: library/urllib request openerdirector-objects11857502 Ref: 39c011857502 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector add_handler11857634 Ref: 39c111857634 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector open11859192 Ref: fd711859192 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request OpenerDirector error11859875 Ref: 39c611859875 Node: BaseHandler Objects11861669 Ref: library/urllib request base-handler-objects11861846 Ref: 39c911861846 Ref: library/urllib request basehandler-objects11861846 Ref: 39ca11861846 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler add_parent11862086 Ref: 39cb11862086 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler close11862165 Ref: 39cc11862165 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler parent11862541 Ref: 39cd11862541 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler default_open11862695 Ref: 39c711862695 Ref: library/urllib request protocol-open11863389 Ref: 39c211863389 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler unknown_open11863760 Ref: 39c811863760 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request BaseHandler http_error_default11864172 Ref: 39ce11864172 Ref: library/urllib request http-error-nnn11865057 Ref: 39c311865057 Ref: library/urllib request protocol-request11865561 Ref: 39c411865561 Ref: library/urllib request protocol-response11865975 Ref: 39c511865975 Node: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects11866565 Ref: library/urllib request http-redirect-handler11866747 Ref: 39cf11866747 Ref: library/urllib request httpredirecthandler-objects11866747 Ref: 39d011866747 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler redirect_request11867250 Ref: 39d111867250 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30111868334 Ref: 39d211868334 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30211868605 Ref: 39d311868605 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30311868784 Ref: 39d411868784 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30711868967 Ref: 39d511868967 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPRedirectHandler http_error_30811869241 Ref: 39d611869241 Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-111869580 Ref: HTTPRedirectHandler Objects-Footnote-211869639 Node: HTTPCookieProcessor Objects11869698 Ref: library/urllib request http-cookie-processor11869881 Ref: 39d711869881 Ref: library/urllib request httpcookieprocessor-objects11869881 Ref: 39d811869881 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPCookieProcessor cookiejar11870020 Ref: 39d911870020 Node: ProxyHandler Objects11870148 Ref: library/urllib request proxy-handler11870327 Ref: 39db11870327 Ref: library/urllib request proxyhandler-objects11870327 Ref: 39dc11870327 Node: HTTPPasswordMgr Objects11870805 Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr11870993 Ref: 39ac11870993 Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgr-objects11870993 Ref: 39dd11870993 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr add_password11871179 Ref: 39de11871179 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgr find_user_password11871526 Ref: 183f11871526 Node: HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth Objects11871900 Ref: library/urllib request http-password-mgr-with-prior-auth11872100 Ref: 39ad11872100 Ref: library/urllib request httppasswordmgrwithpriorauth-objects11872100 Ref: 39df11872100 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth add_password11872354 Ref: 39e011872354 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth find_user_password11872768 Ref: 39e111872768 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth update_authenticated11872927 Ref: 39e211872927 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPPasswordMgrWithPriorAuth is_authenticated11873123 Ref: 184011873123 Node: AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects11873299 Ref: library/urllib request abstract-basic-auth-handler11873504 Ref: 39e311873504 Ref: library/urllib request abstractbasicauthhandler-objects11873504 Ref: 39e411873504 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractBasicAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed11873589 Ref: 39e511873589 Node: HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects11874409 Ref: library/urllib request http-basic-auth-handler11874607 Ref: 39e611874607 Ref: library/urllib request httpbasicauthhandler-objects11874607 Ref: 39e711874607 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPBasicAuthHandler http_error_40111874686 Ref: 39e811874686 Node: ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects11874843 Ref: library/urllib request proxy-basic-auth-handler11875042 Ref: 39e911875042 Ref: library/urllib request proxybasicauthhandler-objects11875042 Ref: 39ea11875042 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyBasicAuthHandler http_error_40711875123 Ref: 39eb11875123 Node: AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects11875281 Ref: library/urllib request abstract-digest-auth-handler11875481 Ref: 39ec11875481 Ref: library/urllib request abstractdigestauthhandler-objects11875481 Ref: 39ed11875481 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request AbstractDigestAuthHandler http_error_auth_reqed11875570 Ref: 39ee11875570 Node: HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects11875947 Ref: library/urllib request http-digest-auth-handler11876148 Ref: 39ef11876148 Ref: library/urllib request httpdigestauthhandler-objects11876148 Ref: 39f011876148 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPDigestAuthHandler http_error_40111876229 Ref: 39f111876229 Node: ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects11876387 Ref: library/urllib request proxy-digest-auth-handler11876574 Ref: 39f211876574 Ref: library/urllib request proxydigestauthhandler-objects11876574 Ref: 39f311876574 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request ProxyDigestAuthHandler http_error_40711876657 Ref: 39f411876657 Node: HTTPHandler Objects11876816 Ref: library/urllib request http-handler-objects11876994 Ref: 39f511876994 Ref: library/urllib request httphandler-objects11876994 Ref: 39f611876994 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPHandler http_open11877055 Ref: 39f711877055 Node: HTTPSHandler Objects11877191 Ref: library/urllib request https-handler-objects11877358 Ref: 39f811877358 Ref: library/urllib request httpshandler-objects11877358 Ref: 39f911877358 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPSHandler https_open11877421 Ref: 39fa11877421 Node: FileHandler Objects11877560 Ref: library/urllib request file-handler-objects11877727 Ref: 39fb11877727 Ref: library/urllib request filehandler-objects11877727 Ref: 39fc11877727 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FileHandler file_open11877788 Ref: 39fd11877788 Node: DataHandler Objects11878089 Ref: library/urllib request data-handler-objects11878254 Ref: 39fe11878254 Ref: library/urllib request datahandler-objects11878254 Ref: 39ff11878254 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request DataHandler data_open11878315 Ref: 3a0011878315 Ref: DataHandler Objects-Footnote-111878873 Node: FTPHandler Objects11878932 Ref: library/urllib request ftp-handler-objects11879101 Ref: 3a0111879101 Ref: library/urllib request ftphandler-objects11879101 Ref: 3a0211879101 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FTPHandler ftp_open11879160 Ref: 3a0311879160 Node: CacheFTPHandler Objects11879308 Ref: library/urllib request cacheftp-handler-objects11879480 Ref: 3a0411879480 Ref: library/urllib request cacheftphandler-objects11879480 Ref: 3a0511879480 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setTimeout11879662 Ref: 3a0611879662 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request CacheFTPHandler setMaxConns11879755 Ref: 3a0711879755 Node: UnknownHandler Objects11879855 Ref: library/urllib request unknown-handler-objects11880035 Ref: 3a0811880035 Ref: library/urllib request unknownhandler-objects11880035 Ref: 3a0911880035 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request UnknownHandler unknown_open11880102 Ref: 3a0a11880102 Node: HTTPErrorProcessor Objects11880193 Ref: library/urllib request http-error-processor-objects11880362 Ref: 3a0b11880362 Ref: library/urllib request httperrorprocessor-objects11880362 Ref: 3a0c11880362 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor http_response11880437 Ref: 3a0d11880437 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request HTTPErrorProcessor https_response11880907 Ref: 3a0e11880907 Node: Examples<26>11881070 Ref: library/urllib request examples11881233 Ref: 3a0f11881233 Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-examples11881233 Ref: 3a1011881233 Ref: library/urllib request urllib-examples11887119 Ref: 3a1211887119 Node: Legacy interface11888611 Ref: library/urllib request legacy-interface11888775 Ref: 3a1311888775 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlretrieve11889006 Ref: 3a1411889006 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request urlcleanup11891675 Ref: 19d611891675 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener11891835 Ref: 30811891835 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open11893334 Ref: 3a1711893334 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener open_unknown11893837 Ref: 3a1811893837 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener retrieve11893949 Ref: 19ed11893949 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request URLopener version11895498 Ref: 3a1611895498 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener11895819 Ref: 30911895819 Ref: library/urllib request urllib request FancyURLopener prompt_user_passwd11897558 Ref: 3a1911897558 Ref: Legacy interface-Footnote-111898098 Node: urllib request Restrictions11898157 Ref: library/urllib request urllib-request-restrictions11898300 Ref: 3a1a11898300 Node: urllib response — Response classes used by urllib11900867 Ref: library/urllib request module-urllib response11901100 Ref: 10c11901100 Ref: library/urllib request urllib-response-response-classes-used-by-urllib11901100 Ref: 3a1b11901100 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl11901564 Ref: 399a11901564 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl url11901603 Ref: 3a1c11901603 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl headers11901735 Ref: 3a1d11901735 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl status11901874 Ref: 3a1e11901874 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl geturl11901978 Ref: 3a1f11901978 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl info11902097 Ref: 3a2011902097 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl code11902218 Ref: 3a2111902218 Ref: library/urllib request urllib response addinfourl getcode11902338 Ref: 3a2211902338 Node: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components11902461 Ref: library/urllib parse doc11902699 Ref: 3a2311902699 Ref: library/urllib parse module-urllib parse11902699 Ref: 10a11902699 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib-parse-parse-urls-into-components11902699 Ref: 3a2411902699 Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-111904708 Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-211904780 Ref: urllib parse — Parse URLs into components-Footnote-311904839 Node: URL Parsing11904898 Ref: library/urllib parse url-parsing11905018 Ref: 3a2511905018 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlparse11905191 Ref: 30711905191 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse parse_qs11913110 Ref: 27c11913110 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse parse_qsl11915291 Ref: 27b11915291 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlunparse11917322 Ref: 15d811917322 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlsplit11917724 Ref: d3f11917724 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlunsplit11922332 Ref: 15d711922332 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urljoin11922776 Ref: e8f11922776 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urldefrag11924513 Ref: 123b11924513 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unwrap11925858 Ref: 3a2811925858 Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-111926206 Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-211926265 Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-311926324 Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-411926383 Ref: URL Parsing-Footnote-511926445 Node: URL parsing security11926504 Ref: library/urllib parse id111926660 Ref: 3a2911926660 Ref: library/urllib parse url-parsing-security11926660 Ref: 3a2711926660 Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-111928118 Ref: URL parsing security-Footnote-211928180 Node: Parsing ASCII Encoded Bytes11928239 Ref: library/urllib parse id211928408 Ref: 3a2a11928408 Ref: library/urllib parse parsing-ascii-encoded-bytes11928408 Ref: 123d11928408 Node: Structured Parse Results11930534 Ref: library/urllib parse structured-parse-results11930694 Ref: 3a2b11930694 Ref: library/urllib parse urlparse-result-object11930694 Ref: 3a2611930694 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urllib parse SplitResult geturl11931111 Ref: 3a2c11931111 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse DefragResult11932235 Ref: 3a2d11932235 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse ParseResult11932496 Ref: 3a2f11932496 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse SplitResult11932767 Ref: 3a3111932767 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse DefragResultBytes11933172 Ref: 3a2e11933172 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse ParseResultBytes11933435 Ref: 3a3011933435 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse SplitResultBytes11933736 Ref: 3a3211933736 Node: URL Quoting11934029 Ref: library/urllib parse url-quoting11934153 Ref: 3a3311934153 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse quote11934556 Ref: ba311934556 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse quote_plus11935931 Ref: 123c11935931 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse quote_from_bytes11936424 Ref: 17c511936424 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unquote11936717 Ref: 178511936717 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unquote_plus11937498 Ref: 3a3411937498 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse unquote_to_bytes11937838 Ref: 178611937838 Ref: library/urllib parse urllib parse urlencode11938271 Ref: e8e11938271 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-111942134 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-211942193 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-311942252 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-411942289 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-511942348 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-611942407 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-711942466 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-811942525 Ref: URL Quoting-Footnote-911942584 Node: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request11942643 Ref: library/urllib error doc11942874 Ref: 3a3511942874 Ref: library/urllib error module-urllib error11942874 Ref: 10911942874 Ref: library/urllib error urllib-error-exception-classes-raised-by-urllib-request11942874 Ref: 3a3611942874 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error URLError11943373 Ref: 399c11943373 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error URLError reason11943551 Ref: 3a3711943551 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError11943838 Ref: fd911943838 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError url11944222 Ref: 3a3811944222 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError code11944319 Ref: 3a3911944319 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError reason11944579 Ref: 3a3b11944579 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError headers11944721 Ref: fda11944721 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error HTTPError fp11944921 Ref: 3a3c11944921 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error ContentTooShortError11945019 Ref: 3a1511945019 Ref: library/urllib error urllib error ContentTooShortError content11945290 Ref: 3a3d11945290 Ref: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-111945414 Ref: urllib error — Exception classes raised by urllib request-Footnote-211945486 Node: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt11945545 Ref: library/urllib robotparser doc11945754 Ref: 3a3e11945754 Ref: library/urllib robotparser module-urllib robotparser11945754 Ref: 10d11945754 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib-robotparser-parser-for-robots-txt11945754 Ref: 3a3f11945754 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser11946295 Ref: cfd11946295 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser set_url11946468 Ref: 3a4011946468 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser read11946562 Ref: 3a4111946562 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser parse11946658 Ref: 1aa111946658 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser can_fetch11946728 Ref: 3a4211946728 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser mtime11946942 Ref: 3a4311946942 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser modified11947170 Ref: 3a4411947170 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser crawl_delay11947299 Ref: 3a4511947299 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser request_rate11947703 Ref: 3a4611947703 Ref: library/urllib robotparser urllib robotparser RobotFileParser site_maps11948156 Ref: 1a4011948156 Ref: urllib robotparser — Parser for robots txt-Footnote-111949078 Node: http — HTTP modules11949157 Ref: library/http doc11949343 Ref: 3a4711949343 Ref: library/http http-http-modules11949343 Ref: 3a4811949343 Ref: library/http module-http11949343 Ref: 6e11949343 Ref: library/http http HTTPStatus11950121 Ref: 8ff11950121 Ref: http — HTTP modules-Footnote-111950884 Node: HTTP status codes11950957 Ref: library/http http-status-codes11951061 Ref: 3a4911951061 Ref: library/http id111951061 Ref: 3a4a11951061 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-111965263 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-211965347 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-311965406 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-411965465 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-511965524 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-611965583 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-711965642 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-811965701 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-911965760 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1011965819 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1111965879 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1211965939 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1311965999 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1411966059 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1511966119 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1611966179 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1711966239 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1811966299 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-1911966359 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2011966419 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2111966479 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2211966539 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2311966599 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2411966659 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2511966719 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2611966779 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2711966839 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2811966899 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-2911966959 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3011967019 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3111967079 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3211967139 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3311967199 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3411967259 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3511967319 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3611967379 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3711967439 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3811967499 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-3911967559 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4011967619 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4111967679 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4211967739 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4311967799 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4411967859 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4511967919 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4611967979 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4711968039 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4811968099 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-4911968159 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5011968219 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5111968279 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5211968339 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5311968399 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5411968459 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5511968519 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5611968579 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5711968639 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5811968699 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-5911968759 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-6011968819 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-6111968879 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-6211968939 Ref: HTTP status codes-Footnote-6311968999 Node: HTTP status category11969059 Ref: library/http http-status-category11969184 Ref: 3a4b11969184 Ref: library/http http HTTPMethod11970789 Ref: 3a4c11970789 Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-111971617 Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-211971676 Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-311971735 Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-411971794 Ref: HTTP status category-Footnote-511971853 Node: HTTP methods11971912 Ref: library/http http-methods11972011 Ref: 3a4d11972011 Ref: library/http id211972011 Ref: 3a4e11972011 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-111974388 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-211974461 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-311974520 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-411974579 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-511974638 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-611974697 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-711974756 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-811974815 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-911974874 Ref: HTTP methods-Footnote-1011974933 Node: http client — HTTP protocol client11974993 Ref: library/http client doc11975165 Ref: 3a4f11975165 Ref: library/http client http-client-http-protocol-client11975165 Ref: 3a5011975165 Ref: library/http client module-http client11975165 Ref: 6f11975165 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection11976019 Ref: b4011976019 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPSConnection11977599 Ref: b4111977599 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse11979279 Ref: 10c411979279 Ref: library/http client http client parse_headers11979661 Ref: 1a4811979661 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPException11980614 Ref: 3a5411980614 Ref: library/http client http client NotConnected11980765 Ref: 3a5511980765 Ref: library/http client http client InvalidURL11980853 Ref: 3a5611980853 Ref: library/http client http client UnknownProtocol11981006 Ref: 3a5711981006 Ref: library/http client http client UnknownTransferEncoding11981097 Ref: 3a5811981097 Ref: library/http client http client UnimplementedFileMode11981196 Ref: 3a5911981196 Ref: library/http client http client IncompleteRead11981293 Ref: 3a5a11981293 Ref: library/http client http client ImproperConnectionState11981383 Ref: 3a5b11981383 Ref: library/http client http client CannotSendRequest11981482 Ref: 3a5c11981482 Ref: library/http client http client CannotSendHeader11981585 Ref: 3a5d11981585 Ref: library/http client http client ResponseNotReady11981687 Ref: 3a5e11981687 Ref: library/http client http client BadStatusLine11981789 Ref: 3a5f11981789 Ref: library/http client http client LineTooLong11981964 Ref: 3a6011981964 Ref: library/http client http client RemoteDisconnected11982142 Ref: e0811982142 Ref: library/http client http client HTTP_PORT11982624 Ref: 3a6111982624 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPS_PORT11982721 Ref: 3a6211982721 Ref: library/http client http client responses11982821 Ref: 3a6311982821 Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-111983282 Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-211983353 Ref: http client — HTTP protocol client-Footnote-311983404 Node: HTTPConnection Objects11983463 Ref: library/http client httpconnection-objects11983587 Ref: 3a6411983587 Ref: library/http client id111983587 Ref: 3a6511983587 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection request11983720 Ref: ca911983720 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection getresponse11987283 Ref: e0711987283 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection set_debuglevel11987776 Ref: 3a6611987776 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection set_tunnel11988180 Ref: 121b11988180 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection get_proxy_response_headers11989858 Ref: 170211989858 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection connect11990139 Ref: 3a6711990139 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection close11990495 Ref: 3a6811990495 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection blocksize11990574 Ref: 3a6911990574 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection putrequest11990866 Ref: 3a6a11990866 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection putheader11991415 Ref: 3a6b11991415 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection endheaders11991750 Ref: caa11991750 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPConnection send11993121 Ref: 3a6c11993121 Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-111993490 Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-211993563 Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-311993636 Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-411993709 Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-511993777 Ref: HTTPConnection Objects-Footnote-611993835 Node: HTTPResponse Objects11993894 Ref: library/http client httpresponse-objects11994039 Ref: 3a6d11994039 Ref: library/http client id211994039 Ref: 3a6e11994039 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse read11994454 Ref: 158311994454 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse readinto11994567 Ref: 10c511994567 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheader11994756 Ref: 3a6f11994756 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getheaders11995143 Ref: 3a7011995143 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse fileno11995230 Ref: 3a7111995230 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse msg11995322 Ref: 3a5211995322 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse version11995541 Ref: 3a7211995541 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse url11995662 Ref: 3a7311995662 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse headers11995792 Ref: 3a7411995792 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse status11995931 Ref: 3a7511995931 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse reason11996005 Ref: 399b11996005 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse debuglevel11996081 Ref: 3a7611996081 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse closed11996276 Ref: 3a7711996276 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse geturl11996357 Ref: 3a7811996357 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse info11996474 Ref: 3a7911996474 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPResponse getcode11996593 Ref: 3a7a11996593 Node: Examples<27>11996714 Ref: library/http client examples11996856 Ref: 3a7b11996856 Node: HTTPMessage Objects11999743 Ref: library/http client httpmessage-objects11999856 Ref: 3a7c11999856 Ref: library/http client id311999856 Ref: 3a7d11999856 Ref: library/http client http client HTTPMessage11999917 Ref: 3a5111999917 Node: ftplib — FTP protocol client12000138 Ref: library/ftplib doc12000320 Ref: 3a7e12000320 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-ftp-protocol-client12000320 Ref: 3a7f12000320 Ref: library/ftplib module-ftplib12000320 Ref: 5e12000320 Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-112002168 Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-212002234 Ref: ftplib — FTP protocol client-Footnote-312002292 Node: Reference<6>12002351 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib-reference12002430 Ref: 3a8012002430 Ref: library/ftplib reference12002430 Ref: 3a8112002430 Node: FTP objects12002538 Ref: library/ftplib ftp-objects12002622 Ref: 3a8212002622 Ref: library/ftplib id112002622 Ref: 3a8312002622 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP12002667 Ref: 8f912002667 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_debuglevel12005552 Ref: 3a8512005552 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP connect12006109 Ref: 3a8412006109 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP getwelcome12007500 Ref: 3a8612007500 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP login12007756 Ref: 3a8712007756 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP abort12008795 Ref: 3a8812008795 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP sendcmd12008944 Ref: 3a8912008944 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP voidcmd12009190 Ref: 3a8a12009190 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrbinary12009596 Ref: 3a8c12009596 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP retrlines12010655 Ref: 3a8e12010655 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP set_pasv12011392 Ref: 3a8f12011392 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storbinary12011554 Ref: 12fd12011554 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP storlines12012727 Ref: 3a9012012727 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP transfercmd12013225 Ref: 3a8d12013225 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP ntransfercmd12014469 Ref: 3a9112014469 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mlsd12014845 Ref: 10b812014845 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP nlst12015600 Ref: 10b912015600 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP dir12016042 Ref: 10ba12016042 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rename12016739 Ref: 3a9212016739 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP delete12016844 Ref: 3a9312016844 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP cwd12017128 Ref: 3a9512017128 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP mkd12017213 Ref: 3a9612017213 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP pwd12017295 Ref: 3a9712017295 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP rmd12017391 Ref: 3a9812017391 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP size12017486 Ref: 3a9912017486 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP quit12017837 Ref: 3a9a12017837 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP close12018277 Ref: 3a9b12018277 Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-112018778 Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-212018836 Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-312018895 Ref: FTP objects-Footnote-412018953 Node: FTP_TLS objects12019012 Ref: library/ftplib ftp-tls-objects12019121 Ref: 3a9c12019121 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS12019174 Ref: 8fa12019174 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ssl_version12022843 Ref: 3a9e12022843 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS auth12022968 Ref: 3a9f12022968 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS ccc12023358 Ref: 10b712023358 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_p12023617 Ref: 3a9d12023617 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib FTP_TLS prot_c12023687 Ref: 3aa012023687 Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-112023797 Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-212023856 Ref: FTP_TLS objects-Footnote-312023914 Node: Module variables12023973 Ref: library/ftplib module-variables12024062 Ref: 3aa112024062 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_reply12024117 Ref: 3a8b12024117 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_temp12024234 Ref: 3aa212024234 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_perm12024397 Ref: 3a9412024397 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib error_proto12024560 Ref: 3aa312024560 Ref: library/ftplib ftplib all_errors12024791 Ref: 3aa412024791 Node: poplib — POP3 protocol client12025372 Ref: library/poplib doc12025551 Ref: 3aa512025551 Ref: library/poplib module-poplib12025551 Ref: ac12025551 Ref: library/poplib poplib-pop3-protocol-client12025551 Ref: 3aa612025551 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP312026826 Ref: 92312026826 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3_SSL12027743 Ref: 92412027743 Ref: library/poplib poplib error_proto12029290 Ref: 118f12029290 Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-112029943 Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-212030009 Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-312030068 Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-412030127 Ref: poplib — POP3 protocol client-Footnote-512030186 Node: POP3 Objects12030248 Ref: library/poplib id112030349 Ref: 3aa712030349 Ref: library/poplib pop3-objects12030349 Ref: 3aa812030349 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 set_debuglevel12030580 Ref: 3aa912030580 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 getwelcome12031045 Ref: 3aaa12031045 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 capa12031136 Ref: f7712031136 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 user12031327 Ref: 3aab12031327 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 pass_12031445 Ref: 3aac12031445 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 apop12031640 Ref: 3aad12031640 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rpop12031758 Ref: 3aae12031758 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stat12031877 Ref: 3aaf12031877 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 list12032009 Ref: 3ab012032009 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 retr12032201 Ref: 3ab112032201 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 dele12032364 Ref: 3ab212032364 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 rset12032642 Ref: 3ab312032642 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 noop12032717 Ref: 3ab412032717 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 quit12032793 Ref: 118e12032793 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 top12032883 Ref: 3ab512032883 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 uidl12033420 Ref: 3ab612033420 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 utf812033704 Ref: e4912033704 Ref: library/poplib poplib POP3 stls12033914 Ref: f7812033914 Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-112034715 Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-212034774 Ref: POP3 Objects-Footnote-312034833 Node: POP3 Example12034892 Ref: library/poplib id212034993 Ref: 3ab712034993 Ref: library/poplib pop3-example12034993 Ref: 3ab812034993 Node: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client12035505 Ref: library/imaplib doc12035686 Ref: 3ab912035686 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib-imap4-protocol-client12035686 Ref: 3aba12035686 Ref: library/imaplib module-imaplib12035686 Ref: 7412035686 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP412036513 Ref: 90212036513 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 error12037723 Ref: 3abb12037723 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 abort12037866 Ref: 3abc12037866 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readonly12038128 Ref: 3abd12038128 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_SSL12038485 Ref: 90312038485 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4_stream12039897 Ref: 90512039897 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Internaldate2tuple12040167 Ref: 3abe12040167 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Int2AP12040417 Ref: 3abf12040417 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib ParseFlags12040565 Ref: 3ac012040565 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib Time2Internaldate12040686 Ref: 3ac112040686 Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-112042029 Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-212042096 Ref: imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client-Footnote-312042155 Node: IMAP4 Objects12042214 Ref: library/imaplib id112042319 Ref: 3ac212042319 Ref: library/imaplib imap4-objects12042319 Ref: 3ac312042319 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 append12043821 Ref: 3ac412043821 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 authenticate12043925 Ref: 3ac512043925 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 check12044761 Ref: 3ac612044761 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 close12044825 Ref: 90712044825 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 copy12045010 Ref: 3ac712045010 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 create12045122 Ref: 3ac812045122 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 delete12045200 Ref: 3ac912045200 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 deleteacl12045278 Ref: 3aca12045278 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 enable12045388 Ref: e0c12045388 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 expunge12045707 Ref: 3acb12045707 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 fetch12045955 Ref: 3acc12045955 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getacl12046235 Ref: 3acd12046235 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getannotation12046389 Ref: 3ace12046389 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquota12046590 Ref: 3acf12046590 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 getquotaroot12046764 Ref: 3ad012046764 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 list12046952 Ref: 3ad112046952 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login12047221 Ref: 3ad212047221 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 login_cram_md512047354 Ref: 3ad312047354 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 logout12047614 Ref: 3ad412047614 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 lsub12047811 Ref: 3ad512047811 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 myrights12048101 Ref: 3ad612048101 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 namespace12048220 Ref: 3ad712048220 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 noop12048309 Ref: 3ad812048309 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 open12048369 Ref: 90412048369 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 partial12049315 Ref: 3add12049315 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 proxyauth12049492 Ref: 3ade12049492 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 read12049644 Ref: 3ad912049644 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 readline12049760 Ref: 3ada12049760 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 recent12049872 Ref: 3adf12049872 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 rename12050027 Ref: 3ae012050027 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 response12050135 Ref: 3ae112050135 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 search12050293 Ref: 3ae212050293 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 select12050968 Ref: 3ae312050968 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 send12051263 Ref: 3adb12051263 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setacl12051477 Ref: 3ae412051477 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setannotation12051640 Ref: 3ae512051640 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 setquota12051829 Ref: 3ae612051829 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 shutdown12052003 Ref: 3adc12052003 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 socket12052190 Ref: 3ae712052190 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 sort12052276 Ref: 3ae812052276 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 starttls12053220 Ref: 121812053220 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 status12053749 Ref: 3ae912053749 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 store12053845 Ref: 3aea12053845 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 subscribe12055046 Ref: 3aeb12055046 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 thread12055117 Ref: 3aec12055117 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 uid12056246 Ref: 3aed12056246 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unsubscribe12056564 Ref: 3aee12056564 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 unselect12056641 Ref: 90612056641 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 xatom12057040 Ref: 3aef12057040 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 PROTOCOL_VERSION12057244 Ref: 3af012057244 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 debug12057379 Ref: 3af112057379 Ref: library/imaplib imaplib IMAP4 utf8_enabled12057582 Ref: e0d12057582 Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-112057862 Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-212057921 Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-312057980 Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-412058039 Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-512058098 Ref: IMAP4 Objects-Footnote-612058157 Node: IMAP4 Example12058216 Ref: library/imaplib id212058321 Ref: 3af212058321 Ref: library/imaplib imap4-example12058321 Ref: 3af312058321 Node: smtplib — SMTP protocol client12058827 Ref: library/smtplib doc12059020 Ref: 3af412059020 Ref: library/smtplib module-smtplib12059020 Ref: ca12059020 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib-smtp-protocol-client12059020 Ref: 3af512059020 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP12059672 Ref: 92d12059672 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP_SSL12062274 Ref: 92e12062274 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib LMTP12063751 Ref: 92f12063751 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPException12064672 Ref: f9b12064672 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPServerDisconnected12064928 Ref: 3af812064928 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPResponseException12065156 Ref: 3af912065156 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPSenderRefused12065521 Ref: 3afa12065521 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPRecipientsRefused12065762 Ref: 3afb12065762 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPDataError12066035 Ref: 3afc12066035 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPConnectError12066131 Ref: 3af612066131 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPHeloError12066252 Ref: 3afd12066252 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPNotSupportedError12066339 Ref: 19c812066339 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTPAuthenticationError12066483 Ref: 3afe12066483 Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-112067206 Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-212067273 Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-312067331 Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-412067390 Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-512067449 Ref: smtplib — SMTP protocol client-Footnote-612067507 Node: SMTP Objects12067566 Ref: library/smtplib id112067668 Ref: 3aff12067668 Ref: library/smtplib smtp-objects12067668 Ref: 3b0012067668 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP set_debuglevel12067772 Ref: e5312067772 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP docmd12068123 Ref: 3b0112068123 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP connect12068773 Ref: 19c912068773 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP helo12069459 Ref: 3b0212069459 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo12069919 Ref: 3b0312069919 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP ehlo_or_helo_if_needed12070824 Ref: 3b0512070824 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP has_extn12071166 Ref: 3b0412071166 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP verify12071361 Ref: 3b0612071361 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP login12071780 Ref: 3b0712071780 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP auth12073365 Ref: e5212073365 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP starttls12075610 Ref: 112c12075610 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP sendmail12077112 Ref: e5412077112 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP send_message12080593 Ref: e5512080593 Ref: library/smtplib smtplib SMTP quit12082672 Ref: 3af712082672 Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-112083135 Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-212083193 Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-312083252 Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-412083311 Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-512083369 Ref: SMTP Objects-Footnote-612083427 Node: SMTP Example12083486 Ref: library/smtplib id212083588 Ref: 3b0812083588 Ref: library/smtplib smtp-example12083588 Ref: 3b0912083588 Ref: SMTP Example-Footnote-112085016 Node: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 412212085074 Ref: library/uuid doc12085282 Ref: 3b0a12085282 Ref: library/uuid module-uuid12085282 Ref: 11012085282 Ref: library/uuid uuid-uuid-objects-according-to-rfc-412212085282 Ref: 3b0b12085282 Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID12086404 Ref: 3b0c12086404 Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID safe12086458 Ref: 3b0d12086458 Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unsafe12086575 Ref: 3b0e12086575 Ref: library/uuid uuid SafeUUID unknown12086672 Ref: 3b0f12086672 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID12086813 Ref: a6012086813 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes12088774 Ref: 3b1112088774 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID bytes_le12088903 Ref: 3b1212088903 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID fields12089055 Ref: 3b1312089055 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_low12089426 Ref: 3b1412089426 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_mid12089624 Ref: 3b1512089624 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time_hi_version12089828 Ref: 3b1612089828 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_hi_variant12090030 Ref: 3b1712090030 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq_low12090219 Ref: 3b1812090219 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID node12090406 Ref: 3b1912090406 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID time12090603 Ref: 3b1a12090603 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID clock_seq12090797 Ref: 3b1b12090797 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID hex12090908 Ref: 3b1c12090908 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID int12090996 Ref: 3b1012090996 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID urn12091058 Ref: 3b1d12091058 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID variant12091136 Ref: 3b1e12091136 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID version12091400 Ref: 3b2312091400 Ref: library/uuid uuid UUID is_safe12091538 Ref: ba612091538 Ref: library/uuid uuid getnode12091795 Ref: ba712091795 Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid112092765 Ref: ba812092765 Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid312093117 Ref: 155f12093117 Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid412093354 Ref: 156012093354 Ref: library/uuid uuid uuid512093413 Ref: 156112093413 Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_DNS12093783 Ref: 3b2412093783 Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_URL12093910 Ref: 3b2512093910 Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_OID12094008 Ref: 3b2612094008 Ref: library/uuid uuid NAMESPACE_X50012094111 Ref: 3b2712094111 Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_NCS12094376 Ref: 3b1f12094376 Ref: library/uuid uuid RFC_412212094443 Ref: 3b2012094443 Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_MICROSOFT12094522 Ref: 3b2112094522 Ref: library/uuid uuid RESERVED_FUTURE12094601 Ref: 3b2212094601 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-112095049 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-212095113 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-312095172 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-412095231 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-512095290 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-612095349 Ref: uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122-Footnote-712095408 Node: Command-Line Usage<2>12095467 Ref: library/uuid command-line-usage12095588 Ref: 3b2812095588 Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli12095588 Ref: 43f12095588 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-h12095870 Ref: 3b2912095870 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-help12095870 Ref: 3b2a12095870 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-u12095932 Ref: 3b2b12095932 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-uuid12095954 Ref: 3b2c12095954 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-n12096089 Ref: 3b2d12096089 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-namespace12096116 Ref: 3b2e12096116 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-N12096430 Ref: 3b2f12096430 Ref: library/uuid cmdoption-uuid-name12096452 Ref: 3b3012096452 Node: Example<11>12096610 Ref: library/uuid example12096760 Ref: 3b3112096760 Ref: library/uuid uuid-example12096760 Ref: 3b3212096760 Node: Command-Line Example12098019 Ref: library/uuid command-line-example12098139 Ref: 3b3312098139 Ref: library/uuid uuid-cli-example12098139 Ref: 3b3412098139 Node: socketserver — A framework for network servers12098532 Ref: library/socketserver doc12098736 Ref: 3b3512098736 Ref: library/socketserver module-socketserver12098736 Ref: cd12098736 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-a-framework-for-network-servers12098736 Ref: 3b3612098736 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver TCPServer12099258 Ref: 131212099258 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UDPServer12099730 Ref: 3b3912099730 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixStreamServer12100033 Ref: 3b3a12100033 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver UnixDatagramServer12100146 Ref: 3b3b12100146 Ref: socketserver — A framework for network servers-Footnote-112102500 Node: Server Creation Notes12102572 Ref: library/socketserver server-creation-notes12102704 Ref: 3b3f12102704 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingMixIn12103477 Ref: b7712103477 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn12103514 Ref: b7812103514 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn block_on_close12104173 Ref: bfd12104173 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingMixIn daemon_threads12104564 Ref: 3b4112104564 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingTCPServer12105096 Ref: 3b4212105096 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUDPServer12105137 Ref: 3b4312105137 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingTCPServer12105178 Ref: 3b4412105178 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUDPServer12105221 Ref: 3b4012105221 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixStreamServer12105264 Ref: 3b4512105264 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ForkingUnixDatagramServer12105312 Ref: 3b4612105312 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixStreamServer12105362 Ref: 3b4712105362 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver ThreadingUnixDatagramServer12105412 Ref: 3b4812105412 Node: Server Objects<2>12107770 Ref: library/socketserver server-objects12107934 Ref: 3b4a12107934 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer12107985 Ref: 113112107985 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer fileno12108384 Ref: 3b4d12108384 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_request12108657 Ref: 131512108657 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer serve_forever12109259 Ref: 113312109259 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer service_actions12109912 Ref: 113212109912 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer shutdown12110215 Ref: 1a3412110215 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_close12110497 Ref: 3b3e12110497 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer address_family12110583 Ref: 3b5112110583 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer RequestHandlerClass12110997 Ref: 3b4c12110997 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_address12111155 Ref: 3b4b12111155 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket12111578 Ref: 3b5212111578 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer allow_reuse_address12111764 Ref: 3b5312111764 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer request_queue_size12111978 Ref: 3b5412111978 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer socket_type12112469 Ref: 3b5512112469 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer timeout12112662 Ref: 131312112662 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer finish_request12113168 Ref: 3b5612113168 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer get_request12113385 Ref: 3b4e12113385 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_error12113615 Ref: d4112113615 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer handle_timeout12114067 Ref: 131412114067 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer process_request12114506 Ref: 3b5012114506 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_activate12114877 Ref: 3b3812114877 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer server_bind12115124 Ref: 3b3712115124 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseServer verify_request12115278 Ref: 3b4f12115278 Node: Request Handler Objects12115863 Ref: library/socketserver request-handler-objects12116018 Ref: 3b5712116018 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler12116087 Ref: 3b3c12116087 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler setup12116441 Ref: 3b5812116441 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler handle12116636 Ref: 3b3d12116636 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler finish12117351 Ref: 3b5c12117351 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler request12117630 Ref: 3b5912117630 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler client_address12117766 Ref: 3b5a12117766 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver BaseRequestHandler server12117888 Ref: 3b5b12117888 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver StreamRequestHandler12117989 Ref: cda12117989 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler12118034 Ref: 3b4912118034 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler rfile12118282 Ref: 3b5d12118282 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver DatagramRequestHandler wfile12118447 Ref: 3b5e12118447 Node: Examples<28>12118724 Ref: library/socketserver examples12118853 Ref: 3b5f12118853 Node: socketserver TCPServer Example12119058 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-tcpserver-example12119176 Ref: 3b6012119176 Node: socketserver UDPServer Example12123010 Ref: library/socketserver socketserver-udpserver-example12123156 Ref: 3b6112123156 Node: Asynchronous Mixins12124745 Ref: library/socketserver asynchronous-mixins12124852 Ref: 3b6212124852 Node: http server — HTTP servers12127198 Ref: library/http server doc12127397 Ref: 3b6312127397 Ref: library/http server http-server-http-servers12127397 Ref: 3b6412127397 Ref: library/http server module-http server12127397 Ref: 7212127397 Ref: library/http server http server HTTPServer12128368 Ref: 396b12128368 Ref: library/http server http server ThreadingHTTPServer12128723 Ref: b4412128723 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler12129273 Ref: 10c112129273 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler client_address12130259 Ref: 3b6612130259 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server12130401 Ref: 3b6712130401 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler close_connection12130470 Ref: 3b6812130470 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler requestline12130705 Ref: 3b6a12130705 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler command12131020 Ref: 3b6b12131020 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler path12131124 Ref: 3b6c12131124 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler request_version12131398 Ref: 3b6d12131398 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler headers12131534 Ref: 3a5312131534 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler rfile12131961 Ref: 3b6f12131961 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler wfile12132113 Ref: 3b7012132113 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler server_version12132562 Ref: 3b7112132562 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler sys_version12132849 Ref: 3b7212132849 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_message_format12133104 Ref: 3b7412133104 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler error_content_type12133465 Ref: 3b7512133465 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler protocol_version12133645 Ref: 3b7612133645 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler MessageClass12134241 Ref: 3b6e12134241 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler responses12134479 Ref: 3a3a12134479 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle12135045 Ref: 3b7912135045 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_one_request12135345 Ref: 3b6912135345 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler handle_expect_10012135543 Ref: 3b7a12135543 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_error12136054 Ref: f4b12136054 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response12137182 Ref: 3b7b12137182 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_header12138000 Ref: 3b7712138000 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler send_response_only12138583 Ref: 3b7812138583 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler end_headers12139005 Ref: 10c212139005 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler flush_headers12139305 Ref: 10c312139305 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_request12139479 Ref: 3b7d12139479 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_error12139776 Ref: 3b7e12139776 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_message12140021 Ref: 3b7f12140021 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler version_string12140510 Ref: 3b7312140510 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler date_time_string12140724 Ref: 3b7c12140724 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler log_date_time_string12141112 Ref: 3b8012141112 Ref: library/http server http server BaseHTTPRequestHandler address_string12141223 Ref: 3b8112141223 Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler12141466 Ref: b4312141466 Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler server_version12142253 Ref: 3b8412142253 Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler extensions_map12142414 Ref: 3b8512142414 Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_HEAD12142916 Ref: 3b8312142916 Ref: library/http server http server SimpleHTTPRequestHandler do_GET12143204 Ref: 3b8212143204 Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler12145645 Ref: 2a312145645 Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler cgi_directories12146834 Ref: 3b8612146834 Ref: library/http server http server CGIHTTPRequestHandler do_POST12147074 Ref: 3b8712147074 Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-112148014 Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-212148085 Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-312148144 Ref: http server — HTTP servers-Footnote-412148203 Node: Command-line interface<2>12148274 Ref: library/http server command-line-interface12148399 Ref: 3b8812148399 Ref: library/http server http-server-cli12148399 Ref: f4c12148399 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-arg-port12148742 Ref: 3b8912148742 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-b12148935 Ref: 3b8a12148935 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-bind12148935 Ref: 3b8b12148935 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-d12149375 Ref: 3b8c12149375 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-directory12149375 Ref: 3b8d12149375 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-p12149678 Ref: 3b8e12149678 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-protocol12149678 Ref: 3b8f12149678 Ref: library/http server cmdoption-http server-cgi12149999 Ref: 3b9012149999 Node: Security considerations<3>12150615 Ref: library/http server http-server-security12150740 Ref: 3b6512150740 Ref: library/http server security-considerations12150740 Ref: 3b9112150740 Node: http cookies — HTTP state management12151383 Ref: library/http cookies doc12151585 Ref: 3b9212151585 Ref: library/http cookies http-cookies-http-state-management12151585 Ref: 3b9312151585 Ref: library/http cookies module-http cookies12151585 Ref: 7112151585 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies CookieError12152986 Ref: 3b9412152986 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie12153153 Ref: 3b9512153153 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies SimpleCookie12153542 Ref: 1a4212153542 Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-112154401 Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-212154473 Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-312154532 Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-412154591 Ref: http cookies — HTTP state management-Footnote-512154650 Node: Cookie Objects12154709 Ref: library/http cookies cookie-objects12154821 Ref: 3b9912154821 Ref: library/http cookies id112154821 Ref: 3b9a12154821 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_decode12154872 Ref: 3b9712154872 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie value_encode12155144 Ref: 3b9812155144 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie output12155596 Ref: 3b9b12155596 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie js_output12155964 Ref: 3b9d12155964 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies BaseCookie load12156243 Ref: 3b9612156243 Node: Morsel Objects12156525 Ref: library/http cookies id212156657 Ref: 3b9e12156657 Ref: library/http cookies morsel-objects12156657 Ref: 3b9f12156657 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel12156708 Ref: c0412156708 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel expires12156939 Ref: 3ba012156939 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel path12156972 Ref: 3ba112156972 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel comment12157002 Ref: 3ba212157002 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel domain12157035 Ref: 3ba312157035 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel secure12157101 Ref: 3ba412157101 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel version12157133 Ref: 3ba512157133 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel httponly12157166 Ref: 139c12157166 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel samesite12157200 Ref: 3ba612157200 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel value12158386 Ref: c0212158386 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel coded_value12158446 Ref: c0312158446 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel key12158552 Ref: c0112158552 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel set12158609 Ref: c0512158609 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel isReservedKey12158718 Ref: 3ba712158718 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel output12158829 Ref: 3b9c12158829 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel js_output12159169 Ref: 3ba812159169 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel OutputString12159443 Ref: 3ba912159443 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel update12159655 Ref: ec212159655 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel copy12159955 Ref: ec112159955 Ref: library/http cookies http cookies Morsel setdefault12160110 Ref: 3baa12160110 Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-112160326 Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-212160385 Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-312160444 Ref: Morsel Objects-Footnote-412160503 Node: Example<12>12160562 Ref: library/http cookies cookie-example12160671 Ref: 3bab12160671 Ref: library/http cookies example12160671 Ref: 3bac12160671 Node: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients12162323 Ref: library/http cookiejar doc12162540 Ref: 3bad12162540 Ref: library/http cookiejar http-cookiejar-cookie-handling-for-http-clients12162540 Ref: 3bae12162540 Ref: library/http cookiejar module-http cookiejar12162540 Ref: 7012162540 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LoadError12164108 Ref: 3baf12164108 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar12164517 Ref: 39da12164517 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar12164993 Ref: 3bb012164993 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy12165831 Ref: 3bb112165831 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy12165991 Ref: 1a1012165991 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie12167815 Ref: 3bb612167815 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-112169511 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-212169585 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-312169644 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-412169703 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-512169762 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-612169821 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-712169880 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-812169939 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-912169998 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1012170057 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1112170117 Ref: http cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients-Footnote-1212170177 Node: CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects12170237 Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-jar-objects12170428 Ref: 3bb712170428 Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiejar-and-filecookiejar-objects12170428 Ref: 3bb812170428 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar add_cookie_header12170704 Ref: 3bb912170704 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar extract_cookies12171621 Ref: 3bba12171621 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_policy12172854 Ref: 3bbc12172854 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar make_cookies12172958 Ref: 3bbd12172958 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie_if_ok12173245 Ref: 3bbe12173245 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar set_cookie12173370 Ref: 3bbf12173370 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear12173519 Ref: 3bc012173519 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookieJar clear_session_cookies12174024 Ref: 3bc112174024 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar save12174667 Ref: 3bc212174667 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar load12175520 Ref: 3bb212175520 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar revert12176088 Ref: 3bb312176088 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar filename12176487 Ref: 3bc312176487 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar FileCookieJar delayload12176624 Ref: 3bc412176624 Node: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers12177045 Ref: library/http cookiejar file-cookie-jar-classes12177265 Ref: 3bb412177265 Ref: library/http cookiejar filecookiejar-subclasses-and-co-operation-with-web-browsers12177265 Ref: 3bc512177265 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar MozillaCookieJar12177493 Ref: 3bc612177493 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar LWPCookieJar12178304 Ref: 3bc712178304 Ref: FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers-Footnote-112178787 Node: CookiePolicy Objects12178846 Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-policy-objects12179058 Ref: 3bc812179058 Ref: library/http cookiejar cookiepolicy-objects12179058 Ref: 3bc912179058 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy set_ok12179211 Ref: 3bbb12179211 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy return_ok12179537 Ref: 3bca12179537 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy domain_return_ok12179866 Ref: 3bcb12179866 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy path_return_ok12181244 Ref: 3bcc12181244 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy netscape12181696 Ref: 3bcd12181696 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy rfc296512181769 Ref: 3bce12181769 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar CookiePolicy hide_cookie212181844 Ref: 3bcf12181844 Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-112182395 Ref: CookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-212182454 Node: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects12182513 Ref: library/http cookiejar default-cookie-policy-objects12182683 Ref: 3bd012182683 Ref: library/http cookiejar defaultcookiepolicy-objects12182683 Ref: 3bd112182683 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy blocked_domains12185002 Ref: 3bd212185002 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_blocked_domains12185113 Ref: 3bd312185113 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_blocked12185227 Ref: 3bd412185227 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy allowed_domains12185375 Ref: 3bd512185375 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy set_allowed_domains12185511 Ref: 3bd612185511 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy is_not_allowed12185645 Ref: 3bd712185645 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy rfc2109_as_netscape12185985 Ref: 3bb512185985 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_domain12186572 Ref: 3bd812186572 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_rfc2965_unverifiable12186876 Ref: 3bd912186876 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_unverifiable12187254 Ref: 3bda12187254 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_domain12187403 Ref: 3bdb12187403 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_initial_dollar12187584 Ref: 3bdc12187584 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy strict_ns_set_path12187739 Ref: 3bdd12187739 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNoDots12188070 Ref: 3bde12188070 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrictNonDomain12188315 Ref: 3bdf12188315 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainRFC2965Match12188663 Ref: 3be012188663 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainLiberal12188900 Ref: 3be112188900 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar DefaultCookiePolicy DomainStrict12189048 Ref: 3be212189048 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-112189201 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-212189260 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-312189319 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-412189378 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-512189437 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-612189496 Ref: DefaultCookiePolicy Objects-Footnote-712189555 Node: Cookie Objects<2>12189614 Ref: library/http cookiejar cookie-objects12189776 Ref: 3be312189776 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie version12190545 Ref: 3be412190545 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie name12190903 Ref: 3be512190903 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie value12190961 Ref: 3be612190961 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port12191041 Ref: 3be712191041 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain12191180 Ref: 3be812191180 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie path12191242 Ref: 3be912191242 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie secure12191337 Ref: 3bea12191337 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie expires12191444 Ref: 3beb12191444 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie discard12191597 Ref: 3bed12191597 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment12191674 Ref: 3bee12191674 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie comment_url12191807 Ref: 3bef12191807 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie rfc210912191954 Ref: 3bf012191954 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie port_specified12192364 Ref: 3bf112192364 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_specified12192543 Ref: 3bf212192543 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie domain_initial_dot12192652 Ref: 3bf312192652 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie has_nonstandard_attr12192908 Ref: 3bf412192908 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie get_nonstandard_attr12193022 Ref: 3bf512193022 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie set_nonstandard_attr12193184 Ref: 3bf612193184 Ref: library/http cookiejar http cookiejar Cookie is_expired12193356 Ref: 3bec12193356 Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-112193649 Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-212193708 Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-312193767 Ref: Cookie Objects<2>-Footnote-412193826 Node: Examples<29>12193885 Ref: library/http cookiejar examples12194011 Ref: 3bf712194011 Ref: Examples<29>-Footnote-112195464 Node: xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules12195523 Ref: library/xmlrpc doc12195741 Ref: 3bf812195741 Ref: library/xmlrpc module-xmlrpc12195741 Ref: 12d12195741 Ref: library/xmlrpc xmlrpc-xmlrpc-server-and-client-modules12195741 Ref: 3bf912195741 Node: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access12196243 Ref: library/xmlrpc client doc12196449 Ref: 3bfa12196449 Ref: library/xmlrpc client module-xmlrpc client12196449 Ref: 12e12196449 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc-client-xml-rpc-client-access12196449 Ref: 3bfb12196449 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy12197539 Ref: a5612197539 Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-112205541 Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-212205614 Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-312205708 Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-412205764 Ref: xmlrpc client — XML-RPC client access-Footnote-512205823 Node: ServerProxy Objects12205869 Ref: library/xmlrpc client id112205989 Ref: 3bff12205989 Ref: library/xmlrpc client serverproxy-objects12205989 Ref: 3c0012205989 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system listMethods12206645 Ref: 3c0112206645 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system methodSignature12206808 Ref: 3c0212206808 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ServerProxy system methodHelp12207832 Ref: 3c0312207832 Node: DateTime Objects12208907 Ref: library/xmlrpc client datetime-objects12209050 Ref: 3c0412209050 Ref: library/xmlrpc client id212209050 Ref: 3c0512209050 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime12209105 Ref: 13af12209105 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime decode12209414 Ref: 3c0612209414 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client DateTime encode12209511 Ref: 3c0712209511 Node: Binary Objects12210596 Ref: library/xmlrpc client binary-objects12210733 Ref: 3c0812210733 Ref: library/xmlrpc client id312210733 Ref: 3c0912210733 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary12210784 Ref: 3bfc12210784 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary data12211001 Ref: 3c0a12211001 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary decode12211307 Ref: 3c0b12211307 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Binary encode12211446 Ref: 3c0c12211446 Ref: Binary Objects-Footnote-112212690 Node: Fault Objects12212761 Ref: library/xmlrpc client fault-objects12212903 Ref: 3c0d12212903 Ref: library/xmlrpc client id412212903 Ref: 3c0e12212903 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault12212952 Ref: 3bfd12212952 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault faultCode12213119 Ref: 3c0f12213119 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client Fault faultString12213195 Ref: 3c1012213195 Node: ProtocolError Objects12214157 Ref: library/xmlrpc client protocol-error-objects12214302 Ref: 3c1112214302 Ref: library/xmlrpc client protocolerror-objects12214302 Ref: 3c1212214302 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError12214367 Ref: 3bfe12214367 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError url12214644 Ref: 3c1312214644 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError errcode12214721 Ref: 3c1412214721 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError errmsg12214777 Ref: 3c1512214777 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client ProtocolError headers12214856 Ref: 3c1612214856 Node: MultiCall Objects12215596 Ref: library/xmlrpc client multicall-objects12215749 Ref: 3c1712215749 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client MultiCall12215932 Ref: 3c1812215932 Ref: MultiCall Objects-Footnote-112217638 Node: Convenience Functions12217817 Ref: library/xmlrpc client convenience-functions12217972 Ref: 3c1912217972 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client dumps12218037 Ref: 3c1a12218037 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc client loads12218750 Ref: 140012218750 Node: Example of Client Usage12219618 Ref: library/xmlrpc client example-of-client-usage12219790 Ref: 3c1b12219790 Ref: library/xmlrpc client xmlrpc-client-example12219790 Ref: 3c1c12219790 Node: Example of Client and Server Usage12221097 Ref: library/xmlrpc client example-of-client-and-server-usage12221239 Ref: 3c1d12221239 Node: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers12221375 Ref: library/xmlrpc server doc12221582 Ref: 3c1f12221582 Ref: library/xmlrpc server module-xmlrpc server12221582 Ref: 12f12221582 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc-server-basic-xml-rpc-servers12221582 Ref: 3c2012221582 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCServer12222421 Ref: 3c2112222421 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler12223945 Ref: 3c2212223945 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler12224596 Ref: 131a12224596 Ref: xmlrpc server — Basic XML-RPC servers-Footnote-112225084 Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects12225157 Ref: library/xmlrpc server simple-xmlrpc-servers12225291 Ref: 3c2312225291 Ref: library/xmlrpc server simplexmlrpcserver-objects12225291 Ref: 3c2412225291 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCServer register_function12225527 Ref: 3c2512225527 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCServer register_instance12226283 Ref: 3c2612226283 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCServer register_introspection_functions12227899 Ref: 3c2712227899 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCServer register_multicall_functions12228108 Ref: 3c2812228108 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server SimpleXMLRPCRequestHandler rpc_paths12228237 Ref: 3c2912228237 Node: SimpleXMLRPCServer Example12228657 Ref: library/xmlrpc server id112228746 Ref: 3c2a12228746 Ref: library/xmlrpc server simplexmlrpcserver-example12228746 Ref: 3c1e12228746 Node: CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler12233263 Ref: library/xmlrpc server cgixmlrpcrequesthandler12233431 Ref: 3c2b12233431 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler register_function12233615 Ref: 3c2c12233615 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler register_instance12234376 Ref: 3c2d12234376 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler register_introspection_functions12235261 Ref: 3c2e12235261 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler register_multicall_functions12235474 Ref: 3c2f12235474 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler handle_request12235613 Ref: 3c3012235613 Node: Documenting XMLRPC server12236200 Ref: library/xmlrpc server documenting-xmlrpc-server12236365 Ref: 3c3112236365 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocXMLRPCServer12236693 Ref: 19bd12236693 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler12237171 Ref: 3c3212237171 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocXMLRPCRequestHandler12237306 Ref: 3c3312237306 Node: DocXMLRPCServer Objects12237625 Ref: library/xmlrpc server doc-xmlrpc-servers12237793 Ref: 3c3412237793 Ref: library/xmlrpc server docxmlrpcserver-objects12237793 Ref: 3c3512237793 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocXMLRPCServer set_server_title12238230 Ref: 3c3612238230 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocXMLRPCServer set_server_name12238420 Ref: 3c3712238420 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocXMLRPCServer set_server_documentation12238642 Ref: 3c3812238642 Node: DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler12238898 Ref: library/xmlrpc server doccgixmlrpcrequesthandler12239032 Ref: 3c3912239032 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler set_server_title12239483 Ref: 3c3a12239483 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler set_server_name12239684 Ref: 3c3b12239684 Ref: library/xmlrpc server xmlrpc server DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler set_server_documentation12239917 Ref: 3c3c12239917 Node: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library12240184 Ref: library/ipaddress doc12240343 Ref: 3c3d12240343 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress-ipv4-ipv6-manipulation-library12240343 Ref: 3c3e12240343 Ref: library/ipaddress module-ipaddress12240343 Ref: 8012240343 Ref: ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library-Footnote-112241368 Node: Convenience factory functions12241437 Ref: library/ipaddress convenience-factory-functions12241568 Ref: 3c4012241568 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress ip_address12241771 Ref: 3c4112241771 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress ip_network12242356 Ref: 3c4212242356 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress ip_interface12243071 Ref: 3c4312243071 Node: IP Addresses12243930 Ref: library/ipaddress ip-addresses12244092 Ref: 3c4412244092 Node: Address objects12244235 Ref: library/ipaddress address-objects12244342 Ref: 3c4512244342 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address12244781 Ref: 1fe12244781 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address version12246071 Ref: 3c4712246071 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address max_prefixlen12246179 Ref: 3c4812246179 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address compressed12246517 Ref: 3c4912246517 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address exploded12246549 Ref: 3c4a12246549 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address packed12247038 Ref: 3c4b12247038 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address reverse_pointer12247275 Ref: 3c4c12247275 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_multicast12247822 Ref: 3c4d12247822 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_private12247989 Ref: 164912247989 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_global12249639 Ref: f5a12249639 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_unspecified12250554 Ref: 3c4f12250554 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_reserved12250708 Ref: 3c5012250708 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_loopback12251413 Ref: 3c5212251413 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address is_link_local12251566 Ref: 3c5312251566 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address ipv6_mapped12251701 Ref: 1fd12251701 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Address __format__12251882 Ref: 3c5412251882 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address12253132 Ref: 1ff12253132 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address compressed12254505 Ref: 3c5512254505 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address exploded12254814 Ref: 3c5612254814 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address packed12255102 Ref: 3c5712255102 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address reverse_pointer12255130 Ref: 15d612255130 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address version12255167 Ref: 3c5812255167 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address max_prefixlen12255196 Ref: 3c5912255196 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_multicast12255231 Ref: 3c5a12255231 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_private12255265 Ref: 164a12255265 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_global12255297 Ref: 164b12255297 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_unspecified12255361 Ref: 3c5b12255361 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_reserved12255397 Ref: 3c5c12255397 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_loopback12255430 Ref: 163412255430 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_link_local12255463 Ref: 3c5d12255463 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address is_site_local12255498 Ref: 3c5112255498 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address ipv4_mapped12255844 Ref: 3c4e12255844 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address scope_id12256116 Ref: 90d12256116 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address sixtofour12256416 Ref: 3c5e12256416 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address teredo12256706 Ref: 3c5f12256706 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Address __format__12257020 Ref: 3c6012257020 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-112257212 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-212257271 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-312257330 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-412257432 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-512257534 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-612257636 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-712257738 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-812257797 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-912257856 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1012257942 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1112258045 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1212258105 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1312258165 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1412258225 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1512258285 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1612258345 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1712258405 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1812258465 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-1912258525 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2012258585 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2112258645 Ref: Address objects-Footnote-2212258705 Node: Conversion to Strings and Integers12258765 Ref: library/ipaddress conversion-to-strings-and-integers12258893 Ref: 3c6112258893 Node: Operators<3>12259517 Ref: library/ipaddress operators12259621 Ref: 3c6212259621 Node: Comparison operators12259886 Ref: library/ipaddress comparison-operators12259984 Ref: 3c6312259984 Node: Arithmetic operators12260578 Ref: library/ipaddress arithmetic-operators12260676 Ref: 3c6412260676 Node: IP Network definitions12261179 Ref: library/ipaddress ip-network-definitions12261329 Ref: 3c6512261329 Node: Prefix net mask and host mask12262039 Ref: library/ipaddress prefix-net-mask-and-host-mask12262151 Ref: 3c6612262151 Node: Network objects12262821 Ref: library/ipaddress network-objects12262954 Ref: 3c6712262954 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network12263412 Ref: 20012263412 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network version12265835 Ref: 3c6912265835 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network max_prefixlen12265864 Ref: 3c6a12265864 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_multicast12265998 Ref: 3c6b12265998 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_private12266032 Ref: 3c6c12266032 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_unspecified12266064 Ref: 3c6d12266064 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_reserved12266100 Ref: 3c6e12266100 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_loopback12266133 Ref: 3c6f12266133 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network is_link_local12266166 Ref: 3c7012266166 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network network_address12266358 Ref: 3c7112266358 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network broadcast_address12266532 Ref: 3c7212266532 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network hostmask12266729 Ref: 3c7312266729 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network netmask12266823 Ref: 3c7412266823 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network with_prefixlen12266915 Ref: 3c7512266915 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network compressed12266951 Ref: 3c7612266951 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network exploded12266983 Ref: 3c7712266983 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network with_netmask12267284 Ref: 3c7812267284 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network with_hostmask12267415 Ref: 3c7912267415 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network num_addresses12267548 Ref: 3c7a12267548 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network prefixlen12267640 Ref: 3c7b12267640 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network hosts12267721 Ref: 3c7c12267721 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network overlaps12268718 Ref: 3c7d12268718 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network address_exclude12268890 Ref: 3c7e12268890 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network subnets12269496 Ref: e9912269496 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network supernet12271044 Ref: e9a12271044 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network subnet_of12271850 Ref: 3c7f12271850 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network supernet_of12272149 Ref: 3c8012272149 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Network compare_networks12272454 Ref: 3c8112272454 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network12273152 Ref: 20112273152 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network version12274959 Ref: 3c8212274959 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network max_prefixlen12274988 Ref: 3c8312274988 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_multicast12275023 Ref: 3c8412275023 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_private12275057 Ref: 3c8512275057 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_unspecified12275089 Ref: 3c8612275089 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_reserved12275125 Ref: 3c8712275125 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_loopback12275158 Ref: 3c8812275158 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_link_local12275191 Ref: 3c8912275191 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network network_address12275226 Ref: 3c8a12275226 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network broadcast_address12275263 Ref: 3c8b12275263 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network hostmask12275302 Ref: 3c8c12275302 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network netmask12275332 Ref: 3c8d12275332 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_prefixlen12275361 Ref: 3c8e12275361 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network compressed12275397 Ref: 3c8f12275397 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network exploded12275429 Ref: 3c9012275429 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_netmask12275459 Ref: 3c9112275459 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network with_hostmask12275493 Ref: 3c9212275493 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network num_addresses12275528 Ref: 3c9312275528 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network prefixlen12275563 Ref: 3c9412275563 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network hosts12275594 Ref: 3c9512275594 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network overlaps12276044 Ref: 3c9612276044 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network address_exclude12276079 Ref: 3c9712276079 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network subnets12276123 Ref: 3c9812276123 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network supernet12276185 Ref: 3c9912276185 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network subnet_of12276248 Ref: 3c9a12276248 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network supernet_of12276284 Ref: 3c9b12276284 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network compare_networks12276322 Ref: 3c9c12276322 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Network is_site_local12276464 Ref: 3c9d12276464 Node: Operators<4>12276641 Ref: library/ipaddress id112276736 Ref: 3c9e12276736 Node: Logical operators12277029 Ref: library/ipaddress logical-operators12277113 Ref: 3c9f12277113 Node: Iteration12277318 Ref: library/ipaddress iteration12277446 Ref: 3ca012277446 Node: Networks as containers of addresses12278274 Ref: library/ipaddress networks-as-containers-of-addresses12278376 Ref: 3ca112278376 Node: Interface objects12278834 Ref: library/ipaddress interface-objects12279000 Ref: 3ca212279000 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface12279148 Ref: 180d12279148 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface ip12279564 Ref: 3ca312279564 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface network12279810 Ref: 3ca412279810 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface with_prefixlen12280067 Ref: 3ca512280067 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface with_netmask12280335 Ref: 3ca612280335 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv4Interface with_hostmask12280608 Ref: 3ca712280608 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface12280880 Ref: 180e12280880 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface ip12281296 Ref: 3ca812281296 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface network12281320 Ref: 3ca912281320 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface with_prefixlen12281349 Ref: 3caa12281349 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface with_netmask12281385 Ref: 3cab12281385 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress IPv6Interface with_hostmask12281419 Ref: 3cac12281419 Node: Operators<5>12281593 Ref: library/ipaddress id212281659 Ref: 3cad12281659 Node: Logical operators<2>12281921 Ref: library/ipaddress id312281990 Ref: 3cae12281990 Node: Other Module Level Functions12282647 Ref: library/ipaddress other-module-level-functions12282808 Ref: 3caf12282808 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress v4_int_to_packed12282953 Ref: 3cb012282953 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress v6_int_to_packed12283427 Ref: 3cb112283427 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress summarize_address_range12283736 Ref: e9b12283736 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress collapse_addresses12284615 Ref: e9c12284615 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress get_mixed_type_key12285196 Ref: 3cb212285196 Node: Custom Exceptions12285795 Ref: library/ipaddress custom-exceptions12285930 Ref: 3cb312285930 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress AddressValueError12286101 Ref: 3c4612286101 Ref: library/ipaddress ipaddress NetmaskValueError12286204 Ref: 3c6812286204 Node: Multimedia Services12286308 Ref: library/mm doc12286459 Ref: 3cb412286459 Ref: library/mm mmedia12286459 Ref: 3cb512286459 Ref: library/mm multimedia-services12286459 Ref: 3cb612286459 Node: wave — Read and write WAV files12286825 Ref: library/wave doc12286969 Ref: 3cb712286969 Ref: library/wave module-wave12286969 Ref: 11312286969 Ref: library/wave wave-read-and-write-wav-files12286969 Ref: 3cb812286969 Ref: library/wave wave open12287566 Ref: 94b12287566 Ref: library/wave wave Error12288629 Ref: 3cbb12288629 Ref: wave — Read and write WAV files-Footnote-112288883 Node: Wave_read Objects12288947 Ref: library/wave id112289061 Ref: 3cbc12289061 Ref: library/wave wave-read-objects12289061 Ref: 3cbd12289061 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read12289116 Ref: 2b812289116 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read close12289258 Ref: 3cb912289258 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getnchannels12289454 Ref: 3cbe12289454 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getsampwidth12289582 Ref: 3cbf12289582 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getframerate12289658 Ref: 3cc012289658 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getnframes12289731 Ref: 3cc112289731 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getcomptype12289806 Ref: 3cc212289806 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getcompname12289928 Ref: 3cc312289928 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getparams12290091 Ref: 3cc412290091 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read readframes12290308 Ref: 3cc512290308 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read rewind12290440 Ref: 3cc612290440 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getmarkers12290677 Ref: 2b712290677 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read getmark12290943 Ref: 2b612290943 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read setpos12291347 Ref: 3cc712291347 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_read tell12291437 Ref: 3cc812291437 Node: Wave_write Objects12291512 Ref: library/wave id212291626 Ref: 3cc912291626 Ref: library/wave wave-write-objects12291626 Ref: fe412291626 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write12291683 Ref: 2b912291683 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write close12292714 Ref: 3cba12292714 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setnchannels12293060 Ref: 3ccc12293060 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setsampwidth12293134 Ref: 3ccd12293134 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setframerate12293215 Ref: 3cce12293215 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setnframes12293404 Ref: 3cca12293404 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setcomptype12293673 Ref: 3ccf12293673 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write setparams12293866 Ref: 3ccb12293866 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write tell12294095 Ref: 3cd012294095 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write writeframesraw12294297 Ref: fe512294297 Ref: library/wave wave Wave_write writeframes12294494 Ref: fe612294494 Node: colorsys — Conversions between color systems12295142 Ref: library/colorsys doc12295286 Ref: 3cd112295286 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys-conversions-between-color-systems12295286 Ref: 3cd212295286 Ref: library/colorsys module-colorsys12295286 Ref: 1f12295286 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_yiq12296273 Ref: 3cd312296273 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys yiq_to_rgb12296383 Ref: 3cd412296383 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_hls12296493 Ref: 170112296493 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys hls_to_rgb12296603 Ref: 3cd512296603 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys rgb_to_hsv12296713 Ref: 3cd612296713 Ref: library/colorsys colorsys hsv_to_rgb12296823 Ref: 3cd712296823 Ref: colorsys — Conversions between color systems-Footnote-112297135 Node: Internationalization12297203 Ref: library/i18n doc12297342 Ref: 3cd812297342 Ref: library/i18n i18n12297342 Ref: 3cd912297342 Ref: library/i18n internationalization12297342 Ref: 3cda12297342 Node: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services12297797 Ref: library/gettext doc12297957 Ref: 3cdb12297957 Ref: library/gettext gettext-multilingual-internationalization-services12297957 Ref: 3cdc12297957 Ref: library/gettext module-gettext12297957 Ref: 6312297957 Ref: gettext — Multilingual internationalization services-Footnote-112298934 Node: GNU gettext API12299001 Ref: library/gettext gnu-gettext-api12299131 Ref: 3cdd12299131 Ref: library/gettext gettext bindtextdomain12299675 Ref: 3cde12299675 Ref: library/gettext gettext textdomain12300247 Ref: 3cdf12300247 Ref: library/gettext gettext gettext12300493 Ref: 143212300493 Ref: library/gettext gettext dgettext12300762 Ref: 3ce012300762 Ref: library/gettext gettext ngettext12300902 Ref: 3ce112300902 Ref: library/gettext gettext dngettext12301613 Ref: 3ce212301613 Ref: library/gettext gettext pgettext12301767 Ref: 9f412301767 Ref: library/gettext gettext dpgettext12301818 Ref: 3ce312301818 Ref: library/gettext gettext npgettext12301878 Ref: 3ce412301878 Ref: library/gettext gettext dnpgettext12301942 Ref: 3ce512301942 Ref: GNU gettext API-Footnote-112302761 Ref: GNU gettext API-Footnote-212303241 Node: Class-based API12303306 Ref: library/gettext class-based-api12303489 Ref: 3ce612303489 Ref: library/gettext gettext find12304019 Ref: 3ce812304019 Ref: library/gettext gettext translation12305468 Ref: a7912305468 Ref: library/gettext gettext install12306707 Ref: a7a12306707 Ref: Class-based API-Footnote-112307742 Node: The NullTranslations class12307808 Ref: library/gettext the-nulltranslations-class12307920 Ref: 3ceb12307920 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations12308365 Ref: 3ce912308365 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations _parse12308765 Ref: 3ced12308765 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations add_fallback12309076 Ref: 3cec12309076 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations gettext12309339 Ref: 3cee12309339 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations ngettext12309537 Ref: 3cef12309537 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations pgettext12309789 Ref: 3cf012309789 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations npgettext12310049 Ref: 3cf112310049 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations info12310324 Ref: 3cf212310324 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations charset12310450 Ref: 3cf312310450 Ref: library/gettext gettext NullTranslations install12310539 Ref: 3cea12310539 Node: The GNUTranslations class12311731 Ref: library/gettext the-gnutranslations-class12311883 Ref: 3cf412311883 Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations12313388 Ref: 3ce712313388 Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations gettext12313508 Ref: 3cf512313508 Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations ngettext12313917 Ref: 3cf612313917 Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations pgettext12314841 Ref: 3cf712314841 Ref: library/gettext gettext GNUTranslations npgettext12315319 Ref: 3cf812315319 Ref: The GNUTranslations class-Footnote-112315968 Node: Solaris message catalog support12316026 Ref: library/gettext solaris-message-catalog-support12316175 Ref: 3cf912316175 Node: The Catalog constructor12316424 Ref: library/gettext the-catalog-constructor12316539 Ref: 3cfa12316539 Node: Internationalizing your programs and modules12317197 Ref: library/gettext i18n-howto12317384 Ref: 2ed112317384 Ref: library/gettext internationalizing-your-programs-and-modules12317384 Ref: 3cfb12317384 Ref: Internationalizing your programs and modules-Footnote-112320964 Ref: Internationalizing your programs and modules-Footnote-212320997 Node: Localizing your module12321040 Ref: library/gettext localizing-your-module12321179 Ref: 3cfc12321179 Node: Localizing your application12321774 Ref: library/gettext localizing-your-application12321951 Ref: 3cfd12321951 Node: Changing languages on the fly12322679 Ref: library/gettext changing-languages-on-the-fly12322855 Ref: 3cfe12322855 Node: Deferred translations12323534 Ref: library/gettext deferred-translations12323674 Ref: 3cff12323674 Node: Acknowledgements<9>12325914 Ref: library/gettext acknowledgements12326077 Ref: 3d0012326077 Node: locale — Internationalization services12326473 Ref: library/locale doc12326633 Ref: 3d0112326633 Ref: library/locale locale-internationalization-services12326633 Ref: 3d0212326633 Ref: library/locale module-locale12326633 Ref: 8612326633 Ref: library/locale locale Error12327361 Ref: 3d0312327361 Ref: library/locale locale setlocale12327487 Ref: 2df12327487 Ref: library/locale locale localeconv12328834 Ref: bfe12328834 Ref: library/locale locale nl_langinfo12337135 Ref: 3d0812337135 Ref: library/locale locale CODESET12337656 Ref: 3d0912337656 Ref: library/locale locale D_T_FMT12337790 Ref: 3d0a12337790 Ref: library/locale locale D_FMT12337987 Ref: 3d0b12337987 Ref: library/locale locale T_FMT12338175 Ref: 3d0c12338175 Ref: library/locale locale T_FMT_AMPM12338363 Ref: 3d0d12338363 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_112338510 Ref: 3d0e12338510 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_212338538 Ref: 3d0f12338538 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_312338566 Ref: 3d1012338566 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_412338594 Ref: 3d1112338594 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_512338622 Ref: 3d1212338622 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_612338650 Ref: 3d1312338650 Ref: library/locale locale DAY_712338678 Ref: 3d1412338678 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_112338965 Ref: 3d1512338965 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_212338995 Ref: 3d1612338995 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_312339025 Ref: 3d1712339025 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_412339055 Ref: 3d1812339055 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_512339085 Ref: 3d1912339085 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_612339115 Ref: 3d1a12339115 Ref: library/locale locale ABDAY_712339145 Ref: 3d1b12339145 Ref: library/locale locale MON_112339241 Ref: 3d1c12339241 Ref: library/locale locale MON_212339269 Ref: 3d1d12339269 Ref: library/locale locale MON_312339297 Ref: 3d1e12339297 Ref: library/locale locale MON_412339325 Ref: 3d1f12339325 Ref: library/locale locale MON_512339353 Ref: 3d2012339353 Ref: library/locale locale MON_612339381 Ref: 3d2112339381 Ref: library/locale locale MON_712339409 Ref: 3d2212339409 Ref: library/locale locale MON_812339437 Ref: 3d2312339437 Ref: library/locale locale MON_912339465 Ref: 3d2412339465 Ref: library/locale locale MON_1012339493 Ref: 3d2512339493 Ref: library/locale locale MON_1112339522 Ref: 3d2612339522 Ref: library/locale locale MON_1212339551 Ref: 3d2712339551 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_112339624 Ref: 3d2812339624 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_212339654 Ref: 3d2912339654 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_312339684 Ref: 3d2a12339684 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_412339714 Ref: 3d2b12339714 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_512339744 Ref: 3d2c12339744 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_612339774 Ref: 3d2d12339774 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_712339804 Ref: 3d2e12339804 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_812339834 Ref: 3d2f12339834 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_912339864 Ref: 3d3012339864 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_1012339894 Ref: 3d3112339894 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_1112339925 Ref: 3d3212339925 Ref: library/locale locale ABMON_1212339956 Ref: 3d3312339956 Ref: library/locale locale RADIXCHAR12340043 Ref: 3d3412340043 Ref: library/locale locale THOUSEP12340147 Ref: 3d3512340147 Ref: library/locale locale YESEXPR12340267 Ref: 3d3612340267 Ref: library/locale locale NOEXPR12340450 Ref: 3d3712340450 Ref: library/locale locale CRNCYSTR12340907 Ref: 3d3812340907 Ref: library/locale locale ERA12341185 Ref: 3d3912341185 Ref: library/locale locale ERA_D_T_FMT12342004 Ref: 3d3a12342004 Ref: library/locale locale ERA_D_FMT12342176 Ref: 3d3b12342176 Ref: library/locale locale ERA_T_FMT12342339 Ref: 3d3c12342339 Ref: library/locale locale ALT_DIGITS12342502 Ref: 3d3d12342502 Ref: library/locale locale getdefaultlocale12342737 Ref: 2dd12342737 Ref: library/locale locale getlocale12344111 Ref: 2de12344111 Ref: library/locale locale getpreferredencoding12344687 Ref: 53612344687 Ref: library/locale locale getencoding12345769 Ref: 2e012345769 Ref: library/locale locale normalize12346543 Ref: 3d4112346543 Ref: library/locale locale strcoll12346963 Ref: 3d4212346963 Ref: library/locale locale strxfrm12347282 Ref: 3d4412347282 Ref: library/locale locale format_string12347626 Ref: 51a12347626 Ref: library/locale locale currency12348328 Ref: 3d4512348328 Ref: library/locale locale str12348975 Ref: 3d4612348975 Ref: library/locale locale delocalize12349164 Ref: e2412349164 Ref: library/locale locale localize12349344 Ref: 3d4712349344 Ref: library/locale locale atof12349564 Ref: 3d4812349564 Ref: library/locale locale atoi12349788 Ref: 3d4912349788 Ref: library/locale locale LC_CTYPE12349919 Ref: 3d3f12349919 Ref: library/locale locale LC_COLLATE12350588 Ref: 3d4312350588 Ref: library/locale locale LC_TIME12350781 Ref: 3d4a12350781 Ref: library/locale locale LC_MONETARY12350932 Ref: 3d0712350932 Ref: library/locale locale LC_MESSAGES12351105 Ref: 3d4b12351105 Ref: library/locale locale LC_NUMERIC12351527 Ref: 3d0512351527 Ref: library/locale locale LC_ALL12351850 Ref: 3d3e12351850 Ref: library/locale locale CHAR_MAX12352275 Ref: 3d0612352275 Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-112353143 Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-212353209 Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-312353307 Ref: locale — Internationalization services-Footnote-412353349 Node: Background details hints tips and caveats12353391 Ref: library/locale background-details-hints-tips-and-caveats12353530 Ref: 3d4c12353530 Node: Locale names12355737 Ref: library/locale locale-name12355937 Ref: 3d0412355937 Ref: library/locale locale-names12355937 Ref: 3d4d12355937 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-112357607 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-212357757 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-312357807 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-412357863 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-512358036 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-612358125 Ref: Locale names-Footnote-712358171 Node: For extension writers and programs that embed Python12358213 Ref: library/locale embedding-locale12358398 Ref: 3d4e12358398 Ref: library/locale for-extension-writers-and-programs-that-embed-python12358398 Ref: 3d4f12358398 Node: Access to message catalogs12359195 Ref: library/locale access-to-message-catalogs12359359 Ref: 3d5012359359 Ref: library/locale locale-gettext12359359 Ref: 3d5112359359 Ref: library/locale locale gettext12359432 Ref: 3d5212359432 Ref: library/locale locale dgettext12359468 Ref: 3d5312359468 Ref: library/locale locale dcgettext12359513 Ref: 3d5412359513 Ref: library/locale locale textdomain12359569 Ref: 3d5512359569 Ref: library/locale locale bindtextdomain12359611 Ref: 3d5612359611 Ref: library/locale locale bind_textdomain_codeset12359662 Ref: 3d5712359662 Node: Program Frameworks12360649 Ref: library/frameworks doc12360802 Ref: 3d5812360802 Ref: library/frameworks frameworks12360802 Ref: 3d5912360802 Ref: library/frameworks program-frameworks12360802 Ref: 3d5a12360802 Node: turtle — Turtle graphics12361251 Ref: library/turtle doc12361395 Ref: 3d5b12361395 Ref: library/turtle module-turtle12361395 Ref: 10112361395 Ref: library/turtle turtle-turtle-graphics12361395 Ref: 3d5c12361395 Ref: turtle — Turtle graphics-Footnote-112362076 Node: Introduction<11>12362142 Ref: library/turtle introduction12362241 Ref: 3d5d12362241 Ref: Introduction<11>-Footnote-112362495 Node: Get started12362548 Ref: library/turtle get-started12362667 Ref: 3d5e12362667 Node: Tutorial<4>12363853 Ref: library/turtle turtle-tutorial12363965 Ref: 3d5f12363965 Ref: library/turtle tutorial12363965 Ref: 3d6012363965 Node: Starting a turtle environment12364198 Ref: library/turtle starting-a-turtle-environment12364297 Ref: 3d6112364297 Node: Basic drawing12364610 Ref: library/turtle basic-drawing12364745 Ref: 3d6212364745 Node: Pen control12365384 Ref: library/turtle pen-control12365477 Ref: 3d6312365477 Node: The turtle’s position12365805 Ref: library/turtle the-turtle-s-position12365898 Ref: 3d6412365898 Node: Making algorithmic patterns12366341 Ref: library/turtle making-algorithmic-patterns12366438 Ref: 3d6512366438 Node: How to…12367415 Ref: library/turtle how-to12367541 Ref: 3d6612367541 Ref: library/turtle turtle-how-to12367541 Ref: 3d6712367541 Node: Get started as quickly as possible12367806 Ref: library/turtle get-started-as-quickly-as-possible12367926 Ref: 3d6812367926 Ref: library/turtle note12368682 Ref: 3d6a12368682 Node: Use the turtle module namespace12368954 Ref: library/turtle use-the-turtle-module-namespace12369114 Ref: 3d6b12369114 Node: Use turtle graphics in a script12369782 Ref: library/turtle use-turtle-graphics-in-a-script12369943 Ref: 3d6c12369943 Node: Use object-oriented turtle graphics12370637 Ref: library/turtle use-object-oriented-turtle-graphics12370758 Ref: 3d6d12370758 Node: Turtle graphics reference12371988 Ref: library/turtle turtle-graphics-reference12372158 Ref: 3d7012372158 Node: Turtle methods12372476 Ref: library/turtle turtle-methods12372591 Ref: 3d7112372591 Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen12375605 Ref: library/turtle methods-of-turtlescreen-screen12375720 Ref: 3dbe12375720 Node: Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions12377042 Ref: library/turtle methods-of-rawturtle-turtle-and-corresponding-functions12377261 Ref: 3ddd12377261 Node: Turtle motion12377675 Ref: library/turtle turtle-motion12377810 Ref: 3dde12377810 Ref: library/turtle turtle forward12377859 Ref: 3d6912377859 Ref: library/turtle turtle fd12377899 Ref: 3d7212377899 Ref: library/turtle turtle back12378337 Ref: 3d7512378337 Ref: library/turtle turtle bk12378374 Ref: 3d7412378374 Ref: library/turtle turtle backward12378409 Ref: 3d7312378409 Ref: library/turtle turtle right12378781 Ref: 3d7612378781 Ref: library/turtle turtle rt12378816 Ref: 3d7712378816 Ref: library/turtle turtle left12379282 Ref: 3d7812379282 Ref: library/turtle turtle lt12379316 Ref: 3d7912379316 Ref: library/turtle turtle goto12379779 Ref: 3d7a12379779 Ref: library/turtle turtle setpos12379817 Ref: 3d7b12379817 Ref: library/turtle turtle setposition12379857 Ref: 3d7c12379857 Ref: library/turtle turtle teleport12380612 Ref: 172612380612 Ref: library/turtle turtle setx12381624 Ref: 3d7d12381624 Ref: library/turtle turtle sety12381948 Ref: 3d7e12381948 Ref: library/turtle turtle setheading12382271 Ref: 3d7f12382271 Ref: library/turtle turtle seth12382314 Ref: 3d8012382314 Ref: library/turtle turtle home12383130 Ref: 3d8112383130 Ref: library/turtle turtle circle12383557 Ref: 3d8212383557 Ref: library/turtle turtle dot12384942 Ref: 3d8312384942 Ref: library/turtle turtle stamp12385492 Ref: 3d8412385492 Ref: library/turtle turtle clearstamp12385829 Ref: 3d8512385829 Ref: library/turtle turtle clearstamps12386339 Ref: 3d8612386339 Ref: library/turtle turtle undo12386850 Ref: 3d8712386850 Ref: library/turtle turtle speed12387175 Ref: 3d8812387175 Node: Tell Turtle’s state12388174 Ref: library/turtle tell-turtle-s-state12388342 Ref: 3de012388342 Ref: library/turtle turtle position12388405 Ref: 3d8912388405 Ref: library/turtle turtle pos12388438 Ref: 3d8a12388438 Ref: library/turtle turtle towards12388610 Ref: 3d8b12388610 Ref: library/turtle turtle xcor12389175 Ref: 3d8c12389175 Ref: library/turtle turtle ycor12389455 Ref: 3d8d12389455 Ref: library/turtle turtle heading12389742 Ref: 3d8e12389742 Ref: library/turtle turtle distance12389990 Ref: 3d8f12389990 Node: Settings for measurement12390579 Ref: library/turtle settings-for-measurement12390748 Ref: 3de112390748 Ref: library/turtle turtle degrees12390819 Ref: 3d9012390819 Ref: library/turtle turtle radians12391459 Ref: 3d9112391459 Node: Pen control<2>12391784 Ref: library/turtle id112391944 Ref: 3de212391944 Node: Drawing state12392072 Ref: library/turtle drawing-state12392158 Ref: 3de312392158 Ref: library/turtle turtle pendown12392207 Ref: 3d9212392207 Ref: library/turtle turtle pd12392239 Ref: 3d9312392239 Ref: library/turtle turtle down12392266 Ref: 3d9412392266 Ref: library/turtle turtle penup12392345 Ref: 3d9512392345 Ref: library/turtle turtle pu12392375 Ref: 3d9612392375 Ref: library/turtle turtle up12392402 Ref: 3d9712392402 Ref: library/turtle turtle pensize12392480 Ref: 3d9812392480 Ref: library/turtle turtle width12392522 Ref: 3d9912392522 Ref: library/turtle turtle pen12392984 Ref: 3d9a12392984 Ref: library/turtle turtle isdown12394894 Ref: 3d9b12394894 Node: Color control12395144 Ref: library/turtle color-control12395246 Ref: 3de412395246 Ref: library/turtle turtle pencolor12395295 Ref: 3d9d12395295 Ref: library/turtle turtle fillcolor12396899 Ref: 3d9e12396899 Ref: library/turtle turtle color12398407 Ref: 3d9c12398407 Node: Filling12399605 Ref: library/turtle filling12399714 Ref: 3de512399714 Ref: library/turtle turtle filling12399751 Ref: 3d9f12399751 Ref: library/turtle turtle begin_fill12400010 Ref: 3da012400010 Ref: library/turtle turtle end_fill12400107 Ref: 3da112400107 Node: More drawing control12400654 Ref: library/turtle more-drawing-control12400741 Ref: 3de612400741 Ref: library/turtle turtle reset12400804 Ref: 3da212400804 Ref: library/turtle turtle clear12401252 Ref: 3da312401252 Ref: library/turtle turtle write12401456 Ref: 3da412401456 Node: Turtle state12402235 Ref: library/turtle turtle-state12402383 Ref: 3de712402383 Node: Visibility12402470 Ref: library/turtle visibility12402548 Ref: 3de812402548 Ref: library/turtle turtle hideturtle12402591 Ref: 3da712402591 Ref: library/turtle turtle ht12402626 Ref: 3da812402626 Ref: library/turtle turtle showturtle12402883 Ref: 3da512402883 Ref: library/turtle turtle st12402918 Ref: 3da612402918 Ref: library/turtle turtle isvisible12403012 Ref: 3da912403012 Node: Appearance12403291 Ref: library/turtle appearance12403369 Ref: 3de912403369 Ref: library/turtle turtle shape12403412 Ref: 3daa12403412 Ref: library/turtle turtle resizemode12404085 Ref: 3dab12404085 Ref: library/turtle turtle shapesize12405056 Ref: 3dac12405056 Ref: library/turtle turtle turtlesize12405148 Ref: 3dad12405148 Ref: library/turtle turtle shearfactor12406133 Ref: 3dae12406133 Ref: library/turtle turtle tilt12406797 Ref: 3daf12406797 Ref: library/turtle turtle tiltangle12407237 Ref: 72012407237 Ref: library/turtle turtle shapetransform12407959 Ref: 3db012407959 Ref: library/turtle turtle get_shapepoly12408991 Ref: 3db112408991 Node: Using events12409362 Ref: library/turtle using-events12409518 Ref: 3dea12409518 Ref: library/turtle turtle onrelease12410418 Ref: 3db312410418 Ref: library/turtle turtle ondrag12411429 Ref: 3db412411429 Node: Special Turtle methods12412304 Ref: library/turtle special-turtle-methods12412463 Ref: 3deb12412463 Ref: library/turtle turtle begin_poly12412530 Ref: 3db512412530 Ref: library/turtle turtle end_poly12412673 Ref: 3db612412673 Ref: library/turtle turtle get_poly12412864 Ref: 3db712412864 Ref: library/turtle turtle clone12413266 Ref: 3db812413266 Ref: library/turtle turtle getturtle12413463 Ref: 3db912413463 Ref: library/turtle turtle getpen12413497 Ref: 3dba12413497 Ref: library/turtle turtle getscreen12413765 Ref: 3dbb12413765 Ref: library/turtle turtle setundobuffer12414071 Ref: 3dbc12414071 Ref: library/turtle turtle undobufferentries12414508 Ref: 3dbd12414508 Node: Compound shapes12414668 Ref: library/turtle compound-shapes12414806 Ref: 3ded12414806 Ref: library/turtle compoundshapes12414806 Ref: 3dee12414806 Node: Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions12415840 Ref: library/turtle methods-of-turtlescreen-screen-and-corresponding-functions12416048 Ref: 3df112416048 Node: Window control12416528 Ref: library/turtle window-control12416663 Ref: 3df212416663 Ref: library/turtle turtle bgcolor12416714 Ref: 3dbf12416714 Ref: library/turtle turtle bgpic12417127 Ref: 3dc012417127 Ref: library/turtle turtle clearscreen12418003 Ref: 3dc112418003 Ref: library/turtle turtle resetscreen12418512 Ref: 3dc212418512 Ref: library/turtle turtle screensize12418611 Ref: 3dc312418611 Ref: library/turtle turtle setworldcoordinates12419520 Ref: 3dc412419520 Node: Animation control12420502 Ref: library/turtle animation-control12420665 Ref: 3df312420665 Ref: library/turtle turtle delay12420722 Ref: 3dc512420722 Ref: library/turtle turtle tracer12421161 Ref: 3dc612421161 Ref: library/turtle turtle update12421862 Ref: 3dc712421862 Node: Using screen events12422034 Ref: library/turtle using-screen-events12422196 Ref: 3df412422196 Ref: library/turtle turtle listen12422257 Ref: 3dc812422257 Ref: library/turtle turtle onkey12422492 Ref: 3dc912422492 Ref: library/turtle turtle onkeyrelease12422530 Ref: 3dca12422530 Ref: library/turtle turtle onkeypress12423152 Ref: 3dcb12423152 Ref: library/turtle turtle onclick12423755 Ref: 3db212423755 Ref: library/turtle turtle onscreenclick12423807 Ref: 3dcc12423807 Ref: library/turtle turtle ontimer12424995 Ref: 3dcd12424995 Ref: library/turtle turtle mainloop12425479 Ref: 3dce12425479 Ref: library/turtle turtle done12425512 Ref: 3dcf12425512 Node: Input methods12425838 Ref: library/turtle input-methods12426011 Ref: 3df512426011 Ref: library/turtle turtle textinput12426060 Ref: 18c212426060 Ref: library/turtle turtle numinput12426514 Ref: 18c312426514 Node: Settings and special methods12427437 Ref: library/turtle settings-and-special-methods12427649 Ref: 3df612427649 Ref: library/turtle turtle mode12427728 Ref: 3dd012427728 Ref: library/turtle turtle colormode12428957 Ref: 3dd112428957 Ref: library/turtle turtle getcanvas12429597 Ref: 3dd212429597 Ref: library/turtle turtle getshapes12429848 Ref: 3dd312429848 Ref: library/turtle turtle register_shape12430042 Ref: 3dd412430042 Ref: library/turtle turtle addshape12430097 Ref: 3dd512430097 Ref: library/turtle turtle turtles12431058 Ref: 3dd612431058 Ref: library/turtle turtle window_height12431224 Ref: 3dd712431224 Ref: library/turtle turtle window_width12431361 Ref: 3dd812431361 Node: Methods specific to Screen not inherited from TurtleScreen12431495 Ref: library/turtle methods-specific-to-screen-not-inherited-from-turtlescreen12431685 Ref: 3df712431685 Ref: library/turtle screenspecific12431685 Ref: 3df812431685 Ref: library/turtle turtle bye12431826 Ref: 3dd912431826 Ref: library/turtle turtle exitonclick12431893 Ref: 3dda12431893 Ref: library/turtle turtle setup12432333 Ref: 3ddb12432333 Ref: library/turtle turtle title12433653 Ref: 3ddc12433653 Node: Public classes12433919 Ref: library/turtle public-classes12434086 Ref: 3df912434086 Ref: library/turtle turtle RawTurtle12434137 Ref: 3dfa12434137 Ref: library/turtle turtle RawPen12434174 Ref: 3dfb12434174 Ref: library/turtle turtle Turtle12434445 Ref: 3dfd12434445 Ref: library/turtle turtle TurtleScreen12434637 Ref: 3dec12434637 Ref: library/turtle turtle Screen12434832 Ref: 3d6f12434832 Ref: library/turtle turtle ScrolledCanvas12434927 Ref: 3dfc12434927 Ref: library/turtle turtle Shape12435222 Ref: 3def12435222 Ref: library/turtle turtle Shape addcomponent12436030 Ref: 3df012436030 Ref: library/turtle turtle Vec2D12436630 Ref: 3ddf12436630 Node: Explanation<2>12437182 Ref: library/turtle explanation12437313 Ref: 3dfe12437313 Ref: library/turtle turtle-explanation12437313 Ref: 3d6e12437313 Node: Help and configuration12438745 Ref: library/turtle help-and-configuration12438889 Ref: 3dff12438889 Node: How to use help12439081 Ref: library/turtle how-to-use-help12439214 Ref: 3e0012439214 Node: Translation of docstrings into different languages12441532 Ref: library/turtle translation-of-docstrings-into-different-languages12441709 Ref: 3e0112441709 Ref: library/turtle turtle write_docstringdict12442013 Ref: 3e0212442013 Node: How to configure Screen and Turtles12443052 Ref: library/turtle how-to-configure-screen-and-turtles12443205 Ref: 3e0312443205 Node: turtledemo — Demo scripts12446012 Ref: library/turtle module-turtledemo12446166 Ref: 10212446166 Ref: library/turtle turtledemo-demo-scripts12446166 Ref: 3e0412446166 Node: Changes since Python 2 612452001 Ref: library/turtle changes-since-python-2-612452157 Ref: 3e0512452157 Node: Changes since Python 3 012453195 Ref: library/turtle changes-since-python-3-012453315 Ref: 3e0612453315 Node: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters12454569 Ref: library/cmd doc12454755 Ref: 3e0712454755 Ref: library/cmd cmd-support-for-line-oriented-command-interpreters12454755 Ref: 3e0812454755 Ref: library/cmd module-cmd12454755 Ref: 1912454755 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd12455231 Ref: 16c512455231 Ref: cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters-Footnote-112456898 Node: Cmd Objects12456961 Ref: library/cmd cmd-objects12457083 Ref: 3e0a12457083 Ref: library/cmd id112457083 Ref: 3e0b12457083 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdloop12457182 Ref: 3e0c12457182 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd do_help12459273 Ref: 16b412459273 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd onecmd12459806 Ref: 3e0f12459806 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd emptyline12460397 Ref: 3e1212460397 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd default12460595 Ref: 3e1112460595 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd completedefault12460792 Ref: 3e1312460792 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd columnize12461014 Ref: 186612461014 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd precmd12461250 Ref: 3e1012461250 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postcmd12461729 Ref: 3e0e12461729 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd preloop12462362 Ref: 3e1412462362 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd postloop12462556 Ref: 3e1512462556 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd prompt12462840 Ref: 3e1612462840 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd identchars12462909 Ref: 3e1712462909 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd lastcmd12463004 Ref: 3e1812463004 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd cmdqueue12463077 Ref: 3e1912463077 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd intro12463328 Ref: 3e0d12463328 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd doc_header12463482 Ref: 3e1a12463482 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd misc_header12463602 Ref: 3e1b12463602 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd undoc_header12463821 Ref: 3e1c12463821 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd ruler12464037 Ref: 3e1d12464037 Ref: library/cmd cmd Cmd use_rawinput12464211 Ref: 3e0912464211 Node: Cmd Example12464687 Ref: library/cmd cmd-example12464809 Ref: 3e1e12464809 Ref: library/cmd id212464809 Ref: 3e1f12464809 Node: shlex — Simple lexical analysis12470159 Ref: library/shlex doc12470310 Ref: 3e2012470310 Ref: library/shlex module-shlex12470310 Ref: c412470310 Ref: library/shlex shlex-simple-lexical-analysis12470310 Ref: 3e2112470310 Ref: library/shlex shlex split12470831 Ref: 53812470831 Ref: library/shlex shlex join12471428 Ref: a2612471428 Ref: library/shlex shlex quote12471886 Ref: 27f12471886 Ref: library/shlex shlex-quote-warning12472114 Ref: 321712472114 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex12473749 Ref: ccd12473749 Ref: shlex — Simple lexical analysis-Footnote-112475995 Node: shlex Objects12476060 Ref: library/shlex id112476165 Ref: 3e2512476165 Ref: library/shlex shlex-objects12476165 Ref: 3e2612476165 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex get_token12476269 Ref: 3e2712476269 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_token12476632 Ref: 3e2812476632 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex read_token12476714 Ref: 3e2a12476714 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex sourcehook12476953 Ref: 3e2b12476953 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex push_source12478492 Ref: 3e2d12478492 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex pop_source12478795 Ref: 3e2e12478795 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex error_leader12478994 Ref: 3e2f12478994 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex commenters12479723 Ref: 3e2212479723 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex wordchars12479945 Ref: 3e2412479945 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace12480641 Ref: 3e3112480641 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escape12480839 Ref: 3e3212480839 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex quotes12481004 Ref: 3e3312481004 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex escapedquotes12481289 Ref: 3e3412481289 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex whitespace_split12481518 Ref: 3e3012481518 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex infile12482056 Ref: 3e2312482056 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex instream12482287 Ref: 3e3512482287 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex source12482412 Ref: 3e2c12482412 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex debug12483001 Ref: 3e3612483001 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex lineno12483265 Ref: 3e3712483265 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex token12483361 Ref: 3e3812483361 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex eof12483478 Ref: 3e2912483478 Ref: library/shlex shlex shlex punctuation_chars12483654 Ref: 19d012483654 Node: Parsing Rules12484065 Ref: library/shlex parsing-rules12484213 Ref: 3e3912484213 Ref: library/shlex shlex-parsing-rules12484213 Ref: 3e3a12484213 Node: Improved Compatibility with Shells12486234 Ref: library/shlex improved-compatibility-with-shells12486360 Ref: 3e3b12486360 Ref: library/shlex improved-shell-compatibility12486360 Ref: cce12486360 Node: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk12489195 Ref: library/tk doc12489345 Ref: 3e3c12489345 Ref: library/tk graphical-user-interfaces-with-tk12489345 Ref: 3e3d12489345 Ref: library/tk tkinter12489345 Ref: 3e3e12489345 Ref: Graphical User Interfaces with Tk-Footnote-112491212 Node: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk12491264 Ref: library/tkinter doc12491427 Ref: 3e3f12491427 Ref: library/tkinter module-tkinter12491427 Ref: f012491427 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-python-interface-to-tcl-tk12491427 Ref: 3e4012491427 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-112494314 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-212494391 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-312494419 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-412494459 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-512494516 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-612494543 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-712494580 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-812494678 Ref: tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk-Footnote-912494730 Node: Architecture12494789 Ref: library/tkinter architecture12494900 Ref: 3e4112494900 Ref: Architecture-Footnote-112497232 Node: Tkinter Modules12497272 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-modules12497414 Ref: 3e4312497414 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk12497741 Ref: 163612497741 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk tk12499889 Ref: 3e4512499889 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk master12500188 Ref: 3e4612500188 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tk children12500758 Ref: 3e4712500758 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Tcl12500968 Ref: 3e4412500968 Ref: library/tkinter module-_tkinter12502566 Ref: 312502566 Node: Tkinter Life Preserver12503478 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-life-preserver12503623 Ref: 3e4812503623 Node: A Hello World Program12504451 Ref: library/tkinter a-hello-world-program12504561 Ref: 3e4912504561 Node: Important Tk Concepts12506026 Ref: library/tkinter important-tk-concepts12506183 Ref: 3e4a12506183 Node: Understanding How Tkinter Wraps Tcl/Tk12507531 Ref: library/tkinter understanding-how-tkinter-wraps-tcl-tk12507700 Ref: 3e4b12507700 Node: How do I…? What option does…?12509855 Ref: library/tkinter how-do-i-what-option-does12510041 Ref: 3e4c12510041 Node: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual12511787 Ref: library/tkinter navigating-the-tcl-tk-reference-manual12511926 Ref: 3e4d12511926 Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-112514004 Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-212514061 Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-312514120 Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-412514173 Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-512514229 Ref: Navigating the Tcl/Tk Reference Manual-Footnote-612514288 Node: Threading model12514342 Ref: library/tkinter threading-model12514487 Ref: 3e4212514487 Node: Handy Reference12517509 Ref: library/tkinter handy-reference12517645 Ref: 3e4e12517645 Node: Setting Options12517899 Ref: library/tkinter setting-options12517985 Ref: 3e4f12517985 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-setting-options12517985 Ref: 3e5012517985 Ref: Setting Options-Footnote-112521233 Node: The Packer12521280 Ref: library/tkinter the-packer12521389 Ref: 3e5112521389 Node: Packer Options12523039 Ref: library/tkinter packer-options12523158 Ref: 3e5212523158 Node: Coupling Widget Variables12523858 Ref: library/tkinter coupling-widget-variables12523985 Ref: 3e5312523985 Node: The Window Manager12526185 Ref: library/tkinter the-window-manager12526318 Ref: 3e5412526318 Node: Tk Option Data Types12527711 Ref: library/tkinter tk-option-data-types12527838 Ref: 3e5512527838 Node: Bindings and Events12530900 Ref: library/tkinter bindings-and-events12531028 Ref: 3e5612531028 Ref: library/tkinter id212531028 Ref: 3e5712531028 Ref: Bindings and Events-Footnote-112533860 Node: The index Parameter12533906 Ref: library/tkinter the-index-parameter12534020 Ref: 3e5812534020 Node: Images12535954 Ref: library/tkinter images12536040 Ref: 3e5912536040 Ref: Images-Footnote-112537338 Node: File Handlers12537373 Ref: library/tkinter file-handlers12537485 Ref: 3e5a12537485 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter-file-handlers12537485 Ref: 3e5b12537485 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk createfilehandler12538427 Ref: 3e5c12538427 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter Widget tk deletefilehandler12538862 Ref: 3e5d12538862 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter READABLE12538944 Ref: 3e5e12538944 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter WRITABLE12538972 Ref: 3e5f12538972 Ref: library/tkinter tkinter EXCEPTION12539000 Ref: 3e6012539000 Node: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog12539076 Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser doc12539285 Ref: 3e6112539285 Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser module-tkinter colorchooser12539285 Ref: f112539285 Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter-colorchooser-color-choosing-dialog12539285 Ref: 3e6212539285 Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser Chooser12539783 Ref: 3e6312539783 Ref: library/tkinter colorchooser tkinter colorchooser askcolor12539849 Ref: 3e6512539849 Ref: tkinter colorchooser — Color choosing dialog-Footnote-112540243 Node: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper12540324 Ref: library/tkinter font doc12540510 Ref: 3e6612540510 Ref: library/tkinter font module-tkinter font12540510 Ref: f512540510 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter-font-tkinter-font-wrapper12540510 Ref: 3e6712540510 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font NORMAL12540867 Ref: 3e6812540867 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font BOLD12540897 Ref: 3e6912540897 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ITALIC12540925 Ref: 3e6a12540925 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font ROMAN12540955 Ref: 3e6b12540955 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font12540985 Ref: 190a12540985 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font actual12542291 Ref: 3e6c12542291 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font cget12542392 Ref: 3e6d12542392 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font config12542470 Ref: 3e6e12542470 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font copy12542549 Ref: 3e6f12542549 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font measure12542627 Ref: 3e7012542627 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font Font metrics12542886 Ref: 3e7112542886 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font families12543463 Ref: 3e7212543463 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font names12543570 Ref: 3e7312543570 Ref: library/tkinter font tkinter font nametofont12543657 Ref: 190c12543657 Ref: tkinter font — Tkinter font wrapper-Footnote-112543881 Node: Tkinter Dialogs12543953 Ref: library/dialog doc12544139 Ref: 3e7412544139 Ref: library/dialog tkinter-dialogs12544139 Ref: 3e7512544139 Node: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs12544510 Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter simpledialog12544671 Ref: f812544671 Ref: library/dialog tkinter-simpledialog-standard-tkinter-input-dialogs12544671 Ref: 3e7612544671 Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askfloat12545074 Ref: 3e7712545074 Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askinteger12545140 Ref: 190d12545140 Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog askstring12545208 Ref: 3e7812545208 Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog12545388 Ref: 3e7912545388 Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog body12545490 Ref: 3e7a12545490 Ref: library/dialog tkinter simpledialog Dialog buttonbox12545644 Ref: 3e7b12545644 Ref: tkinter simpledialog — Standard Tkinter input dialogs-Footnote-112545815 Node: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs12545896 Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter filedialog12546114 Ref: f412546114 Ref: library/dialog tkinter-filedialog-file-selection-dialogs12546114 Ref: 3e7c12546114 Ref: tkinter filedialog — File selection dialogs-Footnote-112546547 Node: Native Load/Save Dialogs12546626 Ref: library/dialog native-load-save-dialogs12546732 Ref: 3e7d12546732 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfile12547741 Ref: 3e7e12547741 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfiles12547808 Ref: 3e7f12547808 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfile12548003 Ref: 3e8112548003 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilename12548172 Ref: 3e8312548172 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askopenfilenames12548233 Ref: 3e8412548233 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog asksaveasfilename12548444 Ref: 3e8512548444 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog askdirectory12548589 Ref: 3e8612548589 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Open12548815 Ref: 3e8012548815 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveAs12548875 Ref: 3e8212548875 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog Directory12549196 Ref: 3e8712549196 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog12549428 Ref: 3e8812549428 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog cancel_command12549535 Ref: 3e8912549535 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_double_event12549638 Ref: 3e8a12549638 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog dirs_select_event12549744 Ref: 3e8b12549744 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_double_event12549843 Ref: 3e8c12549843 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog files_select_event12549945 Ref: 3e8d12549945 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog filter_command12550047 Ref: 3e8e12550047 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_filter12550135 Ref: 3e8f12550135 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog get_selection12550221 Ref: 3e9012550221 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog go12550305 Ref: 3e9112550305 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog ok_event12550447 Ref: 3e9212550447 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog quit12550534 Ref: 3e9312550534 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_filter12550619 Ref: 3e9412550619 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog FileDialog set_selection12550691 Ref: 3e9512550691 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog12550786 Ref: 3e9612550786 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog LoadFileDialog ok_command12550950 Ref: 3e9712550950 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog12551091 Ref: 3e9812551091 Ref: library/dialog tkinter filedialog SaveFileDialog ok_command12551257 Ref: 3e9912551257 Node: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates12551469 Ref: library/dialog module-tkinter commondialog12551623 Ref: f212551623 Ref: library/dialog tkinter-commondialog-dialog-window-templates12551623 Ref: 3e9a12551623 Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog12552016 Ref: 3e6412552016 Ref: library/dialog tkinter commondialog Dialog show12552081 Ref: 3e9b12552081 Ref: tkinter commondialog — Dialog window templates-Footnote-112552286 Node: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts12552367 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox doc12552561 Ref: 3e9c12552561 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox module-tkinter messagebox12552561 Ref: f612552561 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter-messagebox-tkinter-message-prompts12552561 Ref: 3e9d12552561 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message12553262 Ref: 3ea212553262 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox Message show12555403 Ref: 3ea712555403 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showinfo12555708 Ref: 3ea812555708 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showwarning12555921 Ref: 3ea912555921 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox showerror12556107 Ref: 3eaa12556107 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askquestion12556316 Ref: 3eab12556316 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askokcancel12556566 Ref: 3eac12556566 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askretrycancel12556831 Ref: 3ead12556831 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesno12557105 Ref: 3eaf12557105 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox askyesnocancel12557342 Ref: 3eb012557342 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-buttons12557635 Ref: 3ea312557635 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORT12557663 Ref: 3eb112557663 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRY12557709 Ref: 3eae12557709 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox IGNORE12557755 Ref: 3eb212557755 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OK12557803 Ref: 3e9e12557803 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox CANCEL12557843 Ref: 3e9f12557843 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YES12557891 Ref: 3ea012557891 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox NO12557933 Ref: 3ea112557933 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-types12557972 Ref: 3ea612557972 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ABORTRETRYIGNORE12558001 Ref: 3eb312558001 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox OKCANCEL12558295 Ref: 3eb412558295 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox RETRYCANCEL12558444 Ref: 3eb512558444 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNO12558602 Ref: 3eb612558602 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox YESNOCANCEL12558742 Ref: 3eb712558742 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox messagebox-icons12558915 Ref: 3ea412558915 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox ERROR12558929 Ref: 3eb812558929 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox INFO12558975 Ref: 3ea512558975 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox QUESTION12559019 Ref: 3eb912559019 Ref: library/tkinter messagebox tkinter messagebox WARNING12559071 Ref: 3eba12559071 Ref: tkinter messagebox — Tkinter message prompts-Footnote-112559157 Node: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget12559236 Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext doc12559452 Ref: 3ebb12559452 Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext module-tkinter scrolledtext12559452 Ref: f712559452 Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter-scrolledtext-scrolled-text-widget12559452 Ref: 3ebc12559452 Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText12560365 Ref: 3ebd12560365 Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText frame12560431 Ref: 3ebe12560431 Ref: library/tkinter scrolledtext tkinter scrolledtext ScrolledText vbar12560528 Ref: 3ebf12560528 Ref: tkinter scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget-Footnote-112560624 Node: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support12560705 Ref: library/tkinter dnd doc12560908 Ref: 3ec012560908 Ref: library/tkinter dnd module-tkinter dnd12560908 Ref: f312560908 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter-dnd-drag-and-drop-support12560908 Ref: 3ec112560908 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler12562411 Ref: 3ec312562411 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler cancel12562599 Ref: 3ec412562599 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler finish12562682 Ref: 3ec512562682 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_motion12562776 Ref: 3ec612562776 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd DndHandler on_release12562902 Ref: 3ec712562902 Ref: library/tkinter dnd tkinter dnd dnd_start12563008 Ref: 3ec212563008 Ref: tkinter dnd — Drag and drop support-Footnote-112563200 Node: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets12563271 Ref: library/tkinter ttk doc12563464 Ref: 3ec812563464 Ref: library/tkinter ttk module-tkinter ttk12563464 Ref: f912563464 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter-ttk-tk-themed-widgets12563464 Ref: 3ec912563464 Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets-Footnote-112564383 Ref: tkinter ttk — Tk themed widgets-Footnote-212564454 Node: Using Ttk12564507 Ref: library/tkinter ttk using-ttk12564606 Ref: 3eca12564606 Ref: Using Ttk-Footnote-112565762 Node: Ttk Widgets12565826 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widgets12565940 Ref: 3ecb12565940 Node: Widget12567048 Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget12567161 Ref: 3ed112567161 Node: Standard Options12567478 Ref: library/tkinter ttk standard-options12567571 Ref: 3ed212567571 Node: Scrollable Widget Options12569112 Ref: library/tkinter ttk scrollable-widget-options12569227 Ref: 3ed312569227 Node: Label Options12570260 Ref: library/tkinter ttk label-options12570380 Ref: 3ed412570380 Node: Compatibility Options12572714 Ref: library/tkinter ttk compatibility-options12572822 Ref: 3ed512572822 Node: Widget States12573313 Ref: library/tkinter ttk widget-states12573418 Ref: 3ed712573418 Node: ttk Widget12574922 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-widget12574997 Ref: 3ed812574997 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget12575184 Ref: 3ecf12575184 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget identify12575215 Ref: 3ed912575215 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget instate12575458 Ref: 3eda12575458 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Widget state12575802 Ref: 3ed612575802 Node: Combobox12576190 Ref: library/tkinter ttk combobox12576299 Ref: 3edb12576299 Node: Options12576994 Ref: library/tkinter ttk options12577069 Ref: 3edc12577069 Node: Virtual events12579360 Ref: library/tkinter ttk virtual-events12579456 Ref: 3edd12579456 Node: ttk Combobox12579636 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-combobox12579716 Ref: 3ede12579716 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox12579763 Ref: 3ecc12579763 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox current12579796 Ref: 3edf12579796 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox get12580072 Ref: 3ee012580072 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Combobox set12580151 Ref: 3ee112580151 Node: Spinbox12580235 Ref: library/tkinter ttk spinbox12580346 Ref: 3ee212580346 Node: Options<2>12581106 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id112581186 Ref: 3ee312581186 Node: Virtual events<2>12583572 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id212583672 Ref: 3ee412583672 Node: ttk Spinbox12583880 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-spinbox12583961 Ref: 3ee512583961 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox12584006 Ref: b9412584006 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox get12584038 Ref: 3ee612584038 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Spinbox set12584116 Ref: 3ee712584116 Node: Notebook12584199 Ref: library/tkinter ttk notebook12584313 Ref: 3ee812584313 Node: Options<3>12584673 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id312584748 Ref: 3ee912584748 Node: Tab Options12585823 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-options12585922 Ref: 3eea12585922 Node: Tab Identifiers12587807 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tab-identifiers12587910 Ref: 3eec12587910 Node: Virtual Events12588444 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id412588548 Ref: 3eee12588548 Node: ttk Notebook12588692 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-notebook12588772 Ref: 3eef12588772 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook12588819 Ref: 3ecd12588819 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook add12588852 Ref: 3ef012588852 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook forget12589137 Ref: 3ef112589137 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook hide12589275 Ref: 3ef212589275 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook identify12589585 Ref: 3ef312589585 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook index12589727 Ref: 3eed12589727 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook insert12589906 Ref: 3ef412589906 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook select12590291 Ref: 3ef512590291 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tab12590605 Ref: 3ef612590605 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook tabs12590951 Ref: 3ef712590951 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Notebook enable_traversal12591039 Ref: 3eeb12591039 Node: Progressbar12591890 Ref: library/tkinter ttk progressbar12592006 Ref: 3ef812592006 Node: Options<4>12592447 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id512592529 Ref: 3ef912592529 Node: ttk Progressbar12594229 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-progressbar12594311 Ref: 3efa12594311 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar12594364 Ref: 3ece12594364 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar start12594400 Ref: 3efb12594400 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar step12594668 Ref: 3efc12594668 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Progressbar stop12594815 Ref: 3efd12594815 Node: Separator12595000 Ref: library/tkinter ttk separator12595116 Ref: 3efe12595116 Node: Options<5>12595346 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id612595402 Ref: 3eff12595402 Node: Sizegrip12595756 Ref: library/tkinter ttk sizegrip12595869 Ref: 3f0012595869 Node: Platform-specific notes12596219 Ref: library/tkinter ttk platform-specific-notes12596300 Ref: 3f0112596300 Node: Bugs12596556 Ref: library/tkinter ttk bugs12596637 Ref: 3f0212596637 Node: Treeview12596910 Ref: library/tkinter ttk treeview12597025 Ref: 3f0312597025 Node: Options<6>12598383 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id712598459 Ref: 3f0712598459 Node: Item Options12600875 Ref: library/tkinter ttk item-options12600971 Ref: 3f0812600971 Node: Tag Options12602027 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tag-options12602131 Ref: 3f0912602131 Node: Column Identifiers12602781 Ref: library/tkinter ttk column-identifiers12602890 Ref: 3f0412602890 Node: Virtual Events<2>12603762 Ref: library/tkinter ttk id812603872 Ref: 3f0a12603872 Node: ttk Treeview12604704 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-treeview12604787 Ref: 3f0c12604787 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview12604834 Ref: a9412604834 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview bbox12604867 Ref: 3f0d12604867 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview get_children12605304 Ref: 3f0e12605304 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set_children12605470 Ref: 3f0f12605470 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview column12605862 Ref: 3f1012605862 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview delete12607107 Ref: 3f1112607107 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview detach12607253 Ref: 3f1212607253 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview exists12607564 Ref: 3f1312607564 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview focus12607674 Ref: 3f0b12607674 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview heading12607867 Ref: 3f1412607867 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify12608858 Ref: 3f1512608858 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_row12609095 Ref: 3f1612609095 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_column12609190 Ref: 3f1712609190 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_region12609351 Ref: 3f1812609351 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview identify_element12609987 Ref: 3f1912609987 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview index12610115 Ref: 3f1a12610115 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview insert12610243 Ref: 3f1b12610243 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview item12611141 Ref: 3f1c12611141 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview move12611519 Ref: 3f1d12611519 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview next12611957 Ref: 3f1e12611957 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview parent12612112 Ref: 3f1f12612112 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview prev12612263 Ref: 3f2012612263 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview reattach12612423 Ref: 3f2112612423 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview see12612525 Ref: 3f2212612525 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection12612781 Ref: a9312612781 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_set12613029 Ref: a9512613029 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_add12613234 Ref: 3f2312613234 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_remove12613434 Ref: 3f2412613434 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview selection_toggle12613642 Ref: 3f2512613642 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview set12613867 Ref: 3f2612613867 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_bind12614232 Ref: 3f2712614232 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_configure12614502 Ref: 3f2812614502 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview tag_has12614931 Ref: 3f2912614931 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview xview12615216 Ref: 3f0512615216 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Treeview yview12615312 Ref: 3f0612615312 Node: Ttk Styling12615406 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttk-styling12615504 Ref: 3f2a12615504 Ref: library/tkinter ttk ttkstyling12615504 Ref: 3ed012615504 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style12616096 Ref: 25b12616096 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style configure12616185 Ref: 3f2b12616185 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style map12616912 Ref: 191d12616912 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style lookup12618177 Ref: 3f2c12618177 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style layout12618698 Ref: 3f2d12618698 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_create12620010 Ref: 25a12620010 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_names12625383 Ref: 3f2f12625383 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style element_options12625488 Ref: 3f3012625488 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_create12625594 Ref: 3f3112625594 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_settings12626007 Ref: 3f3212626007 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_names12627483 Ref: 3f3312627483 Ref: library/tkinter ttk tkinter ttk Style theme_use12627563 Ref: 3f3412627563 Ref: Ttk Styling-Footnote-112627860 Node: Layouts12627922 Ref: library/tkinter ttk layouts12627977 Ref: 3f2e12627977 Ref: library/tkinter ttk layout12629049 Ref: 3f3512629049 Node: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>12629050 Ref: library/idle doc12629197 Ref: 3f3612629197 Ref: library/idle idle12629197 Ref: 100e12629197 Ref: library/idle idle-python-editor-and-shell12629197 Ref: 3f3712629197 Ref: IDLE — Python editor and shell<2>-Footnote-112630252 Node: Menus12630317 Ref: library/idle menus12630425 Ref: 3f3812630425 Node: File menu Shell and Editor12631707 Ref: library/idle file-menu-shell-and-editor12631810 Ref: 3f3912631810 Node: Edit menu Shell and Editor12633660 Ref: library/idle edit-menu-shell-and-editor12633802 Ref: 3f3a12633802 Node: Format menu Editor window only12635543 Ref: library/idle format-menu12635686 Ref: 3f3d12635686 Ref: library/idle format-menu-editor-window-only12635686 Ref: 3f3e12635686 Node: Run menu Editor window only12637055 Ref: library/idle run-menu-editor-window-only12637200 Ref: 3f3f12637200 Ref: library/idle run-module12637279 Ref: 3f4012637279 Ref: library/idle run-custom12637771 Ref: 3f4212637771 Ref: library/idle check-module12638031 Ref: 3f4112638031 Ref: library/idle python-shell12638375 Ref: 3f4312638375 Node: Shell menu Shell window only12638437 Ref: library/idle shell-menu-shell-window-only12638580 Ref: 3f4412638580 Node: Debug menu Shell window only12639097 Ref: library/idle debug-menu-shell-window-only12639242 Ref: 3f4512639242 Node: Options menu Shell and Editor12640198 Ref: library/idle options-menu-shell-and-editor12640343 Ref: 3f4612640343 Node: Window menu Shell and Editor12641960 Ref: library/idle window-menu-shell-and-editor12642103 Ref: 3f4912642103 Node: Help menu Shell and Editor12642295 Ref: library/idle help-menu-shell-and-editor12642422 Ref: 3f4a12642422 Node: Context menus12643142 Ref: library/idle context-menus12643232 Ref: 3f4c12643232 Node: Editing and Navigation12644406 Ref: library/idle editing-and-navigation12644549 Ref: 3f4d12644549 Ref: library/idle id112644549 Ref: 3f4e12644549 Node: Editor windows12644790 Ref: library/idle editor-windows12644884 Ref: 3f4f12644884 Node: Key bindings12645506 Ref: library/idle key-bindings12645630 Ref: 3f5012645630 Node: Automatic indentation12647049 Ref: library/idle automatic-indentation12647177 Ref: 3f5112647177 Node: Search and Replace12647757 Ref: library/idle search-and-replace12647884 Ref: 3f5212647884 Node: Completions12648218 Ref: library/idle completions12648332 Ref: 3f3b12648332 Ref: library/idle id212648332 Ref: 3f5312648332 Node: Calltips12650982 Ref: library/idle calltips12651090 Ref: 3f3c12651090 Ref: library/idle id312651090 Ref: 3f5412651090 Node: Code Context12652716 Ref: library/idle code-context12652825 Ref: 3f4812652825 Ref: library/idle id412652825 Ref: 3f5512652825 Node: Shell window12653713 Ref: library/idle shell-window12653825 Ref: 3f5612653825 Node: Text colors12655504 Ref: library/idle text-colors12655595 Ref: 3f5712655595 Node: Startup and Code Execution12656628 Ref: library/idle startup-and-code-execution12656786 Ref: 3f5812656786 Node: Command line usage12657917 Ref: library/idle command-line-usage12658022 Ref: 3f5912658022 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-c12658253 Ref: 3f5a12658253 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-d12658465 Ref: 3f5b12658465 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-e12658534 Ref: 3f5c12658534 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-h12658579 Ref: 3f5d12658579 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-i12658667 Ref: 3f5e12658667 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-r12658710 Ref: 3f5f12658710 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-s12658783 Ref: 3f6012658783 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-t12658958 Ref: 3f6112658958 Ref: library/idle cmdoption-idle-012659023 Ref: 3f6212659023 Node: Startup failure12659610 Ref: library/idle startup-failure12659741 Ref: 3f6312659741 Node: Running user code12662928 Ref: library/idle running-user-code12663061 Ref: 3f6412663061 Node: User output in Shell12665845 Ref: library/idle user-output-in-shell12665994 Ref: 3f6512665994 Node: Developing tkinter applications12669080 Ref: library/idle developing-tkinter-applications12669240 Ref: 3f6612669240 Node: Running without a subprocess12670489 Ref: library/idle running-without-a-subprocess12670620 Ref: 3f6712670620 Node: Help and Preferences12672002 Ref: library/idle help-and-preferences12672184 Ref: 3f6812672184 Node: Help sources12672331 Ref: library/idle help-sources12672428 Ref: 3f4b12672428 Ref: library/idle id512672428 Ref: 3f6912672428 Node: Setting preferences12673298 Ref: library/idle preferences12673417 Ref: 3f4712673417 Ref: library/idle setting-preferences12673417 Ref: 3f6a12673417 Node: IDLE on macOS12674426 Ref: library/idle idle-on-macos12674543 Ref: 3f6b12674543 Node: Extensions12674810 Ref: library/idle extensions12674899 Ref: 3f6c12674899 Node: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application12675250 Ref: library/idle idlelib-implementation-of-idle-application12675397 Ref: 3f6d12675397 Ref: library/idle module-idlelib12675397 Ref: 7312675397 Ref: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application-Footnote-112676105 Ref: idlelib — implementation of IDLE application-Footnote-212676169 Node: Development Tools12676211 Ref: library/development doc12676366 Ref: 3f6e12676366 Ref: library/development development12676366 Ref: 3f6f12676366 Ref: library/development development-tools12676366 Ref: 3f7012676366 Node: typing — Support for type hints12678296 Ref: library/typing doc12678448 Ref: 3f7112678448 Ref: library/typing typing-support-for-type-hints12678448 Ref: 3f7212678448 Ref: library/typing module-typing12678537 Ref: 10412678537 Ref: typing — Support for type hints-Footnote-112680669 Ref: typing — Support for type hints-Footnote-212680735 Ref: typing — Support for type hints-Footnote-312680787 Ref: typing — Support for type hints-Footnote-412680854 Ref: typing — Support for type hints-Footnote-512680911 Node: Specification for the Python Type System12680956 Ref: library/typing relevant-peps12681087 Ref: 3f7312681087 Ref: library/typing specification-for-the-python-type-system12681087 Ref: 3f7412681087 Ref: Specification for the Python Type System-Footnote-112681352 Node: Type aliases12681412 Ref: library/typing id212681559 Ref: 3f7512681559 Ref: library/typing type-aliases12681559 Ref: 44f12681559 Node: NewType12683064 Ref: library/typing distinct12683198 Ref: 3f7612683198 Ref: library/typing newtype12683198 Ref: 3f7712683198 Ref: NewType-Footnote-112686295 Node: Annotating callable objects12686337 Ref: library/typing annotating-callable-objects12686467 Ref: 3f7812686467 Ref: library/typing annotating-callables12686467 Ref: 253312686467 Ref: Annotating callable objects-Footnote-112689558 Node: Generics12689600 Ref: library/typing generics12689740 Ref: 1f7f12689740 Ref: library/typing id312689740 Ref: 3f7a12689740 Node: Annotating tuples12691045 Ref: library/typing annotating-tuples12691183 Ref: 3f7b12691183 Ref: library/typing id412691183 Ref: 3f7c12691183 Node: The type of class objects12693530 Ref: library/typing the-type-of-class-objects12693696 Ref: 3f7d12693696 Ref: library/typing type-of-class-objects12693696 Ref: 3f7e12693696 Node: Annotating generators and coroutines12695375 Ref: library/typing annotating-generators-and-coroutines12695550 Ref: 253412695550 Ref: library/typing id512695550 Ref: 3f8012695550 Node: User-defined generic types12698117 Ref: library/typing user-defined-generic-types12698279 Ref: 3f8112698279 Ref: library/typing user-defined-generics12698279 Ref: 4cb12698279 Ref: User-defined generic types-Footnote-112704194 Node: The Any type12704236 Ref: library/typing the-any-type12704393 Ref: 3f8312704393 Node: Nominal vs structural subtyping12707028 Ref: library/typing nominal-vs-structural-subtyping12707177 Ref: 3f8412707177 Ref: Nominal vs structural subtyping-Footnote-112708853 Ref: Nominal vs structural subtyping-Footnote-212708895 Ref: Nominal vs structural subtyping-Footnote-312708937 Node: Module contents<3>12708979 Ref: library/typing module-contents12709154 Ref: 3f8512709154 Node: Special typing primitives12709476 Ref: library/typing special-typing-primitives12709577 Ref: 3f8612709577 Node: Special types12709769 Ref: library/typing special-types12709866 Ref: 3f8712709866 Ref: library/typing typing Any12710009 Ref: 6a812710009 Ref: library/typing typing AnyStr12710406 Ref: 2b412710406 Ref: library/typing typing LiteralString12712221 Ref: 5c612712221 Ref: library/typing typing Never12713445 Ref: 6a412713445 Ref: library/typing typing NoReturn12713468 Ref: 3f8912713468 Ref: library/typing typing Self12714707 Ref: 5c312714707 Ref: library/typing typing TypeAlias12716638 Ref: 7c412716638 Ref: Special types-Footnote-112718269 Ref: Special types-Footnote-212718311 Ref: Special types-Footnote-312718353 Ref: Special types-Footnote-412718403 Ref: Special types-Footnote-512718445 Node: Special forms12718487 Ref: library/typing special-forms12718632 Ref: 3f8a12718632 Ref: library/typing typing Union12718802 Ref: 63712718802 Ref: library/typing typing Optional12720219 Ref: 6af12720219 Ref: library/typing typing Concatenate12721030 Ref: 7bf12721030 Ref: library/typing typing Literal12723424 Ref: 85112723424 Ref: library/typing typing ClassVar12725518 Ref: 26812725518 Ref: library/typing typing Final12726718 Ref: 26912726718 Ref: library/typing typing Required12727465 Ref: 5c012727465 Ref: library/typing typing NotRequired12727733 Ref: 5c112727733 Ref: library/typing typing ReadOnly12727953 Ref: 16112727953 Ref: library/typing typing Annotated12728482 Ref: 93d12728482 Ref: library/typing typing TypeIs12734245 Ref: 16312734245 Ref: library/typing typing TypeGuard12738051 Ref: 16412738051 Ref: library/typing typing Unpack12740472 Ref: 162f12740472 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-112742179 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-212742221 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-312742263 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-412742305 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-512742347 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-612742389 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-712742431 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-812742473 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-912742515 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-1012742557 Ref: Special forms-Footnote-1112742600 Node: Building generic types and type aliases12742643 Ref: library/typing building-generic-types-and-type-aliases12742799 Ref: 3f8c12742799 Ref: library/typing typing Generic12743310 Ref: 161912743310 Ref: library/typing typevar12744515 Ref: 3f8212744515 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar12744515 Ref: 15d12744515 Ref: library/typing typing-constrained-typevar12748039 Ref: 3f8812748039 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __name__12748657 Ref: 3f8d12748657 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __covariant__12748729 Ref: 3f8e12748729 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __contravariant__12748837 Ref: 3f8f12748837 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __infer_variance__12748963 Ref: 3f9012748963 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __bound__12749134 Ref: 3f9112749134 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __constraints__12749490 Ref: 3f9212749490 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar __default__12749888 Ref: 3f9312749888 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVar has_default12750070 Ref: 3f9412750070 Ref: library/typing typevartuple12750717 Ref: 3f8b12750717 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVarTuple12750717 Ref: 15f12750717 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVarTuple __name__12754981 Ref: 3f9512754981 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVarTuple __default__12755059 Ref: 3f9612755059 Ref: library/typing typing TypeVarTuple has_default12755247 Ref: 3f9712755247 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpec12755890 Ref: 15e12755890 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpec args12758386 Ref: 3f9912758386 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpec kwargs12758412 Ref: 3f9a12758412 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpec __name__12759176 Ref: 3f9b12759176 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpec __default__12759258 Ref: 3f9c12759258 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpec has_default12759450 Ref: 3f9d12759450 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpecArgs12760791 Ref: 7c112760791 Ref: library/typing typing ParamSpecKwargs12760822 Ref: 7c212760822 Ref: library/typing typing TypeAliasType12761537 Ref: 45012761537 Ref: library/typing typing TypeAliasType __name__12761830 Ref: 3f9e12761830 Ref: library/typing typing TypeAliasType __module__12761993 Ref: 3f9f12761993 Ref: library/typing typing TypeAliasType __type_params__12762183 Ref: 3fa012762183 Ref: library/typing typing TypeAliasType __value__12762554 Ref: 3fa112762554 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-112763150 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-212763192 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-312763234 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-412763276 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-512763318 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-612763360 Ref: Building generic types and type aliases-Footnote-712763402 Node: Other special directives12763444 Ref: library/typing other-special-directives12763578 Ref: 3fa212763578 Ref: library/typing typing NamedTuple12763804 Ref: 2b212763804 Ref: library/typing typing NewType12767000 Ref: cf512767000 Ref: library/typing typing NewType __module__12767441 Ref: 3fa312767441 Ref: library/typing typing NewType __name__12767529 Ref: 3fa412767529 Ref: library/typing typing NewType __supertype__12767596 Ref: 3fa512767596 Ref: library/typing typing Protocol12767801 Ref: 26612767801 Ref: library/typing typing runtime_checkable12769182 Ref: 43e12769182 Ref: library/typing typing TypedDict12771862 Ref: 16212771862 Ref: library/typing typing TypedDict __total__12776571 Ref: 3fa612776571 Ref: library/typing typing TypedDict __required_keys__12777635 Ref: 3fa712777635 Ref: library/typing typing TypedDict __optional_keys__12777707 Ref: 3fa812777707 Ref: library/typing typing TypedDict __readonly_keys__12779520 Ref: 3fa912779520 Ref: library/typing typing TypedDict __mutable_keys__12779762 Ref: 3faa12779762 Ref: Other special directives-Footnote-112781114 Ref: Other special directives-Footnote-212781156 Ref: Other special directives-Footnote-312781198 Ref: Other special directives-Footnote-412781240 Node: Protocols<3>12781282 Ref: library/typing protocols12781416 Ref: 3fab12781416 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsAbs12781578 Ref: 3fac12781578 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsBytes12781704 Ref: 5e612781704 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsComplex12781792 Ref: 5e512781792 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsFloat12781884 Ref: 3fad12781884 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsIndex12781972 Ref: a4512781972 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsInt12782088 Ref: a4412782088 Ref: library/typing typing SupportsRound12782172 Ref: 3fae12782172 Node: ABCs for working with IO12782302 Ref: library/typing abcs-for-working-with-io12782435 Ref: 3faf12782435 Ref: library/typing typing IO12782506 Ref: 72612782506 Ref: library/typing typing TextIO12782527 Ref: 3fb012782527 Ref: library/typing typing BinaryIO12782552 Ref: 3fb112782552 Node: Functions and decorators12782771 Ref: library/typing functions-and-decorators12782913 Ref: 3fb212782913 Ref: library/typing typing cast12782984 Ref: 3f9812782984 Ref: library/typing typing assert_type12783285 Ref: 6a712783285 Ref: library/typing typing assert_never12784380 Ref: 6a312784380 Ref: library/typing typing reveal_type12785785 Ref: 6a612785785 Ref: library/typing typing dataclass_transform12786979 Ref: 4d012786979 Ref: library/typing overload12793011 Ref: 3f7912793011 Ref: library/typing typing overload12793011 Ref: 3fb312793011 Ref: library/typing typing get_overloads12794542 Ref: 6aa12794542 Ref: library/typing typing clear_overloads12795217 Ref: 6ab12795217 Ref: library/typing typing final12795417 Ref: 6a912795417 Ref: library/typing typing no_type_check12796678 Ref: 6b012796678 Ref: library/typing typing no_type_check_decorator12797166 Ref: 2b312797166 Ref: library/typing typing override12797632 Ref: 44612797632 Ref: library/typing typing type_check_only12798978 Ref: 3fb412798978 Ref: Functions and decorators-Footnote-112799686 Ref: Functions and decorators-Footnote-212799754 Ref: Functions and decorators-Footnote-312799796 Ref: Functions and decorators-Footnote-412799838 Ref: Functions and decorators-Footnote-512799880 Node: Introspection helpers12799922 Ref: library/typing introspection-helpers12800048 Ref: 3fb512800048 Ref: library/typing typing get_type_hints12800113 Ref: 6ad12800113 Ref: library/typing typing get_origin12802650 Ref: a4612802650 Ref: library/typing typing get_args12803510 Ref: 87c12803510 Ref: library/typing typing get_protocol_members12804152 Ref: 26512804152 Ref: library/typing typing is_protocol12804610 Ref: 26712804610 Ref: library/typing typing is_typeddict12804916 Ref: 85212804916 Ref: library/typing typing ForwardRef12805362 Ref: 184312805362 Ref: library/typing typing NoDefault12805972 Ref: 26412805972 Ref: Introspection helpers-Footnote-112806360 Ref: Introspection helpers-Footnote-212806402 Node: Constant12806444 Ref: library/typing constant12806564 Ref: 3fb612806564 Ref: library/typing typing TYPE_CHECKING12806603 Ref: cf412806603 Ref: library/typing generic-concrete-collections12807617 Ref: 3fb712807617 Ref: Constant-Footnote-112807653 Node: Deprecated aliases12807695 Ref: library/typing deprecated-aliases12807785 Ref: 3fb812807785 Ref: library/typing id612807785 Ref: 3fb912807785 Ref: Deprecated aliases-Footnote-112809369 Node: Aliases to built-in types12809411 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-built-in-types12809531 Ref: 3fba12809531 Ref: library/typing corresponding-to-built-in-types12809531 Ref: 3fbb12809531 Ref: library/typing typing Dict12809604 Ref: 3fbc12809604 Ref: library/typing typing List12810049 Ref: 3fbd12810049 Ref: library/typing typing Set12810517 Ref: 3fbe12810517 Ref: library/typing typing FrozenSet12810975 Ref: 3fbf12810975 Ref: library/typing typing Tuple12811258 Ref: 3fc012811258 Ref: library/typing typing Type12811625 Ref: 3f7f12811625 Ref: Aliases to built-in types-Footnote-112812070 Ref: Aliases to built-in types-Footnote-212812112 Ref: Aliases to built-in types-Footnote-312812154 Ref: Aliases to built-in types-Footnote-412812196 Ref: Aliases to built-in types-Footnote-512812238 Ref: Aliases to built-in types-Footnote-612812280 Node: Aliases to types in collections12812322 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-types-in-collections12812482 Ref: 3fc112812482 Ref: library/typing corresponding-to-types-in-collections12812482 Ref: 3fc212812482 Ref: library/typing typing DefaultDict12812575 Ref: 3fc312812575 Ref: library/typing typing OrderedDict12812931 Ref: 3fc412812931 Ref: library/typing typing ChainMap12813285 Ref: 3fc512813285 Ref: library/typing typing Counter12813627 Ref: 3fc612813627 Ref: library/typing typing Deque12813947 Ref: 3fc712813947 Ref: Aliases to types in collections-Footnote-112814287 Ref: Aliases to types in collections-Footnote-212814329 Ref: Aliases to types in collections-Footnote-312814371 Ref: Aliases to types in collections-Footnote-412814413 Ref: Aliases to types in collections-Footnote-512814455 Node: Aliases to other concrete types12814497 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-other-concrete-types12814676 Ref: 3fc812814676 Ref: library/typing other-concrete-types12814676 Ref: 3fc912814676 Ref: library/typing typing Pattern12814761 Ref: 72712814761 Ref: library/typing typing Match12814787 Ref: 3fca12814787 Ref: library/typing typing Text12815368 Ref: 30512815368 Ref: library/typing abstract-base-classes12816130 Ref: 3fcb12816130 Ref: Aliases to other concrete types-Footnote-112816166 Node: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc12816208 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-container-abcs-in-collections-abc12816403 Ref: 3fcc12816403 Ref: library/typing corresponding-to-collections-in-collections-abc12816403 Ref: 3fcd12816403 Ref: library/typing typing AbstractSet12816522 Ref: 3fce12816522 Ref: library/typing typing ByteString12816799 Ref: 2d712816799 Ref: library/typing typing Collection12817148 Ref: cf312817148 Ref: library/typing typing Container12817486 Ref: 3fcf12817486 Ref: library/typing typing ItemsView12817770 Ref: 3fd012817770 Ref: library/typing typing KeysView12818096 Ref: 3fd112818096 Ref: library/typing typing Mapping12818395 Ref: 3fd212818395 Ref: library/typing typing MappingView12818692 Ref: 3fd312818692 Ref: library/typing typing MutableMapping12818974 Ref: 3fd412818974 Ref: library/typing typing MutableSequence12819275 Ref: 3fd512819275 Ref: library/typing typing MutableSet12819573 Ref: 3fd612819573 Ref: library/typing typing Sequence12819862 Ref: 3fd712819862 Ref: library/typing typing ValuesView12820165 Ref: 3fd812820165 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-112820507 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-212820549 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-312820591 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-412820633 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-512820675 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-612820717 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-712820759 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-812820801 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-912820843 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-1012820885 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-1112820928 Ref: Aliases to container ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-1212820971 Node: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc12821014 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-asynchronous-abcs-in-collections-abc12821218 Ref: 3fd912821218 Ref: library/typing asynchronous-programming12821218 Ref: 3fda12821218 Ref: library/typing typing Coroutine12821343 Ref: 194a12821343 Ref: library/typing typing AsyncGenerator12821892 Ref: 162c12821892 Ref: library/typing typing AsyncIterable12822541 Ref: 3fdb12822541 Ref: library/typing typing AsyncIterator12822865 Ref: 3fdc12822865 Ref: library/typing typing Awaitable12823195 Ref: 3fdd12823195 Ref: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-112823543 Ref: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-212823585 Ref: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-312823627 Ref: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-412823669 Ref: Aliases to asynchronous ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-512823711 Node: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc12823753 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-other-abcs-in-collections-abc12823939 Ref: 3fde12823939 Ref: library/typing corresponding-to-other-types-in-collections-abc12823939 Ref: 3fdf12823939 Ref: library/typing typing Iterable12824050 Ref: 3fe012824050 Ref: library/typing typing Iterator12824331 Ref: 3fe112824331 Ref: library/typing typing Callable12824613 Ref: 7c012824613 Ref: library/typing typing Generator12825194 Ref: 162b12825194 Ref: library/typing typing Hashable12825804 Ref: 4ef12825804 Ref: library/typing typing Reversible12825996 Ref: 3fe212825996 Ref: library/typing typing Sized12826282 Ref: 4f012826282 Ref: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-112826501 Ref: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-212826543 Ref: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-312826585 Ref: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-412826627 Ref: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-512826669 Ref: Aliases to other ABCs in collections abc-Footnote-612826711 Node: Aliases to contextlib ABCs12826753 Ref: library/typing aliases-to-contextlib-abcs12826883 Ref: 3fe312826883 Ref: library/typing context-manager-types12826883 Ref: 3fe412826883 Ref: library/typing typing ContextManager12826966 Ref: c8e12826966 Ref: library/typing typing AsyncContextManager12827688 Ref: 162912827688 Ref: Aliases to contextlib ABCs-Footnote-112828477 Ref: Aliases to contextlib ABCs-Footnote-212828519 Node: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features12828561 Ref: library/typing deprecation-timeline-of-major-features12828696 Ref: 3fe512828696 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-112831452 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-212831494 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-312831549 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-412831604 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-512831659 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-612831701 Ref: Deprecation Timeline of Major Features-Footnote-712831757 Node: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system12831813 Ref: library/pydoc doc12831997 Ref: 3fe612831997 Ref: library/pydoc module-pydoc12831997 Ref: b512831997 Ref: library/pydoc pydoc-documentation-generator-and-online-help-system12831997 Ref: 3fe712831997 Ref: pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system-Footnote-112836986 Node: Python Development Mode12837051 Ref: library/devmode doc12837246 Ref: 3fe812837246 Ref: library/devmode devmode12837246 Ref: 1fa12837246 Ref: library/devmode python-development-mode12837246 Ref: 3fe912837246 Node: Effects of the Python Development Mode12837881 Ref: library/devmode effects-of-the-python-development-mode12838011 Ref: 3fea12838011 Node: ResourceWarning Example12841708 Ref: library/devmode resourcewarning-example12841880 Ref: 3feb12841880 Node: Bad file descriptor error example12843792 Ref: library/devmode bad-file-descriptor-error-example12843917 Ref: 3fec12843917 Ref: Bad file descriptor error example-Footnote-112845452 Node: doctest — Test interactive Python examples12845517 Ref: library/doctest doc12845691 Ref: 3fed12845691 Ref: library/doctest doctest-test-interactive-python-examples12845691 Ref: 3fee12845691 Ref: library/doctest module-doctest12845691 Ref: 3a12845691 Ref: doctest — Test interactive Python examples-Footnote-112849829 Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in Docstrings12849896 Ref: library/doctest doctest-simple-testmod12850075 Ref: 3fef12850075 Ref: library/doctest simple-usage-checking-examples-in-docstrings12850075 Ref: 3ff012850075 Node: Simple Usage Checking Examples in a Text File12851498 Ref: library/doctest doctest-simple-testfile12851704 Ref: 3ff312851704 Ref: library/doctest simple-usage-checking-examples-in-a-text-file12851704 Ref: 3ff412851704 Node: Command-line Usage12853750 Ref: library/doctest command-line-usage12853924 Ref: 3ff612853924 Ref: library/doctest doctest-cli12853924 Ref: 3ff112853924 Ref: library/doctest cmdoption-doctest-v12854124 Ref: 3ff712854124 Ref: library/doctest cmdoption-doctest-verbose12854124 Ref: 3ff812854124 Ref: library/doctest cmdoption-doctest-o12854732 Ref: 3ff912854732 Ref: library/doctest cmdoption-doctest-option12854732 Ref: 3ffa12854732 Ref: library/doctest cmdoption-doctest-f12854905 Ref: 3ffb12854905 Ref: library/doctest cmdoption-doctest-fail-fast12854905 Ref: 3ffc12854905 Node: How It Works12855010 Ref: library/doctest doctest-how-it-works12855148 Ref: 3ffd12855148 Ref: library/doctest how-it-works12855148 Ref: 3ffe12855148 Node: Which Docstrings Are Examined?12855803 Ref: library/doctest doctest-which-docstrings12855929 Ref: 3fff12855929 Ref: library/doctest which-docstrings-are-examined12855929 Ref: 400012855929 Ref: library/doctest module __test__12856145 Ref: 400112856145 Node: How are Docstring Examples Recognized?12857423 Ref: library/doctest doctest-finding-examples12857589 Ref: 400212857589 Ref: library/doctest how-are-docstring-examples-recognized12857589 Ref: 400312857589 Node: What’s the Execution Context?12860705 Ref: library/doctest doctest-execution-context12860863 Ref: 400712860863 Ref: library/doctest what-s-the-execution-context12860863 Ref: 400812860863 Node: What About Exceptions?12861581 Ref: library/doctest doctest-exceptions12861713 Ref: 400912861713 Ref: library/doctest what-about-exceptions12861713 Ref: 400a12861713 Ref: library/doctest option-flags-and-directives12866260 Ref: 400b12866260 Ref: What About Exceptions?-Footnote-112866297 Node: Option Flags12866497 Ref: library/doctest doctest-options12866608 Ref: f2e12866608 Ref: library/doctest option-flags12866608 Ref: 400c12866608 Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_TRUE_FOR_112867171 Ref: 400d12867171 Ref: library/doctest doctest DONT_ACCEPT_BLANKLINE12867799 Ref: 400e12867799 Ref: library/doctest doctest NORMALIZE_WHITESPACE12868252 Ref: 400412868252 Ref: library/doctest doctest ELLIPSIS12868742 Ref: 143712868742 Ref: library/doctest doctest IGNORE_EXCEPTION_DETAIL12869178 Ref: 12fc12869178 Ref: library/doctest doctest SKIP12870642 Ref: 400f12870642 Ref: library/doctest doctest COMPARISON_FLAGS12871156 Ref: 401012871156 Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_UDIFF12871328 Ref: 143812871328 Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_CDIFF12871484 Ref: 143912871484 Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_NDIFF12871644 Ref: 143a12871644 Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORT_ONLY_FIRST_FAILURE12872108 Ref: 401112872108 Ref: library/doctest doctest FAIL_FAST12872687 Ref: f2f12872687 Ref: library/doctest doctest REPORTING_FLAGS12873025 Ref: 401212873025 Ref: library/doctest doctest register_optionflag12873282 Ref: 401312873282 Node: Directives12873772 Ref: library/doctest directives12873872 Ref: 401612873872 Ref: library/doctest doctest-directives12873872 Ref: 400512873872 Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-directive12874099 Ref: 401712874099 Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-directive_options12874176 Ref: 401812874176 Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-directive_option12874274 Ref: 401912874274 Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-on_or_off12874363 Ref: 401a12874363 Ref: library/doctest grammar-token-doctest-directive_option_name12874404 Ref: 401b12874404 Node: Warnings<2>12876505 Ref: library/doctest doctest-warnings12876584 Ref: 401c12876584 Ref: library/doctest warnings12876584 Ref: 401d12876584 Node: Basic API12878336 Ref: library/doctest basic-api12878468 Ref: 401e12878468 Ref: library/doctest doctest-basic-api12878468 Ref: 3ff212878468 Ref: library/doctest doctest testfile12878852 Ref: 3ff512878852 Ref: library/doctest doctest testmod12882797 Ref: 143612882797 Ref: library/doctest doctest run_docstring_examples12884521 Ref: 402012884521 Node: Unittest API12885499 Ref: library/doctest doctest-unittest-api12885631 Ref: 402112885631 Ref: library/doctest unittest-api12885631 Ref: 402212885631 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocFileSuite12886406 Ref: 402412886406 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestSuite12890273 Ref: df212890273 Ref: library/doctest doctest set_unittest_reportflags12893605 Ref: 402712893605 Node: Advanced API12894779 Ref: library/doctest advanced-api12894911 Ref: 402812894911 Ref: library/doctest doctest-advanced-api12894911 Ref: 402912894911 Node: DocTest Objects12897076 Ref: library/doctest doctest-doctest12897164 Ref: 402b12897164 Ref: library/doctest doctest-objects12897164 Ref: 402c12897164 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest12897217 Ref: 16b212897217 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest examples12897633 Ref: 402d12897633 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest globs12897808 Ref: 402612897808 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest name12898143 Ref: 402e12898143 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest filename12898336 Ref: 402f12898336 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest lineno12898566 Ref: 151e12898566 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTest docstring12898844 Ref: 403012898844 Node: Example Objects12899043 Ref: library/doctest doctest-example12899161 Ref: 403112899161 Ref: library/doctest example-objects12899161 Ref: 403212899161 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example12899214 Ref: 402a12899214 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example source12899653 Ref: 403312899653 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example want12899897 Ref: 403412899897 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example exc_msg12900248 Ref: 403512900248 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example lineno12900732 Ref: 403612900732 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example indent12900963 Ref: 403712900963 Ref: library/doctest doctest Example options12901156 Ref: 403812901156 Node: DocTestFinder objects12901568 Ref: library/doctest doctest-doctestfinder12901692 Ref: 403912901692 Ref: library/doctest doctestfinder-objects12901692 Ref: 403a12901692 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFinder12901757 Ref: 163212901757 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFinder find12902896 Ref: 16fe12902896 Node: DocTestParser objects12905020 Ref: library/doctest doctest-doctestparser12905148 Ref: 403b12905148 Ref: library/doctest doctestparser-objects12905148 Ref: 403c12905148 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestParser12905213 Ref: 400612905213 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestParser get_doctest12905447 Ref: 403d12905447 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestParser get_examples12905835 Ref: 403e12905835 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestParser parse12906173 Ref: 403f12906173 Node: TestResults objects12906561 Ref: library/doctest testresults-objects12906689 Ref: 404012906689 Ref: library/doctest doctest TestResults12906750 Ref: 404112906750 Ref: library/doctest doctest TestResults failed12906802 Ref: 404212906802 Ref: library/doctest doctest TestResults attempted12906865 Ref: 404312906865 Ref: library/doctest doctest TestResults skipped12906934 Ref: 1e012906934 Node: DocTestRunner objects12907033 Ref: library/doctest doctest-doctestrunner12907161 Ref: 404412907161 Ref: library/doctest doctestrunner-objects12907161 Ref: 404512907161 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner12907226 Ref: 401512907226 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner report_start12909658 Ref: 404612909658 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner report_success12910156 Ref: 404712910156 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner report_failure12910688 Ref: 404912910688 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner report_unexpected_exception12911210 Ref: 404812911210 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner run12911884 Ref: 1de12911884 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner summarize12912954 Ref: 401f12912954 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner tries12913415 Ref: 404a12913415 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner failures12913483 Ref: 404b12913483 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestRunner skips12913551 Ref: 1df12913551 Node: OutputChecker objects12913651 Ref: library/doctest doctest-outputchecker12913751 Ref: 404c12913751 Ref: library/doctest outputchecker-objects12913751 Ref: 404d12913751 Ref: library/doctest doctest OutputChecker12913816 Ref: 401412913816 Ref: library/doctest doctest OutputChecker check_output12914312 Ref: 404e12914312 Ref: library/doctest doctest OutputChecker output_difference12914799 Ref: 404f12914799 Node: Debugging12915114 Ref: library/doctest debugging12915241 Ref: 405012915241 Ref: library/doctest doctest-debugging12915241 Ref: 405112915241 Ref: library/doctest doctest script_from_examples12917340 Ref: 405412917340 Ref: library/doctest doctest testsource12918327 Ref: 405512918327 Ref: library/doctest doctest debug12919124 Ref: 405312919124 Ref: library/doctest doctest debug_src12920215 Ref: 405712920215 Ref: library/doctest doctest DebugRunner12921089 Ref: 405212921089 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFailure12921866 Ref: 405912921866 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFailure test12922229 Ref: 405a12922229 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFailure example12922352 Ref: 405b12922352 Ref: library/doctest doctest DocTestFailure got12922435 Ref: 405c12922435 Ref: library/doctest doctest UnexpectedException12922507 Ref: 405812922507 Ref: library/doctest doctest UnexpectedException test12922860 Ref: 405d12922860 Ref: library/doctest doctest UnexpectedException example12922988 Ref: 405e12922988 Ref: library/doctest doctest UnexpectedException exc_info12923076 Ref: 405f12923076 Node: Soapbox12923237 Ref: library/doctest doctest-soapbox12923343 Ref: 406012923343 Ref: library/doctest soapbox12923343 Ref: 406112923343 Node: unittest — Unit testing framework12927184 Ref: library/unittest doc12927372 Ref: 406212927372 Ref: library/unittest module-unittest12927372 Ref: 10612927372 Ref: library/unittest unittest-unit-testing-framework12927372 Ref: 406312927372 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-112930532 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-212930610 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-312930703 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-412930736 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-512930800 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-612930858 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-712930888 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-812930920 Ref: unittest — Unit testing framework-Footnote-912930964 Node: Basic example12930998 Ref: library/unittest basic-example12931117 Ref: 406512931117 Ref: library/unittest unittest-minimal-example12931117 Ref: 406612931117 Node: Command-Line Interface<3>12934100 Ref: library/unittest command-line-interface12934242 Ref: 406812934242 Ref: library/unittest unittest-command-line-interface12934242 Ref: 406912934242 Node: Command-line options<3>12935638 Ref: library/unittest command-line-options12935723 Ref: 406b12935723 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-b12935837 Ref: 132512935837 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-buffer12935837 Ref: 406c12935837 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-c12936096 Ref: 132612936096 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-catch12936096 Ref: 406d12936096 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-f12936440 Ref: 132812936440 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-failfast12936440 Ref: 406f12936440 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-k12936523 Ref: 407012936523 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-locals12937235 Ref: 407112937235 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-durations12937299 Ref: 407212937299 Node: Test Discovery12937771 Ref: library/unittest test-discovery12937920 Ref: 407312937920 Ref: library/unittest unittest-test-discovery12937920 Ref: 406a12937920 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-v12938775 Ref: 407412938775 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-verbose12938775 Ref: 407512938775 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-s12938823 Ref: 407612938823 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-start-directory12938823 Ref: 407712938823 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-p12938921 Ref: 407812938921 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-pattern12938921 Ref: 407912938921 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-t12939015 Ref: 407a12939015 Ref: library/unittest cmdoption-unittest-discover-top-level-directory12939015 Ref: 407b12939015 Node: Organizing test code12941434 Ref: library/unittest organizing-test-code12941580 Ref: 407d12941580 Ref: library/unittest organizing-tests12941580 Ref: 406712941580 Node: Re-using old test code12946346 Ref: library/unittest legacy-unit-tests12946514 Ref: 407e12946514 Ref: library/unittest re-using-old-test-code12946514 Ref: 407f12946514 Node: Skipping tests and expected failures12948054 Ref: library/unittest skipping-tests-and-expected-failures12948247 Ref: 408012948247 Ref: library/unittest unittest-skipping12948247 Ref: 408112948247 Ref: library/unittest unittest skip12951405 Ref: 19d812951405 Ref: library/unittest unittest skipIf12951553 Ref: 408412951553 Ref: library/unittest unittest skipUnless12951659 Ref: 408512951659 Ref: library/unittest unittest expectedFailure12951773 Ref: 408312951773 Ref: library/unittest unittest SkipTest12952082 Ref: fdf12952082 Node: Distinguishing test iterations using subtests12952573 Ref: library/unittest distinguishing-test-iterations-using-subtests12952765 Ref: 408612952765 Ref: library/unittest subtests12952765 Ref: fdd12952765 Node: Classes and functions12955368 Ref: library/unittest classes-and-functions12955549 Ref: 408712955549 Ref: library/unittest unittest-contents12955549 Ref: 408812955549 Node: Test cases12955751 Ref: library/unittest test-cases12955842 Ref: 408912955842 Ref: library/unittest testcase-objects12955842 Ref: 408a12955842 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase12955885 Ref: 44912955885 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase setUp12957207 Ref: 132c12957207 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase tearDown12957584 Ref: 132d12957584 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase setUpClass12958358 Ref: a4e12958358 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase tearDownClass12958799 Ref: 132a12958799 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase run12959249 Ref: 115a12959249 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase skipTest12959878 Ref: 408212959878 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase subTest12960137 Ref: fdc12960137 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase debug12960694 Ref: 189412960694 Ref: library/unittest assert-methods12960929 Ref: 406412960929 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertEqual12964779 Ref: 52412964779 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertNotEqual12965651 Ref: 52512965651 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertTrue12965830 Ref: 52212965830 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertFalse12965875 Ref: 52312965875 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertIs12966376 Ref: 132e12966376 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertIsNot12966428 Ref: 132f12966428 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertIsNone12966603 Ref: 127d12966603 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertIsNotNone12966650 Ref: 127e12966650 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertIn12966789 Ref: 133712966789 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertNotIn12966845 Ref: 133812966845 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertIsInstance12966999 Ref: 133012966999 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertNotIsInstance12967054 Ref: 133112967054 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertRaises12970241 Ref: 52812970241 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertRaisesRegex12971968 Ref: 52a12971968 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertWarns12972978 Ref: 115812972978 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertWarnsRegex12974693 Ref: 115912974693 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertLogs12975633 Ref: 85512975633 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase records12976709 Ref: 408e12976709 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase output12976852 Ref: 408f12976852 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertNoLogs12977401 Ref: 85412977401 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertAlmostEqual12980975 Ref: 52612980975 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertNotAlmostEqual12981073 Ref: 52712981073 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertGreater12982145 Ref: 133212982145 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertGreaterEqual12982202 Ref: 133312982202 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertLess12982264 Ref: 133412982264 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertLessEqual12982318 Ref: 133512982318 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertRegex12982685 Ref: 52912982685 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertNotRegex12982738 Ref: 52b12982738 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertCountEqual12983480 Ref: 121d12983480 Ref: library/unittest type-specific-methods12984143 Ref: 408d12984143 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase addTypeEqualityFunc12984462 Ref: 133b12984462 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertMultiLineEqual12987208 Ref: 133612987208 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertSequenceEqual12987625 Ref: 127c12987625 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertListEqual12988254 Ref: 127a12988254 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertTupleEqual12988313 Ref: 127b12988313 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertSetEqual12988763 Ref: 127812988763 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase assertDictEqual12989217 Ref: 127912989217 Ref: library/unittest other-methods-and-attrs12989577 Ref: 409012989577 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase fail12989668 Ref: 409112989668 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase failureException12989811 Ref: 402512989811 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase longMessage12990226 Ref: 132912990226 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase maxDiff12990966 Ref: 121e12990966 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase countTestCases12991662 Ref: 409212991662 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase defaultTestResult12991844 Ref: 408c12991844 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase id12992276 Ref: 409312992276 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase shortDescription12992471 Ref: 409412992471 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase addCleanup12993090 Ref: a8112993090 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase enterContext12993698 Ref: 6b512993698 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase doCleanups12994027 Ref: 132b12994027 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase addClassCleanup12994683 Ref: a4d12994683 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase enterClassContext12995359 Ref: 6b612995359 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestCase doClassCleanups12995710 Ref: 409512995710 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase12996416 Ref: 30612996416 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase loop_factory12996629 Ref: 409612996629 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase asyncSetUp12996885 Ref: 409712996885 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase asyncTearDown12997320 Ref: 409812997320 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase addAsyncCleanup12998161 Ref: 409912998161 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase enterAsyncContext12998319 Ref: 6b712998319 Ref: library/unittest unittest IsolatedAsyncioTestCase run12998680 Ref: 409a12998680 Ref: library/unittest unittest FunctionTestCase13000418 Ref: 170813000418 Node: Grouping tests13000896 Ref: library/unittest grouping-tests13001021 Ref: 409b13001021 Ref: library/unittest testsuite-objects13001021 Ref: 409c13001021 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite13001072 Ref: df313001072 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite addTest13002019 Ref: 409d13002019 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite addTests13002139 Ref: 409e13002139 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite run13002515 Ref: 409f13002515 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite debug13002818 Ref: 40a013002818 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite countTestCases13003091 Ref: 40a113003091 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestSuite __iter__13003255 Ref: 102213003255 Node: Loading and running tests13004700 Ref: library/unittest loading-and-running-tests13004806 Ref: 40a213004806 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader13004879 Ref: 29013004879 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader errors13005373 Ref: e8713005373 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader loadTestsFromTestCase13005842 Ref: 29213005842 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader loadTestsFromModule13006391 Ref: 29113006391 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader loadTestsFromName13007781 Ref: 133913007781 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader loadTestsFromNames13009581 Ref: 40a413009581 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader getTestCaseNames13009867 Ref: 29313009867 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader discover13010070 Ref: fe013010070 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader testMethodPrefix13013346 Ref: 40a513013346 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader sortTestMethodsUsing13013632 Ref: 40a613013632 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader suiteClass13013843 Ref: 133a13013843 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestLoader testNamePatterns13014138 Ref: 40a713014138 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult13014852 Ref: 115b13014852 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult errors13015718 Ref: 40a813015718 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult failures13015948 Ref: 40a913015948 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult skipped13016232 Ref: 40aa13016232 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult expectedFailures13016430 Ref: 40ab13016430 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult unexpectedSuccesses13016672 Ref: 40ac13016672 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult collectedDurations13016837 Ref: 170e13016837 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult shouldStop13017047 Ref: 40ad13017047 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult testsRun13017181 Ref: 40af13017181 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult buffer13017260 Ref: 40b013017260 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult failfast13017711 Ref: 40b313017711 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult tb_locals13017898 Ref: 40b413017898 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult wasSuccessful13018048 Ref: 40b513018048 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult stop13018385 Ref: 40ae13018385 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult startTest13019345 Ref: 40b113019345 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult stopTest13019444 Ref: 40b213019444 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult startTestRun13019579 Ref: 133d13019579 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult stopTestRun13019700 Ref: 133e13019700 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addError13019819 Ref: 189713019819 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addFailure13020286 Ref: 189613020286 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addSuccess13020744 Ref: 40b613020744 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addSkip13020886 Ref: 189813020886 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addExpectedFailure13021182 Ref: 40b713021182 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addUnexpectedSuccess13021608 Ref: 40b813021608 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addSubTest13021914 Ref: 189913021914 Ref: library/unittest unittest TestResult addDuration13022588 Ref: 174613022588 Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestResult13022834 Ref: 52c13022834 Ref: library/unittest unittest defaultTestLoader13023233 Ref: 40a313023233 Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestRunner13023488 Ref: 174513023488 Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestRunner _makeResult13024901 Ref: 40ba13024901 Ref: library/unittest unittest TextTestRunner run13025552 Ref: 40bb13025552 Ref: library/unittest unittest main13025914 Ref: fde13025914 Node: load_tests Protocol13028860 Ref: library/unittest id113028941 Ref: 407c13028941 Ref: library/unittest load-tests-protocol13028941 Ref: 402313028941 Node: Class and Module Fixtures13031615 Ref: library/unittest class-and-module-fixtures13031766 Ref: 408b13031766 Node: setUpClass and tearDownClass13033654 Ref: library/unittest setupclass-and-teardownclass13033783 Ref: 40bc13033783 Node: setUpModule and tearDownModule13034697 Ref: library/unittest setupmodule-and-teardownmodule13034826 Ref: 40bd13034826 Ref: library/unittest unittest addModuleCleanup13035439 Ref: a4c13035439 Ref: library/unittest unittest enterModuleContext13036019 Ref: 6b813036019 Ref: library/unittest unittest doModuleCleanups13036341 Ref: 183c13036341 Node: Signal Handling13036961 Ref: library/unittest signal-handling13037082 Ref: 406e13037082 Ref: library/unittest unittest installHandler13038316 Ref: 40be13038316 Ref: library/unittest unittest registerResult13038560 Ref: 40bf13038560 Ref: library/unittest unittest removeResult13039056 Ref: 40c013039056 Ref: library/unittest unittest removeHandler13039278 Ref: 132713039278 Node: unittest mock — mock object library13039668 Ref: library/unittest mock doc13039845 Ref: 40c113039845 Ref: library/unittest mock module-unittest mock13039845 Ref: 10713039845 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest-mock-mock-object-library13039845 Ref: 40c213039845 Ref: unittest mock — mock object library-Footnote-113041504 Ref: unittest mock — mock object library-Footnote-213041577 Node: Quick Guide13041616 Ref: library/unittest mock quick-guide13041724 Ref: 40c313041724 Node: The Mock Class13047132 Ref: library/unittest mock the-mock-class13047261 Ref: 40c813047261 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock13048289 Ref: a4b13048289 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called13051773 Ref: cf813051773 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called_once13052065 Ref: cf913052065 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called_with13052703 Ref: 1a2013052703 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_called_once_with13053087 Ref: 40ce13053087 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_any_call13053768 Ref: 40cf13053768 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_has_calls13054434 Ref: 16a813054434 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock assert_not_called13055279 Ref: e8913055279 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock reset_mock13055748 Ref: cfa13055748 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock mock_add_spec13057361 Ref: 40d113057361 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock attach_mock13057686 Ref: 160f13057686 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock configure_mock13057979 Ref: 40cd13057979 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock __dir__13059213 Ref: 40d313059213 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock _get_child_mock13059546 Ref: 40d513059546 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock called13059946 Ref: 40d613059946 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock call_count13060246 Ref: 40d713060246 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock return_value13060577 Ref: 40cc13060577 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock side_effect13061383 Ref: 40c413061383 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock call_args13063853 Ref: 197f13063853 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock call_args_list13065683 Ref: 40d813065683 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock method_calls13066726 Ref: 40d213066726 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock mock_calls13067464 Ref: 40d013067464 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock Mock __class__13069002 Ref: 40da13069002 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock NonCallableMock13069761 Ref: 40c913069761 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock PropertyMock13072279 Ref: 40db13072279 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock13074179 Ref: a4a13074179 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited13077042 Ref: 40dc13077042 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited_once13077777 Ref: 40dd13077777 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited_with13078335 Ref: 40de13078335 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_awaited_once_with13079005 Ref: 40df13079005 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_any_await13079730 Ref: 40e013079730 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_has_awaits13080373 Ref: 40e113080373 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock assert_not_awaited13081468 Ref: 40e213081468 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock reset_mock13081643 Ref: 40e313081643 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock await_count13081874 Ref: 40e413081874 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock await_args13082320 Ref: 40e513082320 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock AsyncMock await_args_list13082939 Ref: 197e13082939 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ThreadingMock13083651 Ref: 40e613083651 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ThreadingMock wait_until_called13084358 Ref: 40e813084358 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ThreadingMock wait_until_any_call_with13084911 Ref: 40e913084911 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ThreadingMock DEFAULT_TIMEOUT13085510 Ref: 40e713085510 Ref: The Mock Class-Footnote-113085835 Node: Calling13086257 Ref: library/unittest mock calling13086343 Ref: 40ea13086343 Node: Deleting Attributes13089613 Ref: library/unittest mock deleting-attributes13089741 Ref: 40eb13089741 Ref: library/unittest mock id213089741 Ref: 40ec13089741 Node: Mock names and the name attribute13090518 Ref: library/unittest mock mock-names-and-the-name-attribute13090668 Ref: 40ed13090668 Node: Attaching Mocks as Attributes13091258 Ref: library/unittest mock attaching-mocks-as-attributes13091380 Ref: 40ee13091380 Node: The patchers13093244 Ref: library/unittest mock the-patchers13093396 Ref: 40ef13093396 Node: patch13094011 Ref: library/unittest mock patch13094086 Ref: 40f013094086 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch13094233 Ref: e8b13094233 Node: patch object13103180 Ref: library/unittest mock patch-object13103274 Ref: 40f213103274 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch object13103319 Ref: 159813103319 Node: patch dict13104798 Ref: library/unittest mock patch-dict13104901 Ref: 40f313104901 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch dict13104944 Ref: 19f213104944 Node: patch multiple13109077 Ref: library/unittest mock patch-multiple13109196 Ref: 40f513109196 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch multiple13109247 Ref: 40f613109247 Node: patch methods start and stop13111955 Ref: library/unittest mock patch-methods-start-and-stop13112078 Ref: 40f713112078 Ref: library/unittest mock start-and-stop13112078 Ref: 40f813112078 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock patch stopall13114821 Ref: 40f913114821 Node: patch builtins13114930 Ref: library/unittest mock id413115050 Ref: 40fa13115050 Ref: library/unittest mock patch-builtins13115050 Ref: 40fb13115050 Node: TEST_PREFIX13115371 Ref: library/unittest mock id513115487 Ref: 40fc13115487 Ref: library/unittest mock test-prefix13115487 Ref: 40f413115487 Node: Nesting Patch Decorators13116370 Ref: library/unittest mock nesting-patch-decorators13116486 Ref: 40fd13116486 Node: Where to patch13117403 Ref: library/unittest mock id613117546 Ref: 40f113117546 Ref: library/unittest mock where-to-patch13117546 Ref: 40c513117546 Node: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects13119312 Ref: library/unittest mock patching-descriptors-and-proxy-objects13119422 Ref: 40fe13119422 Ref: Patching Descriptors and Proxy Objects-Footnote-113119863 Node: MagicMock and magic method support13119988 Ref: library/unittest mock magicmock-and-magic-method-support13120133 Ref: 40ff13120133 Node: Mocking Magic Methods13120275 Ref: library/unittest mock magic-methods13120386 Ref: 40c613120386 Ref: library/unittest mock mocking-magic-methods13120386 Ref: 410013120386 Ref: Mocking Magic Methods-Footnote-113124276 Ref: Mocking Magic Methods-Footnote-213124515 Node: Magic Mock13124636 Ref: library/unittest mock magic-mock13124747 Ref: 410213124747 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock MagicMock13124891 Ref: e8a13124891 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock NonCallableMagicMock13125375 Ref: 40ca13125375 Node: Helpers13128716 Ref: library/unittest mock helpers13128906 Ref: 410313128906 Node: sentinel13129079 Ref: library/unittest mock sentinel13129147 Ref: 410413129147 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock sentinel13129186 Ref: ba013129186 Node: DEFAULT13130347 Ref: library/unittest mock default13130428 Ref: 410513130428 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock DEFAULT13130465 Ref: 40cb13130465 Node: call13130718 Ref: library/unittest mock call13130806 Ref: 410613130806 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock call13130837 Ref: 19cd13130837 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock call call_list13131378 Ref: 410713131378 Ref: library/unittest mock calls-as-tuples13132330 Ref: 40d913132330 Node: create_autospec13133956 Ref: library/unittest mock create-autospec13134040 Ref: 410813134040 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock create_autospec13134093 Ref: 160813134093 Node: ANY13135393 Ref: library/unittest mock any13135483 Ref: 410913135483 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock ANY13135512 Ref: 19cb13135512 Node: FILTER_DIR13136674 Ref: library/unittest mock filter-dir13136758 Ref: 410a13136758 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock FILTER_DIR13136801 Ref: 40d413136801 Node: mock_open13138817 Ref: library/unittest mock mock-open13138910 Ref: 410b13138910 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock mock_open13138951 Ref: 170913138951 Ref: mock_open-Footnote-113141794 Node: Autospeccing13141819 Ref: library/unittest mock auto-speccing13141915 Ref: 40c713141915 Ref: library/unittest mock autospeccing13141915 Ref: 410c13141915 Ref: Autospeccing-Footnote-113150632 Node: Sealing mocks13150873 Ref: library/unittest mock sealing-mocks13150951 Ref: 410d13150951 Ref: library/unittest mock unittest mock seal13151000 Ref: ba113151000 Node: Order of precedence of side_effect return_value and wraps13151814 Ref: library/unittest mock order-of-precedence-of-side-effect-return-value-and-wraps13151961 Ref: 410e13151961 Node: unittest mock — getting started13156044 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples doc13156230 Ref: 410f13156230 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples unittest-mock-getting-started13156230 Ref: 411013156230 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples getting-started13156342 Ref: 411113156342 Node: Using Mock13156409 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples using-mock13156514 Ref: 411213156514 Node: Mock Patching Methods13156979 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-patching-methods13157090 Ref: 411313157090 Node: Mock for Method Calls on an Object13158640 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-for-method-calls-on-an-object13158775 Ref: 411413158775 Node: Mocking Classes13159876 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-classes13160007 Ref: 411513160007 Node: Naming your mocks13161004 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples naming-your-mocks13161119 Ref: 411613161119 Node: Tracking all Calls13161551 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples tracking-all-calls13161687 Ref: 411713161687 Node: Setting Return Values and Attributes13163094 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples setting-return-values-and-attributes13163242 Ref: 411813163242 Node: Raising exceptions with mocks13164753 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples raising-exceptions-with-mocks13164918 Ref: 411913164918 Node: Side effect functions and iterables13165298 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples side-effect-functions-and-iterables13165457 Ref: 411a13165457 Node: Mocking asynchronous iterators13166497 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-asynchronous-iterators13166663 Ref: 411b13166663 Node: Mocking asynchronous context manager13167236 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-asynchronous-context-manager13167406 Ref: 411c13167406 Node: Creating a Mock from an Existing Object13168307 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples creating-a-mock-from-an-existing-object13168491 Ref: 411d13168491 Node: Using side_effect to return per file content13170337 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples using-side-effect-to-return-per-file-content13170476 Ref: 411e13170476 Node: Patch Decorators13171327 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples patch-decorators13171457 Ref: 411f13171457 Node: Further Examples13176730 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples further-examples13176841 Ref: 412013176841 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples id113176841 Ref: 412113176841 Node: Mocking chained calls13177469 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-chained-calls13177567 Ref: 412213177567 Node: Partial mocking13180682 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples partial-mocking13180815 Ref: 412313180815 Ref: Partial mocking-Footnote-113182847 Node: Mocking a Generator Method13182948 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-a-generator-method13183104 Ref: 412413183104 Ref: Mocking a Generator Method-Footnote-113184238 Node: Applying the same patch to every test method13184558 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples applying-the-same-patch-to-every-test-method13184722 Ref: 412513184722 Node: Mocking Unbound Methods13187020 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-unbound-methods13187191 Ref: 412613187191 Node: Checking multiple calls with mock13188959 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples checking-multiple-calls-with-mock13189115 Ref: 412713189115 Node: Coping with mutable arguments13190731 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples coping-with-mutable-arguments13190879 Ref: 412813190879 Node: Nesting Patches13195063 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples nesting-patches13195213 Ref: 412913195213 Node: Mocking a dictionary with MagicMock13197020 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-a-dictionary-with-magicmock13197177 Ref: 412a13197177 Node: Mock subclasses and their attributes13199824 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mock-subclasses-and-their-attributes13199997 Ref: 412b13199997 Ref: Mock subclasses and their attributes-Footnote-113202133 Ref: Mock subclasses and their attributes-Footnote-213202303 Ref: Mock subclasses and their attributes-Footnote-313202361 Node: Mocking imports with patch dict13202442 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples mocking-imports-with-patch-dict13202636 Ref: 412c13202636 Node: Tracking order of calls and less verbose call assertions13205284 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples tracking-order-of-calls-and-less-verbose-call-assertions13205472 Ref: 412d13205472 Node: More complex argument matching13208811 Ref: library/unittest mock-examples more-complex-argument-matching13208959 Ref: 412e13208959 Ref: More complex argument matching-Footnote-113212031 Ref: More complex argument matching-Footnote-213212074 Node: test — Regression tests package for Python13212196 Ref: library/test doc13212397 Ref: 412f13212397 Ref: library/test module-test13212397 Ref: e213212397 Ref: library/test test-regression-tests-package-for-python13212397 Ref: 413013212397 Node: Writing Unit Tests for the test package13213830 Ref: library/test writing-tests13214005 Ref: 413113214005 Ref: library/test writing-unit-tests-for-the-test-package13214005 Ref: 413213214005 Node: Running tests using the command-line interface13218578 Ref: library/test module-test regrtest13218753 Ref: e313218753 Ref: library/test regrtest13218753 Ref: 100213218753 Ref: library/test running-tests-using-the-command-line-interface13218753 Ref: 413313218753 Node: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite13220692 Ref: library/test module-test support13220917 Ref: e413220917 Ref: library/test test-support-utilities-for-the-python-test-suite13220917 Ref: 413413220917 Ref: library/test test support TestFailed13221423 Ref: 413513221423 Ref: library/test test support ResourceDenied13221643 Ref: 413613221643 Ref: library/test test support verbose13221936 Ref: 413813221936 Ref: library/test test support is_jython13222156 Ref: 413913222156 Ref: library/test test support is_android13222245 Ref: 413a13222245 Ref: library/test test support unix_shell13222323 Ref: 413b13222323 Ref: library/test test support LOOPBACK_TIMEOUT13222420 Ref: 19b313222420 Ref: library/test test support INTERNET_TIMEOUT13223013 Ref: 19b413223013 Ref: library/test test support SHORT_TIMEOUT13223509 Ref: 18ae13223509 Ref: library/test test support LONG_TIMEOUT13223901 Ref: 19b513223901 Ref: library/test test support PGO13224410 Ref: 413d13224410 Ref: library/test test support PIPE_MAX_SIZE13224508 Ref: 413e13224508 Ref: library/test test support Py_DEBUG13224656 Ref: 413f13224656 Ref: library/test test support SOCK_MAX_SIZE13224861 Ref: 414113224861 Ref: library/test test support TEST_SUPPORT_DIR13225011 Ref: 414213225011 Ref: library/test test support TEST_HOME_DIR13225132 Ref: 414313225132 Ref: library/test test support TEST_DATA_DIR13225229 Ref: 414413225229 Ref: library/test test support MAX_Py_ssize_t13225330 Ref: 414513225330 Ref: library/test test support max_memuse13225429 Ref: 414613225429 Ref: library/test test support real_max_memuse13225592 Ref: 414813225592 Ref: library/test test support MISSING_C_DOCSTRINGS13225764 Ref: 414913225764 Ref: library/test test support HAVE_DOCSTRINGS13226051 Ref: 414a13226051 Ref: library/test test support TEST_HTTP_URL13226326 Ref: 414b13226326 Ref: library/test test support ALWAYS_EQ13226435 Ref: 414c13226435 Ref: library/test test support NEVER_EQ13226551 Ref: 414d13226551 Ref: library/test test support LARGEST13226703 Ref: 414e13226703 Ref: library/test test support SMALLEST13226837 Ref: 414f13226837 Ref: library/test test support busy_retry13227038 Ref: 415013227038 Ref: library/test test support sleeping_retry13227680 Ref: 415113227680 Ref: library/test test support is_resource_enabled13228564 Ref: 415213228564 Ref: library/test test support python_is_optimized13228796 Ref: 415313228796 Ref: library/test test support with_pymalloc13228924 Ref: 415413228924 Ref: library/test test support requires13229013 Ref: 413713229013 Ref: library/test test support sortdict13229384 Ref: 415513229384 Ref: library/test test support findfile13229476 Ref: 415613229476 Ref: library/test test support get_pagesize13229848 Ref: 415713229848 Ref: library/test test support setswitchinterval13229956 Ref: 415813229956 Ref: library/test test support check_impl_detail13230182 Ref: 415913230182 Ref: library/test test support set_memlimit13230700 Ref: 414713230700 Ref: library/test test support record_original_stdout13230858 Ref: 415a13230858 Ref: library/test test support get_original_stdout13231024 Ref: 415b13231024 Ref: library/test test support args_from_interpreter_flags13231197 Ref: 415c13231197 Ref: library/test test support optim_args_from_interpreter_flags13231386 Ref: 415d13231386 Ref: library/test test support captured_stdin13231568 Ref: 415e13231568 Ref: library/test test support captured_stdout13231613 Ref: 415f13231613 Ref: library/test test support captured_stderr13231659 Ref: 19f513231659 Ref: library/test test support disable_faulthandler13232384 Ref: 416013232384 Ref: library/test test support gc_collect13232508 Ref: 416113232508 Ref: library/test test support disable_gc13232844 Ref: 416213232844 Ref: library/test test support swap_attr13233025 Ref: 416313233025 Ref: library/test test support swap_item13233611 Ref: 416413233611 Ref: library/test test support flush_std_streams13234195 Ref: 416513234195 Ref: library/test test support print_warning13234471 Ref: 416613234471 Ref: library/test test support wait_process13234745 Ref: 197313234745 Ref: library/test test support calcobjsize13235264 Ref: 416813235264 Ref: library/test test support calcvobjsize13235497 Ref: 416913235497 Ref: library/test test support checksizeof13235735 Ref: 416b13235735 Ref: library/test test support anticipate_failure13235906 Ref: 416c13235906 Ref: library/test test support system_must_validate_cert13236168 Ref: 416d13236168 Ref: library/test test support run_with_locale13236321 Ref: 416e13236321 Ref: library/test test support run_with_tz13236681 Ref: 416f13236681 Ref: library/test test support requires_freebsd_version13236843 Ref: 417013236843 Ref: library/test test support requires_linux_version13237057 Ref: 417113237057 Ref: library/test test support requires_mac_version13237266 Ref: 417213237266 Ref: library/test test support requires_gil_enabled13237472 Ref: 417313237472 Ref: library/test test support requires_IEEE_75413237648 Ref: 417413237648 Ref: library/test test support requires_zlib13237757 Ref: 417513237757 Ref: library/test test support requires_gzip13237872 Ref: 417613237872 Ref: library/test test support requires_bz213237986 Ref: 417713237986 Ref: library/test test support requires_lzma13238098 Ref: 417813238098 Ref: library/test test support requires_resource13238212 Ref: 417913238212 Ref: library/test test support requires_docstrings13238337 Ref: 417a13238337 Ref: library/test test support requires_limited_api13238460 Ref: 417b13238460 Ref: library/test test support cpython_only13238600 Ref: 417c13238600 Ref: library/test test support impl_detail13238696 Ref: 417d13238696 Ref: library/test test support no_tracing13238926 Ref: 417e13238926 Ref: library/test test support refcount_test13239049 Ref: 417f13239049 Ref: library/test test support bigmemtest13239353 Ref: 418013239353 Ref: library/test test support bigaddrspacetest13240100 Ref: 418113240100 Ref: library/test test support check_syntax_error13240201 Ref: 418213240201 Ref: library/test test support open_urlresource13240755 Ref: 418313240755 Ref: library/test test support reap_children13240884 Ref: 418413240884 Ref: library/test test support get_attribute13241158 Ref: 418513241158 Ref: library/test test support catch_unraisable_exception13241320 Ref: 19d713241320 Ref: library/test test support load_package_tests13242208 Ref: 418613242208 Ref: library/test test support detect_api_mismatch13242838 Ref: 418713242838 Ref: library/test test support patch13243309 Ref: 418813243309 Ref: library/test test support run_in_subinterp13243645 Ref: 418913243645 Ref: library/test test support check_free_after_iterating13243813 Ref: 418a13243813 Ref: library/test test support missing_compiler_executable13243970 Ref: 418b13243970 Ref: library/test test support check__all__13244292 Ref: 194c13244292 Ref: library/test test support skip_if_broken_multiprocessing_synchronize13246112 Ref: 194d13246112 Ref: library/test test support check_disallow_instantiation13246405 Ref: 418c13246405 Ref: library/test test support adjust_int_max_str_digits13246613 Ref: 418d13246613 Ref: library/test test support SuppressCrashReport13247084 Ref: 418e13247084 Ref: library/test test support SaveSignals13247587 Ref: 419013247587 Ref: library/test test support SaveSignals save13247718 Ref: 419113247718 Ref: library/test test support SaveSignals restore13247864 Ref: 419213247864 Ref: library/test test support Matcher13248003 Ref: 419313248003 Ref: library/test test support Matcher matches13248036 Ref: 419413248036 Ref: library/test test support Matcher match_value13248149 Ref: 419513248149 Ref: test support — Utilities for the Python test suite-Footnote-113248324 Node: test support socket_helper — Utilities for socket tests13248404 Ref: library/test module-test support socket_helper13248656 Ref: e913248656 Ref: library/test test-support-socket-helper-utilities-for-socket-tests13248656 Ref: 419613248656 Ref: library/test test support socket_helper IPV6_ENABLED13248903 Ref: 419713248903 Ref: library/test test support socket_helper find_unused_port13249034 Ref: 419813249034 Ref: library/test test support socket_helper bind_port13250357 Ref: 419913250357 Ref: library/test test support socket_helper bind_unix_socket13251302 Ref: 419a13251302 Ref: library/test test support socket_helper skip_unless_bind_unix_socket13251485 Ref: 419b13251485 Ref: library/test test support socket_helper transient_internet13251655 Ref: 413c13251655 Node: test support script_helper — Utilities for the Python execution tests13251928 Ref: library/test module-test support script_helper13252214 Ref: e813252214 Ref: library/test test-support-script-helper-utilities-for-the-python-execution-tests13252214 Ref: 419c13252214 Ref: library/test test support script_helper interpreter_requires_environment13252487 Ref: 419d13252487 Ref: library/test test support script_helper run_python_until_end13253463 Ref: 419e13253463 Ref: library/test test support script_helper assert_python_ok13253841 Ref: 419f13253841 Ref: library/test test support script_helper assert_python_failure13254474 Ref: 41a013254474 Ref: library/test test support script_helper spawn_python13254908 Ref: 41a113254908 Ref: library/test test support script_helper kill_python13255221 Ref: 41a213255221 Ref: library/test test support script_helper make_script13255377 Ref: 41a313255377 Ref: library/test test support script_helper make_zip_script13255686 Ref: 41a413255686 Ref: library/test test support script_helper make_pkg13256055 Ref: 41a513256055 Ref: library/test test support script_helper make_zip_pkg13256258 Ref: 41a613256258 Node: test support bytecode_helper — Support tools for testing correct bytecode generation13256788 Ref: library/test module-test support bytecode_helper13257080 Ref: e513257080 Ref: library/test test-support-bytecode-helper-support-tools-for-testing-correct-bytecode-generation13257080 Ref: 41a713257080 Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase13257458 Ref: 41a813257458 Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase get_disassembly_as_string13257617 Ref: 41a913257617 Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase assertInBytecode13257726 Ref: 41aa13257726 Ref: library/test test support bytecode_helper BytecodeTestCase assertNotInBytecode13257906 Ref: 41ab13257906 Node: test support threading_helper — Utilities for threading tests13258061 Ref: library/test module-test support threading_helper13258331 Ref: ea13258331 Ref: library/test test-support-threading-helper-utilities-for-threading-tests13258331 Ref: 41ac13258331 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper join_thread13258597 Ref: 41ad13258597 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper reap_threads13258819 Ref: 41ae13258819 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper start_threads13258960 Ref: 41af13258960 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper threading_cleanup13259368 Ref: 41b013259368 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper threading_setup13259606 Ref: 41b113259606 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper wait_threads_exit13259734 Ref: 41b213259734 Ref: library/test test support threading_helper catch_threading_exception13259917 Ref: 41b313259917 Node: test support os_helper — Utilities for os tests13260878 Ref: library/test module-test support os_helper13261119 Ref: e713261119 Ref: library/test test-support-os-helper-utilities-for-os-tests13261119 Ref: 41b413261119 Ref: library/test test support os_helper FS_NONASCII13261343 Ref: 41b513261343 Ref: library/test test support os_helper SAVEDCWD13261456 Ref: 41b613261456 Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN13261537 Ref: 41b713261537 Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_NONASCII13261737 Ref: 41b813261737 Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_UNENCODABLE13262122 Ref: 41b913262122 Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_UNDECODABLE13262372 Ref: 41ba13262372 Ref: library/test test support os_helper TESTFN_UNICODE13262624 Ref: 41bb13262624 Ref: library/test test support os_helper EnvironmentVarGuard13262725 Ref: 13ae13262725 Ref: library/test test support os_helper FakePath13263193 Ref: 41bc13263193 Ref: library/test test support os_helper EnvironmentVarGuard set13263455 Ref: 41bd13263455 Ref: library/test test support os_helper EnvironmentVarGuard unset13263602 Ref: 41be13263602 Ref: library/test test support os_helper can_symlink13263713 Ref: 41bf13263713 Ref: library/test test support os_helper can_xattr13263848 Ref: 41c013263848 Ref: library/test test support os_helper change_cwd13263972 Ref: 41c113263972 Ref: library/test test support os_helper create_empty_file13264341 Ref: 41c213264341 Ref: library/test test support os_helper fd_count13264493 Ref: 41c313264493 Ref: library/test test support os_helper fs_is_case_insensitive13264592 Ref: 41c413264592 Ref: library/test test support os_helper make_bad_fd13264750 Ref: 41c513264750 Ref: library/test test support os_helper rmdir13264919 Ref: 41c613264919 Ref: library/test test support os_helper rmtree13265227 Ref: 41c713265227 Ref: library/test test support os_helper skip_unless_symlink13265570 Ref: 41c813265570 Ref: library/test test support os_helper skip_unless_xattr13265711 Ref: 41c913265711 Ref: library/test test support os_helper temp_cwd13265836 Ref: 41ca13265836 Ref: library/test test support os_helper temp_dir13266493 Ref: 41cb13266493 Ref: library/test test support os_helper temp_umask13266945 Ref: 41cc13266945 Ref: library/test test support os_helper unlink13267067 Ref: 41cd13267067 Node: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests13267312 Ref: library/test module-test support import_helper13267551 Ref: e613267551 Ref: library/test test-support-import-helper-utilities-for-import-tests13267551 Ref: 41ce13267551 Ref: library/test test support import_helper forget13267799 Ref: 41cf13267799 Ref: library/test test support import_helper import_fresh_module13267984 Ref: 18ad13267984 Ref: library/test test support import_helper import_module13269601 Ref: 41d013269601 Ref: library/test test support import_helper modules_setup13270222 Ref: 41d113270222 Ref: library/test test support import_helper modules_cleanup13270329 Ref: 41d213270329 Ref: library/test test support import_helper unload13270507 Ref: 41d313270507 Ref: library/test test support import_helper make_legacy_pyc13270607 Ref: 41d413270607 Ref: library/test test support import_helper CleanImport13270956 Ref: 41d513270956 Ref: library/test test support import_helper DirsOnSysPath13271346 Ref: 41d613271346 Ref: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests-Footnote-113271903 Ref: test support import_helper — Utilities for import tests-Footnote-213271945 Node: test support warnings_helper — Utilities for warnings tests13271987 Ref: library/test module-test support warnings_helper13272168 Ref: eb13272168 Ref: library/test test-support-warnings-helper-utilities-for-warnings-tests13272168 Ref: 41d713272168 Ref: library/test test support warnings_helper ignore_warnings13272428 Ref: 41d813272428 Ref: library/test test support warnings_helper check_no_resource_warning13272941 Ref: 41d913272941 Ref: library/test test support warnings_helper check_syntax_warning13273231 Ref: 41da13273231 Ref: library/test test support warnings_helper check_warnings13274050 Ref: 41db13274050 Ref: library/test test support warnings_helper WarningsRecorder13277120 Ref: 41dc13277120 Node: Debugging and Profiling13277311 Ref: library/debug doc13277468 Ref: 41dd13277468 Ref: library/debug debugging-and-profiling13277468 Ref: 41de13277468 Ref: library/audit_events audit-events13277928 Ref: 187013277928 Node: Audit events table13278258 Ref: library/audit_events doc13278371 Ref: 41df13278371 Ref: library/audit_events audit-events-table13278371 Ref: 41e013278371 Ref: Audit events table-Footnote-113337231 Node: bdb — Debugger framework13337273 Ref: library/bdb doc13337437 Ref: 420013337437 Ref: library/bdb bdb-debugger-framework13337437 Ref: 420113337437 Ref: library/bdb module-bdb13337437 Ref: f13337437 Ref: library/bdb bdb BdbQuit13337772 Ref: 420213337772 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint13337937 Ref: 420313337937 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint deleteMe13338891 Ref: 420a13338891 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint enable13339107 Ref: 420b13339107 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint disable13339178 Ref: 420c13339178 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint bpformat13339251 Ref: 420d13339251 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint bpprint13339648 Ref: 420e13339648 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint file13339884 Ref: 420613339884 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint line13339962 Ref: 420f13339962 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint temporary13340077 Ref: 421013340077 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint cond13340199 Ref: 420913340199 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint funcname13340314 Ref: 420713340314 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint enabled13340461 Ref: 421113340461 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint bpbynumber13340551 Ref: 420413340551 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint bplist13340669 Ref: 420513340669 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint ignore13340823 Ref: 421213340823 Ref: library/bdb bdb Breakpoint hits13340914 Ref: 420813340914 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb13341030 Ref: 12f513341030 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb canonic13341828 Ref: 421313341828 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb reset13342207 Ref: 421413342207 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb trace_dispatch13342399 Ref: 421613342399 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_line13343818 Ref: 421713343818 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_call13344295 Ref: 421913344295 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_return13344779 Ref: 421b13344779 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb dispatch_exception13345271 Ref: 421d13345271 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb is_skipped_line13345930 Ref: 421f13345930 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb stop_here13346050 Ref: 422013346050 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb break_here13346178 Ref: 422113346178 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb break_anywhere13346486 Ref: 422313346486 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_call13346705 Ref: 421a13346705 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_line13347006 Ref: 421813347006 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_return13347200 Ref: 421c13347200 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb user_exception13347366 Ref: 421e13347366 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb do_clear13347534 Ref: 422413347534 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_step13347819 Ref: 422513347819 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_next13347889 Ref: 422613347889 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_return13347986 Ref: 422713347986 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_until13348076 Ref: 422813348076 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_trace13348261 Ref: 422913348261 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_continue13348591 Ref: 422b13348591 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_quit13348764 Ref: 421513348764 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb set_break13349182 Ref: 422c13349182 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb clear_break13349547 Ref: 422d13349547 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb clear_bpbynumber13349712 Ref: 422e13349712 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb clear_all_file_breaks13349941 Ref: 422f13349941 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb clear_all_breaks13350095 Ref: 423013350095 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb get_bpbynumber13350231 Ref: 423113350231 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb get_break13350582 Ref: 423213350582 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb get_breaks13350721 Ref: 423313350721 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb get_file_breaks13350875 Ref: 423413350875 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb get_all_breaks13351013 Ref: 423513351013 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb get_stack13351219 Ref: 423613351219 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb format_stack_entry13351510 Ref: 423713351510 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb run13352093 Ref: 423813352093 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb runeval13352323 Ref: 423913352323 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb runctx13352551 Ref: 423a13352551 Ref: library/bdb bdb Bdb runcall13352687 Ref: a7e13352687 Ref: library/bdb bdb checkfuncname13352856 Ref: 423b13352856 Ref: library/bdb bdb effective13353309 Ref: 422213353309 Ref: library/bdb bdb set_trace13354077 Ref: 422a13354077 Ref: bdb — Debugger framework-Footnote-113354228 Node: faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback13354291 Ref: library/faulthandler doc13354464 Ref: 423c13354464 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-dump-the-python-traceback13354464 Ref: 423d13354464 Ref: library/faulthandler module-faulthandler13354464 Ref: 5813354464 Node: Dumping the traceback13356863 Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback13356991 Ref: 423e13356991 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback13357054 Ref: dfd13357054 Node: Fault handler state13357481 Ref: library/faulthandler fault-handler-state13357656 Ref: 423f13357656 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler enable13357715 Ref: c9e13357715 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler disable13358571 Ref: 424113358571 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler is_enabled13358712 Ref: 424213358712 Node: Dumping the tracebacks after a timeout13358799 Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-tracebacks-after-a-timeout13358991 Ref: 424313358991 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler dump_traceback_later13359088 Ref: dfe13359088 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler cancel_dump_traceback_later13360120 Ref: 424413360120 Node: Dumping the traceback on a user signal13360244 Ref: library/faulthandler dumping-the-traceback-on-a-user-signal13360444 Ref: 424513360444 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler register13360541 Ref: dfc13360541 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler unregister13361172 Ref: 424613361172 Node: Issue with file descriptors13361447 Ref: library/faulthandler faulthandler-fd13361620 Ref: 424013361620 Ref: library/faulthandler issue-with-file-descriptors13361620 Ref: 424713361620 Node: Example<13>13362088 Ref: library/faulthandler example13362214 Ref: 424813362214 Node: pdb — The Python Debugger13362758 Ref: library/pdb doc13362925 Ref: 424913362925 Ref: library/pdb debugger13362925 Ref: 424a13362925 Ref: library/pdb module-pdb13362925 Ref: a513362925 Ref: library/pdb pdb-the-python-debugger13362925 Ref: 424b13362925 Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-c13365555 Ref: 424d13365555 Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-command13365555 Ref: 424e13365555 Ref: library/pdb cmdoption-pdb-m13365751 Ref: 425013365751 Ref: library/pdb pdb run13366910 Ref: 405613366910 Ref: library/pdb pdb runeval13367602 Ref: 425313367602 Ref: library/pdb pdb runcall13367915 Ref: 425413367915 Ref: library/pdb pdb set_trace13368230 Ref: 23713368230 Ref: library/pdb pdb post_mortem13368801 Ref: 13a613368801 Ref: library/pdb pdb pm13369144 Ref: 23913369144 Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb13369481 Ref: 92113369481 Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb run13370888 Ref: 425513370888 Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb runeval13370948 Ref: 425613370948 Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb runcall13371013 Ref: 425713371013 Ref: library/pdb pdb Pdb set_trace13371064 Ref: 425813371064 Ref: pdb — The Python Debugger-Footnote-113371231 Ref: pdb — The Python Debugger-Footnote-213371294 Ref: pdb — The Python Debugger-Footnote-313371336 Node: Debugger Commands13371465 Ref: library/pdb debugger-commands13371546 Ref: 424f13371546 Ref: library/pdb id213371546 Ref: 425913371546 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-help13375046 Ref: 425c13375046 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-where13375439 Ref: 425d13375439 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-down13375639 Ref: 425e13375639 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-up13375778 Ref: 425f13375778 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-break13375914 Ref: 426013375914 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-tbreak13377040 Ref: 426113377040 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-clear13377251 Ref: 426213377251 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-disable13377548 Ref: 426313377548 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-enable13377871 Ref: 426413377871 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-ignore13377959 Ref: 426513377959 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-condition13378361 Ref: 426613378361 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-commands13378654 Ref: 426713378654 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-step13380289 Ref: 425113380289 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-next13380474 Ref: 425213380474 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-until13380872 Ref: 426b13380872 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-return13381268 Ref: 426813381268 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-continue13381355 Ref: 424c13381355 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-jump13381455 Ref: 426913381455 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-list13381885 Ref: 425a13381885 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-ll13382633 Ref: 426c13382633 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-args13382813 Ref: 426d13382813 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-p13382918 Ref: f7113382918 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-pp13383178 Ref: 426e13383178 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-whatis13383339 Ref: 426f13383339 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-source13383412 Ref: 427013383412 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-display13383536 Ref: 427113383536 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-undisplay13384989 Ref: 427213384989 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-interact13385202 Ref: 427313385202 Ref: library/pdb debugger-aliases13386105 Ref: 425b13386105 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-alias13386105 Ref: 427413386105 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-unalias13387214 Ref: 427513387214 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-013387285 Ref: 427613387285 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-run13387772 Ref: 427713387772 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-restart13387803 Ref: 427813387803 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-quit13388138 Ref: 426a13388138 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-debug13388232 Ref: 427913388232 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-retval13388420 Ref: 427a13388420 Ref: library/pdb pdbcommand-exceptions13388518 Ref: 23a13388518 Node: The Python Profilers13389845 Ref: library/profile doc13390026 Ref: 427b13390026 Ref: library/profile profile13390026 Ref: 427c13390026 Ref: library/profile the-python-profilers13390026 Ref: 427d13390026 Ref: The Python Profilers-Footnote-113390470 Ref: The Python Profilers-Footnote-213390537 Node: Introduction to the profilers13390603 Ref: library/profile introduction-to-the-profilers13390721 Ref: 427e13390721 Ref: library/profile profiler-introduction13390721 Ref: 427f13390721 Node: Instant User’s Manual13392206 Ref: library/profile instant-user-s-manual13392370 Ref: 428013392370 Ref: library/profile profile-instant13392370 Ref: 428113392370 Ref: library/profile profile-cli13395250 Ref: 428313395250 Ref: library/profile cmdoption-cProfile-o13395463 Ref: 428413395463 Ref: library/profile cmdoption-cProfile-s13395558 Ref: 428513395558 Ref: library/profile cmdoption-cProfile-m13395742 Ref: 428713395742 Node: profile and cProfile Module Reference13398670 Ref: library/profile module-cProfile13398820 Ref: 2713398820 Ref: library/profile profile-and-cprofile-module-reference13398820 Ref: 428a13398820 Ref: library/profile module-profile13398931 Ref: af13398931 Ref: library/profile profile run13399025 Ref: 428b13399025 Ref: library/profile profile runctx13399660 Ref: 428c13399660 Ref: library/profile profile Profile13400057 Ref: 9e213400057 Ref: library/profile profile Profile enable13401629 Ref: 428d13401629 Ref: library/profile profile Profile disable13401730 Ref: 428e13401730 Ref: library/profile profile Profile create_stats13401831 Ref: 428f13401831 Ref: library/profile profile Profile print_stats13401975 Ref: 429013401975 Ref: library/profile profile Profile dump_stats13402463 Ref: 429113402463 Ref: library/profile profile Profile run13402570 Ref: 429213402570 Ref: library/profile profile Profile runctx13402648 Ref: 429313402648 Ref: library/profile profile Profile runcall13402805 Ref: a7d13402805 Node: The Stats Class13403150 Ref: library/profile profile-stats13403309 Ref: 429413403309 Ref: library/profile the-stats-class13403309 Ref: 429513403309 Ref: library/profile module-pstats13403443 Ref: b013403443 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats13403443 Ref: 428213403443 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats strip_dirs13404706 Ref: 428813404706 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats add13405528 Ref: 429613405528 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats dump_stats13406021 Ref: 429713406021 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats sort_stats13406402 Ref: 428613406402 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats reverse_order13411761 Ref: 429813411761 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_stats13412047 Ref: 428913412047 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_callers13413491 Ref: 429913413491 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats print_callees13414607 Ref: 429a13414607 Ref: library/profile pstats Stats get_stats_profile13414988 Ref: 429b13414988 Node: What Is Deterministic Profiling?13415535 Ref: library/profile deterministic-profiling13415668 Ref: 429c13415668 Ref: library/profile what-is-deterministic-profiling13415668 Ref: 429d13415668 Node: Limitations13417466 Ref: library/profile limitations13417595 Ref: 429e13417595 Ref: library/profile profile-limitations13417595 Ref: 429f13417595 Node: Calibration13419478 Ref: library/profile calibration13419595 Ref: 42a013419595 Ref: library/profile profile-calibration13419595 Ref: 42a113419595 Node: Using a custom timer13421287 Ref: library/profile profile-timers13421384 Ref: 42a213421384 Ref: library/profile using-a-custom-timer13421384 Ref: 42a313421384 Node: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets13423835 Ref: library/timeit doc13424040 Ref: 42a413424040 Ref: library/timeit module-timeit13424040 Ref: ef13424040 Ref: library/timeit timeit-measure-execution-time-of-small-code-snippets13424040 Ref: 42a513424040 Ref: timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets-Footnote-113424825 Node: Basic Examples<2>13424891 Ref: library/timeit basic-examples13425026 Ref: 42a813425026 Node: Python Interface13426311 Ref: library/timeit id113426480 Ref: 42aa13426480 Ref: library/timeit python-interface13426480 Ref: 42a713426480 Ref: library/timeit timeit timeit13426601 Ref: e7913426601 Ref: library/timeit timeit repeat13427064 Ref: 42ab13427064 Ref: library/timeit timeit default_timer13427654 Ref: 42ad13427654 Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer13427949 Ref: 149113427949 Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer timeit13429396 Ref: ced13429396 Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer autorange13430521 Ref: cec13430521 Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer repeat13431251 Ref: 42ac13431251 Ref: library/timeit timeit Timer print_exc13432526 Ref: 42ae13432526 Node: Command-Line Interface<4>13433106 Ref: library/timeit command-line-interface13433270 Ref: 42af13433270 Ref: library/timeit timeit-command-line-interface13433270 Ref: 42a613433270 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-n13433539 Ref: 42b013433539 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-number13433539 Ref: 42b113433539 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-r13433617 Ref: 42b213433617 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-repeat13433617 Ref: 42b313433617 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-s13433700 Ref: 42b413433700 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-setup13433700 Ref: 42b513433700 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-p13433796 Ref: 42b613433796 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-process13433796 Ref: 42b713433796 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-u13434011 Ref: 42b813434011 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-unit13434011 Ref: 42b913434011 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-v13434174 Ref: 42ba13434174 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-verbose13434174 Ref: 42bb13434174 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-h13434266 Ref: 42bc13434266 Ref: library/timeit cmdoption-timeit-help13434266 Ref: 42bd13434266 Node: Examples<30>13435477 Ref: library/timeit examples13435616 Ref: 42be13435616 Ref: library/timeit timeit-examples13435616 Ref: 42a913435616 Node: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution13439250 Ref: library/trace doc13439475 Ref: 42bf13439475 Ref: library/trace module-trace13439475 Ref: fd13439475 Ref: library/trace trace-trace-or-track-python-statement-execution13439475 Ref: 42c013439475 Ref: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution-Footnote-113440241 Ref: trace — Trace or track Python statement execution-Footnote-213440306 Node: Command-Line Usage<3>13440347 Ref: library/trace command-line-usage13440487 Ref: 42c113440487 Ref: library/trace trace-cli13440487 Ref: 42c213440487 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-help13440840 Ref: 42c313440840 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-version13440890 Ref: 42c413440890 Node: Main options13441108 Ref: library/trace main-options13441196 Ref: 42c513441196 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-c13441573 Ref: 42c813441573 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-count13441573 Ref: 42c913441573 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-t13441826 Ref: 42c713441826 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-trace13441826 Ref: 42cd13441826 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-l13441893 Ref: 42c613441893 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-listfuncs13441893 Ref: 42ce13441893 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-r13441983 Ref: 42cf13441983 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-report13441983 Ref: 42d013441983 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-T13442177 Ref: 42d113442177 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-trackcalls13442177 Ref: 42d213442177 Node: Modifiers13442279 Ref: library/trace modifiers13442383 Ref: 42d313442383 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-f13442422 Ref: 42cb13442422 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-file13442422 Ref: 42d413442422 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-C13442579 Ref: 42ca13442579 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-coverdir13442579 Ref: 42d513442579 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-m13442769 Ref: 42d613442769 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-missing13442769 Ref: 42d713442769 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-s13442897 Ref: 42d813442897 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-summary13442897 Ref: 42d913442897 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-R13443047 Ref: 42cc13443047 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-no-report13443047 Ref: 42da13443047 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-g13443268 Ref: 42db13443268 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-timing13443268 Ref: 42dc13443268 Node: Filters13443389 Ref: library/trace filters13443472 Ref: 42dd13443472 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-ignore-module13443554 Ref: 42de13443554 Ref: library/trace cmdoption-trace-ignore-dir13443743 Ref: 42df13443743 Node: Programmatic Interface13443946 Ref: library/trace programmatic-interface13444086 Ref: 42e013444086 Ref: library/trace trace-api13444086 Ref: 42e113444086 Ref: library/trace trace Trace13444151 Ref: 42e213444151 Ref: library/trace trace Trace run13445062 Ref: 42e313445062 Ref: library/trace trace Trace runctx13445304 Ref: 42e413445304 Ref: library/trace trace Trace runfunc13445618 Ref: a7f13445618 Ref: library/trace trace Trace results13445811 Ref: 42e513445811 Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults13446120 Ref: 42e613446120 Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults update13446284 Ref: 42e713446284 Ref: library/trace trace CoverageResults write_results13446402 Ref: 42e813446402 Node: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations13447760 Ref: library/tracemalloc doc13447920 Ref: 42e913447920 Ref: library/tracemalloc module-tracemalloc13447920 Ref: ff13447920 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc-trace-memory-allocations13447920 Ref: 42ea13447920 Ref: tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations-Footnote-113449262 Node: Examples<31>13449333 Ref: library/tracemalloc examples13449434 Ref: 42eb13449434 Node: Display the top 1013449583 Ref: library/tracemalloc display-the-top-1013449678 Ref: 42ec13449678 Node: Compute differences13451162 Ref: library/tracemalloc compute-differences13451301 Ref: 42ee13451301 Node: Get the traceback of a memory block13453491 Ref: library/tracemalloc get-the-traceback-of-a-memory-block13453622 Ref: 42f113453622 Node: Pretty top13456254 Ref: library/tracemalloc pretty-top13456357 Ref: 42f213456357 Node: Record the current and peak size of all traced memory blocks13458819 Ref: library/tracemalloc record-the-current-and-peak-size-of-all-traced-memory-blocks13458926 Ref: 42f313458926 Node: API13460618 Ref: library/tracemalloc api13460719 Ref: 42f513460719 Node: Functions<11>13460891 Ref: library/tracemalloc functions13460965 Ref: 42f613460965 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc clear_traces13461004 Ref: 42f713461004 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_object_traceback13461139 Ref: 1b5713461139 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_traceback_limit13461545 Ref: 42f813461545 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_traced_memory13461868 Ref: 42f413461868 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc reset_peak13462073 Ref: 93b13462073 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc get_tracemalloc_memory13462705 Ref: 42fa13462705 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc is_tracing13462902 Ref: 42fb13462902 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc start13463134 Ref: 1d3b13463134 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc stop13464498 Ref: 158213464498 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc take_snapshot13464932 Ref: 42f913464932 Node: DomainFilter13465630 Ref: library/tracemalloc domainfilter13465719 Ref: 42ff13465719 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc DomainFilter13465764 Ref: cf113465764 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc DomainFilter inclusive13465930 Ref: 430013465930 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc DomainFilter domain13466230 Ref: 430113466230 Node: Filter13466335 Ref: library/tracemalloc filter13466416 Ref: 430213466416 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter13466451 Ref: 430313466451 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter domain13467313 Ref: 430413467313 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter inclusive13467584 Ref: 430513467584 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter lineno13468016 Ref: 430713468016 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter filename_pattern13468168 Ref: 430613468168 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Filter all_frames13468282 Ref: 430813468282 Node: Frame13468689 Ref: library/tracemalloc frame13468766 Ref: 430a13468766 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame13468799 Ref: 430b13468799 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame filename13468947 Ref: 430c13468947 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Frame lineno13469010 Ref: 430d13469010 Node: Snapshot13469074 Ref: library/tracemalloc snapshot13469154 Ref: 430e13469154 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot13469193 Ref: 42fe13469193 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot compare_to13469371 Ref: 42fd13469371 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot dump13470099 Ref: 42ef13470099 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot filter_traces13470235 Ref: 431513470235 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot load13470912 Ref: 42f013470912 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot statistics13471038 Ref: 42ed13471038 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot traceback_limit13472239 Ref: 430913472239 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Snapshot traces13472458 Ref: 431613472458 Node: Statistic13472753 Ref: library/tracemalloc statistic13472841 Ref: 431b13472841 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic13472882 Ref: 431713472882 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic count13473106 Ref: 431313473106 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic size13473181 Ref: 431813473181 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Statistic traceback13473268 Ref: 431913473268 Node: StatisticDiff13473400 Ref: library/tracemalloc statisticdiff13473485 Ref: 431c13473485 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff13473534 Ref: 430f13473534 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff count13473834 Ref: 431d13473834 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff count_diff13474008 Ref: 431213474008 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff size13474230 Ref: 431113474230 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff size_diff13474426 Ref: 431013474426 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc StatisticDiff traceback13474660 Ref: 431413474660 Node: Trace13474794 Ref: library/tracemalloc trace13474879 Ref: 431e13474879 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace13474912 Ref: 431a13474912 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace domain13475145 Ref: 431f13475145 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace size13475423 Ref: 432013475423 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Trace traceback13475507 Ref: 432113475507 Node: Traceback13475639 Ref: library/tracemalloc traceback13475702 Ref: 432213475702 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback13475743 Ref: b9613475743 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback total_nframe13476670 Ref: 42fc13476670 Ref: library/tracemalloc tracemalloc Traceback format13476979 Ref: b9713476979 Node: Software Packaging and Distribution13478047 Ref: library/distribution doc13478210 Ref: 432413478210 Ref: library/distribution software-packaging-and-distribution13478210 Ref: 432513478210 Ref: Software Packaging and Distribution-Footnote-113478737 Node: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer13478762 Ref: library/ensurepip doc13478929 Ref: 432613478929 Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip-bootstrapping-the-pip-installer13478929 Ref: 432713478929 Ref: library/ensurepip module-ensurepip13478929 Ref: 5513478929 Ref: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer-Footnote-113480530 Ref: ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer-Footnote-213480596 Node: Command line interface13480638 Ref: library/ensurepip command-line-interface13480761 Ref: 432813480761 Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-root13481510 Ref: 432913481510 Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-user13481739 Ref: 432a13481739 Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-altinstall13482192 Ref: 432b13482192 Ref: library/ensurepip cmdoption-ensurepip-default-pip13482319 Ref: 432c13482319 Node: Module API13482561 Ref: library/ensurepip module-api13482684 Ref: 432d13482684 Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip version13482791 Ref: 432e13482791 Ref: library/ensurepip ensurepip bootstrap13482953 Ref: 41ea13482953 Node: venv — Creation of virtual environments13484736 Ref: library/venv doc13484960 Ref: 432f13484960 Ref: library/venv module-venv13484960 Ref: 11113484960 Ref: library/venv venv-creation-of-virtual-environments13484960 Ref: 433013484960 Ref: library/venv venv-def13485185 Ref: 433113485185 Ref: library/venv venv-intro13485185 Ref: 433213485185 Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-113487235 Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-213487297 Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-313487335 Ref: venv — Creation of virtual environments-Footnote-413487377 Node: Creating virtual environments13487505 Ref: library/venv creating-virtual-environments13487635 Ref: 433313487635 Ref: library/venv venv-cli13489388 Ref: 433413489388 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-arg-ENV_DIR13489388 Ref: 433513489388 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-system-site-packages13489495 Ref: 433613489495 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-symlinks13489617 Ref: 433713489617 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-copies13489744 Ref: 433813489744 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-clear13489870 Ref: 433913489870 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-upgrade13490002 Ref: 433a13490002 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-without-pip13490145 Ref: 433b13490145 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-prompt13490278 Ref: 433c13490278 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-upgrade-deps13490375 Ref: 433d13490375 Ref: library/venv cmdoption-venv-without-scm-ignore-files13490472 Ref: 433e13490472 Ref: Creating virtual environments-Footnote-113492390 Node: How venvs work13492445 Ref: library/venv how-venvs-work13492590 Ref: 433f13492590 Ref: library/venv venv-explanation13492590 Ref: 44813492590 Node: API<2>13497089 Ref: library/venv api13497239 Ref: 434013497239 Ref: library/venv venv-api13497239 Ref: eed13497239 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder13497496 Ref: 26c13497496 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create13499778 Ref: 434213499778 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder ensure_directories13501073 Ref: 434313501073 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create_configuration13503799 Ref: 434413503799 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder setup_python13503937 Ref: 434513503937 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder setup_scripts13504303 Ref: 434613504303 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder upgrade_dependencies13504452 Ref: 434913504452 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder post_setup13504822 Ref: 434713504822 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder install_scripts13505057 Ref: 434813505057 Ref: library/venv venv EnvBuilder create_git_ignore_file13506496 Ref: 434113506496 Ref: library/venv venv create13507320 Ref: 26d13507320 Ref: API<2>-Footnote-113507989 Ref: API<2>-Footnote-213508027 Node: An example of extending EnvBuilder13508072 Ref: library/venv an-example-of-extending-envbuilder13508199 Ref: 434a13508199 Ref: An example of extending EnvBuilder-Footnote-113518344 Node: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives13518391 Ref: library/zipapp doc13518561 Ref: 434b13518561 Ref: library/zipapp module-zipapp13518561 Ref: 13013518561 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-manage-executable-python-zip-archives13518561 Ref: 434c13518561 Ref: zipapp — Manage executable Python zip archives-Footnote-113519340 Node: Basic Example13519406 Ref: library/zipapp basic-example13519538 Ref: 434f13519538 Node: Command-Line Interface<5>13519943 Ref: library/zipapp command-line-interface13520094 Ref: 435013520094 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-command-line-interface13520094 Ref: 434d13520094 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-o13520590 Ref: 435113520590 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-output13520590 Ref: 435213520590 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-p13521087 Ref: 435313521087 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-python13521087 Ref: 435413521087 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-m13521363 Ref: 435513521363 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-main13521363 Ref: 435613521363 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-c13521792 Ref: 435713521792 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-compress13521792 Ref: 435813521792 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-info13522069 Ref: 435913522069 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-h13522272 Ref: 435a13522272 Ref: library/zipapp cmdoption-zipapp-help13522272 Ref: 435b13522272 Node: Python API13522340 Ref: library/zipapp python-api13522490 Ref: 435c13522490 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-python-api13522490 Ref: 434e13522490 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp create_archive13522578 Ref: bb013522578 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp get_interpreter13526371 Ref: 435d13526371 Node: Examples<32>13526728 Ref: library/zipapp examples13526879 Ref: 435e13526879 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-examples13526879 Ref: 435f13526879 Node: Specifying the Interpreter13528250 Ref: library/zipapp specifying-the-interpreter13528435 Ref: 436013528435 Ref: library/zipapp zipapp-specifying-the-interpreter13528435 Ref: 436113528435 Node: Creating Standalone Applications with zipapp13529674 Ref: library/zipapp creating-standalone-applications-with-zipapp13529888 Ref: 436213529888 Node: Caveats13531599 Ref: library/zipapp caveats13531687 Ref: 436313531687 Node: The Python Zip Application Archive Format13532426 Ref: library/zipapp the-python-zip-application-archive-format13532605 Ref: 436413532605 Node: Python Runtime Services13534508 Ref: library/python doc13534674 Ref: 436513534674 Ref: library/python python13534674 Ref: 436613534674 Ref: library/python python-runtime-services13534674 Ref: 436713534674 Node: sys — System-specific parameters and functions13535624 Ref: library/sys doc13535786 Ref: 436813535786 Ref: library/sys module-sys13535786 Ref: d913535786 Ref: library/sys sys-system-specific-parameters-and-functions13535786 Ref: 436913535786 Ref: library/sys sys abiflags13536210 Ref: a6313536210 Ref: library/sys sys addaudithook13536574 Ref: 41e113536574 Ref: library/sys sys argv13538790 Ref: 125813538790 Ref: library/sys auditing13539718 Ref: 18ba13539718 Ref: library/sys sys audit13539718 Ref: 15b913539718 Ref: library/sys sys base_exec_prefix13541118 Ref: 3ea13541118 Ref: library/sys sys base_prefix13541761 Ref: 3eb13541761 Ref: library/sys sys byteorder13542394 Ref: 219b13542394 Ref: library/sys sys builtin_module_names13542650 Ref: 1c5f13542650 Ref: library/sys sys call_tracing13542983 Ref: 183213542983 Ref: library/sys sys copyright13543506 Ref: 436a13543506 Ref: library/sys sys _clear_type_cache13543614 Ref: 167113543614 Ref: library/sys sys _clear_internal_caches13544059 Ref: 167013544059 Ref: library/sys sys _current_frames13544298 Ref: 13fe13544298 Ref: library/sys sys _current_exceptions13545167 Ref: 4be13545167 Ref: library/sys sys breakpointhook13545878 Ref: ada13545878 Ref: library/sys sys _debugmallocstats13547778 Ref: 436b13547778 Ref: library/sys sys dllhandle13548261 Ref: 436c13548261 Ref: library/sys sys displayhook13548383 Ref: 14ea13548383 Ref: library/sys sys dont_write_bytecode13549910 Ref: 436d13549910 Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info13550309 Ref: 180013550309 Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info emscripten_version13550524 Ref: 436e13550524 Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info runtime13550684 Ref: 436f13550684 Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info pthreads13550839 Ref: 437013550839 Ref: library/sys sys _emscripten_info shared_memory13550964 Ref: 437113550964 Ref: library/sys sys pycache_prefix13551162 Ref: 9a413551162 Ref: library/sys sys excepthook13552135 Ref: 80713552135 Ref: library/sys sys __breakpointhook__13553500 Ref: 437213553500 Ref: library/sys sys __displayhook__13553533 Ref: 437313553533 Ref: library/sys sys __excepthook__13553563 Ref: 437413553563 Ref: library/sys sys __unraisablehook__13553592 Ref: 437513553592 Ref: library/sys sys exception13554104 Ref: 68713554104 Ref: library/sys sys exc_info13554574 Ref: 68613554574 Ref: library/sys sys exec_prefix13555580 Ref: 3ae13555580 Ref: library/sys sys executable13556499 Ref: 3b413556499 Ref: library/sys sys exit13556800 Ref: 133c13556800 Ref: library/sys sys flags13558472 Ref: 68813558472 Ref: library/sys sys flags debug13558644 Ref: 437613558644 Ref: library/sys sys flags inspect13558844 Ref: 437713558844 Ref: library/sys sys flags interactive13559046 Ref: 437813559046 Ref: library/sys sys flags isolated13559241 Ref: 437913559241 Ref: library/sys sys flags optimize13559438 Ref: 437a13559438 Ref: library/sys sys flags dont_write_bytecode13559665 Ref: 437b13559665 Ref: library/sys sys flags no_user_site13559856 Ref: 437c13559856 Ref: library/sys sys flags no_site13560049 Ref: 437d13560049 Ref: library/sys sys flags ignore_environment13560258 Ref: 437e13560258 Ref: library/sys sys flags verbose13560444 Ref: 437f13560444 Ref: library/sys sys flags bytes_warning13560648 Ref: 438013560648 Ref: library/sys sys flags quiet13560837 Ref: 438113560837 Ref: library/sys sys flags hash_randomization13561048 Ref: 438213561048 Ref: library/sys sys flags dev_mode13561236 Ref: 1aa013561236 Ref: library/sys sys flags utf8_mode13561536 Ref: 438313561536 Ref: library/sys sys flags safe_path13561738 Ref: 23813561738 Ref: library/sys sys flags int_max_str_digits13561944 Ref: 227a13561944 Ref: library/sys sys flags warn_default_encoding13562281 Ref: 438413562281 Ref: library/sys sys float_info13563262 Ref: 19ea13563262 Ref: library/sys sys float_info epsilon13564220 Ref: 438613564220 Ref: library/sys sys float_info dig13564916 Ref: 438713564916 Ref: library/sys sys float_info mant_dig13565427 Ref: 438813565427 Ref: library/sys sys float_info max13565919 Ref: 438913565919 Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_exp13566302 Ref: 438a13566302 Ref: library/sys sys float_info max_10_exp13566780 Ref: 438b13566780 Ref: library/sys sys float_info min13567300 Ref: 438c13567300 Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_exp13568109 Ref: 438d13568109 Ref: library/sys sys float_info min_10_exp13568577 Ref: 438e13568577 Ref: library/sys sys float_info radix13568993 Ref: 438f13568993 Ref: library/sys sys float_info rounds13569362 Ref: 439013569362 Ref: library/sys sys float_repr_style13572256 Ref: 12ed13572256 Ref: library/sys sys getallocatedblocks13572797 Ref: fc013572797 Ref: library/sys sys getunicodeinternedsize13573441 Ref: 439113573441 Ref: library/sys sys getandroidapilevel13573583 Ref: b8a13573583 Ref: library/sys sys getdefaultencoding13573928 Ref: 439213573928 Ref: library/sys sys getdlopenflags13574098 Ref: 14da13574098 Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencoding13574411 Ref: c5913574411 Ref: library/sys sys getfilesystemencodeerrors13575823 Ref: ce613575823 Ref: library/sys sys get_int_max_str_digits13576565 Ref: 152d13576565 Ref: library/sys sys getrefcount13576793 Ref: 439313576793 Ref: library/sys sys getrecursionlimit13577565 Ref: 4c013577565 Ref: library/sys sys getsizeof13577877 Ref: 176a13577877 Ref: library/sys sys getswitchinterval13578829 Ref: 94913578829 Ref: library/sys sys _getframe13579012 Ref: 6dc13579012 Ref: library/sys sys _getframemodulename13579668 Ref: 176e13579668 Ref: library/sys sys getobjects13580400 Ref: 42313580400 Ref: library/sys sys getprofile13581525 Ref: 13ac13581525 Ref: library/sys sys gettrace13581626 Ref: 13ad13581626 Ref: library/sys sys getwindowsversion13582066 Ref: ce713582066 Ref: library/sys sys get_asyncgen_hooks13584595 Ref: 183313584595 Ref: library/sys sys get_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth13585204 Ref: b8b13585204 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info13585556 Ref: ff813585556 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info width13585769 Ref: 439713585769 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info modulus13585856 Ref: 21a113585856 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info inf13585955 Ref: 439813585955 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info nan13586049 Ref: 439913586049 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info imag13586130 Ref: 439a13586130 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info algorithm13586240 Ref: 439b13586240 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info hash_bits13586370 Ref: 439c13586370 Ref: library/sys sys hash_info seed_bits13586469 Ref: 439d13586469 Ref: library/sys sys hexversion13586678 Ref: 439e13586678 Ref: library/sys sys implementation13587572 Ref: 51213587572 Ref: library/sys sys int_info13589775 Ref: 128613589775 Ref: library/sys sys int_info bits_per_digit13589944 Ref: 43a013589944 Ref: library/sys sys int_info sizeof_digit13590130 Ref: 43a113590130 Ref: library/sys sys int_info default_max_str_digits13590243 Ref: 227b13590243 Ref: library/sys sys int_info str_digits_check_threshold13590429 Ref: 43a213590429 Ref: library/sys sys __interactivehook__13590822 Ref: fc213590822 Ref: library/sys sys intern13591370 Ref: 12ce13591370 Ref: library/sys sys _is_gil_enabled13592157 Ref: 43a313592157 Ref: library/sys sys is_finalizing13592442 Ref: a8f13592442 Ref: library/sys sys last_exc13592704 Ref: 4ba13592704 Ref: library/sys sys _is_interned13593277 Ref: 25213593277 Ref: library/sys sys last_type13593558 Ref: 4bb13593558 Ref: library/sys sys last_value13593582 Ref: 4bc13593582 Ref: library/sys sys last_traceback13593607 Ref: 4bd13593607 Ref: library/sys sys maxsize13593836 Ref: 11b713593836 Ref: library/sys sys maxunicode13594058 Ref: 104513594058 Ref: library/sys sys meta_path13594457 Ref: d2b13594457 Ref: library/sys sys modules13595766 Ref: 155013595766 Ref: library/sys sys orig_argv13596374 Ref: 83c13596374 Ref: library/sys sys path13596850 Ref: 3b013596850 Ref: library/sys sys path_hooks13598124 Ref: 101d13598124 Ref: library/sys sys path_importer_cache13598415 Ref: 5e013598415 Ref: library/sys sys platform13598822 Ref: a8d13598822 Ref: library/sys sys platlibdir13601160 Ref: 93813601160 Ref: library/sys sys prefix13602164 Ref: 3b213602164 Ref: library/sys sys ps113602792 Ref: 1d4513602792 Ref: library/sys sys ps213602810 Ref: 1d4613602810 Ref: library/sys sys setdlopenflags13603286 Ref: 111313603286 Ref: library/sys sys set_int_max_str_digits13603887 Ref: 17be13603887 Ref: library/sys sys setprofile13604124 Ref: 14c913604124 Ref: library/sys sys setrecursionlimit13606529 Ref: 4bf13606529 Ref: library/sys sys setswitchinterval13607321 Ref: 94a13607321 Ref: library/sys sys settrace13607900 Ref: 14ca13607900 Ref: library/sys sys set_asyncgen_hooks13612671 Ref: 162613612671 Ref: library/sys sys set_coroutine_origin_tracking_depth13613782 Ref: b8c13613782 Ref: library/sys sys activate_stack_trampoline13614605 Ref: 46b13614605 Ref: library/sys sys deactivate_stack_trampoline13614979 Ref: 46c13614979 Ref: library/sys sys is_stack_trampoline_active13615232 Ref: 46d13615232 Ref: library/sys sys _enablelegacywindowsfsencoding13615416 Ref: 2b013615416 Ref: library/sys sys stdin13616385 Ref: 53913616385 Ref: library/sys sys stdout13616405 Ref: ad613616405 Ref: library/sys sys stderr13616426 Ref: 93913616426 Ref: library/sys sys __stdin__13619584 Ref: 43a513619584 Ref: library/sys sys __stdout__13619608 Ref: 288213619608 Ref: library/sys sys __stderr__13619633 Ref: 416713619633 Ref: library/sys sys stdlib_module_names13620598 Ref: 83d13620598 Ref: library/sys sys thread_info13621333 Ref: 114413621333 Ref: library/sys sys thread_info name13621450 Ref: 43a613621450 Ref: library/sys sys thread_info lock13621804 Ref: 43a713621804 Ref: library/sys sys thread_info version13622103 Ref: 43a813622103 Ref: library/sys sys tracebacklimit13622300 Ref: 15db13622300 Ref: library/sys sys unraisablehook13622664 Ref: 1f913622664 Ref: library/sys sys version13624492 Ref: 17813624492 Ref: library/sys sys api_version13624894 Ref: 43a913624894 Ref: library/sys sys version_info13625082 Ref: 69c13625082 Ref: library/sys sys warnoptions13625703 Ref: 3ac13625703 Ref: library/sys sys winver13625922 Ref: 43aa13625922 Ref: library/sys sys _xoptions13626563 Ref: 1d3f13626563 Ref: library/sys c9913627364 Ref: 438513627364 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-113627576 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-213627618 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-313627660 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-413627702 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-513627807 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-613627849 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-713627891 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-813627933 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-913627975 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1013628017 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1113628060 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1213628103 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1313628146 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1413628189 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1513628232 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1613628313 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1713628356 Ref: sys — System-specific parameters and functions-Footnote-1813628399 Node: sys monitoring — Execution event monitoring13628442 Ref: library/sys monitoring doc13628681 Ref: 43ab13628681 Ref: library/sys monitoring module-sys monitoring13628681 Ref: da13628681 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys-monitoring-execution-event-monitoring13628681 Ref: 43ac13628681 Node: Tool identifiers13629691 Ref: library/sys monitoring tool-identifiers13629804 Ref: 43ad13629804 Node: Registering and using tools13630361 Ref: library/sys monitoring registering-and-using-tools13630441 Ref: 43b013630441 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring use_tool_id13630516 Ref: 43b113630516 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring free_tool_id13630773 Ref: 43b213630773 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring get_tool13631187 Ref: 43b313631187 Node: Events13631690 Ref: library/sys monitoring events13631837 Ref: 43ae13631837 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-BRANCH13631907 Ref: 43b413631907 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-CALL13632005 Ref: 164613632005 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-C_RAISE13632115 Ref: 43b513632115 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-C_RETURN13632277 Ref: 43b613632277 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-EXCEPTION_HANDLED13632429 Ref: 43b713632429 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-INSTRUCTION13632523 Ref: 43b813632523 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-JUMP13632628 Ref: 43b913632628 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-LINE13632741 Ref: 43ba13632741 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_RESUME13632906 Ref: 43bb13632906 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_RETURN13633077 Ref: 43bc13633077 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_START13633256 Ref: 43bd13633256 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_THROW13633427 Ref: 43be13633427 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_UNWIND13633541 Ref: 43bf13633541 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-PY_YIELD13633658 Ref: 43c013633658 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-RAISE13633834 Ref: 15f013633834 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-RERAISE13633981 Ref: 43c213633981 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-STOP_ITERATION13634127 Ref: 43c113634127 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-NO_EVENTS13634679 Ref: 43c413634679 Node: Local events13635007 Ref: library/sys monitoring local-events13635087 Ref: 43c513635087 Ref: library/sys monitoring monitoring-event-local13635087 Ref: 43c613635087 Node: Ancillary events13635573 Ref: library/sys monitoring ancillary-events13635674 Ref: 43c713635674 Node: Other events13636117 Ref: library/sys monitoring other-events13636230 Ref: 43c813636230 Node: The STOP_ITERATION event13636553 Ref: library/sys monitoring the-stop-iteration-event13636641 Ref: 43c313636641 Ref: The STOP_ITERATION event-Footnote-113637284 Node: Turning events on and off13637365 Ref: library/sys monitoring turning-events-on-and-off13637526 Ref: 43c913637526 Node: Setting events globally13637887 Ref: library/sys monitoring setting-events-globally13638003 Ref: 43ca13638003 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring get_events13638153 Ref: 43cb13638153 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring set_events13638283 Ref: 43cc13638283 Node: Per code object events13638533 Ref: library/sys monitoring per-code-object-events13638674 Ref: 43cd13638674 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring get_local_events13639003 Ref: 43ce13639003 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring set_local_events13639147 Ref: 43cf13639147 Node: Disabling events13639568 Ref: library/sys monitoring disabling-events13639677 Ref: 43d013639677 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring DISABLE13639732 Ref: 43d113639732 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring restart_events13640345 Ref: 43d213640345 Node: Registering callback functions13640507 Ref: library/sys monitoring callbacks13640653 Ref: 43af13640653 Ref: library/sys monitoring registering-callback-functions13640653 Ref: 43d313640653 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring register_callback13640776 Ref: 41ef13640776 Node: Callback function arguments13641501 Ref: library/sys monitoring callback-function-arguments13641595 Ref: 43d413641595 Ref: library/sys monitoring sys monitoring MISSING13641672 Ref: 43d513641672 Node: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information13643330 Ref: library/sysconfig doc13643550 Ref: 43d613643550 Ref: library/sysconfig module-sysconfig13643550 Ref: db13643550 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-provide-access-to-python-s-configuration-information13643550 Ref: 43d713643550 Ref: sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s configuration information-Footnote-113644286 Node: Configuration variables13644352 Ref: library/sysconfig configuration-variables13644507 Ref: 43d813644507 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_vars13644999 Ref: 102513644999 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_var13645370 Ref: 102413645370 Node: Installation paths13645813 Ref: library/sysconfig id113645988 Ref: 43d913645988 Ref: library/sysconfig installation-paths13645988 Ref: 68b13645988 Node: User scheme13648330 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-user-scheme13648493 Ref: 1d4713648493 Ref: library/sysconfig user-scheme13648493 Ref: 43da13648493 Node: posix_user13649022 Ref: library/sysconfig posix-user13649096 Ref: 43db13649096 Node: nt_user13649940 Ref: library/sysconfig nt-user13650041 Ref: 43dc13650041 Node: osx_framework_user13650873 Ref: library/sysconfig osx-framework-user13650955 Ref: 43dd13650955 Node: Home scheme13651795 Ref: library/sysconfig home-scheme13651953 Ref: 43de13651953 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-home-scheme13651953 Ref: 43df13651953 Node: posix_home13652434 Ref: library/sysconfig posix-home13652492 Ref: 43e013652492 Node: Prefix scheme13653342 Ref: library/sysconfig prefix-scheme13653516 Ref: 43e113653516 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-prefix-scheme13653516 Ref: 43e213653516 Node: posix_prefix13654856 Ref: library/sysconfig posix-prefix13654929 Ref: 43e313654929 Node: nt13655858 Ref: library/sysconfig nt13655931 Ref: 43e413655931 Node: Installation path functions13656772 Ref: library/sysconfig installation-path-functions13656953 Ref: 43e513656953 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_scheme_names13657115 Ref: 43e613657115 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_default_scheme13657253 Ref: 182313657253 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_preferred_scheme13657613 Ref: 68c13657613 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig _get_preferred_schemes13658205 Ref: 43e713658205 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_path_names13658872 Ref: 43e813658872 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_path13659011 Ref: 132113659011 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_paths13660240 Ref: 123713660240 Node: Other functions<3>13660865 Ref: library/sysconfig other-functions13661054 Ref: 43e913661054 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_python_version13661107 Ref: 123613661107 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_platform13661278 Ref: 123513661278 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig is_python_build13662349 Ref: 2e113662349 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig parse_config_h13662640 Ref: 43ea13662640 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_config_h_filename13663034 Ref: 43eb13663034 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig get_makefile_filename13663127 Ref: 43ec13663127 Ref: library/sysconfig sysconfig-cli13663217 Ref: 43ed13663217 Node: Command-line usage<3>13663218 Ref: library/sysconfig command-line-usage13663371 Ref: 43ee13663371 Ref: library/sysconfig using-sysconfig-as-a-script13663371 Ref: 43ef13663371 Node: builtins — Built-in objects13664424 Ref: library/builtins doc13664638 Ref: 43f013664638 Ref: library/builtins builtins-built-in-objects13664638 Ref: 43f113664638 Ref: library/builtins module-builtins13664638 Ref: 1213664638 Node: __main__ — Top-level code environment13666215 Ref: library/__main__ doc13666389 Ref: 43f213666389 Ref: library/__main__ main-top-level-code-environment13666389 Ref: 43f313666389 Ref: library/__main__ module-__main__13666389 Ref: 113666389 Node: __name__ == '__main__'13667222 Ref: library/__main__ name-equals-main13667359 Ref: 43f413667359 Ref: library/__main__ name-main13667359 Ref: 43f513667359 Node: What is the “top-level code environment”?13668135 Ref: library/__main__ what-is-the-top-level-code-environment13668263 Ref: 43f613668263 Node: Idiomatic Usage13670282 Ref: library/__main__ idiomatic-usage13670443 Ref: 43f713670443 Node: Packaging Considerations13672423 Ref: library/__main__ packaging-considerations13672530 Ref: 43f813672530 Ref: Packaging Considerations-Footnote-113674041 Ref: Packaging Considerations-Footnote-213674070 Node: __main__ py in Python Packages13674108 Ref: library/__main__ main-py-in-python-packages13674269 Ref: 43f913674269 Node: Idiomatic Usage<2>13675676 Ref: library/__main__ id113675761 Ref: 43fa13675761 Node: import __main__13677102 Ref: library/__main__ import-main13677232 Ref: 43fb13677232 Node: warnings — Warning control13680416 Ref: library/warnings doc13680589 Ref: 43fc13680589 Ref: library/warnings module-warnings13680589 Ref: 11213680589 Ref: library/warnings warnings-warning-control13680589 Ref: 43fd13680589 Ref: warnings — Warning control-Footnote-113682903 Node: Warning Categories13682971 Ref: library/warnings id113683082 Ref: 440113683082 Ref: library/warnings warning-categories13683082 Ref: 22b213683082 Node: The Warnings Filter13687086 Ref: library/warnings the-warnings-filter13687238 Ref: 440213687238 Ref: library/warnings warning-filter13687238 Ref: 8c813687238 Node: Repeated Warning Suppression Criteria13690423 Ref: library/warnings id213690551 Ref: 440313690551 Ref: library/warnings repeated-warning-suppression-criteria13690551 Ref: 440413690551 Node: Describing Warning Filters13691186 Ref: library/warnings describing-warning-filters13691345 Ref: 1d3913691345 Ref: library/warnings id313691345 Ref: 440513691345 Node: Default Warning Filter13693070 Ref: library/warnings default-warning-filter13693221 Ref: 440613693221 Ref: library/warnings id413693221 Ref: 440713693221 Node: Overriding the default filter13694321 Ref: library/warnings overriding-the-default-filter13694437 Ref: 440813694437 Ref: library/warnings warning-disable13694437 Ref: 440913694437 Node: Temporarily Suppressing Warnings13695872 Ref: library/warnings temporarily-suppressing-warnings13696022 Ref: 440a13696022 Ref: library/warnings warning-suppress13696022 Ref: 440b13696022 Node: Testing Warnings13697038 Ref: library/warnings testing-warnings13697215 Ref: 440c13697215 Ref: library/warnings warning-testing13697215 Ref: 440d13697215 Node: Updating Code For New Versions of Dependencies13699277 Ref: library/warnings updating-code-for-new-versions-of-dependencies13699441 Ref: 440e13699441 Ref: library/warnings warning-ignored13699441 Ref: 40b913699441 Node: Available Functions13700831 Ref: library/warnings available-functions13701005 Ref: 440f13701005 Ref: library/warnings warning-functions13701005 Ref: 441013701005 Ref: library/warnings warnings warn13701066 Ref: 14e413701066 Ref: library/warnings warnings warn_explicit13703642 Ref: d0013703642 Ref: library/warnings warnings showwarning13704831 Ref: 440013704831 Ref: library/warnings warnings formatwarning13705469 Ref: 1a1413705469 Ref: library/warnings warnings filterwarnings13705901 Ref: 147213705901 Ref: library/warnings warnings simplefilter13706577 Ref: 6bd13706577 Ref: library/warnings warnings resetwarnings13707013 Ref: 43ff13707013 Ref: library/warnings warnings deprecated13707281 Ref: 16013707281 Ref: Available Functions-Footnote-113709142 Node: Available Context Managers13709184 Ref: library/warnings available-context-managers13709303 Ref: 441113709303 Ref: library/warnings warnings catch_warnings13709378 Ref: 58113709378 Node: dataclasses — Data Classes13711083 Ref: library/dataclasses doc13711269 Ref: 441213711269 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-data-classes13711269 Ref: 441313711269 Ref: library/dataclasses module-dataclasses13711269 Ref: 2f13711269 Ref: dataclasses — Data Classes-Footnote-113712976 Ref: dataclasses — Data Classes-Footnote-213713047 Ref: dataclasses — Data Classes-Footnote-313713089 Node: Module contents<4>13713131 Ref: library/dataclasses module-contents13713243 Ref: 441413713243 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses dataclass13713294 Ref: 1cb13713294 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses field13723254 Ref: 1a1f13723254 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses Field13727884 Ref: 225513727884 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses InitVar13728640 Ref: 182213728640 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses fields13729047 Ref: 174213729047 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses asdict13729426 Ref: 172413729426 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses astuple13730468 Ref: 172d13730468 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses make_dataclass13731207 Ref: 174413731207 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses replace13733002 Ref: 16f913733002 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses is_dataclass13734502 Ref: 187213734502 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses MISSING13734981 Ref: 441613734981 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses KW_ONLY13735084 Ref: 441513735084 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses FrozenInstanceError13736027 Ref: 441913736027 Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-113736338 Ref: Module contents<4>-Footnote-213736393 Node: Post-init processing13736448 Ref: library/dataclasses id113736584 Ref: 441a13736584 Ref: library/dataclasses post-init-processing13736584 Ref: 441b13736584 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses __post_init__13736645 Ref: 441813736645 Node: Class variables13738406 Ref: library/dataclasses class-variables13738543 Ref: 441c13738543 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-class-variables13738543 Ref: 441d13738543 Ref: Class variables-Footnote-113739101 Node: Init-only variables13739143 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-init-only-variables13739276 Ref: 441713739276 Ref: library/dataclasses init-only-variables13739276 Ref: 441e13739276 Node: Frozen instances13740505 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-frozen13740637 Ref: 441f13740637 Ref: library/dataclasses frozen-instances13740637 Ref: 442013740637 Node: Inheritance<2>13741234 Ref: library/dataclasses dataclasses-inheritance13741397 Ref: 442113741397 Ref: library/dataclasses inheritance13741397 Ref: 442213741397 Node: Re-ordering of keyword-only parameters in __init__13742453 Ref: library/dataclasses re-ordering-of-keyword-only-parameters-in-init13742625 Ref: 442313742625 Node: Default factory functions13743880 Ref: library/dataclasses default-factory-functions13744060 Ref: 442413744060 Node: Mutable default values13744678 Ref: library/dataclasses mutable-default-values13744831 Ref: 442513744831 Node: Descriptor-typed fields13746856 Ref: library/dataclasses descriptor-typed-fields13746975 Ref: 442613746975 Node: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts13748953 Ref: library/contextlib doc13749140 Ref: 442713749140 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib-utilities-for-with-statement-contexts13749140 Ref: 442813749140 Ref: library/contextlib module-contextlib13749140 Ref: 2313749140 Ref: contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts-Footnote-113749802 Node: Utilities13749872 Ref: library/contextlib utilities13750002 Ref: 442913750002 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractContextManager13750074 Ref: c8d13750074 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AbstractAsyncContextManager13750564 Ref: b2b13750564 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib contextmanager13751078 Ref: 11f413751078 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib asynccontextmanager13754100 Ref: b2a13754100 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib closing13756131 Ref: 294c13756131 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib aclosing13757372 Ref: 7e813757372 Ref: library/contextlib simplifying-support-for-single-optional-context-managers13758493 Ref: 442a13758493 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib nullcontext13758493 Ref: 7e913758493 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib suppress13760204 Ref: f2113760204 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stdout13761776 Ref: de713761776 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib redirect_stderr13763250 Ref: de613763250 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib chdir13763514 Ref: 60813763514 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ContextDecorator13764245 Ref: 11f313764245 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncContextDecorator13766686 Ref: 7ea13766686 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack13767778 Ref: b2913767778 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack enter_context13769775 Ref: 5cf13769775 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack push13770365 Ref: 442c13770365 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack callback13771257 Ref: a8313771257 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack pop_all13771713 Ref: 442d13771713 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib ExitStack close13772765 Ref: 442e13772765 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack13773053 Ref: b2c13773053 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack enter_async_context13773420 Ref: 5d213773420 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_exit13773755 Ref: 443013773755 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack push_async_callback13773934 Ref: a8413773934 Ref: library/contextlib contextlib AsyncExitStack aclose13774100 Ref: 442f13774100 Node: Examples and Recipes<3>13774709 Ref: library/contextlib examples-and-recipes13774898 Ref: 443113774898 Node: Supporting a variable number of context managers13775346 Ref: library/contextlib supporting-a-variable-number-of-context-managers13775505 Ref: 443213775505 Node: Catching exceptions from __enter__ methods13776547 Ref: library/contextlib catching-exceptions-from-enter-methods13776757 Ref: 443313776757 Node: Cleaning up in an __enter__ implementation13777905 Ref: library/contextlib cleaning-up-in-an-enter-implementation13778118 Ref: 443413778118 Node: Replacing any use of try-finally and flag variables13780021 Ref: library/contextlib replacing-any-use-of-try-finally-and-flag-variables13780239 Ref: 443513780239 Node: Using a context manager as a function decorator13782751 Ref: library/contextlib using-a-context-manager-as-a-function-decorator13782918 Ref: 443613782918 Ref: Using a context manager as a function decorator-Footnote-113784754 Node: Single use reusable and reentrant context managers13784796 Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-cms13784967 Ref: f2313784967 Ref: library/contextlib single-use-reusable-and-reentrant-context-managers13784967 Ref: 443713784967 Node: Reentrant context managers13786505 Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-cms13786652 Ref: 442b13786652 Ref: library/contextlib reentrant-context-managers13786652 Ref: 443813786652 Node: Reusable context managers13788189 Ref: library/contextlib reusable-cms13788336 Ref: 443913788336 Ref: library/contextlib reusable-context-managers13788336 Ref: 443a13788336 Node: abc — Abstract Base Classes13791014 Ref: library/abc doc13791197 Ref: 443b13791197 Ref: library/abc abc-abstract-base-classes13791197 Ref: 443c13791197 Ref: library/abc module-abc13791197 Ref: 413791197 Ref: library/abc abc ABC13792187 Ref: f1213792187 Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta13793005 Ref: f1313793005 Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta register13793779 Ref: 108213793779 Ref: library/abc abc ABCMeta __subclasshook__13794456 Ref: 253113794456 Ref: library/abc abc abstractmethod13797372 Ref: 107f13797372 Ref: library/abc abc abstractclassmethod13800517 Ref: 108013800517 Ref: library/abc abc abstractstaticmethod13801237 Ref: 108113801237 Ref: library/abc abc abstractproperty13801959 Ref: 107e13801959 Ref: library/abc abc get_cache_token13803363 Ref: f1113803363 Ref: library/abc abc update_abstractmethods13803743 Ref: 443d13803743 Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-113804398 Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-213804461 Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-313804503 Ref: abc — Abstract Base Classes-Footnote-413804545 Node: atexit — Exit handlers13804652 Ref: library/atexit doc13804832 Ref: 443e13804832 Ref: library/atexit atexit-exit-handlers13804832 Ref: 443f13804832 Ref: library/atexit module-atexit13804832 Ref: c13804832 Ref: library/atexit atexit register13805849 Ref: 87b13805849 Ref: library/atexit atexit unregister13807456 Ref: 444013807456 Node: atexit Example13808146 Ref: library/atexit atexit-example13808221 Ref: 444113808221 Ref: library/atexit id113808221 Ref: 444213808221 Node: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback13809584 Ref: library/traceback doc13809778 Ref: 444313809778 Ref: library/traceback module-traceback13809778 Ref: fe13809778 Ref: library/traceback traceback-print-or-retrieve-a-stack-traceback13809778 Ref: 444413809778 Ref: traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback-Footnote-113811786 Node: Module-Level Functions<2>13811855 Ref: library/traceback module-level-functions13812001 Ref: 444513812001 Ref: library/traceback traceback print_tb13812068 Ref: e8013812068 Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exception13813015 Ref: 84b13813015 Ref: library/traceback traceback print_exc13814536 Ref: 187f13814536 Ref: library/traceback traceback print_last13814719 Ref: 444613814719 Ref: library/traceback traceback print_stack13815025 Ref: e8113815025 Ref: library/traceback traceback extract_tb13815587 Ref: 444713815587 Ref: library/traceback traceback extract_stack13816236 Ref: 444c13816236 Ref: library/traceback traceback print_list13816549 Ref: 444d13816549 Ref: library/traceback traceback format_list13816852 Ref: 444e13816852 Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception_only13817361 Ref: 84a13817361 Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exception13818744 Ref: 84913818744 Ref: library/traceback traceback format_exc13819484 Ref: 444f13819484 Ref: library/traceback traceback format_tb13819644 Ref: 432313819644 Ref: library/traceback traceback format_stack13819760 Ref: 445013819760 Ref: library/traceback traceback clear_frames13819885 Ref: fcf13819885 Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_stack13820130 Ref: e7c13820130 Ref: library/traceback traceback walk_tb13820448 Ref: e7d13820448 Node: TracebackException Objects13820690 Ref: library/traceback tracebackexception-objects13820865 Ref: 445213820865 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException13821348 Ref: 25e13821348 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __cause__13822654 Ref: 445413822654 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __context__13822762 Ref: 445313822762 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exceptions13822884 Ref: 445613822884 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __suppress_context__13823163 Ref: 445513823163 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException __notes__13823299 Ref: 445713823299 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException stack13823609 Ref: 445813823609 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exc_type13823702 Ref: 25f13823702 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException exc_type_str13823822 Ref: 25d13823822 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException filename13823956 Ref: 445913823956 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException lineno13824057 Ref: 445a13824057 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_lineno13824158 Ref: 445b13824158 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException text13824346 Ref: 445c13824346 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException offset13824438 Ref: 445d13824438 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException end_offset13824558 Ref: 445e13824558 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException msg13824755 Ref: 445f13824755 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException from_exception13824839 Ref: 446013824839 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException print13825222 Ref: 6a013825222 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format13825430 Ref: 446113825430 Ref: library/traceback traceback TracebackException format_exception_only13825881 Ref: 26013825881 Node: StackSummary Objects13826919 Ref: library/traceback stacksummary-objects13827089 Ref: 446213827089 Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary13827256 Ref: e7e13827256 Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary extract13827291 Ref: 445113827291 Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary from_list13828283 Ref: 446313828283 Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format13828587 Ref: 446413828587 Ref: library/traceback traceback StackSummary format_frame_summary13829219 Ref: 69f13829219 Node: FrameSummary Objects13829623 Ref: library/traceback framesummary-objects13829811 Ref: 446513829811 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary13829999 Ref: e7f13829999 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary filename13830917 Ref: 444813830917 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary lineno13831120 Ref: 444913831120 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary name13831210 Ref: 444a13831210 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary line13831346 Ref: 444b13831346 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_lineno13831555 Ref: 446613831555 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary colno13831838 Ref: 446713831838 Ref: library/traceback traceback FrameSummary end_colno13831999 Ref: 446813831999 Node: Examples of Using the Module-Level Functions13832169 Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-the-module-level-functions13832373 Ref: 446913832373 Ref: library/traceback traceback-example13832373 Ref: 446a13832373 Node: Examples of Using TracebackException13837818 Ref: library/traceback examples-of-using-tracebackexception13837993 Ref: 446b13837993 Node: __future__ — Future statement definitions13840649 Ref: library/__future__ doc13840853 Ref: 446c13840853 Ref: library/__future__ future-future-statement-definitions13840853 Ref: 446d13840853 Ref: library/__future__ module-__future__13840853 Ref: 013840853 Ref: __future__ — Future statement definitions-Footnote-113842391 Node: Module Contents<5>13842461 Ref: library/__future__ module-contents13842559 Ref: 446e13842559 Ref: library/__future__ future__ nested_scopes13843213 Ref: 446f13843213 Ref: library/__future__ future__ generators13843614 Ref: 447013843614 Ref: library/__future__ future__ division13844008 Ref: 447113844008 Ref: library/__future__ future__ absolute_import13844415 Ref: 447213844415 Ref: library/__future__ future__ with_statement13844923 Ref: 447313844923 Ref: library/__future__ future__ print_function13845324 Ref: 447413845324 Ref: library/__future__ future__ unicode_literals13845723 Ref: 447513845723 Ref: library/__future__ future__ generator_stop13846130 Ref: 447613846130 Ref: library/__future__ future__ annotations13846547 Ref: 447713846547 Ref: library/__future__ future-classes13846861 Ref: 447813846861 Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature13846861 Ref: 216513846861 Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature getOptionalRelease13847508 Ref: 447913847508 Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature getMandatoryRelease13847642 Ref: 447a13847642 Ref: library/__future__ future__ _Feature compiler_flag13848230 Ref: 1f4613848230 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-113848815 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-213848857 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-313848899 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-413848941 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-513848983 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-613849025 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-713849067 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-813849109 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-913849151 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-1013849737 Ref: Module Contents<5>-Footnote-1113849780 Node: gc — Garbage Collector interface13849823 Ref: library/gc doc13850010 Ref: 447b13850010 Ref: library/gc gc-garbage-collector-interface13850010 Ref: 447c13850010 Ref: library/gc module-gc13850010 Ref: 6013850010 Ref: library/gc gc enable13850937 Ref: 447d13850937 Ref: library/gc gc disable13851008 Ref: 447e13851008 Ref: library/gc gc isenabled13851081 Ref: 447f13851081 Ref: library/gc gc collect13851172 Ref: a3913851172 Ref: library/gc gc set_debug13851945 Ref: 448013851945 Ref: library/gc gc get_debug13852212 Ref: 448113852212 Ref: library/gc gc get_objects13852291 Ref: 7ff13852291 Ref: library/gc gc get_stats13852714 Ref: f3f13852714 Ref: library/gc gc set_threshold13853411 Ref: 448213853411 Ref: library/gc gc get_count13854637 Ref: 448313854637 Ref: library/gc gc get_threshold13854762 Ref: 448413854762 Ref: library/gc gc get_referrers13854907 Ref: 80013854907 Ref: library/gc gc get_referents13855946 Ref: 80113855946 Ref: library/gc gc is_tracked13856679 Ref: 130113856679 Ref: library/gc gc is_finalized13857506 Ref: 8fc13857506 Ref: library/gc gc freeze13858018 Ref: b3a13858018 Ref: library/gc gc unfreeze13858857 Ref: b3b13858857 Ref: library/gc gc get_freeze_count13859018 Ref: b3c13859018 Ref: library/gc gc garbage13859263 Ref: 11b313859263 Ref: library/gc gc callbacks13860132 Ref: 10bd13860132 Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_STATS13861467 Ref: 448613861467 Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_COLLECTABLE13861610 Ref: 448713861610 Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_UNCOLLECTABLE13861696 Ref: 11b413861696 Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_SAVEALL13862077 Ref: 448513862077 Ref: library/gc gc DEBUG_LEAK13862269 Ref: 448813862269 Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-113862513 Ref: gc — Garbage Collector interface-Footnote-213862602 Node: inspect — Inspect live objects13862644 Ref: library/inspect doc13862829 Ref: 448913862829 Ref: library/inspect inspect-inspect-live-objects13862829 Ref: 448a13862829 Ref: library/inspect module-inspect13862918 Ref: 7e13862918 Ref: inspect — Inspect live objects-Footnote-113864111 Node: Types and members13864178 Ref: library/inspect inspect-types13864295 Ref: 19a913864295 Ref: library/inspect types-and-members13864295 Ref: 448b13864295 Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers13881321 Ref: 185413881321 Ref: library/inspect inspect getmembers_static13881934 Ref: 64513881934 Ref: library/inspect inspect getmodulename13882673 Ref: d3913882673 Ref: library/inspect inspect ismodule13883350 Ref: 448d13883350 Ref: library/inspect inspect isclass13883442 Ref: 448e13883442 Ref: library/inspect inspect ismethod13883581 Ref: 448f13883581 Ref: library/inspect inspect isfunction13883697 Ref: 449013883697 Ref: library/inspect inspect isgeneratorfunction13883875 Ref: 17d113883875 Ref: library/inspect inspect isgenerator13884346 Ref: 449113884346 Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutinefunction13884444 Ref: 2e813884444 Ref: library/inspect inspect markcoroutinefunction13885294 Ref: 48c13885294 Ref: library/inspect inspect iscoroutine13885885 Ref: e1513885885 Ref: library/inspect inspect isawaitable13886073 Ref: e1613886073 Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgenfunction13886549 Ref: 17d213886549 Ref: library/inspect inspect isasyncgen13887244 Ref: 449213887244 Ref: library/inspect inspect istraceback13887474 Ref: 449313887474 Ref: library/inspect inspect isframe13887572 Ref: 449413887572 Ref: library/inspect inspect iscode13887662 Ref: 449513887662 Ref: library/inspect inspect isbuiltin13887750 Ref: 449613887750 Ref: library/inspect inspect ismethodwrapper13887886 Ref: 64613887886 Ref: library/inspect inspect isroutine13888191 Ref: 15ec13888191 Ref: library/inspect inspect isabstract13888326 Ref: 449713888326 Ref: library/inspect inspect ismethoddescriptor13888434 Ref: 15eb13888434 Ref: library/inspect inspect isdatadescriptor13889643 Ref: 449813889643 Ref: library/inspect inspect isgetsetdescriptor13890273 Ref: 449913890273 Ref: library/inspect inspect ismemberdescriptor13890624 Ref: 449a13890624 Node: Retrieving source code13890986 Ref: library/inspect inspect-source13891161 Ref: 449b13891161 Ref: library/inspect retrieving-source-code13891161 Ref: 449c13891161 Ref: library/inspect inspect getdoc13891228 Ref: 9f913891228 Ref: library/inspect inspect getcomments13891736 Ref: 15c713891736 Ref: library/inspect inspect getfile13892160 Ref: 1aa313892160 Ref: library/inspect inspect getmodule13892394 Ref: 17e313892394 Ref: library/inspect inspect getsourcefile13892554 Ref: 17e413892554 Ref: library/inspect inspect getsourcelines13892855 Ref: 449d13892855 Ref: library/inspect inspect getsource13893571 Ref: 15c613893571 Ref: library/inspect inspect cleandoc13894123 Ref: 16b513894123 Node: Introspecting callables with the Signature object13894534 Ref: library/inspect inspect-signature-object13894716 Ref: 449e13894716 Ref: library/inspect introspecting-callables-with-the-signature-object13894716 Ref: 449f13894716 Ref: library/inspect inspect signature13895047 Ref: 73313895047 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature13897622 Ref: 1cf13897622 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature empty13898737 Ref: 44a213898737 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature parameters13898857 Ref: 44a013898857 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature return_annotation13899352 Ref: 44a313899352 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind13899571 Ref: 156213899571 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature bind_partial13899849 Ref: 44a413899849 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature replace13900226 Ref: 44a113900226 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature format13901100 Ref: 44a513901100 Ref: library/inspect inspect Signature from_callable13901514 Ref: 73513901514 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter13902230 Ref: 1d013902230 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter empty13902642 Ref: 44a713902642 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter name13902773 Ref: 44a813902773 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter default13903241 Ref: 44a913903241 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter annotation13903432 Ref: 44aa13903432 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter kind13903620 Ref: 44ab13903620 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter kind description13906524 Ref: 44ac13906524 Ref: library/inspect inspect Parameter replace13907074 Ref: 44a613907074 Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments13908208 Ref: 106213908208 Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments arguments13908412 Ref: 90b13908412 Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments args13909261 Ref: 44ad13909261 Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments kwargs13909412 Ref: 44ae13909412 Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments signature13909657 Ref: 44af13909657 Ref: library/inspect inspect BoundArguments apply_defaults13909755 Ref: e1413909755 Ref: Introspecting callables with the Signature object-Footnote-113910734 Node: Classes and functions<2>13910776 Ref: library/inspect classes-and-functions13910957 Ref: 44b013910957 Ref: library/inspect inspect-classes-functions13910957 Ref: 44b113910957 Ref: library/inspect inspect getclasstree13911022 Ref: 44b213911022 Ref: library/inspect inspect getfullargspec13911601 Ref: 73413911601 Ref: library/inspect inspect getargvalues13913969 Ref: eb813913969 Ref: library/inspect inspect formatargvalues13914474 Ref: eb913914474 Ref: library/inspect inspect getmro13914944 Ref: 44b313914944 Ref: library/inspect inspect getcallargs13915308 Ref: eb713915308 Ref: library/inspect inspect getclosurevars13916673 Ref: 10cb13916673 Ref: library/inspect inspect unwrap13917391 Ref: f5713917391 Ref: library/inspect inspect get_annotations13918127 Ref: 80f13918127 Node: The interpreter stack13921028 Ref: library/inspect inspect-stack13921190 Ref: 44b413921190 Ref: library/inspect the-interpreter-stack13921190 Ref: 44b513921190 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo13921512 Ref: 64813921512 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo frame13921542 Ref: 44b613921542 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo filename13921641 Ref: 44b713921641 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo lineno13921787 Ref: 44b813921787 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo function13921953 Ref: 44b913921953 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo code_context13922086 Ref: 44ba13922086 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo index13922254 Ref: 44bb13922254 Ref: library/inspect inspect FrameInfo positions13922386 Ref: 44bc13922386 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback13922925 Ref: 64913922925 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback filename13922955 Ref: 44be13922955 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback lineno13923104 Ref: 44bf13923104 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback function13923273 Ref: 44c013923273 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback code_context13923409 Ref: 44c113923409 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback index13923580 Ref: 44c213923580 Ref: library/inspect inspect Traceback positions13923712 Ref: 44c313923712 Ref: library/inspect inspect getframeinfo13925643 Ref: 64b13925643 Ref: library/inspect inspect getouterframes13925910 Ref: 64c13925910 Ref: library/inspect inspect getinnerframes13926517 Ref: 64d13926517 Ref: library/inspect inspect currentframe13927120 Ref: 6dd13927120 Ref: library/inspect inspect stack13927521 Ref: 64e13927521 Ref: library/inspect inspect trace13928020 Ref: 64f13928020 Node: Fetching attributes statically13928608 Ref: library/inspect fetching-attributes-statically13928812 Ref: 44c413928812 Ref: library/inspect inspect getattr_static13929394 Ref: 49013929394 Node: Current State of Generators Coroutines and Asynchronous Generators13931201 Ref: library/inspect current-state-of-generators-coroutines-and-asynchronous-generators13931406 Ref: 44c513931406 Ref: library/inspect inspect getgeneratorstate13931888 Ref: 122913931888 Ref: library/inspect inspect getcoroutinestate13932283 Ref: e1813932283 Ref: library/inspect inspect getasyncgenstate13932899 Ref: 48e13932899 Ref: library/inspect inspect getgeneratorlocals13933771 Ref: 10cc13933771 Ref: library/inspect inspect getcoroutinelocals13934648 Ref: e1713934648 Ref: library/inspect inspect getasyncgenlocals13934886 Ref: 48f13934886 Node: Code Objects Bit Flags13935174 Ref: library/inspect code-objects-bit-flags13935361 Ref: 44c613935361 Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-co-flags13935361 Ref: 1f4513935361 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_OPTIMIZED13935531 Ref: 44c713935531 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_NEWLOCALS13935618 Ref: 44c813935618 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_VARARGS13935769 Ref: 44c913935769 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_VARKEYWORDS13935877 Ref: 44ca13935877 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_NESTED13935989 Ref: 44cb13935989 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_GENERATOR13936083 Ref: 44cc13936083 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_COROUTINE13936258 Ref: 44cd13936258 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE13936495 Ref: 44ce13936495 Ref: library/inspect inspect CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR13936810 Ref: 44cf13936810 Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-113937457 Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-213937499 Ref: Code Objects Bit Flags-Footnote-313937541 Node: Buffer flags13937583 Ref: library/inspect buffer-flags13937729 Ref: 44d013937729 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags13937776 Ref: 45b13937776 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags SIMPLE13938087 Ref: 44d213938087 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags WRITABLE13938115 Ref: 44d313938115 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FORMAT13938145 Ref: 44d413938145 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags ND13938173 Ref: 44d513938173 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDES13938197 Ref: 44d613938197 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags C_CONTIGUOUS13938226 Ref: 44d713938226 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags F_CONTIGUOUS13938260 Ref: 44d813938260 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags ANY_CONTIGUOUS13938294 Ref: 44d913938294 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags INDIRECT13938330 Ref: 44da13938330 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags CONTIG13938360 Ref: 44db13938360 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags CONTIG_RO13938388 Ref: 44dc13938388 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDED13938419 Ref: 44dd13938419 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags STRIDED_RO13938448 Ref: 44de13938448 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags RECORDS13938480 Ref: 44df13938480 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags RECORDS_RO13938509 Ref: 44e013938509 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FULL13938541 Ref: 44e113938541 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags FULL_RO13938567 Ref: 44e213938567 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags READ13938596 Ref: 15b713938596 Ref: library/inspect inspect BufferFlags WRITE13938622 Ref: 15b813938622 Node: Command Line Interface<3>13938678 Ref: library/inspect command-line-interface13938793 Ref: 44e313938793 Ref: library/inspect inspect-module-cli13938793 Ref: f5613938793 Ref: library/inspect cmdoption-inspect-details13939170 Ref: 44e413939170 Node: site — Site-specific configuration hook13939277 Ref: library/site doc13939419 Ref: 44e513939419 Ref: library/site module-site13939419 Ref: c713939419 Ref: library/site site-site-specific-configuration-hook13939419 Ref: 44e613939419 Ref: site — Site-specific configuration hook-Footnote-113944376 Node: sitecustomize13944440 Ref: library/site module-sitecustomize13944553 Ref: c813944553 Ref: library/site sitecustomize13944553 Ref: 44e713944553 Node: usercustomize13945319 Ref: library/site module-usercustomize13945463 Ref: 10e13945463 Ref: library/site usercustomize13945463 Ref: 44e813945463 Node: Readline configuration13946273 Ref: library/site readline-configuration13946422 Ref: 44ea13946422 Ref: library/site rlcompleter-config13946422 Ref: fc413946422 Node: Module contents<5>13947091 Ref: library/site module-contents13947252 Ref: 44eb13947252 Ref: library/site site PREFIXES13947305 Ref: 44ec13947305 Ref: library/site site ENABLE_USER_SITE13947386 Ref: 44e913947386 Ref: library/site site USER_SITE13947824 Ref: 1d3513947824 Ref: library/site site USER_BASE13948441 Ref: 130f13948441 Ref: library/site site main13949001 Ref: 1d3613949001 Ref: library/site site addsitedir13949351 Ref: 1e6913949351 Ref: library/site site getsitepackages13949573 Ref: 123113949573 Ref: library/site site getuserbase13949709 Ref: 123213949709 Ref: library/site site getusersitepackages13949956 Ref: 123313949956 Node: Command Line Interface<4>13950358 Ref: library/site command-line-interface13950488 Ref: 44ed13950488 Ref: library/site site-commandline13950488 Ref: 44ee13950488 Ref: library/site cmdoption-site-user-base13951036 Ref: 44ef13951036 Ref: library/site cmdoption-site-user-site13951110 Ref: 44f013951110 Ref: Command Line Interface<4>-Footnote-113951844 Node: Custom Python Interpreters13951886 Ref: library/custominterp doc13952034 Ref: 44f113952034 Ref: library/custominterp custom-python-interpreters13952034 Ref: 44f213952034 Ref: library/custominterp custominterp13952034 Ref: 44f313952034 Node: code — Interpreter base classes13952619 Ref: library/code doc13952754 Ref: 44f413952754 Ref: library/code code-interpreter-base-classes13952754 Ref: 44f513952754 Ref: library/code module-code13952754 Ref: 1a13952754 Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter13953172 Ref: 15da13953172 Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole13953950 Ref: 239c13953950 Ref: library/code code interact13954508 Ref: 16d513954508 Ref: library/code code compile_command13955445 Ref: 44f813955445 Ref: code — Interpreter base classes-Footnote-113956731 Node: Interactive Interpreter Objects13956795 Ref: library/code interactive-interpreter-objects13956932 Ref: 44f913956932 Ref: library/code interpreter-objects13956932 Ref: 44fa13956932 Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter runsource13957015 Ref: 44fb13957015 Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter runcode13958302 Ref: 44fd13958302 Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter showsyntaxerror13958761 Ref: 44fc13958761 Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter showtraceback13959235 Ref: dcf13959235 Ref: library/code code InteractiveInterpreter write13959616 Ref: 44fe13959616 Node: Interactive Console Objects13959836 Ref: library/code console-objects13959973 Ref: 44ff13959973 Ref: library/code interactive-console-objects13959973 Ref: 450013959973 Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole interact13960237 Ref: 44f713960237 Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole push13961090 Ref: 450113961090 Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole resetbuffer13961798 Ref: 450213961798 Ref: library/code code InteractiveConsole raw_input13961907 Ref: 44f613961907 Node: codeop — Compile Python code13962268 Ref: library/codeop doc13962403 Ref: 450313962403 Ref: library/codeop codeop-compile-python-code13962403 Ref: 450413962403 Ref: library/codeop module-codeop13962403 Ref: 1c13962403 Ref: library/codeop codeop compile_command13963364 Ref: 17c813963364 Ref: library/codeop codeop Compile13964783 Ref: 450513964783 Ref: library/codeop codeop CommandCompiler13965183 Ref: 450613965183 Ref: codeop — Compile Python code-Footnote-113965604 Node: Importing Modules13965670 Ref: library/modules doc13965819 Ref: 450713965819 Ref: library/modules importing-modules13965819 Ref: 450813965819 Ref: library/modules modules13965819 Ref: 450913965819 Node: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives13966797 Ref: library/zipimport doc13966943 Ref: 450a13966943 Ref: library/zipimport module-zipimport13966943 Ref: 13213966943 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-import-modules-from-zip-archives13966943 Ref: 450b13966943 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport ZipImportError13969146 Ref: 450c13969146 Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-113969438 Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-213969507 Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-313969575 Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-413969617 Ref: zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives-Footnote-513969659 Node: zipimporter Objects13969701 Ref: library/zipimport id113969824 Ref: 450d13969824 Ref: library/zipimport zipimporter-objects13969824 Ref: 450e13969824 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter13969947 Ref: 450f13969947 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter create_module13970586 Ref: 85b13970586 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter exec_module13970832 Ref: 30c13970832 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter find_spec13970991 Ref: 85a13970991 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_code13971173 Ref: 451013971173 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_data13971354 Ref: 451113971354 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_filename13971639 Ref: 451213971639 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter get_source13971904 Ref: 451313971904 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter is_package13972194 Ref: 451413972194 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter load_module13972405 Ref: 30b13972405 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter invalidate_caches13972769 Ref: 85c13972769 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter archive13972949 Ref: 451513972949 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport zipimporter prefix13973082 Ref: 451613973082 Node: Examples<33>13973489 Ref: library/zipimport examples13973612 Ref: 451713973612 Ref: library/zipimport zipimport-examples13973612 Ref: 451813973612 Node: pkgutil — Package extension utility13974292 Ref: library/pkgutil doc13974493 Ref: 451913974493 Ref: library/pkgutil module-pkgutil13974493 Ref: a913974493 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil-package-extension-utility13974493 Ref: 451a13974493 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil ModuleInfo13974778 Ref: d4b13974778 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil extend_path13974934 Ref: 15e613974934 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil find_loader13976668 Ref: 2ce13976668 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_importer13977398 Ref: 451b13977398 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_loader13977914 Ref: 2cf13977914 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_importers13978756 Ref: 118c13978756 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil iter_modules13979485 Ref: d4a13979485 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil walk_packages13980336 Ref: bff13980336 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil get_data13981914 Ref: 451c13981914 Ref: library/pkgutil pkgutil resolve_name13983048 Ref: 451e13983048 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-113984916 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-213984983 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-313985025 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-413985067 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-513985109 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-613985151 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-713985193 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-813985235 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-913985277 Ref: pkgutil — Package extension utility-Footnote-1013985319 Node: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script13985385 Ref: library/modulefinder doc13985587 Ref: 451f13985587 Ref: library/modulefinder module-modulefinder13985587 Ref: 9113985587 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-find-modules-used-by-a-script13985587 Ref: 452013985587 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder AddPackagePath13986106 Ref: 452113986106 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ReplacePackage13986256 Ref: 452213986256 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder13986419 Ref: 1a0213986419 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder report13987078 Ref: 452413987078 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder run_script13987293 Ref: 452313987293 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder ModuleFinder modules13987431 Ref: 452513987431 Ref: modulefinder — Find modules used by a script-Footnote-113987655 Node: Example usage of ModuleFinder13987727 Ref: library/modulefinder example-usage-of-modulefinder13987839 Ref: 452713987839 Ref: library/modulefinder modulefinder-example13987839 Ref: 452613987839 Node: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules13989212 Ref: library/runpy doc13989419 Ref: 452813989419 Ref: library/runpy module-runpy13989419 Ref: be13989419 Ref: library/runpy runpy-locating-and-executing-python-modules13989419 Ref: 452913989419 Ref: library/runpy runpy run_module13990454 Ref: 180b13990454 Ref: library/runpy runpy run_path13993881 Ref: 18113993881 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-113998326 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-213998391 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-313998433 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-413998475 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-513998517 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-613998559 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-713998601 Ref: runpy — Locating and executing Python modules-Footnote-813998643 Node: importlib — The implementation of import13998685 Ref: library/importlib doc13998913 Ref: 452a13998913 Ref: library/importlib importlib-the-implementation-of-import13998913 Ref: 452b13998913 Ref: library/importlib module-importlib13998913 Ref: 7713998913 Ref: importlib — The implementation of import-Footnote-113999616 Node: Introduction<12>13999695 Ref: library/importlib introduction13999812 Ref: 452c13999812 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-114002101 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-214002153 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-314002195 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-414002237 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-514002279 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-614002321 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-714002363 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-814002405 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-914002447 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-1014002489 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-1114002532 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-1214002575 Ref: Introduction<12>-Footnote-1314002618 Node: Functions<12>14002661 Ref: library/importlib functions14002844 Ref: 452d14002844 Ref: library/importlib importlib __import__14002883 Ref: 106614002883 Ref: library/importlib importlib import_module14003191 Ref: 51314003191 Ref: library/importlib importlib invalidate_caches14004522 Ref: c1014004522 Ref: library/importlib importlib reload14005155 Ref: 51414005155 Node: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import14008678 Ref: library/importlib importlib-abc-abstract-base-classes-related-to-import14008893 Ref: 452e14008893 Ref: library/importlib module-importlib abc14008893 Ref: 7814008893 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder14009686 Ref: 86b14009686 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder find_spec14009898 Ref: 86514009898 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc MetaPathFinder invalidate_caches14010643 Ref: 452f14010643 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder14011057 Ref: 86c14011057 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder find_spec14011495 Ref: 86914011495 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc PathEntryFinder invalidate_caches14012134 Ref: 453014012134 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader14012434 Ref: ec014012434 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader create_module14012861 Ref: cae14012861 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader exec_module14013263 Ref: 86714013263 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Loader load_module14013740 Ref: 86614013740 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader14015796 Ref: be714015796 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceLoader get_data14016259 Ref: 451d14016259 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader14017073 Ref: f4f14017073 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_code14017257 Ref: f5014017257 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader get_source14017840 Ref: f5314017840 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader is_package14018477 Ref: 453214018477 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader source_to_code14018848 Ref: e1014018848 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader exec_module14019494 Ref: 100b14019494 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc InspectLoader load_module14019628 Ref: 453314019628 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader14019855 Ref: 453414019855 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ExecutionLoader get_filename14020102 Ref: 453514020102 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader14020689 Ref: 106c14020689 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader name14021185 Ref: 453614021185 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader path14021268 Ref: 453714021268 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader load_module14021337 Ref: 453814021337 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_filename14021556 Ref: 453914021556 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc FileLoader get_data14021650 Ref: 453a14021650 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader14021771 Ref: 453b14021771 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_stats14022868 Ref: 117e14022868 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader path_mtime14023648 Ref: 117d14023648 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader set_data14024197 Ref: 453c14024197 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_code14024712 Ref: 453d14024712 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader exec_module14024835 Ref: 100c14024835 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader load_module14024978 Ref: 453e14024978 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader get_source14025214 Ref: 101a14025214 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc SourceLoader is_package14025341 Ref: 453f14025341 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader14025744 Ref: afd14025744 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader open_resource14027593 Ref: 454014027593 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader resource_path14027874 Ref: 454114027874 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader is_resource14028125 Ref: 454214028125 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc ResourceReader contents14028355 Ref: 1a4314028355 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable14029290 Ref: 188414029290 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable name14029730 Ref: 454314029730 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable iterdir14029848 Ref: 454414029848 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_dir14029950 Ref: 454514029950 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable is_file14030052 Ref: 454614030052 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable joinpath14030150 Ref: 454714030150 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable __truediv__14030251 Ref: 454814030251 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable open14030361 Ref: 454914030361 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_bytes14030725 Ref: 454a14030725 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc Traversable read_text14030806 Ref: 454b14030806 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources14030898 Ref: 188214030898 Ref: library/importlib importlib abc TraversableResources files14031669 Ref: 454c14031669 Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-114031857 Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-214031930 Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-314031972 Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-414032014 Ref: importlib abc – Abstract base classes related to import-Footnote-514032056 Node: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks14032098 Ref: library/importlib importlib-machinery-importers-and-path-hooks14032345 Ref: 454d14032345 Ref: library/importlib module-importlib machinery14032345 Ref: 7914032345 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SOURCE_SUFFIXES14032676 Ref: 50f14032676 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery DEBUG_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14032842 Ref: 454e14032842 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery OPTIMIZED_BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14033105 Ref: 454f14033105 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BYTECODE_SUFFIXES14033368 Ref: 51114033368 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery EXTENSION_SUFFIXES14033654 Ref: 51014033654 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery all_suffixes14033826 Ref: 448c14033826 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery BuiltinImporter14034262 Ref: caf14034262 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FrozenImporter14034827 Ref: 101814034827 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery WindowsRegistryFinder14035247 Ref: d2a14035247 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder14035735 Ref: 101c14035735 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder find_spec14036050 Ref: 100a14036050 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery PathFinder invalidate_caches14037231 Ref: c0f14037231 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder14037844 Ref: 106b14037844 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path14039151 Ref: 455014039151 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder find_spec14039224 Ref: ebf14039224 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder invalidate_caches14039401 Ref: 455114039401 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery FileFinder path_hook14039481 Ref: 455214039481 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader14039929 Ref: 106d14039929 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader name14040223 Ref: 455314040223 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path14040313 Ref: 455414040313 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader is_package14040379 Ref: 455514040379 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader path_stats14040508 Ref: 455614040508 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader set_data14040645 Ref: 455714040645 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourceFileLoader load_module14040784 Ref: d2814040784 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader14041136 Ref: 106e14041136 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader name14041610 Ref: 455814041610 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader path14041694 Ref: 455914041694 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader is_package14041762 Ref: 455a14041762 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_code14041888 Ref: 455b14041888 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader get_source14042024 Ref: 455c14042024 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery SourcelessFileLoader load_module14042163 Ref: d2914042163 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader14042490 Ref: cb014042490 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader name14043163 Ref: 455d14043163 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader path14043240 Ref: 455e14043240 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader create_module14043307 Ref: 455f14043307 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader exec_module14043486 Ref: 456014043486 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader is_package14043646 Ref: 456114043646 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_code14043829 Ref: 456214043829 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_source14043938 Ref: 456314043938 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ExtensionFileLoader get_filename14044054 Ref: f5414044054 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery NamespaceLoader14044166 Ref: f5114044166 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec14044818 Ref: 1e6414044818 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec name14045619 Ref: 1f1814045619 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader14045829 Ref: 2e714045829 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec origin14046032 Ref: 456414046032 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec submodule_search_locations14046534 Ref: 1f1c14046534 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec loader_state14047184 Ref: 456514047184 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec cached14047428 Ref: 2da14047428 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec parent14047726 Ref: 2dc14047726 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery ModuleSpec has_location14048017 Ref: 456614048017 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader14048304 Ref: 1e6314048304 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader name14051605 Ref: 456714051605 Ref: library/importlib importlib machinery AppleFrameworkLoader path14051682 Ref: 456814051682 Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-114051811 Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-214051891 Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-314051933 Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-414051975 Ref: importlib machinery – Importers and path hooks-Footnote-514052017 Node: importlib util – Utility code for importers14052059 Ref: library/importlib importlib-util-utility-code-for-importers14052261 Ref: 456914052261 Ref: library/importlib module-importlib util14052261 Ref: 7d14052261 Ref: library/importlib importlib util MAGIC_NUMBER14052587 Ref: 50e14052587 Ref: library/importlib importlib util cache_from_source14052827 Ref: 2f814052827 Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_from_cache14054738 Ref: 51514054738 Ref: library/importlib importlib util decode_source14055365 Ref: f5214055365 Ref: library/importlib importlib util resolve_name14055637 Ref: 90914055637 Ref: library/importlib importlib util find_spec14056539 Ref: 2d014056539 Ref: library/importlib importlib util module_from_spec14057434 Ref: e1114057434 Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_loader14058069 Ref: 86a14058069 Ref: library/importlib importlib util spec_from_file_location14058524 Ref: cb114058524 Ref: library/importlib importlib util source_hash14059007 Ref: 456a14059007 Ref: library/importlib importlib util _incompatible_extension_module_restrictions14059281 Ref: 456b14059281 Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader14060400 Ref: cad14060400 Ref: library/importlib importlib util LazyLoader factory14061884 Ref: 456c14061884 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-114062447 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-214062521 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-314062563 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-414062605 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-514062647 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-614062689 Ref: importlib util – Utility code for importers-Footnote-714062731 Node: Examples<34>14062773 Ref: library/importlib examples14062918 Ref: 456d14062918 Ref: library/importlib importlib-examples14062918 Ref: 456e14062918 Node: Importing programmatically14063213 Ref: library/importlib importing-programmatically14063333 Ref: 456f14063333 Node: Checking if a module can be imported14063564 Ref: library/importlib checking-if-a-module-can-be-imported14063725 Ref: 457014063725 Node: Importing a source file directly14064638 Ref: library/importlib importing-a-source-file-directly14064798 Ref: 457114064798 Node: Implementing lazy imports14065966 Ref: library/importlib implementing-lazy-imports14066112 Ref: 457214066112 Node: Setting up an importer14066831 Ref: library/importlib setting-up-an-importer14066982 Ref: 457314066982 Node: Approximating importlib import_module14068559 Ref: library/importlib approximating-importlib-import-module14068676 Ref: 457414068676 Node: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access14070176 Ref: library/importlib resources doc14070420 Ref: 457514070420 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-package-resource-reading-opening-and-access14070420 Ref: 457614070420 Ref: library/importlib resources module-importlib resources14070420 Ref: 7b14070420 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources Anchor14072455 Ref: 457714072455 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources files14072653 Ref: 48a14072653 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources as_file14073694 Ref: 48914073694 Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-114074533 Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-214074622 Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-314074693 Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-414074787 Ref: importlib resources – Package resource reading opening and access-Footnote-514074859 Node: Functional API14074936 Ref: library/importlib resources functional-api14075054 Ref: 457814075054 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib-resources-functional14075054 Ref: 457914075054 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_binary14076296 Ref: 1ef14076296 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources open_text14076781 Ref: 1f014076781 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_binary14077726 Ref: 1f214077726 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources read_text14078138 Ref: 1f314078138 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources path14079007 Ref: 1f114079007 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources is_resource14079995 Ref: 1ee14079995 Ref: library/importlib resources importlib resources contents14080464 Ref: 1f414080464 Node: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources14081167 Ref: library/importlib resources abc doc14081418 Ref: 457a14081418 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib-resources-abc-abstract-base-classes-for-resources14081418 Ref: 457b14081418 Ref: library/importlib resources abc module-importlib resources abc14081418 Ref: 7c14081418 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader14081709 Ref: 453114081709 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader open_resource14083507 Ref: 457c14083507 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader resource_path14083768 Ref: 457d14083768 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader is_resource14084004 Ref: 457e14084004 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc ResourceReader contents14084218 Ref: 457f14084218 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable14085087 Ref: 1f514085087 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable name14085373 Ref: 458014085373 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable iterdir14085491 Ref: 458114085491 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_dir14085581 Ref: 458214085581 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable is_file14085677 Ref: 458314085677 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable joinpath14085769 Ref: 458414085769 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable __truediv__14086883 Ref: 458514086883 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable open14087029 Ref: 458614087029 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_bytes14087393 Ref: 458714087393 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc Traversable read_text14087468 Ref: 458814087468 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources14087554 Ref: 2c814087554 Ref: library/importlib resources abc importlib resources abc TraversableResources files14088078 Ref: 458914088078 Ref: importlib resources abc – Abstract base classes for resources-Footnote-114088266 Node: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata14088350 Ref: library/importlib metadata doc14088587 Ref: 458a14088587 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib-metadata-accessing-package-metadata14088587 Ref: 458b14088587 Ref: library/importlib metadata module-importlib metadata14088587 Ref: 7a14088587 Ref: library/importlib metadata using14088587 Ref: 458c14088587 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-114090884 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-214090972 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-314091056 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-414091134 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-514091219 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-614091304 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-714091342 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-814091434 Ref: importlib metadata – Accessing package metadata-Footnote-914091503 Node: Overview<3>14091579 Ref: library/importlib metadata overview14091702 Ref: 458d14091702 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageNotFoundError14093221 Ref: 459214093221 Ref: Overview<3>-Footnote-114093514 Node: Functional API<2>14093598 Ref: library/importlib metadata functional-api14093743 Ref: 459314093743 Node: Entry points14094039 Ref: library/importlib metadata entry-points14094135 Ref: 28614094135 Ref: library/importlib metadata id214094135 Ref: 459414094135 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata entry_points14094180 Ref: 459514094180 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoints14094752 Ref: 459614094752 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata EntryPoint14095032 Ref: 459714095032 Ref: Entry points-Footnote-114097808 Ref: Entry points-Footnote-214097880 Node: Distribution metadata14097948 Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-metadata14098074 Ref: 459814098074 Ref: library/importlib metadata metadata14098074 Ref: 458e14098074 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata metadata14098137 Ref: 459914098137 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackageMetadata14098474 Ref: 459a14098474 Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-114099743 Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-214099848 Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-314099932 Ref: Distribution metadata-Footnote-414099974 Node: Distribution versions14100066 Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-versions14100198 Ref: 459b14100198 Ref: library/importlib metadata version14100198 Ref: 458f14100198 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata version14100261 Ref: 15b414100261 Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-114100754 Ref: Distribution versions-Footnote-214100840 Node: Distribution files14100924 Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-files14101060 Ref: 459c14101060 Ref: library/importlib metadata files14101060 Ref: 459014101060 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata files14101117 Ref: 459d14101117 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata PackagePath14101585 Ref: 459e14101585 Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-114103171 Ref: Distribution files-Footnote-214103255 Node: Distribution requirements14103352 Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-requirements14103506 Ref: 459f14103506 Ref: library/importlib metadata requirements14103506 Ref: 459114103506 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata requires14103577 Ref: 45a014103577 Ref: library/importlib metadata package-distributions14104073 Ref: 80c14104073 Ref: Distribution requirements-Footnote-114104110 Node: Mapping import to distribution packages14104194 Ref: library/importlib metadata import-distribution-package-mapping14104321 Ref: 45a114104321 Ref: library/importlib metadata mapping-import-to-distribution-packages14104321 Ref: 45a214104321 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata packages_distributions14104420 Ref: 45a314104420 Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-114105455 Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-214105539 Ref: Mapping import to distribution packages-Footnote-314105617 Node: Distributions14105679 Ref: library/importlib metadata distributions14105835 Ref: 80d14105835 Ref: library/importlib metadata id914105835 Ref: 45a414105835 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata distribution14105882 Ref: 45a514105882 Ref: library/importlib metadata importlib metadata Distribution14106185 Ref: 45a614106185 Ref: Distributions-Footnote-114107806 Ref: Distributions-Footnote-214107890 Ref: Distributions-Footnote-314107932 Node: Distribution Discovery14108024 Ref: library/importlib metadata distribution-discovery14108193 Ref: 45a714108193 Ref: Distribution Discovery-Footnote-114108859 Node: Extending the search algorithm14108943 Ref: library/importlib metadata extending-the-search-algorithm14109090 Ref: 45a814109090 Ref: Extending the search algorithm-Footnote-114110959 Node: Example<14>14111043 Ref: library/importlib metadata example14111121 Ref: 45a914111121 Node: The initialization of the sys path module search path14114415 Ref: library/sys_path_init doc14114580 Ref: 45aa14114580 Ref: library/sys_path_init sys-path-init14114580 Ref: 1c6014114580 Ref: library/sys_path_init the-initialization-of-the-sys-path-module-search-path14114580 Ref: 45ab14114580 Node: Virtual environments<2>14118112 Ref: library/sys_path_init virtual-environments14118244 Ref: 45ad14118244 Node: _pth files14118846 Ref: library/sys_path_init pth-files14119002 Ref: 45ae14119002 Node: Embedded Python14120156 Ref: library/sys_path_init embedded-python14120280 Ref: 45af14120280 Node: Python Language Services14120723 Ref: library/language doc14120874 Ref: 45b014120874 Ref: library/language language14120874 Ref: 45b114120874 Ref: library/language python-language-services14120874 Ref: 45b214120874 Node: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees14121686 Ref: library/ast doc14121838 Ref: 45b314121838 Ref: library/ast ast-abstract-syntax-trees14121838 Ref: 45b414121838 Ref: library/ast module-ast14121838 Ref: 814121838 Ref: ast — Abstract Syntax Trees-Footnote-114122854 Node: Abstract Grammar14122917 Ref: library/ast abstract-grammar14123020 Ref: 45b614123020 Ref: library/ast id114123020 Ref: 45b714123020 Node: Node classes14130432 Ref: library/ast node-classes14130555 Ref: 45b814130555 Ref: library/ast ast AST14130600 Ref: 1a614130600 Ref: library/ast ast AST _fields14131430 Ref: 15a414131430 Ref: library/ast ast AST _field_types14132232 Ref: 1a714132232 Ref: library/ast ast AST lineno14132624 Ref: 45b914132624 Ref: library/ast ast AST col_offset14132651 Ref: 45ba14132651 Ref: library/ast ast AST end_lineno14132682 Ref: 45bb14132682 Ref: library/ast ast AST end_col_offset14132713 Ref: 45bc14132713 Ref: Node classes-Footnote-114136389 Node: Root nodes14136447 Ref: library/ast ast-root-nodes14136526 Ref: 45be14136526 Ref: library/ast root-nodes14136526 Ref: 45bf14136526 Ref: library/ast ast Module14136567 Ref: 45c014136567 Ref: library/ast ast Expression14137245 Ref: 45c214137245 Ref: library/ast ast Interactive14137623 Ref: 45c414137623 Ref: library/ast ast FunctionType14138349 Ref: 45c514138349 Ref: Root nodes-Footnote-114139395 Node: Literals<3>14139437 Ref: library/ast literals14139534 Ref: 45c614139534 Ref: library/ast ast Constant14139571 Ref: 2bb14139571 Ref: library/ast ast FormattedValue14140095 Ref: 45c714140095 Ref: library/ast ast JoinedStr14140950 Ref: 16ea14140950 Ref: library/ast ast List14141925 Ref: 45c814141925 Ref: library/ast ast Tuple14141957 Ref: 45c914141957 Ref: library/ast ast Set14142837 Ref: 45cb14142837 Ref: library/ast ast Dict14143225 Ref: 195d14143225 Node: Variables14144048 Ref: library/ast variables14144149 Ref: 45cc14144149 Ref: library/ast ast Name14144188 Ref: 193f14144188 Ref: library/ast ast Load14144330 Ref: 1a414144330 Ref: library/ast ast Store14144350 Ref: 45ca14144350 Ref: library/ast ast Del14144371 Ref: 45cd14144371 Ref: library/ast ast Starred14145236 Ref: 45ce14145236 Node: Expressions<2>14146035 Ref: library/ast ast-expressions14146135 Ref: 45c314146135 Ref: library/ast expressions14146135 Ref: 45d014146135 Ref: library/ast ast Expr14146178 Ref: 45d114146178 Ref: library/ast ast UnaryOp14146821 Ref: 45bd14146821 Ref: library/ast ast UAdd14146955 Ref: 45d514146955 Ref: library/ast ast USub14146975 Ref: 45d614146975 Ref: library/ast ast Not14146995 Ref: 45d714146995 Ref: library/ast ast Invert14147014 Ref: 45d814147014 Ref: library/ast ast BinOp14147365 Ref: 19cc14147365 Ref: library/ast ast Add14147798 Ref: 45d914147798 Ref: library/ast ast Sub14147817 Ref: 45da14147817 Ref: library/ast ast Mult14147836 Ref: 45db14147836 Ref: library/ast ast Div14147856 Ref: 45dc14147856 Ref: library/ast ast FloorDiv14147875 Ref: 45dd14147875 Ref: library/ast ast Mod14147899 Ref: 45de14147899 Ref: library/ast ast Pow14147918 Ref: 45df14147918 Ref: library/ast ast LShift14147937 Ref: 45e014147937 Ref: library/ast ast RShift14147959 Ref: 45e114147959 Ref: library/ast ast BitOr14147981 Ref: 45e214147981 Ref: library/ast ast BitXor14148002 Ref: 45e314148002 Ref: library/ast ast BitAnd14148024 Ref: 45e414148024 Ref: library/ast ast MatMult14148046 Ref: 45e514148046 Ref: library/ast ast BoolOp14148100 Ref: 45e614148100 Ref: library/ast ast And14148761 Ref: 45e814148761 Ref: library/ast ast Or14148780 Ref: 45e714148780 Ref: library/ast ast Compare14148830 Ref: 45e914148830 Ref: library/ast ast Eq14149476 Ref: 45ea14149476 Ref: library/ast ast NotEq14149494 Ref: 45eb14149494 Ref: library/ast ast Lt14149515 Ref: 45ec14149515 Ref: library/ast ast LtE14149533 Ref: 45ed14149533 Ref: library/ast ast Gt14149552 Ref: 45ee14149552 Ref: library/ast ast GtE14149570 Ref: 45ef14149570 Ref: library/ast ast Is14149589 Ref: 45f014149589 Ref: library/ast ast IsNot14149607 Ref: 45f114149607 Ref: library/ast ast In14149628 Ref: 45f214149628 Ref: library/ast ast NotIn14149646 Ref: 45f314149646 Ref: library/ast ast Call14149702 Ref: 45cf14149702 Ref: library/ast ast keyword14150829 Ref: 45f514150829 Ref: library/ast ast IfExp14151025 Ref: 45f614151025 Ref: library/ast ast Attribute14151508 Ref: 45f414151508 Ref: library/ast ast NamedExpr14152097 Ref: 45f714152097 Node: Subscripting14152751 Ref: library/ast subscripting14152837 Ref: 45f914152837 Ref: library/ast ast Subscript14152882 Ref: 45fa14152882 Ref: library/ast ast Slice14153780 Ref: 45fb14153780 Node: Comprehensions14154369 Ref: library/ast comprehensions14154455 Ref: 45fc14154455 Ref: library/ast ast ListComp14154504 Ref: 45fd14154504 Ref: library/ast ast SetComp14154546 Ref: 45fe14154546 Ref: library/ast ast GeneratorExp14154587 Ref: 45ff14154587 Ref: library/ast ast DictComp14154633 Ref: 460014154633 Ref: library/ast ast comprehension14156557 Ref: 460114156557 Node: Statements14159599 Ref: library/ast ast-statements14159702 Ref: 45c114159702 Ref: library/ast statements14159702 Ref: 460214159702 Ref: library/ast ast Assign14159743 Ref: 45f814159743 Ref: library/ast ast Assign type_comment14160086 Ref: 460314160086 Ref: library/ast ast AnnAssign14161027 Ref: 460414161027 Ref: library/ast ast AugAssign14163296 Ref: 460514163296 Ref: library/ast ast Raise14164021 Ref: 460614164021 Ref: library/ast ast Assert14164558 Ref: 460714164558 Ref: library/ast ast Delete14164964 Ref: 460814164964 Ref: library/ast ast Pass14165482 Ref: 460914165482 Ref: library/ast ast TypeAlias14165659 Ref: 16e114165659 Node: Imports14166362 Ref: library/ast imports14166416 Ref: 460b14166416 Ref: library/ast ast Import14166453 Ref: 460c14166453 Ref: library/ast ast ImportFrom14166863 Ref: 460d14166863 Ref: library/ast ast alias14167576 Ref: 18be14167576 Node: Control flow14168095 Ref: library/ast control-flow14168200 Ref: 460e14168200 Ref: library/ast ast If14168354 Ref: 460f14168354 Ref: library/ast ast For14169611 Ref: 461014169611 Ref: library/ast ast For type_comment14170149 Ref: 461114170149 Ref: library/ast ast While14170874 Ref: 461214170874 Ref: library/ast ast Break14171549 Ref: 461314171549 Ref: library/ast ast Continue14171570 Ref: 461414171570 Ref: library/ast ast Try14172577 Ref: 461514172577 Ref: library/ast ast TryStar14174154 Ref: 461714174154 Ref: library/ast ast ExceptHandler14175160 Ref: 461614175160 Ref: library/ast ast With14176294 Ref: 461814176294 Ref: library/ast ast With type_comment14176525 Ref: 461a14176525 Ref: library/ast ast withitem14176660 Ref: 461914176660 Node: Pattern matching14177950 Ref: library/ast pattern-matching14178061 Ref: 461b14178061 Ref: library/ast ast Match14178116 Ref: 461c14178116 Ref: library/ast ast match_case14178425 Ref: 461d14178425 Ref: library/ast ast MatchValue14180388 Ref: 461e14180388 Ref: library/ast ast MatchSingleton14181358 Ref: 461f14181358 Ref: library/ast ast MatchSequence14182214 Ref: 462014182214 Ref: library/ast ast MatchStar14183405 Ref: 462114183405 Ref: library/ast ast MatchMapping14185014 Ref: 462214185014 Ref: library/ast ast MatchClass14186980 Ref: 462314186980 Ref: library/ast ast MatchAs14189915 Ref: 462414189915 Ref: library/ast ast MatchOr14191533 Ref: 462514191533 Node: Type annotations14192780 Ref: library/ast type-annotations14192894 Ref: 462614192894 Ref: library/ast ast TypeIgnore14192949 Ref: 179614192949 Node: Type parameters14194195 Ref: library/ast ast-type-params14194323 Ref: 460a14194323 Ref: library/ast type-parameters14194323 Ref: 462714194323 Ref: library/ast ast TypeVar14194456 Ref: 462814194456 Ref: library/ast ast ParamSpec14195647 Ref: 462914195647 Ref: library/ast ast TypeVarTuple14197021 Ref: 462a14197021 Node: Function and class definitions14198227 Ref: library/ast function-and-class-definitions14198354 Ref: 462b14198354 Ref: library/ast ast FunctionDef14198437 Ref: 170714198437 Ref: library/ast ast FunctionDef type_comment14199046 Ref: 462d14199046 Ref: library/ast ast Lambda14199237 Ref: 45d214199237 Ref: library/ast ast arguments14199846 Ref: 462c14199846 Ref: library/ast ast arg14200593 Ref: 462e14200593 Ref: library/ast ast arg type_comment14200809 Ref: 462f14200809 Ref: library/ast ast Return14202377 Ref: 463014202377 Ref: library/ast ast Yield14202618 Ref: 45d314202618 Ref: library/ast ast YieldFrom14202647 Ref: 45d414202647 Ref: library/ast ast Global14203314 Ref: 463114203314 Ref: library/ast ast Nonlocal14203344 Ref: 463214203344 Ref: library/ast ast ClassDef14203993 Ref: 170514203993 Ref: Function and class definitions-Footnote-114205668 Node: Async and await14205710 Ref: library/ast async-and-await14205813 Ref: 463314205813 Ref: library/ast ast AsyncFunctionDef14205866 Ref: 170614205866 Ref: library/ast ast Await14206136 Ref: 463414206136 Ref: library/ast ast AsyncFor14206752 Ref: 463514206752 Ref: library/ast ast AsyncWith14206819 Ref: 463614206819 Node: ast Helpers14207454 Ref: library/ast ast-helpers14207575 Ref: 463714207575 Ref: library/ast ast parse14207765 Ref: 1a814207765 Ref: library/ast ast unparse14210870 Ref: 8e414210870 Ref: library/ast ast literal_eval14211492 Ref: c1814211492 Ref: library/ast ast get_docstring14213292 Ref: 1a5914213292 Ref: library/ast ast get_source_segment14213753 Ref: 9d714213753 Ref: library/ast ast fix_missing_locations14214235 Ref: 463914214235 Ref: library/ast ast increment_lineno14214710 Ref: 179514214710 Ref: library/ast ast copy_location14214942 Ref: 463a14214942 Ref: library/ast ast iter_fields14215201 Ref: 463b14215201 Ref: library/ast ast iter_child_nodes14215356 Ref: 463c14215356 Ref: library/ast ast walk14215534 Ref: 463d14215534 Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor14215800 Ref: a6d14215800 Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit14216142 Ref: 463e14216142 Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor generic_visit14216420 Ref: 463f14216420 Ref: library/ast ast NodeVisitor visit_Constant14216741 Ref: a6e14216741 Ref: library/ast ast NodeTransformer14217345 Ref: 464014217345 Ref: library/ast ast dump14219217 Ref: 8e314219217 Ref: ast Helpers-Footnote-114221524 Ref: ast Helpers-Footnote-214221566 Ref: ast Helpers-Footnote-314221608 Node: Compiler Flags14221650 Ref: library/ast ast-compiler-flags14221780 Ref: 216414221780 Ref: library/ast compiler-flags14221780 Ref: 464114221780 Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT14221951 Ref: 464214221951 Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_ONLY_AST14222135 Ref: 45b514222135 Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST14222266 Ref: 464314222266 Ref: library/ast ast PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS14222459 Ref: 463814222459 Ref: Compiler Flags-Footnote-114222688 Ref: Compiler Flags-Footnote-214222730 Node: Command-Line Usage<4>14222772 Ref: library/ast ast-cli14222882 Ref: 464414222882 Ref: library/ast command-line-usage14222882 Ref: 464514222882 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-h14223145 Ref: 464614223145 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-help14223145 Ref: 464714223145 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-m14223207 Ref: 464814223207 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-mode14223229 Ref: 464914223229 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-no-type-comments14223359 Ref: 464a14223359 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-a14223426 Ref: 464b14223426 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-include-attributes14223426 Ref: 464c14223426 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-i14223530 Ref: 464d14223530 Ref: library/ast cmdoption-ast-indent14223554 Ref: 464e14223554 Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-114224657 Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-214224705 Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-314224772 Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-414224846 Ref: Command-Line Usage<4>-Footnote-514224885 Node: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables14224922 Ref: library/symtable doc14225131 Ref: 464f14225131 Ref: library/symtable module-symtable14225131 Ref: d814225131 Ref: library/symtable symtable-access-to-the-compiler-s-symbol-tables14225131 Ref: 465014225131 Ref: symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables-Footnote-114225758 Node: Generating Symbol Tables14225826 Ref: library/symtable generating-symbol-tables14225972 Ref: 465114225972 Ref: library/symtable symtable symtable14226041 Ref: 19ec14226041 Node: Examining Symbol Tables14226321 Ref: library/symtable examining-symbol-tables14226497 Ref: 465314226497 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType14226564 Ref: 160d14226564 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType MODULE14226685 Ref: 465414226685 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType FUNCTION14226774 Ref: 465514226774 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType CLASS14226869 Ref: 465614226869 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType ANNOTATION14227048 Ref: 465714227048 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_ALIAS14227192 Ref: 465814227192 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_PARAMETERS14227311 Ref: 465914227311 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTableType TYPE_VARIABLE14227479 Ref: 465a14227479 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable14227848 Ref: 465214227848 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_type14227950 Ref: 160e14227950 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_id14228616 Ref: 465b14228616 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_name14228688 Ref: 465c14228688 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_lineno14229334 Ref: 465d14229334 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_optimized14229459 Ref: 465e14229459 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable is_nested14229568 Ref: 465f14229568 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable has_children14229672 Ref: 466014229672 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_identifiers14229846 Ref: 466214229846 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable lookup14230023 Ref: 466314230023 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_symbols14230146 Ref: 466414230146 Ref: library/symtable symtable SymbolTable get_children14230271 Ref: 466114230271 Ref: library/symtable symtable Function14230359 Ref: 466514230359 Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_parameters14230489 Ref: 466614230489 Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_locals14230610 Ref: 466714230610 Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_globals14230713 Ref: 466814230713 Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_nonlocals14230818 Ref: 466914230818 Ref: library/symtable symtable Function get_frees14230957 Ref: 466a14230957 Ref: library/symtable symtable Class14231100 Ref: 466b14231100 Ref: library/symtable symtable Class get_methods14231213 Ref: 2e914231213 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol14232449 Ref: 16ce14232449 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_name14232605 Ref: 466c14232605 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_referenced14232674 Ref: 466d14232674 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_imported14232774 Ref: 466e14232774 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_parameter14232897 Ref: 466f14232897 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_global14232990 Ref: 467014232990 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_nonlocal14233075 Ref: 1a2a14233075 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_declared_global14233164 Ref: 131814233164 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_local14233301 Ref: 467114233301 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_annotated14233397 Ref: 467214233397 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_free14233521 Ref: 467314233521 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_assigned14233652 Ref: 467414233652 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol is_namespace14233757 Ref: 467514233757 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_namespaces14234399 Ref: 467614234399 Ref: library/symtable symtable Symbol get_namespace14234494 Ref: 467714234494 Node: Command-Line Usage<5>14234694 Ref: library/symtable command-line-usage14234837 Ref: 467814234837 Ref: library/symtable symtable-cli14234837 Ref: 467914234837 Node: token — Constants used with Python parse trees14235191 Ref: library/token doc14235410 Ref: 467a14235410 Ref: library/token module-token14235410 Ref: fa14235410 Ref: library/token token-constants-used-with-python-parse-trees14235410 Ref: 467b14235410 Ref: library/token token tok_name14236366 Ref: 468014236366 Ref: library/token token ISTERMINAL14236584 Ref: 468114236584 Ref: library/token token ISNONTERMINAL14236671 Ref: 468214236671 Ref: library/token token ISEOF14236765 Ref: 468314236765 Ref: library/token token NAME14236896 Ref: 467e14236896 Ref: library/token token NUMBER14237054 Ref: 468414237054 Ref: library/token token STRING14237142 Ref: 468514237142 Ref: library/token token OP14237487 Ref: 467d14237487 Ref: library/token token COMMENT14237790 Ref: 468714237790 Ref: library/token token NEWLINE14237908 Ref: 468814237908 Ref: library/token token NL14238005 Ref: 468914238005 Ref: library/token token INDENT14238236 Ref: 1d0e14238236 Ref: library/token token DEDENT14238392 Ref: 468a14238392 Ref: library/token token FSTRING_START14238546 Ref: 468b14238546 Ref: library/token token FSTRING_MIDDLE14238819 Ref: 468c14238819 Ref: library/token token FSTRING_END14239246 Ref: 469114239246 Ref: library/token token ENDMARKER14239436 Ref: 469214239436 Ref: library/token token ENCODING14239514 Ref: 469314239514 Ref: library/token token TYPE_IGNORE14240022 Ref: 469414240022 Ref: library/token token TYPE_COMMENT14240270 Ref: 469514240270 Ref: library/token token SOFT_KEYWORD14240500 Ref: 467f14240500 Ref: library/token token ERRORTOKEN14240755 Ref: 469714240755 Ref: library/token token-operators-delimiters14241085 Ref: 468614241085 Ref: library/token token LPAR14241624 Ref: 469814241624 Ref: library/token token RPAR14241801 Ref: 469914241801 Ref: library/token token LSQB14241978 Ref: 469a14241978 Ref: library/token token RSQB14242155 Ref: 469b14242155 Ref: library/token token COLON14242333 Ref: 469014242333 Ref: library/token token COMMA14242510 Ref: 469c14242510 Ref: library/token token SEMI14242686 Ref: 469d14242686 Ref: library/token token PLUS14242863 Ref: 467c14242863 Ref: library/token token MINUS14243041 Ref: 469e14243041 Ref: library/token token STAR14243217 Ref: 469f14243217 Ref: library/token token SLASH14243395 Ref: 46a014243395 Ref: library/token token VBAR14243571 Ref: 46a114243571 Ref: library/token token AMPER14243749 Ref: 46a214243749 Ref: library/token token LESS14243925 Ref: 46a314243925 Ref: library/token token GREATER14244105 Ref: 46a414244105 Ref: library/token token EQUAL14244280 Ref: 46a514244280 Ref: library/token token DOT14244455 Ref: 46a614244455 Ref: library/token token PERCENT14244636 Ref: 46a714244636 Ref: library/token token LBRACE14244812 Ref: 468d14244812 Ref: library/token token RBRACE14244989 Ref: 468e14244989 Ref: library/token token EQEQUAL14245167 Ref: 46a814245167 Ref: library/token token NOTEQUAL14245346 Ref: 46a914245346 Ref: library/token token LESSEQUAL14245525 Ref: 46aa14245525 Ref: library/token token GREATEREQUAL14245706 Ref: 46ab14245706 Ref: library/token token TILDE14245877 Ref: 46ac14245877 Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEX14246059 Ref: 46ad14246059 Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFT14246235 Ref: 46ae14246235 Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFT14246414 Ref: 46af14246414 Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAR14246592 Ref: 46b014246592 Ref: library/token token PLUSEQUAL14246769 Ref: 46b114246769 Ref: library/token token MINEQUAL14246946 Ref: 46b214246946 Ref: library/token token STAREQUAL14247125 Ref: 46b314247125 Ref: library/token token SLASHEQUAL14247304 Ref: 46b414247304 Ref: library/token token PERCENTEQUAL14247484 Ref: 46b514247484 Ref: library/token token AMPEREQUAL14247660 Ref: 46b614247660 Ref: library/token token VBAREQUAL14247837 Ref: 46b714247837 Ref: library/token token CIRCUMFLEXEQUAL14248021 Ref: 46b814248021 Ref: library/token token LEFTSHIFTEQUAL14248198 Ref: 46b914248198 Ref: library/token token RIGHTSHIFTEQUAL14248378 Ref: 46ba14248378 Ref: library/token token DOUBLESTAREQUAL14248557 Ref: 46bb14248557 Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASH14248732 Ref: 46bc14248732 Ref: library/token token DOUBLESLASHEQUAL14248915 Ref: 46bd14248915 Ref: library/token token AT14249080 Ref: 46be14249080 Ref: library/token token ATEQUAL14249262 Ref: 46bf14249262 Ref: library/token token RARROW14249439 Ref: 46c014249439 Ref: library/token token ELLIPSIS14249619 Ref: 46c114249619 Ref: library/token token COLONEQUAL14249800 Ref: 46c214249800 Ref: library/token token EXCLAMATION14249979 Ref: 468f14249979 Ref: library/token token N_TOKENS14250123 Ref: 46c314250123 Ref: library/token token EXACT_TOKEN_TYPES14250205 Ref: 159414250205 Ref: token — Constants used with Python parse trees-Footnote-114251128 Node: keyword — Testing for Python keywords14251193 Ref: library/keyword doc14251399 Ref: 46c414251399 Ref: library/keyword keyword-testing-for-python-keywords14251399 Ref: 46c514251399 Ref: library/keyword module-keyword14251399 Ref: 8414251399 Ref: library/keyword keyword iskeyword14251718 Ref: 21c114251718 Ref: library/keyword keyword kwlist14251819 Ref: 46c614251819 Ref: library/keyword keyword issoftkeyword14252087 Ref: 469614252087 Ref: library/keyword keyword softkwlist14252224 Ref: 46c714252224 Ref: keyword — Testing for Python keywords-Footnote-114252569 Node: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source14252636 Ref: library/tokenize doc14252841 Ref: 46c814252841 Ref: library/tokenize module-tokenize14252841 Ref: fb14252841 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize-tokenizer-for-python-source14252841 Ref: 46c914252841 Ref: tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source-Footnote-114254122 Node: Tokenizing Input14254190 Ref: library/tokenize tokenizing-input14254313 Ref: 46ca14254313 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize tokenize14254420 Ref: 4d514254420 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize generate_tokens14255854 Ref: 4d614255854 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize untokenize14256618 Ref: 158514256618 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize detect_encoding14257499 Ref: 286814257499 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize open14258495 Ref: 286714258495 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize TokenError14258666 Ref: 53f14258666 Ref: Tokenizing Input-Footnote-114258982 Ref: Tokenizing Input-Footnote-214259024 Node: Command-Line Usage<6>14259066 Ref: library/tokenize command-line-usage14259210 Ref: 46cb14259210 Ref: library/tokenize tokenize-cli14259210 Ref: 46cc14259210 Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-h14259475 Ref: 46cd14259475 Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-help14259475 Ref: 46ce14259475 Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-e14259537 Ref: 46cf14259537 Ref: library/tokenize cmdoption-tokenize-exact14259537 Ref: 46d014259537 Node: Examples<35>14259729 Ref: library/tokenize examples14259848 Ref: 46d114259848 Node: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation14264341 Ref: library/tabnanny doc14264547 Ref: 46d214264547 Ref: library/tabnanny module-tabnanny14264547 Ref: dd14264547 Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny-detection-of-ambiguous-indentation14264547 Ref: 46d314264547 Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny check14265078 Ref: 46d414265078 Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny verbose14265518 Ref: 46d514265518 Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny filename_only14265675 Ref: 46d614265675 Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny NannyNag14265893 Ref: 46d714265893 Ref: library/tabnanny tabnanny process_tokens14266058 Ref: 46d814266058 Ref: tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation-Footnote-114266355 Node: pyclbr — Python module browser support14266423 Ref: library/pyclbr doc14266631 Ref: 46d914266631 Ref: library/pyclbr module-pyclbr14266631 Ref: b414266631 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-python-module-browser-support14266631 Ref: 46da14266631 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule14267329 Ref: 82714267329 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr readmodule_ex14267940 Ref: 82814267940 Ref: pyclbr — Python module browser support-Footnote-114269018 Node: Function Objects14269084 Ref: library/pyclbr function-objects14269202 Ref: 46db14269202 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-function-objects14269202 Ref: 46dc14269202 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function14269255 Ref: 46dd14269255 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function file14269408 Ref: 46de14269408 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function module14269496 Ref: 46df14269496 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function name14269591 Ref: 46e014269591 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function lineno14269654 Ref: 46e114269654 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function parent14269750 Ref: 46e214269750 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function children14269904 Ref: 46e314269904 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Function is_async14270076 Ref: 46e414270076 Node: Class Objects<2>14270261 Ref: library/pyclbr class-objects14270379 Ref: 46e514270379 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr-class-objects14270379 Ref: 46e614270379 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class14270426 Ref: 46e714270426 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class file14270612 Ref: 46e814270612 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class module14270697 Ref: 46e914270697 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class name14270789 Ref: 46ea14270789 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class lineno14270849 Ref: 46eb14270849 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class parent14270945 Ref: 46ec14270945 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class children14271095 Ref: 46ed14271095 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class super14271255 Ref: 46ee14271255 Ref: library/pyclbr pyclbr Class methods14271616 Ref: 46ef14271616 Node: py_compile — Compile Python source files14271844 Ref: library/py_compile doc14272049 Ref: 46f014272049 Ref: library/py_compile module-py_compile14272049 Ref: b314272049 Ref: library/py_compile py-compile-compile-python-source-files14272049 Ref: 46f114272049 Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PyCompileError14272672 Ref: 46f214272672 Ref: library/py_compile py_compile compile14272801 Ref: a2414272801 Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode14276553 Ref: 46f314276553 Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode TIMESTAMP14276977 Ref: 46f514276977 Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode CHECKED_HASH14277259 Ref: 46f414277259 Ref: library/py_compile py_compile PycInvalidationMode UNCHECKED_HASH14277505 Ref: 46f614277505 Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-114278053 Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-214278123 Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-314278165 Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-414278207 Ref: py_compile — Compile Python source files-Footnote-514278249 Node: Command-Line Interface<6>14278291 Ref: library/py_compile command-line-interface14278395 Ref: 46f714278395 Ref: library/py_compile py-compile-cli14278395 Ref: 46f814278395 Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-arg-file14278824 Ref: 46f914278824 Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile14278855 Ref: 46fa14278855 Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-q14279007 Ref: 46fb14279007 Ref: library/py_compile cmdoption-python-m-py_compile-quiet14279007 Ref: 46fc14279007 Node: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries14279295 Ref: library/compileall doc14279500 Ref: 46fd14279500 Ref: library/compileall compileall-byte-compile-python-libraries14279500 Ref: 46fe14279500 Ref: library/compileall module-compileall14279500 Ref: 2014279500 Ref: compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries-Footnote-114280321 Node: Command-line use14280391 Ref: library/compileall command-line-use14280513 Ref: 46ff14280513 Ref: library/compileall compileall-cli14280513 Ref: 470014280513 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-arg-directory14280662 Ref: 470114280662 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-arg-file14280688 Ref: 470214280688 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-l14280936 Ref: 470314280936 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-f14281086 Ref: 470414281086 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-q14281157 Ref: 470514281157 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-d14281341 Ref: 470614281341 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-s14281694 Ref: 470714281694 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-p14281909 Ref: 470814281909 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-x14282129 Ref: 470914282129 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-i14282302 Ref: 470a14282302 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-b14282504 Ref: 470b14282504 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-r14282830 Ref: 470c14282830 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-j14283100 Ref: 470d14283100 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-invalidation-mode14283287 Ref: 470e14283287 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-o14284086 Ref: 470f14284086 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-e14284279 Ref: 471014284279 Ref: library/compileall cmdoption-compileall-hardlink-dupes14284359 Ref: 471114284359 Ref: Command-line use-Footnote-114285654 Node: Public functions14285696 Ref: library/compileall public-functions14285818 Ref: 471214285818 Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_dir14285871 Ref: b2614285871 Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_file14290017 Ref: de014290017 Ref: library/compileall compileall compile_path14293015 Ref: de114293015 Ref: Public functions-Footnote-114294749 Ref: Public functions-Footnote-214294791 Node: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode14294833 Ref: library/dis doc14295039 Ref: 471314295039 Ref: library/dis dis-disassembler-for-python-bytecode14295039 Ref: 471414295039 Ref: library/dis module-dis14295039 Ref: 3814295039 Ref: dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode-Footnote-114297763 Node: Command-line interface<3>14297826 Ref: library/dis command-line-interface14297954 Ref: 471514297954 Ref: library/dis dis-cli14297954 Ref: 471614297954 Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-h14298179 Ref: 471714298179 Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-help14298179 Ref: 471814298179 Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-C14298233 Ref: 471914298233 Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-show-caches14298233 Ref: 471a14298233 Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-O14298319 Ref: 1da14298319 Ref: library/dis cmdoption-dis-show-offsets14298319 Ref: 471b14298319 Node: Bytecode analysis14298578 Ref: library/dis bytecode-analysis14298733 Ref: 471c14298733 Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode14298975 Ref: f2914298975 Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode from_traceback14300466 Ref: f2b14300466 Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode codeobj14300712 Ref: 471d14300712 Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode first_line14300773 Ref: 471e14300773 Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode dis14300867 Ref: f2a14300867 Ref: library/dis dis Bytecode info14301058 Ref: 471f14301058 Node: Analysis functions14301607 Ref: library/dis analysis-functions14301765 Ref: 472014301765 Ref: library/dis dis code_info14302071 Ref: 122c14302071 Ref: library/dis dis show_code14302612 Ref: f2714302612 Ref: library/dis dis dis14303078 Ref: b3414303078 Ref: library/dis dis disassemble14305581 Ref: f2814305581 Ref: library/dis dis get_instructions14306804 Ref: 1db14306804 Ref: library/dis dis findlinestarts14307938 Ref: 472114307938 Ref: library/dis dis findlabels14308645 Ref: 472214308645 Ref: library/dis dis stack_effect14308815 Ref: f2c14308815 Ref: Analysis functions-Footnote-114309735 Node: Python Bytecode Instructions14309777 Ref: library/dis bytecodes14309936 Ref: 5ae14309936 Ref: library/dis python-bytecode-instructions14309936 Ref: 472314309936 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction14310170 Ref: 1dc14310170 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction opcode14310237 Ref: 472414310237 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction opname14310430 Ref: 472614310430 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction baseopcode14310498 Ref: 472714310498 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction baseopname14310650 Ref: 472814310650 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction arg14310809 Ref: 472a14310809 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction oparg14310901 Ref: 472b14310901 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction argval14310961 Ref: 472c14310961 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction argrepr14311045 Ref: 472d14311045 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction offset14311176 Ref: 472e14311176 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction start_offset14311260 Ref: 472f14311260 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction cache_offset14311471 Ref: 473014311471 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction end_offset14311568 Ref: 473114311568 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction starts_line14311661 Ref: 473214311661 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction line_number14311770 Ref: 473314311770 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction is_jump_target14311897 Ref: 473414311897 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction jump_target14312001 Ref: 473514312001 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction positions14312134 Ref: 473614312134 Ref: library/dis dis Instruction cache_info14312289 Ref: 473714312289 Ref: library/dis dis Positions14312998 Ref: 44bd14312998 Ref: library/dis dis Positions lineno14313110 Ref: 473814313110 Ref: library/dis dis Positions end_lineno14313133 Ref: 473914313133 Ref: library/dis dis Positions col_offset14313160 Ref: 473a14313160 Ref: library/dis dis Positions end_col_offset14313187 Ref: 473b14313187 Ref: library/dis opcode-NOP14313551 Ref: 473c14313551 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_TOP14313683 Ref: 473d14313683 Ref: library/dis opcode-END_FOR14313764 Ref: 473e14313764 Ref: library/dis opcode-END_SEND14313941 Ref: 473f14313941 Ref: library/dis opcode-COPY14314077 Ref: 70414314077 Ref: library/dis opcode-SWAP14314288 Ref: 70514314288 Ref: library/dis opcode-CACHE14314449 Ref: 6f414314449 Ref: library/dis opcode-UNARY_NEGATIVE14315284 Ref: 474014315284 Ref: library/dis opcode-UNARY_NOT14315359 Ref: 16ef14315359 Ref: library/dis opcode-UNARY_INVERT14315533 Ref: 474114315533 Ref: library/dis opcode-GET_ITER14315606 Ref: 474214315606 Ref: library/dis opcode-GET_YIELD_FROM_ITER14315680 Ref: 474314315680 Ref: library/dis opcode-TO_BOOL14315920 Ref: 16ec14315920 Ref: library/dis opcode-BINARY_OP14316437 Ref: 70114316437 Ref: library/dis opcode-BINARY_SUBSCR14316676 Ref: 174014316676 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_SUBSCR14316823 Ref: 181a14316823 Ref: library/dis opcode-DELETE_SUBSCR14316993 Ref: 474414316993 Ref: library/dis opcode-BINARY_SLICE14317130 Ref: 4db14317130 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_SLICE14317341 Ref: 4dc14317341 Ref: library/dis opcode-GET_AWAITABLE14317597 Ref: 183614317597 Ref: library/dis opcode-GET_AITER14318223 Ref: 474514318223 Ref: library/dis opcode-GET_ANEXT14318440 Ref: 474614318440 Ref: library/dis opcode-END_ASYNC_FOR14318647 Ref: aaa14318647 Ref: library/dis opcode-CLEANUP_THROW14319132 Ref: 4df14319132 Ref: library/dis opcode-BEFORE_ASYNC_WITH14319494 Ref: 474714319494 Ref: library/dis opcode-SET_ADD14319778 Ref: 474814319778 Ref: library/dis opcode-LIST_APPEND14319930 Ref: 474914319930 Ref: library/dis opcode-MAP_ADD14320091 Ref: aac14320091 Ref: library/dis opcode-RETURN_VALUE14320699 Ref: 17a714320699 Ref: library/dis opcode-RETURN_CONST14320791 Ref: 4e514320791 Ref: library/dis opcode-YIELD_VALUE14320929 Ref: 30e14320929 Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_ANNOTATIONS14321325 Ref: d5414321325 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_EXCEPT14321625 Ref: 474a14321625 Ref: library/dis opcode-RERAISE14321847 Ref: 474b14321847 Ref: library/dis opcode-PUSH_EXC_INFO14322205 Ref: 6fe14322205 Ref: library/dis opcode-CHECK_EXC_MATCH14322445 Ref: 70614322445 Ref: library/dis opcode-CHECK_EG_MATCH14322707 Ref: 6fd14322707 Ref: library/dis opcode-WITH_EXCEPT_START14323164 Ref: 474c14323164 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_ASSERTION_ERROR14323700 Ref: 96714323700 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_BUILD_CLASS14323866 Ref: 474d14323866 Ref: library/dis opcode-BEFORE_WITH14324005 Ref: 70814324005 Ref: library/dis opcode-GET_LEN14324428 Ref: 474e14324428 Ref: library/dis opcode-MATCH_MAPPING14324625 Ref: 474f14324625 Ref: library/dis opcode-MATCH_SEQUENCE14324946 Ref: 475014324946 Ref: library/dis opcode-MATCH_KEYS14325360 Ref: 70e14325360 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_NAME14325827 Ref: 475114325827 Ref: library/dis opcode-DELETE_NAME14326111 Ref: 475314326111 Ref: library/dis opcode-UNPACK_SEQUENCE14326277 Ref: 183814326277 Ref: library/dis opcode-UNPACK_EX14326569 Ref: 475414326569 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_ATTR14327528 Ref: 183714327528 Ref: library/dis opcode-DELETE_ATTR14327766 Ref: 475514327766 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_GLOBAL14327973 Ref: 475214327973 Ref: library/dis opcode-DELETE_GLOBAL14328079 Ref: 475614328079 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_CONST14328181 Ref: 475714328181 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_NAME14328267 Ref: 475814328267 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_LOCALS14328463 Ref: 4e414328463 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_GLOBALS14328728 Ref: 4e314328728 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_TUPLE14329121 Ref: 475914329121 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_LIST14329447 Ref: 475a14329447 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_SET14329539 Ref: 475b14329539 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_MAP14329629 Ref: 16e214329629 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_CONST_KEY_MAP14330010 Ref: d5114330010 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_STRING14330332 Ref: d5014330332 Ref: library/dis opcode-LIST_EXTEND14330497 Ref: 475c14330497 Ref: library/dis opcode-SET_UPDATE14330666 Ref: 475d14330666 Ref: library/dis opcode-DICT_UPDATE14330832 Ref: 475e14330832 Ref: library/dis opcode-DICT_MERGE14331001 Ref: 475f14331001 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_ATTR14331142 Ref: 4da14331142 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_SUPER_ATTR14332079 Ref: 4d814332079 Ref: library/dis opcode-COMPARE_OP14333150 Ref: 96914333150 Ref: library/dis opcode-IS_OP14333529 Ref: 476014333529 Ref: library/dis opcode-CONTAINS_OP14333659 Ref: 476114333659 Ref: library/dis opcode-IMPORT_NAME14333795 Ref: 476214333795 Ref: library/dis opcode-IMPORT_FROM14334215 Ref: 476314334215 Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP_FORWARD14334464 Ref: 15e114334464 Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP_BACKWARD14334544 Ref: 70714334544 Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP_BACKWARD_NO_INTERRUPT14334678 Ref: 6fa14334678 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_TRUE14334838 Ref: 16ed14334838 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_FALSE14335380 Ref: 16ee14335380 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_NOT_NONE14335925 Ref: 17f614335925 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_JUMP_IF_NONE14336188 Ref: 17f514336188 Ref: library/dis opcode-FOR_ITER14336443 Ref: 175114336443 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_GLOBAL14336856 Ref: 16e914336856 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_FAST14337102 Ref: 476414337102 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_FAST_LOAD_FAST14337411 Ref: 476514337411 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_FAST_CHECK14337602 Ref: 4e114337602 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_FAST_AND_CLEAR14337851 Ref: 4e014337851 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_FAST14338149 Ref: 16f114338149 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_FAST_STORE_FAST14338257 Ref: 476614338257 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_FAST_LOAD_FAST14338463 Ref: 476714338463 Ref: library/dis opcode-DELETE_FAST14338711 Ref: 476814338711 Ref: library/dis opcode-MAKE_CELL14338794 Ref: 6fb14338794 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_DEREF14338968 Ref: 476914338968 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_FROM_DICT_OR_DEREF14339253 Ref: 4e214339253 Ref: library/dis opcode-STORE_DEREF14339784 Ref: 476a14339784 Ref: library/dis opcode-DELETE_DEREF14340029 Ref: 476b14340029 Ref: library/dis opcode-COPY_FREE_VARS14340322 Ref: 6f914340322 Ref: library/dis opcode-RAISE_VARARGS14340570 Ref: 476c14340570 Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL14341039 Ref: 70214341039 Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_KW14341811 Ref: 16e314341811 Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_FUNCTION_EX14342643 Ref: d5314342643 Ref: library/dis opcode-PUSH_NULL14343325 Ref: 70314343325 Ref: library/dis opcode-MAKE_FUNCTION14343529 Ref: d5214343529 Ref: library/dis opcode-SET_FUNCTION_ATTRIBUTE14344006 Ref: 476d14344006 Ref: library/dis opcode-BUILD_SLICE14344721 Ref: 476e14344721 Ref: library/dis opcode-EXTENDED_ARG14345190 Ref: 17a514345190 Ref: library/dis opcode-CONVERT_VALUE14345527 Ref: 476f14345527 Ref: library/dis opcode-FORMAT_SIMPLE14346003 Ref: 477014346003 Ref: library/dis opcode-FORMAT_WITH_SPEC14346269 Ref: 477114346269 Ref: library/dis opcode-MATCH_CLASS14346586 Ref: 70d14346586 Ref: library/dis opcode-RESUME14347303 Ref: 30f14347303 Ref: library/dis opcode-RETURN_GENERATOR14348041 Ref: 6f714348041 Ref: library/dis opcode-SEND14348335 Ref: 6f814348335 Ref: library/dis opcode-HAVE_ARGUMENT14348702 Ref: 48514348702 Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_INTRINSIC_114349563 Ref: 4dd14349563 Ref: library/dis opcode-CALL_INTRINSIC_214352893 Ref: 4de14352893 Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_FINALLY14354936 Ref: 477214354936 Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_CLEANUP14355200 Ref: 477314355200 Ref: library/dis opcode-SETUP_WITH14355605 Ref: 477414355605 Ref: library/dis opcode-POP_BLOCK14356037 Ref: 477514356037 Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP14356190 Ref: 477614356190 Ref: library/dis opcode-JUMP_NO_INTERRUPT14356208 Ref: 181814356208 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_CLOSURE14356375 Ref: 16eb14356375 Ref: library/dis opcode-LOAD_METHOD14356670 Ref: c1f14356670 Node: Opcode collections14356804 Ref: library/dis id114356936 Ref: 477714356936 Ref: library/dis opcode-collections14356936 Ref: 472514356936 Ref: library/dis dis opname14357290 Ref: 472914357290 Ref: library/dis dis opmap14357377 Ref: 477814357377 Ref: library/dis dis cmp_op14357453 Ref: 477914357453 Ref: library/dis dis hasarg14357522 Ref: 2a014357522 Ref: library/dis dis hasconst14357626 Ref: 477a14357626 Ref: library/dis dis hasfree14357702 Ref: 477b14357702 Ref: library/dis dis hasname14358050 Ref: 477c14358050 Ref: library/dis dis hasjump14358135 Ref: 477d14358135 Ref: library/dis dis haslocal14358270 Ref: 477e14358270 Ref: library/dis dis hascompare14358352 Ref: 477f14358352 Ref: library/dis dis hasexc14358429 Ref: 48614358429 Ref: library/dis dis hasjrel14358539 Ref: 478014358539 Ref: library/dis dis hasjabs14358720 Ref: 478114358720 Node: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers14358897 Ref: library/pickletools doc14359050 Ref: 478214359050 Ref: library/pickletools module-pickletools14359050 Ref: a714359050 Ref: library/pickletools pickletools-tools-for-pickle-developers14359050 Ref: 478314359050 Ref: pickletools — Tools for pickle developers-Footnote-114359841 Node: Command line usage<2>14359912 Ref: library/pickletools command-line-usage14360047 Ref: 478414360047 Ref: library/pickletools pickletools-cli14360047 Ref: 478514360047 Node: Command line options<3>14361002 Ref: library/pickletools command-line-options14361083 Ref: 478614361083 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-a14361146 Ref: 478714361146 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-annotate14361146 Ref: 478814361146 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-o14361232 Ref: 478914361232 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-output14361232 Ref: 478a14361232 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-l14361322 Ref: 478b14361322 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-indentlevel14361322 Ref: 478c14361322 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-m14361423 Ref: 478d14361423 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-memo14361423 Ref: 478e14361423 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-p14361535 Ref: 478f14361535 Ref: library/pickletools cmdoption-pickletools-preamble14361535 Ref: 479014361535 Node: Programmatic Interface<2>14361677 Ref: library/pickletools programmatic-interface14361812 Ref: 479114361812 Ref: library/pickletools pickletools dis14361879 Ref: cc314361879 Ref: library/pickletools pickletools genops14362719 Ref: 479214362719 Ref: library/pickletools pickletools optimize14363155 Ref: 289d14363155 Node: MS Windows Specific Services14363435 Ref: library/windows doc14363591 Ref: 479314363591 Ref: library/windows ms-windows-specific-services14363591 Ref: 479414363591 Ref: library/windows mswin-specific-services14363591 Ref: 1e3414363591 Node: msvcrt — Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime14363899 Ref: library/msvcrt doc14364058 Ref: 479514364058 Ref: library/msvcrt module-msvcrt14364058 Ref: 9314364058 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-useful-routines-from-the-ms-vc-runtime14364058 Ref: 479614364058 Node: File Operations14365074 Ref: library/msvcrt file-operations14365197 Ref: 479714365197 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-files14365197 Ref: 479814365197 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt locking14365248 Ref: 41ed14365248 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_LOCK14365912 Ref: 479914365912 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_RLCK14365937 Ref: 479a14365937 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBLCK14366178 Ref: 479b14366178 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_NBRLCK14366204 Ref: 479c14366204 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LK_UNLCK14366333 Ref: 479d14366333 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt setmode14366440 Ref: 479e14366440 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt open_osfhandle14366679 Ref: 41ee14366679 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt get_osfhandle14367331 Ref: 41ec14367331 Node: Console I/O14367591 Ref: library/msvcrt console-i-o14367738 Ref: 479f14367738 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-console14367738 Ref: 47a014367738 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt kbhit14367781 Ref: 47a114367781 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getch14367905 Ref: 47a214367905 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwch14368392 Ref: 13c114368392 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getche14368504 Ref: 47a314368504 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt getwche14368651 Ref: 13c214368651 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putch14368765 Ref: 47a414368765 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt putwch14368869 Ref: 13c314368869 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetch14368993 Ref: 47a514368993 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt ungetwch14369208 Ref: 47a614369208 Node: Other Functions14369336 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt-other14369459 Ref: 47a714369459 Ref: library/msvcrt other-functions14369459 Ref: 47a814369459 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt heapmin14369510 Ref: 47a914369510 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt set_error_mode14369703 Ref: 47aa14369703 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_DEFAULT14370075 Ref: 47ac14370075 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_STDERR14370218 Ref: 47ad14370218 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt OUT_TO_MSGBOX14370346 Ref: 47ae14370346 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt REPORT_ERRMODE14370471 Ref: 47ab14370471 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CrtSetReportMode14370605 Ref: 47af14370605 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CrtSetReportFile14370993 Ref: 47b014370993 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_WARN14371390 Ref: 47b214371390 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ERROR14371505 Ref: 47b314371505 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSERT14371621 Ref: 47b414371621 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_DEBUG14371676 Ref: 47b514371676 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_FILE14371772 Ref: 47b114371772 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_MODE_WNDW14371989 Ref: 47b614371989 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRTDBG_REPORT_MODE14372147 Ref: 47b714372147 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt CRT_ASSEMBLY_VERSION14372239 Ref: 134b14372239 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt VC_ASSEMBLY_PUBLICKEYTOKEN14372349 Ref: 134c14372349 Ref: library/msvcrt msvcrt LIBRARIES_ASSEMBLY_NAME_PREFIX14372478 Ref: 134d14372478 Node: winreg — Windows registry access14372613 Ref: library/winreg doc14372829 Ref: 47b814372829 Ref: library/winreg module-winreg14372829 Ref: 11614372829 Ref: library/winreg winreg-windows-registry-access14372829 Ref: 47b914372829 Ref: library/winreg exception-changed14373243 Ref: 47bb14373243 Node: Functions<13>14373484 Ref: library/winreg functions14373590 Ref: 47bc14373590 Ref: library/winreg id114373590 Ref: 47bd14373590 Ref: library/winreg winreg CloseKey14373674 Ref: 47be14373674 Ref: library/winreg winreg ConnectRegistry14373995 Ref: 41f214373995 Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKey14374687 Ref: 41f314374687 Ref: library/winreg winreg CreateKeyEx14375649 Ref: 134e14375649 Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKey14376989 Ref: 41f414376989 Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteKeyEx14377738 Ref: 134f14377738 Ref: library/winreg winreg DeleteValue14379017 Ref: 41f514379017 Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumKey14379385 Ref: 41f614379385 Ref: library/winreg winreg EnumValue14380052 Ref: 41f714380052 Ref: library/winreg winreg ExpandEnvironmentStrings14381318 Ref: 13c414381318 Ref: library/winreg winreg FlushKey14381669 Ref: 47c514381669 Ref: library/winreg winreg LoadKey14382489 Ref: 41f814382489 Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKey14383682 Ref: 41f914383682 Ref: library/winreg winreg OpenKeyEx14383755 Ref: 47c814383755 Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryInfoKey14384838 Ref: 41fb14384838 Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValue14385734 Ref: 41fc14385734 Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryValueEx14386611 Ref: 41fd14386611 Ref: library/winreg winreg SaveKey14387487 Ref: 41fe14387487 Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValue14388529 Ref: 41ff14388529 Ref: library/winreg winreg SetValueEx14389708 Ref: 178d14389708 Ref: library/winreg winreg DisableReflectionKey14390956 Ref: 135014390956 Ref: library/winreg winreg EnableReflectionKey14391588 Ref: 135114391588 Ref: library/winreg winreg QueryReflectionKey14392097 Ref: 135214392097 Ref: Functions<13>-Footnote-114392601 Ref: Functions<13>-Footnote-214392678 Node: Constants<10>14392755 Ref: library/winreg constants14392893 Ref: 47cd14392893 Ref: library/winreg id214392893 Ref: 47ce14392893 Node: HKEY_* Constants14393080 Ref: library/winreg hkey-constants14393168 Ref: 47c014393168 Ref: library/winreg id314393168 Ref: 47cf14393168 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CLASSES_ROOT14393221 Ref: 47d014393221 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_USER14393472 Ref: 47d114393472 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE14393775 Ref: 47c714393775 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_USERS14393999 Ref: 47c614393999 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_PERFORMANCE_DATA14394208 Ref: 47d214394208 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_CURRENT_CONFIG14394475 Ref: 47d314394475 Ref: library/winreg winreg HKEY_DYN_DATA14394610 Ref: 47d414394610 Node: Access Rights14394702 Ref: library/winreg access-rights14394810 Ref: 47c214394810 Ref: library/winreg id414394810 Ref: 47d514394810 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ALL_ACCESS14394921 Ref: 47d614394921 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WRITE14395210 Ref: 47c114395210 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_READ14395363 Ref: 47c914395363 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_EXECUTE14395542 Ref: 47dc14395542 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_QUERY_VALUE14395614 Ref: 47d714395614 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_SET_VALUE14395702 Ref: 47cb14395702 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_SUB_KEY14395793 Ref: 47d814395793 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_ENUMERATE_SUB_KEYS14395883 Ref: 47d914395883 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_NOTIFY14395983 Ref: 47da14395983 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_CREATE_LINK14396117 Ref: 47db14396117 Ref: Access Rights-Footnote-114396248 Node: 64-bit Specific14396325 Ref: library/winreg bit-access-rights14396390 Ref: 47dd14396390 Ref: library/winreg bit-specific14396390 Ref: 47de14396390 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_64KEY14396509 Ref: 47c314396509 Ref: library/winreg winreg KEY_WOW64_32KEY14396697 Ref: 47df14396697 Ref: 64-bit Specific-Footnote-114396921 Node: Value Types14396993 Ref: library/winreg id514397076 Ref: 47e014397076 Ref: library/winreg value-types14397076 Ref: 47cc14397076 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_BINARY14397171 Ref: 47e114397171 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD14397231 Ref: 47e214397231 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN14397280 Ref: 47e314397280 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_DWORD_BIG_ENDIAN14397412 Ref: 47e414397412 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_EXPAND_SZ14397495 Ref: 47c414397495 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_LINK14397624 Ref: 47e514397624 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_MULTI_SZ14397682 Ref: 19dd14397682 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_NONE14397848 Ref: 47e614397848 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD14397904 Ref: d0214397904 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_QWORD_LITTLE_ENDIAN14397983 Ref: 47e714397983 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_LIST14398142 Ref: 47e814398142 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_FULL_RESOURCE_DESCRIPTOR14398215 Ref: 47e914398215 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_RESOURCE_REQUIREMENTS_LIST14398288 Ref: 47ea14398288 Ref: library/winreg winreg REG_SZ14398369 Ref: 47ca14398369 Ref: Value Types-Footnote-114398462 Node: Registry Handle Objects14398539 Ref: library/winreg handle-object14398655 Ref: 47ba14398655 Ref: library/winreg registry-handle-objects14398655 Ref: 47eb14398655 Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Close14399816 Ref: 47bf14399816 Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY Detach14399948 Ref: 41fa14399948 Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __enter__14400547 Ref: 47ec14400547 Ref: library/winreg winreg PyHKEY __exit__14400579 Ref: 47ed14400579 Node: winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows14400974 Ref: library/winsound doc14401130 Ref: 47ee14401130 Ref: library/winsound module-winsound14401130 Ref: 11714401130 Ref: library/winsound winsound-sound-playing-interface-for-windows14401130 Ref: 47ef14401130 Ref: library/winsound winsound Beep14401480 Ref: d0414401480 Ref: library/winsound winsound PlaySound14401868 Ref: d0614401868 Ref: library/winsound winsound MessageBeep14402440 Ref: d0514402440 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_FILENAME14403049 Ref: 47f014403049 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ALIAS14403182 Ref: 47f114403182 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_LOOP14404800 Ref: 47f314404800 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_MEMORY14404987 Ref: 47f514404987 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_PURGE14405349 Ref: 47f614405349 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_ASYNC14405509 Ref: 47f414405509 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NODEFAULT14405605 Ref: 47f214405605 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOSTOP14405728 Ref: 47f714405728 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_NOWAIT14405808 Ref: 47f814405808 Ref: library/winsound winsound SND_APPLICATION14405966 Ref: 47f914405966 Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONASTERISK14406201 Ref: 47fa14406201 Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONEXCLAMATION14406279 Ref: 47fb14406279 Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONHAND14406364 Ref: 47fc14406364 Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_ICONQUESTION14406435 Ref: 47fd14406435 Ref: library/winsound winsound MB_OK14406514 Ref: 47fe14406514 Node: Unix Specific Services14406582 Ref: library/unix doc14406748 Ref: 47ff14406748 Ref: library/unix unix14406748 Ref: 480014406748 Ref: library/unix unix-specific-services14406748 Ref: 480114406748 Node: posix — The most common POSIX system calls14407369 Ref: library/posix doc14407510 Ref: 480214407510 Ref: library/posix module-posix14407510 Ref: ad14407510 Ref: library/posix posix-the-most-common-posix-system-calls14407510 Ref: 480314407510 Node: Large File Support14408743 Ref: library/posix large-file-support14408874 Ref: 480414408874 Ref: library/posix posix-large-files14408874 Ref: 480514408874 Node: Notable Module Contents14409828 Ref: library/posix notable-module-contents14409959 Ref: 480614409959 Ref: library/posix posix-contents14409959 Ref: 480714409959 Ref: library/posix posix environ14410160 Ref: 480814410160 Node: pwd — The password database14411350 Ref: library/pwd doc14411526 Ref: 480914411526 Ref: library/pwd module-pwd14411526 Ref: b214411526 Ref: library/pwd pwd-the-password-database14411526 Ref: 480a14411526 Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwuid14413694 Ref: 1a2f14413694 Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwnam14413800 Ref: 320714413800 Ref: library/pwd pwd getpwall14413901 Ref: 480b14413901 Node: grp — The group database14414122 Ref: library/grp doc14414289 Ref: 480c14414289 Ref: library/grp grp-the-group-database14414289 Ref: 480d14414289 Ref: library/grp module-grp14414289 Ref: 6614414289 Ref: library/grp grp getgrgid14415899 Ref: d2614415899 Ref: library/grp grp getgrnam14416201 Ref: 320614416201 Ref: library/grp grp getgrall14416377 Ref: 159714416377 Node: termios — POSIX style tty control14416580 Ref: library/termios doc14416752 Ref: 480e14416752 Ref: library/termios module-termios14416752 Ref: e114416752 Ref: library/termios termios-posix-style-tty-control14416752 Ref: 480f14416752 Ref: library/termios termios tcgetattr14417767 Ref: 167614417767 Ref: library/termios termios tcsetattr14418345 Ref: 16f814418345 Ref: library/termios termios TCSANOW14418624 Ref: 481014418624 Ref: library/termios termios TCSADRAIN14418698 Ref: 481114418698 Ref: library/termios termios TCSAFLUSH14418799 Ref: 481214418799 Ref: library/termios termios tcsendbreak14418942 Ref: 481314418942 Ref: library/termios termios tcdrain14419156 Ref: 481414419156 Ref: library/termios termios tcflush14419279 Ref: 481514419279 Ref: library/termios termios tcflow14419537 Ref: 481614419537 Ref: library/termios termios tcgetwinsize14419817 Ref: 481714419817 Ref: library/termios termios tcsetwinsize14420061 Ref: 481814420061 Ref: termios — POSIX style tty control-Footnote-114420670 Node: Example<15>14420717 Ref: library/termios example14420800 Ref: 481914420800 Ref: library/termios termios-example14420800 Ref: 481a14420800 Node: tty — Terminal control functions14421558 Ref: library/tty doc14421737 Ref: 481b14421737 Ref: library/tty module-tty14421737 Ref: 10014421737 Ref: library/tty tty-terminal-control-functions14421737 Ref: 481c14421737 Ref: library/tty tty cfmakeraw14422193 Ref: 16cc14422193 Ref: library/tty tty cfmakecbreak14422417 Ref: 167914422417 Ref: library/tty tty setraw14422985 Ref: 16cb14422985 Ref: library/tty tty setcbreak14423469 Ref: 167814423469 Ref: tty — Terminal control functions-Footnote-114424474 Node: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities14424537 Ref: library/pty doc14424723 Ref: 481d14424723 Ref: library/pty module-pty14424723 Ref: b114424723 Ref: library/pty pty-pseudo-terminal-utilities14424723 Ref: 481e14424723 Ref: library/pty pty fork14425403 Ref: 175814425403 Ref: library/pty pty openpty14426001 Ref: 2d114426001 Ref: library/pty pty spawn14426280 Ref: f7d14426280 Ref: pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities-Footnote-114428547 Node: Example<16>14428610 Ref: library/pty example14428691 Ref: 481f14428691 Ref: Example<16>-Footnote-114429912 Node: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls14429958 Ref: library/fcntl doc14430149 Ref: 482014430149 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl-the-fcntl-and-ioctl-system-calls14430149 Ref: 482114430149 Ref: library/fcntl module-fcntl14430149 Ref: 5914430149 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl fcntl14433611 Ref: 344b14433611 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl ioctl14435504 Ref: 144314435504 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl flock14438096 Ref: 41eb14438096 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl lockf14438620 Ref: 13b814438620 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_UN14438963 Ref: 482214438963 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_SH14439030 Ref: 482314439030 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_EX14439094 Ref: 482414439094 Ref: library/fcntl fcntl LOCK_NB14439162 Ref: 482514439162 Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-114441463 Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-214441508 Ref: fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls-Footnote-314441553 Node: resource — Resource usage information14441598 Ref: library/resource doc14441795 Ref: 482614441795 Ref: library/resource module-resource14441795 Ref: bc14441795 Ref: library/resource resource-resource-usage-information14441795 Ref: 482714441795 Ref: library/resource resource error14442322 Ref: 482814442322 Ref: resource — Resource usage information-Footnote-114442596 Node: Resource Limits14442638 Ref: library/resource resource-limits14442752 Ref: 482914442752 Ref: library/resource resource RLIM_INFINITY14443632 Ref: 151c14443632 Ref: library/resource resource getrlimit14443736 Ref: 151b14443736 Ref: library/resource resource setrlimit14444030 Ref: 151d14444030 Ref: library/resource resource prlimit14445189 Ref: f8414445189 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CORE14446785 Ref: 418f14446785 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_CPU14447046 Ref: 482b14447046 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_FSIZE14447406 Ref: 482c14447406 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_DATA14447502 Ref: 482d14447502 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_STACK14447593 Ref: 482e14447593 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RSS14447790 Ref: 482f14447790 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPROC14447908 Ref: 483014447908 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NOFILE14448011 Ref: 482a14448011 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_OFILE14448125 Ref: 483114448125 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MEMLOCK14448208 Ref: 483214448208 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_VMEM14448306 Ref: 483314448306 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_AS14448456 Ref: 483414448456 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_MSGQUEUE14448577 Ref: f8514448577 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NICE14448764 Ref: f8614448764 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTPRIO14448959 Ref: f8714448959 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_RTTIME14449116 Ref: f8814449116 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SIGPENDING14449371 Ref: f8914449371 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SBSIZE14449543 Ref: f8a14449543 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_SWAP14449839 Ref: f8b14449839 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_NPTS14450217 Ref: f8c14450217 Ref: library/resource resource RLIMIT_KQUEUES14450389 Ref: 18e814450389 Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-114450608 Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-214450657 Ref: Resource Limits-Footnote-314450706 Node: Resource Usage14450773 Ref: library/resource resource-usage14450887 Ref: 483514450887 Ref: library/resource resource getrusage14451002 Ref: 13fc14451002 Ref: library/resource resource getpagesize14455498 Ref: 483614455498 Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_SELF14455803 Ref: 483714455803 Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_CHILDREN14456004 Ref: 483814456004 Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_BOTH14456204 Ref: 483914456204 Ref: library/resource resource RUSAGE_THREAD14456402 Ref: 483a14456402 Ref: Resource Usage-Footnote-114456635 Node: syslog — Unix syslog library routines14456684 Ref: library/syslog doc14456830 Ref: 483b14456830 Ref: library/syslog module-syslog14456830 Ref: dc14456830 Ref: library/syslog syslog-unix-syslog-library-routines14456830 Ref: 483c14456830 Ref: library/syslog syslog syslog14457467 Ref: 53d14457467 Ref: library/syslog syslog openlog14458931 Ref: 53b14458931 Ref: library/syslog syslog closelog14460284 Ref: 53c14460284 Ref: library/syslog syslog setlogmask14461147 Ref: 41f014461147 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_EMERG14461752 Ref: 483f14461752 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ALERT14461779 Ref: 484014461779 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CRIT14461806 Ref: 484114461806 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ERR14461832 Ref: 484214461832 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_WARNING14461857 Ref: 484314461857 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NOTICE14461886 Ref: 484414461886 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_INFO14461914 Ref: 483d14461914 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_DEBUG14461940 Ref: 484514461940 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_AUTH14462005 Ref: 484614462005 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_AUTHPRIV14462031 Ref: 484714462031 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CRON14462061 Ref: 484814462061 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_DAEMON14462087 Ref: 484914462087 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_FTP14462115 Ref: 484a14462115 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_INSTALL14462140 Ref: 484b14462140 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_KERN14462169 Ref: 484c14462169 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LAUNCHD14462195 Ref: 484d14462195 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LPR14462224 Ref: 484e14462224 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_MAIL14462249 Ref: 484f14462249 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NETINFO14462275 Ref: 485014462275 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NEWS14462304 Ref: 485114462304 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_RAS14462330 Ref: 485214462330 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_REMOTEAUTH14462355 Ref: 485314462355 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_SYSLOG14462387 Ref: 485414462387 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_USER14462415 Ref: 483e14462415 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_UUCP14462441 Ref: 485514462441 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL014462467 Ref: 485614462467 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL114462495 Ref: 485714462495 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL214462523 Ref: 485814462523 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL314462551 Ref: 485914462551 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL414462579 Ref: 485a14462579 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL514462607 Ref: 485b14462607 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL614462635 Ref: 485c14462635 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_LOCAL714462663 Ref: 485d14462663 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_PID14463121 Ref: 485e14463121 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_CONS14463146 Ref: 485f14463146 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NDELAY14463172 Ref: 486014463172 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_ODELAY14463200 Ref: 486114463200 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_NOWAIT14463228 Ref: 486214463228 Ref: library/syslog syslog LOG_PERROR14463256 Ref: 486314463256 Node: Examples<36>14463476 Ref: library/syslog examples14463564 Ref: 486414463564 Node: Simple example14463630 Ref: library/syslog simple-example14463693 Ref: 486514463693 Node: Modules command-line interface CLI14464203 Ref: library/cmdline doc14464359 Ref: 486614464359 Ref: library/cmdline modules-command-line-interface-cli14464359 Ref: 486714464359 Node: Superseded Modules14465893 Ref: library/superseded doc14466042 Ref: 486814466042 Ref: library/superseded superseded14466042 Ref: 486914466042 Ref: library/superseded superseded-modules14466042 Ref: 486a14466042 Ref: Superseded Modules-Footnote-114467141 Node: getopt — C-style parser for command line options14467183 Ref: library/getopt doc14467288 Ref: 486b14467288 Ref: library/getopt getopt-c-style-parser-for-command-line-options14467288 Ref: 486c14467288 Ref: library/getopt module-getopt14467288 Ref: 6114467288 Ref: library/getopt getopt getopt14468712 Ref: 148414468712 Ref: library/getopt getopt gnu_getopt14470899 Ref: 148314470899 Ref: library/getopt getopt GetoptError14471479 Ref: 486d14471479 Ref: library/getopt getopt error14472059 Ref: 486e14472059 Ref: getopt — C-style parser for command line options-Footnote-114475268 Node: Removed Modules14475334 Ref: library/removed doc14475475 Ref: 486f14475475 Ref: library/removed removed14475475 Ref: 487014475475 Ref: library/removed removed-modules14475475 Ref: 487114475475 Node: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files14476798 Ref: library/aifc doc14476959 Ref: 487214476959 Ref: library/aifc aifc-read-and-write-aiff-and-aifc-files14476959 Ref: 487314476959 Ref: library/aifc module-aifc14476959 Ref: 514476959 Ref: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-114477430 Ref: aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files-Footnote-214477472 Node: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler14477527 Ref: library/asynchat doc14477737 Ref: 487414477737 Ref: library/asynchat asynchat-asynchronous-socket-command-response-handler14477737 Ref: 487514477737 Ref: library/asynchat module-asynchat14477737 Ref: 914477737 Ref: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler-Footnote-114478300 Ref: asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler-Footnote-214478342 Node: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler14478401 Ref: library/asyncore doc14478605 Ref: 487614478605 Ref: library/asyncore asyncore-asynchronous-socket-handler14478605 Ref: 487714478605 Ref: library/asyncore module-asyncore14478605 Ref: b14478605 Ref: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler-Footnote-114479134 Ref: asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler-Footnote-214479176 Node: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data14479235 Ref: library/audioop doc14479422 Ref: 487814479422 Ref: library/audioop audioop-manipulate-raw-audio-data14479422 Ref: 487914479422 Ref: library/audioop module-audioop14479422 Ref: d14479422 Ref: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data-Footnote-114479884 Ref: audioop — Manipulate raw audio data-Footnote-214479926 Node: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support14479984 Ref: library/cgi doc14480174 Ref: 487a14480174 Ref: library/cgi cgi-common-gateway-interface-support14480174 Ref: 487b14480174 Ref: library/cgi module-cgi14480174 Ref: 1514480174 Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-114480798 Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-214480840 Ref: cgi — Common Gateway Interface support-Footnote-314480885 Node: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts14480939 Ref: library/cgitb doc14481123 Ref: 487c14481123 Ref: library/cgitb cgitb-traceback-manager-for-cgi-scripts14481123 Ref: 487d14481123 Ref: library/cgitb module-cgitb14481123 Ref: 1614481123 Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-114481758 Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-214481800 Ref: cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts-Footnote-314481845 Node: chunk — Read IFF chunked data14481901 Ref: library/chunk doc14482087 Ref: 487e14482087 Ref: library/chunk chunk-read-iff-chunked-data14482087 Ref: 487f14482087 Ref: library/chunk module-chunk14482087 Ref: 1714482087 Ref: chunk — Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-114482535 Ref: chunk — Read IFF chunked data-Footnote-214482577 Node: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords14482633 Ref: library/crypt doc14482828 Ref: 488014482828 Ref: library/crypt crypt-function-to-check-unix-passwords14482828 Ref: 488114482828 Ref: library/crypt module-crypt14482828 Ref: 2814482828 Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-114483565 Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-214483607 Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-314483653 Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-414483694 Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-514483740 Ref: crypt — Function to check Unix passwords-Footnote-614483782 Node: distutils — Building and installing Python modules14483838 Ref: library/distutils doc14484043 Ref: 488214484043 Ref: library/distutils distutils-building-and-installing-python-modules14484043 Ref: 488314484043 Ref: library/distutils module-distutils14484043 Ref: 3914484043 Ref: distutils — Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-114484568 Ref: distutils — Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-214484610 Ref: distutils — Building and installing Python modules-Footnote-314484669 Node: imghdr — Determine the type of an image14484729 Ref: library/imghdr doc14484927 Ref: 488414484927 Ref: library/imghdr imghdr-determine-the-type-of-an-image14484927 Ref: 488514484927 Ref: library/imghdr module-imghdr14484927 Ref: 7514484927 Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-114485569 Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-214485611 Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-314485654 Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-414485698 Ref: imghdr — Determine the type of an image-Footnote-514485745 Node: imp — Access the import internals14485802 Ref: library/imp doc14485981 Ref: 488614485981 Ref: library/imp imp-access-the-import-internals14485981 Ref: 488714485981 Ref: library/imp module-imp14485981 Ref: 7614485981 Ref: imp — Access the import internals-Footnote-114486503 Node: mailcap — Mailcap file handling14486557 Ref: library/mailcap doc14486746 Ref: 488814486746 Ref: library/mailcap mailcap-mailcap-file-handling14486746 Ref: 488914486746 Ref: library/mailcap module-mailcap14486746 Ref: 8c14486746 Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-114487202 Ref: mailcap — Mailcap file handling-Footnote-214487244 Node: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files14487302 Ref: library/msilib doc14487501 Ref: 488a14487501 Ref: library/msilib module-msilib14487501 Ref: 9214487501 Ref: library/msilib msilib-read-and-write-microsoft-installer-files14487501 Ref: 488b14487501 Ref: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files-Footnote-114487992 Ref: msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files-Footnote-214488034 Node: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages14488091 Ref: library/nis doc14488289 Ref: 488c14488289 Ref: library/nis module-nis14488289 Ref: 9c14488289 Ref: library/nis nis-interface-to-suns-nis-yellow-pages14488289 Ref: 488d14488289 Ref: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages-Footnote-114488767 Ref: nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS Yellow Pages-Footnote-214488809 Node: nntplib — NNTP protocol client14488863 Ref: library/nntplib doc14489064 Ref: 488e14489064 Ref: library/nntplib module-nntplib14489064 Ref: 9d14489064 Ref: library/nntplib nntplib-nntp-protocol-client14489064 Ref: 488f14489064 Ref: nntplib — NNTP protocol client-Footnote-114489518 Ref: nntplib — NNTP protocol client-Footnote-214489560 Node: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices14489618 Ref: library/ossaudiodev doc14489812 Ref: 489014489812 Ref: library/ossaudiodev module-ossaudiodev14489812 Ref: a314489812 Ref: library/ossaudiodev ossaudiodev-access-to-oss-compatible-audio-devices14489812 Ref: 489114489812 Ref: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices-Footnote-114490314 Ref: ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices-Footnote-214490356 Node: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines14490418 Ref: library/pipes doc14490601 Ref: 489214490601 Ref: library/pipes module-pipes14490601 Ref: a814490601 Ref: library/pipes pipes-interface-to-shell-pipelines14490601 Ref: 489314490601 Ref: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-114491132 Ref: pipes — Interface to shell pipelines-Footnote-214491174 Node: smtpd — SMTP Server14491230 Ref: library/smtpd doc14491398 Ref: 489414491398 Ref: library/smtpd module-smtpd14491398 Ref: c914491398 Ref: library/smtpd smtpd-smtp-server14491398 Ref: 489514491398 Ref: smtpd — SMTP Server-Footnote-114491959 Ref: smtpd — SMTP Server-Footnote-214492001 Ref: smtpd — SMTP Server-Footnote-314492044 Node: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file14492100 Ref: library/sndhdr doc14492267 Ref: 489614492267 Ref: library/sndhdr module-sndhdr14492267 Ref: cb14492267 Ref: library/sndhdr sndhdr-determine-type-of-sound-file14492267 Ref: 489714492267 Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-114492903 Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-214492945 Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-314492988 Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-414493032 Ref: sndhdr — Determine type of sound file-Footnote-514493079 Node: spwd — The shadow password database14493136 Ref: library/spwd doc14493319 Ref: 489814493319 Ref: library/spwd module-spwd14493319 Ref: ce14493319 Ref: library/spwd spwd-the-shadow-password-database14493319 Ref: 489914493319 Ref: spwd — The shadow password database-Footnote-114493916 Ref: spwd — The shadow password database-Footnote-214493958 Ref: spwd — The shadow password database-Footnote-314494003 Node: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files14494058 Ref: library/sunau doc14494229 Ref: 489a14494229 Ref: library/sunau module-sunau14494229 Ref: d714494229 Ref: library/sunau sunau-read-and-write-sun-au-files14494229 Ref: 489b14494229 Ref: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-114494691 Ref: sunau — Read and write Sun AU files-Footnote-214494733 Node: telnetlib — Telnet client14494789 Ref: library/telnetlib doc14494962 Ref: 489c14494962 Ref: library/telnetlib module-telnetlib14494962 Ref: df14494962 Ref: library/telnetlib telnetlib-telnet-client14494962 Ref: 489d14494962 Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-114495562 Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-214495604 Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-314495649 Ref: telnetlib — Telnet client-Footnote-414495692 Node: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files14495752 Ref: library/uu doc14495925 Ref: 489e14495925 Ref: library/uu module-uu14495925 Ref: 10f14495925 Ref: library/uu uu-encode-and-decode-uuencode-files14495925 Ref: 489f14495925 Ref: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files-Footnote-114496388 Ref: uu — Encode and decode uuencode files-Footnote-214496430 Node: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data14496483 Ref: library/xdrlib doc14496620 Ref: 48a014496620 Ref: library/xdrlib module-xdrlib14496620 Ref: 11f14496620 Ref: library/xdrlib xdrlib-encode-and-decode-xdr-data14496620 Ref: 48a114496620 Ref: library/security_warnings security-warnings14497047 Ref: 48a214497047 Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-114497083 Ref: xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data-Footnote-214497125 Node: Security Considerations<3>14497182 Ref: library/security_warnings doc14497296 Ref: 48a314497296 Ref: library/security_warnings security-considerations14497296 Ref: 48a414497296 Ref: Security Considerations<3>-Footnote-114499075 Node: Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter14499134 Ref: extending/index doc14499294 Ref: 48a514499294 Ref: extending/index extending-and-embedding-the-python-interpreter14499294 Ref: 48a614499294 Ref: extending/index extending-index14499294 Ref: 1bda14499294 Node: Recommended third party tools14500596 Ref: extending/index recommended-third-party-tools14500762 Ref: 48a714500762 Node: Creating extensions without third party tools14501075 Ref: extending/index creating-extensions-without-third-party-tools14501303 Ref: 48a914501303 Ref: Creating extensions without third party tools-Footnote-114502034 Node: Extending Python with C or C++14502076 Ref: extending/extending doc14502230 Ref: 48aa14502230 Ref: extending/extending extending-intro14502230 Ref: 48ab14502230 Ref: extending/extending extending-python-with-c-or-c14502230 Ref: 48ac14502230 Ref: Extending Python with C or C++-Footnote-114504161 Node: A Simple Example14504198 Ref: extending/extending a-simple-example14504322 Ref: 48ad14504322 Ref: extending/extending extending-simpleexample14504322 Ref: 48ae14504322 Ref: A Simple Example-Footnote-114508801 Node: Intermezzo Errors and Exceptions14508951 Ref: extending/extending extending-errors14509103 Ref: 48af14509103 Ref: extending/extending intermezzo-errors-and-exceptions14509103 Ref: 48b014509103 Node: Back to the Example14517199 Ref: extending/extending back-to-the-example14517390 Ref: 48b714517390 Ref: extending/extending backtoexample14517390 Ref: 48b814517390 Node: The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function14519047 Ref: extending/extending methodtable14519229 Ref: 48ba14519229 Ref: extending/extending the-module-s-method-table-and-initialization-function14519229 Ref: 48bb14519229 Node: Compilation and Linkage14524229 Ref: extending/extending compilation14524423 Ref: 48c014524423 Ref: extending/extending compilation-and-linkage14524423 Ref: 48c114524423 Node: Calling Python Functions from C14525897 Ref: extending/extending calling-python-functions-from-c14526080 Ref: 48c314526080 Ref: extending/extending callingpython14526080 Ref: 48c414526080 Node: Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions14532764 Ref: extending/extending extracting-parameters-in-extension-functions14532966 Ref: 48c814532966 Ref: extending/extending parsetuple14532966 Ref: 48c514532966 Node: Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions14535599 Ref: extending/extending keyword-parameters-for-extension-functions14535795 Ref: 48c914535795 Ref: extending/extending parsetupleandkeywords14535795 Ref: 48ca14535795 Node: Building Arbitrary Values14538498 Ref: extending/extending building-arbitrary-values14538666 Ref: 48cb14538666 Ref: extending/extending buildvalue14538666 Ref: 48cc14538666 Node: Reference Counts14540752 Ref: extending/extending refcounts14540903 Ref: 48c614540903 Ref: extending/extending reference-counts14540903 Ref: 48cd14540903 Node: Reference Counting in Python14545348 Ref: extending/extending refcountsinpython14545453 Ref: 48ce14545453 Ref: extending/extending reference-counting-in-python14545453 Ref: 48cf14545453 Ref: Reference Counting in Python-Footnote-114547830 Ref: Reference Counting in Python-Footnote-214547954 Node: Ownership Rules14548125 Ref: extending/extending ownership-rules14548247 Ref: 48d014548247 Ref: extending/extending ownershiprules14548247 Ref: 48d114548247 Node: Thin Ice14550711 Ref: extending/extending thin-ice14550818 Ref: 48d514550818 Ref: extending/extending thinice14550818 Ref: 48d614550818 Node: NULL Pointers14554082 Ref: extending/extending null-pointers14554165 Ref: 48d814554165 Ref: extending/extending nullpointers14554165 Ref: 48d914554165 Ref: NULL Pointers-Footnote-114555790 Node: Writing Extensions in C++14555927 Ref: extending/extending cplusplus14556094 Ref: 48da14556094 Ref: extending/extending writing-extensions-in-c14556094 Ref: 48db14556094 Node: Providing a C API for an Extension Module14556814 Ref: extending/extending providing-a-c-api-for-an-extension-module14556956 Ref: 48dc14556956 Ref: extending/extending using-capsules14556956 Ref: 134914556956 Node: Defining Extension Types Tutorial14565519 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial doc14565722 Ref: 182a14565722 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial defining-extension-types-tutorial14565722 Ref: 48de14565722 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial defining-new-types14565722 Ref: 48df14565722 Node: The Basics14566366 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial dnt-basics14566499 Ref: 48e014566499 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial the-basics14566499 Ref: 48e114566499 Node: Adding data and methods to the Basic example14575912 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial adding-data-and-methods-to-the-basic-example14576098 Ref: 48e714576098 Ref: Adding data and methods to the Basic example-Footnote-114592296 Ref: Adding data and methods to the Basic example-Footnote-214592389 Node: Providing finer control over data attributes14592526 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial providing-finer-control-over-data-attributes14592738 Ref: 48ef14592738 Ref: Providing finer control over data attributes-Footnote-114602515 Node: Supporting cyclic garbage collection14602895 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection14603086 Ref: 48f114603086 Ref: Supporting cyclic garbage collection-Footnote-114613678 Node: Subclassing other types14613852 Ref: extending/newtypes_tutorial subclassing-other-types14613990 Ref: 48f314613990 Node: Defining Extension Types Assorted Topics14619237 Ref: extending/newtypes doc14619439 Ref: 48f614619439 Ref: extending/newtypes defining-extension-types-assorted-topics14619439 Ref: 48f714619439 Ref: extending/newtypes new-types-topics14619439 Ref: 48f814619439 Ref: extending/newtypes dnt-type-methods14619536 Ref: 48f914619536 Node: Finalization and De-allocation14624296 Ref: extending/newtypes finalization-and-de-allocation14624431 Ref: 48fa14624431 Ref: Finalization and De-allocation-Footnote-114627929 Node: Object Presentation14627971 Ref: extending/newtypes object-presentation14628135 Ref: 48fc14628135 Node: Attribute Management14629787 Ref: extending/newtypes attribute-management14629938 Ref: 48ff14629938 Node: Generic Attribute Management14631487 Ref: extending/newtypes generic-attribute-management14631615 Ref: 48ec14631615 Ref: extending/newtypes id114631615 Ref: 490014631615 Node: Type-specific Attribute Management14635187 Ref: extending/newtypes type-specific-attribute-management14635315 Ref: 490514635315 Node: Object Comparison14637083 Ref: extending/newtypes object-comparison14637240 Ref: 490814637240 Node: Abstract Protocol Support14639023 Ref: extending/newtypes abstract-protocol-support14639182 Ref: 490b14639182 Node: Weak Reference Support14644881 Ref: extending/newtypes weak-reference-support14645039 Ref: 491014645039 Ref: extending/newtypes weakref-support14645039 Ref: 256114645039 Node: More Suggestions14646334 Ref: extending/newtypes more-suggestions14646458 Ref: 491114646458 Node: Building C and C++ Extensions14647427 Ref: extending/building doc14647636 Ref: 491214647636 Ref: extending/building building14647636 Ref: 48c214647636 Ref: extending/building building-c-and-c-extensions14647636 Ref: 491314647636 Ref: extending/building c PyInit_modulename14648134 Ref: 491414648134 Ref: extending/building install-index14649345 Ref: ef114649345 Ref: Building C and C++ Extensions-Footnote-114649442 Node: Building C and C++ Extensions with setuptools14649484 Ref: extending/building building-c-and-c-extensions-with-setuptools14649595 Ref: 491714649595 Ref: extending/building setuptools-index14649595 Ref: ef214649595 Node: Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows14649958 Ref: extending/windows doc14650118 Ref: 491814650118 Ref: extending/windows building-c-and-c-extensions-on-windows14650118 Ref: 491914650118 Ref: extending/windows building-on-windows14650118 Ref: 1e3814650118 Node: A Cookbook Approach14651387 Ref: extending/windows a-cookbook-approach14651528 Ref: 491a14651528 Ref: extending/windows win-cookbook14651528 Ref: 491b14651528 Ref: A Cookbook Approach-Footnote-114652157 Node: Differences Between Unix and Windows14652235 Ref: extending/windows differences-between-unix-and-windows14652407 Ref: 491c14652407 Ref: extending/windows dynamic-linking14652407 Ref: 491d14652407 Node: Using DLLs in Practice14655330 Ref: extending/windows using-dlls-in-practice14655474 Ref: 491e14655474 Ref: extending/windows win-dlls14655474 Ref: 491f14655474 Node: Embedding the CPython runtime in a larger application14657005 Ref: extending/index embedding-the-cpython-runtime-in-a-larger-application14657195 Ref: 492014657195 Node: Embedding Python in Another Application14657637 Ref: extending/embedding doc14657766 Ref: 492114657766 Ref: extending/embedding embedding14657766 Ref: 1e5414657766 Ref: extending/embedding embedding-python-in-another-application14657766 Ref: 492214657766 Node: Very High Level Embedding14660110 Ref: extending/embedding high-level-embedding14660264 Ref: 492514660264 Ref: extending/embedding very-high-level-embedding14660264 Ref: 492614660264 Node: Beyond Very High Level Embedding An overview14662596 Ref: extending/embedding beyond-very-high-level-embedding-an-overview14662773 Ref: 492714662773 Ref: extending/embedding lower-level-embedding14662773 Ref: 492814662773 Node: Pure Embedding14664492 Ref: extending/embedding id114664669 Ref: 492914664669 Ref: extending/embedding pure-embedding14664669 Ref: 492a14664669 Node: Extending Embedded Python14669294 Ref: extending/embedding extending-embedded-python14669450 Ref: 492c14669450 Ref: extending/embedding extending-with-embedding14669450 Ref: 492d14669450 Node: Embedding Python in C++14671487 Ref: extending/embedding embedding-python-in-c14671674 Ref: 492e14671674 Ref: extending/embedding embeddingincplusplus14671674 Ref: 492f14671674 Node: Compiling and Linking under Unix-like systems14672046 Ref: extending/embedding compiling14672199 Ref: 492b14672199 Ref: extending/embedding compiling-and-linking-under-unix-like-systems14672199 Ref: 493014672199 Node: Python/C API Reference Manual14674396 Ref: c-api/index doc14674554 Ref: 493214674554 Ref: c-api/index c-api-index14674554 Ref: 1bdb14674554 Ref: c-api/index python-c-api-reference-manual14674554 Ref: 493314674554 Node: Introduction<13>14675409 Ref: c-api/intro doc14675515 Ref: 493414675515 Ref: c-api/intro api-intro14675515 Ref: 493514675515 Ref: c-api/intro introduction14675515 Ref: 493614675515 Node: Coding standards14677156 Ref: c-api/intro coding-standards14677247 Ref: 493714677247 Ref: Coding standards-Footnote-114677686 Node: Include Files14677728 Ref: c-api/intro api-includes14677841 Ref: 77f14677841 Ref: c-api/intro include-files14677841 Ref: 493814677841 Node: Useful macros14680389 Ref: c-api/intro useful-macros14680520 Ref: 493914680520 Ref: c-api/intro c PyMODINIT_FUNC14680808 Ref: 149e14680808 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_ABS14681604 Ref: 493a14681604 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_ALWAYS_INLINE14681701 Ref: 18b614681701 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_CHARMASK14682679 Ref: 493b14682679 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_DEPRECATED14682861 Ref: aa414682861 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_GETENV14683135 Ref: 493c14683135 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_MAX14683312 Ref: 493d14683312 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_MEMBER_SIZE14683428 Ref: 493e14683428 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_MIN14683573 Ref: 493f14683573 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_NO_INLINE14683689 Ref: 18b714683689 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_STRINGIFY14683989 Ref: 494014683989 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_UNREACHABLE14684142 Ref: bb514684142 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_UNUSED14685297 Ref: 171c14685297 Ref: c-api/intro c PyDoc_STRVAR14685521 Ref: 197114685521 Ref: c-api/intro c PyDoc_STR14686102 Ref: 180a14686102 Ref: Useful macros-Footnote-114686651 Ref: Useful macros-Footnote-214686716 Ref: Useful macros-Footnote-314686758 Node: Objects Types and Reference Counts14686800 Ref: c-api/intro api-objects14686932 Ref: 494114686932 Ref: c-api/intro objects-types-and-reference-counts14686932 Ref: 494214686932 Node: Reference Counts<2>14688314 Ref: c-api/intro api-refcounts14688418 Ref: 494314688418 Ref: c-api/intro reference-counts14688418 Ref: 494414688418 Node: Reference Count Details14692362 Ref: c-api/intro api-refcountdetails14692441 Ref: 494514692441 Ref: c-api/intro reference-count-details14692441 Ref: 494614692441 Node: Types14699649 Ref: c-api/intro api-types14699753 Ref: 494914699753 Ref: c-api/intro types14699753 Ref: 494a14699753 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_ssize_t14700207 Ref: a5f14700207 Ref: Types-Footnote-114700608 Node: Exceptions<21>14700650 Ref: c-api/intro api-exceptions14700788 Ref: 494b14700788 Ref: c-api/intro exceptions14700788 Ref: 494c14700788 Node: Embedding Python<2>14706927 Ref: c-api/intro api-embedding14707047 Ref: 494e14707047 Ref: c-api/intro embedding-python14707047 Ref: 494f14707047 Node: Debugging Builds14710263 Ref: c-api/intro api-debugging14710401 Ref: 495114710401 Ref: c-api/intro debugging-builds14710401 Ref: 495214710401 Ref: c-api/intro c Py_DEBUG14711030 Ref: 414014711030 Node: Recommended third party tools<2>14712128 Ref: c-api/intro c-api-tools14712238 Ref: 48a814712238 Ref: c-api/intro recommended-third-party-tools14712238 Ref: 495314712238 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-114713645 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-214713673 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-314713709 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-414713741 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-514713784 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-614713818 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-714713859 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-814713884 Ref: Recommended third party tools<2>-Footnote-914713913 Node: C API Stability14713986 Ref: c-api/stable doc14714126 Ref: 495414714126 Ref: c-api/stable c-api-stability14714126 Ref: 495514714126 Ref: c-api/stable stable14714126 Ref: 55014714126 Ref: C API Stability-Footnote-114715657 Ref: C API Stability-Footnote-214715699 Node: Unstable C API14715754 Ref: c-api/stable id114715864 Ref: 495714715864 Ref: c-api/stable unstable-c-api14715864 Ref: 54414715864 Node: Stable Application Binary Interface14716362 Ref: c-api/stable stable-application-binary-interface14716504 Ref: 495814716504 Node: Limited C API14716863 Ref: c-api/stable id214716967 Ref: 495914716967 Ref: c-api/stable limited-c-api14716967 Ref: 39114716967 Ref: c-api/stable c Py_LIMITED_API14717250 Ref: 41a14717250 Node: Stable ABI14718105 Ref: c-api/stable id314718251 Ref: 495a14718251 Ref: c-api/stable stable-abi14718251 Ref: 495b14718251 Ref: Stable ABI-Footnote-114719667 Node: Limited API Scope and Performance14719709 Ref: c-api/stable limited-api-scope-and-performance14719861 Ref: 495c14719861 Node: Limited API Caveats14720983 Ref: c-api/stable limited-api-caveats14721116 Ref: 495e14721116 Node: Platform Considerations14722769 Ref: c-api/stable platform-considerations14722920 Ref: 495f14722920 Ref: c-api/stable stable-abi-platform14722920 Ref: 495614722920 Node: Contents of Limited API14723538 Ref: c-api/stable contents-of-limited-api14723645 Ref: 496014723645 Ref: c-api/stable limited-api-list14723645 Ref: 79514723645 Node: The Very High Level Layer14759845 Ref: c-api/veryhigh doc14759987 Ref: 4b0a14759987 Ref: c-api/veryhigh the-very-high-level-layer14759987 Ref: 4b0b14759987 Ref: c-api/veryhigh veryhigh14759987 Ref: 4b0c14759987 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_AnyFile14761014 Ref: 4b1014761014 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_AnyFileFlags14761239 Ref: 4b1214761239 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_AnyFileEx14761481 Ref: 4b1314761481 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_AnyFileExFlags14761710 Ref: 4b1114761710 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_SimpleString14762372 Ref: 492314762372 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_SimpleStringFlags14762599 Ref: 4b1514762599 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_SimpleFile14763287 Ref: 492414763287 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_SimpleFileEx14763518 Ref: 4b1614763518 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_SimpleFileExFlags14763740 Ref: 190814763740 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_InteractiveOne14764419 Ref: 4b1714764419 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_InteractiveOneFlags14764637 Ref: 4b1814764637 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_InteractiveLoop14765381 Ref: 4b1414765381 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_InteractiveLoopFlags14765601 Ref: 4b1914765601 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyOS_InputHook14766049 Ref: 58214766049 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyOS_ReadlineFunctionPointer14766672 Ref: 58314766672 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_String14767802 Ref: 19da14767802 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_StringFlags14768086 Ref: 4b1a14768086 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_File14768769 Ref: 4b1b14768769 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_FileEx14769095 Ref: 4b1d14769095 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_FileFlags14769417 Ref: 4b1e14769417 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyRun_FileExFlags14769752 Ref: 4b1c14769752 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_CompileString14770338 Ref: 88314770338 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_CompileStringFlags14770658 Ref: 4b1f14770658 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_CompileStringObject14770964 Ref: 4b2114770964 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_CompileStringExFlags14772118 Ref: 4b2014772118 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyEval_EvalCode14772507 Ref: 88414772507 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyEval_EvalCodeEx14772883 Ref: 176914772883 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyEval_EvalFrame14773615 Ref: 49b414773615 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyEval_EvalFrameEx14773911 Ref: 102714773911 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyEval_MergeCompilerFlags14774662 Ref: 4b2214774662 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_eval_input14774854 Ref: 4b0d14774854 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_file_input14775011 Ref: 4b0e14775011 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c Py_single_input14775296 Ref: 4b0f14775296 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCompilerFlags14775521 Ref: aa114775521 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCompilerFlags cf_flags14776061 Ref: 4b2314776061 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCompilerFlags cf_feature_version14776121 Ref: 4b2414776121 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCF_ALLOW_TOP_LEVEL_AWAIT14776550 Ref: 4b2514776550 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCF_ONLY_AST14776595 Ref: 4b2614776595 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCF_OPTIMIZED_AST14776627 Ref: 4b2714776627 Ref: c-api/veryhigh c PyCF_TYPE_COMMENTS14776664 Ref: 4b2814776664 Node: Reference Counting14777144 Ref: c-api/refcounting doc14777289 Ref: 4b2b14777289 Ref: c-api/refcounting countingrefs14777289 Ref: 4b2c14777289 Ref: c-api/refcounting reference-counting14777289 Ref: 4b2d14777289 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_REFCNT14777436 Ref: 8a814777436 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_SET_REFCNT14778215 Ref: 8a914778215 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_INCREF14778648 Ref: 56b14778648 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_XINCREF14779535 Ref: a6414779535 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_NewRef14779740 Ref: 89814779740 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_XNewRef14780451 Ref: 89914780451 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_DECREF14780757 Ref: 56c14780757 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_XDECREF14782377 Ref: 78a14782377 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_CLEAR14782616 Ref: 57514782616 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_IncRef14783447 Ref: 4ae614783447 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_DecRef14783723 Ref: 4adf14783723 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_SETREF14783987 Ref: 57614783987 Ref: c-api/refcounting c Py_XSETREF14784743 Ref: 57714784743 Ref: Reference Counting-Footnote-114785119 Ref: Reference Counting-Footnote-214785161 Node: Exception Handling14785203 Ref: c-api/exceptions doc14785335 Ref: 4b2e14785335 Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-handling14785335 Ref: 4b2f14785335 Ref: c-api/exceptions exceptionhandling14785335 Ref: 43fe14785335 Node: Printing and clearing14787623 Ref: c-api/exceptions printing-and-clearing14787726 Ref: 4b3014787726 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Clear14787783 Ref: 102a14787783 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_PrintEx14787951 Ref: 49a814787951 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Print14788885 Ref: 194514788885 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WriteUnraisable14789005 Ref: 34a14789005 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_FormatUnraisable14789984 Ref: 34914789984 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_DisplayException14790498 Ref: 3fe14790498 Node: Raising exceptions14790773 Ref: c-api/exceptions raising-exceptions14790901 Ref: 4b3114790901 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetString14791141 Ref: 57914791141 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetObject14791666 Ref: 57814791666 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Format14791936 Ref: eaa14791936 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_FormatV14792439 Ref: ea914792439 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetNone14792803 Ref: 49b014792803 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_BadArgument14792967 Ref: 49a514792967 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NoMemory14793263 Ref: 48b314793263 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrno14793594 Ref: 48b214793594 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObject14794532 Ref: 49ac14794532 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilenameObjects14795075 Ref: 49ad14795075 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromErrnoWithFilename14795547 Ref: 171714795547 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromWindowsErr14795938 Ref: 49ae14795938 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErr14796845 Ref: 49a914796845 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetFromWindowsErrWithFilename14797230 Ref: 171914797230 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObject14797871 Ref: 49aa14797871 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilenameObjects14798464 Ref: 49ab14798464 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcFromWindowsErrWithFilename14798933 Ref: 171814798933 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetImportError14799374 Ref: d3e14799374 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetImportErrorSubclass14799905 Ref: d1614799905 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SyntaxLocationObject14800329 Ref: 4b3214800329 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SyntaxLocationEx14800739 Ref: 49b214800739 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SyntaxLocation14801097 Ref: 49b114801097 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_BadInternalCall14801325 Ref: 49a614801325 Node: Issuing warnings14801666 Ref: c-api/exceptions issuing-warnings14801801 Ref: 4b3314801801 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnEx14802697 Ref: 141614802697 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnExplicitObject14803904 Ref: 4b3514803904 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnExplicit14804448 Ref: 171f14804448 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_WarnFormat14804881 Ref: 49b314804881 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_ResourceWarning14805241 Ref: d1714805241 Node: Querying the error indicator14805623 Ref: c-api/exceptions querying-the-error-indicator14805758 Ref: 4b3614805758 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Occurred14805829 Ref: 18f114805829 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_ExceptionMatches14806708 Ref: 494d14806708 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GivenExceptionMatches14807032 Ref: 49a714807032 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GetRaisedException14807469 Ref: 3f014807469 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetRaisedException14808313 Ref: 3f314808313 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Fetch14808679 Ref: 3ef14808679 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_Restore14809739 Ref: 3f214809739 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NormalizeException14810905 Ref: 3f114810905 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GetHandledException14811968 Ref: 76a14811968 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetHandledException14812773 Ref: 76b14812773 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_GetExcInfo14813446 Ref: 76d14813446 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetExcInfo14814415 Ref: 76c14814415 Node: Signal Handling<2>14815592 Ref: c-api/exceptions signal-handling14815728 Ref: 4b3714815728 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_CheckSignals14815773 Ref: 46214815773 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetInterrupt14817028 Ref: 49af14817028 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_SetInterruptEx14817378 Ref: 89c14817378 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PySignal_SetWakeupFd14818457 Ref: 13a714818457 Node: Exception Classes14819127 Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-classes14819252 Ref: 4b3814819252 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NewException14819301 Ref: 125d14819301 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyErr_NewExceptionWithDoc14820307 Ref: 125c14820307 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExceptionClass_Check14820770 Ref: 4b3914820770 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExceptionClass_Name14820934 Ref: a6514820934 Node: Exception Objects14821125 Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-objects14821257 Ref: 4b3a14821257 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetTraceback14821306 Ref: 49fa14821306 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetTraceback14821700 Ref: 19e914821700 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetContext14821923 Ref: 49f914821923 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetContext14822381 Ref: 49fc14822381 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetCause14822719 Ref: 49f814822719 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetCause14823117 Ref: 49fb14823117 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_GetArgs14823589 Ref: 56714823589 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyException_SetArgs14823806 Ref: 56814823806 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnstable_Exc_PrepReraiseStar14823998 Ref: 4b3b14823998 Node: Unicode Exception Objects14824913 Ref: c-api/exceptions unicode-exception-objects14825045 Ref: 4b3c14825045 Ref: c-api/exceptions unicodeexceptions14825045 Ref: 4b3d14825045 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_Create14825192 Ref: 4a9c14825192 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEncoding14825665 Ref: 4a9d14825665 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEncoding14825762 Ref: 4aa514825762 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetObject14826008 Ref: 4a9f14826008 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetObject14826103 Ref: 4aa714826103 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetObject14826198 Ref: 4aaf14826198 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetStart14826438 Ref: 4aa114826438 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetStart14826533 Ref: 4aa914826533 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetStart14826628 Ref: 4ab114826628 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetStart14826947 Ref: 4aa414826947 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetStart14827041 Ref: 4aac14827041 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetStart14827135 Ref: 4ab414827135 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetEnd14827404 Ref: 4a9e14827404 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetEnd14827495 Ref: 4aa614827495 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetEnd14827586 Ref: 4aae14827586 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetEnd14827895 Ref: 4aa214827895 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetEnd14827985 Ref: 4aaa14827985 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetEnd14828075 Ref: 4ab214828075 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_GetReason14828336 Ref: 4aa014828336 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_GetReason14828431 Ref: 4aa814828431 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_GetReason14828526 Ref: 4ab014828526 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeDecodeError_SetReason14828766 Ref: 4aa314828766 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeEncodeError_SetReason14828863 Ref: 4aab14828863 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyUnicodeTranslateError_SetReason14828960 Ref: 4ab314828960 Node: Recursion Control14829234 Ref: c-api/exceptions recursion14829376 Ref: 4b3e14829376 Ref: c-api/exceptions recursion-control14829376 Ref: 4b3f14829376 Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_EnterRecursiveCall14829808 Ref: 97314829808 Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_LeaveRecursiveCall14830727 Ref: 97414830727 Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_ReprEnter14831438 Ref: 4ae814831438 Ref: c-api/exceptions c Py_ReprLeave14832244 Ref: 4ae914832244 Node: Exception and warning types14832478 Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-and-warning-types14832586 Ref: 4b4014832586 Ref: c-api/exceptions standardexceptions14832586 Ref: 4b4114832586 Node: Exception types14833001 Ref: c-api/exceptions exception-types14833104 Ref: 4b4214833104 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BaseException14833481 Ref: 49bb14833481 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BaseExceptionGroup14833662 Ref: 49bc14833662 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_Exception14833873 Ref: 49ca14833873 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ArithmeticError14834050 Ref: 49b814834050 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_AssertionError14834234 Ref: 49b914834234 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_AttributeError14834416 Ref: 49ba14834416 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BlockingIOError14834598 Ref: 49bd14834598 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BrokenPipeError14834806 Ref: 49be14834806 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BufferError14835014 Ref: 49bf14835014 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ChildProcessError14835194 Ref: 49c114835194 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ConnectionAbortedError14835404 Ref: 49c214835404 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ConnectionError14835619 Ref: 49c314835619 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ConnectionRefusedError14835826 Ref: 49c414835826 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ConnectionResetError14836041 Ref: 49c514836041 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_EOFError14836270 Ref: 49c714836270 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_FileExistsError14836388 Ref: 49cb14836388 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_FileNotFoundError14836596 Ref: 49cc14836596 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_FloatingPointError14836805 Ref: 49cd14836805 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_GeneratorExit14836992 Ref: 49cf14836992 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ImportError14837174 Ref: 49d114837174 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_IndentationError14837353 Ref: 49d314837353 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_IndexError14837537 Ref: 49d414837537 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_InterruptedError14837716 Ref: 49d514837716 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_IsADirectoryError14837924 Ref: 49d614837924 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_KeyError14838150 Ref: 49d714838150 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_KeyboardInterrupt14838267 Ref: 49d814838267 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_LookupError14838452 Ref: 49d914838452 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_MemoryError14838632 Ref: 49da14838632 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ModuleNotFoundError14838812 Ref: 49db14838812 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_NameError14839023 Ref: 49dc14839023 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_NotADirectoryError14839200 Ref: 49dd14839200 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_NotImplementedError14839411 Ref: 49de14839411 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_OSError14839613 Ref: 48b514839613 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_OverflowError14839730 Ref: 49df14839730 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_PermissionError14839911 Ref: 49e114839911 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ProcessLookupError14840118 Ref: 49e214840118 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_PythonFinalizationError14840329 Ref: 4b4314840329 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_RecursionError14840477 Ref: eab14840477 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ReferenceError14840683 Ref: 49e314840683 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_RuntimeError14840866 Ref: 49e514840866 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_StopAsyncIteration14841046 Ref: 49e714841046 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_StopIteration14841257 Ref: 49e814841257 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SyntaxError14841438 Ref: 49e914841438 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SystemError14841617 Ref: 49eb14841617 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SystemExit14841796 Ref: 49ec14841796 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_TabError14841990 Ref: 49ed14841990 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_TimeoutError14842107 Ref: 49ee14842107 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_TypeError14842311 Ref: 48b414842311 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnboundLocalError14842488 Ref: 49ef14842488 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeDecodeError14842674 Ref: 49f014842674 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeEncodeError14842860 Ref: 49f114842860 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeError14843046 Ref: 49f214843046 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeTranslateError14843227 Ref: 49f314843227 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ValueError14843417 Ref: 48b614843417 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ZeroDivisionError14843595 Ref: 48b114843595 Ref: Exception types-Footnote-114844622 Node: OSError aliases14844664 Ref: c-api/exceptions oserror-aliases14844789 Ref: 4b4414844789 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_EnvironmentError14845355 Ref: 49c914845355 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_IOError14845535 Ref: 49d014845535 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_WindowsError14845706 Ref: 49f714845706 Ref: c-api/exceptions win14845985 Ref: 4b4514845985 Node: Warning types14846141 Ref: c-api/exceptions standardwarningcategories14846242 Ref: 4b3414846242 Ref: c-api/exceptions warning-types14846242 Ref: 4b4614846242 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_Warning14846630 Ref: 49f614846630 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_BytesWarning14846748 Ref: 49c014846748 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_DeprecationWarning14846928 Ref: 49c614846928 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_EncodingWarning14847114 Ref: 49c814847114 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_FutureWarning14847323 Ref: 49ce14847323 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ImportWarning14847504 Ref: 49d214847504 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_PendingDeprecationWarning14847685 Ref: 49e014847685 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_ResourceWarning14847878 Ref: 49e414847878 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_RuntimeWarning14848085 Ref: 49e614848085 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_SyntaxWarning14848267 Ref: 49ea14848267 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UnicodeWarning14848448 Ref: 49f414848448 Ref: c-api/exceptions c PyExc_UserWarning14848631 Ref: 49f514848631 Node: Utilities<2>14848892 Ref: c-api/utilities doc14849028 Ref: 4b4714849028 Ref: c-api/utilities id114849028 Ref: 4b4814849028 Ref: c-api/utilities utilities14849028 Ref: 4b4914849028 Node: Operating System Utilities14849635 Ref: c-api/sys doc14849735 Ref: 4b4a14849735 Ref: c-api/sys operating-system-utilities14849735 Ref: 4b4b14849735 Ref: c-api/sys os14849735 Ref: 4b4c14849735 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_FSPath14849802 Ref: d1814849802 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FdIsInteractive14850437 Ref: 4b4d14850437 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_BeforeFork14850982 Ref: bbf14850982 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Parent14851604 Ref: bc014851604 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork_Child14852317 Ref: 3f714852317 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_AfterFork14853312 Ref: 3f614853312 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_CheckStack14853797 Ref: 181514853797 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_sighandler_t14854306 Ref: 4a5414854306 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_getsig14854401 Ref: 150814854401 Ref: c-api/sys c PyOS_setsig14854687 Ref: 150914854687 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_DecodeLocale14855039 Ref: bc714855039 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_EncodeLocale14857358 Ref: bc814857358 Node: System Functions14859122 Ref: c-api/sys system-functions14859246 Ref: 4b4f14859246 Ref: c-api/sys systemfunctions14859246 Ref: 4b5014859246 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetObject14859545 Ref: 38414859545 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_SetObject14859831 Ref: 4a8d14859831 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_ResetWarnOptions14860133 Ref: 3ab14860133 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStdout14860498 Ref: 4a8f14860498 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_WriteStderr14861412 Ref: 4a8e14861412 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStdout14861625 Ref: 4a8b14861625 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_FormatStderr14861941 Ref: 4a8a14861941 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_GetXOptions14862184 Ref: 4a8c14862184 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_Audit14862542 Ref: 36a14862542 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AuditTuple14863877 Ref: 36914863877 Ref: c-api/sys c PySys_AddAuditHook14864215 Ref: 41e214864215 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AuditHookFunction14865836 Ref: 4b5114865836 Ref: System Functions-Footnote-114866341 Node: Process Control14866383 Ref: c-api/sys process-control14866501 Ref: 4b5314866501 Ref: c-api/sys processcontrol14866501 Ref: 4b5414866501 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_FatalError14866546 Ref: 98314866546 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_Exit14867321 Ref: d4e14867321 Ref: c-api/sys c Py_AtExit14867718 Ref: 4add14867718 Node: Importing Modules<2>14868525 Ref: c-api/import doc14868651 Ref: 4b5514868651 Ref: c-api/import importing14868651 Ref: 4b5614868651 Ref: c-api/import importing-modules14868651 Ref: 4b5714868651 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModule14868700 Ref: 3ba14868700 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleNoBlock14869013 Ref: 3b914869013 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleEx14869680 Ref: 119814869680 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevelObject14870430 Ref: 4a0f14870430 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportModuleLevel14871266 Ref: 119714871266 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_Import14871738 Ref: 13c814871738 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ReloadModule14872314 Ref: 4a1014872314 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleRef14872641 Ref: 35314872641 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModuleObject14873640 Ref: 4a0614873640 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AddModule14874011 Ref: 35414874011 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModule14874279 Ref: 4a0714874279 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleEx14876296 Ref: 4a0814876296 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleObject14876734 Ref: 4a0914876734 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExecCodeModuleWithPathnames14877380 Ref: 4a0a14877380 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicNumber14878139 Ref: 119614878139 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetMagicTag14878532 Ref: 4a0b14878532 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModuleDict14878880 Ref: 4a0c14878880 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetModule14879173 Ref: bb314879173 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_GetImporter14879608 Ref: 171614879608 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModuleObject14880336 Ref: 4a0e14880336 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ImportFrozenModule14880974 Ref: 4a0d14880974 Ref: c-api/import c _frozen14881224 Ref: 77014881224 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_FrozenModules14881856 Ref: 2e2a14881856 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_AppendInittab14882271 Ref: 17a314882271 Ref: c-api/import c _inittab14882853 Ref: 4b5814882853 Ref: c-api/import c _inittab name14883183 Ref: 4b5914883183 Ref: c-api/import c _inittab initfunc14883276 Ref: 4b5a14883276 Ref: c-api/import c PyImport_ExtendInittab14883422 Ref: 17a414883422 Ref: Importing Modules<2>-Footnote-114884233 Node: Data marshalling support14884275 Ref: c-api/marshal doc14884423 Ref: 4b5b14884423 Ref: c-api/marshal data-marshalling-support14884423 Ref: 4b5c14884423 Ref: c-api/marshal marshalling-utils14884423 Ref: 4b5d14884423 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteLongToFile14885170 Ref: 79114885170 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToFile14885607 Ref: 79214885607 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_WriteObjectToString14885935 Ref: 79414885935 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLongFromFile14886274 Ref: 4b5e14886274 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadShortFromFile14886613 Ref: 4b5f14886613 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromFile14886955 Ref: 4b6014886955 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadLastObjectFromFile14887316 Ref: 4b6114887316 Ref: c-api/marshal c PyMarshal_ReadObjectFromString14888110 Ref: 79314888110 Node: Parsing arguments and building values14888531 Ref: c-api/arg doc14888691 Ref: 4b6214888691 Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing14888691 Ref: 8a714888691 Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments-and-building-values14888691 Ref: 4b6314888691 Node: Parsing arguments<2>14889362 Ref: c-api/arg parsing-arguments14889480 Ref: 4b6414889480 Node: Strings and buffers14890210 Ref: c-api/arg arg-parsing-string-and-buffers14890305 Ref: 38614890305 Ref: c-api/arg strings-and-buffers14890305 Ref: 4b6514890305 Ref: c-api/arg c-arg-borrowed-buffer14891584 Ref: 4b6614891584 Node: Numbers<2>14900920 Ref: c-api/arg numbers14901037 Ref: 4b6714901037 Node: Other objects14903714 Ref: c-api/arg other-objects14903825 Ref: 4b6914903825 Ref: c-api/arg o-ampersand14904643 Ref: 4b6a14904643 Ref: c-api/arg c Py_CLEANUP_SUPPORTED14905433 Ref: 4b6b14905433 Node: API Functions14908938 Ref: c-api/arg api-functions14909030 Ref: 4b6c14909030 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTuple14909075 Ref: 56e14909075 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParse14909412 Ref: 496214909412 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ParseTupleAndKeywords14909684 Ref: 37e14909684 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_VaParseTupleAndKeywords14910786 Ref: 37f14910786 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_ValidateKeywordArguments14911132 Ref: 496314911132 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_Parse14911474 Ref: 19e314911474 Ref: c-api/arg c PyArg_UnpackTuple14912156 Ref: 14d214912156 Ref: c-api/arg c PY_CXX_CONST14914138 Ref: 38014914138 Node: Building values14914557 Ref: c-api/arg building-values14914675 Ref: 4b6d14914675 Ref: c-api/arg c Py_BuildValue14914724 Ref: 8a614914724 Ref: c-api/arg capi-py-buildvalue-format-k14919460 Ref: 155414919460 Ref: c-api/arg c Py_VaBuildValue14922297 Ref: 4aeb14922297 Node: String conversion and formatting14922601 Ref: c-api/conversion doc14922747 Ref: 4b6e14922747 Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion14922747 Ref: 4b6f14922747 Ref: c-api/conversion string-conversion-and-formatting14922747 Ref: 4b7014922747 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_snprintf14922888 Ref: 14d514922888 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_vsnprintf14923190 Ref: 14d614923190 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtoul14924919 Ref: 4a5614924919 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strtol14925949 Ref: 4a5514925949 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_string_to_double14926466 Ref: 128814926466 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_double_to_string14928225 Ref: 4a5314928225 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_stricmp14929853 Ref: 4b7114929853 Ref: c-api/conversion c PyOS_strnicmp14930061 Ref: 4b7214930061 Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-114930334 Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-214930382 Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-314930431 Ref: String conversion and formatting-Footnote-414930478 Node: PyHash API14930524 Ref: c-api/hash doc14930643 Ref: 4b7314930643 Ref: c-api/hash pyhash-api14930643 Ref: 4b7414930643 Ref: c-api/hash c Py_hash_t14930775 Ref: 125714930775 Ref: c-api/hash c Py_uhash_t14930870 Ref: 4b7514930870 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_MODULUS14930968 Ref: 166914930968 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_BITS14931103 Ref: 166a14931103 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_MULTIPLIER14931227 Ref: 162214931227 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_INF14931352 Ref: 166b14931352 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHASH_IMAG14931461 Ref: 166c14931461 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef14931586 Ref: 4b7614931586 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef hash14931691 Ref: 4b7814931691 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef name14931826 Ref: 4b7914931826 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef hash_bits14931917 Ref: 4b7a14931917 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_FuncDef seed_bits14932009 Ref: 4b7b14932009 Ref: c-api/hash c PyHash_GetFuncDef14932116 Ref: 4b7714932116 Ref: c-api/hash c Py_HashPointer14932350 Ref: 36314932350 Ref: c-api/hash c PyObject_GenericHash14932659 Ref: 36214932659 Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-114933077 Ref: PyHash API-Footnote-214933130 Node: Reflection14933172 Ref: c-api/reflection doc14933295 Ref: 4b7c14933295 Ref: c-api/reflection id114933295 Ref: 4b7d14933295 Ref: c-api/reflection reflection14933295 Ref: 4b7e14933295 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetBuiltins14933330 Ref: 34c14933330 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetLocals14933731 Ref: 35014933731 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetGlobals14935277 Ref: 34e14935277 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrame14935654 Ref: 17bc14935654 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameBuiltins14935962 Ref: 34b14935962 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameLocals14936314 Ref: 34f14936314 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFrameGlobals14936940 Ref: 34d14936940 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncName14937341 Ref: 49b614937341 Ref: c-api/reflection c PyEval_GetFuncDesc14937564 Ref: 49b514937564 Ref: Reflection-Footnote-114938016 Node: Codec registry and support functions14938058 Ref: c-api/codec doc14938183 Ref: 4b7f14938183 Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry14938183 Ref: d3514938183 Ref: c-api/codec codec-registry-and-support-functions14938183 Ref: 4b8014938183 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Register14938272 Ref: 498b14938272 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Unregister14938592 Ref: 89514938592 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_KnownEncoding14938956 Ref: 498914938956 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encode14939208 Ref: 3fc14939208 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decode14939744 Ref: 3fb14939744 Node: Codec lookup API14940364 Ref: c-api/codec codec-lookup-api14940510 Ref: 4b8114940510 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Encoder14940830 Ref: 498514940830 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_Decoder14941048 Ref: 498414941048 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalEncoder14941265 Ref: 498814941265 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IncrementalDecoder14941541 Ref: 498714941541 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamReader14941817 Ref: 498e14941817 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StreamWriter14942108 Ref: 498f14942108 Node: Registry API for Unicode encoding error handlers14942399 Ref: c-api/codec registry-api-for-unicode-encoding-error-handlers14942545 Ref: 4b8214942545 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_RegisterError14942662 Ref: 498c14942662 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_LookupError14943792 Ref: 498a14943792 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_StrictErrors14944161 Ref: 499014944161 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_IgnoreErrors14944352 Ref: 498614944352 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_ReplaceErrors14944571 Ref: 498d14944571 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_XMLCharRefReplaceErrors14944801 Ref: 499114944801 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_BackslashReplaceErrors14945047 Ref: 498314945047 Ref: c-api/codec c PyCodec_NameReplaceErrors14945319 Ref: ea814945319 Node: PyTime C API14945603 Ref: c-api/time doc14945739 Ref: 15a14945739 Ref: c-api/time c-api-time14945739 Ref: 32714945739 Ref: c-api/time pytime-c-api14945739 Ref: 4b8314945739 Node: Types<2>14946094 Ref: c-api/time types14946175 Ref: 4b8514946175 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_t14946206 Ref: 32814946206 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MIN14946731 Ref: 32914946731 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MAX14946824 Ref: 32a14946824 Node: Clock Functions14946917 Ref: c-api/time clock-functions14947026 Ref: 4b8614947026 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_Monotonic14947740 Ref: 32c14947740 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_PerfCounter14947905 Ref: 32e14947905 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_Time14948079 Ref: 33014948079 Node: Raw Clock Functions14948240 Ref: c-api/time raw-clock-functions14948361 Ref: 4b8714948361 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_MonotonicRaw14948849 Ref: 32d14948849 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_PerfCounterRaw14949037 Ref: 32f14949037 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_TimeRaw14949229 Ref: 33114949229 Node: Conversion functions14949407 Ref: c-api/time conversion-functions14949504 Ref: 4b8814949504 Ref: c-api/time c PyTime_AsSecondsDouble14949565 Ref: 32b14949565 Node: Support for Perf Maps14949786 Ref: c-api/perfmaps doc14949877 Ref: 4b8914949877 Ref: c-api/perfmaps perfmaps14949877 Ref: 4b8a14949877 Ref: c-api/perfmaps support-for-perf-maps14949877 Ref: 4b8b14949877 Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Init14950548 Ref: 173a14950548 Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_WritePerfMapEntry14951380 Ref: 173914951380 Ref: c-api/perfmaps c PyUnstable_PerfMapState_Fini14952165 Ref: 173b14952165 Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-114952719 Ref: Support for Perf Maps-Footnote-214952776 Node: Abstract Objects Layer14952900 Ref: c-api/abstract doc14953040 Ref: 4b8c14953040 Ref: c-api/abstract abstract14953040 Ref: 490c14953040 Ref: c-api/abstract abstract-objects-layer14953040 Ref: 4b8d14953040 Node: Object Protocol14953745 Ref: c-api/object doc14953841 Ref: 4b8e14953841 Ref: c-api/object object14953841 Ref: 4b8f14953841 Ref: c-api/object object-protocol14953841 Ref: 4b9014953841 Ref: c-api/object c Py_GetConstant14953886 Ref: 35114953886 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_NONE14954556 Ref: 4b9114954556 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_FALSE14954760 Ref: 4b9214954760 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_TRUE14954963 Ref: 4b9314954963 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_ELLIPSIS14955170 Ref: 4b9414955170 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_NOT_IMPLEMENTED14955385 Ref: 4b9514955385 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_ZERO14955587 Ref: 4b9614955587 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_ONE14955780 Ref: 4b9714955780 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_STR14955980 Ref: 4b9814955980 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_BYTES14956177 Ref: 4b9914956177 Ref: c-api/object c Py_CONSTANT_EMPTY_TUPLE14956373 Ref: 4b9a14956373 Ref: c-api/object c Py_GetConstantBorrowed14956698 Ref: 35214956698 Ref: c-api/object c Py_NotImplemented14957232 Ref: 4b9b14957232 Ref: c-api/object c Py_RETURN_NOTIMPLEMENTED14957420 Ref: 4b9c14957420 Ref: c-api/object c Py_PRINT_RAW14957655 Ref: 4b9d14957655 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Print14957948 Ref: 15f214957948 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrWithError14958330 Ref: 37514958330 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrStringWithError14958711 Ref: 37714958711 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttr14959090 Ref: 37614959090 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HasAttrString14959739 Ref: 37814959739 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttr14960484 Ref: 34614960484 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAttrString14960998 Ref: 34714960998 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetOptionalAttr14961497 Ref: 34414961497 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetOptionalAttrString14962217 Ref: 34514962217 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetAttr14962616 Ref: 4a5f14962616 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttr14963295 Ref: 4a6814963295 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetAttrString14963880 Ref: 160214963880 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetAttr14964811 Ref: 4a6014964811 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelAttr14965512 Ref: 153814965512 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelAttrString14965817 Ref: 153914965817 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericGetDict14966619 Ref: 193a14966619 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GenericSetDict14967361 Ref: 4a6114967361 Ref: c-api/object c _PyObject_GetDictPtr14967701 Ref: 4b9e14967701 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_RichCompare14968129 Ref: 490a14968129 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_RichCompareBool14968855 Ref: 19a214968855 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Format14969394 Ref: 4a5e14969394 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Repr14969836 Ref: 102814969836 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_ASCII14970392 Ref: 4a5714970392 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Str14970935 Ref: 102914970935 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Bytes14971540 Ref: 4a5914971540 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsSubclass14972026 Ref: ea014972026 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsInstance14973058 Ref: e9f14973058 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Hash14974080 Ref: 3ff14974080 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_HashNotImplemented14974488 Ref: 139214974488 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_IsTrue14974913 Ref: 4a6414974913 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Not14975198 Ref: 4a6614975198 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Type14975476 Ref: 4a6a14975476 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_TypeCheck14976181 Ref: 18f714976181 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Size14976406 Ref: 4a6914976406 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Length14976473 Ref: 4a6514976473 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_LengthHint14976840 Ref: ffd14976840 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetItem14977301 Ref: 34214977301 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SetItem14977631 Ref: 494714977631 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelItem14978016 Ref: 4a5b14978016 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_DelItemString14978289 Ref: 4a5c14978289 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_Dir14978585 Ref: 4a5d14978585 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetIter14979177 Ref: 4a6314979177 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_SelfIter14979604 Ref: 4a6714979604 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetAIter14979948 Ref: 4a6214979948 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetTypeData14980506 Ref: 54614980506 Ref: c-api/object c PyType_GetTypeDataSize14980978 Ref: 54714980978 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_GetItemData14981659 Ref: 54914981659 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_VisitManagedDict14982002 Ref: 36414982002 Ref: c-api/object c PyObject_ClearManagedDict14982317 Ref: 36514982317 Ref: Object Protocol-Footnote-114982631 Ref: Object Protocol-Footnote-214982673 Node: Call Protocol14982715 Ref: c-api/call doc14982835 Ref: 4ba514982835 Ref: c-api/call call14982835 Ref: 58014982835 Ref: c-api/call call-protocol14982835 Ref: 4ba614982835 Node: The tp_call Protocol14983060 Ref: c-api/call the-tp-call-protocol14983162 Ref: 4ba714983162 Node: The Vectorcall Protocol14983898 Ref: c-api/call the-vectorcall-protocol14984027 Ref: 4ba914984027 Ref: c-api/call vectorcall14984027 Ref: 54f14984027 Ref: c-api/call c vectorcallfunc14985803 Ref: 55414985803 Ref: c-api/call c PY_VECTORCALL_ARGUMENTS_OFFSET14986885 Ref: 55b14986885 Ref: The Vectorcall Protocol-Footnote-114988021 Node: Recursion Control<2>14988063 Ref: c-api/call recursion-control14988174 Ref: 4bab14988174 Node: Vectorcall Support API14988586 Ref: c-api/call vectorcall-support-api14988697 Ref: 4bac14988697 Ref: c-api/call c PyVectorcall_NARGS14988760 Ref: 55214988760 Ref: c-api/call c PyVectorcall_Function14989221 Ref: 4bad14989221 Ref: c-api/call c PyVectorcall_Call14989770 Ref: 55314989770 Node: Object Calling API14990383 Ref: c-api/call capi-call14990508 Ref: 4ba814990508 Ref: c-api/call object-calling-api14990508 Ref: 4bae14990508 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_Call14995136 Ref: 39814995136 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallNoArgs14995824 Ref: 39714995824 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallOneArg14996306 Ref: 97814996306 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallObject14996699 Ref: 48c714996699 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallFunction14997218 Ref: 39a14997218 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethod14998074 Ref: 39b14998074 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallFunctionObjArgs14998994 Ref: 4a5a14998994 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethodObjArgs14999570 Ref: 19fc14999570 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethodNoArgs15000160 Ref: 4baf15000160 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_CallMethodOneArg15000551 Ref: 4bb015000551 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_Vectorcall15000979 Ref: 55915000979 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_VectorcallDict15001570 Ref: 4bb115001570 Ref: c-api/call c PyObject_VectorcallMethod15002282 Ref: 55a15002282 Node: Call Support API15003404 Ref: c-api/call call-support-api15003497 Ref: 4bb315003497 Ref: c-api/call c PyCallable_Check15003548 Ref: 497915003548 Node: Number Protocol15003792 Ref: c-api/number doc15003914 Ref: 4bb415003914 Ref: c-api/number number15003914 Ref: 4bb515003914 Ref: c-api/number number-protocol15003914 Ref: 4bb615003914 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Check15003959 Ref: a6615003959 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Add15004252 Ref: 4a3615004252 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Subtract15004567 Ref: 4a5015004567 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Multiply15004893 Ref: 4a4915004893 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_MatrixMultiply15005218 Ref: eaf15005218 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_FloorDivide15005609 Ref: 4a3a15005609 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_TrueDivide15005931 Ref: 4a5115005931 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Remainder15006546 Ref: 4a4e15006546 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Divmod15006871 Ref: 4a3915006871 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Power15007210 Ref: 4a4d15007210 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Negative15007728 Ref: 4a4a15007728 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Positive15008009 Ref: 4a4c15008009 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Absolute15008274 Ref: 4a3515008274 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Invert15008559 Ref: 4a4715008559 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Lshift15008846 Ref: 4a4815008846 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Rshift15009182 Ref: 4a4f15009182 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_And15009519 Ref: 4a3715009519 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Xor15009849 Ref: 4a5215009849 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Or15010187 Ref: 4a4b15010187 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceAdd15010515 Ref: 4a3b15010515 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceSubtract15010893 Ref: 4a4415010893 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceMultiply15011283 Ref: 4a3f15011283 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceMatrixMultiply15011672 Ref: eb015011672 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceFloorDivide15012132 Ref: 4a3d15012132 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceTrueDivide15012538 Ref: 4a4515012538 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceRemainder15013222 Ref: 4a4215013222 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlacePower15013610 Ref: 4a4115013610 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceLshift15014260 Ref: 4a3e15014260 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceRshift15014665 Ref: 4a4315014665 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceAnd15015071 Ref: 4a3c15015071 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceXor15015470 Ref: 4a4615015470 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_InPlaceOr15015877 Ref: 4a4015015877 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Long15016274 Ref: a6715016274 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Float15016584 Ref: a6815016584 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_Index15016894 Ref: 89115016894 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_ToBase15017342 Ref: 17e915017342 Ref: c-api/number c PyNumber_AsSsize_t15017867 Ref: 4a3815017867 Ref: c-api/number c PyIndex_Check15018676 Ref: 98a15018676 Node: Sequence Protocol15018978 Ref: c-api/sequence doc15019103 Ref: 4bb715019103 Ref: c-api/sequence sequence15019103 Ref: 4bb815019103 Ref: c-api/sequence sequence-protocol15019103 Ref: 4bb915019103 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Check15019152 Ref: 4a6e15019152 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Size15019609 Ref: 1a5115019609 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Length15019678 Ref: 4a7815019678 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Concat15019946 Ref: 4a6f15019946 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Repeat15020277 Ref: 4a7a15020277 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_InPlaceConcat15020624 Ref: 4a7515020624 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_InPlaceRepeat15021025 Ref: 4a7615021025 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_GetItem15021441 Ref: 1a5215021441 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_GetSlice15021742 Ref: 4a7415021742 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_SetItem15022099 Ref: 1a5315022099 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_DelItem15022637 Ref: 1a5415022637 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_SetSlice15022893 Ref: 4a7b15022893 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_DelSlice15023209 Ref: 4a7215023209 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Count15023515 Ref: 4a7115023515 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Contains15023889 Ref: 4a7015023889 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Index15024228 Ref: 4a7715024228 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_List15024533 Ref: 4a7915024533 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Tuple15024904 Ref: 4a7c15024904 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast15025367 Ref: 4a7315025367 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast_GET_SIZE15026111 Ref: 4bbb15026111 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast_GET_ITEM15026532 Ref: 4bbc15026532 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_Fast_ITEMS15026838 Ref: 4bbd15026838 Ref: c-api/sequence c PySequence_ITEM15027264 Ref: 4bbe15027264 Node: Mapping Protocol15027635 Ref: c-api/mapping doc15027762 Ref: 4bbf15027762 Ref: c-api/mapping mapping15027762 Ref: 4bc015027762 Ref: c-api/mapping mapping-protocol15027762 Ref: 4bc115027762 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Check15027918 Ref: 4a2615027918 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Size15028348 Ref: 1a5515028348 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Length15028416 Ref: 4a2715028416 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_GetItemString15028678 Ref: 34315028678 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_GetOptionalItem15029028 Ref: 34015029028 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_GetOptionalItemString15029711 Ref: 34115029711 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_SetItemString15030099 Ref: 4a2815030099 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_DelItem15030409 Ref: 4bc215030409 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_DelItemString15030535 Ref: 4bc315030535 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyWithError15030794 Ref: 37915030794 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyStringWithError15031156 Ref: 37b15031156 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKey15031523 Ref: 37a15031523 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_HasKeyString15032121 Ref: 37c15032121 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Keys15032805 Ref: bbc15032805 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Values15033131 Ref: bbd15033131 Ref: c-api/mapping c PyMapping_Items15033461 Ref: bbe15033461 Node: Iterator Protocol15033850 Ref: c-api/iter doc15033975 Ref: 4bc415033975 Ref: c-api/iter iterator15033975 Ref: 4bc515033975 Ref: c-api/iter iterator-protocol15033975 Ref: 4bc615033975 Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Check15034090 Ref: 18f415034090 Ref: c-api/iter c PyAIter_Check15034356 Ref: 496115034356 Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Next15034640 Ref: 4a1315034640 Ref: c-api/iter c PySendResult15035701 Ref: 4bc715035701 Ref: c-api/iter c PyIter_Send15035852 Ref: 89615035852 Node: Buffer Protocol15036437 Ref: c-api/buffer doc15036537 Ref: 4bc815036537 Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-protocol15036537 Ref: 4bc915036537 Ref: c-api/buffer bufferobjects15036537 Ref: 39315036537 Node: Buffer structure15039304 Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-structure15039401 Ref: 4bcb15039401 Ref: c-api/buffer id115039401 Ref: 4bcc15039401 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer15040476 Ref: 75315040476 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer buf15040594 Ref: 4bce15040594 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer obj15041056 Ref: 4bd015041056 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer len15041693 Ref: 4bd115041693 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer readonly15042305 Ref: 4bd315042305 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer itemsize15042475 Ref: 4bd415042475 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer format15043404 Ref: 4bd515043404 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer ndim15043726 Ref: 4bd815043726 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer shape15044150 Ref: 4bd715044150 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer strides15044715 Ref: 4bcf15044715 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer suboffsets15045253 Ref: 4bd915045253 Ref: c-api/buffer c Py_buffer internal15046157 Ref: 4bdc15046157 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_MAX_NDIM15046544 Ref: 4bda15046544 Node: Buffer request types15046810 Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-request-types15046930 Ref: 44d115046930 Ref: c-api/buffer id215046930 Ref: 4bdd15046930 Node: request-independent fields15047538 Ref: c-api/buffer request-independent-fields15047645 Ref: 4bde15047645 Node: readonly format15047913 Ref: c-api/buffer readonly-format15048053 Ref: 4bdf15048053 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_WRITABLE15048104 Ref: 138615048104 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FORMAT15048576 Ref: 4bd615048576 Node: shape strides suboffsets15049212 Ref: c-api/buffer shape-strides-suboffsets15049345 Ref: 4be015049345 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_INDIRECT15049882 Ref: 4be115049882 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDES15050073 Ref: 4be215050073 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_ND15050255 Ref: 4be315050255 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_SIMPLE15050446 Ref: 4bd215050446 Node: contiguity requests15050548 Ref: c-api/buffer contiguity-requests15050683 Ref: 4be415050683 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_C_CONTIGUOUS15051292 Ref: 138715051292 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_F_CONTIGUOUS15051545 Ref: 138815051545 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_ANY_CONTIGUOUS15051800 Ref: 4be515051800 Node: compound requests15052195 Ref: c-api/buffer compound-requests15052297 Ref: 4be615052297 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FULL15053171 Ref: 4be715053171 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_FULL_RO15053501 Ref: 4be815053501 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_RECORDS15053828 Ref: 4be915053828 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_RECORDS_RO15054158 Ref: 4bea15054158 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDED15054482 Ref: 4beb15054482 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_STRIDED_RO15054813 Ref: 4bec15054813 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_CONTIG15055137 Ref: 4bed15055137 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBUF_CONTIG_RO15055468 Ref: 4bee15055468 Node: Complex arrays15055661 Ref: c-api/buffer complex-arrays15055789 Ref: 4bdb15055789 Node: NumPy-style shape and strides15055995 Ref: c-api/buffer numpy-style-shape-and-strides15056122 Ref: 4bef15056122 Node: PIL-style shape strides and suboffsets15058002 Ref: c-api/buffer pil-style-shape-strides-and-suboffsets15058129 Ref: 4bf015058129 Node: Buffer-related functions15059355 Ref: c-api/buffer buffer-related-functions15059454 Ref: 4bf115059454 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_CheckBuffer15059523 Ref: 39415059523 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_GetBuffer15059867 Ref: 39515059867 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_Release15060877 Ref: 39615060877 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_SizeFromFormat15061406 Ref: 75515061406 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_IsContiguous15061714 Ref: 75915061714 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_GetPointer15062133 Ref: 75415062133 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FromContiguous15062446 Ref: 75715062446 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_ToContiguous15062829 Ref: 75615062829 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyObject_CopyData15063307 Ref: 75815063307 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FillContiguousStrides15063607 Ref: 75a15063607 Ref: c-api/buffer c PyBuffer_FillInfo15064058 Ref: 75b15064058 Node: Concrete Objects Layer15065088 Ref: c-api/concrete doc15065255 Ref: 4bf215065255 Ref: c-api/concrete concrete15065255 Ref: 4bf315065255 Ref: c-api/concrete concrete-objects-layer15065255 Ref: 4bf415065255 Node: Fundamental Objects15066240 Ref: c-api/concrete fundamental15066342 Ref: 4bf615066342 Ref: c-api/concrete fundamental-objects15066342 Ref: 4bf715066342 Node: Type Objects<2>15066539 Ref: c-api/type doc15066634 Ref: 4bf815066634 Ref: c-api/type type-objects15066634 Ref: 4bf915066634 Ref: c-api/type typeobjects15066634 Ref: 4bfa15066634 Ref: c-api/type c PyTypeObject15066677 Ref: aa515066677 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Type15066845 Ref: 54a15066845 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Check15067058 Ref: 199d15067058 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_CheckExact15067304 Ref: 199e15067304 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_ClearCache15067533 Ref: 4a9915067533 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetFlags15067699 Ref: 195415067699 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetDict15068244 Ref: 171d15068244 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Modified15068987 Ref: 17f115068987 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_AddWatcher15069287 Ref: 56115069287 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_ClearWatcher15069805 Ref: 4bfb15069805 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Watch15070276 Ref: 56215070276 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_WatchCallback15070979 Ref: 4bfc15070979 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_HasFeature15071334 Ref: 195315071334 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_IS_GC15071529 Ref: 4bfd15071529 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_IsSubtype15071720 Ref: 4a9a15071720 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GenericAlloc15072123 Ref: a6b15072123 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GenericNew15072517 Ref: 48e515072517 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Ready15072863 Ref: 77715072863 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetName15073757 Ref: 74d15073757 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetQualName15074071 Ref: 74e15074071 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetFullyQualifiedName15074403 Ref: 36e15074403 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleName15074834 Ref: 37015074834 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetSlot15075127 Ref: 89a15075127 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModule15075827 Ref: 96e15075827 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleState15076779 Ref: 96f15076779 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_GetModuleByDef15077371 Ref: 38f15077371 Ref: c-api/type c PyUnstable_Type_AssignVersionTag15078359 Ref: 4c0015078359 Node: Creating Heap-Allocated Types15078874 Ref: c-api/type creating-heap-allocated-types15078955 Ref: 4c0115078955 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromMetaclass15079111 Ref: 54d15079111 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromModuleAndSpec15081534 Ref: 54e15081534 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromSpecWithBases15082445 Ref: 57b15082445 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_FromSpec15083194 Ref: 57a15083194 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec15083899 Ref: 171b15083899 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec name15084042 Ref: 4c0215084042 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec basicsize15084164 Ref: 54515084164 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec itemsize15084930 Ref: 4c0315084930 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec flags15086053 Ref: 4c0415086053 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Spec slots15086295 Ref: 4c0515086295 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Slot15086527 Ref: 4a9b15086527 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Slot slot15086730 Ref: 4bfe15086730 Ref: c-api/type c PyType_Slot pfunc15088972 Ref: 4c0f15088972 Node: The None Object15089172 Ref: c-api/none doc15089267 Ref: 4c1015089267 Ref: c-api/none noneobject15089267 Ref: 4c1115089267 Ref: c-api/none the-none-object15089267 Ref: 4c1215089267 Ref: c-api/none c Py_None15089586 Ref: 48b915089586 Ref: c-api/none c Py_RETURN_NONE15089837 Ref: 143c15089837 Node: Numeric Objects15089917 Ref: c-api/concrete numeric-objects15090044 Ref: 4c1315090044 Ref: c-api/concrete numericobjects15090044 Ref: 4c1415090044 Node: Integer Objects15090193 Ref: c-api/long doc15090284 Ref: 4c1515090284 Ref: c-api/long integer-objects15090284 Ref: 4c1615090284 Ref: c-api/long longobjects15090284 Ref: 4c1715090284 Ref: c-api/long c PyLongObject15090576 Ref: 58515090576 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_Type15090753 Ref: 4a2515090753 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_Check15091004 Ref: 4c1815091004 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_CheckExact15091194 Ref: 4c1915091194 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromLong15091394 Ref: 183915091394 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnsignedLong15091856 Ref: 19c015091856 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromSsize_t15092127 Ref: 4a2115092127 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromSize_t15092388 Ref: 19c215092388 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromLongLong15092635 Ref: 183a15092635 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnsignedLongLong15092884 Ref: 19c115092884 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromDouble15093169 Ref: 94215093169 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromString15093423 Ref: 4a2215093423 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnicodeObject15094763 Ref: 8b915094763 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromVoidPtr15095013 Ref: 4a2315095013 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromNativeBytes15095316 Ref: 35d15095316 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_FromUnsignedNativeBytes15095996 Ref: 35e15095996 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLong15096536 Ref: 35b15096536 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AS_LONG15097199 Ref: 4c1a15097199 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsInt15097549 Ref: 35a15097549 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLongAndOverflow15097794 Ref: 125a15097794 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLongLong15098700 Ref: 4a1b15098700 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsLongLongAndOverflow15099382 Ref: 125915099382 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsSsize_t15100332 Ref: 4a1d15100332 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUnsignedLong15100794 Ref: 4a1e15100794 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsSize_t15101241 Ref: 4a1c15101241 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLong15101666 Ref: 128715101666 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask15102266 Ref: 4a1f15102266 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsUnsignedLongLongMask15103010 Ref: 19e515103010 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsDouble15103789 Ref: 4a1a15103789 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsVoidPtr15104196 Ref: 4a2015104196 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_AsNativeBytes15104658 Ref: 35c15104658 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_DEFAULTS15108797 Ref: 4c1b15108797 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_BIG_ENDIAN15108975 Ref: 4c1c15108975 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_LITTLE_ENDIAN15109153 Ref: 4c1d15109153 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_NATIVE_ENDIAN15109328 Ref: 4c1e15109328 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_UNSIGNED_BUFFER15109505 Ref: 4c1f15109505 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_REJECT_NEGATIVE15109680 Ref: 4c2015109680 Ref: c-api/long c Py_ASNATIVEBYTES_ALLOW_INDEX15109851 Ref: 4c2115109851 Ref: c-api/long c PyLong_GetInfo15111795 Ref: 4a2415111795 Ref: c-api/long c PyUnstable_Long_IsCompact15112203 Ref: 58615112203 Ref: c-api/long c PyUnstable_Long_CompactValue15112994 Ref: 58715112994 Node: Boolean Objects15113448 Ref: c-api/bool doc15113570 Ref: 4c2215113570 Ref: c-api/bool boolean-objects15113570 Ref: 4c2315113570 Ref: c-api/bool boolobjects15113570 Ref: 4c2415113570 Ref: c-api/bool c PyBool_Type15113885 Ref: 496615113885 Ref: c-api/bool c PyBool_Check15114134 Ref: 4c2715114134 Ref: c-api/bool c Py_False15114280 Ref: 4c2515114280 Ref: c-api/bool c Py_True15114510 Ref: 4c2615114510 Ref: c-api/bool c Py_RETURN_FALSE15114737 Ref: 143e15114737 Ref: c-api/bool c Py_RETURN_TRUE15114819 Ref: 143d15114819 Ref: c-api/bool c PyBool_FromLong15114899 Ref: 496515114899 Node: Floating-Point Objects15115138 Ref: c-api/float doc15115267 Ref: 4c2815115267 Ref: c-api/float floating-point-objects15115267 Ref: 4c2915115267 Ref: c-api/float floatobjects15115267 Ref: 4c2a15115267 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloatObject15115330 Ref: 4c2b15115330 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Type15115453 Ref: 4a0315115453 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Check15115714 Ref: 4c2c15115714 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_CheckExact15115914 Ref: 4c2d15115914 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_FromString15116124 Ref: 4a0215116124 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_FromDouble15116388 Ref: 4a0115116388 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_AsDouble15116621 Ref: a6915116621 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_AS_DOUBLE15117257 Ref: 4c2e15117257 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_GetInfo15117421 Ref: 13bc15117421 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_GetMax15117749 Ref: 13ba15117749 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_GetMin15117909 Ref: 13bb15117909 Node: Pack and Unpack functions15118108 Ref: c-api/float pack-and-unpack-functions15118192 Ref: 4c2f15118192 Node: Pack functions15119493 Ref: c-api/float pack-functions15119594 Ref: 4c3015119594 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Pack215120368 Ref: 76015120368 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Pack415120501 Ref: 76115120501 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Pack815120636 Ref: 76215120636 Node: Unpack functions15120771 Ref: c-api/float unpack-functions15120872 Ref: 4c3115120872 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Unpack215121623 Ref: 76315121623 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Unpack415121759 Ref: 76415121759 Ref: c-api/float c PyFloat_Unpack815121897 Ref: 76515121897 Node: Complex Number Objects15122035 Ref: c-api/complex doc15122140 Ref: 4c3215122140 Ref: c-api/complex complex-number-objects15122140 Ref: 4c3315122140 Ref: c-api/complex complexobjects15122140 Ref: 4c3415122140 Node: Complex Numbers as C Structures15122573 Ref: c-api/complex complex-numbers-as-c-structures15122705 Ref: 4c3515122705 Ref: c-api/complex c Py_complex15122988 Ref: 4b6815122988 Ref: c-api/complex c Py_complex real15123262 Ref: 4c3615123262 Ref: c-api/complex c Py_complex imag15123293 Ref: 4c3715123293 Ref: c-api/complex c _Py_c_sum15123466 Ref: 4c3815123466 Ref: c-api/complex c _Py_c_diff15123665 Ref: 4c3915123665 Ref: c-api/complex c _Py_c_neg15123877 Ref: 4c3a15123877 Ref: c-api/complex c _Py_c_prod15124057 Ref: 4c3b15124057 Ref: c-api/complex c _Py_c_quot15124261 Ref: 4c3c15124261 Ref: c-api/complex c _Py_c_pow15124566 Ref: 15b615124566 Node: Complex Numbers as Python Objects15124898 Ref: c-api/complex complex-numbers-as-python-objects15125030 Ref: 4c3d15125030 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplexObject15125115 Ref: 4c3e15125115 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_Type15125240 Ref: 499315125240 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_Check15125503 Ref: 4c3f15125503 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_CheckExact15125709 Ref: 4c4015125709 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_FromCComplex15125925 Ref: 4c4115125925 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_FromDoubles15126192 Ref: 499215126192 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_RealAsDouble15126499 Ref: 169715126499 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_ImagAsDouble15127204 Ref: 169815127204 Ref: c-api/complex c PyComplex_AsCComplex15127924 Ref: 13bd15127924 Node: Sequence Objects15128748 Ref: c-api/concrete sequence-objects15128873 Ref: 4c4215128873 Ref: c-api/concrete sequenceobjects15128873 Ref: 4c4315128873 Node: Bytes Objects<2>15129268 Ref: c-api/bytes doc15129364 Ref: 4c4415129364 Ref: c-api/bytes bytes-objects15129364 Ref: 4c4515129364 Ref: c-api/bytes bytesobjects15129364 Ref: 4c4615129364 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytesObject15129526 Ref: 78d15129526 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_Type15129640 Ref: 497315129640 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_Check15129889 Ref: 138015129889 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_CheckExact15130076 Ref: 4c4715130076 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_FromString15130279 Ref: 497115130279 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_FromStringAndSize15130614 Ref: 138115130614 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_FromFormat15131007 Ref: 1a2815131007 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_FromFormatV15134919 Ref: 496f15134919 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_FromObject15135200 Ref: 497015135200 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_Size15135440 Ref: 497215135440 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_GET_SIZE15135608 Ref: 4c4815135608 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_AsString15135752 Ref: 88515135752 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_AS_STRING15136402 Ref: 4c4915136402 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_AsStringAndSize15136543 Ref: 496c15136543 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_Concat15137617 Ref: 496d15137617 Ref: c-api/bytes c PyBytes_ConcatAndDel15138153 Ref: 496e15138153 Ref: c-api/bytes c _PyBytes_Resize15138507 Ref: 165415138507 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-115139274 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-215139400 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-315139526 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-415139652 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-515139778 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-615139904 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-715140030 Ref: Bytes Objects<2>-Footnote-815140156 Node: Byte Array Objects15140282 Ref: c-api/bytearray doc15140413 Ref: 4c4a15140413 Ref: c-api/bytearray byte-array-objects15140413 Ref: 4c4b15140413 Ref: c-api/bytearray bytearrayobjects15140413 Ref: 4c4c15140413 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArrayObject15140468 Ref: 4c4d15140468 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_Type15140590 Ref: 496b15140590 Node: Type check macros15140919 Ref: c-api/bytearray type-check-macros15141020 Ref: 4c4e15141020 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_Check15141073 Ref: 4c4f15141073 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_CheckExact15141272 Ref: 4c5015141272 Node: Direct API functions15141487 Ref: c-api/bytearray direct-api-functions15141603 Ref: 4c5115141603 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_FromObject15141662 Ref: 138215141662 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_FromStringAndSize15141992 Ref: 138315141992 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_Concat15142319 Ref: 496815142319 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_Size15142632 Ref: 496a15142632 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_AsString15142842 Ref: 496715142842 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_Resize15143113 Ref: 496915143113 Node: Macros15143302 Ref: c-api/bytearray macros15143392 Ref: 4c5215143392 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_AS_STRING15143493 Ref: 4c5315143493 Ref: c-api/bytearray c PyByteArray_GET_SIZE15143646 Ref: 4c5415143646 Node: Unicode Objects and Codecs15143821 Ref: c-api/unicode doc15143949 Ref: 119315143949 Ref: c-api/unicode unicode-objects-and-codecs15143949 Ref: 4c5515143949 Ref: c-api/unicode unicodeobjects15143949 Ref: 4c5615143949 Node: Unicode Objects15144101 Ref: c-api/unicode unicode-objects15144203 Ref: 4c5715144203 Ref: Unicode Objects-Footnote-115145076 Ref: Unicode Objects-Footnote-215145118 Node: Unicode Type15145160 Ref: c-api/unicode unicode-type15145261 Ref: 4c5815145261 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UCS415145393 Ref: 29d15145393 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UCS215145418 Ref: 116815145418 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UCS115145443 Ref: 116715145443 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE15145758 Ref: 3e915145758 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyASCIIObject15146175 Ref: 116915146175 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyCompactUnicodeObject15146206 Ref: 116a15146206 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicodeObject15146246 Ref: 78f15146246 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Type15146562 Ref: 4ad915146562 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicodeIter_Type15146795 Ref: 4aad15146795 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Check15147185 Ref: 4c5915147185 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_CheckExact15147370 Ref: 4c5a15147370 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_READY15147558 Ref: 3fd15147558 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_GET_LENGTH15147800 Ref: 8b315147800 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_1BYTE_DATA15148083 Ref: 116e15148083 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_2BYTE_DATA15148172 Ref: 116f15148172 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_4BYTE_DATA15148261 Ref: 117015148261 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_1BYTE_KIND15148676 Ref: 117215148676 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_2BYTE_KIND15148710 Ref: 117315148710 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_4BYTE_KIND15148744 Ref: 117415148744 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_KIND15148947 Ref: 117115148947 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DATA15149285 Ref: 116d15149285 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_WRITE15149527 Ref: 117715149527 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_READ15150091 Ref: 117515150091 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_READ_CHAR15150386 Ref: 117615150386 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_MAX_CHAR_VALUE15150735 Ref: 117815150735 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_IsIdentifier15151108 Ref: 199c15151108 Node: Unicode Character Properties15151514 Ref: c-api/unicode unicode-character-properties15151662 Ref: 4c5b15151662 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISSPACE15151926 Ref: 190515151926 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISLOWER15152069 Ref: 4c5c15152069 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISUPPER15152211 Ref: 4c5d15152211 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISTITLE15152354 Ref: 4c5e15152354 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISLINEBREAK15152496 Ref: 4c5f15152496 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISDECIMAL15152642 Ref: 4c6015152642 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISDIGIT15152779 Ref: 4c6115152779 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISNUMERIC15152912 Ref: 4c6215152912 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISALPHA15153049 Ref: 4c6315153049 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISALNUM15153193 Ref: 4c6415153193 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_ISPRINTABLE15153339 Ref: 4c6515153339 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TOLOWER15153594 Ref: 4c6615153594 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TOUPPER15153720 Ref: 4c6715153720 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TOTITLE15153846 Ref: 4c6815153846 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TODECIMAL15153972 Ref: 4c6915153972 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TODIGIT15154193 Ref: 4c6a15154193 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_TONUMERIC15154408 Ref: 4c6b15154408 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_IS_SURROGATE15154661 Ref: 4c6c15154661 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_IS_HIGH_SURROGATE15154786 Ref: 4c6d15154786 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_IS_LOW_SURROGATE15154921 Ref: 4c6e15154921 Ref: c-api/unicode c Py_UNICODE_JOIN_SURROGATES15155054 Ref: 4c6f15155054 Node: Creating and accessing Unicode strings15155447 Ref: c-api/unicode creating-and-accessing-unicode-strings15155598 Ref: 4c7015155598 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_New15155782 Ref: 8aa15155782 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromKindAndData15156355 Ref: 116b15156355 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromStringAndSize15157157 Ref: 4ad215157157 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromString15157827 Ref: 4ad115157827 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromFormat15158080 Ref: 38515158080 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromFormatV15171033 Ref: 57115171033 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromObject15171317 Ref: 4acf15171317 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromOrdinal15171785 Ref: 4ad015171785 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromEncodedObject15172140 Ref: 4ace15172140 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_BuildEncodingMap15172952 Ref: 16f015172952 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_GetDefaultEncoding15173515 Ref: 4ad315173515 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_GetLength15173839 Ref: 8b215173839 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_CopyCharacters15174136 Ref: 8b415174136 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Fill15174627 Ref: 118115174627 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_WriteChar15175130 Ref: 116615175130 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_ReadChar15175831 Ref: 116515175831 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Substring15176331 Ref: 8b515176331 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUCS415176794 Ref: 116c15176794 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUCS4Copy15177319 Ref: 8ba15177319 Node: Locale Encoding15177762 Ref: c-api/unicode locale-encoding15177905 Ref: 4c7215177905 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeLocaleAndSize15178039 Ref: bc915178039 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeLocale15179275 Ref: 4ac015179275 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_EncodeLocale15179629 Ref: bca15179629 Ref: Locale Encoding-Footnote-115180877 Ref: Locale Encoding-Footnote-215180919 Node: File System Encoding15180961 Ref: c-api/unicode file-system-encoding15181081 Ref: 4c7315181081 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FSConverter15181442 Ref: d1915181442 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FSDecoder15182702 Ref: 57415182702 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefaultAndSize15183807 Ref: 4abe15183807 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeFSDefault15184376 Ref: 171a15184376 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_EncodeFSDefault15184828 Ref: 1a5015184828 Ref: File System Encoding-Footnote-115185544 Ref: File System Encoding-Footnote-215185586 Node: wchar_t Support15185628 Ref: c-api/unicode wchar-t-support15185724 Ref: 4c7415185724 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FromWideChar15185830 Ref: 118015185830 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsWideChar15186263 Ref: 1a5615186263 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsWideCharString15187257 Ref: 8bb15187257 Node: Built-in Codecs15188388 Ref: c-api/unicode built-in-codecs15188525 Ref: 4c7515188525 Ref: c-api/unicode builtincodecs15188525 Ref: 4c7115188525 Node: Generic Codecs15189748 Ref: c-api/unicode generic-codecs15189835 Ref: 4c7615189835 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Decode15189919 Ref: 19e115189919 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsEncodedString15190499 Ref: 4ab615190499 Node: UTF-8 Codecs15191060 Ref: c-api/unicode utf-8-codecs15191169 Ref: 4c7715191169 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF815191247 Ref: 4aca15191247 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF8Stateful15191606 Ref: 179f15191606 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUTF8String15192166 Ref: 118215192166 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUTF8AndSize15192629 Ref: 89715192629 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUTF815193940 Ref: bbb15193940 Ref: UTF-8 Codecs-Footnote-115194704 Node: UTF-32 Codecs15194757 Ref: c-api/unicode utf-32-codecs15194865 Ref: 4c7815194865 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF3215194946 Ref: 4ac615194946 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF32Stateful15196149 Ref: 4ac715196149 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUTF32String15196828 Ref: 4ab815196828 Node: UTF-16 Codecs15197227 Ref: c-api/unicode utf-16-codecs15197335 Ref: 4c7915197335 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF1615197416 Ref: 4ac415197416 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF16Stateful15198703 Ref: 4ac515198703 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUTF16String15199391 Ref: 4ab715199391 Node: UTF-7 Codecs15199790 Ref: c-api/unicode utf-7-codecs15199906 Ref: 4c7a15199906 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF715199984 Ref: 4ac815199984 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUTF7Stateful15200343 Ref: 4ac915200343 Node: Unicode-Escape Codecs15200905 Ref: c-api/unicode unicode-escape-codecs15201033 Ref: 4c7b15201033 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeUnicodeEscape15201144 Ref: 4acb15201144 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsUnicodeEscapeString15201521 Ref: 118315201521 Node: Raw-Unicode-Escape Codecs15201891 Ref: c-api/unicode raw-unicode-escape-codecs15202021 Ref: 4c7c15202021 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeRawUnicodeEscape15202144 Ref: 4ac315202144 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsRawUnicodeEscapeString15202528 Ref: 118415202528 Node: Latin-1 Codecs15202905 Ref: c-api/unicode latin-1-codecs15203026 Ref: 4c7d15203026 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeLatin115203223 Ref: 4abf15203223 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsLatin1String15203586 Ref: 118515203586 Node: ASCII Codecs15203947 Ref: c-api/unicode ascii-codecs15204063 Ref: 4c7e15204063 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeASCII15204211 Ref: 4abb15204211 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsASCIIString15204571 Ref: 118615204571 Node: Character Map Codecs15204929 Ref: c-api/unicode character-map-codecs15205054 Ref: 4c7f15205054 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeCharmap15205534 Ref: 4abc15205534 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsCharmapString15206426 Ref: 4ab515206426 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Translate15207205 Ref: 4ad815207205 Node: MBCS codecs for Windows15208103 Ref: c-api/unicode mbcs-codecs-for-windows15208207 Ref: 4c8015208207 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeMBCS15208567 Ref: 4ac115208567 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeMBCSStateful15208955 Ref: 4ac215208955 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_DecodeCodePageStateful15209517 Ref: 4abd15209517 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_AsMBCSString15209928 Ref: 118715209928 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_EncodeCodePage15210314 Ref: 118815210314 Node: Methods and Slot Functions15210799 Ref: c-api/unicode methods-and-slot-functions15210912 Ref: 4c8115210912 Ref: c-api/unicode unicodemethodsandslots15210912 Ref: 4c8215210912 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Concat15211235 Ref: 119415211235 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Split15211463 Ref: 4ad615211463 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_RSplit15212084 Ref: 156e15212084 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Splitlines15212499 Ref: 4ad715212499 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Partition15212912 Ref: 156f15212912 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_RPartition15213538 Ref: 157015213538 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Join15214092 Ref: 119515214092 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Tailmatch15214374 Ref: 8b715214374 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Find15214833 Ref: 4acc15214833 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_FindChar15215444 Ref: 8b815215444 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Count15216221 Ref: 4aba15216221 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Replace15216541 Ref: 4ad415216541 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Compare15216960 Ref: 8b615216960 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_EqualToUTF8AndSize15217325 Ref: 37115217325 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_EqualToUTF815217928 Ref: 37215217928 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_CompareWithASCIIString15218311 Ref: 125b15218311 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_RichCompare15218813 Ref: 4ad515218813 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Format15219480 Ref: 4acd15219480 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_Contains15219761 Ref: 4ab915219761 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_InternInPlace15220097 Ref: 8b015220097 Ref: c-api/unicode c PyUnicode_InternFromString15221474 Ref: 160015221474 Node: Tuple Objects15222323 Ref: c-api/tuple doc15222456 Ref: 4c8315222456 Ref: c-api/tuple tuple-objects15222456 Ref: 4c8415222456 Ref: c-api/tuple tupleobjects15222456 Ref: 4c8515222456 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTupleObject15222503 Ref: 4b5215222503 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_Type15222617 Ref: 4a9815222617 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_Check15222866 Ref: 4c8615222866 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_CheckExact15223042 Ref: 4c8715223042 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_New15223229 Ref: 39915223229 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_Pack15223471 Ref: 4a9615223471 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_Size15223906 Ref: 4a9715223906 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_GET_SIZE15224150 Ref: 4c8815224150 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_GetItem15224288 Ref: 48d215224288 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_GET_ITEM15224922 Ref: 4c8915224922 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_GetSlice15225140 Ref: 4a9515225140 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_SetItem15225591 Ref: 48d315225591 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyTuple_SET_ITEM15226107 Ref: 38815226107 Ref: c-api/tuple c _PyTuple_Resize15226726 Ref: 14d715226726 Node: Struct Sequence Objects15227642 Ref: c-api/tuple id115227761 Ref: 4c8a15227761 Ref: c-api/tuple struct-sequence-objects15227761 Ref: 11b115227761 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_NewType15228069 Ref: 4a8815228069 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_InitType15228490 Ref: ffc15228490 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_InitType215228668 Ref: ffb15228668 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Desc15228938 Ref: bba15228938 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Desc name15229118 Ref: 4c8b15229118 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Desc doc15229281 Ref: 4c8c15229281 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Desc fields15229385 Ref: 4c8d15229385 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Desc n_in_sequence15229542 Ref: 4c8e15229542 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Field15229665 Ref: bb915229665 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Field name15230075 Ref: 4c8f15230075 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_Field doc15230276 Ref: 4c9015230276 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_UnnamedField15230362 Ref: 98215230362 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_New15230618 Ref: 4a8715230618 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_GetItem15230957 Ref: 4a8615230957 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_GET_ITEM15231361 Ref: 4c9115231361 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_SetItem15231669 Ref: 4a8915231669 Ref: c-api/tuple c PyStructSequence_SET_ITEM15232189 Ref: 4c9215232189 Node: List Objects15232453 Ref: c-api/list doc15232550 Ref: 4c9315232550 Ref: c-api/list list-objects15232550 Ref: 4c9415232550 Ref: c-api/list listobjects15232550 Ref: 4c9515232550 Ref: c-api/list c PyListObject15232595 Ref: 4bba15232595 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Type15232707 Ref: 48f515232707 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Check15232956 Ref: 4c9615232956 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_CheckExact15233129 Ref: 4c9715233129 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_New15233313 Ref: 494815233313 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Size15234081 Ref: 13e515234081 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_GET_SIZE15234308 Ref: 4c9815234308 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_GetItemRef15234453 Ref: 35615234453 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_GetItem15234984 Ref: 35715234984 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_GET_ITEM15235297 Ref: 495d15235297 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_SetItem15235508 Ref: 157715235508 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_SET_ITEM15236001 Ref: 38915236001 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Insert15236652 Ref: 157515236652 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Append15237005 Ref: 4a1415237005 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_GetSlice15237308 Ref: 4a1615237308 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_SetSlice15237753 Ref: 4a1815237753 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Extend15238263 Ref: 35815238263 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Clear15238706 Ref: 35915238706 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Sort15239080 Ref: 4a1915239080 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_Reverse15239310 Ref: 4a1715239310 Ref: c-api/list c PyList_AsTuple15239553 Ref: 4a1515239553 Node: Container Objects15239808 Ref: c-api/concrete container-objects15239937 Ref: 4c9915239937 Ref: c-api/concrete mapobjects15239937 Ref: 4c9a15239937 Node: Dictionary Objects15240035 Ref: c-api/dict doc15240127 Ref: 4c9b15240127 Ref: c-api/dict dictionary-objects15240127 Ref: 4c9c15240127 Ref: c-api/dict dictobjects15240127 Ref: 4c9d15240127 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDictObject15240182 Ref: 3bd15240182 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Type15240300 Ref: 49a115240300 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Check15240555 Ref: 4bf515240555 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_CheckExact15240728 Ref: 4c9e15240728 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_New15240912 Ref: 499f15240912 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDictProxy_New15241102 Ref: 499715241102 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Clear15241493 Ref: 499815241493 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Contains15241644 Ref: 33315241644 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_ContainsString15241981 Ref: 33215241981 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Copy15242255 Ref: 41c15242255 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_SetItem15242476 Ref: 48d415242476 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_SetItemString15242883 Ref: 160115242883 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_DelItem15243190 Ref: 499915243190 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_DelItemString15243574 Ref: 499a15243574 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_GetItemRef15243856 Ref: 33515243856 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_GetItem15244487 Ref: 38215244487 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_GetItemWithError15245235 Ref: 33715245235 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_GetItemString15245656 Ref: 38315245656 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_GetItemStringRef15246365 Ref: 33615246365 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_SetDefault15246726 Ref: 33b15246726 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_SetDefaultRef15247331 Ref: 33a15247331 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Pop15248429 Ref: 33c15248429 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_PopString15249153 Ref: 33d15249153 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Items15249437 Ref: 499b15249437 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Keys15249669 Ref: 499c15249669 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Values15249899 Ref: 49a315249899 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Size15250137 Ref: 49a015250137 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Next15250356 Ref: 161215250356 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Merge15252719 Ref: 499d15252719 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Update15253306 Ref: 49a215253306 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_MergeFromSeq215253769 Ref: 499e15253769 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_AddWatcher15254495 Ref: 55f15254495 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_ClearWatcher15254857 Ref: 4ca015254857 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Watch15255160 Ref: 56015255160 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_Unwatch15255486 Ref: 4ca115255486 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_WatchEvent15255900 Ref: 4ca215255900 Ref: c-api/dict c PyDict_WatchCallback15256210 Ref: 4ca315256210 Node: Set Objects15258477 Ref: c-api/set doc15258569 Ref: 4ca415258569 Ref: c-api/set set-objects15258569 Ref: 4ca515258569 Ref: c-api/set setobjects15258569 Ref: 4ca615258569 Ref: c-api/set c PySetObject15259346 Ref: 4ca715259346 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Type15259986 Ref: 4a7f15259986 Ref: c-api/set c PyFrozenSet_Type15260182 Ref: 4a0415260182 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Check15260541 Ref: 4ca815260541 Ref: c-api/set c PyFrozenSet_Check15260707 Ref: 4ca915260707 Ref: c-api/set c PyAnySet_Check15260885 Ref: 4caa15260885 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_CheckExact15261092 Ref: 89b15261092 Ref: c-api/set c PyAnySet_CheckExact15261297 Ref: 4cab15261297 Ref: c-api/set c PyFrozenSet_CheckExact15261515 Ref: 4cac15261515 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_New15261703 Ref: 141015261703 Ref: c-api/set c PyFrozenSet_New15262204 Ref: 141115262204 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Size15262805 Ref: 141515262805 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_GET_SIZE15263167 Ref: 4cad15263167 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Contains15263311 Ref: 141415263311 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Add15263863 Ref: 141215263863 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Discard15264658 Ref: 141315264658 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Pop15265266 Ref: 4a7e15265266 Ref: c-api/set c PySet_Clear15265705 Ref: 4a7d15265705 Node: Function Objects<2>15265994 Ref: c-api/concrete function-objects15266120 Ref: 4cae15266120 Ref: c-api/concrete otherobjects15266120 Ref: 4caf15266120 Node: Function Objects<3>15266377 Ref: c-api/function doc15266484 Ref: 4cb015266484 Ref: c-api/function function-objects15266484 Ref: 4cb115266484 Ref: c-api/function id115266484 Ref: 4cb215266484 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunctionObject15266592 Ref: 55e15266592 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_Type15266669 Ref: 4cb315266669 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_Check15266898 Ref: 4cb415266898 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_New15267118 Ref: 4cb515267118 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_NewWithQualName15267749 Ref: 4cb615267749 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetCode15268266 Ref: 4cb715268266 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetGlobals15268451 Ref: 4cb815268451 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetModule15268656 Ref: 4cb915268656 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetDefaults15269062 Ref: 4cba15269062 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_SetDefaults15269314 Ref: 4cbb15269314 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_SetVectorcall15269591 Ref: 55d15269591 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetKwDefaults15269916 Ref: 4cbc15269916 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetClosure15270188 Ref: 4cbd15270188 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_SetClosure15270439 Ref: 4cbe15270439 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GetAnnotations15270725 Ref: 17ba15270725 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_SetAnnotations15270963 Ref: 4cbf15270963 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_CODE15271243 Ref: 4cc015271243 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_GLOBALS15271316 Ref: 4cc115271316 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_MODULE15271402 Ref: 4cc215271402 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_DEFAULTS15271487 Ref: 4cc315271487 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_KW_DEFAULTS15271574 Ref: 4cc415271574 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_CLOSURE15271664 Ref: 4cc515271664 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_GET_ANNOTATIONS15271750 Ref: 4cc615271750 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_AddWatcher15272095 Ref: 4cc715272095 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_ClearWatcher15272476 Ref: 4cc815272476 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_WatchEvent15272844 Ref: 4cc915272844 Ref: c-api/function c PyFunction_WatchCallback15273229 Ref: 4cca15273229 Node: Instance Method Objects15275432 Ref: c-api/method doc15275565 Ref: 4ccb15275565 Ref: c-api/method instance-method-objects15275565 Ref: 4ccc15275565 Ref: c-api/method instancemethod-objects15275565 Ref: 4ccd15275565 Ref: c-api/method c PyInstanceMethod_Type15275832 Ref: 4cce15275832 Ref: c-api/method c PyInstanceMethod_Check15276032 Ref: 4ccf15276032 Ref: c-api/method c PyInstanceMethod_New15276271 Ref: 4cd015276271 Ref: c-api/method c PyInstanceMethod_Function15276561 Ref: 4cd115276561 Ref: c-api/method c PyInstanceMethod_GET_FUNCTION15276767 Ref: 4cd215276767 Node: Method Objects<2>15276995 Ref: c-api/method id115277121 Ref: 4cd315277121 Ref: c-api/method method-objects15277121 Ref: 4cd415277121 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_Type15277347 Ref: 4cd515277347 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_Check15277559 Ref: 4cd615277559 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_New15277773 Ref: 4cd715277773 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_Function15278141 Ref: 4cd815278141 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_GET_FUNCTION15278324 Ref: 4cd915278324 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_Self15278538 Ref: 4cda15278538 Ref: c-api/method c PyMethod_GET_SELF15278710 Ref: 4cdb15278710 Node: Cell Objects15278906 Ref: c-api/cell doc15279024 Ref: 4cdc15279024 Ref: c-api/cell cell-objects15279024 Ref: 6fc15279024 Ref: c-api/cell id115279024 Ref: 4cdd15279024 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCellObject15279669 Ref: 4cde15279669 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_Type15279745 Ref: 4cdf15279745 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_Check15279852 Ref: 4ce015279852 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_New15280010 Ref: 4ce115280010 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_Get15280214 Ref: 4ce215280214 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_GET15280468 Ref: 4ce315280468 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_Set15280697 Ref: 4ce415280697 Ref: c-api/cell c PyCell_SET15281069 Ref: 8ad15281069 Node: Code Objects<2>15281332 Ref: c-api/code doc15281450 Ref: 4ce515281450 Ref: c-api/code code-objects15281450 Ref: 4ce615281450 Ref: c-api/code codeobjects15281450 Ref: 5b115281450 Ref: c-api/code c PyCodeObject15281655 Ref: 77215281655 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_Type15281819 Ref: 4ce715281819 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_Check15281980 Ref: 4ce815281980 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_GetNumFree15282121 Ref: 4ce915282121 Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_GetFirstFree15282296 Ref: 38115282296 Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_New15282839 Ref: 4cea15282839 Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_NewWithPosOnlyArgs15284246 Ref: 4ceb15284246 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_NewEmpty15285448 Ref: 134415285448 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_Addr2Line15285794 Ref: 88715285794 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_Addr2Location15286197 Ref: 5b015286197 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_GetCode15286677 Ref: 77315286677 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_GetVarnames15287261 Ref: 77415287261 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_GetCellvars15287625 Ref: 77515287625 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_GetFreevars15288034 Ref: 77615288034 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_AddWatcher15288419 Ref: 56315288419 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_ClearWatcher15288780 Ref: 56415288780 Ref: c-api/code c PyCodeEvent15289139 Ref: 4cec15289139 Ref: c-api/code c PyCode_WatchCallback15289320 Ref: 4ced15289320 Ref: Code Objects<2>-Footnote-115291136 Node: Code Object Flags15291218 Ref: c-api/code c-codeobject-flags15291341 Ref: 4b2a15291341 Ref: c-api/code code-object-flags15291341 Ref: 4cee15291341 Ref: c-api/code c CO_OPTIMIZED15292389 Ref: 4cef15292389 Ref: c-api/code c CO_NEWLOCALS15292590 Ref: 4cf015292590 Ref: c-api/code c CO_VARARGS15292789 Ref: 4cf115292789 Ref: c-api/code c CO_VARKEYWORDS15292992 Ref: 4cf215292992 Ref: c-api/code c CO_NESTED15293190 Ref: 4cf315293190 Ref: c-api/code c CO_GENERATOR15293391 Ref: 4cf415293391 Ref: c-api/code c CO_COROUTINE15293592 Ref: 4cf515293592 Ref: c-api/code c CO_ITERABLE_COROUTINE15293802 Ref: 4cf615293802 Ref: c-api/code c CO_ASYNC_GENERATOR15294009 Ref: 4cf715294009 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_DIVISION15294216 Ref: 4cf815294216 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_ABSOLUTE_IMPORT15294435 Ref: 4cf915294435 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_WITH_STATEMENT15294653 Ref: 4cfa15294653 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_PRINT_FUNCTION15294871 Ref: 4cfb15294871 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_UNICODE_LITERALS15295091 Ref: 4cfc15295091 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_GENERATOR_STOP15295309 Ref: 4cfd15295309 Ref: c-api/code c CO_FUTURE_ANNOTATIONS15295524 Ref: 4b2915295524 Node: Extra information15295638 Ref: c-api/code extra-information15295737 Ref: 4cfe15295737 Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Eval_RequestCodeExtraIndex15296110 Ref: 4cff15296110 Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_GetExtra15297118 Ref: 4d0015297118 Ref: c-api/code c PyUnstable_Code_SetExtra15297862 Ref: 4d0115297862 Node: Other Objects15298489 Ref: c-api/concrete other-objects15298589 Ref: 4d0215298589 Node: File Objects15299022 Ref: c-api/file doc15299107 Ref: 4d0315299107 Ref: c-api/file file-objects15299107 Ref: 4d0415299107 Ref: c-api/file fileobjects15299107 Ref: 4d0515299107 Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_FromFd15299688 Ref: 49fd15299688 Ref: c-api/file c PyObject_AsFileDescriptor15300699 Ref: 4a5815300699 Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_GetLine15301152 Ref: 49fe15301152 Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_SetOpenCodeHook15301985 Ref: 172915301985 Ref: c-api/file c Py_OpenCodeHookFunction15302240 Ref: 4d0615302240 Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_WriteObject15303350 Ref: 49ff15303350 Ref: c-api/file c PyFile_WriteString15303795 Ref: 4a0015303795 Node: Module Objects15304045 Ref: c-api/module doc15304155 Ref: 4d0715304155 Ref: c-api/module module-objects15304155 Ref: 4d0815304155 Ref: c-api/module moduleobjects15304155 Ref: 4d0915304155 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_Type15304202 Ref: 4a3415304202 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_Check15304457 Ref: 4d0a15304457 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_CheckExact15304622 Ref: 4d0b15304622 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_NewObject15304807 Ref: 4a3215304807 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_New15305540 Ref: 4a3115305540 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetDict15305809 Ref: 4a2e15305809 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetNameObject15306459 Ref: 4a3015306459 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetName15306866 Ref: 4a2f15306866 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetState15307080 Ref: 98015307080 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetDef15307365 Ref: 4a2d15307365 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetFilenameObject15307660 Ref: 3f515307660 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_GetFilename15308153 Ref: 3f415308153 Node: Initializing C modules15308630 Ref: c-api/module initializing-c-modules15308725 Ref: 4d0c15308725 Ref: c-api/module initializing-modules15308725 Ref: 491515308725 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef15309359 Ref: 97d15309359 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_base15309654 Ref: 4d0e15309654 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_name15309771 Ref: 4d0f15309771 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_doc15309846 Ref: 4d1015309846 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_size15310008 Ref: 97f15310008 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_methods15310979 Ref: 4d1115310979 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_slots15311208 Ref: 4d1215311208 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_slots m_reload15311598 Ref: 4d1415311598 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_traverse15311658 Ref: 97a15311658 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_clear15312393 Ref: 97b15312393 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef m_free15313458 Ref: 97c15313458 Ref: Initializing C modules-Footnote-115314346 Node: Single-phase initialization15314388 Ref: c-api/module single-phase-initialization15314509 Ref: 4d1615314509 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_Create15314788 Ref: 4d0d15314788 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_Create215315083 Ref: 4a2c15315083 Node: Multi-phase initialization15315893 Ref: c-api/module id115316058 Ref: 4d1715316058 Ref: c-api/module multi-phase-initialization15316058 Ref: 491615316058 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef_Init15318281 Ref: 48bd15318281 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef_Slot15318818 Ref: 4d1315318818 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef_Slot slot15318853 Ref: 4d1a15318853 Ref: c-api/module c PyModuleDef_Slot value15318954 Ref: 4d1b15318954 Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_create15319174 Ref: 4d1c15319174 Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_create create_module15319367 Ref: 4d1d15319367 Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_exec15320798 Ref: 97e15320798 Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_exec exec_module15321070 Ref: 4d1e15321070 Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_multiple_interpreters15321257 Ref: 4d1915321257 Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_NOT_SUPPORTED15321345 Ref: 48bf15321345 Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_MULTIPLE_INTERPRETERS_SUPPORTED15321481 Ref: 4d1f15321481 Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_PER_INTERPRETER_GIL_SUPPORTED15321727 Ref: 4d2015321727 Ref: c-api/module c Py_mod_gil15322334 Ref: 15815322334 Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_GIL_USED15322404 Ref: 4d2115322404 Ref: c-api/module c Py_MOD_GIL_NOT_USED15322596 Ref: 4d2215322596 Ref: Multi-phase initialization-Footnote-115323290 Ref: Multi-phase initialization-Footnote-215323332 Node: Low-level module creation functions15323374 Ref: c-api/module low-level-module-creation-functions15323529 Ref: 4d2315323529 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_FromDefAndSpec15323908 Ref: eac15323908 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_FromDefAndSpec215324298 Ref: ead15324298 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_ExecDef15325049 Ref: eae15325049 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_SetDocString15325300 Ref: 4a3315325300 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddFunctions15325703 Ref: 4a2b15325703 Node: Support functions15326459 Ref: c-api/module support-functions15326579 Ref: 4d2415326579 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddObjectRef15326865 Ref: 36015326865 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_Add15328788 Ref: 35f15328788 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddObject15329368 Ref: 36115329368 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddIntConstant15330806 Ref: 150615330806 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddStringConstant15331336 Ref: 150715331336 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddIntMacro15331941 Ref: 13bf15331941 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddStringMacro15332298 Ref: 13be15332298 Ref: c-api/module c PyModule_AddType15332393 Ref: 97515332393 Ref: c-api/module c PyUnstable_Module_SetGIL15332867 Ref: 17915332867 Node: Module lookup15333707 Ref: c-api/module module-lookup15333802 Ref: 4d2515333802 Ref: c-api/module c PyState_FindModule15334221 Ref: 4a8415334221 Ref: c-api/module c PyState_AddModule15334771 Ref: 4a8315334771 Ref: c-api/module c PyState_RemoveModule15335810 Ref: 4a8515335810 Node: Iterator Objects15336149 Ref: c-api/iterator doc15336265 Ref: 4d2615336265 Ref: c-api/iterator id115336265 Ref: 4d2715336265 Ref: c-api/iterator iterator-objects15336265 Ref: 4d2815336265 Ref: c-api/iterator c PySeqIter_Type15336663 Ref: 4a6d15336663 Ref: c-api/iterator c PySeqIter_Check15336952 Ref: 4d2915336952 Ref: c-api/iterator c PySeqIter_New15337109 Ref: 4a6c15337109 Ref: c-api/iterator c PyCallIter_Type15337438 Ref: 497815337438 Ref: c-api/iterator c PyCallIter_Check15337696 Ref: 4d2a15337696 Ref: c-api/iterator c PyCallIter_New15337855 Ref: 497715337855 Node: Descriptor Objects15338340 Ref: c-api/descriptor doc15338455 Ref: 4d2b15338455 Ref: c-api/descriptor descriptor-objects15338455 Ref: 4d2c15338455 Ref: c-api/descriptor id115338455 Ref: 4d2d15338455 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyProperty_Type15338636 Ref: 4a6b15338636 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_NewGetSet15338794 Ref: 499515338794 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_NewMember15338989 Ref: 499615338989 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_NewMethod15339182 Ref: 198b15339182 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_NewWrapper15339375 Ref: 4d2e15339375 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_NewClassMethod15339544 Ref: 499415339544 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyDescr_IsData15339737 Ref: 18f515339737 Ref: c-api/descriptor c PyWrapper_New15339988 Ref: 4adc15339988 Node: Slice Objects15340153 Ref: c-api/slice doc15340270 Ref: 4d2f15340270 Ref: c-api/slice id115340270 Ref: 4d3015340270 Ref: c-api/slice slice-objects15340270 Ref: 4d3115340270 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_Type15340317 Ref: 4a8215340317 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_Check15340521 Ref: 4d3215340521 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_New15340681 Ref: 4a8115340681 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_GetIndices15341264 Ref: 4a8015341264 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_GetIndicesEx15342027 Ref: 3f815342027 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_Unpack15344031 Ref: 3f915344031 Ref: c-api/slice c PySlice_AdjustIndices15344695 Ref: 3fa15344695 Node: Ellipsis Object15345241 Ref: c-api/slice ellipsis-object15345306 Ref: 4d3315345306 Ref: c-api/slice c PyEllipsis_Type15345357 Ref: 49a415345357 Ref: c-api/slice c Py_Ellipsis15345580 Ref: 4d3415345580 Ref: c-api/memoryview memoryview-objects15345855 Ref: 4bcd15345855 Node: MemoryView objects15345855 Ref: c-api/memoryview doc15345979 Ref: 4d3515345979 Ref: c-api/memoryview id115345979 Ref: 4d3615345979 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_FromObject15346192 Ref: 4a2915346192 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyBUF_READ15346626 Ref: 169015346626 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyBUF_WRITE15346692 Ref: 169115346692 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_FromMemory15346759 Ref: 116415346759 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_FromBuffer15347149 Ref: 75c15347149 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_GetContiguous15347519 Ref: 4a2a15347519 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_Check15348151 Ref: 4d3715348151 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_GET_BUFFER15348386 Ref: 4d3815348386 Ref: c-api/memoryview c PyMemoryView_GET_BASE15348708 Ref: 4d3915348708 Node: Weak Reference Objects<2>15349098 Ref: c-api/weakref doc15349220 Ref: 4d3a15349220 Ref: c-api/weakref weak-reference-objects15349220 Ref: 4d3b15349220 Ref: c-api/weakref weakrefobjects15349220 Ref: 4d3c15349220 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_Check15349538 Ref: 4d3d15349538 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_CheckRef15349695 Ref: 4d3e15349695 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_CheckProxy15349840 Ref: 4d3f15349840 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_NewRef15349983 Ref: 184e15349983 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_NewProxy15350817 Ref: 4adb15350817 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_GetRef15351654 Ref: 37315351654 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_GetObject15352186 Ref: 37415352186 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyWeakref_GET_OBJECT15352939 Ref: 3bb15352939 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyObject_ClearWeakRefs15353264 Ref: 57315353264 Ref: c-api/weakref c PyUnstable_Object_ClearWeakRefsNoCallbacks15353646 Ref: 161315353646 Node: Capsules<2>15354546 Ref: c-api/capsule doc15354663 Ref: 4d4015354663 Ref: c-api/capsule capsules15354663 Ref: 258415354663 Ref: c-api/capsule id115354663 Ref: 4d4115354663 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule15354833 Ref: 126615354833 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_Destructor15355276 Ref: 497a15355276 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_CheckExact15355584 Ref: 4d4215355584 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_New15355739 Ref: 48dd15355739 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_GetPointer15356702 Ref: 497e15356702 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_GetDestructor15357210 Ref: 497c15357210 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_GetContext15357699 Ref: 497b15357699 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_GetName15358141 Ref: 497d15358141 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_Import15358580 Ref: 186d15358580 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_IsValid15359591 Ref: 134815359591 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_SetContext15360412 Ref: 497f15360412 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_SetDestructor15360690 Ref: 498015360690 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_SetName15360987 Ref: 498115360987 Ref: c-api/capsule c PyCapsule_SetPointer15361413 Ref: 498215361413 Node: Frame Objects15361724 Ref: c-api/frame doc15361833 Ref: 4d4315361833 Ref: c-api/frame frame-objects15361833 Ref: 4d4415361833 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrameObject15361880 Ref: 78415361880 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_Type15362421 Ref: 78215362421 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_Check15362706 Ref: 78015362706 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetBack15362927 Ref: 78115362927 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetBuiltins15363213 Ref: 76615363213 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetCode15363509 Ref: 78515363509 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetGenerator15363847 Ref: 76715363847 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetGlobals15364278 Ref: 76815364278 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetLasti15364572 Ref: 76915364572 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetVar15364774 Ref: 56515364774 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetVarString15365281 Ref: 56615365281 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetLocals15365557 Ref: 41b15365557 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrame_GetLineNumber15366269 Ref: 78615366269 Ref: Frame Objects-Footnote-115366555 Node: Frame Locals Proxies15366597 Ref: c-api/frame frame-locals-proxies15366691 Ref: 4d4615366691 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrameLocalsProxy_Type15367155 Ref: 4d4515367155 Ref: c-api/frame c PyFrameLocalsProxy_Check15367281 Ref: 4d4715367281 Ref: Frame Locals Proxies-Footnote-115367449 Node: Internal Frames15367491 Ref: c-api/frame internal-frames15367585 Ref: 4d4815367585 Ref: c-api/frame c _PyInterpreterFrame15367686 Ref: 4d4915367686 Ref: c-api/frame c PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetCode15367814 Ref: 4d4a15367814 Ref: c-api/frame c PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLasti15368235 Ref: 4d4b15368235 Ref: c-api/frame c PyUnstable_InterpreterFrame_GetLine15368601 Ref: 4d4c15368601 Ref: Internal Frames-Footnote-115369026 Node: Generator Objects15369068 Ref: c-api/gen doc15369186 Ref: 4d4d15369186 Ref: c-api/gen gen-objects15369186 Ref: 4d4e15369186 Ref: c-api/gen generator-objects15369186 Ref: 4d4f15369186 Ref: c-api/gen c PyGenObject15369486 Ref: 4d5215369486 Ref: c-api/gen c PyGen_Type15369566 Ref: 4d5315369566 Ref: c-api/gen c PyGen_Check15369677 Ref: 4d5415369677 Ref: c-api/gen c PyGen_CheckExact15369839 Ref: 4d5515369839 Ref: c-api/gen c PyGen_New15370021 Ref: 4d5015370021 Ref: c-api/gen c PyGen_NewWithQualName15370300 Ref: 4d5115370300 Node: Coroutine Objects<2>15370728 Ref: c-api/coro doc15370858 Ref: 4d5615370858 Ref: c-api/coro coro-objects15370858 Ref: ec915370858 Ref: c-api/coro coroutine-objects15370858 Ref: 4d5715370858 Ref: c-api/coro c PyCoroObject15371019 Ref: 4d5815371019 Ref: c-api/coro c PyCoro_Type15371100 Ref: 4d5915371100 Ref: c-api/coro c PyCoro_CheckExact15371212 Ref: 4d5a15371212 Ref: c-api/coro c PyCoro_New15371396 Ref: 4d5b15371396 Node: Context Variables Objects15371813 Ref: c-api/contextvars doc15371945 Ref: 4d5c15371945 Ref: c-api/contextvars context-variables-objects15371945 Ref: 4d5d15371945 Ref: c-api/contextvars contextvarsobjects15371945 Ref: af815371945 Ref: c-api/contextvars contextvarsobjects-pointertype-change15372016 Ref: c2615372016 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext15372557 Ref: 4d5e15372557 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar15372673 Ref: 4d5f15372673 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextToken15372795 Ref: 4d6015372795 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_Type15372914 Ref: 4d6115372914 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar_Type15373026 Ref: 4d6215373026 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextToken_Type15373150 Ref: 4d6315373150 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_CheckExact15373302 Ref: 4d6415373302 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar_CheckExact15373488 Ref: 4d6515373488 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextToken_CheckExact15373680 Ref: 4d6615373680 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_New15373914 Ref: 4d6715373914 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_Copy15374096 Ref: 4d6815374096 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_CopyCurrent15374312 Ref: 4d6915374312 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_Enter15374521 Ref: 4d6a15374521 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContext_Exit15374694 Ref: 4d6b15374694 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar_New15374952 Ref: 4d6c15374952 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar_Get15375377 Ref: 4d6d15375377 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar_Set15376000 Ref: 4d6e15376000 Ref: c-api/contextvars c PyContextVar_Reset15376289 Ref: 4d6f15376289 Ref: Context Variables Objects-Footnote-115376625 Node: DateTime Objects<2>15376690 Ref: c-api/datetime doc15376826 Ref: 4d7015376826 Ref: c-api/datetime datetime-objects15376826 Ref: 4d7115376826 Ref: c-api/datetime datetimeobjects15376826 Ref: 4b8415376826 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_Date15377349 Ref: 4d7215377349 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DateTime15377464 Ref: 4d7315377464 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_Time15377587 Ref: 4d7415377587 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_Delta15377702 Ref: 4d7515377702 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DateType15377840 Ref: 4d7615377840 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DateTimeType15378065 Ref: 4d7715378065 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TimeType15378302 Ref: 4d7815378302 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DeltaType15378527 Ref: 4d7915378527 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TZInfoType15378796 Ref: 4d7a15378796 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TimeZone_UTC15379075 Ref: bc315379075 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDate_Check15379300 Ref: 4d7b15379300 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDate_CheckExact15379534 Ref: 4d7c15379534 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_Check15379724 Ref: 4d7d15379724 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_CheckExact15379970 Ref: 4d7e15379970 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTime_Check15380168 Ref: 4d7f15380168 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTime_CheckExact15380402 Ref: 4d8015380402 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDelta_Check15380592 Ref: 4d8115380592 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDelta_CheckExact15380828 Ref: 4d8215380828 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTZInfo_Check15381020 Ref: 4d8315381020 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTZInfo_CheckExact15381259 Ref: 4d8415381259 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDate_FromDate15381480 Ref: 4d8515381480 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_FromDateAndTime15381700 Ref: 4d8615381700 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_FromDateAndTimeAndFold15382032 Ref: 4d8715382032 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTime_FromTime15382415 Ref: 4d8815382415 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTime_FromTimeAndFold15382669 Ref: 4d8915382669 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDelta_FromDSU15382979 Ref: 4d8a15382979 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTimeZone_FromOffset15383409 Ref: bc115383409 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyTimeZone_FromOffsetAndName15383688 Ref: bc215383688 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_GET_YEAR15384247 Ref: 4d8b15384247 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_GET_MONTH15384351 Ref: 4d8c15384351 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_GET_DAY15384467 Ref: 4d8d15384467 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DATE_GET_HOUR15384787 Ref: 4d8e15384787 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MINUTE15384910 Ref: 4d8f15384910 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DATE_GET_SECOND15385037 Ref: 4d9015385037 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DATE_GET_MICROSECOND15385164 Ref: 4d9115385164 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DATE_GET_FOLD15385315 Ref: 4d9215385315 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DATE_GET_TZINFO15385465 Ref: 89315385465 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_HOUR15385846 Ref: 4d9315385846 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MINUTE15385965 Ref: 4d9415385965 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_SECOND15386088 Ref: 4d9515386088 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_MICROSECOND15386211 Ref: 4d9615386211 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_FOLD15386348 Ref: 4d9715386348 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_TIME_GET_TZINFO15386494 Ref: 89415386494 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_DAYS15386878 Ref: 4d9815386878 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_SECONDS15387048 Ref: 4d9915387048 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_DELTA_GET_MICROSECONDS15387216 Ref: 4d9a15387216 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDateTime_FromTimestamp15387469 Ref: 4d9b15387469 Ref: c-api/datetime c PyDate_FromTimestamp15387762 Ref: 1a0d15387762 Node: Objects for Type Hinting15388044 Ref: c-api/typehints doc15388146 Ref: 4d9c15388146 Ref: c-api/typehints objects-for-type-hinting15388146 Ref: 4d9d15388146 Ref: c-api/typehints typehintobjects15388146 Ref: 4d9e15388146 Ref: c-api/typehints c Py_GenericAlias15388391 Ref: 4ae015388391 Ref: c-api/typehints c Py_GenericAliasType15389774 Ref: 4ae115389774 Node: Initialization Finalization and Threads15390061 Ref: c-api/init doc15390241 Ref: 4d9f15390241 Ref: c-api/init initialization15390241 Ref: 4da015390241 Ref: c-api/init initialization-finalization-and-threads15390241 Ref: 4da115390241 Node: Before Python Initialization15390894 Ref: c-api/init before-python-initialization15391037 Ref: 4da215391037 Ref: c-api/init pre-init-safe15391037 Ref: bc515391037 Node: Global configuration variables15393714 Ref: c-api/init global-conf-vars15393909 Ref: 4da315393909 Ref: c-api/init global-configuration-variables15393909 Ref: 4da715393909 Ref: c-api/init c Py_BytesWarningFlag15394381 Ref: 3d015394381 Ref: c-api/init c Py_DebugFlag15394913 Ref: 3c215394913 Ref: c-api/init c Py_DontWriteBytecodeFlag15395392 Ref: 3d615395392 Ref: c-api/init c Py_FrozenFlag15395910 Ref: 3d215395910 Ref: c-api/init c Py_HashRandomizationFlag15396383 Ref: 3dc15396383 Ref: c-api/init c Py_IgnoreEnvironmentFlag15396961 Ref: 3d415396961 Ref: c-api/init c Py_InspectFlag15397454 Ref: 3ca15397454 Ref: c-api/init c Py_InteractiveFlag15398069 Ref: 3c815398069 Ref: c-api/init c Py_IsolatedFlag15398398 Ref: 3df15398398 Ref: c-api/init c Py_LegacyWindowsFSEncodingFlag15398916 Ref: 3e115398916 Ref: c-api/init c Py_LegacyWindowsStdioFlag15399677 Ref: 3e315399677 Ref: c-api/init c Py_NoSiteFlag15400321 Ref: 3ce15400321 Ref: c-api/init c Py_NoUserSiteDirectory15400946 Ref: 3d815400946 Ref: c-api/init c Py_OptimizeFlag15401465 Ref: 3cc15401465 Ref: c-api/init c Py_QuietFlag15401859 Ref: 3c615401859 Ref: c-api/init c Py_UnbufferedStdioFlag15402292 Ref: 3da15402292 Ref: c-api/init c Py_VerboseFlag15402752 Ref: 3c415402752 Ref: Global configuration variables-Footnote-115403486 Ref: Global configuration variables-Footnote-215403528 Node: Initializing and finalizing the interpreter15403570 Ref: c-api/init initializing-and-finalizing-the-interpreter15403760 Ref: 4da815403760 Ref: c-api/init c Py_Initialize15403861 Ref: 8ab15403861 Ref: c-api/init c Py_InitializeEx15405020 Ref: 4ae715405020 Ref: c-api/init c Py_InitializeFromConfig15405496 Ref: 3c115405496 Ref: c-api/init c Py_IsInitialized15405935 Ref: 495015405935 Ref: c-api/init c Py_IsFinalizing15406243 Ref: 35515406243 Ref: c-api/init c Py_FinalizeEx15406501 Ref: d1515406501 Ref: c-api/init c Py_Finalize15408979 Ref: 134515408979 Ref: c-api/init c Py_BytesMain15409174 Ref: 9c115409174 Ref: c-api/init c Py_Main15409504 Ref: c2515409504 Ref: c-api/init c Py_RunMain15411862 Ref: 9c515411862 Ref: c-api/init c PyUnstable_AtExit15413435 Ref: 158b15413435 Node: Process-wide parameters15414000 Ref: c-api/init process-wide-parameters15414204 Ref: 4dae15414204 Ref: c-api/init c Py_SetProgramName15414265 Ref: 163e15414265 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetProgramName15415432 Ref: 3b515415432 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPrefix15416046 Ref: 3b115416046 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetExecPrefix15417294 Ref: 3ad15417294 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetProgramFullPath15419949 Ref: 3b315419949 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPath15420761 Ref: 3af15420761 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetVersion15421837 Ref: 4ae515421837 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPlatform15422483 Ref: 4ae415422483 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetCopyright15423116 Ref: 4ae315423116 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetCompiler15423537 Ref: 4ae215423537 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetBuildInfo15423963 Ref: 13fd15423963 Ref: c-api/init c PySys_SetArgvEx15424416 Ref: 163f15424416 Ref: c-api/init c PySys_SetArgv15426860 Ref: 164015426860 Ref: c-api/init c Py_SetPythonHome15427712 Ref: 163d15427712 Ref: c-api/init c Py_GetPythonHome15428551 Ref: 3b615428551 Ref: Process-wide parameters-Footnote-115429235 Node: Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock15429290 Ref: c-api/init thread-state-and-the-global-interpreter-lock15429474 Ref: 4daf15429474 Ref: c-api/init threads15429474 Ref: 4db015429474 Node: Releasing the GIL from extension code15431014 Ref: c-api/init releasing-the-gil-from-extension-code15431167 Ref: 4db115431167 Node: Non-Python created threads15433042 Ref: c-api/init gilstate15433223 Ref: 4db215433223 Ref: c-api/init non-python-created-threads15433223 Ref: 4db315433223 Node: Cautions about fork15434976 Ref: c-api/init cautions-about-fork15435134 Ref: 4db415435134 Ref: c-api/init fork-and-threads15435134 Ref: 4b4e15435134 Node: High-level API15437071 Ref: c-api/init high-level-api15437216 Ref: 4db515437216 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState15437390 Ref: 8bc15437390 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState15438029 Ref: 78815438029 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState interp15438233 Ref: 4db615438233 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_InitThreads15438338 Ref: 164115438338 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SaveThread15438914 Ref: 3a415438914 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_RestoreThread15439282 Ref: 3a515439282 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Get15440052 Ref: 36d15440052 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetUnchecked15440433 Ref: 36c15440433 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Swap15440819 Ref: 4a9215440819 Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_Ensure15441296 Ref: 3a715441296 Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_Release15443069 Ref: 3a815443069 Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_GetThisThreadState15443594 Ref: 4a0515443594 Ref: c-api/init c PyGILState_Check15444048 Ref: 4db715444048 Ref: c-api/init c Py_BEGIN_ALLOW_THREADS15444783 Ref: 48d715444783 Ref: c-api/init c Py_END_ALLOW_THREADS15445132 Ref: a8e15445132 Ref: c-api/init c Py_BLOCK_THREADS15445458 Ref: 4ade15445458 Ref: c-api/init c Py_UNBLOCK_THREADS15445681 Ref: 4aea15445681 Node: Low-level API15445939 Ref: c-api/init low-level-api15446056 Ref: 4db815446056 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_New15446271 Ref: 41e515446271 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Clear15446673 Ref: 41e415446673 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Delete15447017 Ref: 4a1115447017 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_New15447355 Ref: 4a9115447355 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Clear15447710 Ref: 162115447710 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Delete15448182 Ref: 199f15448182 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_DeleteCurrent15448484 Ref: 19d215448484 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetFrame15448818 Ref: 78915448818 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetID15449264 Ref: 97215449264 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetInterpreter15449546 Ref: 97115449546 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_EnterTracing15449851 Ref: 74f15449851 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_LeaveTracing15450110 Ref: 75015450110 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Get15450454 Ref: 3a915450454 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_GetID15450826 Ref: bc615450826 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_GetDict15451172 Ref: 4a1215451172 Ref: c-api/init c PyUnstable_InterpreterState_GetMainModule15451751 Ref: 4db915451751 Ref: c-api/init c _PyFrameEvalFunction15452238 Ref: 77115452238 Ref: c-api/init c _PyInterpreterState_GetEvalFrameFunc15452793 Ref: 198d15452793 Ref: c-api/init c _PyInterpreterState_SetEvalFrameFunc15453071 Ref: 198e15453071 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_GetDict15453344 Ref: 4a9015453344 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_SetAsyncExc15453895 Ref: bc415453895 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_AcquireThread15454716 Ref: 3a615454716 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_ReleaseThread15455863 Ref: 49b715455863 Ref: Low-level API-Footnote-115456511 Ref: Low-level API-Footnote-215456553 Node: Sub-interpreter support15456595 Ref: c-api/init id115456782 Ref: 4dba15456782 Ref: c-api/init sub-interpreter-support15456782 Ref: 58415456782 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig15457713 Ref: 56a15457713 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig use_main_obmalloc15458000 Ref: 439515458000 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_fork15458442 Ref: 4dbf15458442 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_exec15458776 Ref: 4dc015458776 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_threads15459170 Ref: 4dc115459170 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig allow_daemon_threads15459361 Ref: 4dc215459361 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig check_multi_interp_extensions15459645 Ref: 4dbc15459645 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig gil15460168 Ref: 4dbd15460168 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_DEFAULT_GIL15460316 Ref: 4dc315460316 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_SHARED_GIL15460476 Ref: 4dc415460476 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterConfig_OWN_GIL15460589 Ref: 4dbe15460589 Ref: c-api/init c Py_NewInterpreterFromConfig15460840 Ref: 45715460840 Ref: c-api/init c Py_NewInterpreter15465347 Ref: 17b615465347 Ref: c-api/init c Py_EndInterpreter15465823 Ref: 185f15465823 Ref: Sub-interpreter support-Footnote-115466625 Node: A Per-Interpreter GIL15466667 Ref: c-api/init a-per-interpreter-gil15466773 Ref: 4dc615466773 Ref: A Per-Interpreter GIL-Footnote-115468819 Node: Bugs and caveats15468861 Ref: c-api/init bugs-and-caveats15468967 Ref: 4dc515468967 Node: Asynchronous Notifications15470573 Ref: c-api/init asynchronous-notifications15470737 Ref: 4dc715470737 Ref: c-api/init c Py_AddPendingCall15470982 Ref: 98115470982 Node: Profiling and Tracing15473145 Ref: c-api/init profiling15473303 Ref: 4dc815473303 Ref: c-api/init profiling-and-tracing15473303 Ref: 4dc915473303 Ref: c-api/init c Py_tracefunc15473982 Ref: 4dca15473982 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_CALL15476331 Ref: 4dcb15476331 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_EXCEPTION15476721 Ref: 4dcc15476721 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_LINE15477331 Ref: 4dcd15477331 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_RETURN15477633 Ref: 4dce15477633 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_C_CALL15477786 Ref: 4dcf15477786 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_C_EXCEPTION15477948 Ref: 4dd015477948 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_C_RETURN15478117 Ref: 4dd115478117 Ref: c-api/init c PyTrace_OPCODE15478272 Ref: 4dd215478272 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetProfile15478612 Ref: 14c815478612 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetProfileAllThreads15479302 Ref: 55c15479302 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetTrace15479814 Ref: 41d15479814 Ref: c-api/init c PyEval_SetTraceAllThreads15480494 Ref: 41e15480494 Node: Reference tracing15480991 Ref: c-api/init reference-tracing15481148 Ref: 4dd315481148 Ref: c-api/init c PyRefTracer15481221 Ref: 4dd415481221 Ref: c-api/init c PyRefTracer_CREATE15481783 Ref: 4dd515481783 Ref: c-api/init c PyRefTracer_DESTROY15481947 Ref: 4dd615481947 Ref: c-api/init c PyRefTracer_SetTracer15482114 Ref: 36715482114 Ref: c-api/init c PyRefTracer_GetTracer15482908 Ref: 36815482908 Node: Advanced Debugger Support15483361 Ref: c-api/init advanced-debugger-support15483525 Ref: 4dd715483525 Ref: c-api/init advanced-debugging15483525 Ref: 4dd815483525 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Head15483667 Ref: 14cb15483667 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Main15483845 Ref: 4dbb15483845 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_Next15483979 Ref: 14cc15483979 Ref: c-api/init c PyInterpreterState_ThreadHead15484193 Ref: 14cd15484193 Ref: c-api/init c PyThreadState_Next15484447 Ref: 14ce15484447 Node: Thread Local Storage Support15484706 Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage15484882 Ref: 4dd915484882 Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage-support15484882 Ref: 4dda15484882 Node: Thread Specific Storage TSS API15485991 Ref: c-api/init thread-specific-storage-api15486124 Ref: ade15486124 Ref: c-api/init thread-specific-storage-tss-api15486124 Ref: 4ddb15486124 Ref: c-api/init c Py_tss_t15486510 Ref: adf15486510 Ref: c-api/init c Py_tss_NEEDS_INIT15486954 Ref: 4ddc15486954 Ref: Thread Specific Storage TSS API-Footnote-115487241 Node: Dynamic Allocation15487283 Ref: c-api/init dynamic-allocation15487388 Ref: 4ddd15487388 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_alloc15487668 Ref: 40115487668 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_free15487962 Ref: 40315487962 Node: Methods<2>15488445 Ref: c-api/init methods15488550 Ref: 4dde15488550 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_is_created15488854 Ref: 4a9415488854 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_create15489105 Ref: 4a9315489105 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_delete15489584 Ref: 40915489584 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_set15490078 Ref: 40515490078 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_tss_get15490397 Ref: 40715490397 Node: Thread Local Storage TLS API15490689 Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage-api15490822 Ref: add15490822 Ref: c-api/init thread-local-storage-tls-api15490822 Ref: 4ddf15490822 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_create_key15491445 Ref: 40015491445 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_delete_key15491532 Ref: 40215491532 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_set_key_value15491627 Ref: 40415491627 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_get_key_value15491737 Ref: 40615491737 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_delete_key_value15491836 Ref: 40815491836 Ref: c-api/init c PyThread_ReInitTLS15491937 Ref: 40a15491937 Node: Synchronization Primitives<2>15492024 Ref: c-api/init synchronization-primitives15492166 Ref: 4de015492166 Ref: c-api/init c PyMutex15492286 Ref: 15b15492286 Ref: c-api/init c PyMutex_Lock15492908 Ref: 32515492908 Ref: c-api/init c PyMutex_Unlock15493210 Ref: 32615493210 Node: Python Critical Section API15493440 Ref: c-api/init id215493533 Ref: 4de115493533 Ref: c-api/init python-critical-section-api15493533 Ref: 4de215493533 Ref: c-api/init c Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION15495594 Ref: 4c9f15495594 Ref: c-api/init c Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION15495992 Ref: 4de415495992 Ref: c-api/init c Py_BEGIN_CRITICAL_SECTION215496303 Ref: 4de315496303 Ref: c-api/init c Py_END_CRITICAL_SECTION215496841 Ref: 4de515496841 Node: Python Initialization Configuration15497156 Ref: c-api/init_config doc15497331 Ref: 4de615497331 Ref: c-api/init_config init-config15497331 Ref: 3a315497331 Ref: c-api/init_config python-initialization-configuration15497331 Ref: 4de715497331 Ref: Python Initialization Configuration-Footnote-115498801 Node: Example<17>15498843 Ref: c-api/init_config example15498951 Ref: 4de915498951 Node: PyWideStringList15499960 Ref: c-api/init_config pywidestringlist15500085 Ref: 4dea15500085 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList15500134 Ref: 9ae15500134 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList_Append15500329 Ref: 9bf15500329 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList_Insert15500557 Ref: 9c015500557 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList length15501016 Ref: 4deb15501016 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyWideStringList items15501090 Ref: 4dec15501090 Node: PyStatus15501149 Ref: c-api/init_config pystatus15501274 Ref: 4ded15501274 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus15501307 Ref: 9ad15501307 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus exitcode15501530 Ref: 4dee15501530 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus err_msg15501619 Ref: 4def15501619 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus func15501685 Ref: 4df015501685 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Ok15501833 Ref: 9be15501833 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Error15501915 Ref: 9b815501915 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_NoMemory15502103 Ref: 9bd15502103 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Exit15502225 Ref: 9ba15502225 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_Exception15502386 Ref: 9b915502386 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_IsError15502617 Ref: 9bb15502617 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyStatus_IsExit15502713 Ref: 9bc15502713 Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_ExitStatusException15502807 Ref: 9c215502807 Node: PyPreConfig15503748 Ref: c-api/init_config pypreconfig15503894 Ref: 4df115503894 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig15503933 Ref: 9ac15503933 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig_InitPythonConfig15504058 Ref: 9b715504058 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig_InitIsolatedConfig15504246 Ref: 9b615504246 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig allocator15504462 Ref: 4df215504462 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig configure_locale15506249 Ref: 4df415506249 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig coerce_c_locale15506610 Ref: 4df515506610 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig coerce_c_locale_warn15506929 Ref: 4df615506929 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig dev_mode15507116 Ref: 4df715507116 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig isolated15507313 Ref: 4df915507313 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig legacy_windows_fs_encoding15507476 Ref: 3e215507476 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig parse_argv15508048 Ref: 4dfa15508048 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig use_environment15508433 Ref: 4dfb15508433 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyPreConfig utf8_mode15508652 Ref: 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c-api/init_config c PyConfig interactive15528102 Ref: 3c915528102 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig int_max_str_digits15528306 Ref: 4e0a15528306 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig cpu_count15529195 Ref: 4e0b15529195 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig isolated15529682 Ref: 3e015529682 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig legacy_windows_stdio15530683 Ref: 3a015530683 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig malloc_stats15531280 Ref: 4e0c15531280 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig platlibdir15531664 Ref: 193e15531664 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig pythonpath_env15532475 Ref: 4e0d15532475 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig module_search_paths15532815 Ref: 39e15532815 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig module_search_paths_set15532884 Ref: 5eb15532884 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig optimization_level15533409 Ref: 3cd15533409 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig orig_argv15533904 Ref: 89215533904 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig parse_argv15534576 Ref: 192815534576 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig 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c-api/init_config c PyConfig stdio_errors15540896 Ref: 43a415540896 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig tracemalloc15541804 Ref: 4e1215541804 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig perf_profiling15542157 Ref: 4e1315542157 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig use_environment15542853 Ref: 3d515542853 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig user_site_directory15543175 Ref: 3d915543175 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig verbose15543570 Ref: 3c515543570 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig warnoptions15544178 Ref: 39c15544178 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig write_bytecode15545020 Ref: 3d715545020 Ref: c-api/init_config c PyConfig xoptions15545479 Ref: 39d15545479 Ref: PyConfig-Footnote-115546101 Ref: PyConfig-Footnote-215546143 Node: Initialization with PyConfig15546185 Ref: c-api/init_config init-from-config15546333 Ref: 4da915546333 Ref: c-api/init_config initialization-with-pyconfig15546333 Ref: 4e1415546333 Node: Isolated Configuration15550028 Ref: c-api/init_config init-isolated-conf15550188 Ref: 4de815550188 Ref: c-api/init_config isolated-configuration15550188 Ref: 4e1515550188 Node: Python Configuration15550955 Ref: c-api/init_config init-python-config15551112 Ref: 4dad15551112 Ref: c-api/init_config python-configuration15551112 Ref: 4e1615551112 Ref: Python Configuration-Footnote-115551744 Ref: Python Configuration-Footnote-215551786 Node: Python Path Configuration15551828 Ref: c-api/init_config init-path-config15551977 Ref: 8ac15551977 Ref: c-api/init_config python-path-configuration15551977 Ref: 4e1715551977 Node: Py_GetArgcArgv15555713 Ref: c-api/init_config py-getargcargv15555892 Ref: 4e1815555892 Ref: c-api/init_config c Py_GetArgcArgv15555943 Ref: 195615555943 Node: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API15556144 Ref: c-api/init_config multi-phase-initialization-private-provisional-api15556289 Ref: 4e1915556289 Ref: c-api/init_config c _Py_InitializeMain15557486 Ref: 4e1a15557486 Ref: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API-Footnote-115559513 Ref: Multi-Phase Initialization Private Provisional API-Footnote-215559555 Node: Memory Management15559597 Ref: c-api/memory doc15559762 Ref: 4e1b15559762 Ref: c-api/memory memory15559762 Ref: 4df315559762 Ref: c-api/memory memory-management15559762 Ref: 4e1c15559762 Node: Overview<4>15560146 Ref: c-api/memory memoryoverview15560237 Ref: 4e1d15560237 Ref: c-api/memory overview15560237 Ref: 4e1e15560237 Node: Allocator Domains15564153 Ref: c-api/memory allocator-domains15564273 Ref: 4e1f15564273 Ref: c-api/memory id115564324 Ref: 4e2015564324 Node: Raw Memory Interface15566318 Ref: c-api/memory raw-memory-interface15566443 Ref: 4e2615566443 Ref: c-api/memory raw-memoryinterface15566443 Ref: 4e2215566443 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawMalloc15566886 Ref: 38b15566886 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawCalloc15567330 Ref: 38c15567330 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawRealloc15567889 Ref: 38d15567889 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_RawFree15568696 Ref: 38e15568696 Node: Memory Interface15569165 Ref: c-api/memory memory-interface15569290 Ref: 4e2715569290 Ref: c-api/memory memoryinterface15569290 Ref: 4e2315569290 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Malloc15569796 Ref: c6615569796 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Calloc15570215 Ref: ea615570215 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Realloc15570768 Ref: 102b15570768 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Free15571539 Ref: 140e15571539 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_New15572076 Ref: 14ef15572076 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Resize15572311 Ref: 4e2815572311 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_Del15572759 Ref: 14f015572759 Node: Object allocators15573336 Ref: c-api/memory object-allocators15573466 Ref: 4e2915573466 Ref: c-api/memory objectinterface15573466 Ref: 4e2415573466 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObject_Malloc15574155 Ref: c6815574155 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObject_Calloc15574580 Ref: ea715574580 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObject_Realloc15575139 Ref: 140f15575139 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObject_Free15575928 Ref: c6515575928 Node: Default Memory Allocators15576374 Ref: c-api/memory default-memory-allocators15576515 Ref: 1d5015576515 Ref: c-api/memory id215576515 Ref: 4e2b15576515 Node: Customize Memory Allocators15579015 Ref: c-api/memory customize-memory-allocators15579182 Ref: 4e2a15579182 Ref: c-api/memory id315579182 Ref: 4e2c15579182 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMemAllocatorEx15579276 Ref: ec715579276 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMemAllocatorDomain15581110 Ref: 4e2115581110 Ref: c-api/memory c PYMEM_DOMAIN_RAW15581208 Ref: 1d5115581208 Ref: c-api/memory c PYMEM_DOMAIN_MEM15581449 Ref: c6915581449 Ref: c-api/memory c PYMEM_DOMAIN_OBJ15581680 Ref: c6715581680 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_GetAllocator15581922 Ref: 4da515581922 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_SetAllocator15582094 Ref: 58815582094 Ref: c-api/memory c PyMem_SetupDebugHooks15584022 Ref: c6a15584022 Node: Debug hooks on the Python memory allocators15584172 Ref: c-api/memory debug-hooks-on-the-python-memory-allocators15584336 Ref: 4e2d15584336 Ref: c-api/memory pymem-debug-hooks15584336 Ref: 1d5315584336 Node: The pymalloc allocator15589584 Ref: c-api/memory pymalloc15589743 Ref: d0f15589743 Ref: c-api/memory the-pymalloc-allocator15589743 Ref: 4e2e15589743 Node: Customize pymalloc Arena Allocator15591058 Ref: c-api/memory customize-pymalloc-arena-allocator15591151 Ref: 4e2f15591151 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObjectArenaAllocator15591263 Ref: 4e3015591263 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObject_GetArenaAllocator15592272 Ref: 4da615592272 Ref: c-api/memory c PyObject_SetArenaAllocator15592398 Ref: 4da415592398 Node: The mimalloc allocator15592524 Ref: c-api/memory mimalloc15592657 Ref: 1d5215592657 Ref: c-api/memory the-mimalloc-allocator15592657 Ref: 4e3115592657 Node: tracemalloc C API15593018 Ref: c-api/memory tracemalloc-c-api15593141 Ref: 4e3215593141 Ref: c-api/memory c PyTraceMalloc_Track15593217 Ref: bb615593217 Ref: c-api/memory c PyTraceMalloc_Untrack15593629 Ref: bb715593629 Node: Examples<37>15593920 Ref: c-api/memory examples15594012 Ref: 4e3315594012 Ref: c-api/memory memoryexamples15594012 Ref: 4e3415594012 Node: Object Implementation Support15595924 Ref: c-api/objimpl doc15596076 Ref: 4e3515596076 Ref: c-api/objimpl newtypes15596076 Ref: 4e3615596076 Ref: c-api/objimpl object-implementation-support15596076 Ref: 4e3715596076 Node: Allocating Objects on the Heap15596383 Ref: c-api/allocation doc15596512 Ref: 4e3815596512 Ref: c-api/allocation allocating-objects15596512 Ref: 4e3915596512 Ref: c-api/allocation allocating-objects-on-the-heap15596512 Ref: 4e3a15596512 Ref: c-api/allocation c _PyObject_New15596589 Ref: 4e3b15596589 Ref: c-api/allocation c _PyObject_NewVar15596699 Ref: 4e3c15596699 Ref: c-api/allocation c PyObject_Init15596843 Ref: a6a15596843 Ref: c-api/allocation c PyObject_InitVar15597193 Ref: 195515597193 Ref: c-api/allocation c PyObject_New15597535 Ref: 98515597535 Ref: c-api/allocation c PyObject_NewVar15598179 Ref: 98615598179 Ref: c-api/allocation c PyObject_Del15599060 Ref: 149c15599060 Ref: c-api/allocation c _Py_NoneStruct15599447 Ref: 4e3d15599447 Node: Common Object Structures15599774 Ref: c-api/structures doc15599934 Ref: 4e3e15599934 Ref: c-api/structures common-object-structures15599934 Ref: 4e3f15599934 Ref: c-api/structures common-structs15599934 Ref: 4e4015599934 Node: Base object types and macros15600290 Ref: c-api/structures base-object-types-and-macros15600422 Ref: 4e4115600422 Ref: c-api/structures c PyObject15600930 Ref: 33415600930 Ref: c-api/structures c PyVarObject15601614 Ref: 416a15601614 Ref: c-api/structures c PyObject_HEAD15602095 Ref: 12d115602095 Ref: c-api/structures c PyObject_VAR_HEAD15602356 Ref: 4e4215602356 Ref: c-api/structures c PyBaseObject_Type15602659 Ref: 496415602659 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_Is15602847 Ref: 89e15602847 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_IsNone15603077 Ref: 89f15603077 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_IsTrue15603311 Ref: 8a015603311 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_IsFalse15603545 Ref: 8a115603545 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_TYPE15603782 Ref: 77b15603782 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_IS_TYPE15604217 Ref: 181415604217 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_SET_TYPE15604438 Ref: 77c15604438 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_SIZE15604575 Ref: 77d15604575 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_SET_SIZE15604927 Ref: 77e15604927 Ref: c-api/structures c PyObject_HEAD_INIT15605064 Ref: 4e4315605064 Ref: c-api/structures c PyVarObject_HEAD_INIT15605282 Ref: 4e4415605282 Node: Implementing functions and methods15605566 Ref: c-api/structures implementing-functions-and-methods15605746 Ref: 4e4515605746 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCFunction15605835 Ref: 144015605835 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCFunctionWithKeywords15606453 Ref: 497615606453 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCFunctionFast15606880 Ref: 497415606880 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCFunctionFastWithKeywords15607287 Ref: 497515607287 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCMethod15607830 Ref: 75f15607830 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMethodDef15608320 Ref: 14a215608320 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMethodDef ml_name15608519 Ref: 490215608519 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMethodDef ml_meth15608590 Ref: 4e4815608590 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMethodDef ml_flags15608687 Ref: 4e4915608687 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMethodDef ml_doc15608789 Ref: 4e4a15608789 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_VARARGS15609520 Ref: 14d415609520 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_KEYWORDS15610034 Ref: 48bc15610034 Ref: c-api/structures meth-varargs-meth-keywords15610287 Ref: 4e4615610287 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_FASTCALL15610724 Ref: 162715610724 Ref: c-api/structures meth-fastcall-meth-keywords15611224 Ref: 4e4715611224 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_METHOD15611892 Ref: 97015611892 Ref: c-api/structures meth-method-meth-fastcall-meth-keywords15612039 Ref: 168e15612039 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_NOARGS15612564 Ref: 149f15612564 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_O15613127 Ref: 14d315613127 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_CLASS15613721 Ref: 14a015613721 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_STATIC15613997 Ref: 14a115613997 Ref: c-api/structures c METH_COEXIST15614385 Ref: 143f15614385 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCMethod_New15615055 Ref: 18ed15615055 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCFunction_NewEx15616197 Ref: 198c15616197 Ref: c-api/structures c PyCFunction_New15616455 Ref: 18f315616455 Node: Accessing attributes of extension types15616715 Ref: c-api/structures accessing-attributes-of-extension-types15616858 Ref: 4e4b15616858 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMemberDef15616957 Ref: 54c15616957 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMemberDef name15617300 Ref: 4e4c15617300 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMemberDef type15617501 Ref: 490315617501 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMemberDef offset15617647 Ref: 4e4d15617647 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMemberDef flags15617796 Ref: 490415617796 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMemberDef doc15617920 Ref: 4e4f15617920 Ref: c-api/structures pymemberdef-offsets15618460 Ref: 4c0915618460 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMember_GetOne15619585 Ref: 58a15619585 Ref: c-api/structures c PyMember_SetOne15620035 Ref: 58b15620035 Node: Member flags15620611 Ref: c-api/structures member-flags15620720 Ref: 4e5115620720 Ref: c-api/structures pymemberdef-flags15620720 Ref: 4e4e15620720 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_READONLY15620835 Ref: 58e15620835 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_AUDIT_READ15620881 Ref: 58f15620881 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_RELATIVE_OFFSET15620994 Ref: 54b15620994 Node: Member types15622232 Ref: c-api/structures member-types15622378 Ref: 4e5215622378 Ref: c-api/structures pymemberdef-types15622378 Ref: 167315622378 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_BYTE15623260 Ref: 4e5315623260 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_SHORT15623492 Ref: 4e5415623492 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_INT15623721 Ref: 58c15623721 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_LONG15623953 Ref: 4e5515623953 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_LONGLONG15624188 Ref: 4e5615624188 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_UBYTE15624416 Ref: 4e5715624416 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_UINT15624646 Ref: 4e5815624646 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_USHORT15624879 Ref: 4e5915624879 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_ULONG15625109 Ref: 4e5a15625109 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_ULONGLONG15625344 Ref: 4e5b15625344 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_PYSSIZET15625574 Ref: 4e5c15625574 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_FLOAT15625802 Ref: 4e5d15625802 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_DOUBLE15626036 Ref: 58d15626036 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_BOOL15626267 Ref: 4e5e15626267 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_STRING15626501 Ref: 4e5015626501 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_STRING_INPLACE15626745 Ref: 4e5f15626745 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_CHAR15626971 Ref: 4e6015626971 Ref: c-api/structures c Py_T_OBJECT_EX15627212 Ref: 59115627212 Ref: c-api/structures c T_OBJECT15628079 Ref: 59015628079 Ref: c-api/structures c T_NONE15628294 Ref: 59215628294 Node: Defining Getters and Setters15628383 Ref: c-api/structures defining-getters-and-setters15628508 Ref: 4e6115628508 Ref: c-api/structures c PyGetSetDef15628585 Ref: bb815628585 Ref: c-api/structures c PyGetSetDef name15628817 Ref: 4e6215628817 Ref: c-api/structures c PyGetSetDef get15628880 Ref: 4e6315628880 Ref: c-api/structures c PyGetSetDef set15628968 Ref: 4e6415628968 Ref: c-api/structures c PyGetSetDef doc15629129 Ref: 4e6515629129 Ref: c-api/structures c PyGetSetDef closure15629195 Ref: 4e6615629195 Ref: c-api/structures c getter15629327 Ref: 4af515629327 Ref: c-api/structures c setter15629712 Ref: 4b0315629712 Node: Type Object Structures15630192 Ref: c-api/typeobj doc15630358 Ref: 4e6715630358 Ref: c-api/typeobj type-object-structures15630358 Ref: 4e6815630358 Ref: c-api/typeobj type-structs15630358 Ref: 98d15630358 Node: Quick Reference15631816 Ref: c-api/typeobj quick-reference15631922 Ref: 4e6a15631922 Node: “tp slots”15632034 Ref: c-api/typeobj tp-slots15632118 Ref: 4e6b15632118 Ref: c-api/typeobj tp-slots-table15632118 Ref: 4e6c15632118 Ref: “tp slots”-Footnote-115645371 Ref: “tp slots”-Footnote-215645683 Node: sub-slots15646478 Ref: c-api/typeobj id315646584 Ref: 4e7715646584 Ref: c-api/typeobj sub-slots15646584 Ref: 4e6e15646584 Node: slot typedefs15656992 Ref: c-api/typeobj slot-typedefs15657075 Ref: 4ea715657075 Ref: c-api/typeobj slot-typedefs-table15657075 Ref: 4e6d15657075 Node: PyTypeObject Definition15664938 Ref: c-api/typeobj pytypeobject-definition15665067 Ref: 4ea915665067 Node: PyObject Slots15668215 Ref: c-api/typeobj pyobject-slots15668346 Ref: 4eaa15668346 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyObject ob_refcnt15668781 Ref: 89d15668781 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyObject ob_type15669369 Ref: 48e615669369 Node: PyVarObject Slots15670539 Ref: c-api/typeobj pyvarobject-slots15670665 Ref: 4eab15670665 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyVarObject ob_size15670720 Ref: 4ada15670720 Node: PyTypeObject Slots15671208 Ref: c-api/typeobj pytypeobject-slots15671332 Ref: 4eac15671332 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_name15671690 Ref: 18f215671690 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_basicsize15673449 Ref: 98715673449 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_itemsize15673533 Ref: 1f7015673533 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_dealloc15677677 Ref: 48e815677677 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_vectorcall_offset15680959 Ref: 4baa15680959 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_getattr15682886 Ref: 490615682886 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_setattr15683654 Ref: 490715683654 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_as_async15684442 Ref: ec815684442 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_repr15685019 Ref: 48fd15685019 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_as_number15685993 Ref: 98b15685993 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_as_sequence15686427 Ref: 4e6f15686427 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_as_mapping15686872 Ref: 4e7015686872 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_hash15687312 Ref: 490f15687312 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_call15689046 Ref: 55615689046 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_str15689469 Ref: 48fe15689469 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_getattro15690444 Ref: 16f215690444 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_setattro15691365 Ref: 490115691365 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_as_buffer15692412 Ref: 98915692412 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_flags15692845 Ref: 18bd15692845 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_HEAPTYPE15694815 Ref: 8ae15694815 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_BASETYPE15695629 Ref: 48ee15695629 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_READY15695909 Ref: 4eb215695909 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_READYING15696101 Ref: 4eb315696101 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_GC15696302 Ref: 77815696302 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_DEFAULT15697330 Ref: 48e315697330 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_METHOD_DESCRIPTOR15697668 Ref: 4bb215697668 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_DICT15698601 Ref: 36615698601 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_MANAGED_WEAKREF15699267 Ref: 55715699267 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_ITEMS_AT_END15699588 Ref: 54815699588 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_LONG_SUBCLASS15700257 Ref: 4eb415700257 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_LIST_SUBCLASS15700301 Ref: 4eb515700301 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_TUPLE_SUBCLASS15700345 Ref: 4eb615700345 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_BYTES_SUBCLASS15700390 Ref: 4eb715700390 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_UNICODE_SUBCLASS15700435 Ref: 4eb815700435 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_DICT_SUBCLASS15700482 Ref: 4eb915700482 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_BASE_EXC_SUBCLASS15700526 Ref: 4eba15700526 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_TYPE_SUBCLASS15700574 Ref: 4ebb15700574 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_FINALIZE15701135 Ref: 3ee15701135 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_HAVE_VECTORCALL15701520 Ref: 55115701520 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_IMMUTABLETYPE15702081 Ref: 3be15702081 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_DISALLOW_INSTANTIATION15702449 Ref: 57f15702449 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_MAPPING15703578 Ref: 18a315703578 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_SEQUENCE15704429 Ref: 18a415704429 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_TPFLAGS_VALID_VERSION_TAG15705281 Ref: 4ebc15705281 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_doc15705630 Ref: 48e415705630 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_traverse15705960 Ref: 77915705960 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_clear15710122 Ref: 48fb15710122 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_richcompare15714049 Ref: 490915714049 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_LT15715032 Ref: 4b9f15715032 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_LE15715132 Ref: 4ba015715132 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_EQ15715233 Ref: 4ba115715233 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_NE15715334 Ref: 4ba215715334 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_GT15715435 Ref: 4ba315715435 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_GE15715535 Ref: 4ba415715535 Ref: c-api/typeobj c Py_RETURN_RICHCOMPARE15715668 Ref: bb415715668 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_weaklistoffset15716939 Ref: 98815716939 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_iter15718469 Ref: 14b915718469 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_iternext15718992 Ref: 14ba15718992 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_methods15719830 Ref: 48ed15719830 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_members15720361 Ref: 48eb15720361 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_getset15720926 Ref: 48f015720926 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_base15721483 Ref: 48f415721483 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_dict15722805 Ref: 171e15722805 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_descr_get15724324 Ref: 4e7115724324 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_descr_set15724654 Ref: 18f615724654 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_dictoffset15725079 Ref: 4c0815725079 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_init15726971 Ref: 57e15726971 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_alloc15728436 Ref: 48ea15728436 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_new15729152 Ref: 57c15729152 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_free15730887 Ref: 48e915730887 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_is_gc15731620 Ref: 4e7215731620 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_bases15732803 Ref: 4e7315732803 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_mro15733554 Ref: 4c0b15733554 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_cache15734034 Ref: 4c0c15734034 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_subclasses15734194 Ref: 56f15734194 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_weaklist15734650 Ref: 4c0d15734650 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_del15735226 Ref: 4e7415735226 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_version_tag15735366 Ref: 4e7515735366 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_finalize15735552 Ref: aa615735552 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_vectorcall15737028 Ref: 4c0a15737028 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyTypeObject tp_watched15737577 Ref: 4e7615737577 Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-115737735 Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-215737777 Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-315737819 Ref: PyTypeObject Slots-Footnote-415737862 Node: Static Types15737904 Ref: c-api/typeobj id415738021 Ref: 4ebd15738021 Ref: c-api/typeobj static-types15738021 Ref: 77a15738021 Node: Heap Types15738928 Ref: c-api/typeobj heap-types15739051 Ref: 96515739051 Ref: c-api/typeobj id515739051 Ref: 4ebe15739051 Node: Number Object Structures15739556 Ref: c-api/typeobj number-object-structures15739692 Ref: 4ebf15739692 Ref: c-api/typeobj number-structs15739692 Ref: 4eae15739692 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods15739763 Ref: 13e915739763 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_add15742211 Ref: 4bff15742211 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_subtract15742285 Ref: 4e7e15742285 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_multiply15742374 Ref: 4e8015742374 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_remainder15742463 Ref: 4e8215742463 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_divmod15742553 Ref: 4e8415742553 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_power15742640 Ref: 4e8515742640 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_negative15742727 Ref: 4e8715742727 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_positive15742815 Ref: 4e8815742815 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_absolute15742903 Ref: 4e8915742903 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_bool15742991 Ref: 4e8a15742991 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_invert15743063 Ref: 4e8b15743063 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_lshift15743149 Ref: 4e8c15743149 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_rshift15743236 Ref: 4e8e15743236 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_and15743323 Ref: 4e9015743323 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_xor15743397 Ref: 4e9215743397 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_or15743471 Ref: 4e9415743471 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_int15743544 Ref: 4e9615743544 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_reserved15743617 Ref: 4e9715743617 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_float15743678 Ref: 4e9815743678 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_add15743763 Ref: 4e7d15743763 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_subtract15743855 Ref: 4e7f15743855 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_multiply15743952 Ref: 4e8115743952 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_remainder15744049 Ref: 4e8315744049 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_power15744147 Ref: 4e8615744147 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_lshift15744242 Ref: 4e8d15744242 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_rshift15744337 Ref: 4e8f15744337 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_and15744432 Ref: 4e9115744432 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_xor15744524 Ref: 4e9315744524 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_or15744616 Ref: 4e9515744616 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_floor_divide15744707 Ref: 4e9915744707 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_true_divide15744800 Ref: 4e9b15744800 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_floor_divide15744892 Ref: 4e9a15744892 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_true_divide15744993 Ref: 4e9c15744993 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_index15745093 Ref: 13e815745093 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_matrix_multiply15745178 Ref: 4e9d15745178 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyNumberMethods nb_inplace_matrix_multiply15745274 Ref: 4e9e15745274 Node: Mapping Object Structures15745378 Ref: c-api/typeobj mapping-object-structures15745530 Ref: 4ec015745530 Ref: c-api/typeobj mapping-structs15745530 Ref: 4eb015745530 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods15745603 Ref: 490e15745603 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_length15745775 Ref: 4e9f15745775 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_subscript15746065 Ref: 192d15746065 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyMappingMethods mp_ass_subscript15746458 Ref: 4ea015746458 Node: Sequence Object Structures15746950 Ref: c-api/typeobj sequence-object-structures15747102 Ref: 4ec115747102 Ref: c-api/typeobj sequence-structs15747102 Ref: 4eaf15747102 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods15747177 Ref: 490d15747177 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_length15747328 Ref: 4c0715747328 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_concat15747668 Ref: 4ea115747668 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_repeat15747969 Ref: 4ea215747969 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_item15748284 Ref: 192c15748284 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_ass_item15749041 Ref: 4ea315749041 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_contains15749530 Ref: 4ea415749530 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_inplace_concat15749867 Ref: 4ea515749867 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PySequenceMethods sq_inplace_repeat15750416 Ref: 4ea615750416 Node: Buffer Object Structures15750978 Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-object-structures15751128 Ref: 4ec215751128 Ref: c-api/typeobj buffer-structs15751128 Ref: 4bca15751128 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs15751199 Ref: 4c0e15751199 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_getbuffer15751433 Ref: 75d15751433 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyBufferProcs bf_releasebuffer15753319 Ref: 75e15753319 Node: Async Object Structures15754459 Ref: c-api/typeobj async-object-structures15754601 Ref: 4ec315754601 Ref: c-api/typeobj async-structs15754601 Ref: 4ead15754601 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods15754693 Ref: 4c0615754693 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_await15755110 Ref: 4e7815755110 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_aiter15755488 Ref: 4e7915755488 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_anext15755872 Ref: 4e7a15755872 Ref: c-api/typeobj c PyAsyncMethods am_send15756170 Ref: 4e7b15756170 Node: Slot Type typedefs15756486 Ref: c-api/typeobj id615756616 Ref: 4ea815756616 Ref: c-api/typeobj slot-type-typedefs15756616 Ref: 4ec415756616 Ref: c-api/typeobj c allocfunc15756675 Ref: 4aec15756675 Ref: c-api/typeobj c destructor15757746 Ref: 4af015757746 Ref: c-api/typeobj c freefunc15757852 Ref: 4d1515757852 Ref: c-api/typeobj c newfunc15757928 Ref: 4afb15757928 Ref: c-api/typeobj c initproc15758132 Ref: 4af715758132 Ref: c-api/typeobj c reprfunc15758316 Ref: 4aff15758316 Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrfunc15758473 Ref: 4af115758473 Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrfunc15758686 Ref: 4b0115758686 Ref: c-api/typeobj c getattrofunc15758978 Ref: 4af215758978 Ref: c-api/typeobj c setattrofunc15759243 Ref: 4b0215759243 Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrgetfunc15759587 Ref: 4aee15759587 Ref: c-api/typeobj c descrsetfunc15759804 Ref: 4aef15759804 Ref: c-api/typeobj c hashfunc15760003 Ref: 4af615760003 Ref: c-api/typeobj c richcmpfunc15760161 Ref: 4b0015760161 Ref: c-api/typeobj c getiterfunc15760361 Ref: 4af415760361 Ref: c-api/typeobj c iternextfunc15760521 Ref: 4af915760521 Ref: c-api/typeobj c lenfunc15760686 Ref: 4afa15760686 Ref: c-api/typeobj c getbufferproc15760817 Ref: 4af315760817 Ref: c-api/typeobj c releasebufferproc15760984 Ref: 4afe15760984 Ref: c-api/typeobj c unaryfunc15761151 Ref: 4b0815761151 Ref: c-api/typeobj c binaryfunc15761283 Ref: 4aed15761283 Ref: c-api/typeobj c sendfunc15761439 Ref: 4e7c15761439 Ref: c-api/typeobj c ternaryfunc15761619 Ref: 4b0615761619 Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeargfunc15761799 Ref: 4b0415761799 Ref: c-api/typeobj c ssizeobjargproc15761958 Ref: 4b0515761958 Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjproc15762124 Ref: 4afd15762124 Ref: c-api/typeobj c objobjargproc15762262 Ref: 4afc15762262 Node: Examples<38>15762426 Ref: c-api/typeobj examples15762524 Ref: 4ec515762524 Ref: c-api/typeobj typedef-examples15762524 Ref: 4e6915762524 Node: Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection15767899 Ref: c-api/gcsupport doc15768032 Ref: 4ec615768032 Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cycle-detection15768032 Ref: 4eb115768032 Ref: c-api/gcsupport supporting-cyclic-garbage-collection15768032 Ref: 4ec715768032 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_New15770390 Ref: aa215770390 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_NewVar15770561 Ref: aa315770561 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_Object_GC_NewWithExtraData15770744 Ref: 173815770744 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Resize15771743 Ref: 173d15771743 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Track15772126 Ref: 14d015772126 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_IS_GC15772564 Ref: 98415772564 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsTracked15772815 Ref: 97615772815 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_IsFinalized15773197 Ref: 97715773197 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_Del15773582 Ref: 14cf15773582 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyObject_GC_UnTrack15773792 Ref: 14d115773792 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c visitproc15774512 Ref: 4b0915774512 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c traverseproc15775127 Ref: 4b0715775127 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c Py_VISIT15775938 Ref: 48f215775938 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c inquiry15776534 Ref: 4af815776534 Node: Controlling the Garbage Collector State15777157 Ref: c-api/gcsupport controlling-the-garbage-collector-state15777310 Ref: 4ec815777310 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Collect15777494 Ref: 98e15777494 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Enable15778061 Ref: 8a215778061 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_Disable15778333 Ref: 8a315778333 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyGC_IsEnabled15778607 Ref: 8a415778607 Node: Querying Garbage Collector State15778901 Ref: c-api/gcsupport querying-garbage-collector-state15779054 Ref: 4ec915779054 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c PyUnstable_GC_VisitObjects15779237 Ref: 4eca15779237 Ref: c-api/gcsupport c gcvisitobjects_t15780010 Ref: 4ecb15780010 Node: API and ABI Versioning15780497 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion doc15780648 Ref: 4ecc15780648 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion api-and-abi-versioning15780648 Ref: 4ecd15780648 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion apiabiversion15780648 Ref: 439f15780648 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MAJOR_VERSION15780971 Ref: 4ece15780971 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MINOR_VERSION15781038 Ref: 4ecf15781038 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_MICRO_VERSION15781105 Ref: 4ed015781105 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_LEVEL15781172 Ref: 4ed115781172 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_RELEASE_SERIAL15781354 Ref: 4ed215781354 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c PY_VERSION_HEX15781448 Ref: 75215781448 Ref: c-api/apiabiversion c Py_Version15783367 Ref: 75115783367 Ref: API and ABI Versioning-Footnote-115783807 Node: Monitoring C API15783880 Ref: c-api/monitoring doc15784029 Ref: 4ed315784029 Ref: c-api/monitoring c-api-monitoring15784029 Ref: 15c15784029 Ref: c-api/monitoring monitoring-c-api15784029 Ref: 4ed415784029 Node: Generating Execution Events15784283 Ref: c-api/monitoring generating-execution-events15784401 Ref: 4ed515784401 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoringState15785336 Ref: 31215785336 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyStartEvent15785698 Ref: 31315785698 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyResumeEvent15785857 Ref: 31415785857 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyReturnEvent15786018 Ref: 31515786018 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyYieldEvent15786197 Ref: 31615786197 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCallEvent15786374 Ref: 31715786374 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireLineEvent15786572 Ref: 31815786572 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireJumpEvent15786736 Ref: 31915786736 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireBranchEvent15786923 Ref: 31a15786923 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCReturnEvent15787114 Ref: 31b15787114 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyThrowEvent15787291 Ref: 31c15787291 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireRaiseEvent15787538 Ref: 31d15787538 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireCRaiseEvent15787780 Ref: 31e15787780 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireReraiseEvent15788025 Ref: 31f15788025 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireExceptionHandledEvent15788271 Ref: 32015788271 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FirePyUnwindEvent15788537 Ref: 32115788537 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_FireStopIterationEvent15788786 Ref: 32215788786 Node: Managing the Monitoring State15789213 Ref: c-api/monitoring managing-the-monitoring-state15789306 Ref: 4ed615789306 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_EnterScope15789509 Ref: 32315789509 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_BRANCH15791560 Ref: 4ed715791560 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_CALL15791760 Ref: 4ed815791760 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RAISE15791963 Ref: 4ed915791963 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_C_RETURN15792167 Ref: 4eda15792167 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_EXCEPTION_HANDLED15792380 Ref: 4edb15792380 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_INSTRUCTION15792587 Ref: 4edc15792587 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_JUMP15792787 Ref: 4edd15792787 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_LINE15792987 Ref: 4ede15792987 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RESUME15793192 Ref: 4edf15793192 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_RETURN15793397 Ref: 4ee015793397 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_START15793601 Ref: 4ee115793601 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_THROW15793805 Ref: 4ee215793805 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_UNWIND15794010 Ref: 4ee315794010 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_PY_YIELD15794214 Ref: 4ee415794214 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RAISE15794415 Ref: 4ee515794415 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_RERAISE15794618 Ref: 4ee615794618 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_EVENT_STOP_ITERATION15794828 Ref: 4ee715794828 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PyMonitoring_ExitScope15794926 Ref: 32415794926 Ref: c-api/monitoring c PY_MONITORING_IS_INSTRUMENTED_EVENT15795063 Ref: 4ee815795063 Node: Installing Python Modules15795352 Ref: installing/index doc15795477 Ref: 4ee915795477 Ref: installing/index installing-index15795477 Ref: ef015795477 Ref: installing/index installing-python-modules15795477 Ref: 4eea15795477 Ref: Installing Python Modules-Footnote-115796639 Node: Key terms15796717 Ref: installing/index key-terms15796808 Ref: 4eeb15796808 Ref: Key terms-Footnote-115798905 Ref: Key terms-Footnote-215798930 Ref: Key terms-Footnote-315798959 Ref: Key terms-Footnote-415798991 Node: Basic usage15799071 Ref: installing/index basic-usage15799184 Ref: 4eec15799184 Ref: Basic usage-Footnote-115800835 Ref: Basic usage-Footnote-215800872 Node: How do I …?15800921 Ref: installing/index how-do-i15801051 Ref: 4eed15801051 Node: … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3 4?15801440 Ref: installing/index install-pip-in-versions-of-python-prior-to-python-3-415801604 Ref: 4eee15801604 Ref: … install pip in versions of Python prior to Python 3 4?-Footnote-115802036 Node: … install packages just for the current user?15802123 Ref: installing/index install-packages-just-for-the-current-user15802335 Ref: 4eef15802335 Node: … install scientific Python packages?15802597 Ref: installing/index install-scientific-python-packages15802815 Ref: 4ef015802815 Ref: … install scientific Python packages?-Footnote-115803321 Ref: … install scientific Python packages?-Footnote-215803367 Node: … work with multiple versions of Python installed in parallel?15803413 Ref: installing/index work-with-multiple-versions-of-python-installed-in-parallel15803575 Ref: 4ef115803575 Node: Common installation issues15804547 Ref: installing/index common-installation-issues15804657 Ref: 4ef215804657 Node: Installing into the system Python on Linux15804832 Ref: installing/index installing-into-the-system-python-on-linux15804963 Ref: 4ef315804963 Node: Pip not installed15805530 Ref: installing/index pip-not-installed15805698 Ref: 4ef415805698 Ref: Pip not installed-Footnote-115805972 Node: Installing binary extensions15806098 Ref: installing/index installing-binary-extensions15806215 Ref: 4ef515806215 Ref: Installing binary extensions-Footnote-115807105 Ref: Installing binary extensions-Footnote-215807151 Node: Python HOWTOs15807200 Ref: howto/index doc15807329 Ref: 4ef615807329 Ref: howto/index how-tos15807329 Ref: 4ef715807329 Ref: howto/index python-howtos15807329 Ref: 4ef815807329 Node: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio15808476 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio doc15808604 Ref: 4ef915808604 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio15808604 Ref: 327915808604 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio id115808604 Ref: 4efa15808604 Ref: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio-Footnote-115809981 Ref: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio-Footnote-215810062 Ref: A Conceptual Overview of asyncio-Footnote-315810155 Node: A conceptual overview part 1 the high-level15810236 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-part-1-the-high-level15810404 Ref: 4efb15810404 Node: Event Loop<2>15810777 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio event-loop15810916 Ref: 4efc15810916 Node: Asynchronous functions and coroutines15812525 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio asynchronous-functions-and-coroutines15812681 Ref: 4efd15812681 Node: Tasks<2>15815621 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio tasks15815769 Ref: 4efe15815769 Node: await15818559 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio await15818661 Ref: 4eff15818661 Node: A conceptual overview part 2 the nuts and bolts15822840 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-conceptual-overview-part-2-the-nuts-and-bolts15823008 Ref: 4f0015823008 Node: The inner workings of coroutines15823498 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio the-inner-workings-of-coroutines15823633 Ref: 4f0115823633 Node: Futures<2>15827298 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio futures15827466 Ref: 4f0215827466 Node: A homemade asyncio sleep15828740 Ref: howto/a-conceptual-overview-of-asyncio a-homemade-asyncio-sleep15828867 Ref: 4f0315828867 Node: Porting Extension Modules to Python 315833502 Ref: howto/cporting doc15833669 Ref: 4f0415833669 Ref: howto/cporting cporting-howto15833669 Ref: 12d415833669 Ref: howto/cporting porting-extension-modules-to-python-315833669 Ref: 4f0515833669 Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-115834460 Ref: Porting Extension Modules to Python 3-Footnote-215834511 Node: Curses Programming with Python15834568 Ref: howto/curses doc15834719 Ref: 4f0615834719 Ref: howto/curses curses-howto15834719 Ref: 2f6115834719 Ref: howto/curses curses-programming-with-python15834719 Ref: 4f0715834719 Node: What is curses?15835128 Ref: howto/curses what-is-curses15835259 Ref: 4f0815835259 Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-115837615 Ref: What is curses?-Footnote-215837655 Node: The Python curses module15837699 Ref: howto/curses the-python-curses-module15837775 Ref: 4f0915837775 Node: Starting and ending a curses application15838602 Ref: howto/curses starting-and-ending-a-curses-application15838758 Ref: 4f0a15838758 Node: Windows and Pads15842034 Ref: howto/curses windows-and-pads15842190 Ref: 4f0b15842190 Node: Displaying Text15846748 Ref: howto/curses displaying-text15846874 Ref: 4f0c15846874 Node: Attributes and Color15850670 Ref: howto/curses attributes-and-color15850742 Ref: 4f0d15850742 Node: User Input15855301 Ref: howto/curses user-input15855431 Ref: 4f0e15855431 Ref: User Input-Footnote-115859251 Node: For More Information15859291 Ref: howto/curses for-more-information15859397 Ref: 4f0f15859397 Ref: For More Information-Footnote-115860897 Ref: For More Information-Footnote-215860934 Ref: For More Information-Footnote-315860998 Ref: For More Information-Footnote-415861042 Ref: For More Information-Footnote-515861104 Ref: For More Information-Footnote-615861156 Node: Descriptor Guide15861227 Ref: howto/descriptor doc15861398 Ref: 4f1015861398 Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-guide15861398 Ref: 4f1115861398 Ref: howto/descriptor descriptorhowto15861398 Ref: 14b715861398 Node: Primer15862552 Ref: howto/descriptor primer15862646 Ref: 4f1215862646 Node: Simple example A descriptor that returns a constant15862990 Ref: howto/descriptor simple-example-a-descriptor-that-returns-a-constant15863108 Ref: 4f1315863108 Node: Dynamic lookups15864577 Ref: howto/descriptor dynamic-lookups15864722 Ref: 4f1415864722 Node: Managed attributes15866131 Ref: howto/descriptor managed-attributes15866241 Ref: 4f1515866241 Node: Customized names15868896 Ref: howto/descriptor customized-names15869007 Ref: 4f1615869007 Node: Closing thoughts15871352 Ref: howto/descriptor closing-thoughts15871436 Ref: 4f1715871436 Node: Complete Practical Example15872826 Ref: howto/descriptor complete-practical-example15872947 Ref: 4f1815872947 Node: Validator class15873210 Ref: howto/descriptor validator-class15873314 Ref: 4f1915873314 Node: Custom validators15874340 Ref: howto/descriptor custom-validators15874474 Ref: 4f1a15874474 Ref: Custom validators-Footnote-115877105 Node: Practical application15877174 Ref: howto/descriptor practical-application15877284 Ref: 4f1b15877284 Node: Technical Tutorial15878672 Ref: howto/descriptor technical-tutorial15878810 Ref: 4f1c15878810 Node: Abstract15879242 Ref: howto/descriptor abstract15879341 Ref: 4f1d15879341 Node: Definition and introduction15879656 Ref: howto/descriptor definition-and-introduction15879783 Ref: 4f1e15879783 Node: Descriptor protocol15881023 Ref: howto/descriptor descriptor-protocol15881175 Ref: 4f1f15881175 Node: Overview of descriptor invocation15882459 Ref: howto/descriptor overview-of-descriptor-invocation15882611 Ref: 4f2015882611 Node: Invocation from an instance15883258 Ref: howto/descriptor invocation-from-an-instance15883414 Ref: 4f2115883414 Node: Invocation from a class15885931 Ref: howto/descriptor invocation-from-a-class15886075 Ref: 4f2215886075 Ref: Invocation from a class-Footnote-115886643 Node: Invocation from super15886716 Ref: howto/descriptor invocation-from-super15886860 Ref: 4f2315886860 Ref: Invocation from super-Footnote-115887494 Ref: Invocation from super-Footnote-215887567 Node: Summary of invocation logic15887647 Ref: howto/descriptor summary-of-invocation-logic15887795 Ref: 4f2415887795 Node: Automatic name notification15888799 Ref: howto/descriptor automatic-name-notification15888937 Ref: 4f2515888937 Ref: Automatic name notification-Footnote-115889821 Node: ORM example15889894 Ref: howto/descriptor orm-example15889996 Ref: 4f2615889996 Ref: ORM example-Footnote-115892009 Ref: ORM example-Footnote-215892081 Node: Pure Python Equivalents15892134 Ref: howto/descriptor pure-python-equivalents15892237 Ref: 4f2715892237 Node: Properties15892710 Ref: howto/descriptor properties15892810 Ref: 4f2815892810 Node: Functions and methods15895647 Ref: howto/descriptor functions-and-methods15895772 Ref: 4f2915895772 Node: Kinds of methods15899044 Ref: howto/descriptor kinds-of-methods15899173 Ref: 4f2a15899173 Node: Static methods15900415 Ref: howto/descriptor static-methods15900536 Ref: 4f2b15900536 Node: Class methods15902645 Ref: howto/descriptor class-methods15902778 Ref: 4f2c15902778 Node: Member objects and __slots__15904835 Ref: howto/descriptor member-objects-and-slots15904945 Ref: 4f2d15904945 Ref: Member objects and __slots__-Footnote-115912568 Node: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB15912624 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers doc15912775 Ref: 4f2e15912775 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers debugging-c-api-extensions-and-cpython-internals-with-gdb15912775 Ref: 4f2f15912775 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers gdb15912775 Ref: 4f3015912775 Ref: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB-Footnote-115914177 Ref: Debugging C API extensions and CPython Internals with GDB-Footnote-215914213 Node: Prerequisites15914267 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers prerequisites15914425 Ref: 4f3115914425 Node: Setup with Python built from source15915066 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers setup-with-python-built-from-source15915196 Ref: 4f3215915196 Node: Setup for Python from a Linux distro15915969 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers setup-for-python-from-a-linux-distro15916099 Ref: 4f3315916099 Node: Using the Debug build and Development mode15916747 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers using-the-debug-build-and-development-mode15916944 Ref: 4f3415916944 Node: Using the python-gdb extension15917548 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers using-the-python-gdb-extension15917753 Ref: 4f3515917753 Node: Pretty-printers15918059 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers pretty-printers15918157 Ref: 4f3615918157 Node: py-list15922688 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-list15922812 Ref: 4f3715922812 Node: py-up and py-down15923704 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-up-and-py-down15923818 Ref: 4f3815923818 Node: py-bt15928543 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-bt15928658 Ref: 4f3915928658 Node: py-print15930913 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-print15931020 Ref: 4f3a15931020 Node: py-locals15931769 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers py-locals15931862 Ref: 4f3b15931862 Node: Use with GDB commands15932765 Ref: howto/gdb_helpers use-with-gdb-commands15932919 Ref: 4f3c15932919 Node: Enum HOWTO15938940 Ref: howto/enum doc15939103 Ref: 4f3d15939103 Ref: howto/enum enum-howto15939103 Ref: 4f3e15939103 Ref: howto/enum id115939103 Ref: 4f3f15939103 Ref: howto/enum enum-basic-tutorial15939134 Ref: 25b515939134 Node: Programmatic access to enumeration members and their attributes15945083 Ref: howto/enum enum-advanced-tutorial15945237 Ref: 25b615945237 Ref: howto/enum programmatic-access-to-enumeration-members-and-their-attributes15945237 Ref: 4f4015945237 Node: Duplicating enum members and values15945989 Ref: howto/enum duplicating-enum-members-and-values15946186 Ref: 4f4115946186 Node: Ensuring unique enumeration values15947414 Ref: howto/enum ensuring-unique-enumeration-values15947570 Ref: 4f4215947570 Node: Using automatic values15948124 Ref: howto/enum using-automatic-values15948257 Ref: 4f4315948257 Node: Iteration<2>15949194 Ref: howto/enum iteration15949307 Ref: 4f4415949307 Node: Comparisons<3>15950569 Ref: howto/enum comparisons15950706 Ref: 4f4515950706 Node: Allowed members and attributes of enumerations15951824 Ref: howto/enum allowed-members-and-attributes-of-enumerations15951976 Ref: 4f4715951976 Node: Restricted Enum subclassing15954124 Ref: howto/enum restricted-enum-subclassing15954279 Ref: 4f4b15954279 Node: Dataclass support15955393 Ref: howto/enum dataclass-support15955510 Ref: 4f4d15955510 Ref: howto/enum enum-dataclass-support15955510 Ref: 178315955510 Node: Pickling15956880 Ref: howto/enum pickling15956987 Ref: 4f4e15956987 Node: Functional API<3>15957926 Ref: howto/enum functional-api15958036 Ref: 4f4815958036 Node: Derived Enumerations15961427 Ref: howto/enum derived-enumerations15961560 Ref: 4f4f15961560 Node: IntEnum15961693 Ref: howto/enum intenum15961773 Ref: 4f4615961773 Node: StrEnum15962898 Ref: howto/enum strenum15962994 Ref: 4f5015962994 Node: IntFlag15963301 Ref: howto/enum intflag15963394 Ref: 4f5115963394 Node: Flag15965762 Ref: howto/enum flag15965857 Ref: 4f5215965857 Node: Others<2>15968154 Ref: howto/enum others15968233 Ref: 4f5315968233 Node: When to use __new__ vs __init__15970274 Ref: howto/enum new-vs-init15970424 Ref: 4f4a15970424 Ref: howto/enum when-to-use-new-vs-init15970424 Ref: 4f5415970424 Node: Finer Points15971723 Ref: howto/enum finer-points15971803 Ref: 4f5515971803 Node: Supported __dunder__ names<2>15972210 Ref: howto/enum supported-dunder-names15972324 Ref: 4f5615972324 Node: Supported _sunder_ names<2>15972759 Ref: howto/enum supported-sunder-names15972897 Ref: 4f5715972897 Node: _Private__names15974970 Ref: howto/enum private-names15975095 Ref: 4f5915975095 Node: Enum member type15975265 Ref: howto/enum enum-member-type15975416 Ref: 4f5a15975416 Node: Creating members that are mixed with other data types15975899 Ref: howto/enum creating-members-that-are-mixed-with-other-data-types15976076 Ref: 4f5b15976076 Node: Boolean value of Enum classes and members15976611 Ref: howto/enum boolean-value-of-enum-classes-and-members15976797 Ref: 4f5c15976797 Node: Enum classes with methods15977362 Ref: howto/enum enum-classes-with-methods15977520 Ref: 4f5d15977520 Node: Combining members of Flag15978060 Ref: howto/enum combining-members-of-flag15978201 Ref: 4f5e15978201 Node: Flag and IntFlag minutia15978763 Ref: howto/enum flag-and-intflag-minutia15978870 Ref: 4f5f15978870 Node: How are Enums and Flags different?15981406 Ref: howto/enum enum-class-differences15981549 Ref: 25b815981549 Ref: howto/enum how-are-enums-and-flags-different15981549 Ref: 4f6015981549 Node: Enum Classes15981884 Ref: howto/enum enum-classes15981988 Ref: 4f6115981988 Node: Flag Classes15982580 Ref: howto/enum flag-classes15982719 Ref: 4f6215982719 Node: Enum Members aka instances15983085 Ref: howto/enum enum-members-aka-instances15983224 Ref: 4f6315983224 Node: Flag Members15983612 Ref: howto/enum flag-members15983730 Ref: 4f6415983730 Node: Enum Cookbook15984365 Ref: howto/enum enum-cookbook15984497 Ref: 25b715984497 Ref: howto/enum id215984497 Ref: 4f6515984497 Node: Omitting values15984963 Ref: howto/enum omitting-values15985048 Ref: 4f6615985048 Node: Using auto15985842 Ref: howto/enum using-auto15985925 Ref: 4f6715985925 Node: Using object15986177 Ref: howto/enum using-object15986295 Ref: 4f6815986295 Node: Using a descriptive string15986948 Ref: howto/enum using-a-descriptive-string15987078 Ref: 4f6915987078 Node: Using a custom __new__15987365 Ref: howto/enum using-a-custom-new15987474 Ref: 4f6a15987474 Node: OrderedEnum15989348 Ref: howto/enum orderedenum15989459 Ref: 4f4c15989459 Node: DuplicateFreeEnum15990639 Ref: howto/enum duplicatefreeenum15990749 Ref: 4f6b15990749 Node: MultiValueEnum15991829 Ref: howto/enum multivalueenum15991934 Ref: 4f5815991934 Node: Planet15992517 Ref: howto/enum planet15992615 Ref: 4f4915992615 Node: TimePeriod15993676 Ref: howto/enum enum-time-period15993751 Ref: 25ce15993751 Ref: howto/enum timeperiod15993751 Ref: 4f6c15993751 Node: Subclassing EnumType15994373 Ref: howto/enum enumtype-examples15994462 Ref: 25be15994462 Ref: howto/enum subclassing-enumtype15994462 Ref: 4f6d15994462 Node: Functional Programming HOWTO15994726 Ref: howto/functional doc15994845 Ref: 4f6e15994845 Ref: howto/functional functional-howto15994845 Ref: 4f6f15994845 Ref: howto/functional functional-programming-howto15994845 Ref: 4f7015994845 Node: Introduction<14>15995676 Ref: howto/functional introduction15995778 Ref: 4f7115995778 Node: Formal provability16000476 Ref: howto/functional formal-provability16000566 Ref: 4f7316000566 Node: Modularity16002480 Ref: howto/functional modularity16002608 Ref: 4f7416002608 Node: Ease of debugging and testing16003013 Ref: howto/functional ease-of-debugging-and-testing16003136 Ref: 4f7516003136 Node: Composability16003871 Ref: howto/functional composability16003975 Ref: 4f7616003975 Node: Iterators<2>16004698 Ref: howto/functional functional-howto-iterators16004854 Ref: 4f7216004854 Ref: howto/functional iterators16004854 Ref: 4f7716004854 Node: Data Types That Support Iterators16008219 Ref: howto/functional data-types-that-support-iterators16008301 Ref: 4f7816008301 Node: Generator expressions and list comprehensions16010265 Ref: howto/functional generator-expressions-and-list-comprehensions16010418 Ref: 4f7916010418 Node: Generators<2>16014975 Ref: howto/functional generators16015137 Ref: 4f7a16015137 Ref: Generators<2>-Footnote-116018996 Node: Passing values into a generator16019077 Ref: howto/functional passing-values-into-a-generator16019158 Ref: 4f7b16019158 Ref: Passing values into a generator-Footnote-116023122 Node: Built-in functions<2>16023164 Ref: howto/functional built-in-functions16023301 Ref: 4f7c16023301 Ref: Built-in functions<2>-Footnote-116027347 Node: The itertools module16027401 Ref: howto/functional the-itertools-module16027545 Ref: 4f7d16027545 Node: Creating new iterators16028288 Ref: howto/functional creating-new-iterators16028405 Ref: 4f7e16028405 Node: Calling functions on elements16031089 Ref: howto/functional calling-functions-on-elements16031233 Ref: 4f7f16031233 Node: Selecting elements16032045 Ref: howto/functional selecting-elements16032189 Ref: 4f8016032189 Node: Combinatoric functions16033680 Ref: howto/functional combinatoric-functions16033812 Ref: 4f8116033812 Node: Grouping elements16036145 Ref: howto/functional grouping-elements16036250 Ref: 4f8216036250 Node: The functools module16037800 Ref: howto/functional the-functools-module16037964 Ref: 4f8316037964 Node: The operator module16041575 Ref: howto/functional the-operator-module16041651 Ref: 4f8416041651 Node: Small functions and the lambda expression16042463 Ref: howto/functional small-functions-and-the-lambda-expression16042644 Ref: 4f8516042644 Node: Revision History and Acknowledgements16045503 Ref: howto/functional revision-history-and-acknowledgements16045677 Ref: 4f8616045677 Node: References<2>16046454 Ref: howto/functional references16046578 Ref: 4f8716046578 Node: General16046682 Ref: howto/functional general16046763 Ref: 4f8816046763 Node: Python-specific16047824 Ref: howto/functional python-specific16047934 Ref: 4f8916047934 Ref: Python-specific-Footnote-116048408 Ref: Python-specific-Footnote-216048459 Ref: Python-specific-Footnote-316048512 Node: Python documentation16048565 Ref: howto/functional python-documentation16048659 Ref: 4f8a16048659 Ref: Python documentation-Footnote-116049058 Ref: Python documentation-Footnote-216049100 Node: Logging HOWTO16049142 Ref: howto/logging doc16049267 Ref: 4f8b16049267 Ref: howto/logging id116049267 Ref: 4f8c16049267 Ref: howto/logging logging-howto16049267 Ref: 4f8d16049267 Ref: howto/logging logging-basic-tutorial16049360 Ref: 11e716049360 Node: Basic Logging Tutorial16049740 Ref: howto/logging basic-logging-tutorial16049846 Ref: 4f8f16049846 Node: When to use logging16050596 Ref: howto/logging when-to-use-logging16050699 Ref: 4f9016050699 Node: A simple example16054701 Ref: howto/logging a-simple-example16054830 Ref: 4f9116054830 Ref: howto/logging howto-minimal-example16054830 Ref: 4f9216054830 Node: Logging to a file16056071 Ref: howto/logging logging-to-a-file16056202 Ref: 4f9316056202 Node: Logging variable data16059268 Ref: howto/logging logging-variable-data16059424 Ref: 4f9416059424 Node: Changing the format of displayed messages16060241 Ref: howto/logging changing-the-format-of-displayed-messages16060416 Ref: 4f9516060416 Node: Displaying the date/time in messages16061410 Ref: howto/logging displaying-the-date-time-in-messages16061574 Ref: 4f9616061574 Ref: Displaying the date/time in messages-Footnote-116062625 Node: Next Steps16062684 Ref: howto/logging next-steps16062798 Ref: 4f9716062798 Ref: Next Steps-Footnote-116063731 Node: Advanced Logging Tutorial16063775 Ref: howto/logging advanced-logging-tutorial16063907 Ref: 4f9816063907 Ref: howto/logging logging-advanced-tutorial16063907 Ref: 11e816063907 Node: Logging Flow16067294 Ref: howto/logging logging-flow16067384 Ref: 4f9916067384 Node: Loggers16067579 Ref: howto/logging loggers16067686 Ref: 4f9a16067686 Node: Handlers16071963 Ref: howto/logging handler-basic16072068 Ref: 4f9b16072068 Ref: howto/logging handlers16072068 Ref: 4f9c16072068 Node: Formatters16074143 Ref: howto/logging formatters16074260 Ref: 4f9e16074260 Ref: howto/logging logging logging Formatter __init__16074708 Ref: 4f9f16074708 Node: Configuring Logging16076417 Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging16076570 Ref: 4fa016076570 Node: What happens if no configuration is provided16083122 Ref: howto/logging what-happens-if-no-configuration-is-provided16083298 Ref: 4fa116083298 Node: Configuring Logging for a Library16084559 Ref: howto/logging configuring-logging-for-a-library16084707 Ref: 4fa216084707 Ref: howto/logging library-config16084707 Ref: 2ce816084707 Node: Logging Levels<2>16087576 Ref: howto/logging logging-levels16087701 Ref: 4fa316087701 Node: Custom Levels16090560 Ref: howto/logging custom-levels16090627 Ref: 2cb116090627 Ref: howto/logging id216090627 Ref: 4fa416090627 Node: Useful Handlers16091340 Ref: howto/logging id316091472 Ref: 4fa516091472 Ref: howto/logging useful-handlers16091472 Ref: 4f9d16091472 Node: Exceptions raised during logging16095498 Ref: howto/logging exceptions-raised-during-logging16095648 Ref: 4fa616095648 Ref: howto/logging logging-exceptions16095648 Ref: 4fa716095648 Node: Using arbitrary objects as messages16096821 Ref: howto/logging arbitrary-object-messages16096968 Ref: 2c9d16096968 Ref: howto/logging using-arbitrary-objects-as-messages16096968 Ref: 4fa816096968 Node: Optimization16097580 Ref: howto/logging optimization16097710 Ref: 4fa916097710 Node: Other resources16101340 Ref: howto/logging other-resources16101426 Ref: 4faa16101426 Ref: howto/logging tutorial-ref-links16101426 Ref: 4f8e16101426 Node: Logging Cookbook16101768 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook doc16101889 Ref: 4fab16101889 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id116101889 Ref: 4fac16101889 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-cookbook16101889 Ref: 11e916101889 Node: Using logging in multiple modules16104032 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logging-in-multiple-modules16104156 Ref: 4fae16104156 Node: Logging from multiple threads16107728 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-from-multiple-threads16107893 Ref: 4faf16107893 Node: Multiple handlers and formatters16109638 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-handlers-and-formatters16109802 Ref: 4fb016109802 Node: Logging to multiple destinations16111963 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-multiple-destinations16112123 Ref: 4fb116112123 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-destinations16112123 Ref: 4fb216112123 Node: Custom handling of levels16115292 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handling-of-levels16115448 Ref: 4fb316115448 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-level-handling16115448 Ref: 4fb416115448 Node: Configuration server example16121320 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuration-server-example16121476 Ref: 4fb516121476 Node: Dealing with handlers that block16123036 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook blocking-handlers16123220 Ref: 33fb16123220 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook dealing-with-handlers-that-block16123220 Ref: 4fb616123220 Node: Sending and receiving logging events across a network16127413 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook network-logging16127621 Ref: 4fb716127621 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook sending-and-receiving-logging-events-across-a-network16127621 Ref: 4fb816127621 Node: Running a logging socket listener in production16133156 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook running-a-logging-socket-listener-in-production16133293 Ref: 4fb916133293 Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-116137404 Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-216137436 Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-316137508 Ref: Running a logging socket listener in production-Footnote-416137538 Node: Adding contextual information to your logging output16137610 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-contextual-information-to-your-logging-output16137804 Ref: 4fba16137804 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-info16137804 Ref: 2ca416137804 Node: Using LoggerAdapters to impart contextual information16138903 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggeradapters-to-impart-contextual-information16139100 Ref: 4fbb16139100 Node: Using objects other than dicts to pass contextual information16142377 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-objects-other-than-dicts-to-pass-contextual-information16142528 Ref: 4fbc16142528 Node: Using Filters to impart contextual information16142992 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-contextual16143189 Ref: 2c9916143189 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-filters-to-impart-contextual-information16143189 Ref: 4fbd16143189 Node: Use of contextvars16147004 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-contextvars16147189 Ref: 4fbe16147189 Node: Imparting contextual information in handlers16156767 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook imparting-contextual-information-in-handlers16156948 Ref: 4fbf16156948 Node: Logging to a single file from multiple processes16157893 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-a-single-file-from-multiple-processes16158075 Ref: 4fc016158075 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook multiple-processes16158075 Ref: 4fc116158075 Node: Using concurrent futures ProcessPoolExecutor16168353 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-concurrent-futures-processpoolexecutor16168542 Ref: 4fc216168542 Node: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI16169548 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook deploying-web-applications-using-gunicorn-and-uwsgi16169737 Ref: 4fc316169737 Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-116170397 Ref: Deploying Web applications using Gunicorn and uWSGI-Footnote-216170427 Node: Using file rotation16170480 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-file-rotation16170654 Ref: 4fc416170654 Node: Use of alternative formatting styles16172557 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook format-styles16172704 Ref: 4fc516172704 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook use-of-alternative-formatting-styles16172704 Ref: 4fc616172704 Node: Customizing LogRecord16179857 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-logrecord16180045 Ref: 4fc716180045 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-logrecord16180045 Ref: 4fc816180045 Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a ZeroMQ example16183959 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-zeromq-example16184170 Ref: 4fc916184170 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook zeromq-handlers16184170 Ref: 4fca16184170 Node: Subclass QueueHandler16184370 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuehandler16184519 Ref: 4fcb16184519 Node: Subclass QueueListener16185828 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclass-queuelistener16185977 Ref: 4fcc16185977 Node: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example16186722 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook pynng-handlers16186953 Ref: 4fcd16186953 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook subclassing-queuehandler-and-queuelistener-a-pynng-example16186953 Ref: 4fce16186953 Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-116187579 Ref: Subclassing QueueHandler and QueueListener- a pynng example-Footnote-216187619 Node: Subclass QueueListener<2>16187652 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id316187806 Ref: 4fcf16187806 Node: Subclass QueueHandler<2>16189782 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook id416189936 Ref: 4fd016189936 Node: An example dictionary-based configuration16193650 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook an-example-dictionary-based-configuration16193883 Ref: 4fd116193883 Ref: An example dictionary-based configuration-Footnote-116195817 Ref: An example dictionary-based configuration-Footnote-216195903 Node: Using a rotator and namer to customize log rotation processing16195989 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-rotator-namer16196203 Ref: 2cf516196203 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-rotator-and-namer-to-customize-log-rotation-processing16196203 Ref: 4fd216196203 Node: A more elaborate multiprocessing example16197604 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-more-elaborate-multiprocessing-example16197830 Ref: 4fd316197830 Node: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler16207456 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook inserting-a-bom-into-messages-sent-to-a-sysloghandler16207651 Ref: 4fd416207651 Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-116209816 Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-216209875 Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-316209944 Ref: Inserting a BOM into messages sent to a SysLogHandler-Footnote-416210003 Node: Implementing structured logging16210062 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook implementing-structured-logging16210253 Ref: 4fd516210253 Node: Customizing handlers with dictConfig16212787 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-handlers16212987 Ref: 4fd616212987 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customizing-handlers-with-dictconfig16212987 Ref: 4fd716212987 Node: Using particular formatting styles throughout your application16218183 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-styles16218387 Ref: 2c8d16218387 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-particular-formatting-styles-throughout-your-application16218387 Ref: 4fd816218387 Node: Using LogRecord factories16220389 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-logrecord-factories16220550 Ref: 4fd916220550 Node: Using custom message objects16221524 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-custom-message-objects16221685 Ref: 4fda16221685 Node: Configuring filters with dictConfig16224393 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook configuring-filters-with-dictconfig16224592 Ref: 4fdb16224592 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook filters-dictconfig16224592 Ref: 4fdc16224592 Node: Customized exception formatting16227559 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook custom-format-exception16227721 Ref: 4fdd16227721 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook customized-exception-formatting16227721 Ref: 4fde16227721 Node: Speaking logging messages16229786 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook speaking-logging-messages16229973 Ref: 4fdf16229973 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook spoken-messages16229973 Ref: 4fe016229973 Node: Buffering logging messages and outputting them conditionally16232139 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffered-logging16232343 Ref: 4fe116232343 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffering-logging-messages-and-outputting-them-conditionally16232343 Ref: 4fe216232343 Node: Sending logging messages to email with buffering16237919 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook buffered-smtp16238146 Ref: 4fe316238146 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook sending-logging-messages-to-email-with-buffering16238146 Ref: 4fe416238146 Node: Formatting times using UTC GMT via configuration16241712 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook formatting-times-using-utc-gmt-via-configuration16241924 Ref: 4fe516241924 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook utc-formatting16241924 Ref: 4fe616241924 Node: Using a context manager for selective logging16243825 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook context-manager16244023 Ref: 4fe716244023 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-a-context-manager-for-selective-logging16244023 Ref: 4fe816244023 Node: A CLI application starter template16248603 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-cli-application-starter-template16248773 Ref: 4fe916248773 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook starter-template16248773 Ref: 4fea16248773 Node: A Qt GUI for logging16254754 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook a-qt-gui-for-logging16254917 Ref: 4feb16254917 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook qt-gui16254917 Ref: 4fec16254917 Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-116265220 Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-216265247 Ref: A Qt GUI for logging-Footnote-316265289 Node: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support16265329 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook logging-to-syslog-with-rfc5424-support16265501 Ref: 4fed16265501 Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-116269231 Ref: Logging to syslog with RFC5424 support-Footnote-216269290 Node: How to treat a logger like an output stream16269349 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook how-to-treat-a-logger-like-an-output-stream16269551 Ref: 4fee16269551 Node: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output16274227 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook how-to-uniformly-handle-newlines-in-logging-output16274408 Ref: 4fef16274408 Ref: How to uniformly handle newlines in logging output-Footnote-116277938 Node: Patterns to avoid16278000 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook patterns-to-avoid16278156 Ref: 4ff016278156 Node: Opening the same log file multiple times16278708 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook opening-the-same-log-file-multiple-times16278879 Ref: 4ff116278879 Node: Using loggers as attributes in a class or passing them as parameters16280802 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook using-loggers-as-attributes-in-a-class-or-passing-them-as-parameters16281045 Ref: 4ff216281045 Node: Adding handlers other than NullHandler to a logger in a library16281731 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook adding-handlers-other-than-nullhandler-to-a-logger-in-a-library16281959 Ref: 4ff316281959 Node: Creating a lot of loggers16282399 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook creating-a-lot-of-loggers16282550 Ref: 4ff416282550 Node: Other resources<2>16283105 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook cookbook-ref-links16283202 Ref: 4fad16283202 Ref: howto/logging-cookbook other-resources16283202 Ref: 4ff516283202 Node: Regular Expression HOWTO16283574 Ref: howto/regex doc16283706 Ref: 4ff616283706 Ref: howto/regex regex-howto16283706 Ref: 22ec16283706 Ref: howto/regex regular-expression-howto16283706 Ref: 4ff716283706 Node: Introduction<15>16284203 Ref: howto/regex introduction16284304 Ref: 4ff816284304 Node: Simple Patterns16285909 Ref: howto/regex simple-patterns16286044 Ref: 4ff916286044 Node: Matching Characters16286539 Ref: howto/regex matching-characters16286635 Ref: 4ffa16286635 Node: Repeating Things16291286 Ref: howto/regex repeating-things16291382 Ref: 4ffb16291382 Node: Using Regular Expressions16296460 Ref: howto/regex using-regular-expressions16296597 Ref: 4ffc16296597 Node: Compiling Regular Expressions16297090 Ref: howto/regex compiling-regular-expressions16297210 Ref: 4ffd16297210 Node: The Backslash Plague16298427 Ref: howto/regex id116298574 Ref: 4ffe16298574 Ref: howto/regex the-backslash-plague16298574 Ref: 4fff16298574 Node: Performing Matches16301460 Ref: howto/regex performing-matches16301603 Ref: 500016301603 Node: Module-Level Functions<3>16307146 Ref: howto/regex module-level-functions16307286 Ref: 500116307286 Node: Compilation Flags16308489 Ref: howto/regex compilation-flags16308602 Ref: 500216308602 Node: More Pattern Power16315752 Ref: howto/regex more-pattern-power16315891 Ref: 500416315891 Node: More Metacharacters16316256 Ref: howto/regex id216316347 Ref: 500516316347 Ref: howto/regex more-metacharacters16316347 Ref: 500316316347 Node: Grouping16321028 Ref: howto/regex grouping16321158 Ref: 500616321158 Node: Non-capturing and Named Groups16324634 Ref: howto/regex non-capturing-and-named-groups16324765 Ref: 500716324765 Node: Lookahead Assertions16329901 Ref: howto/regex lookahead-assertions16330015 Ref: 500816330015 Node: Modifying Strings16333684 Ref: howto/regex modifying-strings16333813 Ref: 500916333813 Node: Splitting Strings16334805 Ref: howto/regex splitting-strings16334906 Ref: 500a16334906 Node: Search and Replace<2>16337224 Ref: howto/regex search-and-replace16337325 Ref: 500b16337325 Node: Common Problems16341813 Ref: howto/regex common-problems16341932 Ref: 500c16341932 Node: Use String Methods16342370 Ref: howto/regex use-string-methods16342468 Ref: 500d16342468 Node: match versus search16344184 Ref: howto/regex match-versus-search16344315 Ref: 500e16344315 Node: Greedy versus Non-Greedy16345949 Ref: howto/regex greedy-versus-non-greedy16346078 Ref: 500f16346078 Node: Using re VERBOSE16348002 Ref: howto/regex using-re-verbose16348103 Ref: 501016348103 Node: Feedback16349630 Ref: howto/regex feedback16349723 Ref: 501116349723 Node: Socket Programming HOWTO16350506 Ref: howto/sockets doc16350640 Ref: 501216350640 Ref: howto/sockets socket-howto16350640 Ref: 344c16350640 Ref: howto/sockets socket-programming-howto16350640 Ref: 501316350640 Node: Sockets16351238 Ref: howto/sockets sockets16351332 Ref: 501416351332 Node: History16352492 Ref: howto/sockets history16352543 Ref: 501516352543 Node: Creating a Socket16353118 Ref: howto/sockets creating-a-socket16353235 Ref: 501616353235 Node: IPC16356491 Ref: howto/sockets ipc16356548 Ref: 501716356548 Node: Using a Socket16356994 Ref: howto/sockets using-a-socket16357117 Ref: 501816357117 Node: Binary Data16363256 Ref: howto/sockets binary-data16363318 Ref: 501916363318 Ref: Binary Data-Footnote-116364605 Node: Disconnecting16364665 Ref: howto/sockets disconnecting16364791 Ref: 501a16364791 Node: When Sockets Die16366267 Ref: howto/sockets when-sockets-die16366333 Ref: 501b16366333 Node: Non-blocking Sockets16367212 Ref: howto/sockets non-blocking-sockets16367315 Ref: 501c16367315 Node: Sorting Techniques16371136 Ref: howto/sorting doc16371259 Ref: 501d16371259 Ref: howto/sorting sorting-techniques16371259 Ref: 501e16371259 Ref: howto/sorting sortinghowto16371259 Ref: 217e16371259 Node: Sorting Basics16371917 Ref: howto/sorting sorting-basics16372008 Ref: 501f16372008 Node: Key Functions16372808 Ref: howto/sorting key-functions16372965 Ref: 502016372965 Node: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation16374833 Ref: howto/sorting operator-module-functions-and-partial-function-evaluation16375000 Ref: 502116375000 Ref: Operator Module Functions and Partial Function Evaluation-Footnote-116376827 Node: Ascending and Descending16376871 Ref: howto/sorting ascending-and-descending16377057 Ref: 502216377057 Node: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts16377592 Ref: howto/sorting sort-stability-and-complex-sorts16377745 Ref: 502316377745 Ref: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts-Footnote-116379378 Ref: Sort Stability and Complex Sorts-Footnote-216379444 Node: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate16379490 Ref: howto/sorting decorate-sort-undecorate16379639 Ref: 502416379639 Ref: Decorate-Sort-Undecorate-Footnote-116381290 Node: Comparison Functions16381350 Ref: howto/sorting comparison-functions16381483 Ref: 502516381483 Ref: Comparison Functions-Footnote-116382454 Node: Odds and Ends<2>16382541 Ref: howto/sorting odds-and-ends16382663 Ref: 502616382663 Ref: Odds and Ends<2>-Footnote-116384908 Node: Partial Sorts16384950 Ref: howto/sorting partial-sorts16385043 Ref: 502716385043 Node: Unicode HOWTO16386126 Ref: howto/unicode doc16386280 Ref: 502816386280 Ref: howto/unicode id116386280 Ref: 502916386280 Ref: howto/unicode unicode-howto16386280 Ref: 129716386280 Node: Introduction to Unicode16386680 Ref: howto/unicode introduction-to-unicode16386788 Ref: 502a16386788 Node: Definitions16386920 Ref: howto/unicode definitions16387009 Ref: 502b16387009 Ref: Definitions-Footnote-116390073 Node: Encodings16390130 Ref: howto/unicode encodings16390241 Ref: 502c16390241 Node: References<3>16393922 Ref: howto/unicode references16394013 Ref: 502d16394013 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-116394888 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-216394920 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-316394961 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-416395013 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-516395060 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-616395234 Ref: References<3>-Footnote-716395291 Node: Python’s Unicode Support16395335 Ref: howto/unicode python-s-unicode-support16395484 Ref: 502e16395484 Node: The String Type16395851 Ref: howto/unicode the-string-type16395957 Ref: 502f16395957 Node: Converting to Bytes16399067 Ref: howto/unicode converting-to-bytes16399220 Ref: 503016399220 Node: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code16401064 Ref: howto/unicode unicode-literals-in-python-source-code16401220 Ref: 503116401220 Ref: Unicode Literals in Python Source Code-Footnote-116403325 Node: Unicode Properties16403367 Ref: howto/unicode unicode-properties16403521 Ref: 503216403521 Ref: Unicode Properties-Footnote-116405286 Node: Comparing Strings16405356 Ref: howto/unicode comparing-strings16405499 Ref: 503316405499 Node: Unicode Regular Expressions16408353 Ref: howto/unicode unicode-regular-expressions16408491 Ref: 503416408491 Node: References<4>16409630 Ref: howto/unicode id216409742 Ref: 503516409742 Ref: References<4>-Footnote-116410528 Ref: References<4>-Footnote-216410624 Ref: References<4>-Footnote-316410676 Node: Reading and Writing Unicode Data16410745 Ref: howto/unicode reading-and-writing-unicode-data16410891 Ref: 503616410891 Node: Unicode filenames16414599 Ref: howto/unicode unicode-filenames16414733 Ref: 503716414733 Node: Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs16417196 Ref: howto/unicode tips-for-writing-unicode-aware-programs16417352 Ref: 503816417352 Node: Converting Between File Encodings16418715 Ref: howto/unicode converting-between-file-encodings16418861 Ref: 503916418861 Node: Files in an Unknown Encoding16419630 Ref: howto/unicode files-in-an-unknown-encoding16419776 Ref: 503a16419776 Node: References<5>16420677 Ref: howto/unicode id316420807 Ref: 503b16420807 Ref: References<5>-Footnote-116421413 Ref: References<5>-Footnote-216421485 Ref: References<5>-Footnote-316421590 Node: Acknowledgements<10>16421659 Ref: howto/unicode acknowledgements16421770 Ref: 503c16421770 Node: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package16422294 Ref: howto/urllib2 doc16422469 Ref: 503d16422469 Ref: howto/urllib2 howto-fetch-internet-resources-using-the-urllib-package16422469 Ref: 503e16422469 Ref: howto/urllib2 urllib-howto16422469 Ref: 3a1116422469 Ref: HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using The urllib Package-Footnote-116422883 Node: Introduction<16>16422922 Ref: howto/urllib2 introduction16423052 Ref: 503f16423052 Ref: Introduction<16>-Footnote-116424646 Ref: Introduction<16>-Footnote-216424763 Node: Fetching URLs16424822 Ref: howto/urllib2 fetching-urls16424983 Ref: 504016424983 Node: Data16427220 Ref: howto/urllib2 data16427290 Ref: 504116427290 Ref: Data-Footnote-116429941 Node: Headers16430010 Ref: howto/urllib2 headers16430080 Ref: 504216430080 Ref: Headers-Footnote-116431592 Ref: Headers-Footnote-216431620 Ref: Headers-Footnote-316431830 Ref: Headers-Footnote-416431950 Node: Handling Exceptions<2>16432069 Ref: howto/urllib2 handling-exceptions16432229 Ref: 504416432229 Node: URLError16432732 Ref: howto/urllib2 urlerror16432817 Ref: 504516432817 Node: HTTPError16433369 Ref: howto/urllib2 httperror16433477 Ref: 504616433477 Ref: HTTPError-Footnote-116434368 Node: Error Codes16434427 Ref: howto/urllib2 error-codes16434484 Ref: 504716434484 Ref: Error Codes-Footnote-116436648 Node: Wrapping it Up16436707 Ref: howto/urllib2 wrapping-it-up16436798 Ref: 504816436798 Node: Number 116437030 Ref: howto/urllib2 number-116437106 Ref: 504916437106 Node: Number 216437731 Ref: howto/urllib2 number-216437807 Ref: 504a16437807 Node: info and geturl16438339 Ref: howto/urllib2 info-and-geturl16438506 Ref: 504316438506 Ref: info and geturl-Footnote-116439437 Node: Openers and Handlers16439475 Ref: howto/urllib2 openers-and-handlers16439640 Ref: 504b16439640 Node: Basic Authentication16441288 Ref: howto/urllib2 id516441445 Ref: 504c16441445 Ref: Basic Authentication-Footnote-116444858 Node: Proxies16444975 Ref: howto/urllib2 proxies16445130 Ref: 504d16445130 Ref: Proxies-Footnote-116446152 Ref: Proxies-Footnote-216446454 Ref: Proxies-Footnote-316446571 Node: Sockets and Layers16446738 Ref: howto/urllib2 sockets-and-layers16446882 Ref: 504e16446882 Node: Footnotes16447901 Ref: howto/urllib2 footnotes16448029 Ref: 504f16448029 Node: An introduction to the ipaddress module16448117 Ref: howto/ipaddress doc16448326 Ref: 505016448326 Ref: howto/ipaddress an-introduction-to-the-ipaddress-module16448326 Ref: 505116448326 Ref: howto/ipaddress ipaddress-howto16448326 Ref: 3c3f16448326 Node: Creating Address/Network/Interface objects16449067 Ref: howto/ipaddress creating-address-network-interface-objects16449238 Ref: 505216449238 Node: A Note on IP Versions16449663 Ref: howto/ipaddress a-note-on-ip-versions16449789 Ref: 505316449789 Node: IP Host Addresses16450575 Ref: howto/ipaddress ip-host-addresses16450727 Ref: 505416450727 Node: Defining Networks16451912 Ref: howto/ipaddress defining-networks16452058 Ref: 505516452058 Node: Host Interfaces16454414 Ref: howto/ipaddress host-interfaces16454534 Ref: 505616454534 Node: Inspecting Address/Network/Interface Objects16455537 Ref: howto/ipaddress inspecting-address-network-interface-objects16455747 Ref: 505716455747 Node: Networks as lists of Addresses16458095 Ref: howto/ipaddress networks-as-lists-of-addresses16458277 Ref: 505816458277 Node: Comparisons<4>16459074 Ref: howto/ipaddress comparisons16459249 Ref: 505916459249 Node: Using IP Addresses with other modules16459606 Ref: howto/ipaddress using-ip-addresses-with-other-modules16459799 Ref: 505a16459799 Node: Getting more detail when instance creation fails16460228 Ref: howto/ipaddress getting-more-detail-when-instance-creation-fails16460398 Ref: 505b16460398 Node: Instrumenting CPython with DTrace and SystemTap16462454 Ref: howto/instrumentation doc16462650 Ref: 505c16462650 Ref: howto/instrumentation instrumentation16462650 Ref: c6c16462650 Ref: howto/instrumentation instrumenting-cpython-with-dtrace-and-systemtap16462650 Ref: 505d16462650 Node: Enabling the static markers16463831 Ref: howto/instrumentation enabling-the-static-markers16463971 Ref: 505e16463971 Node: Static DTrace probes16468169 Ref: howto/instrumentation static-dtrace-probes16468342 Ref: 505f16468342 Node: Static SystemTap markers16470781 Ref: howto/instrumentation static-systemtap-markers16470951 Ref: 506016470951 Node: Available static markers16472995 Ref: howto/instrumentation available-static-markers16473162 Ref: 506116473162 Node: SystemTap Tapsets16475710 Ref: howto/instrumentation systemtap-tapsets16475865 Ref: 506216475865 Node: Examples<39>16477483 Ref: howto/instrumentation examples16477605 Ref: 506316477605 Node: Python support for the Linux perf profiler16478926 Ref: howto/perf_profiling doc16479109 Ref: 173c16479109 Ref: howto/perf_profiling perf-profiling16479109 Ref: 18f16479109 Ref: howto/perf_profiling python-support-for-the-linux-perf-profiler16479109 Ref: 506416479109 Ref: Python support for the Linux perf profiler-Footnote-116486994 Node: How to enable perf profiling support16487031 Ref: howto/perf_profiling how-to-enable-perf-profiling-support16487185 Ref: 506516487185 Node: How to obtain the best results16488327 Ref: howto/perf_profiling how-to-obtain-the-best-results16488524 Ref: 506616488524 Node: How to work without frame pointers16489306 Ref: howto/perf_profiling how-to-work-without-frame-pointers16489458 Ref: 506716489458 Node: Annotations Best Practices16493322 Ref: howto/annotations doc16493485 Ref: 506816493485 Ref: howto/annotations annotations-best-practices16493485 Ref: 506916493485 Ref: howto/annotations annotations-howto16493485 Ref: 7d416493485 Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 10 And Newer16494847 Ref: howto/annotations accessing-the-annotations-dict-of-an-object-in-python-3-10-and-newer16495054 Ref: 506a16495054 Node: Accessing The Annotations Dict Of An Object In Python 3 9 And Older16496710 Ref: howto/annotations accessing-the-annotations-dict-of-an-object-in-python-3-9-and-older16496972 Ref: 506b16496972 Node: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations16499366 Ref: howto/annotations manually-un-stringizing-stringized-annotations16499616 Ref: 506c16499616 Ref: Manually Un-Stringizing Stringized Annotations-Footnote-116501954 Node: Best Practices For __annotations__ In Any Python Version16501996 Ref: howto/annotations best-practices-for-annotations-in-any-python-version16502201 Ref: 506d16502201 Node: __annotations__ Quirks16502940 Ref: howto/annotations annotations-quirks16503090 Ref: 506e16503090 Node: Isolating Extension Modules16504783 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions doc16504931 Ref: 506f16504931 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolating-extension-modules16504931 Ref: 507016504931 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolating-extensions-howto16504931 Ref: 48be16504931 Node: Who should read this16505671 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions who-should-read-this16505777 Ref: 507116505777 Node: Background<2>16506015 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions background16506176 Ref: 507216506176 Node: Enter Per-Module State16507787 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions enter-per-module-state16507891 Ref: 507316507891 Node: Isolated Module Objects16509062 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolated-module-objects16509196 Ref: 507416509196 Node: Surprising Edge Cases16510233 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions surprising-edge-cases16510336 Ref: 507616510336 Node: Making Modules Safe with Multiple Interpreters16511352 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions making-modules-safe-with-multiple-interpreters16511506 Ref: 507716511506 Node: Managing Global State16511825 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions managing-global-state16511963 Ref: 507516511963 Node: Managing Per-Module State16512923 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions managing-per-module-state16513119 Ref: 507816513119 Ref: Managing Per-Module State-Footnote-116514795 Node: Opt-Out Limiting to One Module Object per Process16514869 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions isolating-extensions-optout16515078 Ref: 4d1816515078 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions opt-out-limiting-to-one-module-object-per-process16515078 Ref: 507916515078 Node: Module State Access from Functions16516440 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-functions16516615 Ref: 507a16516615 Node: Heap Types<2>16517397 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions heap-types16517549 Ref: 507b16517549 Node: Changing Static Types to Heap Types16519215 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions changing-static-types-to-heap-types16519328 Ref: 507c16519328 Node: Defining Heap Types16520308 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions defining-heap-types16520457 Ref: 507d16520457 Node: Garbage-Collection Protocol16521114 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions garbage-collection-protocol16521260 Ref: 507e16521260 Node: tp_traverse in Python 3 8 and lower16522350 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions tp-traverse-in-python-3-8-and-lower16522480 Ref: 507f16522480 Node: Delegating tp_traverse16523248 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions delegating-tp-traverse16523406 Ref: 508016523406 Node: Defining tp_dealloc16524216 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions defining-tp-dealloc16524361 Ref: 508116524361 Node: Not overriding tp_free16525133 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions not-overriding-tp-free16525277 Ref: 508216525277 Node: Avoiding PyObject_New16525484 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions avoiding-pyobject-new16525600 Ref: 508316525600 Node: Module State Access from Classes16526389 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-classes16526556 Ref: 508416526556 Node: Module State Access from Regular Methods16527129 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-regular-methods16527326 Ref: 508516527326 Node: Module State Access from Slot Methods Getters and Setters16529839 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions module-state-access-from-slot-methods-getters-and-setters16530032 Ref: 508616530032 Node: Lifetime of the Module State16531461 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lifetime-of-the-module-state16531605 Ref: 508716531605 Node: Open Issues16532148 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions open-issues16532245 Ref: 508816532245 Ref: Open Issues-Footnote-116532557 Node: Per-Class Scope16532612 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions per-class-scope16532717 Ref: 508916532717 Node: Lossless Conversion to Heap Types16533010 Ref: howto/isolating-extensions lossless-conversion-to-heap-types16533115 Ref: 508a16533115 Node: timer file descriptor HOWTO16533357 Ref: howto/timerfd doc16533517 Ref: 508b16533517 Ref: howto/timerfd timer-file-descriptor-howto16533517 Ref: 508c16533517 Ref: howto/timerfd timerfd-howto16533517 Ref: 508d16533517 Node: Examples<40>16533714 Ref: howto/timerfd examples16533790 Ref: 508e16533790 Node: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order16542596 Ref: howto/mro doc16542775 Ref: 508f16542775 Ref: howto/mro python-2-3-mro16542775 Ref: 147316542775 Ref: howto/mro the-python-2-3-method-resolution-order16542775 Ref: 509016542775 Ref: The Python 2 3 Method Resolution Order-Footnote-116544388 Node: The beginning16544435 Ref: howto/mro the-beginning16544562 Ref: 509116544562 Ref: The beginning-Footnote-116549149 Ref: The beginning-Footnote-216549286 Node: The C3 Method Resolution Order16549398 Ref: howto/mro the-c3-method-resolution-order16549546 Ref: 509216549546 Node: Examples<41>16551877 Ref: howto/mro examples16552040 Ref: 509316552040 Node: Bad Method Resolution Orders16557591 Ref: howto/mro bad-method-resolution-orders16557731 Ref: 509416557731 Ref: Bad Method Resolution Orders-Footnote-116563979 Node: The end16564165 Ref: howto/mro the-end16564302 Ref: 509516564302 Node: Resources16567481 Ref: howto/mro resources16567581 Ref: 509616567581 Node: Python experimental support for free threading16567616 Ref: howto/free-threading-python doc16567810 Ref: 509716567810 Ref: howto/free-threading-python freethreading-python-howto16567810 Ref: 509816567810 Ref: howto/free-threading-python python-experimental-support-for-free-threading16567810 Ref: 509916567810 Ref: Python experimental support for free threading-Footnote-116569092 Node: Installation16569134 Ref: howto/free-threading-python installation16569270 Ref: 509b16569270 Ref: Installation-Footnote-116569856 Node: Identifying free-threaded Python16569920 Ref: howto/free-threading-python identifying-free-threaded-python16570116 Ref: 509c16570116 Node: The global interpreter lock in free-threaded Python16570800 Ref: howto/free-threading-python the-global-interpreter-lock-in-free-threaded-python16570997 Ref: 509d16570997 Node: Thread safety16571747 Ref: howto/free-threading-python thread-safety16571929 Ref: 509e16571929 Node: Known limitations16572721 Ref: howto/free-threading-python known-limitations16572843 Ref: 509f16572843 Node: Immortalization16573096 Ref: howto/free-threading-python immortalization16573190 Ref: 50a016573190 Node: Frame objects<2>16574301 Ref: howto/free-threading-python frame-objects16574416 Ref: 50a116574416 Node: Iterators<3>16574861 Ref: howto/free-threading-python iterators16574988 Ref: 50a216574988 Node: Single-threaded performance16575199 Ref: howto/free-threading-python single-threaded-performance16575301 Ref: 50a316575301 Ref: Single-threaded performance-Footnote-116576067 Ref: Single-threaded performance-Footnote-216576113 Node: C API Extension Support for Free Threading16576155 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions doc16576302 Ref: 50a416576302 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions c-api-extension-support-for-free-threading16576302 Ref: 50a516576302 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions freethreading-extensions-howto16576302 Ref: 509a16576302 Node: Identifying the Free-Threaded Build in C16576954 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions identifying-the-free-threaded-build-in-c16577103 Ref: 50a616577103 Node: Module Initialization16577810 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions module-initialization16577990 Ref: 50a716577990 Node: Multi-Phase Initialization16578484 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions multi-phase-initialization16578604 Ref: 50a816578604 Node: Single-Phase Initialization16579277 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions single-phase-initialization16579397 Ref: 50a916579397 Node: General API Guidelines16580237 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions general-api-guidelines16580396 Ref: 50aa16580396 Node: Container Thread Safety16581217 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions container-thread-safety16581299 Ref: 50ac16581299 Node: PyDict_Next16581634 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions id116581705 Ref: 50ad16581705 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions pydict-next16581705 Ref: 50ae16581705 Node: Borrowed References16582193 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions borrowed-references16582353 Ref: 50af16582353 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions id216582408 Ref: 50ab16582408 Ref: Borrowed References-Footnote-116585198 Node: Memory Allocation APIs16585250 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions free-threaded-memory-allocation16585413 Ref: 4e2516585413 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions memory-allocation-apis16585413 Ref: 50b016585413 Node: Thread State and GIL APIs16586159 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions thread-state-and-gil-apis16586338 Ref: 50b116586338 Node: Protecting Internal Extension State16587304 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions protecting-internal-extension-state16587508 Ref: 50b216587508 Ref: Protecting Internal Extension State-Footnote-116588264 Node: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build16588330 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions building-extensions-for-the-free-threaded-build16588500 Ref: 50b316588500 Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-116589102 Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-216589144 Ref: Building Extensions for the Free-Threaded Build-Footnote-316589189 Node: Limited C API and Stable ABI16589252 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions limited-c-api-and-stable-abi16589384 Ref: 50b416589384 Ref: Limited C API and Stable ABI-Footnote-116590081 Node: Windows<80>16590142 Ref: howto/free-threading-extensions windows16590274 Ref: 50b516590274 Ref: Windows<80>-Footnote-116591902 Node: Python Frequently Asked Questions16591955 Ref: faq/index doc16592071 Ref: 50b616592071 Ref: faq/index faq-index16592071 Ref: 1d0716592071 Ref: faq/index python-frequently-asked-questions16592071 Ref: 50b716592071 Node: General Python FAQ16592395 Ref: faq/general doc16592507 Ref: 50b816592507 Ref: faq/general general-python-faq16592507 Ref: 50b916592507 Node: General Information16592619 Ref: faq/general general-information16592726 Ref: 50ba16592726 Node: What is Python?16593715 Ref: faq/general what-is-python16593834 Ref: 50bb16593834 Ref: What is Python?-Footnote-116594782 Node: What is the Python Software Foundation?16594834 Ref: faq/general what-is-the-python-software-foundation16595016 Ref: 50bc16595016 Ref: What is the Python Software Foundation?-Footnote-116595620 Node: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?16595666 Ref: faq/general are-there-copyright-restrictions-on-the-use-of-python16595875 Ref: 50bd16595875 Ref: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?-Footnote-116596737 Ref: Are there copyright restrictions on the use of Python?-Footnote-216596784 Node: Why was Python created in the first place?16596831 Ref: faq/general why-was-python-created-in-the-first-place16597025 Ref: 50be16597025 Node: What is Python good for?16599357 Ref: faq/general what-is-python-good-for16599547 Ref: 50bf16599547 Ref: What is Python good for?-Footnote-116600398 Node: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?16600423 Ref: faq/general faq-version-numbering-scheme16600615 Ref: 50c016600615 Ref: faq/general how-does-the-python-version-numbering-scheme-work16600615 Ref: 50c116600615 Ref: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?-Footnote-116602691 Ref: How does the Python version numbering scheme work?-Footnote-216602765 Node: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?16602807 Ref: faq/general how-do-i-obtain-a-copy-of-the-python-source16603012 Ref: 50c216603012 Ref: How do I obtain a copy of the Python source?-Footnote-116603794 Node: How do I get documentation on Python?16603837 Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-documentation-on-python16604050 Ref: 50c316604050 Ref: How do I get documentation on Python?-Footnote-116604613 Node: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?16604649 Ref: faq/general i-ve-never-programmed-before-is-there-a-python-tutorial16604873 Ref: 50c416604873 Ref: I’ve never programmed before Is there a Python tutorial?-Footnote-116605284 Node: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?16605336 Ref: faq/general is-there-a-newsgroup-or-mailing-list-devoted-to-python16605566 Ref: 50c516605566 Ref: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?-Footnote-116606445 Ref: Is there a newsgroup or mailing list devoted to Python?-Footnote-216606506 Node: How do I get a beta test version of Python?16606587 Ref: faq/general how-do-i-get-a-beta-test-version-of-python16606810 Ref: 50c616606810 Ref: How do I get a beta test version of Python?-Footnote-116607347 Node: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?16607384 Ref: faq/general how-do-i-submit-bug-reports-and-patches-for-python16607619 Ref: 50c716607619 Ref: How do I submit bug reports and patches for Python?-Footnote-116607980 Node: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?16608017 Ref: faq/general are-there-any-published-articles-about-python-that-i-can-reference16608239 Ref: 50c816608239 Ref: Are there any published articles about Python that I can reference?-Footnote-116608791 Node: Are there any books on Python?16608827 Ref: faq/general are-there-any-books-on-python16609043 Ref: 50c916609043 Node: Where in the world is www python org located?16609420 Ref: faq/general where-in-the-world-is-www-python-org-located16609593 Ref: 50ca16609593 Ref: Where in the world is www python org located?-Footnote-116609879 Node: Why is it called Python?16609908 Ref: faq/general why-is-it-called-python16610106 Ref: 50cb16610106 Ref: Why is it called Python?-Footnote-116610510 Node: Do I have to like “Monty Python’s Flying Circus”?16610561 Ref: faq/general do-i-have-to-like-monty-python-s-flying-circus16610705 Ref: 50cc16610705 Node: Python in the real world16610855 Ref: faq/general python-in-the-real-world16610962 Ref: 50cd16610962 Node: How stable is Python?16611342 Ref: faq/general how-stable-is-python16611466 Ref: 50ce16611466 Ref: How stable is Python?-Footnote-116612392 Ref: How stable is Python?-Footnote-216612434 Ref: How stable is Python?-Footnote-316612476 Node: How many people are using Python?16612518 Ref: faq/general how-many-people-are-using-python16612701 Ref: 50cf16612701 Node: Have any significant projects been done in Python?16613207 Ref: faq/general have-any-significant-projects-been-done-in-python16613429 Ref: 50d016613429 Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-116614143 Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-216614195 Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-316614224 Ref: Have any significant projects been done in Python?-Footnote-416614253 Node: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?16614284 Ref: faq/general what-new-developments-are-expected-for-python-in-the-future16614532 Ref: 50d116614532 Ref: What new developments are expected for Python in the future?-Footnote-116615112 Node: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?16615182 Ref: faq/general is-it-reasonable-to-propose-incompatible-changes-to-python16615432 Ref: 50d216615432 Ref: Is it reasonable to propose incompatible changes to Python?-Footnote-116616236 Node: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?16616278 Ref: faq/general is-python-a-good-language-for-beginning-programmers16616459 Ref: 50d316616459 Ref: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?-Footnote-116620280 Ref: Is Python a good language for beginning programmers?-Footnote-216620331 Node: Programming FAQ16620393 Ref: faq/programming doc16620536 Ref: 50d416620536 Ref: faq/programming programming-faq16620536 Ref: 50d516620536 Node: General Questions16620771 Ref: faq/programming general-questions16620862 Ref: 50d616620862 Node: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?16621282 Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-source-code-level-debugger-with-breakpoints-single-stepping-etc16621482 Ref: 50d716621482 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-116622926 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-216622998 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-316623042 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-416623095 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-516623141 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-616623190 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-716623229 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-816623259 Ref: Is there a source code level debugger with breakpoints single-stepping etc ?-Footnote-916623316 Node: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?16623359 Ref: faq/programming are-there-tools-to-help-find-bugs-or-perform-static-analysis16623627 Ref: 50d816623627 Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-116624001 Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-216624055 Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-316624097 Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-416624128 Ref: Are there tools to help find bugs or perform static analysis?-Footnote-516624160 Node: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?16624201 Ref: faq/programming faq-create-standalone-binary16624457 Ref: 50d916624457 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-create-a-stand-alone-binary-from-a-python-script16624457 Ref: 50da16624457 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-116626173 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-216626238 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-316626266 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-416626299 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-516626352 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-616626404 Ref: How can I create a stand-alone binary from a Python script?-Footnote-716626453 Node: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?16626485 Ref: faq/programming are-there-coding-standards-or-a-style-guide-for-python-programs16626671 Ref: 50db16626671 Ref: Are there coding standards or a style guide for Python programs?-Footnote-116626945 Node: Core Language16626987 Ref: faq/programming core-language16627106 Ref: 50dc16627106 Node: Why am I getting an UnboundLocalError when the variable has a value?16628476 Ref: faq/programming faq-unboundlocalerror16628663 Ref: 1fdd16628663 Ref: faq/programming why-am-i-getting-an-unboundlocalerror-when-the-variable-has-a-value16628663 Ref: 50dd16628663 Node: What are the rules for local and global variables in Python?16630569 Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-rules-for-local-and-global-variables-in-python16630847 Ref: 50de16630847 Node: Why do lambdas defined in a loop with different values all return the same result?16631747 Ref: faq/programming why-do-lambdas-defined-in-a-loop-with-different-values-all-return-the-same-result16632004 Ref: 50df16632004 Node: How do I share global variables across modules?16633913 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-share-global-variables-across-modules16634173 Ref: 50e016634173 Node: What are the “best practices” for using import in a module?16634976 Ref: faq/programming what-are-the-best-practices-for-using-import-in-a-module16635200 Ref: 50e116635200 Node: Why are default values shared between objects?16637997 Ref: faq/programming why-are-default-values-shared-between-objects16638249 Ref: 50e216638249 Node: How can I pass optional or keyword parameters from one function to another?16640637 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-pass-optional-or-keyword-parameters-from-one-function-to-another16640882 Ref: 50e316640882 Node: What is the difference between arguments and parameters?16641469 Ref: faq/programming faq-argument-vs-parameter16641723 Ref: 50e416641723 Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-difference-between-arguments-and-parameters16641723 Ref: 50e516641723 Node: Why did changing list ‘y’ also change list ‘x’?16642424 Ref: faq/programming why-did-changing-list-y-also-change-list-x16642671 Ref: 50e616642671 Node: How do I write a function with output parameters call by reference ?16646080 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-write-a-function-with-output-parameters-call-by-reference16646321 Ref: 50e716646321 Node: How do you make a higher order function in Python?16648726 Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-a-higher-order-function-in-python16648946 Ref: 50e816648946 Node: How do I copy an object in Python?16650520 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-copy-an-object-in-python16650726 Ref: 50e916650726 Node: How can I find the methods or attributes of an object?16651133 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-find-the-methods-or-attributes-of-an-object16651336 Ref: 50ea16651336 Node: How can my code discover the name of an object?16651662 Ref: faq/programming how-can-my-code-discover-the-name-of-an-object16651882 Ref: 50eb16651882 Node: What’s up with the comma operator’s precedence?16653527 Ref: faq/programming what-s-up-with-the-comma-operator-s-precedence16653751 Ref: 50ec16653751 Node: Is there an equivalent of C’s “? ” ternary operator?16654309 Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-of-c-s-ternary-operator16654542 Ref: 50ed16654542 Node: Is it possible to write obfuscated one-liners in Python?16655137 Ref: faq/programming is-it-possible-to-write-obfuscated-one-liners-in-python16655382 Ref: 50ee16655382 Node: What does the slash / in the parameter list of a function mean?16656882 Ref: faq/programming faq-positional-only-arguments16657060 Ref: 217416657060 Ref: faq/programming what-does-the-slash-in-the-parameter-list-of-a-function-mean16657060 Ref: 50ef16657060 Node: Numbers and strings16658160 Ref: faq/programming numbers-and-strings16658276 Ref: 50f016658276 Node: How do I specify hexadecimal and octal integers?16659061 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-specify-hexadecimal-and-octal-integers16659203 Ref: 50f116659203 Node: Why does -22 // 10 return -3?16659852 Ref: faq/programming why-does-22-10-return-316660061 Ref: 50f216660061 Node: How do I get int literal attribute instead of SyntaxError?16660822 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-int-literal-attribute-instead-of-syntaxerror16661021 Ref: 50f316661021 Node: How do I convert a string to a number?16661607 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-string-to-a-number16661815 Ref: 50f416661815 Node: How do I convert a number to a string?16663148 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-a-number-to-a-string16663332 Ref: 50f516663332 Node: How do I modify a string in place?16663878 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-modify-a-string-in-place16664071 Ref: 50f616664071 Node: How do I use strings to call functions/methods?16664927 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-use-strings-to-call-functions-methods16665167 Ref: 50f716665167 Node: Is there an equivalent to Perl’s chomp for removing trailing newlines from strings?16666495 Ref: faq/programming is-there-an-equivalent-to-perl-s-chomp-for-removing-trailing-newlines-from-strings16666739 Ref: 50f816666739 Node: Is there a scanf or sscanf equivalent?16667506 Ref: faq/programming is-there-a-scanf-or-sscanf-equivalent16667765 Ref: 50f916667765 Node: What does UnicodeDecodeError or UnicodeEncodeError error mean?16668430 Ref: faq/programming what-does-unicodedecodeerror-or-unicodeencodeerror-error-mean16668661 Ref: 50fa16668661 Node: Can I end a raw string with an odd number of backslashes?16668860 Ref: faq/programming can-i-end-a-raw-string-with-an-odd-number-of-backslashes16669044 Ref: 50fb16669044 Ref: faq/programming faq-programming-raw-string-backslash16669044 Ref: 1bfa16669044 Node: Performance<4>16670326 Ref: faq/programming performance16670451 Ref: 50fc16670451 Node: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?16670668 Ref: faq/programming my-program-is-too-slow-how-do-i-speed-it-up16670840 Ref: 50fd16670840 Ref: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?-Footnote-116673722 Ref: My program is too slow How do I speed it up?-Footnote-216673749 Node: What is the most efficient way to concatenate many strings together?16673814 Ref: faq/programming efficient-string-concatenation16673986 Ref: 50fe16673986 Ref: faq/programming what-is-the-most-efficient-way-to-concatenate-many-strings-together16673986 Ref: 50ff16673986 Node: Sequences Tuples/Lists16674956 Ref: faq/programming sequences-tuples-lists16675069 Ref: 510016675069 Node: How do I convert between tuples and lists?16675825 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-convert-between-tuples-and-lists16675961 Ref: 510116675961 Node: What’s a negative index?16676808 Ref: faq/programming what-s-a-negative-index16677003 Ref: 510216677003 Node: How do I iterate over a sequence in reverse order?16677583 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-iterate-over-a-sequence-in-reverse-order16677777 Ref: 510316677777 Node: How do you remove duplicates from a list?16678126 Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-duplicates-from-a-list16678338 Ref: 510416678338 Node: How do you remove multiple items from a list16679165 Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-remove-multiple-items-from-a-list16679362 Ref: 510516679362 Node: How do you make an array in Python?16679910 Ref: faq/programming how-do-you-make-an-array-in-python16680106 Ref: 510616680106 Ref: How do you make an array in Python?-Footnote-116681140 Node: How do I create a multidimensional list?16681167 Ref: faq/programming faq-multidimensional-list16681380 Ref: 21aa16681380 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-multidimensional-list16681380 Ref: 510716681380 Ref: How do I create a multidimensional list?-Footnote-116682602 Node: How do I apply a method or function to a sequence of objects?16682629 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-apply-a-method-or-function-to-a-sequence-of-objects16682886 Ref: 510816682886 Node: Why does a_tuple[i] += [‘item’] raise an exception when the addition works?16683465 Ref: faq/programming faq-augmented-assignment-tuple-error16683759 Ref: 1fb416683759 Ref: faq/programming why-does-a-tuple-i-item-raise-an-exception-when-the-addition-works16683759 Ref: 510916683759 Node: I want to do a complicated sort can you do a Schwartzian Transform in Python?16686999 Ref: faq/programming i-want-to-do-a-complicated-sort-can-you-do-a-schwartzian-transform-in-python16687284 Ref: 510a16687284 Node: How can I sort one list by values from another list?16687769 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-sort-one-list-by-values-from-another-list16687966 Ref: 510b16687966 Node: Objects16688561 Ref: faq/programming objects16688670 Ref: 510c16688670 Node: What is a class?16689847 Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-class16689933 Ref: 510d16689933 Node: What is a method?16690659 Ref: faq/programming what-is-a-method16690767 Ref: 510e16690767 Node: What is self?16691076 Ref: faq/programming what-is-self16691251 Ref: 510f16691251 Node: How do I check if an object is an instance of a given class or of a subclass of it?16691693 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-check-if-an-object-is-an-instance-of-a-given-class-or-of-a-subclass-of-it16691870 Ref: 511116691870 Node: What is delegation?16694173 Ref: faq/programming what-is-delegation16694421 Ref: 511216694421 Node: How do I call a method defined in a base class from a derived class that extends it?16696528 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-call-a-method-defined-in-a-base-class-from-a-derived-class-that-extends-it16696763 Ref: 511316696763 Node: How can I organize my code to make it easier to change the base class?16697385 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-organize-my-code-to-make-it-easier-to-change-the-base-class16697660 Ref: 511416697660 Node: How do I create static class data and static class methods?16698210 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-static-class-data-and-static-class-methods16698454 Ref: 511516698454 Node: How can I overload constructors or methods in Python?16700023 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-overload-constructors-or-methods-in-python16700262 Ref: 511616700262 Node: I try to use __spam and I get an error about _SomeClassName__spam16701169 Ref: faq/programming i-try-to-use-spam-and-i-get-an-error-about-someclassname-spam16701419 Ref: 511716701419 Node: My class defines __del__ but it is not called when I delete the object16702624 Ref: faq/programming my-class-defines-del-but-it-is-not-called-when-i-delete-the-object16702875 Ref: 511816702875 Node: How do I get a list of all instances of a given class?16704826 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-get-a-list-of-all-instances-of-a-given-class16705062 Ref: 511916705062 Node: Why does the result of id appear to be not unique?16705403 Ref: faq/programming why-does-the-result-of-id-appear-to-be-not-unique16705624 Ref: 511a16705624 Node: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?16706517 Ref: faq/programming when-can-i-rely-on-identity-tests-with-the-is-operator16706756 Ref: 511b16706756 Ref: When can I rely on identity tests with the is operator?-Footnote-116710099 Node: How can a subclass control what data is stored in an immutable instance?16710141 Ref: faq/programming how-can-a-subclass-control-what-data-is-stored-in-an-immutable-instance16710358 Ref: 511c16710358 Node: How do I cache method calls?16711834 Ref: faq/programming faq-cache-method-calls16711987 Ref: 273e16711987 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-cache-method-calls16711987 Ref: 511d16711987 Node: Modules<5>16714982 Ref: faq/programming modules16715060 Ref: 511e16715060 Node: How do I create a pyc file?16715600 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-create-a-pyc-file16715721 Ref: 511f16715721 Ref: How do I create a pyc file?-Footnote-116718303 Node: How do I find the current module name?16718345 Ref: faq/programming how-do-i-find-the-current-module-name16718530 Ref: 512016718530 Node: How can I have modules that mutually import each other?16719088 Ref: faq/programming how-can-i-have-modules-that-mutually-import-each-other16719310 Ref: 512116719310 Node: __import__ ‘x y z’ returns ; how do I get z?16721359 Ref: faq/programming import-x-y-z-returns-module-x-how-do-i-get-z16721639 Ref: 512216721639 Node: When I edit an imported module and reimport it the changes don’t show up Why does this happen?16721929 Ref: faq/programming when-i-edit-an-imported-module-and-reimport-it-the-changes-don-t-show-up-why-does-this-happen16722145 Ref: 512316722145 Node: Design and History FAQ16723592 Ref: faq/design doc16723742 Ref: 512416723742 Ref: faq/design design-and-history-faq16723742 Ref: 512516723742 Node: Why does Python use indentation for grouping of statements?16725841 Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-indentation-for-grouping-of-statements16726035 Ref: 512616726035 Node: Why am I getting strange results with simple arithmetic operations?16727755 Ref: faq/design why-am-i-getting-strange-results-with-simple-arithmetic-operations16728008 Ref: 512716728008 Node: Why are floating-point calculations so inaccurate?16728183 Ref: faq/design why-are-floating-point-calculations-so-inaccurate16728410 Ref: 512816728410 Node: Why are Python strings immutable?16729949 Ref: faq/design why-are-python-strings-immutable16730180 Ref: 512916730180 Node: Why must ‘self’ be used explicitly in method definitions and calls?16730783 Ref: faq/design why-must-self-be-used-explicitly-in-method-definitions-and-calls16731013 Ref: 512a16731013 Ref: faq/design why-self16731013 Ref: 511016731013 Node: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?16733503 Ref: faq/design id116733804 Ref: 512b16733804 Ref: faq/design why-can-t-i-use-an-assignment-in-an-expression16733804 Ref: 1c5116733804 Ref: Why can’t I use an assignment in an expression?-Footnote-116734176 Node: Why does Python use methods for some functionality e g list index but functions for other e g len list ?16734218 Ref: faq/design why-does-python-use-methods-for-some-functionality-e-g-list-index-but-functions-for-other-e-g-len-list16734510 Ref: 512c16734510 Node: Why is join a string method instead of a list or tuple method?16735848 Ref: faq/design why-is-join-a-string-method-instead-of-a-list-or-tuple-method16736115 Ref: 512d16736115 Node: How fast are exceptions?16737926 Ref: faq/design how-fast-are-exceptions16738144 Ref: 512e16738144 Node: Why isn’t there a switch or case statement in Python?16738982 Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-there-a-switch-or-case-statement-in-python16739244 Ref: 512f16739244 Node: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?16740735 Ref: faq/design can-t-you-emulate-threads-in-the-interpreter-instead-of-relying-on-an-os-specific-thread-implementation16741023 Ref: 513016741023 Ref: Can’t you emulate threads in the interpreter instead of relying on an OS-specific thread implementation?-Footnote-116741670 Node: Why can’t lambda expressions contain statements?16741726 Ref: faq/design why-can-t-lambda-expressions-contain-statements16742023 Ref: 513116742023 Node: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?16742888 Ref: faq/design can-python-be-compiled-to-machine-code-c-or-some-other-language16743109 Ref: 513216743109 Ref: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?-Footnote-116743497 Ref: Can Python be compiled to machine code C or some other language?-Footnote-216743525 Node: How does Python manage memory?16743553 Ref: faq/design how-does-python-manage-memory16743795 Ref: 513316743795 Ref: How does Python manage memory?-Footnote-116745467 Ref: How does Python manage memory?-Footnote-216745498 Node: Why doesn’t CPython use a more traditional garbage collection scheme?16745523 Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-cpython-use-a-more-traditional-garbage-collection-scheme16745749 Ref: 513416745749 Node: Why isn’t all memory freed when CPython exits?16746700 Ref: faq/design why-isn-t-all-memory-freed-when-cpython-exits16746945 Ref: 513516746945 Node: Why are there separate tuple and list data types?16747640 Ref: faq/design why-are-there-separate-tuple-and-list-data-types16747851 Ref: 513616747851 Node: How are lists implemented in CPython?16749104 Ref: faq/design how-are-lists-implemented-in-cpython16749311 Ref: 513716749311 Node: How are dictionaries implemented in CPython?16750052 Ref: faq/design how-are-dictionaries-implemented-in-cpython16750248 Ref: 513816750248 Node: Why must dictionary keys be immutable?16751217 Ref: faq/design why-must-dictionary-keys-be-immutable16751423 Ref: 513916751423 Node: Why doesn’t list sort return the sorted list?16755631 Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-list-sort-return-the-sorted-list16755852 Ref: 513a16755852 Node: How do you specify and enforce an interface spec in Python?16756696 Ref: faq/design how-do-you-specify-and-enforce-an-interface-spec-in-python16756900 Ref: 513b16756900 Node: Why is there no goto?16759228 Ref: faq/design why-is-there-no-goto16759440 Ref: 513c16759440 Node: Why can’t raw strings r-strings end with a backslash?16760583 Ref: faq/design why-can-t-raw-strings-r-strings-end-with-a-backslash16760811 Ref: 513d16760811 Node: Why doesn’t Python have a “with” statement for attribute assignments?16761912 Ref: faq/design why-doesn-t-python-have-a-with-statement-for-attribute-assignments16762169 Ref: 513e16762169 Node: Why don’t generators support the with statement?16764634 Ref: faq/design why-don-t-generators-support-the-with-statement16764898 Ref: 513f16764898 Node: Why are colons required for the if/while/def/class statements?16765316 Ref: faq/design why-are-colons-required-for-the-if-while-def-class-statements16765565 Ref: 514016765565 Node: Why does Python allow commas at the end of lists and tuples?16766310 Ref: faq/design why-does-python-allow-commas-at-the-end-of-lists-and-tuples16766500 Ref: 514116766500 Node: Library and Extension FAQ16767601 Ref: faq/library doc16767759 Ref: 514216767759 Ref: faq/library library-and-extension-faq16767759 Ref: 514316767759 Node: General Library Questions16768008 Ref: faq/library general-library-questions16768116 Ref: 514416768116 Node: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?16768628 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-find-a-module-or-application-to-perform-task-x16768811 Ref: 514516768811 Ref: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?-Footnote-116769398 Ref: How do I find a module or application to perform task X?-Footnote-216769423 Node: Where is the math py socket py regex py etc source file?16769454 Ref: faq/library where-is-the-math-py-socket-py-regex-py-etc-source-file16769695 Ref: 514616769695 Node: How do I make a Python script executable on Unix?16770479 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-make-a-python-script-executable-on-unix16770709 Ref: 514716770709 Node: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?16772186 Ref: faq/library is-there-a-curses-termcap-package-for-python16772409 Ref: 514816772409 Ref: Is there a curses/termcap package for Python?-Footnote-116773204 Node: Is there an equivalent to C’s onexit in Python?16773264 Ref: faq/library is-there-an-equivalent-to-c-s-onexit-in-python16773474 Ref: 514916773474 Node: Why don’t my signal handlers work?16773694 Ref: faq/library why-don-t-my-signal-handlers-work16773850 Ref: 514a16773850 Node: Common tasks16774175 Ref: faq/library common-tasks16774299 Ref: 514b16774299 Node: How do I test a Python program or component?16774497 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-test-a-python-program-or-component16774646 Ref: 514c16774646 Node: How do I create documentation from doc strings?16776597 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-create-documentation-from-doc-strings16776796 Ref: 514d16776796 Ref: How do I create documentation from doc strings?-Footnote-116777172 Ref: How do I create documentation from doc strings?-Footnote-216777212 Node: How do I get a single keypress at a time?16777247 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-get-a-single-keypress-at-a-time16777393 Ref: 514e16777393 Node: Threads16777639 Ref: faq/library threads16777757 Ref: 514f16777757 Node: How do I program using threads?16778085 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-program-using-threads16778204 Ref: 515016778204 Node: None of my threads seem to run why?16778514 Ref: faq/library none-of-my-threads-seem-to-run-why16778699 Ref: 515116778699 Node: How do I parcel out work among a bunch of worker threads?16780248 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-parcel-out-work-among-a-bunch-of-worker-threads16780454 Ref: 515216780454 Node: What kinds of global value mutation are thread-safe?16783054 Ref: faq/library what-kinds-of-global-value-mutation-are-thread-safe16783275 Ref: 515316783275 Node: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?16784782 Ref: faq/library can-t-we-get-rid-of-the-global-interpreter-lock16784937 Ref: 515416784937 Ref: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?-Footnote-116787952 Ref: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?-Footnote-216787994 Ref: Can’t we get rid of the Global Interpreter Lock?-Footnote-316788037 Node: Input and Output<2>16788097 Ref: faq/library input-and-output16788231 Ref: 515516788231 Node: How do I delete a file? And other file questions…16788866 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-delete-a-file-and-other-file-questions16789003 Ref: 515616789003 Node: How do I copy a file?16790254 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-copy-a-file16790435 Ref: 515716790435 Ref: How do I copy a file?-Footnote-116790910 Ref: How do I copy a file?-Footnote-216790981 Node: How do I read or write binary data?16791033 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-read-or-write-binary-data16791231 Ref: 515816791231 Node: I can’t seem to use os read on a pipe created with os popen ; why?16792428 Ref: faq/library i-can-t-seem-to-use-os-read-on-a-pipe-created-with-os-popen-why16792643 Ref: 515916792643 Node: How do I access the serial RS232 port?16793164 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-access-the-serial-rs232-port16793406 Ref: 515a16793406 Ref: How do I access the serial RS232 port?-Footnote-116793731 Node: Why doesn’t closing sys stdout stdin stderr really close it?16793774 Ref: faq/library why-doesn-t-closing-sys-stdout-stdin-stderr-really-close-it16793939 Ref: 515b16793939 Node: Network/Internet Programming16795167 Ref: faq/library network-internet-programming16795303 Ref: 515c16795303 Node: What WWW tools are there for Python?16795655 Ref: faq/library what-www-tools-are-there-for-python16795819 Ref: 515d16795819 Node: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?16796262 Ref: faq/library what-module-should-i-use-to-help-with-generating-html16796475 Ref: 515e16796475 Ref: What module should I use to help with generating HTML?-Footnote-116796720 Node: How do I send mail from a Python script?16796772 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-send-mail-from-a-python-script16797007 Ref: 515f16797007 Node: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?16798348 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-avoid-blocking-in-the-connect-method-of-a-socket16798520 Ref: 516016798520 Ref: How do I avoid blocking in the connect method of a socket?-Footnote-116799859 Node: Databases16799888 Ref: faq/library databases16800029 Ref: 516116800029 Node: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?16800190 Ref: faq/library are-there-any-interfaces-to-database-packages-in-python16800351 Ref: 516216800351 Ref: Are there any interfaces to database packages in Python?-Footnote-116800857 Node: How do you implement persistent objects in Python?16800914 Ref: faq/library how-do-you-implement-persistent-objects-in-python16801075 Ref: 516316801075 Node: Mathematics and Numerics16801476 Ref: faq/library mathematics-and-numerics16801580 Ref: 516416801580 Node: How do I generate random numbers in Python?16801703 Ref: faq/library how-do-i-generate-random-numbers-in-python16801807 Ref: 516516801807 Node: Extending/Embedding FAQ16802760 Ref: faq/extending doc16802917 Ref: 516616802917 Ref: faq/extending extending-embedding-faq16802917 Ref: 516716802917 Node: Can I create my own functions in C?16804405 Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-my-own-functions-in-c16804546 Ref: 516816804546 Node: Can I create my own functions in C++?16804906 Ref: faq/extending id116805102 Ref: 516916805102 Node: Writing C is hard; are there any alternatives?16805489 Ref: faq/extending c-wrapper-software16805703 Ref: 516a16805703 Ref: faq/extending writing-c-is-hard-are-there-any-alternatives16805703 Ref: 516b16805703 Node: How can I execute arbitrary Python statements from C?16806065 Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-execute-arbitrary-python-statements-from-c16806299 Ref: 516c16806299 Node: How can I evaluate an arbitrary Python expression from C?16806845 Ref: faq/extending how-can-i-evaluate-an-arbitrary-python-expression-from-c16807080 Ref: 516d16807080 Node: How do I extract C values from a Python object?16807396 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-extract-c-values-from-a-python-object16807643 Ref: 516e16807643 Node: How do I use Py_BuildValue to create a tuple of arbitrary length?16808889 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-use-py-buildvalue-to-create-a-tuple-of-arbitrary-length16809121 Ref: 516f16809121 Node: How do I call an object’s method from C?16809328 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-call-an-object-s-method-from-c16809598 Ref: 517016809598 Node: How do I catch the output from PyErr_Print or anything that prints to stdout/stderr ?16810822 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-catch-the-output-from-pyerr-print-or-anything-that-prints-to-stdout-stderr16811077 Ref: 517116811077 Node: How do I access a module written in Python from C?16812290 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-access-a-module-written-in-python-from-c16812549 Ref: 517216812549 Node: How do I interface to C++ objects from Python?16813383 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-interface-to-c-objects-from-python16813619 Ref: 517316813619 Node: I added a module using the Setup file and the make fails; why?16814191 Ref: faq/extending i-added-a-module-using-the-setup-file-and-the-make-fails-why16814405 Ref: 517416814405 Node: How do I debug an extension?16814755 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-debug-an-extension16815007 Ref: 517516815007 Node: I want to compile a Python module on my Linux system but some files are missing Why?16815558 Ref: faq/extending i-want-to-compile-a-python-module-on-my-linux-system-but-some-files-are-missing-why16815810 Ref: 517616815810 Node: How do I tell “incomplete input” from “invalid input”?16816217 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-tell-incomplete-input-from-invalid-input16816509 Ref: 517716816509 Node: How do I find undefined g++ symbols __builtin_new or __pure_virtual?16817478 Ref: faq/extending how-do-i-find-undefined-g-symbols-builtin-new-or-pure-virtual16817796 Ref: 517816817796 Node: Can I create an object class with some methods implemented in C and others in Python e g through inheritance ?16818184 Ref: faq/extending can-i-create-an-object-class-with-some-methods-implemented-in-c-and-others-in-python-e-g-through-inheritance16818431 Ref: 517916818431 Node: Python on Windows FAQ16818985 Ref: faq/windows doc16819143 Ref: 517a16819143 Ref: faq/windows python-on-windows-faq16819143 Ref: 517b16819143 Ref: faq/windows windows-faq16819143 Ref: 517c16819143 Node: How do I run a Python program under Windows?16819799 Ref: faq/windows faq-run-program-under-windows16819950 Ref: 517d16819950 Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-run-a-python-program-under-windows16819950 Ref: 517e16819950 Node: How do I make Python scripts executable?16823518 Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-python-scripts-executable16823726 Ref: 517f16823726 Node: Why does Python sometimes take so long to start?16824288 Ref: faq/windows why-does-python-sometimes-take-so-long-to-start16824501 Ref: 518016824501 Node: How do I make an executable from a Python script?16825380 Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-make-an-executable-from-a-python-script16825587 Ref: 518116825587 Node: Is a * pyd file the same as a DLL?16825838 Ref: faq/windows is-a-pyd-file-the-same-as-a-dll16826047 Ref: 518216826047 Node: How can I embed Python into a Windows application?16827044 Ref: faq/windows how-can-i-embed-python-into-a-windows-application16827268 Ref: 518316827268 Node: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?16831727 Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-keep-editors-from-inserting-tabs-into-my-python-source16831964 Ref: 518416831964 Ref: How do I keep editors from inserting tabs into my Python source?-Footnote-116832840 Node: How do I check for a keypress without blocking?16832882 Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-check-for-a-keypress-without-blocking16833136 Ref: 518516833136 Node: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?16833485 Ref: faq/windows how-do-i-solve-the-missing-api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0-dll-error16833666 Ref: 518616833666 Ref: How do I solve the missing api-ms-win-crt-runtime-l1-1-0 dll error?-Footnote-116834172 Node: Graphic User Interface FAQ16834230 Ref: faq/gui doc16834414 Ref: 518716834414 Ref: faq/gui graphic-user-interface-faq16834414 Ref: 518816834414 Node: General GUI Questions16834577 Ref: faq/gui general-gui-questions16834705 Ref: 518916834705 Node: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?16834764 Ref: faq/gui what-gui-toolkits-exist-for-python16834918 Ref: 518a16834918 Ref: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?-Footnote-116835625 Ref: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?-Footnote-216835667 Ref: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?-Footnote-316835694 Ref: What GUI toolkits exist for Python?-Footnote-416835773 Node: Tkinter questions16835855 Ref: faq/gui tkinter-questions16835979 Ref: 518b16835979 Node: How do I freeze Tkinter applications?16836245 Ref: faq/gui how-do-i-freeze-tkinter-applications16836396 Ref: 518c16836396 Node: Can I have Tk events handled while waiting for I/O?16836981 Ref: faq/gui can-i-have-tk-events-handled-while-waiting-for-i-o16837191 Ref: 518d16837191 Node: I can’t get key bindings to work in Tkinter why?16837666 Ref: faq/gui i-can-t-get-key-bindings-to-work-in-tkinter-why16837830 Ref: 518e16837830 Node: “Why is Python Installed on my Computer?” FAQ16838395 Ref: faq/installed doc16838549 Ref: 518f16838549 Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-computer-faq16838549 Ref: 519016838549 Node: What is Python?<2>16838773 Ref: faq/installed what-is-python16838924 Ref: 519116838924 Ref: What is Python?<2>-Footnote-116839403 Node: Why is Python installed on my machine?16839455 Ref: faq/installed why-is-python-installed-on-my-machine16839635 Ref: 519216839635 Node: Can I delete Python?16840720 Ref: faq/installed can-i-delete-python16840873 Ref: 519316840873 Node: Deprecations16841601 Ref: deprecations/index doc16841712 Ref: 519416841712 Ref: deprecations/index deprecations16841712 Ref: 519516841712 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>16842062 Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1416842186 Ref: 519616842186 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-116846872 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-216846927 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-316846982 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-416847037 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-516847092 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-616847148 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-716847203 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-816847258 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-916847313 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1016847369 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1116847425 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<5>-Footnote-1216847481 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>16847537 Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1516847703 Ref: 519716847703 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-116852025 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-216852080 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-316852135 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-416852190 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-516852246 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<5>-Footnote-616852288 Node: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>16852344 Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-python-3-1616852514 Ref: 519816852514 Ref: Pending removal in Python 3 16<5>-Footnote-116854693 Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>16854749 Ref: deprecations/index pending-removal-in-future-versions16854904 Ref: 519916854904 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-116861741 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-216861796 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-316861852 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-416861908 Ref: Pending Removal in Future Versions<5>-Footnote-516861963 Node: C API Deprecations16862018 Ref: deprecations/index c-api-deprecations16862131 Ref: 519a16862131 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>16862405 Ref: deprecations/index id116862535 Ref: 519b16862535 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>-Footnote-116865758 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>-Footnote-216865800 Ref: Pending Removal in Python 3 14<6>-Footnote-316865856 Node: Pending Removal in Python 3 15<6>16865911 Ref: deprecations/index id216866087 Ref: 519c16866087 Node: Pending Removal in Future Versions<6>16867336 Ref: deprecations/index id316867470 Ref: 519d16867470 Node: Glossary16869707 Ref: glossary doc16869809 Ref: 519e16869809 Ref: glossary glossary16869809 Ref: 1bdc16869809 Ref: glossary id116869809 Ref: 519f16869809 Ref: glossary term-016869834 Ref: 16c16869834 Ref: glossary term-16870008 Ref: 16d16870008 Ref: glossary term-abstract-base-class16870414 Ref: 11a816870414 Ref: glossary term-annotation16871250 Ref: 45316871250 Ref: glossary term-argument16871928 Ref: 44416871928 Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-context-manager16873362 Ref: 5d316873362 Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-generator16873596 Ref: 203e16873596 Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-generator-iterator16874321 Ref: 439616874321 Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-iterable16875062 Ref: d7716875062 Ref: glossary term-asynchronous-iterator16875285 Ref: 1ab16875285 Ref: glossary term-attribute16875710 Ref: 24a316875710 Ref: glossary term-awaitable16876275 Ref: 1ad16876275 Ref: glossary term-BDFL16876473 Ref: 51a116876473 Ref: glossary term-binary-file16876570 Ref: 1c8716876570 Ref: glossary term-borrowed-reference16877027 Ref: 33916877027 Ref: glossary term-bytes-like-object16877735 Ref: d2d16877735 Ref: glossary term-bytecode16878719 Ref: 18716878719 Ref: glossary term-callable16879448 Ref: 28f716879448 Ref: glossary term-callback16879842 Ref: 291a16879842 Ref: glossary term-class16879960 Ref: 193216879960 Ref: glossary term-class-variable16880125 Ref: 51a216880125 Ref: glossary term-closure-variable16880271 Ref: 1f3f16880271 Ref: glossary term-complex-number16881366 Ref: 51a316881366 Ref: glossary term-context16882136 Ref: 15b116882136 Ref: glossary term-context-management-protocol16882728 Ref: 15b316882728 Ref: glossary term-context-manager16882891 Ref: 5d016882891 Ref: glossary term-context-variable16883081 Ref: 51a416883081 Ref: glossary term-contiguous16883373 Ref: 222716883373 Ref: glossary term-coroutine16883916 Ref: 48d16883916 Ref: glossary term-coroutine-function16884239 Ref: d7616884239 Ref: glossary term-CPython16884553 Ref: 6f116884553 Ref: glossary term-current-context16884806 Ref: 15b216884806 Ref: glossary term-decorator16885279 Ref: 72c16885279 Ref: glossary term-descriptor16885993 Ref: 157216885993 Ref: glossary term-dictionary16886841 Ref: 1f8b16886841 Ref: glossary term-dictionary-comprehension16887047 Ref: 51a516887047 Ref: glossary term-dictionary-view16887392 Ref: 252616887392 Ref: glossary term-docstring16887838 Ref: 212916887838 Ref: glossary term-duck-typing16888235 Ref: 51a016888235 Ref: glossary term-dunder16888940 Ref: 51a616888940 Ref: glossary term-EAFP16889138 Ref: 2b8516889138 Ref: glossary term-expression16889584 Ref: 1f8516889584 Ref: glossary term-extension-module16890098 Ref: 45ac16890098 Ref: glossary term-f-string16890226 Ref: 43116890226 Ref: glossary term-file-object16890421 Ref: 11b516890421 Ref: glossary term-file-like-object16891198 Ref: 258f16891198 Ref: glossary term-filesystem-encoding-and-error-handler16891261 Ref: 53716891261 Ref: glossary term-finder16892132 Ref: 1f1e16892132 Ref: glossary term-floor-division16892530 Ref: 94416892530 Ref: glossary term-free-threading16892906 Ref: 152216892906 Ref: glossary term-free-variable16893201 Ref: 1fda16893201 Ref: glossary term-function16893630 Ref: 205916893630 Ref: glossary term-function-annotation16893937 Ref: 1c3716893937 Ref: glossary term-__future__16894636 Ref: dac16894636 Ref: glossary term-garbage-collection16895269 Ref: 191916895269 Ref: glossary term-generator16895589 Ref: 105a16895589 Ref: glossary term-generator-iterator16896105 Ref: bde16896105 Ref: glossary term-generator-expression16896495 Ref: 51a816896495 Ref: glossary term-generic-function16896900 Ref: 9f016896900 Ref: glossary term-generic-type16897259 Ref: 43416897259 Ref: glossary term-GIL16897622 Ref: 15916897622 Ref: glossary term-global-interpreter-lock16897673 Ref: 14816897673 Ref: glossary term-hash-based-pyc16898924 Ref: 51a916898924 Ref: glossary term-hashable16899138 Ref: 60c16899138 Ref: glossary term-IDLE16900054 Ref: 51aa16900054 Ref: glossary term-immortal16900290 Ref: 439416900290 Ref: glossary term-immutable16900641 Ref: 1bfb16900641 Ref: glossary term-import-path16900985 Ref: 1ff616900985 Ref: glossary term-importing16901324 Ref: 1fe916901324 Ref: glossary term-importer16901445 Ref: 1ff516901445 Ref: glossary term-interactive16901571 Ref: 16916901571 Ref: glossary term-interpreted16902062 Ref: 51ab16902062 Ref: glossary term-interpreter-shutdown16902554 Ref: 14e16902554 Ref: glossary term-iterable16903289 Ref: 121a16903289 Ref: glossary term-iterator16904493 Ref: 1ac16904493 Ref: glossary term-key-function16905986 Ref: e0416905986 Ref: glossary term-keyword-argument16907149 Ref: d1216907149 Ref: glossary term-lambda16907198 Ref: 274316907198 Ref: glossary term-LBYL16907431 Ref: 51a716907431 Ref: glossary term-lexical-analyzer16908098 Ref: 51ac16908098 Ref: glossary term-list16908178 Ref: 51ad16908178 Ref: glossary term-list-comprehension16908362 Ref: 6c916908362 Ref: glossary term-loader16908780 Ref: 16b016908780 Ref: glossary term-locale-encoding16909140 Ref: 24416909140 Ref: glossary term-magic-method16909600 Ref: 410116909600 Ref: glossary term-mapping16909672 Ref: 11ae16909672 Ref: glossary term-meta-path-finder16910078 Ref: 106916910078 Ref: glossary term-metaclass16910376 Ref: 1f8616910376 Ref: glossary term-method16911116 Ref: 155216911116 Ref: glossary term-method-resolution-order16911425 Ref: 218016911425 Ref: glossary term-module16911711 Ref: 165f16911711 Ref: glossary term-module-spec16911974 Ref: 1f1616911974 Ref: glossary term-MRO16912181 Ref: 360b16912181 Ref: glossary term-mutable16912233 Ref: 1c0016912233 Ref: glossary term-named-tuple16912358 Ref: 64a16912358 Ref: glossary term-namespace16913578 Ref: 1c5716913578 Ref: glossary term-namespace-package16914334 Ref: 1c6816914334 Ref: glossary term-nested-scope16914914 Ref: 1f3e16914914 Ref: glossary term-new-style-class16915403 Ref: 289016915403 Ref: glossary term-object16915730 Ref: 51ae16915730 Ref: glossary term-optimized-scope16915894 Ref: 17e16915894 Ref: glossary term-package16916425 Ref: 1f1a16916425 Ref: glossary term-parameter16916697 Ref: 1eff16916697 Ref: glossary positional-only-parameter16917237 Ref: a8516917237 Ref: glossary keyword-only-parameter16917637 Ref: 2a716917637 Ref: glossary term-path-entry16919148 Ref: 200416919148 Ref: glossary term-path-entry-finder16919302 Ref: 106a16919302 Ref: glossary term-path-entry-hook16919626 Ref: 200616919626 Ref: glossary term-path-based-finder16919827 Ref: 1ff916919827 Ref: glossary term-path-like-object16919963 Ref: 2a216919963 Ref: glossary term-PEP16920596 Ref: 51af16920596 Ref: glossary term-portion16921250 Ref: 1ff016921250 Ref: glossary term-positional-argument16921411 Ref: d1316921411 Ref: glossary term-provisional-API16921463 Ref: b0316921463 Ref: glossary term-provisional-package16922467 Ref: 103a16922467 Ref: glossary term-Python-300016922526 Ref: 51b016922526 Ref: glossary term-Pythonic16922719 Ref: 51b116922719 Ref: glossary term-qualified-name16923359 Ref: 194116923359 Ref: glossary term-reference-count16924204 Ref: 48e216924204 Ref: glossary term-regular-package16925001 Ref: 1fed16925001 Ref: glossary term-REPL16925168 Ref: 16a16925168 Ref: glossary term-__slots__16925300 Ref: 5db16925300 Ref: glossary term-sequence16925646 Ref: 4ed16925646 Ref: glossary term-set-comprehension16926762 Ref: 51b216926762 Ref: glossary term-single-dispatch16927078 Ref: 9f116927078 Ref: glossary term-slice16927229 Ref: 217d16927229 Ref: glossary term-soft-deprecated16927554 Ref: 20b16927554 Ref: glossary term-special-method16927926 Ref: 18ab16927926 Ref: glossary term-standard-library16928206 Ref: 51b316928206 Ref: glossary term-statement16928717 Ref: 278b16928717 Ref: glossary term-static-type-checker16928961 Ref: 26f16928961 Ref: glossary term-stdlib16929168 Ref: 51b416929168 Ref: glossary term-strong-reference16929231 Ref: 33816929231 Ref: glossary term-text-encoding16929889 Ref: 217a16929889 Ref: glossary term-text-file16930413 Ref: 1c8616930413 Ref: glossary term-token16930936 Ref: 1e7d16930936 Ref: glossary term-triple-quoted-string16931316 Ref: 51b516931316 Ref: glossary term-type16931816 Ref: 193316931816 Ref: glossary term-type-alias16932050 Ref: 43516932050 Ref: glossary term-type-hint16932631 Ref: 1f8116932631 Ref: glossary term-universal-newlines16933232 Ref: d3a16933232 Ref: glossary term-variable-annotation16933606 Ref: d5516933606 Ref: glossary term-virtual-environment16934333 Ref: 1d0116934333 Ref: glossary term-virtual-machine16934642 Ref: 350216934642 Ref: glossary term-walrus-operator16934808 Ref: 51b616934808 Ref: glossary term-Zen-of-Python16934989 Ref: 51b716934989 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-116935256 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-216935298 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-316935340 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-416935382 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-516935424 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-616935466 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-716935508 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-816935550 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-916935592 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1016935634 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1116935673 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1216935716 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1316935759 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1416935802 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1516935845 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1616935877 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1716935920 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1816935963 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-1916936006 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2016936049 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2116936092 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2216936135 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2316936178 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2416936221 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2516936264 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2616936307 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2716936350 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2816936393 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-2916936436 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3016936479 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3116936522 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3216936565 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3316936608 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3416936651 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3516936711 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3616936754 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3716936797 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3816936840 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-3916936883 Ref: Glossary-Footnote-4016936926 Node: About this documentation16936969 Ref: about doc16937076 Ref: 51b816937076 Ref: about about-this-documentation16937076 Ref: 51b916937076 Ref: About this documentation-Footnote-116938025 Ref: About this documentation-Footnote-216938074 Ref: About this documentation-Footnote-316938110 Node: Contributors to the Python documentation16938151 Ref: about contributors-to-the-python-documentation16938252 Ref: 51ba16938252 Ref: Contributors to the Python documentation-Footnote-116938711 Node: Dealing with Bugs16938773 Ref: bugs doc16938881 Ref: 51bb16938881 Ref: bugs dealing-with-bugs16938881 Ref: 51bc16938881 Ref: bugs reporting-bugs16938881 Ref: 493116938881 Node: Documentation bugs16939424 Ref: bugs documentation-bugs16939535 Ref: 51be16939535 Ref: Documentation bugs-Footnote-116940829 Ref: Documentation bugs-Footnote-216940883 Ref: Documentation bugs-Footnote-316940935 Ref: Documentation bugs-Footnote-416941021 Ref: Documentation bugs-Footnote-516941066 Ref: Documentation bugs-Footnote-616941142 Node: Using the Python issue tracker16941205 Ref: bugs using-the-python-issue-tracker16941372 Ref: 51bf16941372 Ref: bugs using-the-tracker16941372 Ref: 25016941372 Ref: Using the Python issue tracker-Footnote-116943604 Ref: Using the Python issue tracker-Footnote-216943667 Node: Getting started contributing to Python yourself16943733 Ref: bugs contributing-to-python16943873 Ref: 51bd16943873 Ref: bugs getting-started-contributing-to-python-yourself16943873 Ref: 51c016943873 Ref: Getting started contributing to Python yourself-Footnote-116944390 Ref: Getting started contributing to Python yourself-Footnote-216944427 Node: Copyright16944503 Ref: copyright doc16944606 Ref: 51c116944606 Ref: copyright copyright16944606 Ref: 51c216944606 Node: History and License16945121 Ref: license doc16945226 Ref: 51c416945226 Ref: license history-and-license16945226 Ref: 51c316945226 Ref: license id116945226 Ref: 51c516945226 Node: History of the software16945436 Ref: license history-of-the-software16945584 Ref: 51c616945584 Node: Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python16950418 Ref: license terms-and-conditions-for-accessing-or-otherwise-using-python16950630 Ref: 51c716950630 Node: PYTHON SOFTWARE FOUNDATION LICENSE VERSION 216951700 Ref: license psf-license16951893 Ref: 51ca16951893 Ref: license python-software-foundation-license-version-216951893 Ref: 51cb16951893 Node: BEOPEN COM LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 2 016954515 Ref: license beopen-com-license-agreement-for-python-2-016954756 Ref: 51cc16954756 Node: CNRI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 1 6 116957464 Ref: license cnri-license-agreement-for-python-1-6-116957711 Ref: 51cd16957711 Node: CWI LICENSE AGREEMENT FOR PYTHON 0 9 0 THROUGH 1 216961889 Ref: license cwi-license-agreement-for-python-0-9-0-through-1-216962153 Ref: 51ce16962153 Node: ZERO-CLAUSE BSD LICENSE FOR CODE IN THE PYTHON 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